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The following are health and medical definitions of terms that appear in the lubiprostone, Amitiza article.
Abdominal: Relating to the abdomen, the belly, that part of the body that contains all of the structures between the chest and the pelvis. The abdomen is separated anatomically from the chest by the diaphragm, the powerful muscle spanning the body cavity below the lungs.
Abdominal pain: Pain in the belly. Abdominal pain can be acute or chronic. It may reflect a major problem with one of the organs in the abdomen, such as appendicitis or a perforated intestine, or it may result from a fairly minor problem, such as excess buildup of intestinal gas.
Bowel: The small and large intestine.
Chronic: In medicine, lasting a long time. A chronic condition is one that lasts 3 months or more. Chronic diseases are in contrast to those that are acute (abrupt, sharp, and brief) or subacute (within the interval between acute and chronic).
Colon: The long, coiled, tubelike organ that removes water from digested food. The remaining material, solid waste called stool, moves through the colon to the rectum and leaves the body through the anus. Also known as large bowel and large intestine.
Constipation: Infrequent and frequently incomplete bowel movements. Constipation is the opposite of diarrhea and is commonly caused by irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), diverticulosis, and medications. Paradoxically, constipation can also be caused by overuse of laxatives. Colon cancer can also narrow the colon and thereby cause constipation. A high-fiber diet can frequently relieve constipation. If the diet is not helpful, medical evaluation is warranted.
Diarrhea: A common condition that involves unusually frequent and liquid bowel movements. The opposite of constipation. There are many infectious and noninfectious causes of diarrhea. Persistent diarrhea is both uncomfortable and dangerous to the health because it can indicate an underlying infection and may mean that the body is not able to absorb some nutrients due to a problem in the bowels. Treatment includes drinking plenty of fluids to prevent dehydration and taking over-the-counter remedies. People with diarrhea that persists for more than a couple days, particularly small children or elderly people, should seek medical attention.
FDA: Food and Drug Administration.
Fecal: Relating to the feces, the stool. The excrement discharged from the intestines.
Flatulence: Excess gas in the intestinal tract. But excess flatulence is difficult to define without a yardstick to measure the "normal" frequency of gas passages. Symptom-free individuals have recorded approximately 14 passages of gas per 24 hours. From the Latin flastus, meaning blowing, as a breeze or snort.
Generic: 1. The chemical name of a drug. 2. A term referring to the chemical makeup of a drug rather than to the advertised brand name under which the drug may be sold. 3.A term referring to any drug marketed under its chemical name without advertising.
Headache: A pain in the head with the pain being above the eyes or the ears, behind the head (occipital), or in the back of the upper neck. Headache, like chest pain or back ache, has many causes.
Idiopathic: Of unknown cause. Any disease that is of uncertain or unknown origin may be termed idiopathic. For example, acute idiopathic polyneuritis, diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, idiopathic scoliosis, etc.
Incontinence: The inability to control excretions, to hold urine in the bladder, or to keep feces in the rectum.
Nausea: Stomach queasiness, the urge to vomit. Nausea can be brought on by many causes, including systemic illnesses (such as influenza), medications, pain, and inner ear disease.
Nursing: 1) Profession concerned with the provision of services essential to the maintenance and restoration of health by attending the needs of sick persons. 2) Feeding a infant at the breast.
Pain: An unpleasant sensation that can range from mild, localized discomfort to agony. Pain has both physical and emotional components. The physical part of pain results from nerve stimulation. Pain may be contained to a discrete area, as in an injury, or it can be more diffuse, as in disorders like fibromyalgia. Pain is mediated by specific nerve fibers that carry the pain impulses to the brain where their conscious appreciation may be modified by many factors.
Pregnancy: The state of carrying a developing embryo or fetus within the female body. This condition can be indicated by positive results on an over-the-counter urine test, and confirmed through a blood test, ultrasound, detection of fetal heartbeat, or an X-ray. Pregnancy lasts for about nine months, measured from the date of the woman's last menstrual period (LMP). It is conventionally divided into three trimesters, each roughly three months long.
Pregnant: The state of carrying a developing fetus within the body.
Prescription: A physician's order for the preparation and administration of a drug or device for a patient. A prescription has several parts. They include the superscription or heading with the symbol "R" or "Rx", which stands for the word recipe (meaning, in Latin, to take); the inscription, which contains the names and quantities of the ingredients; the subscription or directions for compounding the drug; and the signature which is often preceded by the sign "s" standing for signa (Latin for mark), giving the directions to be marked on the container.
Rash: Breaking out (eruption) of the skin. A rash can be caused by an underlying medical condition, hormonal cycles, allergies, or contact with irritating substances. Treatment depends on the underlying cause of the rash. Medically, a rash is referred to as an exanthem.
Shortness of breath: Difficulty in breathing. Medically referred to as dyspnea. Shortness of breath can be caused by respiratory (breathing passages and lungs) or circulatory (heart and blood vessels) conditions. See also dyspnea.
Stool: The solid matter that is discharged in a bowel movement.
Syndrome: A combination of symptoms and signs that together represent a disease process.
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Booker T. Washington Magnet High School is designed to meet the needs of students with special talents and interests and is committed to excellence in all things:
And in maintaining a supportive partnership among students, teachers, parents and the community
- In providing a hands-on interdisciplinary, arts-centered approach to instruction;
- In utilizing technology to support the curriculum;
- In challenging students to high levels of academic and artistic achievement;
- In stimulating creative thinking;
- In maintaining a safe, caring environment in which diversity is celebrated;
- In creating lifelong learners and productive citizens;
Booker T. Washington High School began in early 1865 as a primary school for African Americans. The first graduation exercises were held May 25, 1904. The school grew rapidly to the extent that in 1916 an additional building was erected at Union and Grove Streets.
In 1937, plans were made to open a senior high. A thirty-room unit was constructed after several of the original structures were demolished in 1948. A 123-foot underground tunnel was developed to connect each side of the campus. The adjoining auditorium-gymnasium was constructed in 1954.
In 1956, Booker T. Washington became a high school. Booker T. Washington (BTW) Magnet High School is a public, inner-city magnet program that serves students in Montgomery, Alabama. BTW has a rich heritage on its present site. BTW was derived from the Carver Creative and Performing Arts Center (CCPAC). CCPAC was developed in 1982 to accommodate the growing need for specialized arts instruction for students within the Montgomery County School System. CCPAC grew from four arts areas to sixteen arts areas from 1982 to 1992.
In 1996, a federal grant enabled the school to become a designated magnet school housed on the campus of the old Booker T. Washington School. Booker T. Washington became a high school. Booker T. Washington (BTW) Magnet High School is a public, inner-city magnet program that serves students in Montgomery, Alabama. CCPAC is now joined by the Center for Air and Space Studies, the Center for Advanced Technology, the 21st Century Academy for Careers in Law, and the Academy for Communication Arts. Currently, there are 19 components of study within these five magnets.
In its eleven-year history, the administration, faculty, and staff have worked to promote excellence for all students. BTW remains dedicated to the student-created motto "Excellence in All Things," and each student is expected to perform at his or her highest level of ability. Teachers and students recognize the need for the arts in daily life, and all areas of the school emphasize the principles set forth in the Comprehensive Arts Based Instruction (Discipline- and Arts-Based Education).
NATIONAL AWARDS AND RECOGNITION
- Alabama Department of Education Report Card for BTW - "A"
- Award for Arts Innovation, International NetWork of Performing and Visual Arts Schools
- Community Partnership Award, International NetWork of Performing and Visual Arts Schools
- Star School, International NetWork of Performing and Visual Arts Schools
- School Arts Achievement Award, Alabama Alliance for Education in the Arts
- School of Character Finalist, Center for the Advancement of Ethics & Character, Boston University
- Twice Recognized by Redbook Magazine as "One of America's Best Schools"
- Home of two of Alabama's Presidential Scholars in the Arts
- Apple Distinguished Schools Award for Distinction in Technology Innovation
- Featured in the CBS Television "Class of 2000" Series
- BTW Jazz Choir and Concert Choir performed at Carnegie Hall, New York
- Featured in the American Teacher Awards three times, the Disney Channel
- The National Science Olympiad (The Top Ten Finishers, Chemistry, Top Ten School wide)
NATIONAL STUDENT'S AWARDS AND RECOGNITION HAVE INCLUDED:
- Two winners of the National Achievement Award
- National Merit Scholarship Semifinalists and Finalists
- National Achievement Scholarship Semifinalists and Finalists
- National Imation Computer Arts Competition (1 of 100 out of 1,200 entries)
- Grand Prize Winner, Scholastic/Epic Records/Sony Corporation, Lyric Writing Contest
- Featured Actress in "Fried Green Tomatoes," between the movies "The Prince of Tides"
- Dupont Science Essay Awards, Top Honors
- Featured Artists, Smithsonian Portrait Gallery, Corcoran Gallery, Washington D.C
- Featured Dancers with the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theatre, Dance Theatre of Harlem, Alabama Ballet, Touring Cast-Sesame Street
- Published in The Best Poems and Poets of 2002
- Cast Member of the Tony Award Winning Musical, "FOSSE" Touring Company
- Cast Member of the Tony Award Winning Revival of " The Music Man" Touring Company
NATIONAL FACULTY'S RECOGNITION HAS INCLUDED:
- Presidential Award for Excellence in Mathematics
- National Board Certified Teachers
- Three American Teacher Awards Honorees, Disney Corporation
- One American Teacher of the Year (Visual Arts), Disney Corporation
- Reader's Digest, American Hero in Education
- National Faculty's Recognition Outstanding Assistant Principal of the Year, National Association of Secondary School Principals & McDonalds
- National Dance Educator of the Year Honoree, National Dance Association
- Two Distinguished Teachers, White House Commission on Presidential Scholars
- One Toyota International Teacher
- Multiple Recipients Who's Who Among American Teachers
- Educational Advisor, Congressional Youth Leadership Council
- Board of Judges, Columbia Scholastic Press Association
- Educational Advisor to the International Summit of Young Technology Leaders
- National American Teacher Awards Review Committee Member
- National Youth Leadership Forum Member
BTW HAS BEEN FEATURED IN THE FOLLOWING NATIONAL PUBLICATIONS:
- Redbook Magazine
- National Association of Secondary School Principal Journal
- NEA Today
- Educational Leadership
- Women's Day
- Minds Alive - Teachers as Scholars
RULES OF ACCEPTANCE
Students must submit a completed application.
Students must attach the following to the application:
- An unofficial transcript for the previous year
- A report card for the first semester of the current year;
- A recent photograph
Failure to complete the application and/or provide the requested information will result in the student's disqualification.
Students must pass current grade-level courses.
Students' grades in math, science, social studies, and English must have a combined G.P.A of at least a 2.5 on a 4.0 scale. Quality points earned for each letter grade are used to determine academic eligibility.
Students must successfully complete an audition/interview. Students agree to honor the selected appointment time for the interview/audition by arriving at the appointed time. Failure to appear for the scheduled interview/audtion will result in disqualification.
Students understand that they must comply with all BTW requirements if they are accepted.
Students understand that enrollment may require a commitment of time outside regular school hours,
including weekends, and must accept full responsibility for participating in these events. |
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Sixth Form Curriculum
The majority of courses offered in the Sixth Form are Level 3 courses (AS/A Level or Level 3 vocational courses). A breadth of knowledge and understanding is required for students to cope with the demands of all Level 3 courses. In addition, students need to possess the necessary literacy and numeracy skills that all Level 3 courses require for their content to be understood and applied.
For each AS/A level course, knowledge and understanding of their higher tier GCSE course content is assumed since this is being built upon at AS/A Level. To enrol on our AS/A Level courses or Level 3 vocational courses, the following Level 2 qualifications are required
- A minimum of 5 GCSEs, or equivalent, including English Language and Mathematics, at Grade C or above;
- GCSE grades A*, A or B are strongly recommended in the particular subjects students wish to take at AS/A Level; and
- Some AS/A Level subjects require specific GCSE subjects and grades prior to enrolment. Details are contained on the relevant subject page of the Sixth Form Prospectus.
