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I propose that schools implement mandatory curricula involving volunteerism in order to advance from each grade to the next. This could begin as early as the first grade as day trips with their classmates. It can give children a sense of what they would most enjoy doing in life, instead of wandering aimlessly through their school years wondering what life's all about or -- worse yet -- not caring at all.
Many children do not receive this type of guidance from their parents, because often the parents have no clue either.
Our children can have a better persepctive of their place in society, in the human race and in the scheme of all life's experiences by volunteering, starting at a young age.
I always took my daughter to volunteer activities and I firmly believe this would help reduce bullying and other undesirable behaviors by allowing children to see that they can make this world a better place, and by not wasting their time on undesirable behavior because they find a purpose in their young lives that will carry on throughout their adult lives.
My own volunteerism led me to so many things I would never have experienced in life, not to mention skills that provided me several career options because of all I learned from it.
When children see that there is always someone worse off than themselves, and try to help ease the struggle for others, they find meaning in life. And I know that "the meaning of life is to live a life of meaning". This awareness is the key to many things that our children need to learn in order to be a productive and helpful part of society. Volunteering makes one so grateful for all they have, and enables them to live with "An Attitude Of Gratitude" for all their blessings. It helps them want to share what they have to offer for the betterment of all. |
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|Bible Research > Interpretation > Inspiration > Hughes on Inspiration|
by Philip Edgcumbe Hughes
Westminster Theological Journal 23/2 (May 1961), pp. 129-151.
The question of the divine inspiration of holy Scripture was scarcely a live issue four hundred years ago, for it was not in dispute. However fierce the debate concerning the precise meaning of certain passages of Scripture, or concerning the scriptural validity of the claims made for the authority of the Church or of ecclesiastical tradition, that the Bible was the inspired Word of God was universally acknowledged. Accordingly, those who turn to the writings of the English Reformers expecting to find works in which the doctrine of the inspiration of holy Scripture is systematically developed or defended will be disappointed. This does not mean, however, that, on the one hand, the principle of the inspiration of holy Scripture was consistently and scrupulously applied by all who acknowledged it (had that been the case, there would have been no need for the Reformation), or, on the other hand, that the Reformers did not have much to say about the Bible and its origin, for of course they did, particularly with a view to the exposure and confutation of error and within the framework of the controversy with the papists over the locus of authority. The purpose of this paper will be to examine the teaching of the English Reformers, allowing them to speak for themselves on this important subject, and then to turn to John Calvin in order to illustrate the Reformed approach to certain problems, if they are such, which present themselves in the course of a detailed study of the biblical text.
Let us hear, then, what the English Reformers have to say.
In the first place, they unhesitatingly believed that God was the primary author of the Bible. Thus in his âExposition upon Nehemiahâ James Pilkington affirms: âScripture cometh not first from man, but from God; and therefore God is to be taken for the author of it, and not manâŠ.God then is the chiefest author of this book [Nehemiah], as he is of the rest of the scripture, and Nehemiah the pen or writer of all these mysteries.â 1 Bishop Hugh Latimer, in his sermon preached before King Edward VI on 8 March 1549, proclaims: âThe excellency of this word is so great, and of so high dignity, that there is no earthly thing to be compared unto it. The author thereof is so great, that is, God himself, eternal, almighty, everlasting. The Scripture, because of him, is also great, eternal, most mighty and holy.â 2 Archbishop Thomas Cranmer exhorts: âLet us stay, quiet, and certify our consciences with the most infallible certainty, truth, and perpetual assurance of them [the Scriptures]. Let us pray to God, the only author of these heavenly studies, that we may speak, think, believe, live, and depart hence according to the wholesome doctrines and verities of themââas indeed this great Archbishop faithfully did in his ministry and martyrdom. 3 And William Whitaker, who was Queenâs Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge, and whose Disputation on Holy Scripture is the one extensive work on the subject of the Bible written by an English Reformer, speaks as follows: âScripture hath for its author God himself; from whom it first proceeded and came forth. Therefore the authority of Scripture may be proved from the author himself, since the authority of God himself shines forth in it.â 4
Together with his fellow-Reformers both at home and abroad, Bishop John Jewel delighted in the definition of the Bible as âthe Word of Godââa definition which is consonant with the conviction that God is its author. âThe scriptures,â he says, âare âthe word of Godâ. What title can there be of greater value? What may be said of them to make them of greater authority, than to say, âThe Lord hath spoken them?â that âthey came not by the will of men, but holy men of God spake as they were moved by the Holy Ghost?ââŠ.The word of the gospel is not as the word of an earthly prince. It is of more majesty than the word of an angelâŠ.For it is the word of the living and almighty God, of the God of hosts, which hath done whatsoever pleased him, both in heaven and in earth. By this word he maketh his will knownâŠ.This word the angels and blessed spirits used, when they came down from heaven, to speak unto the people; when they came to the blessed virgin, and to Joseph, and to others: they spake as it was written in the prophets and in the scriptures of God: they thought not their own authority sufficient, but they took credit to their saying, and authority to their message, out of the word of GodâŠ.Whatsoever truth is brought unto us contrary to the word of God, it is not truth, but falsehood and error: whatsoever honour done unto God disagreeth from the honour required by his word, it is not honour unto God, but blasphemyâŠ.Tyrants, and Pharisees, and heretics, and the enemies of the cross of Christ have an end; but the word of God hath no end. No force shall be able to decay it. The gates of hell shall not prevail against it. Cities shall fall: kingdoms shall come to nothing: empires shall fade away as the smoke; but the truth of the Lord shall continue for ever. Burn it, it will rise again: kill it, it will live again: cut it down by the root, it will spring again.â 5 âThe Word of the Lord is the bush, out of which issueth a flame of fire,â Jewel says again. âThe scriptures of God are the mount, from which the Lord of hosts doth show himself. In them God speaketh to us: in them we hear the words of everlasting life.â 6
As the Word of God, the Scriptures are, of course, the Word of God to man. But the Reformers repeatedly emphasize the truth that it is only through the grace of the internal operation of the Holy Spirit in heart and mind that the message of Scripture can be understood and appropriated. The Divine Spirit is both the author of Scripture and the interpreter of his own Word. âThe scripture speaketh many things as the world speaketh,â William Tyndale, the honoured father of our English Bible instructs us; âbut they may not be worldly understood, but ghostly and spiritually: yea, the Spirit of God only understandeth them; and where he is not, there is not the understanding of the scripture, but unfruitful disputing and brawling about words. The scripture saith, God seeth, God heareth, God smelleth, God walketh, God is with them, God is not with them, God is angry, God is pleased, God sendeth his Spirit, God taketh his Spirit away, and a thousand such like: and yet is none of them true after the worldly manner, and as the words sound.â After citing 1 Cor 2:11f and Rom 8:14 and 9, Tyndale proceeds: âNow âhe that is of God heareth the word of Godâ John viii. And who is of God but he that hath the Spirit of God? Furthermore, saith he, âYe hear it not because ye are not of God;â that is, ye have no lust in the word of God, for ye understand it not; and that because his spirit is not in you. Forasmuch then as the scripture is nothing else but that which the Spirit of God hath spoken by the prophets and apostles, and cannot be understood but of the same Spirit, let every man pray to God to send him his Spirit.â 7
Whitaker enumerates the evidences which, as given by Calvin (Institutes, I, viii), are a testimony to the divine origin of the biblical writings; but then he adds the following admonition. âThese topics may prove that these books are divine, yet will never be sufficient to bring conviction to our souls so as to make us assent, unless the testimony of the Holy Spirit be addedâŠ.In order, therefore, that we should be internally in our consciences persuaded of the authority of Scripture, it is needful that the testimony of the Holy Ghost should be added. And he, as he seals all the doctrines of faith and the whole teaching of salvation in our hearts, and confirms them in our consciences, so also does he give us a certain persuasion that these books, from which are drawn all the doctrines of faith and salvation, are sacred and canonical.â 8 In this assurance too, of course, Whitaker and Calvin are entirely at one with each other. âThe blind cannot perceive even the light of the sun,â says Whitaker again; ânor can they distinguish the splendour of the scriptures, whose minds are not divinely illuminated. But those who have the eyes of faith can behold this light. Besides, if we recognise men when they speak, why should we not also hear and recognise God speaking in his word?âŠBut they [the papists] object that we cannot recognise the voice of God, because we do not hear God speaking. This I deny. For those who have the Holy Spirit, are taught of God: these can recognise the voice of God as much as anyone can recognise a friend, with whom he hath long and familiarly lived, by his voice.â 9
In answer to the objection that âthe Scripture is not the voice of God, but the Word of God; that is, it does not proceed immediately from God, but is delivered mediately to others,â Whitaker offers this comment: âWe confess that God hath not spoken by himself, but by others. Yet this does not diminish the authority of scripture. For God inspired the prophets with what they said, and made use of their mouths, tongues, and hands: the scripture, therefore, is even immediately the voice of God. The prophets and apostles were only the organs of God.â 10 This assertion he supports by citing Heb 1:1 and 2 Pet 1:21.
An important point at issue during the Reformation was the sense in which Scripture should be interpreted (and this, indeed, continues to be a matter of importance). It was the contention of the English Reformers that the only proper sense was that which the Holy Spirit intended, and this they defined as the literal sense (not to be confused with literalism: it is the equivalent of what we today would call the natural sense). This is a principle on which Tyndale insists with particular emphasis. âThe scripture hath but one sense,â he affirms, âwhich is the literal sense. And that literal sense is the root and ground of all, and the anchor that never faileth, whereunto if thou cleave, thou canst never err or go out of the way. And if thou leave the literal sense, thou canst not but go out of the way. Neverthelater, the Scripture useth proverbs, similitudes, riddles, or allegories, as all other speeches do; but that which the proverb, similitude, riddle, or allegory signifieth, is ever the literal sense, which thou must seek out diligently.â 11 The literal sense, he further insists, is at the same time the spiritual sense, as follows from the premise of the divine authorship of Scripture: âGod is a Spirit, and all his words are spiritual. His literal sense is spiritual, and all his words are spiritual.â 12
Whitaker also expresses himself clearly to the same effect. âIt is surely foolish,â he writes, âto say that there are as many senses of scripture as the words themselves may be transferred and accommodated to bear. For although the words may be applied and accommodated tropologically, allegorically, anagogically, or any other way; yet there are not therefore various senses, various interpretations and explications of scripture, but there is but one sense, and that the literal, which may be variously accommodated, and from which various things may be collectedâŠ.The sense of scripture, therefore, is but one,âthe literal; for it is folly to feign many senses, merely because many things follow from the words of scripture rightly understood. These things may indeed, be called corollaries or consequences, flowing from the right understanding of the words, but new and different senses they are by no meansâŠ.It is only from the literal sense that strong, valid, and efficacious arguments can be derivedâŠ.It follows, therefore, that this and no other is the genuine sense of scriptureâŠ.Therefore, tropology, allegory, and anagoge, if they are real meanings, are literal ones. Now the reason why sound arguments are always derived from the literal sense is this, because it is certain that that which is derived from the words themselves is ever the sense of the Holy SpiritâŠ.Since he is the author of the scriptures, it is fit that we should follow him in interpreting scripture.â 13
The question naturally arose (and this, too, is a question of importance for our day no less than it was in the sixteenth century) as to how far credence was to be given to the Church Fathers and their writings. Let Bishop Jewel answer: âWhat say we of the fathers, Augustine, Ambrose, Hierome, Cyprian, &c.? What shall we think of them, or what account may we make of them? They be interpreters of the Word of God. They were learned men, and learned fathers; the instruments of the mercy of God, and vessels full of grace. We despise them not, we read them, we reverence them, and give thanks unto God for them. They were witnesses unto the truth, they were worthy pillars and ornaments in the church of God. Yet they may not be compared with the word of God. We may not build upon them: we may not make them the foundation and warrant of our conscience: we may not put our trust in them. Our trust is in the name of the Lord.â Jewel cites the declaration of Augustine, the greatest of the Fathers, as follows: ââNeither weigh we the writings of all men, be they never so worthy and catholic, as we weigh the canonical scriptures; but that, saving the reverence that is due unto them, we may mislike and refuse somewhat in their writings, if we find that they have taught otherwise than the truth may bear. Such am I in the writings of others, and such would I wish others to be in mineââ (see Augustine, Ep. CXLVIII, ad Fortunatianum). âSome things I believe,â Jewel continues, âand some things which they write I cannot believe. I weigh them not as the holy and canonical scriptures. Cyprian was a doctor of the church, yet he was deceived: Hierome was a doctor of the church, yet he was deceived: Augustine was a doctor of the church, yet he wrote a book of Retractations; he acknowledged that he was deceived.â Jewel adduces further evidence from the writings of the Fathers, and then proceeds: âI could shew many the like speeches of the ancient fathers, wherein they reverence the holy scriptures; as to which only they give consent without gainsaying; which can neither deceive nor be deceived.â 14
âWhat is the cause,â asks Tyndale, âthat we damn some of Origenâs works and allow some? How know we that some is heresy and some not? By the scripture, I trow. How know we that St Augustine (which is the best, or one of the best, that ever wrote upon the scripture) wrote many things amiss at the beginning, as many other doctors do? Verily, by the scriptures; as he himself well perceived afterward, when he looked more diligently upon them, and revoked many things again. He wrote of many things which he understood not when he was newly converted, ere he had thoroughly seen the scriptures, and followed the opinions of Plato, and the common persuasions of manâs wisdom that were then famous.â 15
If the authority of the Fathers must be subject to that of holy Scripture, so also must the authority of the Church. In particular, Scripture is not dependent on the pronouncements of the Church for its authentication, for it is authenticated to every believer by the internal testimony of the Holy Spirit. âWe do not deny,â says Whitaker, âthat it appertains to the church to approve, acknowledge, receive, promulge, commend the scriptures to all its members; and we say that this testimony is true, and should be received by all. We do not, therefore, as the papists falsely say of us, refuse the testimony of the church, but embrace it. But we deny that we believe the scriptures solely on account of this commendation of them by the church. For we say that there is a more certain and illustrious testimony, whereby we are persuaded of the sacred character of these books, that is to say, the internal testimony of the Holy Spirit, without which the commendation of the church would have no weight or moment. The papists, therefore, are unjust to us, when they affirm that we reject and make no account of the authority of the church. For we gladly receive the testimony of the church, and admit its authority; but we affirm that there is a far different, more certain, true, and august testimony than that of the church. The sum of our opinion is, that the Scripture is αÏ
ÏοÏιÏÏοÏ, that is, hath all its authority and credit from itself; is to be acknowledged, is to be received, not only because the church hath so determined and commanded, but because it comes from God, not by the church, but by the Holy Ghost.â 16 And again: âNow that it is in itself the word of God, they [the papists] do not deny, but they say that we cannot be certain of it without the help of the church: they confess that the voice of God sounds in our ears; but they say that we cannot believe it, except upon account of the churchâs approbation. But now, if it be the word of God which we hear, it must needs have a divine authority of itself, and should be believed by itself and for itself.â 17
The Bible is, in fact, the very touchstone of truth, by which the Church, the Fathers, and all traditions must be tested and judged. âThe scripture is the touchstone that trieth all doctrines, and by that we know the false from the true,â asserts Tyndale in his âPrologue to the Book of Genesis.â 18 âThat word,â he says in another of his writings, âis the chiefest of the apostles, and pope, and Christâs vicar, and head of the church, and the head of the general council. And unto the authority of that ought the children of God to hearken without respect of person.â 19 Even in the case of learned and godly-minded men, we are to believe them, admonishes Cranmer, âno further than they can shew their doctrine and exhortation to be agreeable with the true word of God written. For that is the very touchstone which must, yea, and also will, try all doctrine or learning, whatsoever it be, whether it be good or evil, true or false.â 20
There was no question, of course, of Scripture being regarded by the Reformers as a sort of handy philosopherâs yardstick by reference to which, in all mundane affairs, truth might be distinguished from errorâthough it is a cardinal fact that only in its light are we able to attain to the proper perspective of man and the universe in which he finds himself. But the Reformersâ view of Scripture is essentially dynamic and practical, as befits those who genuinely take their place before the Bible as Verbum Dei ad hominem. The Word of God, precisely because it is the Word of God, is living, powerful, penetrating (Heb 4:12). It is integrally bound up with the revelation to fallen man of Godâs redemptive purpose and action in and through our blessed Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. It is indeed a testimony of the Holy Spirit to Christ (cf. in. 5:39, 15:26, 16:13f). âThe scripture,â declares Tyndale in memorable words, âis that wherewith God draweth us unto him. The scriptures spring out of God, and flow unto Christ, and were given to lead us to Christ. Thou must therefore go along by the scripture as by a line, until thou come at Christ, which is the wayâs end and resting-place.â 21 Bishop Jewel speaks of the holy Scriptures as âthe bright sun of God, which bring light unto our ways, and comfort to all parts of our life, and salvation to our souls; in which is made known unto us our estate, and the mercy of God in Christ our Saviour witnessed.â 22
The reformers were not mere academic theologians in retreat! They were in the thick of the battle. They proved for themselves the vitality and faithfulness of Godâs Word in the midst of fierce testing and persecution. The Bible was for them essentially a practical book, relevant to every circumstance of daily life and struggle. Listen to Bishop Jewel speaking with reference to the apostolic affirmation that all Scripture is not only inspired but also profitable (2 Tim 3:16): âMany think the apostleâs speech is hardly true of the whole scripture, that all and every part of the scripture is profitable. Much is spoken of genealogies, and pedigrees, of lepers, of sacrificing goats and oxen, &c.: these seem to have little profit in them, but to be vain and idle. If they shew vain in thine eyes, yet hath not God set them down in vainâŠ.There is no sentence, no clause, no word, no syllable, no letter, but it is written for thy instruction: there is not one jot but it is sealed and signed with the blood of the Lamb. Our imaginations are idle, our thoughts are vain: there is no idleness, no vanity in the word of God. Those oxen and goats which were sacrificed teach thee to kill and sacrifice the uncleanness and filthiness of thy heart: they teach thee that thou art guilty of death, when thy life must be redeemed by the death of some beast: they lead thee to believe the forgiveness of sins by a more perfect sacrifice; because it was not possible that the blood of bulls and goats should take away sins. That leprosy teacheth thee to know the uncleanness and leprosy of thy soul. Those genealogies and pedigrees lead us to the birth of our Saviour Christ. So that the whole word of God is pure and holy: no word, no letter, no syllable, no point or prlck thereof, but is written and preserved for thy sake.â 23
Jewel shows how the Scriptures speak to the condition of and should be heeded by kings, subjects, ministers, fathers, children, the wealthy, the poor, merchants, usurers, fornicators and adulterers, servants, the proud, those in adversity, sinners, those who despair of the mercy of God, and the dyingâin short, all sorts and conditions of men. âTherefore,â he concludes, âhath Paul said well: âThe whole scripture is profitable.â It is full of great comfort. It maketh the man of God absolute, and perfect unto all good works; perfect in faith, perfect in hope, perfect in the love of God and of his neighbour, perfect in his life, and perfect in his death. So great, so large and ample, and heavenly, is the profit which we do reap by the word of God.â 24
Similarly, Pilkington advises us that âthe Holy Ghost, who is the author of the holy scripture, hath not put down any one word in writing, whether in the new testament or in the old, that is either superstitious or unprofitable, though it seem so to many; but it hath his mystery and signification for our learning, and either for the plainness of itâŠor else for the deep mysteries that be hid in it is to be reverenced of all sorts of men, and with diligence and prayer is to be searched out, as far as we may.â 25
âThe holy scriptures,â says Jewel again, âare the mercy-seat, the registry of the mysteries of God, our charter for the life to come, and holy place in which God sheweth himself to the people, and mount Sion where God hath appointed to dwell foreverâŠ.Heaven shall shake: the earth shall tremble; but the man of God shall stand upright. His foot shall not fail: his heart shall not faint: he shall not be moved. Such a ground, such a foundation, such a rock is the word of God.â 26 âScripture is a light,â writes Tyndale, âand sheweth us the true way, both what to do and what to hope for; and a defence from all error, and a comfort in adversity that we despair not, and feareth us in prosperity that we sin notâŠ.As thou readest, therefore, think that every syllable pertaineth to thine own self, and suck out the pith of the scripture, and arm thyself against all assaultsâ 27 âand who is there who has lived more closely with the Word of God or who has known more constantly the need for being armed against all assaults than the godly exile and martyr William Tyndale?