Once in the Sixth Form
- Students with C grades in GCSE English Language and Mathematics are advised to resit these to achieve B grades or higher. This is to increase studentsâ chances of university entry. Most teacher training institutions require B grades in GCSE English Language and Mathematics and so do a number of other degree level courses;
- Progression from AS to A2 level will not be permitted if students are unable to achieve a D grade or higher at AS level;
- Level 3 Vocational students will not be permitted to progress from Year 12 to Year 13 unless a minimum number of credits are submitted and passed in Year 12. As the size of Level 3 Vocational courses varies, students will be advised in writing by the Subject Leader prior to starting the course of the minimum number credits required of them by the end of Year 12; and
- The grades that students achieve at AS level will normally be used for UCAS purposes to predict their overall A2 grade for university entry. Students should therefore endeavour to achieve their highest possible grade at AS level.
Students who successfully enrol into the Sixth Form may follow one of five Learning Programmes. These are designed to ensure that students achieve the required qualifications necessary to progress on their route to further/higher education and/or employment/Higher Apprenticeships. Maintained schools in Wales are required to âprovide religious education for all registered pupilsâ. This also applies to post-16 students in schools. At Caldicot School, the Welsh Baccalaureate has been designed to include the promotion of spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development of students at the school and in society. It has also been designed to prepare students for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of adult life. In order to comply with statutory requirements, the school would require students who do not wish to follow the Welsh Baccalaureate Advanced Diploma to attend alternative lessons that provide such education.
Year 12 Learning Programmes
In Year 12, students must follow at least 3 Level 3 courses to be enrolled. This means that they must choose at least 2 AS courses and the Welsh Baccalaureate to receive our minimum learning programme:
- 2 AS Level courses (or vocational equivalent) + Welsh Baccalaureate (Minimum Learning Programme)
- 3 AS Level courses (or vocational equivalent)
- 3 AS Level courses (or vocational equivalent) + Welsh Baccalaureate
- 4 AS Level courses (or vocational equivalent)
- 4 AS Level courses (or vocational equivalent) + Welsh Baccalaureate (Maximum Learning Programme)
Year 13 Learning Programmes
By the time students enter Year 13, they must still be following at least 3 Level 3 courses to continue to be enrolled. This means that they must continue with at least two subjects from AS into A2 and the Welsh Baccalaureate to receive our minimum learning programme:
- 2 A2 Level courses (or vocational equivalent) + Welsh Baccalaureate (Minimum Learning Programme)
- 3 A2 Level courses (or vocational equivalent)
- 3 A2 Level courses (or vocational equivalent) + Welsh Baccalaureate
- 4 A2 Level courses (or vocational equivalent)
- 4 A2 Level courses (or vocational equivalent) + Welsh Baccalaureate (Maximum Learning Programme)
The expectation is that most students in Year 12 would begin 3 or 4 AS courses and the Welsh Baccalaureate, and in Year 13 would complete 3 A2 courses and the Welsh Baccalaureate.
Types of qualification
Qualifications in Wales, England and Northern Ireland are grouped together in âLevelsâ. They range from Entry Level to Level 8. Sixth Forms offer qualifications predominantly at Level 3 and Higher Education institutions offer qualifications between Levels 4 and 8.
|Level||Examples of Qualifications|
|Entry||Awards, Certificates, and Diplomas at Entry Level|
|1||GCSEs grades D-G BTEC Awards, Certificates and Diplomas at Level 1 Cambridge National Awards at Level 1 Essential Skills at Level 1 Welsh Baccalaureate (Foundation Diploma)|
|2||GCSEs grades A*-CBTEC Awards, Certificates and Diplomas at Level 2 Cambridge National Awards at Level 2 Essential Skills at Level 2 Welsh Baccalaureate (Intermediate Diploma)|
|3||AS and A LevelsBTEC Nationals, Awards, Certificates and Diplomas at Level 3 Cambridge Technical Awards at Level 3 Essential Skills at Level 3 Welsh Baccalaureate (Advanced Diploma)|
The majority of courses offered in the Sixth Form are at Level 3. Since Entry Level, Level 1 and Level 2 qualifications are taught at Key Stage 4, students wishing to return to the Sixth Form should already be working towards achieving these qualifications by the end of Year 11. Only a limited number of Level 2 courses are available in the Sixth Form:
- Resit GCSE English Language
- Resit GCSE Mathematics
- GCSE and Vocational courses with Key Stage 4 classes (dependent upon availability) |
Essentially contested concept
In a paper delivered to the Aristotelian Society on 12 March 1956, Walter Bryce Gallie (1912â1998) introduced the term essentially contested concept to facilitate an understanding of the different applications or interpretations of the sorts of abstract, qualitative, and evaluative notions â such as "art" and "social justice" â used in the domains of aesthetics, political philosophy, philosophy of history, and philosophy of religion.
Garver (1978) describes their use as follows:
- The term essentially contested concepts gives a name to a problematic situation that many people recognize: that in certain kinds of talk there is a variety of meanings employed for key terms in an argument, and there is a feeling that dogmatism (âMy answer is right and all others are wrongâ), skepticism (âAll answers are equally true (or false); everyone has a right to his own truthâ), and eclecticism (âEach meaning gives a partial view so the more meanings the betterâ) are none of them the appropriate attitude towards that variety of meanings.
Essentially contested concepts involve widespread agreement on a concept (e.g., "fairness"), but not on the best realization thereof.
They are "concepts the proper use of which inevitably involves endless disputes about their proper uses on the part of their users", and these disputes "cannot be settled by appeal to empirical evidence, linguistic usage, or the canons of logic alone".
Identifying the presence of a dispute
Although Gallieâs term is widely used to denote imprecise use of technical terminology, it has a far more specific application. And, although the notion could be misleadingly and evasively used to justify "agreeing to disagree", the term offers something more valuable:
- Since its introduction by W.B. Gallie in 1956, the expression "essentially contested concept" has been treated both as a challenge and as an excuse by social theorists. It has been treated as a challenge in that theorists consider their uses of terms and concepts to be in competition with the uses advocated by other theorists, each theorist trying to be deemed the champion. It has been treated as an excuse that, rather than acknowledge that the failure to reach agreement is due to such factors as imprecision, ignorance, or belligerence, instead theorists point to the terms and concepts under dispute and insist that they are always open to contest â that they are terms and concepts about which we can never expect to reach agreement.
The disputes that attend an essentially contested concept are driven by substantive disagreements over a range of different, entirely reasonable (although, perhaps, mistaken) interpretations of a mutually-agreed-upon archetypical notion, such as the legal precept "treat like cases alike; and treat different cases differently", with "each party [continuing] to defend its case with what it claims to be convincing arguments, evidence and other forms of justification").
Gallie speaks of how "This picture is painted in oils" can be successfully contested if the work is actually painted in tempera; while "This picture is a work of art" may meet strong opposition due to disputes over what "work of art" denotes. He suggests three avenues whereby one might resolve such disputes:
- 1. Discovering a new meaning of "work of art" to which all disputants could thenceforward agree.
- 2. Convincing all the disputants to conform to one meaning.
- 3. Declaring "work of art" to be a number of different concepts employing the same name.
- Has the term been incorrectly used, as in the case of mistakenly using decimated for devastated (catachresis)?
- Do two or more different concepts share the same word, as in the case of ear, bank, sound, corn, scale, etc. (homonymy)?
- Is there a genuine dispute about the term's correct application that, in fact, can be resolved?
- Or, is it really the case that the term is an essentially contested concept?
Contested versus contestable?
Clarke has made a valuable contribution to the overall debate by suggesting that, in order to determine whether a particular dispute was a consequence of true polysemy or inadvertent homonymy, one should seek to "locate the source of the dispute".
This source might be "within the concept itself", or "[within] some underlying non-conceptual disagreement between the contestants".
Clarke then drew attention to the substantial differences between the expressions "essentially contested" and "essentially contestable", that were being extensively used within the literature as though they were interchangeable.
Clarke argued that to state that a concept is merely contested, "is to attribute significance to the contest rather than to the concept". Yet, to state that a concept is contestable is to "attribute some part of any contest to the concept". In other words, this is "to claim that some feature or property of the concept makes it polysemantic, and that the concept contains some internal conflict of ideas"; and it is this fact that provides the "essentially contested concept" with its inherent potential for "generating disputes".
In 1956, Gallie proposed a set of seven conditions for the existence of an essentially contested concept. Gallie was very specific about the limits of his enterprise: it dealt exclusively with abstract, qualitative notions, such as art, religion, science, democracy, and social justice (and, if Gallieâs choices are contrasted with negatively regarded concepts such as evil, disease, superstition, etc., it is clear that the concepts he chose were exclusively positively regarded).
Freeden remarks that "not all essentially contested concepts signify valued achievements; they may equally signify disapproved and denigrated phenomena", and Gerring asks us to imagine just how difficult it would be to "[try] to craft definitions of slavery, fascism, terrorism, or genocide without recourse to "pejorative" attributes".
These features distinguish Gallie's "essentially contested concepts" from others, "which can be shown, as a result of analysis or experiment, to be radically confused"; or, as Gray would have it, they are the features that relate to the task of distinguishing the "general words, which really denote an essentially contested concept" from those other "general words, whose uses conceal a diversity of distinguishable concepts":
- (1) Essentially contested concepts are evaluative, and they deliver value-judgements.
- (2) Essentially contested concepts denote comprehensively evaluated entities that have an internally complex character.
- (3) The evaluation must be attributed to the internally complex entity as a whole.
- (4) The different constituent elements of that internally complex entity are initially variously describable.
- (5) The different users of the concept will often allocate substantially different orders of relative importance, substantially different "weights", and/or substantially different interpretations to each of those constituent elements.
- (6) Psychological and sociological causes influence the extent to which any particular consideration is:
- (a) salient for a given individual,
- (b) regarded as a stronger reason by that individual than by another, and
- (c) regarded as a reason by one individual and not by another.
- (7) The disputed concepts are open-ended and vague, and are subject to considerable modification in the light of changing circumstances.
- (8) This further modification can neither be predicted nor prescribed in advance.
- (9) Whilst, by Gallieâs express stipulation, there is no best instantiation of an essentially contested concept -- or, at least, none knowable to be the best -- it is also obvious that some instantiations will be considerably better than others; and, furthermore, even if one particular instantiation seems best at the moment, there is always the possibility that a new, better instantiation will emerge in the future.
- (10) Each party knows and recognizes that its own peculiar usage/interpretation of the concept is disputed by others who, in their turn, hold different and quite incompatible views.
- (11) Each party must (at least to a certain extent) understand the criteria upon which the other participantsâ (repudiated) views are based.
- (12) Disputes centred on essentially contested concepts:
- (13) Each partyâs use of their own specific usage/interpretation is driven by a need to uphold their own particular (correct, proper and superior) usage/interpretation against that of all other (incorrect, improper and irrational) users.
- (14) Because the use of an essentially contested concept is always the application of one use against all other uses, any usage is intentionally aggressive and defensive.
- (15) Because it is essentially contested, rather than âradically confusedâ, the continued use of the essentially contested concept is justified by the fact that, despite all of their on-going disputation, all of the competitors acknowledge that the contested concept is derived from a single common exemplar.
- (16) The continued use of the essentially contested concept also helps to sustain and develop our understanding of the conceptâs original exemplar/s.
Concepts and conceptions
Scholars such as Hart, Rawls, Dworkin, and Lukes have variously embellished Gallieâs proposal by arguing that certain of the difficulties encountered with Gallieâs proposition may be due a consequence of the unintended conflation of two separate domains associated with the term concept:
- (a) the concepts (the abstract, ideal notions themselves), and
- (b) the conceptions (the particular instantiations, or realizations of those ideal and abstract notions).