So firmly did the Reformers believe that the Scriptures originated from God that they felt no embarrassment not merely in affirming their infallibility but even in speaking of them as having been dictated by God. Thus Whitaker, for example, alluding to the supposition of Erasmus that the reading âJeremiahâ instead of âZechariahâ in Matt 27:9 was due to a slip of the memory on the Evangelistâs part, says; âIt does not become us to be so easy and indulgent as to concede that such a lapse could be incident to the sacred writers. They wrote as they were moved by the Holy Ghost, as Peter tells us, 2 Pet i.21. And all scripture is inspired of God, as Paul expressly writes, 2 Tim iii.16. Whereas, therefore, no one may say that any infirmity could befall the Holy Spirit, it follows that the sacred writers could not be deceived, or err, in any respect. Here, then, it becomes us to be so scrupulous as not to allow that any such slip can be found in scripture. For, whatever Erasmus may think, it is a solid answer which Augustine gives to Jerome: âIf any, even the smallest, lie be admitted in the scriptures, the whole authority of scripture is presently invalidated and destroyedâ [Ep. XXVIII, to Jerome]. That form which the prophets use so often, âThus saith the Lord,â is to be attributed also to the apostles and evangelists. For the Holy Spirit dictated to them whatever things they wrote.â 28
The picture so far presented of the Reformed view of inspiration is not yet complete, however, and in order to round off this study it is necessary for us to turn to the writings of the great French Reformer John Calvin. I say it is necessary, because the English Reformers were placed in circumstances of theological conflict which scarcely permitted them to turn their attention to the prolonged and laborious task of producing commentaries, verse by verse, on the text of holy Scripture. The detailed exegesis in which they engaged was in the main confined to the explication of those passages which were at the centre of their dispute with Romeâsuch, for example, as the interpretation of the words, âThis is My Body,â spoken by Christ at the institution of the sacrament of Holy Communion. I should not wish to contend that Calvin was less harassed by circumstances or less closely involved in ecclesiastical conflict than were the English Reformers: but he was a man who not only had from the time of his conversion set before himself the task of composing commentaries on the books of the Bible, but who also because of his phenomenal intellectual capacities (and the English Reformers were no pygmies) may justly be described as stupor mundi. The question which I wish now to investigate is that of the manner in which the principles, so plainly and emphatically enunciated by the English Reformers in respect of holy Scripture, worked out when applied to the text itself, and especially when applied to certain places or passages which might appear to offer problems and perplexities to men who held so full-blooded a view of inspiration as did the Reformers.
Before doing so, however, let us be fully assured that Calvinâs view of inspiration differed not at all from that of the English Reformers. He, no less than they, held that Scripture is the very Word of God, so much so that he too did not scruple to speak of it as having been dictated by the Holy Spirit. âThis is a principle which distinguishes our religion from all others,â he comments on 2 Tim 3:16, âthat we know that God has spoken to us, and are fully convinced that the prophets did not speak at their own suggestion, but that, being organs of the Holy Spirit, they only uttered what they had been commissioned from heaven to declare. Whoever then wishes to profit in the Scriptures, let him, first of all, lay down this as a settled point, that the Law and the Prophets are not a doctrine delivered according to the will and pleasure of men, but dictated bv the Holy Spirit.â
Again, writing on 2 Pet 1:20, he expresses his judgment as follows: âI think that the simpler meaning of Peterâs statement is that Scripture is not of men, or by the initiative of men. You will never come to it well prepared to read it unless you bring reverence, obedience, and teachableness with you. But reverence comes from the knowledge that it is God who speaks to us and not mortal men. Therefore Peter in the first place urges us to believe without doubting that the prophecies are Godâs oracles; which means that they were not set in motion by menâs own action. What comes next means the same thing. The holy men spoke as they were moved by the Spirit of God; that is, they did not babble out fables, moved by their own impulse and as they willed. In short, the first step in right understanding is that we believe the holy prophets of God as we do him. The Apostle calls them âholy men of Godâ because they performed faithfully the task which was laid upon them; and in this service they were surrogates for the person of God. Peter says they were âmovedâ, not because they were bereft of their own minds (as the Gentiles imagined their prophets to have been during their âenthusiasmâ), but because they did not dare to say anything of their own. They followed the Holy Spirit as their guide and obeyed him to such an extent that their mouths became his temple and he ruled in them.â So also in his exegesis of Psalm 8 Calvin declares that it was the Holy Spirit âwho directed Davidâs tongue.â
What could be more definite than Calvinâs assertion, with respect to the Apostleâs statement that all Scripture is God-breathed (2 Tim 3:16), that âwe owe to the Scripture the same reverence which we owe to God; because it has proceeded from him alone, and has nothing belonging to man mixed with itâ?
No less than the English Reformers, Calvin taught that it is only by the internal testimony of the Holy Spirit that a man may understand and obey holy Scripture. âThe same SpiritâŠwho made Moses and the prophets certain of their calling,â he says, ânow also testifies to our hearts, that he has employed them as his servants to instruct us. Accordingly, we need not wonder if there are many who doubt as to the Author of the Scripture; for, although the majesty of God is displayed in it, yet none but those who have been enlightened by the Holy Spirit have eyes to perceive what ought, indeed, to have been visible to all, and yet is visible to the elect aloneâ (idem).
No less, again, than the English Reformers, Calvin held that Scripture is essentially practical in its purpose and that its primary function is to direct sinful men to Christ. âWe ought to believe,â he comments on John 5:39, âthat Christ cannot be properly known in any other way than from the Scriptures; and if it be so, it follows that we ought to read the Scriptures with the express design of finding Christ in them. Whoever shall turn aside from this object, though he may weary himself throughout his whole life in learning, will never attain the knowledge of the truth; for what wisdom can we have without the wisdom of God?â And, regarding Paulâs declaration of the profitableness of all Scripture (2 Tim 3:16), he says that it âcontains a perfect rule of a good and happy lifeâŠ.Hence it follows, that it is unlawful to treat it in an unprofitable manner; for the Lord, when he gave us the Scriptures, did not intend either to gratify our curiosity, or to encourage ostentation, or to give occasion for chatting and talking, but to do us good; and, therefore, the right use of Scripture must always tend to what is profitable.â
There are many today who, on hearing such words as I have cited from Calvin and his fellow-Reformers in England, would immediately and scornfully dismiss the Reformers as bibliolaters and obscurantists, or (to use another fashionable word) âfundamentalists.â But the great leaders and moulders of the Reformation, in Britain and on the Continent, must not be summarily written off in this manner. Let us not forget the sort of men they were and the great things they achieved on the basis of these principles that they held to be so vital. They were men of exceptional intelligence, candour, and scholarship, whose study of the Scriptures was marked by both depth and integrity. Above all, they were men of profound spirituality whose livesâmind as well as heartâhad been radically transformed by the Good News of Jesus Christ which they had found set before them in no other place than in the Bible. When they spoke of the internal testimony of the Holy Spirit within the believer to the divine inspiration of Scripture, they were speaking of what they had themselves experienced, as well as of what the Bible taught about itself. Those critical souls who do not know this internal witness of the Spirit as a truth of their own experience should earnestly question within themselves whether they are in fact qualified to pronounce against this teaching.