In essence, Hart (1961), Rawls (1971), Dworkin (1972), and Lukes (1974) distinguished between the "unity" of a notion and the "multiplicity" of its possible instantiations.
From their work it is easy to understand the issue as one of determining whether there is a single notion that has a number of different instantiations, or whether there is more than one notion, each of which is reflected in a different usage.
In a section of his 1972 article in The New York Review of Books, Dworkin used the example of "fairness" to isolate and elaborate the difference between a concept (suum cuique) and its conception (various instantiations, for example utilitarian ethics).
He supposes that he has instructed his children not to treat others "unfairly" and asks us to recognize that, whilst he would have undoubtedly had particular "examples" (of the sorts of conduct he was intending to discourage) in mind at the time he spoke to his children, whatever it was that he meant when he issued such instructions was not confined to those "examples" alone, for two reasons:
- 1. "I would expect my children to apply my instructions to situations I had not and could not have thought about."
- 2. "I stand ready to admit that some particular act I had thought was fair when I spoke was in fact unfair, or vice versa, if one of my children is able to convince me of that later."
Dworkin argues that this admission of error would not entail any "change" to his original instructions, because the true meaning of his instructions was that "[he] meant the family to be guided by the concept of fairness, not by any specific conception of fairness [that he] might have had in mind". Therefore, he argues, his instructions do, in fact, "cover" this new case.
Exploring what he considers to be the "crucial distinction" between the overall concept of "fairness" and some particular, and specific conception of "fairness", he asks us to imagine a group whose members share the view that certain acts are unfair.
The members of this group "agree on a great number of standard cases of unfairness and use these as benchmarks against which to test other, more controversial cases".
In these circumstances, says Dworkin, "the group has a concept of unfairness, and its members may appeal to that concept in moral instruction or argument."
However, the members may still disagree over many of these "controversial cases"; and differences of this sort indicate that members have, or act upon, entirely different theories of why and how each of the "standard cases" are, in fact, genuine acts of "unfairness".
And, because each considers that certain principles "[which] must be relied upon to show that a particular division or attribution is unfair" are far a more "fundamental" sort of principle than certain other principles, it can be said that members of the group have different conceptions of "fairness".
Consequently, those responsible for giving "instructions", and those responsible for setting "standards" of "fairness", in this community may be doing one of two things:
- 1. Appealing to the concept of "fairness", by demanding that others act "fairly".
- In this case, those instructed to act "fairly" are responsible for "developing and applying their own conception of fairness as controversial cases arise".
- Each of those issuing the instructions (or setting the standards) may have quite different explanations underlying their actions; and, also, they may well change their explanations from time to time, without ever changing the standards they set.
- 2. Laying down a particular conception of "fairness"; by, for example, specifying that all hard cases were to be decided "by applying the utilitarian ethics of Jeremy Bentham".
It is important to recognize that rather than it just being a case of delivering two different instructions; it is a case of delivering two different kinds of instruction:
- 1. In the case of the appeal to the concept of "fairness", one invokes the ideal (and, implicitly, the universally agreed upon) notion of 'fairness"; and whatever one might believe is the best instantiation of that notion is, by and large, irrelevant.
- 2. In the case of laying down a conception of "fairness", one specifies what one believes to be the best instantiation of the notion "fairness"; and, by this action, one specifies what one means by "fairness"; and whatever one might believe is the ideal notion of "fairness" is, by and large, irrelevant.
As a consequence, according to Dworkin, whenever an appeal is made to "fairness", a moral issue is raised; and, whenever a conception of "fairness" is laid down, an attempt is being made to answer that moral issue.
Not "hotly disputed" concepts
Whilst Gallie's expression "essentially contested concepts" precisely denotes those "essentially questionable and corrigible concepts," which "...are permanently and essentially subject to revision and question,â close examination of the wide and varied and imprecise applications of Gallie's term subsequent to 1956, by those who have ascribed their own literal meaning to Gallie's term without ever consulting Gallie's work, have led many philosophers to conclude that "essentially disputed concepts" would have been far better choice for Gallie's meaning, for at least three reasons:
- 1. Gallieâs term has led many to the mistaken belief that he spoke of hotly disputed, rather than essentially disputed concepts.
- 2. Expressly stipulating that a specific issue can never be resolved, and then calling it a "contest" seems both absurd and misleading.
- 3. Any assertion that "essentially contested" concepts are incommensurable made at the same time as an assertion that "they have any common subject-matter" is incoherent; and, also, it reveals an "inconsistency in the idea of essential contestability".
Waldron's research has revealed that Gallieâs notion has ârun wildâ in the law review literature over the ensuing 60 years and is now being used to denote something like "very hotly contested, with no resolution in sight", due to an entirely mistaken view that the essential in Gallieâs term is an "intensifier", when, in fact, "[Gallieâs] term "essential" refers to the location of the disagreement or indeterminacy; it is contestation at the core, not just at the borderlines or penumbra of a concept".
Yet is also clear that "if the notion of logical justification can be applied only to such theses and arguments as can be presumed capable of gaining in the long run universal agreement, the disputes to which the uses of any essentially contested concept give rise are not genuine or rational disputes at all"[clarification needed] (Gallie, 1956a, p.188).
Thus, Gallie argued:
- So long as contestant users of any essentially contested concept believe, however deludedly, that their own use of it is the only one that can command honest and informed approval, they are likely to persist in the hope that they will ultimately persuade and convert all their opponents by logical means. But once [we] let the truth out of the bag â i.e., the essential contestedness of the concept in question â then this harmless if deluded hope may well be replaced by a ruthless decision to cut the cackle, to damn the heretics and to exterminate the unwanted. (Gallie, 1956a, pp.193-194)
- Published immediately as Gallie (1956a); a later, slightly altered version appears in Gallie (1964).
- They are "evaluative" in the sense that they deliver some sort of "value-judgement".
- Garver (1978), p. 168.
- Hart (1961, p.156) speaks of "a uniform or constant feature", and "a shifting or varying criterion used in determining when, for any given purposes, cases are alike or different".
- Gallie (1956a), p.169. The dispute is about the proper use of the concept; and all argue that the concept is being "used inappropriately" by others (Smith, 2002, p.332).
- Gray (1977), p.344.
- A statement that, in essence, is usually nothing more than a simple observation that the apparent dispute it is simply a consequence of the same label being applied to different referents.
- Rhodes (2000), p. 1.
- Gallie (1956a) p. 168.
- Gallie (1956a), p. 167.
- The embedded meaning of the term polysemy is that the polysemous wordâs meanings have multiplied over time (in the sense of its original meaning being extended).
- When discussing finance, "bank" is an essentially contested concept; because the discussion involves establishing the "correct" application, meaning or interpretation of this polysemous term.
- In a different dispute over banks, where one speaks of financial institutions and the other of riparian zones, it is obvious that two homonyms have been confused.
- Which is "a conflict between truth and error" (Garver, 1990, p. 259)
- Which is "a disagreement generated because the parties to the conflict are talking past each other" (Garver, 1990, p.259) â the "talking past each other" is an allusion to the interaction between Thrasymachus and Socrates over the question of "justice" in Plato's Republic I, where neither addressed any of the issues raised by the other. Gallie (1956a, p.168.) speaks of this as being a case in which "two different concepts about whose proper application no none need to have contested at all" having become "confused".
- Clarke (1979), p. 123.
- Clarke (1979), p. 124.
- See Gallie (1956a).
- Gallie (1956a), passim. Kekes (1977, p.71) offers art, morality, logic, the novel, nature, rationality, democracy, culture, science, and philosophy as another set of examples of "concepts" that are essentially contested.
- Freeden (1998), p.56.
- Gerring (1999), p.385.
- Gallie (1956a), p.180.
- Gray (1977), p.337.
- They are unpackings of, elaborations upon, or extensions of Gallie's original seven features that have been made by a very wide range of scholars spread over a wide range of academic and intellectual pursuits over the last 60 years.
- Baldwin stresses that whilst "not all value judgements are appraisive", "[any act of] appraisal presupposes an accepted set of criteria" (Baldwin (1997), p.10.
- For this reason, Benn and Gaus (1983, pp.3-5) advocate using the term "complex-structured concepts".
- Mason (1990), p.96.
- Gallie cites "democracy" an example of a concept being "open" in its character: "Politics being the art of the possible, democratic targets will be raised or lowered as circumstances alter, and democratic achievements are always judged in the light of such alterations" (Gallie, 1956a, p.186, emphasis added).
- Because, in the absence of this condition, it is possible that experience could establish one instantiation as "universally more acceptable than another" (Gallie, 1956a, p.174).
- Swanton (1985), p.815.
- Mason (1990), p.85.
- For, otherwise, it would only be, at best, an essentially "contestable" concept.
- Connolly (1974, p.40) expressed the view that once the participants in a particular political dispute realized that the concept was an essentially contested concept, the ensuing political discussions would be far more "enlightened" (Connolly, 1974, p.40).
- All from Gallie (1956a), p.169.
- This agreement is a pre-requisite for the argument, it is not a consequence of the argument. See McKnight (2003), p.261; and Perry (1977), p.25. In an attempt to account for cases where disputants trace their individual notions back to entirely different, but mutually compatible exemplars, Connolly (1974, p.14) proposes that we think of the shared exemplar as a "cluster concept ".
- The concept/conception terminology seems to originate with Gallieâs (1956a) own comment that, whilst they might still continue to employ the contested concept, the "different teams [could] come to hold⊠very different conceptions of how the game should be played" (p. 176, emphasis added).
- Dworkin (1972), pp.27-28 (an almost identical passage appears at Dworkin, 1972, pp.134-135). The four-paragraph passage is in Section II of the article . It commences with "But the theory of⊠" and ends with "âŠI try to answer it ".
- These unfair acts involve either "a wrongful division of benefits and burdens, or a wrongful attribution of praise or blame".
- Emphasis added to original.
- He notes that this does not "[grant] them a discretion to act as they like"; but, from the fact that "it assumes that one conception is superior to another", it is clear that "it sets a standard they must try â and may fail â to meet".
- Thus, we could say, there is a demand for orthopraxy (the correctness of action), not for orthodoxy (the correctness of thought).
- Hampshire (1965), p.230.
- See Waldron (2002).
- There seems to be a radical fault in the very notion of a contest that can not by its nature be won or lost. (Gray, 1999, p.96)
- Gray (1999), p.96.
- Waldron (2002, p.149) found that the following concepts had been labelled as essentially contested in the Westlaw database:
- alienation, autonomy, author, bankruptcy, boycott, citizenship, civil rights, coherence, community, competition, the Constitution, corruption, culture, discrimination, diversity, equality, equal protection, freedom, harm, justification, liberalism, merit, motherhood, the national interest, nature, popular sovereignty, pornography, power, privacy, property, proportionality, prosperity, prostitution, public interest, punishment, reasonable expectations, religion, republicanism, rights, sovereignty, speech, sustainable development, and textuality.
- Of course, the equivalent view about the term in general is reasonable: it merely uses the descriptive definition. The descriptive definition is still a definition, even if one may think it less interesting than Gallie's definition.
- Waldron (2002), pp.148-149.
- Abbey, R., "Is Liberalism Now an Essentially Contested Concept?", New Political Science, Vol.27, No.4, (December 2005), pp.461-480.
- Baldwin, D.A., "The Concept of Security", Review of International Studies, Vol.23, No.1, (January 1997), pp.5-26.
- Benn, S.I., A Theory of Freedom, Cambridge University Press, (Cambridge), 1988.
- Benn, S.I. & Gaus, G.F., "The Public and the Private: Concepts and Action", pp.3-27 in Benn, S.I. & Gaus, G.F., Public and Private in Social Life, Croom Helm, (London), 1983.
- Booth, W.C., "âPreserving the Exemplarâ: or, How Not to Dig Our Own Graves", Critical Inquiry, Vol.3, No.3, (Spring 1977), pp.407-423.
- Boulay, H., "Essentially Contested Concepts and the Teaching of Political Science", Teaching Political Science, Vol.4, No.4, (July 1977), pp.423-433.
- Care, N.S., "On Fixing Social Concepts", Ethics, Vol.84, No.1, (October 1973), pp.10-21.
- Clarke, B., "Eccentrically Contested Concepts", British Journal of Political Science, Vol.9, No.1, (January 1979), pp.122-126.
- Collier, D., Hidalgo, F.D., & Maciuceanu, A.O., "Essentially contested concepts: Debates and applications", Journal of Political Ideologies Vol.11, No.3, (October 2006), pp.211-246.
- Collier, D. & Mahon, J.E., "Conceptual âStretchingâ Revisited: Adapting Categories in Comparative Analysis", The American Political Science Review, Vol.87, No.4, (December 1993), pp.845-855.
- Connolly, W.E., "Essentially Contested Concepts in Politics", pp.10-44 in Connolly, W.E., The Terms of Political Discourse, Heath, (Lexington), 1974.
- Cooper, D.E., "Lewis on our Knowledge of Conventions", Mind, Vol.86, No.342, (April 1977), pp.256-261.
- Davidson, D., "On the Very Idea of a Conceptual Scheme", Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association, Vol.47, (1974), pp.5-20.
- Dworkin, R., Taking Rights Seriously: New Impression with a Reply to Critics, Duckworth, (Oxford), 1978.
- Dworkin, R., "The Jurisprudence of Richard Nixon", The New York Review of Books, Vol.18, No.8, (May 1972), pp.27-35.
- Freeden, M., Ideologies and Political Theory â A Conceptual Approach, Oxford University Press, (Oxford) 1998.
- Frohock, F.M., "The Structure of âPoliticsâ", The American Political Science Review, Vol.72, No.3, (September 1978), pp. 859-870.
- Gallie, W.B. (1956b), "Art as an Essentially Contested Concept", The Philosophical Quarterly, Vol.6, No.23, (April 1956), pp.97-114.
- Gallie, W.B.(1956a), "Essentially Contested Concepts", Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Vol.56, (1956), pp.167-198.
- Gallie, W.B., "Essentially Contested Concepts", pp. 157-191 in Gallie, W.B., Philosophy and the Historical Understanding, Chatto & Windus, (London), 1964.
- Gallie, W.B., "What Makes a Subject Scientific?", The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, Vol.8, No.30, (August 1957), pp.118-139.
- Garver, E., "Essentially Contested Concepts: The Ethics and Tactics of Argument", Philosophy and Rhetoric, Vol.23, No.4, (1990), pp.251-270.
- Garver, E., "Paradigms and Princes", Philosophy of the Social Sciences, Vol.17, No.1, (March 1987), pp.21-47.
- Garver, E., "Rhetoric and Essentially Contested Arguments", Philosophy and Rhetoric, Vol.11, No.3, (Summer 1978), pp.156-172.
- Gellner, E., "The Concept of a Story", Ratio, Vol.9, No.1, (June 1967), pp.49-66.
- Gerring, J., "What Makes a Concept Good? A Criterial Framework for Understanding Concept Formation in the Social Sciences", Polity, Vol.31, No.3, (Spring 1999), pp.357-393.
- Gilbert, M., "Notes on the Concept of a Social Convention", New Literary History, Vol.14, No.2, (Winter 1983), pp.225-251.
- Gingell, J. & Winch, C., "Essentially Contested Concepts", pp.88-89 in Gingell, J. & Winch, C., Key Concepts in the Philosophy of Education, Routledge, (London), 1999.
- Grafstein, R., "A Realist Foundation for Essentially Contested Political Concepts", The Western Political Quarterly, Vol.41, No.1, (March 1988), pp.9-28.
- Gray, J., "On Liberty, Liberalism and Essential Contestability", British Journal of Political Science, Vol.8, No.4, (October 1978), pp.385-402.
- Gray, J., "Political Power, Social Theory, and Essential Contestability", pp.75-101 in Miller, D. & Siedentop, L., The Nature of Political Theory, Clarendon Press, (Oxford), 1983.
- Gray, J.N., "On the Contestability of Social and Political Concepts", Political Theory, Vol.5, No.3, (August 1977), pp.331-348.
- Hampshire, S., Thought and Action, Chatto and Windus, (London), 1965.
- HÀrlin, M. & Sundberg, P., "Taxonomy and Philosophy of Names", Biology and Philosophy, Vol.13, No.2, (April 1998), pp.233-244.
- Hart, H.L.A., The Concept of Law, Oxford University Press, (Oxford), 1961.
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- Lewis, D., Convention, Blackwell, (Oxford), 2002 [first published 1969].
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We see different colors around us, including a red frog, a blue sky, and the colorful feathers of a peacock. However, it the lightâs reflection from atoms that create these colors. We require pigments to generate color for dyes, cosmetics, or paints. Creating the colors synthetically or finding natural colors can be elusive, as well as, complicated.
First, the pigments have to be stable- they should not disintegrate with heat or fade in the light. Additionally, they have to be non-toxic. The discovery of a new thing or pigment is an uncommon phenomenon. People are known to mix paint since ancient times, which means humans have already discovered almost all the things that were required by them.
However, in 2009, a new form of blue got discovered accidentally. The new shade is referred to as YInMn Blue. The color has several other names, including Mas Blue and Oregon Blue.
What is YInMn Blue?
It is extremely rare to find blue objects around u,s unlike objects with other colors within nature. The first pertinent question that will come in your mind is what YInMn blue is all about. It is a blue pigment, which is a compound of Manganese, Indium, Yttrium. As mentioned earlier, the pigment was discovered relatively recently. It was accidentally discovered in 2009 at the OSUâs Chemistry Departmentâs materials science lab. The article covers everything you require knowing about the new blue â YinMn blue.
Come the 20th century, and we were fortunate to have organic blue pigments like Phthalo Blue (greenish and reddish versions) and Indanthrone Blue. In particular, Phthalo Blue significantly increases the possibilities of color mixing as it has high intensity and tinting strength. On the other hand, inorganic minerals, which are based on blue pigments like Cerulean Blue and Cobalt Blue, have undergone very little changes since the nineteenth century.
It was in 1802 when cobalt was discovered by the humans for the first time. A chemist named Mas Subramanian discovered the new blue hue after more than a century. He and his team members realized that when Manganese, Indium, and Yttrium were mixed and subject to extreme heat, a vibrantly blue inorganic pigment can be formed. Now you realize why this new blue color has such a chunky name. For the universe, the maiden man-made pigment was discovered in Egypt and is known as Egyptian blue. Thus, YInMn Blue is the most recent kind of blue, which has been one of the discoveries of a line blue hues.
The OSU team that accidentally discovered the new blue went on to publish the outcome of their lab experiments in a well-known scientific journal. In May 2015, the team had a licensing contract with the Shepherd Color Company so that the new pigment can be sold commercially.
On the outset, it is imperative to know how this chunky name is pronounced as it appears quite a tongue-twister. It is pronounced as âyin-min.â Secondly, it gets its names from its chemical elementsâ symbols, which are available on the periodic table.
Not many are aware that Subramanian, along with his team members, have also come up with a wide range of distinct hues in series of the YInMn Blue. These include oranges, yellows, greens, and purples by including a new element to the mixture.
Also, there are different hues of the original Blue color, created by adjusting the proportion of Manganese in this compound. The scientistâs wife, Rajeevi Subramanian, who is also a chemist and an artist, has also started to paint with the different new pigments.
What is unique about this new blue color?
The new blue color has an array of defining traits apart from its vibrant color. For instance, the color does not fade. Additionally, when it is mixed with water or oil, the colorâs saturation does not get impacted at all. YInMn Blue color is also non-toxic and extremely stable.
If you are using the color for interior design, it denotes that there could be a flood of color and finishes that comprise this stunning blue. The inclusion of this color can make your interior incredibly desirable.
Another advantage of YInMn blue color is it is safer and more durable to use as compared to similar blue pigments. The color is known for having a special crystal structure and is made of stable chemical compounds. The new blue also appears to be a fresh contributing factor in achieving energy efficiency.
The color may come handy in keeping your homes cool if it is used for painting roofs. The pigment is visually appealing and boasts several attributes, which are highly beneficial for engineers, architects, artists, as well as, designers. The color is already in high demand for being used for different varieties of plastics and coatings.
Reports have it that the many glass and paint companies are in contact with the R& D Manager of Shepheard Colour Company to discuss the pigment. It is the same company where the new blue color has been patented and licensed. The companyâs R&D Manager feels that the discovery and popularity of YInMn Blue is an indication that many other new pigments will also be discovered.
Today, the new blue color has become an incredibly popular color trend and its popularity may continue even in the future. Apart from this, YInMn Blue has been included in the world history of color by the Forbes Pigment Collection. The beauty of this blue is that it exudes a tranquil nature.
Plus, it exudes a perfect balance of strength and brilliance. The success of the new blue color will evolve and enrich blue for sure. Thanks to its discovery, you will now find many blue objects with a new dimension altogether.
Advantages of YInMn Blue and why it is so special
The new blue color has several attributes, making it superior as compared to other hues of blue. YInMn Blue, in its purest form, looks quite similar to cobalt blue. However, the difference between the two is that it is a much safer compound as opposed to cobalt. The latter is suspected to be carcinogenic.
Not only is YInMn safer as compared to similar blues, but it also happens to offer greater stability. The color does not fade when exposed to water or oil. So, there is a potentiality for it being used widely, as well as, produce longer-lasting outcomes as compared to other blues.
The pigment has a structure, which is known as trigonal bipyramidal. The structure refers to its crystal-like structure right at the atomic level. It forms a set of diamond or pyramid shapes. Its pyramid-like structure helps it to have attributes like reflectivity and intense color.
If you turn the pages of history, you will find most of the colors used over the different ages are organic. It means these are colors extracted from carbon chains. As such, they are typically naturally formed. The earliest painters used clays, referred to as ochres, charcoal, and chalk to paint on cave walls. Thereafter, the artists used dyes extracted from vegetables and fruits and ground minerals so that their palettes could have more colors.
On the other hand, inorganic compounds are sourced from non-carbon materials, typically metals. Ancient Egyptians came up with the first artificial blue pigment in about 3000 BC. They made blue objects such as glass from copper and sand. The mixture was then ground to form a powdery substance.
Does YInMn Blue offer possibilities to artists and painters to mix color?
Experiments done with this vibrant new blue color showed that it is a lovely reddish blue. The pigment is extremely dense, as well as, incredibly opaque. However, it does not create new and meaningful possibilities for artists and oil painters to mix color.
How to purchase YInMn color and what is its cost?
At present, the cost of this new blue color is quite high. The reason for this is the high price of indium, which is rarely available. Today, indium is used in just a handful of applications, such as computer screens. Indium is available only in the form of pure indium oxide.
Peopleâs interest to find a new way of procuring indium materials that are not so pure has gone up. Another significant thing is one does not require to have one hundred percent pigment in their paint. For instance, the color can be mixed with colors such as white. The outcome can divert heat. So, there is a wide variety of possibilities when you use this pigment.
It is interesting to note that the price of this blue pigment is around 6 times the price of Cerulean or Cobalt blues. The reason being, indium is a rare element on earth. So, the pigmentâs cost relative to the benefits offered by it is too high for the painters at present. However, all that can change shortly.
YInMn Blue has the distinction of being the maiden blue pigment to be discovered in two hundred years. It is being regarded as an amazing discovery, although it took some time to become popular. However, 12 years after it was identified for the first time, both the creator and the YInMn Blue are getting their due recognition. So, blue objects will now have a different vibrant look altogether, thanks to YInMnâs discovery. |
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February is American Heart Month, which means itâs a great time to evaluate your heart health. After all, you only get one body, and your heart is the powerhouse that keeps everything else going. Since heart disease is the #1 killer in America, itâs more important than ever to pay attention to your body, and help it stay healthy.