But, if there is what may be called a certain real âdivinityâ of holy Scripture, there is also what may be called a certain real âhumanityâ of holy Scripture. There is evidence at times of âhumanâ weakness. The biblical authors, on the human side, were not mere âtypewriters.â They were not (as we have already heard Calvin say) âbereft of their own minds.â It was as men, frail and imperfect, with all their diverse characteristics of temperament, personality, and style, that they functioned under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. Calvin does not attempt to sidestep or gloss over such weaknesses as may be apparent in what they wrote. Indeed, they leave him singularly unworried; for there can be no question of their being a reflection of weakness on the part of the Holy Spirit or a frustration of the purpose of inspiration.
Let us take a few examples from the commentaries.
1. Godâs Word is addressed to all men everywhere, and accordingly he speaks in a manner that all can understand. âMany hold the Gospel in less estimation,â says Calvin, commenting on John 3:12, âbecause they do not find in it highsounding words to fill their ears, and on this account do not deign to bestow their attention on a doctrine so low and mean. But it shows an extraordinary degree of wickedness that we yield less reverence to God speaking to us, because he condescends to our ignorance; and, therefore, when God prattles to us in Scripture in a rough and popular style, let us know that this is done on account of the love which he bears to us.â
2. The quotations by the Apostles from the Old Testament are seldom verbatim, but free and ad sensum (and especially according to the ampler sense of their fulfilment in the sphere of the New Covenant); for it is not the words by themselves, but what they teach, that matters. Referring to Ps 8:5 and its quotation in Heb 2:7, Calvin writes: âWe know what freedoms the apostles took in quoting texts of Scripture; not, indeed, to wrest them to a different meaning from the true one, but because they reckoned it sufficient to show, by a reference to Scripture, that what they taught was sanctioned by the word of God, although they did not quote the precise words. Accordingly, they never had any hesitation in changing the words, provided the substance of the text remained unchanged.â And again, with reference to the quotation of Mic 5:2 in Matt 2:6, he says: âOne must always notice that when the apostles quote a scriptural testimony they do not give it word for word, and sometimes depart quite far from its language; they nevertheless accommodate it in a fitting and proper way to their own purpose. Let the readers always keep in mind the purpose of the Evangelists in bringing forward passages of Scripture, so that they will not insist upon dwelling upon mere words, but will be content with the fact that the Evangelists never twist Scripture into a false meaning, but apply it properly to a genuine use.â
3. The biblical writers are not concerned always to speak in terms of the strictest scientific accuracy, but phenomenally, that is, in accordance, quite legitimately, with the appearance of things to the ordinary observer. âIt would have been lost time for David to have attempted to teach the secrets of astronomy to the rude and unlearnedâ comments Calvin on Ps 19:4; âand therefore he reckoned it sufficient to speak in a homely style, that he might reprove the whole world of ingratitude, if, in beholding the sun, they are not taught the fear and the knowledge of GodâŠ.He does not here discourse scientifically (as he might have done, had he spoken among philosophers) concerning the entire revolution which the sun performs, but, accommodating himself to the rudest and dullest, he confines himself to the ordinary appearances presented to the eye.â And with reference to Ps 136:7 he writes: âMoses calls the sun and moon the two great lights, and there is little doubt that the Psalmist here borrows the same phraseology. What is immediately added about the stars is, as it were, accessory to the others. It is true that the other planets are larger than the moon, but it is stated as second in order on account of its visible effects. The Holy Spirit had no intention to teach astronomy; and, in proposing instruction meant to be common to the simplest and most uneducated persons, he made use by Moses and the other prophets of popular language, that none might shelter himself under the pretext of obscurityâŠ.Accordingly, as Saturn though bigger than the moon is not so to the eye owing to his greater distance, the Holy Spirit would rather speak childishly than unintelligibly to the humble and unlearned.â (See also comments on Gen 1:13ff; Ps 148:3; Jer 31:35.) I should wish to emphasize, however, that a description which is phenomenal, from the point of view of the observer, naive though it may seem to the astronomer, is neither unscientific nor untrue.
4. Nor are the biblical authors always concerned to set down things in precise chronological sequence. Thus Calvin observes, in his commentary on Ps 51:9, that âin Scripture, it is well known, things are not always stated according to the strict order of time in which they occurred.â This is illustrated, for example, in the difference between Matthewâs and Lukeâs accounts of the sequence of our Lordâs temptations in the wilderness. Both cannot be correct. But the precise sequence is of no religious significance, and is immaterial to the spiritual teaching which the records are designed to convey (cf. Heb 2:18, 4:15). âIt is not of great importance,â says Calvin, commenting on Matt 4:5, âthat Lukeâs narrative makes that temptation to be the second which Matthew places as the third: for it was not the intention of the Evangelists to arrange the history in such a manner, as to preserve, on all occasions, the exact order of time, but to draw up an abridged narrative of the events, so as to present, as in a mirror or picture, those things which are most necessary to be known concerning Christ. Let it suffice for us to know, that Christ was tempted in three ways. The question which of these contests was the second, and which the third, need not give us much trouble or uneasiness.â (See also comments on Matt 13:12 and 16.)
5. A difference, again, such as that between Acts 7:14, which states that Jacob came down to Egypt with seventy-five souls, and Gen 46:27, which gives the number as seventy, may well, in Calvinâs opinion, be due to a copyistâs error over a single letter in the original; but, whatever its cause, it in no way affects the religious significance, which points to the power and providence of God. âI think,â comments Calvin (on Acts 7:14), âthat this difference came through the error of the writers which wrote out the booksâŠ.This, so small a number, is purposely expressed, to the end that the power of God may the more plainly appear, in so great an enlarging of that kindred, which was of no long continuanceâŠ.We ought rather to weigh the miracle which the Spirit commendeth unto us in this place, than to stand long about one letter, whereby the number is altered.â Calvin may, of course, be right, but I would suggest that the problem may be resolved even more simply by concluding that either one or both of the numbers should be understood as round figures rather than as precise enumerations.
6. The question also arises of what appear to be definite mistakes in the text. Take, for instance, the attribution to Jeremiah of the quotation found in Matt 27:9, in connection with which the differing views of Erasmus and Whitaker have already been heard. Calvin comments as follows: âHow the name of Jeremiah crept in, I confess that I do not know, nor do I give myself much trouble to inquire. The passage itself plainly shows that the name of Jeremiah has been put down by mistake instead of Zechariah (xi.13), for in Jeremiah we find nothing of this sort, nor any thing that even approaches to it.â The Reformer may, however, have been rather too hasty in his judgment that in Jeremiah there occurs nothing that even approaches to the quotation which Matthew gives, for, while the main reference would seem to be to Zech 11:13, yet, as modern scholars have pointed out, there are passages in Jeremiah which are not wholly unrelated in theme and appropriateness (such as Jer 18:2, 19:1, 11, and 32:7ff), and which the Evangelist may have had in mind at this point.
7. There are, of course, parts of Scripture that are not clear and easy to understand. But as we persevere in the study of the Bible, so our perception of its meaning will increase and its difficulties will diminish. Calvin cites the example of the Ethiopian eunuch, who did not comprehend the passage he was reading (Acts 8:28): âThough he were ignorant of many things, yet was he not wearied, so that he cast away the book. Thus must we also read the Scriptures. We must greedily, and with a prompt mind, receive those things which are plain, and wherein God openeth his mind. As for those things which are hid from us, we must pass them over until we see greater light. And if we be not wearied with reading, it shall at length come to pass that the Scripture shall be made more familiar by continual use.â
It is important to notice that Calvin was in no way embarrassed or disconcerted by the difficulties and problems that from time to time confront the student of holy Scripture. In comparison with the comprehensive power and purpose of Godâs Word they are matters of small moment; reasonable explanations may generally be suggested for their occurrence; and, in particular, they cannot possibly undermine the unshakable testimony of the Holy Spirit in every believing heart to the inspiration and authority of that Word. There is no doubt in my mind that the English Reformers and Calvin, who were at one in their doctrine of Scripture, were also at one in their use of it.
Holy Scripture is a sacred mystery, divine in its origin and human in its mediation. Its inspiration is not a process to be analysed, but a fact to be known and experienced as the saving truth it reveals is imprinted on the heart and mind of the believer by its own divine author. The nature of the mystery that is Scripture may be illustrated by reference to the still more wonderful mystery of the theanthropic person of Jesus Christ, the incarnate Son, who at the same time is both God and man. Can this Son of Man who knows hunger and thirst and fatigue, yes, and death, be in truth the almighty and pre-existent Son of God? Is it really possible for human weakness and divine power to be brought together? Yes, for he is also the risen, victorious, and glorified Lord; and by that same inner certification of the Holy Spirit, which seals the testimony of the Scriptures, we know, unassailably, and we confess that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of the living God. The humanity of the incarnate Son does not and cannot annul his deity. Nor can it detract from or diminish his deity. Deity is an absolute category. It does not admit of degrees of more or less. The deity of Christ is at all times full and unimpaired. And so too (though of course in a quite different category) the Bible is the very Word of God. Its â humanityâ does not annul or diminish its âdivinity.â Its âweaknessesâ do not contradict its strength and, especially, its dynamic ability to make us wise unto salvation through faith in the Saviour it proclaims.