The great thing is that the risk factors for heart disease can be managed naturally! Millions of people are on medications for conditions like high blood pressure or high cholesterol, but lifestyle changes should always, always come first. Prescription meds come with a barrage of side effects, from nausea and headaches to liver damage, tissue swelling, and even deadly bleeding. Diet and exercise changes are different. They help your body naturally, without the downsides of chemical medications, and can be just as impactful for some people.
Iâve paired up some high risk conditions with the diet changes that alleviate symptoms. Almost 50% of Americans have one or more risk factors for heart disease, so if you fall into one of these categories, it might be time to make a change:
High Cholesterol: To get rid of âbad cholesterolâ, also known as LDL cholesterol, avoid trans and saturated fats. Instead, opt for soluble fiber, like that in fruits and veggies. These, along with nuts and legumes that contain sterols and stanols, help reduce cholesterol absorption, keeping your arteries and veins clear.
Prediabetes: Also called insulin resistance, this is basically your bodyâs alert system for type II diabetes. And while diabetes canât be cured, insulin resistance can be reversed! The first step is to get rid of all your processed, fatty and canned foods. These can cause uncontrolled spikes in blood sugar that bring you closer to diabetes. You can replace these with naturally low-sugar foods using a great tool called the glycemic index. Since it ranks foods based on their impact on blood sugar, choosing foods on the low end of the index will keep you away from spikes and help treat insulin resistance.
High Blood Pressure (Hypertension): High blood pressure describes a condition in which your arteries are narrowing and/or hardening. With less space to fit through, blood pushes harder, causing an increase in pressure which puts extra stress on your heart. For some people, how this works seems unconnected to diet, which is why they reach for prescriptions first. But it turns out, what you eat is incredibly important when it comes to blood pressure!
One research project by the Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute explored the connection directly. Trough their careful observations, they developed a set of guidelines called the DASH diet. It works by eliminating trans and saturated fats, and reducing sodium intake while also encouraging dieters to eat plenty of fiber, potassium, magnesium, and protein. Using the DASH diet protocol, some patients saw reduced blood pressure in just 2 weeks! It brings new meaning to the phrase âyou are what you eat.â
Of course itâs also essential to balance these changes with exercise! Just 30 minutes a day, 5 days a week can help lower cholesterol, relieve high blood pressure and help you lose weight associated with type II diabetes. Plus, as it helps relieve symptoms, exercise makes your heart stronger, so if anything does happen, your cardiac system is ready to fight!
You donât have to expose yourself to dangerous drugs to have a healthy heart, but do remember to speak with your doctor before abruptly stopping medication. Stopping without monitoring could lead to even more side effects. Then, with a few lifestyle changes, you can take control of your health and reduce your risk, naturally! |
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International Human Solidarity Day
International Human Solidarity Day is annually held on the 20th of December after world leaders identified solidarity as one of the fundamental values essential to international relations in the 21st century during the Millennium Declaration (OHCHR). There has been an emphasis that global challenges must be managed with those suffering most or benefiting least, deserving help from those who benefit most (UN). In todayâs context of globalization and growing inequality, the strengthening of international solidarity is indispensable in order to make effective change in the world. Designed and promoted by the UNs General Assembly, International Human Solidarity Day is a day to celebrate collective unity and an endeavour to raise public knowledge around the importance of solidarity. Ultimately, itâs a day of action through partnerships to encourage new initiatives for poverty eradication.
The day is underpinned by the UNs Sustainable Development Goals, which are determined to lift people out of poverty through the means of global partnership. Goal 17 specifically outlines the importance of âPartnership For The Goalsâ, which demonstrates the importance of solidarity and unity in fighting global concerns such as: poverty, clean water, hunger and disease.
The battle for clean water requires solidarity. There are still 663 million people in the world who do not have access to safe water, this is a staggering one in nine of the worldâs total population. The impact of clean water is both social and economic! It has been shown that for every $1 invested in water and sanitation, there is an economic return of $3-$34, as time freed up from water collection gives communities more time to invest into economic productivity. Socially, clean water and sanitation dramatically improve the health of the communities across the globe. It has been stated that 1.5 million children die each year due to water-related diseases and the WHO proclaims that these deaths are entirely preventable with access to clean water.
Our work at drop4drop is our way of addressing these inequalities and helping those in the world in need, as weâre able to provide efficient water sources to communities that are in desperate need of a reliable source of clean water. Currently, drop4drop is reliant on human solidarity to fight the clean water crisis. Solidarity is needed to continue developing clean water projects in a number of countries across the globe. Show your solidarity in the battle for clean water by donating as little as £3. Your donation has the ability to transform a personâs life!
To keep track of the work drop4drop are doing, make sure to follow us on social media @drop4drop. |
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Here are some suggestions for helping a friend whoâs being abused:
- Let your friend know they are not alone and you are there to listen if they want to talk.
- Believe what they say.
- Familiarize yourself with services at the local certified domestic violence center in your area and provide your friend with information about services that are available to people experiencing relationship violence.
- If you believe your friend is in danger, talk to a trusted adult.
- Tell your friend the abuse is not their fault and they are not to blame. No one deserves to be hurt by their partner, no matter what!
- Call 911 if you see or hear violence happening.
- Talk badly about your friend or their partner
- Make your friend choose between your friendship and their relationship
- Blame your friend for the abuse; itâs never the victimâs fault.
- Keep it a secret if your friend is in danger, no matter what.
What if your friend is being abusive?
Our friends are really important people in our lives and we should always try to be there for them. Sometimes though, friends disappoint us. They might always say offensive things about girls or women. Maybe youâve heard them talk down to their girlfriend and you can tell it upsets her. You can help to prevent dating violence by telling your friends the truth about their behavior in an honest and direct way.
Remember, DONâT react with violence. DONâT encourage or participate in the behavior. DONâT ignore abusive behavior!
For more information about how to get help, check out these resources |
Logic and Critical Reasoning in the 21st Century
Deadline: November 15, 2009
Publication Date: July 2010
Logic is one of the oldest fields of study in the Western tradition, and it has not lost any of its importance, despite centuries of evolving literacies. Our contemporary democracy requires critical citizens to make sound, reasoned decisions about their leaders, about their workplace and home-life needs, and regarding the causes and pastimes they support. Along with the information explosion that has developed from the 24-hour
news cycle and countless magazines, journals, blogs, and homepages available on the Internet has come an increased need for sophisticated skills required to critically assess these sources for accuracy, bias, and credibility.
What knowledge is important for students to develop logical and critical reasoning skills? What logical fallacies should students be made aware of, and how can we motivate them to evelop this knowledge? What should students learn about valid forms of evidence and about the place of emotion in effective argumentation? What age-old techniques of logical analysis and reasoning should we advocate, and what innovations
should we employ to address new literacies and technologies? How have you used film, other visuals, nonfiction, fiction, or workplace or community documents in ways that have helped students to develop their skills of logic? How have you encouraged students to use logical argument in their writing and for their own purposes?
Deadline: January 15, 2010
Publication Date: September 2010
Studentsâ curiosity and enthusiasm can take them a long way. Good teachers know that creating a curriculum that interests and energizes students is far more likely to get students to learn and retain what they learn. And motivated students keep teachers fresh and enthusiastic in return.
This issue focuses on the importance of and methods for motivating studentsâand the joys of teaching them. What innovative and effective ways have you found to engage students in ELA content? What skills and ideas do students seem to be most naturally motivated to learn and how have you harnessed that positive energy? How have you used current global, national or local events, popular culture, artistic trends, or social debates to engage students? What critical problems have you faced in motivating students, and what have you used to address them? How have you created variety in activities to keep students focused and intellectually curious about the world around them? How have you used surveys or other tools to learn more about what students might enjoy learning about? What competitive or collaborative assignments have you designed that peak studentsâ interest in ELA? How have studentsâ motivations changed over the years, and what new information should teachers take into account as they design curriculum for 21st century students? What do you do to motivate students to develop empathy or to develop skills they might not consider desirable or important: reconsidering their own certainties, creating and advocating new ideas, resisting social pressure, developing courage, creativity? How have your students motivated you?
Deadline: March 15, 2010
Publication Date: November 2010
Some students with physical or learning disabilities encounter false and stigmatizing assumptions about their abilities. How can we reenvision the disabilities of students in our classrooms as opportunities to teach in more challenging, imaginative, and inclusive ways? How can we tap into the unique talents and abilities of all students? How have you redesigned your teaching, assignments, or assessments to accommodate students with physical or learning isabilities? How have those changes improved learning for everyone? What can secondary teachers and students learn from the ways in which people with disabilities are depicted in classic or contemporary literature, in young adult literature, in films, or in other media? To what extent have those depictions changed over the years? A familiar plot is one in which the person with the disability overcomes all obstacles. Whose interests are served by such narratives? Who gets to tell the stories of people with disabilities? What is ânormal,â and who gets to define it? What can we learn from successful differentiation, challenging inclusion classes, or well-designed individualized education plans (IEPs)? How can the architectural concept of universal design, with its physical features such as ramps, wide doorways, and curb cuts, function as a metaphor to help us make English language arts more accessible for all students? What is it like to be a teacher with a visible or invisible disability? What have you learned by working with parents of students with disabilities? If your child has a disability, how has your experience advocating for him or her affected your own classroom practices? What do teachers need to know about new technologies that can help all students learn better? What role do expectations play in the performance of all students?
General Interest (May submit any time)
We publish articles of general interest as space is available. You may submit manuscripts on any topic that will appeal to EJ readers. Remember that EJ articles foreground classroom practice and contextualize it in sound research and theory. As you know, EJ readers appreciate articles that show real students and teachers in real classrooms engaged in authentic teaching and learning. Regular manuscript guidelines regarding length and style apply.
Speaking My Mind: We invite you to speak out on an issue that concerns you about English language arts teaching and learning. If your essay is published, it will appear with your photo in a future issue of English Journal. We welcome essays of 1,000 to 1,500 words, as well as inquiries regarding possible subjects.
Student Voices: This is a forum for students to share their experiences and recommendations in short pieces of 300 words. Teachers are encouraged to submit the best responses from their classes, not whole class sets, please. Individual students are welcome to submit as well. Topics are as follows:
- What nonfiction text that English teachers might not think of would you like to read in English class? (Deadline: July 15, 2009)
- What positive lessons have you learned from English class about working with other people? (Deadline: September 15, 2009)
- How has logical thinking helped you out of a difficult situation? (Deadline: November 15, 2009)
Teacher to Teacher: This is a forum for teachers to share ideas, materials, and activities in short pieces of 300 words. Topics are as follows:
- What nonfiction text or genre should all students read before they graduate? (Deadline: July 15, 2009)
- Given all the time and money you needed, what kinds of collaboration would you engage in for the benefit of your students? (Deadline: September 15, 2009)
- How can we motivate students to value logic and logical thinking? (Deadline: November 15, 2009)
Teacher photographs of classroom scenes and individual students are welcome. Photographs may be sent as 8" Ã 10" black-and-white glossies or as an electronic file in a standard image format at 300 dpi. Photos should be accompanied by complete identification: teacher/photographerâs name, location of scene, and date photograph was taken. If faces are clearly visible, names of those photographed should be included, along with their statement of permission for the photograph to be reproduced in EJ.
Cartoons should depict scenes or ideas potentially amusing to English language arts teachers. Line drawings in black ink should be submitted on 8 1/2" Ã 11" unlined paper and be signed by the artist.
For EJ Submission Guidelines, click here.
For more information, contact [email protected]. |
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The Indian Parliament has two houses, the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha. Lok Sabha is the lower house. According to the Indian Constitution, the maximum number of members of the Lok Sabha can be up to 552. In which 530 members can be from states and 20 members from union territories. In the absence of adequate representation of the Anglo-Indian community in the House, the President of India can nominate two members of this community if he so desires.Presently there are 545 members. The term of the Lok Sabha is 5 years but it can be dissolved prematurely. It is constituted of representatives chosen by direct election by the people on the basis of universal adult suffrage.