The Bible is an organic whole, a corpus (but not a corpse). Like the human body, some of its parts are less comely than others, but all have a specific function to perform within the whole. Some parts may even be removed without destroying its organic functionâthough not without maiming the body and impairing the harmony of the whole. Other parts are absolutely indispensable, just as the head and the heart and many other organs are essential to the life of the human body. Whatever their relative importance, all the parts belong together and have need of each other.
I would venture to suggest that there are three dangers which we should be careful to avoid. There is, firstly, the danger, particularly in the specialized fields of scholarship, of treating the Bible as a corpse to be dissected and classified, instead of as the living Word of God to be heeded and obeyed. In saying this, however, there is no desire to depreciate the tremendous debt which, in biblical studies, is owed to modern scholarship. There is, secondly, the danger of treating the Bible like an embalmed body to be preserved intact, in a sort of perfection of death, as though it were a sacred and magical relic, the emblem of an orthodoxy without the Spirit. And, thirdly, there is the danger of robbing the Bible of its mysteryâa mystery which belongs to Godâby presuming to offer a quasi-rational (that is, humanly comprehensible) explanation of the âmechanicsâ of inspiration; just as there is a constant temptation to imagine that the ineffable mystery of the dual nature of our Lordâs theanthropic person can be rationalized and âmade respectable.â We must not be afraid to let the Bible live, as it is and in its own right, unimpeded by our apologies and hesitations. What have we to fear if by the ineluctable witness of the Holy Spirit it is sealed to our hearts as the veritable dynamic Word of the Living God?
The manner in which we approach and handle the Bible should be determined by the example of Christ himself, for, as the Christiansâ Lord and God, himself the Truth and the Light of the world, his example is absolutely authoritative for us. The attitude of him who is the incarnate Word to the testimony of the written Word is entirely clear. And in the issue concerning the inspiration of Scripture it is nothing less than the supreme and inerrant Lordship of Christ that is at stake. Of the inspiration and infallibility of Scripture neither he nor his apostles had any doubts. They wielded it lustily and frontally as a sword, and without apology. The apostles cannot, however, be saddled with a âtypewriterâ view of inspiration, for had that been their belief the liberties they took in quoting from the Old Testament Scriptures would have been reprehensible. And when we find the Reformers of the sixteenth century speaking of âdictation,â we must understand that they are referring to the Godward as distinct from the manward aspect of inspiration, or, in other words, that they are emphasizing the sovereign action of almighty God in the giving of holy Scripture, not suggesting that the apostles and prophets were mere impersonal puppets when they uttered or wrote the words of Scripture.
âLet itâŠbe held as fixed,â says Calvin in a notable passage, âthat those who are inwardly taught by the Holy Spirit acquiesce implicitly, in Scripture; that Scripture carrying its own evidence along with it, deigns not to submit to proofs and arguments, but owes the full conviction with which we ought to receive it to the testimony of the Spirit. Enlightened by him, it is no longer on our own judgment or that of others that we believe the Scriptures to be from God; but in a way superior to human judgment, feel perfectly assuredâas much as if we beheld the divine image visibly impressed on itâthat it came to us, by the instrumentality of men, from the very mouth of God. We ask not for proofs or probabilities on which to rest our judgment, but we subject our intellect ind judgment to it as too transcendent for us to estimate. This, however, we do, not in the manner in which some are accustomed to fasten on an unknown object, which, as soon as known, displeases, but because we have a thorough conviction that, in holding it, we hold unassailable truth.â 29
Finally, let me quote once again that unforgettable saying of William Tyndale concerning the purpose of the Bible: âThe scripture is that wherewith God draweth us unto him. The scriptures spring out of God, and flow unto Christ, and were given to lead us to Christ. Thou must therefore go along by the scripture as by a line, until thou come at Christ, which is the wayâs end and resting-place.â
1. Works (Parker Society [hereafter P.S.] edition), pp. 286f.
2. Sermons (P.S.), p. 85.
3. âA Faithful Exhortation to the Reading and Knowledge of Holy Scripture,â ad fin., in Homilies.
4. Op. cit. (P.S.) p. 289.
5. âA Treatise of the Holy Scripturesâ in Works (P.S.), IV, pp. 1163ff.
6. Ibid., p. 1188.
7. âThe Parable of the Wicked Mammonâ in Doctrinal Treatises (P.S.) p. 88.
8. Op. cit., pp. 294f.
9. Ibid., p. 290.
10. Ibid., p. 296.
11. âThe Obedience of a Christian Manâ in Doctrinal Treatises (P.S.), p. 304.
12. Ibid., p. 309.
13. Op. cit., pp. 405, 408ff.
14. Op. cit., pp. 1173f.
15. âThe Obedience of a Christian Manâ in Doctrinal Treatises (P.S.), p. 154.
16. Op. cit., pp. 279f.
17. Ibid., p. 290.
18. Doctrinal Treatises (P.S.), p. 398.
19. âThe Practice of Prelatesâ in Works (P.S.), II, p. 333.
20. âA Confutation of Unwritten Veritiesâ in Miscellaneous Writings and Letters (P.S.), p. 14.
21. âThe Obedience of a Christian Manâ in Doctrinal Treatises (P.S.), p. 317.
22. Op. cit., p. 1163.
23. Op. cit., p. 1175.
24. Ibid., p. 1177.
25. Op. cit., p. 370.
26. Op. cit., pp. 1166, 1172f.
27. Doctrinal Treatises (P.S.), pp. 399f.
28. Op. cit., pp. 37f.
29. Institutes, I, vii, 5.
The Rev. Philip Edgecumbe Hughes (d. 1990) was Visiting Professor at Westminster Theological Seminary, Philadelphia, and Associate Rector of St. John's Episcopal Church in Huntington Valley, Pennsylvania. He served as president of the Evangelical Fellowship in the Anglican Communion from 1961 to 1974. He was the author of several books, including Theology of the English Reformers, Commentary on II Corinthians, But for the Grace of God, and Confirmation in the Church Today.
|Bible Research > Interpretation > Inspiration > Hughes on Inspiration| |
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The government has undertaken 13 mega coal-based power projects in cooperation with China, Japan, India, Malaysia, South Korea and Singapore. The construction of 1,200MW coal-fired power plant at Matarbari is expected to go into operation by 2023. On the other hand, work is going on to set up a 1320 MW power plant at Rampal in Bagerhat.
Coal Mill Power Plant. Settlement agreement reached on coal ash at Mill Creek . Mill Creek is a four-unit coal plant with a . POWER Engineers Inc. was picked as the Owner''s Engineer for a 300-MW super-critical coal-fired expansion power .
Coal Mill In Power Plant--zenith is the best of coal mill supplier,maker Power plant basics â scribd summer engineering internship presentation on steam thermal power plant (panki),kanpur.
Coal burns hotter than wood and was, at the time, relatively easy to extract from various places around the world. The first coal-fired electrical power plant was built in 1884. In a coal-fired power plant, coal burns to heat water, which creates steam, which drives a dynamo, which generates electricity.
The coal fired thermal power plant susceptible to a wide range of hazards in its various operational areas. Hazard identification and risk ... coal bunker and send it to the ball mill or roll mill for pulverization process. Where coal crushed to the fine powder and mixed with .
Sep 17, 2017· Today we will learn about thermal power plant, its main components along with working and its advantages and disadvantages. Steamcturbine power plant which is sometime known as coal based power plant or thermal power plant, is a major source of electrical energy for any country. This power plant basically runs on Rankine Cycle.
However even if they never build another coal fired power station, current capacity of (973,000 MW is close to half the world''s total and dwarfs Australia''s 22,000 MW capacity. And if they do go ahead with more coal mines and power plants, they may no longer need to buy coal from Australia and all coal mining could cease .
Sep 29, 2017· Two recently published papers explore cofiring wood pellets with coal at U.S. power plants. If the U.S. wants to begin replacing coal with wood pellets at power plants, the government must provide incentives similar to the ones that solar and wind currently receive, according to University of Georgia researchers.
CO Measurement in Coal Fired Plants Download (265 KB) Background Information. ... Coal fired power plants can achieve the highest efficiency, lowest emission levels, and ensure safety by using CO concentration measurements to fine tune their excess O 2 setpoint. These benefits are achievable only if the CO measurement is accurate and reliable.
Coal Mills Of Power Plant; Pulverizer Wikipedia OverviewTypes of coal pulverizersBeater wheel millHammer millDemolition pulverizer A pulverizer or grinder is a mechanical device for the grinding of many different types of materials. For example, a pulverizer puritch is used to pulverize coal for combustion in the steam-generating furnaces of fossil fuel power plants.
Application Of Coal Mill In Power Plant application of coal mill in power plant In a coal based power plant coal is transported from coal mines to the power plant by railway in wagons or in a merrygoround system Pulverizer Wikipedia A pulverizer or grinder is a mechanical device for the grinding of many different types of materials.
Coal Mill In Power Plantsouth Africa Impact Crusher. An important role. at present, sbm large vertical coal mill power plant is widely used in coal grinding and processing of various coal resources in shanxi, xinjiang, inner mongolia, shaanxi, ningxia, guizhou, sichuan, metallurgy, electric power, cement and .
How a Coal-fired Plant Works. Coal is ground into a fine powder and then burned in a boiler to produce steam. Steam spins the turbine, turning the generator and producing electricity. The steam is cooled in a condenser with water from a nearby river or lake. The cooled steam turns into water and is returned to the boiler to be used again.
We have supplied vertical roller mills (VRM) for raw, coal, slag and cement grinding for several decades. The vertical roller mill is well known in the cement and power plant industries as the preferred mill for grinding of raw materials. It is increasingly used as a solution for efficient grinding.
Electronic Application of Kentucky Utilities Company D/B/A Old Dominion Power Company for an Adjustment of Electric Base Rates Standards of Conduct How to Report a Potential Violation of the Standards of Conduct
The generation aspect is at the foremost of the chain and it is realized with the help of power plants. A set of equipments utilized to produce electrical power in large quantities (usually hundreds - thousands of MW) is called a generating station or a power plant. Such a power plant will convert one form of energy (nuclear, thermal, hydro ...
Apr 30, 2019· The largest of New Jersey''s remaining coal-fired power plants is going offline for good this week. On Wednesday, the B.L. England plant in Upper Township will be .
Increasing the flexibility of coal-fired power plants . Colin Henderson . September 2014 ... IEA Clean Coal Centre â Increasing the flexibility of coal-fired power plants 3 . Abstract Increasingly, coal-fired power plants are required to balance power grids by compensating for ... of coal-fired plants (Mills.
25 Michigan coal plants are set to retire by 2020. ... "So by 2030, our rough scenario is probably only Monroe will be remaining," Boyd said, referring to DTE''s coal-fired Monroe Power Plant.
To determine which is worse for the environment, be aware of other pollutants released by coal-fired electric power plants and gasoline use. Coal-burning power plants and gasoline combustion both ...
Fernandina Beach - WestRock Coal Power Plant ... Category: Fossil Fuels Energy Last Updated on 08 May 2019 Type: Coal Power Plant Area: Florida Kind of Fuel: Bituminous Coal, Wood Waste Solids, Residual Fuel Oil, Black Liquor Power Capacity: 118 MW (1 x 44 MW, Wood Waste Solids) (1 x 74 MW, Coal) Owner: WestRock - Fernandina Beach Mill
Dust control systems in coal handling plant: Thermal power plants (coal-fired power plants) use coal as their fuel. To handle the coal, each power station is equipped with a coal handling plant. The coal has to be sized, processed, and handled which should be done effectively and efficiently.
Jun 09, 2013· MILLS IN A THERMAL POWER STATION PART -I Since last 91 post i have discussed various aspect of thermal power plant .Mainly i have written my experience on civil, mechanical, boiler etc. In boiler I have discussed about structural,pressure ... EFFECTS OF COAL ELEMENT ON MILL CHOICE AND SIZING. MOISTURE - More hot air is required to dry the ...
coal mill at power plant area | mining crusher equipment. This page gives you details about coal mill at power plant area from Shanghai,China.Coal Mill Department of Control Engineering In coal-fired power plants coal mills are used to pulverize and dry to coal before it is blown into the power plant .
Coal Mill In Power Plant With Images â Gold Ore Crusher. Coal Mill In Power Plant With Images. The is the professional Gold Mining Equipments manufacturer in the world, located in China,India, along with other Asian .
316 Coal Power Plant jobs available on Indeed. Apply to Plant Operator, Mining Engineer, ... Deep South provides services to clients such as coal fired power plants, paper mills, ... 106mw natural gas power plant - converted from coal in 2017.
Dec 11, 1979· Power plant boiler fuel demand is transmitted as a coal feeder speed demand to a coal pulverizer control. A speed controller operates the feeder in accordance with the speed demand, and a position controller for a hot coal transport air damper positions the hot air damper to hold the mill outlet temperature to a setpoint value and to increase or decrease damper position in accordance with a ...
coal mills in a power plant coal mill in power plant manufacturer in Shanghai, China. coal mill in power plant is manufactured from Shanghai Xuanshi,It is the main mineral processing solutions. Chat Now; Coal mill pulverizer in thermal power plants Transcript of "Coal mill pulverizer in thermal power plants" 1.
A mother ship approximately 5 km at sea transports the coal to the jetty. While each ship has the capacity to bring in 65,000 Metric Tons of coal, 114 Metric tons of coal is needed per hour for a 300 MW power plant. A environmentally friendly Coal storage facility has been constructed with storage capacity for 3 .
May 23, 2019· Finding New Opportunity For Old Coal-Fired Power Plant Sites Coal-fired power plants keep closing, and communities around the country must decide what to .
Our Pennsylvania Crusher brand TKK Koal-King® Granulator is the most widely used Granulator in the world. It is used to crush limestone, coal, gypsum, and other friable materials in power plants, mines, cement plants and other applications. As with all Pennsylvania Crusher equipment, its reduction capability and performance are unmatched. |
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1. Introduction. 2. Regional Groundwater Flow Modelling. Scope of application. Phenomena to be considered and basic equations of flow. 3. Numerical Methods for the Solution of the Flow Equation. Analytical solutions of the flow equation and limits to their application. Difference method. Finite element method. 4. Parameter Estimation. Parameter identification in pumping tests. Estimation of groundwater recharge from precipitation. Parameter identification by calibration of the numerical model. 5. The Groundwater Management Problem. Formulation of the optimization problem. The simplex-algorithm. 6. Regional Pollutant Transport Models. Scope of application. Phenomena to be considered and basic equations. 7. Methods for Solving the Transport Equation. Analytical solutions. Dispersion-free approximation. Difference method. Finite element method. Method of characteristics. The random-walk method. Applicability of transport models. Appendices.
With the growing concern about groundwater resources both with respect to quantity and quality, the need for groundwater modelling tools is increasing. Although there are a number of excellent introductions to the concepts of groundwater flow and pollution transport, the student or practising engineer wishing to develop a model and do practical work on the computer finds that there is still a gap between the understanding of concepts and the ability to handle the actual computations. A great deal of groundwater modelling software for personal computers and microcomputers has appeared recently, but taking these models from the shelf and applying them without a background on their capabilities often leads to disappointment and frustration.
This book provides the reader with all necessary details to start modelling on his own. It gives a comprehensive introduction to the major techniques currently used in the modelling of groundwater flow and pollutant transport in groundwater. Both self-contained and comprehensive, it presents a wide variety of methods currently applied in the management, protection, and remediation of groundwater resources, which allows the reader to take the step from understanding the concepts to the ability to handle actual computations. All major techniques are illustrated by a total of 19 sample programs in BASIC which can be modified by the reader to suit his own need. The programs can be run directly on an Apple II+ or compatible personal computer, and with slight modifications, most can be transferred to other microcomputers with BASIC capability and at least 48K of central memory. The necessary modifications for running the programs on an IBM-PC are indicated in the appendix.
Students and professionals in the fields of hydrogeology and civil and environmental engineering will find this to be an extremely useful book. Knowledge of the basic concepts of hydrogeology is assumed and, starting from that basis, the book will enable them to understand mathematical groundwater models and write computer programs of their own.
- No. of pages:
- © Elsevier Science 1986
- 1st January 1986
- Elsevier Science
- eBook ISBN:
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"Pain ladder", or analgesic ladder, is a concept originated by the World Health Organization (WHO) to describe its guideline for the use of drugs in the management of pain. It was originally applied to the management of cancer pain, but is now widely used by medical professionals for the management of all types of pain.
The general principle is to start with first step drugs, and then to climb the ladder if pain is still present. The medications range from household, over-the-counter drugs with minimal side-effects at the lowest rung, to powerful opioids.
The WHO guidelines recommend prompt oral administration of drugs when pain occurs, starting, if the patient is not in severe pain, with non-opioid drugs such as paracetamol (acetaminophen), dipyrone, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or COX-2 inhibitors. Then, if complete pain relief is not achieved or disease progression necessitates more aggressive treatment, a mild opioid such as codeine phosphate, dextropropoxyphene, dihydrocodeine or Tramadol are added to the existing non-opioid regime. If this is or becomes insufficient, a mild opioid is replaced by a stronger opioid, such as morphine, diamorphine (heroin), fentanyl, buprenorphine, oxymorphone, oxycodone, hydromorphone, while continuing the non-opioid therapy, escalating opioid dose until the patient is pain free or at the maximum possible relief without intolerable side effects. If the initial presentation is severe pain, this stepping process should be skipped and a strong opioid should be started immediately in combination with a non-opioid analgesic.
Bottom rung of ladder (mild pain): Non opioid +/- adjuvant
Middle rung of ladder (moderate pain): Weak opioid +/- non opioid +/- adjuvant
Highest rung of ladder (severe pain): Strong opioid +/- non opioid +/- adjuvant
The usefulness of the second step (mild opioid) is being debated in the clinical and research communities. Some authors challenge the pharmacological validity of the step and, pointing to their higher toxicity and low efficacy, argue that a mild opioid, with the possible exception of Tramadol due to its unique action, could be replaced by smaller doses of a strong opioid.