Instruments of parliamentary proceedings
These are oral questions and these questions are marked with an asterisk, supplementary questions can also be asked in them.
Lok Sabha can have 20 starred questions in a day, this member can ask only one question.
There is no limit on the total number of starred questions in Rajya Sabha (normally there are 25 questions in a day) while a member of Rajya Sabha can ask a maximum of three such questions.
These do not have an asterisk and are of written nature.
Therefore, ministers have to answer regarding these; supplementary questions cannot be asked in this context.
A maximum of 230 questions can be asked in Lok Sabha in a day while a member can ask 4 questions. There is no limit on unstarred questions in Rajya Sabha.
Short notice question
Since it is related to matters of urgent public importance, the minister has to answer them within 10 days.
If a minister declines to answer such a question, the Speaker may direct him to answer it.
Short notice questions are usually put in the middle of the question hour, they are answered orally, usually only one short notice question is included in the list in a day.
Questions asked to members Under Parliamentary Rule 40, MPs can also ask questions to any non-official member.
Such questions are generally related to motions, bills etc. placed by non-official members, supplementary questions cannot be asked on this, the nature is written.
Half an hour discussion
If someone wants to have half an hour discussion on any topic related to starred, unstarred, short notice question etc., he has to give at least 3 days prior notice.
A member can conduct discussion only once in a week and cannot conduct more than two discussions in any session. For half an hour discussion, the support of additional 4 members is necessary for the member raising the discussion. Half an hour discussion takes place on Monday, Wednesday and Friday between 5:00 to 5:30 pm and the answer is given by the concerned minister.
One hour after the Question Hour is Zero Hour from 12:00 to 1:00 pm. In fact earlier it was of longer duration, Ravi Rai had ensured one hour during 9th Lok Sabha. This is the fundamental contribution of India. In zero hour, any member can ask questions to the minister without prior notice.
Right now the parliamentary system is India's gift, this is also a normal process under the attention notices, in this also the minister gives a comment, in this there is no voting and detailed discussion.
Under Rule 377, the MP gives information about the matter directly to the Speaker and it cannot be included in the parliamentary business list.
Calling attention notices
Calling attention notices are India's gift to the parliamentary system, it started in 1954, it is a front process, so like an adjournment motion, special procedure is not adopted in it, it has the following characteristics
According to Forest 97, any member of the House can seek comments and statements from the Minister under these information in case of public importance, with the prior permission of the Speaker, what film has been made.
No member can give two or more notices in a day
Members are required to report calling attention notices to the Secretary-General by 10:00 a.m.
These notices can be brought by more than one member on the same subject but a maximum of 5 such notices can be included in the agenda of 1 day.
There is no debate on the comment of such information of the minister, nor the voter, but a supplementary question can be asked.
Short term discussions
This is also India's contribution to the parliamentary system, which was started in 1953, it has the following characteristics.
As per Rule 193, a member has to give notice to the Secretary General mentioning the matter to be taken up for discussion and such notice should be signed by at least two more members.
The final decision is taken by the Speaker whether the matter is of urgent public importance and is worth discussing or not.
Normally such discussions can be held only till 2:30 pm on Tuesday-Thursday.
After the discussion, the minister gives the answer and there is no voting in it.
Legislative process in parliament
In the Constitution of India, some arrangements have been fixed for the scientific method, in addition to these arrangements, the detailed description about the legal process is mentioned in the rules of law of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
According to the constitutional system, any bill except the financial bill can be presented in any house of the parliament. Bills are generally classified into three types.
Government and private bills
Ministers present government bills, while non-government bills are presented by ordinary members of Parliament. So far 14 bills have been passed by private members. Some of the major bills are as follows-
Classification on the basis of government and non-government bills
General classification, special classification
1. General classification
constitution amendment bill
2. Special Classification
constitution amendment bill
Muslim Waqf Bill (1952)
Indian Registration Bill (1955)
Women Child Bill (1954)
Supreme Court Appellate Jurisdiction Extension Bill (1968)
General Classification of Bills
Ordinary Bills which are passed by the simple majority of the Parliament.
Finance Bills are presented in the Lok Sabha with the prior permission of the President, there are Finance Bills and Money Bills, they can be stopped by the Rajya Sabha only for 14 days.
Constitutional Amendment Bill Bill passed under the procedure of Article 368.
The original bill in which new proposals and ideas provide for policies.
Amendment Bill Their purpose is to amend the existing Acts.
Consolidation Method This type of bill integrates all the existing bills on a single subject.
Ordinance Bill These ordinances are brought to convert the ordinance issued by the President into an act.
Finance bills related to money are presented in the Lok Sabha with the prior approval of the President and not in the Rajya Sabha.
Constitution Amendment Bills are brought with the process of Article 368 and are of two types.
are passed by â
majority of the parliament
which are passed with the support of â
majority + the legislatures of more than half of the states
All the above three types of MLAs pass through both the Houses through all the three words of the Parliament to change the Act, whether it is a government bill or a non-government bill, the same procedure is adopted in both after being presented in the Parliament, but the permission of the cabinet is only given by the government. brought only on bills.
Draft and keep in the cabinet
First, the departmental ministry prepares the draft of the proposal and consults the Law Ministry and the Attorney General on this.
Then he puts this draft in front of the cabinet, after the permission of the cabinet, he informs the Parliamentary Secretary General about the date of the House regarding the presentation of the bill.
It is necessary to inform the General Secretary at least 7 days before the date of submission.
Along with this, 2 copies of the Bill are also given to the General Secretary. The Secretary, Chairman, Department, in consultation with the Business Advisory Committee, decides the date and time for the presentation of the Bill.
That it is necessary to make available a copy of the bill to all the members of the house 2 days before the day on which the bill is to be introduced.
The process from the introduction of the bill to the publication of the bill in the Gazette comes in the first reading.
First of all, the concerned minister seeks permission from the Speaker to present the bill in the House, usually oral consent is given on this and there is no discussion on it.
But when the question of legislative competence arises, the Speaker allows discussion and the Attorney General can participate in it under Parliamentary Rule 72.
After this the bill is put to vote and after it is passed in the vote it is published in the gazette.
If the question of legislative competence does not arise, then after oral assent, the bill is directly published in the Gazette. In the following procedure, the permission of the House is not necessary in the first reading.
it consists of three stages
First of all, there is an extraordinary discussion, and then the bill is referred to the select or joint committee in the stage.
These joint committees are temporary committees, the select committee consists only of the members of the house presenting the bill.
While the members of both the Houses Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha are in the ratio of 2:1 respectively in the Joint Committee, but the Chairman of the Joint Committee is the House which has passed the bill.
These committees discuss the bill section-wise and present their report in the House. The committees can propose amendments to the bill.
But it is up to the minister to place the original bill for detailed discussion in the house. The minister may also refer the bill to a new committee before discussing the bill as amended by the committee.
Second House In this, like the first house, the legislator has to pass through three steps or promises.
voting on the bill
President's assent When the bill is passed by both the Houses, it is sent for the assent of the President, after his signature the bill turns into law. |
Charity begins at home, and the brain is no stranger to this maxim. The brain is not only immunologically active on its own behalf, but also plays a role in protecting the rest of the body. The brain directs cell-to-cell communications, but those messages do not always host good news. Sometimes they carry the black cloud of inflammation, which is supposed to be a protective response to an insult, injury, or destruction of tissue, but it also may lead to loss of some kinds of function, including thought. The chemicals that coordinate the inflammatory process are called cytokines, and they amplify immunological activity.
Given the role of cytokines in the neuroimmune process, it has been suggested that these molecules influence cognitionsâthe mental processes of knowing, which is an exercise that includes awareness, perception, reasoning and judgment. Investigators at the St. Vincent Hospital, in Indianapolis, studied the relationship between inflammation and cognition and found that, âThere is abundant evidence that inflammatory mechanisms within the central nervous system contribute to cognitive impairment via cytokine-mediated interactions between neurons and glial cells,â adding that there is a growing awareness of the role of cytokines in ââŠthe inflammatory processes in neurodegenerative diseasesâŠâ (Wilson. 2002) A considerable volume of such activity results from stress and its effect on immunity.
A dab of semantic guidance might be appropriate. First, glial cells are a kind of scaffolding that supports and surrounds nerve cells. Each neuron is surrounded by several. In the brain, glia account for about forty percent of brain volume. Theyâre smaller than neurons, maintaining the capacity to divide and form part of the blood-brain barrier that is designed to regulate the passage of matter between the blood and the central nervous system. Second, cytokines have multiple tasks, including blood clotting, growth and development, and, of course, immunity. They comprise several groups. There are those that regulate T-cells and B-cells in the immune system, called interleukins; those that block pathogens such as viruses, called interferons; and those that promote cell proliferation, called transforming growth factors, among others.
Cytokines can get excited by physical, mental, spiritual, biochemical, and psychological stress. That runs the gamut from strenuous activity to poor diet to arguing with the kids to sickness or disease, all of which can lead to lack of mental clarity, confusion, tiredness, difficulty in concentrating, and forgetfulnessâbrain fog. The cytokines can interfere with complex cognitive processes at the molecular level, where the regulation of neurotransmitters is disturbed and memory is distorted. (McAfoose. 2009) Recent studies in the Netherlands found that women are more prone to cognitive deficiencies caused by inflammation than men. (Trollor. 2011)
When markers of inflammation are elevated they offer an explanation for the subsequent brain fog. Of the several markers, C-reactive protein (CRP) is one of the most commonly measured. Its elevation denotes the presence of inflammation somewhere in the body. Not all inflammation is as painful as that from an ingrown toenail with its accompanying redness, swelling and pain. But high CRP may account for, and even predict, memory impairment. (Noble. 2010) The diseases that are attributed to old age, such as arthritis, and the recruitment of the immune system, such as during a viral or bacterial attack, will increase circulating interleukins as well as CRP, both of which affect memory, attention, abstract thinking, the initiation and inhibition of appropriate actions, and planning. (Hoth. 2008)
The factors that cause brain fog have a more profound effect as we age. If, however, we learn to control those factors now, it makes geriatric life a breeze. Removing dietary insults is one step. The hardest slap comes from sugar and refined carbohydrates. Supplementation with the B vitamins, the stress fighters, helps to maintain nerve integrity and function. Sleep, a little exercise, counseling, and meditating on those things that are just, pure, lovely and of good report can ameliorate those little irritations that accumulate into seemingly insurmountable roadblocks to peace and the mental clarity that ensues. By the way, keeping your teeth in good shape can help. (Kamer. 2011)
Wilson CJ, Finch CE, Cohen HJ. Cytokines and cognition--the case for a head-to-toe inflammatory paradigm. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2002 Dec;50(12):2041-56.
Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2009 Mar;33(3):355-66. Epub 2008 Oct 18. Evidence for a cytokine model of cognitive function. McAfoose J, Baune BT.
Julian N Trollor, Evelyn Smith, Emmeline Agars, Stacey A Kuan, Bernhard T Baune The association between systemic inflammation and cognitive performance in the elderly: the Sydney Memory and Ageing Study. Age Dordrecht Netherlands (2011) Issue: 95, Pages: 1-10
Noble JM, Manly JJ, Schupf N, Tang MX, Mayeux R, Luchsinger JA. Association of C-reactive protein with cognitive impairment. Arch Neurol. 2010 Jan;67(1):87-92.
Karin F. Hoth, PhD, Andreana P. Haley, PhD, John Gunstad, PhD, et al Elevated C-Reactive Protein Is Related to Cognitive Decline in Older Adults with Cardiovascular Disease J Am Geriatr Soc. 2008 October; 56(10): 1898â1903.
Kamer AR, Morse DE, Holm-Pedersen P, Mortensen EL, Avlund K
Periodontal Inflammation in Relation to Cognitive Function in an Older Adult Danish Population.
J Alzheimers Dis. 2011 Nov 1.
Grassi-Oliveira R, Bauer ME, Pezzi JC, Teixeira AL, Brietzke E. Interleukin-6 and verbal memory in recurrent major depressive disorder. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2011;32(4):540-4.