Not all pain yields completely to classic analgesics, and drugs that are not traditionally considered analgesics, but which reduce pain in some cases, such as steroids or bisphosphonates, may be employed concurrently with analgesics at any stage. Tricyclic antidepressants, class I antiarrhythmics, or anticonvulsants are the drugs of choice for neuropathic pain. Up to 90 percent of cancer patients, immediately preceding death, use such adjuvants. Many adjuvants carry a significant risk of serious complications.
- WHO guidelines:
- World Health Organization (1996). Cancer pain relief. With a guide to opioid availability (2 ed.). Geneva: WHO. ISBN 92-4-154482-1.
- World Health Organization (1998). Cancer pain relief and palliative care in children. Geneva: WHO. ISBN 978-92-4-154512-9.
- Schug SA & Auret K. Clinical pharmacology: Principles of analgesic drug management. In: Sykes N, Bennett MI & Yuan C-S. Clinical pain management: Cancer pain. 2nd ed. London: Hodder Arnold; 2008. ISBN 978-0-340-94007-5. p. 104â22. |
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Traveling long distances can be expensive, but not everyone has the budget to fly or drive. Greyhound Lines is a long-standing intercity bus service that has been providing affordable travel options to people in North America for over 100 years. Greyhound Lines connects cities and towns throughout the United States and Canada, offering a wide range of schedules and ticket prices to fit every budget. In this article, we will explore how Greyhound Lines makes intercity transportation accessible, and how it is an affordable option for budget-conscious travelers.
History of Greyhound Lines
Greyhound Lines was founded in 1914 in Hibbing, Minnesota, by Carl Eric Wickman, who saw an opportunity to transport miners from Hibbing to Alice, Minnesota, for a fare of 15 cents. Greyhound Lines quickly expanded throughout the Midwest, and by 1929, the company had a nationwide network of routes. In the 1940s and 1950s, Greyhound Lines became a popular way to travel across the United States, as the interstate highway system was built.
In the 1980s and 1990s, Greyhound Lines faced competition from low-cost airlines and discount car rental companies, which led to a decline in ridership. However, Greyhound Lines adapted to the changing travel landscape by introducing new services, such as Greyhound Express, which offers non-stop service between major cities, and Greyhound Connect, which provides bus connections to rural areas.
Today, Greyhound Lines is still a major player in the intercity transportation industry, providing affordable travel options to millions of people every year.
One of the biggest advantages of Greyhound Lines is its affordability. Greyhound Lines offers a range of ticket prices to fit every budget, from economy to premium. Economy fares are the most affordable, with prices starting at just a few dollars. These fares are great for budget-conscious travelers who want to save money on transportation costs. However, the cheapest fares come with some limitations, such as no refunds or exchanges, and limited baggage allowances.
Premium fares are more expensive but come with added benefits, such as extra legroom, priority boarding, and refunds or exchanges. Greyhound Lines also offers discounts for students, military personnel, and seniors. These discounts can help further reduce the cost of travel.
In addition to the affordable ticket prices, Greyhound Lines also offers a range of promotions and deals throughout the year. Passengers can sign up for the Greyhound Lines email newsletter to receive exclusive discounts and promotions. Greyhound Lines also offers a rewards program called Road Rewards, which allows passengers to earn points for every trip they take. These points can be redeemed for free tickets, discounts on future trips, and more.
Greyhound Lines has an extensive network of routes that connects cities and towns throughout the United States and Canada. Greyhound Lines offers over 3,800 destinations, and the company operates over 16,000 daily departures. Greyhound Lines buses travel on major highways and through urban and rural areas, making it easy to reach even the most remote destinations. Greyhound Lines also offers express services that travel non-stop between major cities, such as New York City and Washington, D.C.
Greyhound Linesâ route network makes it an ideal choice for people who need to travel long distances on a budget. Greyhound Lines can take passengers to destinations that may not be served by other modes of transportation, such as remote towns and national parks.
Greyhound Lines buses are generally comfortable and provide a range of amenities that make long journeys more bearable. Greyhound Linesâ buses have reclining seats with footrests, onboard restrooms, and air conditioning. The company also offers free Wi-Fi on most of its buses, allowing passengers to stay connected while on the road.
Greyhound Lines has also introduced new buses that offer additional amenities, such as power outlets and leather seats. These buses are typically used on longer routes and are more expensive than standard buses.
Greyhound Lines has a dedicated customer support team that is available 24/7 to assist passengers with any issues or concerns. Passengers can contact customer support by phone, email, or live chat, and Greyhound Lines also has an extensive FAQ section on its website that provides answers to common questions.
Greyhound Lines also offers a range of travel services to help passengers plan their trip. For example, passengers can use the Greyhound Lines website to search for schedules and fares, book tickets, and track their bus in real-time. Greyhound Lines also offers a mobile app that allows passengers to purchase tickets, check schedules, and receive alerts about delays or cancellations.
In conclusion, Greyhound Lines is a great option for affordable intercity transportation. With its range of ticket prices, extensive network of routes, comfortable buses with onboard amenities, and dedicated customer support, Greyhound Lines makes it easy and affordable for everyone to travel between cities.
Additionally, Greyhound Linesâ commitment to environmental sustainability is a welcome addition to the travel industry. By implementing eco-friendly practices and partnering with organizations to offset its carbon emissions, Greyhound Lines is leading the way in sustainable travel.
Whether youâre a budget-conscious traveler looking to save money on transportation costs or simply prefer the convenience of bus travel, Greyhound Lines is a great option for intercity transportation. With its affordable fares, extensive network of routes, and commitment to passenger comfort and safety, Greyhound Lines is an excellent choice for anyone looking to travel within North America. |
Letter from Principal Rue
Dear Chinook Parents & Guardians,
At Chinook, we work hard to instill âGRITâ in our students. What is grit, you might ask? Angela Duckworth, author of a fantastic book (that should be a âmust readâ for all parents and educators alike) entitled Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance, states, âI define grit as a combination of both perseverance and passion for long-term goals.â More than intelligence or talent, it is grit that leads to success in life. The good news is that there are things that parents and educators can do to help instill grit in our childrenâŠhere are some easy
ways for parents to get involved in building grit in your middle schooler:
- Help your child find a sense of purpose. At Chinook, I met with our students at the beginning of the year and challenged them to get on the âgraduation path.â This means staying focused on passing classes, and working hard now so that passing high school classes later is easier to do. Talk to your child about achieving the dream of high school graduation, and then encourage them to think about what they may want to pursue after high school. Later this year, our 8 th graders will be taking a career interest surveyâŠweâll let you know when that happens so that you can start to help your child plan their âhigh school and beyond plan.â
- Grit Interviews. Connect your child with grandparents, neighbors, or community members who have worked hard toward a long-term goal and encourage your child to interview them and learn their story. Our students need âgrittyâ role models.
- Share stories of gritty famous people. Encourage your child to study famous people (and their failures) like Michael Jordan or J.K. Rowling. These examples will show your child that perseverance through failure can lead to great success.
- Model grit. If you make a misstep in your own adult life, acknowledge your error to your child, discuss it with them, and talk through your plan for a resilient response. How we as adults deal with our failures can speak volumes to our children.
- Encourage curiosity. Set aside a bit of time on a regular basis to ask your child questions about anything that interests them, no matter the topic.
- Ask yourself, âWhat is it that I am currently doing for my child than I cannot do?â Iâve been guilty of this myselfâŠif my son forgets his instrument at home, I run it to school for him. If my teenager leaves his clothes on his bedroom floor, Iâve been guilty of picking it up for him, and so on. Many times, we tend to approach parenting from the standpoint of âwhat more can I do for my child?â Rather, consider what you should ânot doâ. Every child is different, and will be ready to take on certain responsibilities at different timesâŠjust remember to regularly reflect on what you can take off your own âto doâ list and place the responsibility on your child.
- Try the âHard Thingâ Exercise. There are 3 parts to the âHard Thingâ Exercise: 1) Each member of the family has to do something hard. 2) You must finish what you start. 3) No one gets to pick the âhard thingâ for anyone else, so your child gets to choose his or her own challenge. This can spark some great dinner table dialogue as members of the family support one another in completing their respective âhard things.â
Developmentally, middle school is an important time to intentionally foster grit in our students. We look forward to partnering with you in developing resilient, perseverant learners who are on the path to becoming critical thinkers and contributing citizens that will truly help our society build a better future.
Proud Principal of Chinook Middle School |
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Target Grade Level / Age Range:
Students will understand the various ways soil is formed, soil formation factors, and the amount of time necessary to build or rebuild soils.