Ridker PM, Hennekens CH, Buring JE, Rifai N. C-reactive protein and other markers of inflammation in the prediction of cardiovascular disease in women. N Engl J Med. 2000 Mar 23;342(12):836-43.
Marioni, Riccardo Emilio Inflammation and cognition : the association between biomarker levels, their genetic determinants, and age-related cognitive decline. The University of Edinburgh. 2010 http://hdl.handle.net/1842/4436
*These statements have not been evaluated by the FDA. These products are not intended to treat, diagnose, cure, or prevent any disease. |
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Thereâs really no season that has a better reputation than summer.
Itâs that time of year associated with vacations and long beach days soaking up the sun. Itâs about cold drinks, melting popsicles, Vitamin C, and family fun. Schoolâs out, itâs hot, and itâs time to celebrate!
This is the mindset society paints in picture-perfect advertising campaigns, but not everyone shares this kind of enthusiasm for the hot summer months. In fact, some people become downright sick of summer and long for the cold days of winter.
Understanding Reverse SAD
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) is commonly associated with the long, dark days of winter when the days are shorter and cold temperatures keep people inside away from sunlight. SAD can leave people feeling lethargic, depressed and longing for the sweet days of summer and sunshine. But, for a small group of people, the colder days of winter evoke an improved mood which is quite the opposite of those who suffer from SAD.
Summer-onset seasonal affective disorder is SAD in reverse meaning the onset of summer (instead of winter) triggers depression for some. And, while people who suffer from SAD during the winter often feel gloomy and lethargic, those with summer SAD can feel quite the opposite and suffer from insomnia, loss of appetite, and anxiety. Itâs easy enough to go into hibernation in the winter, but having summer SAD carries a certain stigma. Society tells us that weâre supposed to enjoy the sweet days of summer which can lead to misunderstanding and compassion towards those who suffer.
A First-Hand Account Of What Reverse SAD Is LikeâŠ
Sharon is an inspirational blogger, wellness advocate, and someone who suffers from reverse SAD. She knows what itâs like to agonize during the summer months when everyone around you seems to be having fun in the sun. Here are a few things sheâd like you to know about the 1-6% of people who have summer depression like SharonâŠ
Reverse SAD Is Real Itâs not about being a âparty pooperâ, summer depression can really bring some people down.
âThe sun, to me, is utterly oppressive. It drains and exhausts me. I am energized on cloudy daysâ, said Sharon.
This type of exhaustion can isolate people and intensify feelings of sadness and anxiety. Itâs Not About âMissing Outâ On Activities There seems to be misinformation floating around about summer depression. Some articles link FOMO (Fear Of Missing Out) to summer depression which isnât always the case.
As Sharon said, âI am not sitting here right this minute agitated, panicky, nauseous, anxious and depressed because I canât go to the seashore with my friends.â
Itâs important to remember that summer depression is a true medical condition and should be treated as such. There Are Many Symptoms As with other conditions, there are a few symptoms of summer depression that can vary from person to person. Itâs not just about being sad or hating the sunlight. Sharon experiences feelings of agitation and panic almost every single day during the summer which can be debilitating.
Lead With Compassion
If you or someone you love suffers from summer-onset seasonal depression, donât hesitate to reach out for help. Create a routine that helps you keep symptoms at bay during the summer months that works for YOU. Donât suffer from summer depression alone, weâre here for you! |
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Alien Soil Could Be Used For Future Heat Shields
Lee Rannals for redOrbit.com â Your Universe Online
If all goes well in the next test, alien soil could be a key ingredient to a new generation of heat shield being developed.
Scientists are about to start an important test next week to see if whether a heat shield made up of soil from the moon, Mars or an asteroid would be able to protect a spacecraft from Earthâs atmosphere.
NASA is looking into the possibility of creating a heat shield with alien soil so that future spacecraft could leave Earth without carrying a heavy heat shield, but instead it would create one on another world and ride it home safely.
Being able to shave off the extra pounds opens up new possibilities ranging from using smaller rockets to carrying more supplies on an exploration mission.
Michael Hogue, a researcher at NASAâs Kennedy Space Center in Florida, came up with the idea during a brainstorming session last year, the space agency said. They were discussing how to use extraterrestrial soil, which is known as regolith.
âOthers were talking about how regolith can be used to make bricks or landing pads and I said, âWell, if itâs good for that, why canât it be used to make atmospheric entry heat shields?â â Hogue said in a press release.
Engineers have been trying out various mixtures and techniques to find out whether the idea has any potential, and so far tests have been very successful.
âI expected some to fail,â Hogue said in the release. âThere is an optimum range of density you need to hit for each material where itâs light enough to have low enough thermal conductivity, but also structurally strong enough to survive the forces of atmospheric entry. All of our formulations that we tested with a cutting torch at least passed that.â
The bricks created by the team, which are made up of a different combination of materials, will be facing their toughest test so far next week. Engineers will be placing them inside the arc jet facility at NASAâs Ames Research Center to send a scorching plasma stream across them. This will test out the durability of the bricks in conditions similar to those a spacecraft faces in reentry.
Although the new concept is promising, NASA said that it is far from becoming operational at this point. It is currently a one out of nine on the technology readiness scale.
The team will have to take the concept through a series of evaluations, adaptations, inventions and tests, including a sample disc being placed on the bottom of a cargo spacecraft returning from the International Space Station.
Hogue said his attitude towards the project has gone from being a skeptic, to a hopeful enthusiast.
NASA said that in order to make the heat shield in space, a robotic device or automated system would have to be developed. The spacecraft would have to mix the regolith with a rubbery substance in a mold or heat a large disc of regolith until the soil elements fuse together.
Another advantage of using regolith as a heat shield is that with the low gravity found on places like an asteroid or a moon, it would be easier to lift the spacecraft off the ground regardless of the extra weight.
âYou can make it massive and if it heats up and ablates off, all the better because the ablated mass takes heat with it.â Hogue said in the release. âAfter about five minutes you jettison the shield over water and youâre done.â |
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Testamentary Capacity is the ability to make a Will. This may be undermined by psychiatric illness or other factors.
The English case of Banks v Goodfellow (1870) sets out the factors required for a testatorâs Will to be considered valid. A Will-maker should:
- Understand the nature of the act and its effects
- Understand the extent of the property of which he is disposing;
- Be able to understand and appreciate the claims to which he ought to give effect;
- iv. Be free of any disorder of the mind that would poison his affections, pervert his sense of right or prevent the exercise of his natural faculties.
The individual must understand the nature of the making of a Will, its effects and the extent of their property and possessions. The person must also be able to appreciate the claims to the estate, which he ought to consider.
However, the judgement also notes that âtestamentary capacity does not require a sound and disposing mind in the highest degree otherwise very few people could make wills. It is enough if the mental faculties retain sufficient strength fully to comprehend the testamentary actâ. Furthermore, âThe Will-maker must clearly understand and make a sound assessment of all those things and all those circumstances which enter into the nature of a rational, fair and just Willâ.
Psychiatric expert testimony may be required to determine issues relating to the likelihood that a person is or was capable of making a will. |
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This Thanksgiving count your blessingsBy BY GARY ANDREWS [email protected],
What does Thanksgiving mean to you? Is it a day of family fun, visiting, eating, watching ballgames, etc. or is it a time that all of us should realize what the Almighty God has blessed us with?
Thanksgiving ceremonies first took place in 1565; however, we recognize Thanksgiving from the Pilgrims and the Indians at Plymouth, Massachusetts in 1623.
This day was set aside following a time of drought, when prayers for rain resulted in a subsequent rain shower and the Pilgrims were able to save their harvest. It was a time when the Indians helped the Pilgrims in their time of need and were invited to the celebration feast. Thanks, were offered to the Lord for His bounty and good blessings.
President George Washington issued a proclamation and created the first Thanksgiving Day designated by the national government on Oct. 3, 1789. Within this proclamation were the words: âNow therefore I do recommend and assign Thursday the 26th day of November next to be devoted by the People of these States to the service of that great and glorious Being, who is the beneficent Author of all the good that was, that is, or that will be.â
For the next few years the Presidents of the United States proclaimed a time for Thanksgiving Day because of the bountiful mercies that only God can give. The U.S. Congress in 1941 passed a bill requiring that Thanksgiving be observed annually on the fourth Thursday of November.
For many years the people of America have celebrated Thanksgiving because God has blessed them in so many ways. It is a time when all of us should count our blessings and be encouraged that we have a great and mighty God looking out for us. Remember what Jesus tells us in John 14:27; âPeace I leave with you, My peace I give to you; not as the world gives do I give to you. Let not your heart be troubled, neither let it be afraid.â
It is my sincere hope that each one of us will take time and count the many blessings that have come from the good Lord above. We can continue to have our fun, food, and fellowship with our family and friends but letâs remember why the first Thanksgiving began. |
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EZEKIEL CHAPTER 24.
The Destruction of Jerusalem Typified by Parable and Sign.
VISION OF THE BOILING CALDRON. â V. I. Again, in the ninth year, in the tenth month, namely, after the deportation of Jehoiachin and the accession of Zedekiah, in the tenth day of the month, the exact fixing of the day emphasizing the divinity of Ezekielâs mission, the word of the Lord came unto me, saying, v. 2. Son of man, write thee the name of the day, as a significant date, one prominent in the history of the Jewish race, even of this same day; the king of Babylon set himself against Jerusalem this same day, the siege of the Jewish capital thus being begun and Ezekiel being informed of this fact by revelation of God. V. 3. And utter a parable unto the rebellious house, literally, âthe house of rebelliousness,â for the exiled Jews were, on the whole, still filled with stubborn resentment, and say unto them, Thus saith the Lord God, Set on a pot, a large caldron for cooking over an open fire, set it on and also pour water into it, their own proverb, chap. 11, 3, thereby proving awfully true, but in an entirely different sense from that intended by them; v.4. gather the pieces thereof into it, those which properly belong into such a caldron for specified purposes. even every good piece, the thigh, and the shoulder; fill it with the choice bones, those having a good amount of flesh adhering to them. V. 5. Take the choice of the flock, of all small cattle, and burn also the bones under it, literally, âa rounded heap of kindling-wood under it for the bones,â which may indicate that dry bones were mingled with the pieces of wood beneath the caldron, and make it boil well and let them seethe the bones of it therein. Thus Jerusalem, as the caldron, was placed over the fire of a fierce war and siege, by which the inhabitants of the city would be sodden to pieces, the poorest suffering first, but the wealthier inhabitants likewise enduring destruction, though by a slower process. These facts are now stated in explicit terms. V. 6. Wherefore, thus saith the Lord God, Woe to the bloody city, to the city whose blood-guiltiness is so great, to the pot whose scum is therein, like spots of rust that cannot be removed, and whose scum is not gone out of it, the reference being to the peopleâs all-pervading wickedness. Bring it out piece by piece, in a slow judgment and process of destruction; let no lot fall upon it, or, ânot has fallen upon it the lot,â in which case there might be some chance of deliverance and salvation. V. 7. For her blood, that shed in the wickedness of her murderous actions, is in the midst of her; she set it upon the top of a rock, on the bare rock, shamelessly exposing her wickedness before the eyes of all men; she poured it not upon the ground to cover it with dust, thereby openly challenging the wrath and vengeance of God, v. 8. that it might, in bringing near the judgment of God, cause fury to come up to take vengeance, or, âto make fury to ascend, to execute vengeance.â I have set her blood upon the top of a rock, on the bare, exposed rock, so as to make it conspicuous before the eyes of all men, that it should not be covered. V. 9. Therefore, thus saith the Lord God, in introducing another element pertaining to the execution of His wrath, Woe to the bloody city! I will even make the pile for fire great, so as to consume Jerusalem with siege and destruction. V. 10. Heap on wood, so the prophet is bidden, kindle the fire, in a mighty heaping of materials for the cityâs destruction, consume the flesh, so that it would be cooked to pieces, and spice it well, literally, âlet the mixture seethe,â and let the bones be burned, so that they would be softened into one mass with the flesh, a heavy broth or thick mixture, which could then be dumped out. V. 11. Then set it empty upon the coals thereof that the brass of it may be hot and may burn, glowing in white heat, and that the filthiness of it, the remnants of the broth clinging to its sides, may be molten in it, that the scum of it, the rust of the peopleâs wickedness, may be consumed, burned away by the heat of the fire. V. 12. She, that is, Jerusalem, hath wearied herself with lies, literally, âit has caused labors to grow weary,â that is, all the Lordâs efforts in the interest of the city had been in vain, and her great scum went not forth out of her, the wickedness being ingrained, as it were; her scum shall be in the fire, or, âInto the fire with her scum !â Everything else having failed, the wrath of the Lord would now burn, with nothing to hold back. V. 13. In thy filthiness is lewdness, an abomination in the sight of the Lord. Because I have purged thee, making the most earnest efforts to cleanse the people from their wickedness, and thou wast not purged, resisting every effort of the Lordâs mercy, thou shalt not be purged from thy filthiness any more till I have caused My fury to rest upon thee, in the punishment which Jerusalem so richly deserved. V. 14. I, the Lord, have spoken it; it shall come to pass, and I will do it; I will not go back, not show a weak lenience, neither will I spare, neither will I repent, as an overindulgent father might be inclined to do; according to thy ways and according to thy doings, in exact agreement with her behavior and deeds, shall they judge thee, saith the Lord God. Note the heaping of synonymous expressions to emphasize the certainty of the approaching judgment. If men persist in wickedness in spite of better knowledge and warning, the Lord punishes them by letting their hearts be hardened in this wickedness and then bringing destruction upon them.
THE DEATH OF EZEKIELâS WIFE AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE. â V. 15. Also the word of the Lord came unto me, saying, v. 16. Son of man, behold, I take from thee the desire of thine eyes, his very beloved wife, with a stroke, by a sudden death; yet neither shalt thou mourn nor weep, neither shall thy tears run down, that is, Ezekiel was to abstain from every show of mourning or sorrow over the deep loss which he would sustain. V. 17. Forbear to cry, violently repressing the natural show of grief, make no mourning for the dead, as was customary in the Orient, bind the tire of thine head, the head-ornament which was laid aside during times of mourning, upon thee and put on thy shoes upon thy feet, instead of going barefoot in token of a deep sorrow, and cover not thy lips, as custom decreed in such a case, and eat not the bread of men, as people sent food in case of a death and relieved the survivors of the burden of preparing food for themselves. In everything Ezekiel was to act contrary to the established custom in the case of a death in the family. V. 18. So I spake unto the people in the morning, bringing them the message of the first part of the chapter; and at even my wife died, being torn suddenly from his side; and I did in the morning as I was commanded, acting in the unusual manner commanded him by the Lord. V. 19. And the people, noticing his strange behavior and surmising a special reason for it, said unto me, Wilt thou not tell us what these things are to us, what meaning his behavior was to convey to them, that thou doest so? This would give Ezekiel the opening which the Lord intended him to have in speaking to the people. V. 20. Then I answered them, The word of the Lord came unto me, saying, v. 21. Speak unto the house of Israel, Thus saith the Lord God, Behold, I will profane My Sanctuary, namely, the Temple at Jerusalem, the excellency of your strength, in which they took such great pride, the desire of your eyes, held as dearly by them as a man holds his beloved wife, and that which your soul pitieth, what they desired with a deep and abiding affection; and your sons and your daughters whom ye have left, those remaining in Jerusalem when the first exiles were taken to Babylon, shall fall by the sword. V. 22. And ye shall do as I have done, in restraining every show of grief in a similar manner: ye shall not cover your lips nor eat the bread of men. V. 23. And your tires, their turbans or head-ornaments, shall be upon your heads and your shoes upon your feet; ye shall not mourn nor weep, in an outward demonstration of sorrow; but ye shall pine away for your iniquities, in an overwhelming measure of grief and pain, and mourn one toward another, all the more deeply affected since their sorrow was beyond the ordinary means of expression. V. 24. Thus Ezekiel is unto you a sign, so the Lord tells the people of Jerusalem in addressing them directly; according to all that he hath done shall ye do; and when this cometh, namely, this calamity or catastrophe, ye shall know that I am the Lord God. But the Lord intended that the token of the prophet should have another consequence as well. V. 25. Also, thou son of man, shall it not be in the day when I take from them their strength, the joy of their glory, the desire of their eyes, the Temple, as the center of their entire religious cult, and that whereupon they set their minds, with natural parental affection, their sons and their daughters, v. 26. that he that escapeth in that day, any one not taken away in the general destruction, shall come unto thee to cause thee to hear it with thine ears, to make known the awful greatness of the catastrophe? V. 27. In that day shall thy mouth be opened to him which is escaped, that is, at the same time with that of the escaped fugitive, so that he would no longer be compelled to hold back his grief, and thou shalt speak and be no more dumb; and thou shalt be a sign unto them, once more typically representative in his own person of the things which would befall them; and they shall know that I am the Lord. In all ages of the world the believers have been a sign to the enemies of the Lord in one way or the other, always as a living testimony before their eyes, if possibly they might be induced to see the error of their ways and turn to the Lord in true repentance. |
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Hazardous household waste items are those items that can cause damage to health or the environment. More care and attention is required to recycle or dispose of these materials.
What types of domestic waste are hazardous?
This is not a comprehensive list. Hazardous waste requires special treatment so please contact us if you are unsure whether the items you are disposing of should be classed as hazardous waste.
- household and car batteries
- fluorescent tubes
- some paints
- some household and car batteries
- electrical equipment like TVs, fridges and freezers
- energy saving light bulbs (also known as CFLs)
How to dispose of hazardous waste
Most hazardous waste can be taken to your local household waste and recycling centre (external website). You can find your nearest recycling centre on My Wycombe.
Please don't put domestic hazardous waste into your household bins.
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Take part: navigation exercise
The exercise will run in a new window or tab. If the exercise is closed, don't worry. We'll be running further exercises over the next few weeks. Or you can contact the web team direct: Contact web services (Please don't use this link for bin queries.)
Contact the waste team |
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|Zita Johann as Ankhesenamon|
Patricia Velasquez as Anck-Su-Namun in The Mummy, 1999
Egyptomania ran rampant after the expeditions that eventually led to the 1922 discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb by the archaeologist Howard Carter. The revival during the 1920s is sometimes considered to be part of the art deco decorative arts style. However, Egyptian Revival was not a new concept. "The first major Egyptian Revival period was after Napoleon's campaigns in Egypt (1798-99) and the subsequent occupation by the British. During this time, Europeans became fascinated with the ancient Egyptian architecture and furniture. Egyptian ornamentation like scarab beetles, sphinxes, winged lions and lotuses, often with gilding, were applied to modern forms to create the hybrid style referred to as "Egyptian Revival". excerpt by Grace Hummel on ebay buying guides.
|Victorian Tour Group|
Tourism in Egypt
"In the 1820s, the encyclopedic Description de l'Ãgypte, compiled by the scholars who had accompanied Napoleon's expedition, brought the monuments and people of the Nile to the European public. In the 1840s, steamships made travel to Egypt convenient, bringing tourists there and unleashing a flood of travel books eagerly read by those who could not afford the journey. Finally, in 1922, King Tut's tomb and its treasure were discovered. These events brought Egypt to the masses, and the masses to Egypt, fueling Egyptomania." Bob Brier, Egyptologist
Cruises down the Nile and tours led by Egyptian guides became quite popular. Old photos show hoards of people climbing over these landmarks, something that would never be done today. Source for Left photo c.1900; Right photo, L'Egypte avant les touristes - Le Sphinx en 1850.
Early Fancy Dress Costume Parties and Balls
"Modern interpretations of Egyptian costume have an air that is dashing and bizarre; in reality the Egyptians were conservative in costume as in all else." -- Mary McAlister, "Ancient Costume and Modern Fashion," Art and Archaeology 15, April 1923
Above left, the Hon. Mrs. Algernon Bourke, Devonshire House Ball, July 2, 1897. Above right, Lady Paget 1899. Read about her Here
Left, Princess Henry of Pless, also as Cleopatra (or possibly the Queen of Sheba), at the Duchess of Devonshireâs Diamond Jubilee Costume Ball, July 2, 1897 source
Above, fashion plates with Egyptian fancy dress costumes. Right, my favorite 1920's detective, Miss Phryne Fisher, partying as Cleopatra. Esse Davis -Miss Fisher's Murder Mysteries
Left 1923 and Center 1932 from the Met Museum. Right 1923 Bradley's Chepstow Place, London.
Above Center, 1930s Lamé Dress Egyptian Revival Gown by PenniesLondon Above Right, Robe du soir, 1923. Catalog drouot
Left, applique embroidered Egyptian silk coat, late 1920s, unlabelled. Made for the elite tourist trade, these silk coats were popular purchases on the Grand Tour. Below Left, 1926 beautiful beaded gown, US Library of Congress
Accessories/Jewelry "The Egyptian Revival in the 1920s major contributions were to the jewelry world, combining the streamlined geometric of Art Deco with ancient motifs for a fairly modern flair. Many pieces of jewelry were produced during this time period, most notably are Pharaoh's heads, Queen Nefertiti, scarabs, winged sun disks, snakes, lotus blossoms, hieroglyphic writing and pyramids. The jewelry was made in precious metals like gold, platinum and silver as well as pieces made of lesser compositions of brass, white metal, pewter and glass. Most of these pieces were further enhanced with polychrome enameling, precious and semi precious stones, glass and celluloid." excerpt by Grace Hummel on ebay buying guides
Above -Art DECO Neiger brooch Egyptian Revival pin Czech 1920s
Below left- Vintagejewelrylane.com Below right - Rubylane.com
Above left - 1920s art deco beaded purse. ebay.com
Below left - 1920s beaded bag with Sphinx and lotus. celluloid frame. tumblr.com
Below center - Tania enameled watch 1925. Below right - Stahel Zurich 1920s Heritage Auctions
Left, Gold, enamel and scarab brooch, c.1880 from Sothbys. Center, Tadema Gallery. Right, gem set scarab brooch, circa 1900. Emeralds, sapphires, pearls, rubies and diamonds. prices4antiques.com
Beauty Products "Just before the 1920s began, the perfume companies started producing perfumes, cosmetics and powder boxes with Egyptian motifs or figures, which were one way for the average woman to bring some of the exotic into her boudoir." excerpt by Grace Hummel on ebay buying guides
Images below from Google Search and Ebay
Songs From the 1920s came some of the best dance tunes. One of my favorites is Egyptian Ella. Listen Here to an actual 1931 recording of the song, set to a slide show of photos from Egypt. (youtube)
Theater and Cinema
There were countless stage productions centering around Cleopatra, which carried over into silent movies of the 1920s and beyond. Lillie Langtry portrayed her in 1890. Source
Left, Constance Collier in a 1907 stage production. Center, Theda Bara in the 1917 silent film. Right, Helena Modjeska as Cleopatra in 1879
Claudette Colbert in 1934 and Vivien Leigh in 1945. There were many more Cleos in addition to these lovely ladies.
But what about the gentlemen? Left, Rudolph Valentino in "The Sheik" 1921. Right, Victor Mature in "The Egyptian" 1954 I googled movie stills.
Yul Brynner in the "Ten Commandments"1956
"The Loves of Pharaoh" 1922 silent movie from Denmark
Boris Karloff "The Mummy" 1932
The 70's brought us the Agatha Christie movie "Death on the Nile" and Steve Martin sang about "King Tut". In the 80s we were taught how to "Walk Like an Egyptian" by the Bangles. The 90s brought us hunky Brendan Fraser in the Mummy movies.
I am glad to see Egyptomania has not completely died out. How many of you have been here recently? |
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