- Science journals
- Computer with internet connection
- Pan of brownies or cake
- Sprinkles or mini chocolate chips
- Hard serve ice cream (well frozen)
- Ice cream cones
- Plates, spoons, forks
- Iowa Soils information sheet printed
Essential Files (maps, charts, pictures, or documents)
- Iowa Soils information sheet: http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=farmprogressreports
- History of Soil.pptx
Vocabulary (with definitions)
- Glacial till: soil parent material deposited from a moving glacier
- Glaciation: the process, condition, or result of being covered by glaciers or ice sheets
- Soil profile: the vertical section of soil from the ground surface downward where the soil meets the underlying rock
- Parent material: the underlying geological material in which soil horizons form
- Leach: to drain away from or through soil by the action of percolating liquid, especially rainwater
- Loess: a loosely compacted yellowish-gray deposit of windblown sediment
- Alluvium: a deposit of clay, silt, sand, and gravel left by flowing streams in a river valley or delta
- Moraine: a mass of rocks and sediment carried and deposited by a glacier, typically along its edges
- Kettle hole: a landform made by a glacier, in which ice broke away, melted, and formed a depression, sometimes resulting in a lake
- Kame: a small, round hill of sediment like sand and gravel deposited by a glacier
- Esker: a long, thin hill of sediment like sand and gravel deposited by a glacier
Background â Agricultural Connections (what would a teacher need to know to be able to teach this content)
Soil is formed in many different ways, and can include many different characteristics. There are five soil forming factors: parent material, organisms (vegetation), climate, time, and relief (topography) (ClORPT). Because of these varieties, there is a whole taxonomy of naming soils that includes 12 different soil orders. Beyond that, there are prefixes and suffixes to determine if the soils are frozen, if they have a high salt content, if there is a histic epipedon, and many other complicated things. If students are interested in learning more about soil taxonomy, you can direct them to the USDA NRCS publications here: https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/survey/class/taxonomy/?cid=nrcs142p2_053580 The main soil order in Iowa is the Mollisol order. This is a temperate grassland soil with a dark surface layer (A horizon). The native prairie or grassland vegetation encourages the dark soil structure to build because of the abundant organic matter in the grasses and their roots.
On a more practical level, there are also soil series. These have common names, like Tama, Colo-Ely, Nicollet, Storden, etc. These soil series are mapped across the state. Soil scientists will use soil surveys like the Web Soil Survey ( https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/App/HomePage.htm) to map an area of interest and learn more about the soil types in that area. Each soil series has a typical texture, color, or formation. They can be referred to by name, or by their map unit symbol, which is a number. This number may be followed by a letter, that refers to the slope of that land. For example, a Storden loam with 6-10% slopes would have a map unit of 62C.
The web soil survey is an interesting way to see the differences of soil throughout the state and across the country. Another interesting way to compare soil series across the country is with by comparing state soils via this link: https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/edu/?cid=stelprdb1236841. Each state has a state soil, which represents their state in some type of meaningful capacity. In many states, itâs the most common or most productive. At this website, you can visually see the differences in soil color, depth, and parent material. For example, the state soils in New Hampshire, Maine, and Vermont are shallower, have an E horizon characteristic of native forests, and have a much rockier subsoil. This is because of the soil formation factors theyâve had in the northeast as compared to the soil formation factors weâve had in the Midwest.
This lesson will start with a short video from a professor showing some characteristics of various soil profiles. He will point out different horizons of soil and some characteristics of each. The lesson instructs you to pause at certain times to have the class speculate about why the soil may have these characteristics in these horizons. The top horizon of soil is the O horizon. This just includes organic material, like leaves that have fallen. Beneath that is the A horizon. This horizon is darker than the rest due to organic matter content. Below the A horizon is generally the B horizon. The B horizon is where clay particles accumulate. It is lighter in color and holds more water (because of the extra clay content). In some soils â primarily in forested areas â there is a thin, chalky, white layer in between A and B called the E horizon. We usually do not see this in Iowa, but you would see it more in places like New England. Beneath the B horizon, we will see the C horizon, or the soil parent material (what the surface soil formed from).
This lesson talks specifically about the soil formation factors as they relate to Iowa. Iowaâs climate is humid continental, giving us hot summers, cold winters, and adequate precipitation. This means that our soils freeze in the winter (during which time our soil life also takes a break), and thaw in the summer (during which time soil life becomes more active). Precipitation impacts erosion and leaching of nutrients and minerals through the soil profile.
Iowaâs native vegetation (or organisms, in the CLORPT mnemonic) is prairie or grassland. Iowaâs native vegetation had thick, deep root systems that reached into the sediment, provided structure, and contributed a huge amount of organic material. This provided lots of food for microbes, insects, and larger vertebrate animals that ate the plants and left waste on the soil surface.
Iowaâs relief or topography impacts the way it weathers. For example, in parts of the state that were glaciated pre-Illinoian period, hills were cut into the landscape. Over time, those hills eroded and became steeper, which we now see in southern Iowa with the Southern Iowa Drift Plain region. However, in the Des Moines Lobe region that was glaciated during the Wisconsinan period, the glacier moved much faster and leveled the land. Without pre-existing hills, erosion does not work as quickly.
Iowa has a few sources of parent material. Parent material is what the soil originally formed from, and can be seen in modern soils in the C horizon of the soil profile. Iowaâs main parent materials are loess (wind-blown sediment), glacial till, and alluvium (deposited by water). Hereâs a chart from the USDA that explains the various soil parent material types (link to article in Sources section):
Time itself doesnât change things, but time allows for the other soil forming factors to take place. Over time, weathering will take place according to the locationâs climate, relief, and native vegetation. These processes can create and/or destroy soils over time. If we think about a residual parent material soil starting as bedrock, time is needed for organisms like moss and lichen to slowly break down that rock into smaller particles and organic material. However, soils also erode and leach over time, which can degrade them. In general, young soils are said to be shallower and have fewer soil horizons (maybe just a shallow A horizon and a C horizon). Old soils are more weathered, and minerals have leached, creating a deeper soil with more horizons that are distinctly different from each other.
After students learn about the soil forming factors, they will get to see some glaciation in action using a pan of brownies and an ice cream cone. The ice cream will act as a model glacier that will deposit ice cream and sprinkles over the brownies. Students should be able to see glacial landforms, like moraines, kettle holes, kames, and/or eskers.
A moraine is a hill where a glacier has pushed a pile of sediment. Think about laying fabric on a table and pushing on it. You will create a wrinkle at your fingertips. This is like a moraine. Kettle holes are low areas in otherwise flat areas where chunks of ice had broken off and melted, leaving a depression. Kames and eskers are both hills of miscellaneous unsorted sediment, though kames are smaller and rounder, and eskers are longer and thinner.
All of Iowa has been glaciated at one point or another. Iowaâs oldest glaciation covered the whole state between 500,000 and 2.5 million years ago. The glacier moved slowly (a couple of miles per year) and cut hills into the landscape. Over time, those hills were weathered, eroded, and have become steeper, especially in the southern half of the state.
Iowaâs newest glaciation is very new in terms of soil formation. The Laurentide Ice Sheet of the Wisconsinan Glaciation moved through the north-central third of the state about 10,500 â 30,000 years ago. It moved very quickly (about a mile each year), and leveled the land, leaving a flat landform that we now call the Des Moines Lobe of the Laurentide Ice Sheet (or colloquially, âThe Lobeâ).
During the Wisconsinan Glaciation, there were lots of extreme weather events happening. This weathered the hills to the east and west of the glacier to make them less steep, and more rolling. These are the Northwest Iowa Plains to the west and the Iowan surface to the east. This extreme weathering also caused so much erosion in the far northeast corner of Iowa that bedrock is now exposed. This area is called the Paleozoic Plateau.
The Loess Hills are another Iowa landform to mention, but are an indirect product of glaciation as opposed to a direct descendant from it. The Loess Hills started forming during the Wisconsinan Glaciation because when the glacier started melting, the Missouri River got quite full. As the water levels went back down, there were excess deposits of glacial till that were now susceptible to wind. As we know, there are three soil particle sizes, and the wind is not very effective at moving sand (the largest), so that stayed put. The wind was very effective at moving clay (the smallest), and that was distributed across the whole state. The silt, however, (the âbaby bearâ size of this Goldilocks story) was moved from the river bed to just a few miles away from the river, creating a band of interestingly shaped hills of rich, yellow-colored silt.
Iowa is also home to two alluvial plains along the Missouri River and the Mississippi River, which are essentially ancient flood plains.
Interest Approach â Engagement (what will you do to engage students at the beginning of the lesson)
Begin class with a demonstration on how soil particles settle. Have two to three Mason jars about half full of soil from the schoolyard or garden. Potting soil should not be used as it is mostly humus. Fill the jar the rest of the way full with water. Shake the jars prior to class. One jar should be well shaken and left to settle many hours before class. One should be shaken at the beginning of class to show the difference. If more than two are used, stagger the start times so that students can observe the differences over time.
In this demonstration, large particles like pebbles and sand will settle first. This is because they are the largest and heaviest. Next, silt will settle out, as it is the second-largest soil particle size. After that, clay will settle out. Clay will take much longer to settle as it is so much smaller than the other particle sizes. Organic matter or humus will float on top, and the rest of the cloudy look to the water is attributed to dissolved minerals.
When soils form, different particles will react differently. Let students observe the jars, measure where they think sand, silt, and clay begin and end, and brainstorm ways that this idea could contribute to soil formation and weathering.
- Start class by bringing up this video from Purdue Extension about soil profiles. Let it play until about 1:25. Dr. Graveel said the top portion of the soil is darker than the second portion of the soil. Why is that?
- Let students think for a minute. They should recall from the organic material lesson that organic content in the soil is what makes soils dark. The top portion of the soil has the most organic material from plant roots, organisms dying and decaying, and so forth. Thus, the top portion of the soil (the A horizon) has the most organic material and the darkest color.
- Let the presentation play again. He begins talking about how soils are different colors. Pause at 1:51. Ask the class why they think soils can be different colors?
- Take suggestions from the class. They might say things like lack of organic matter, overabundance of a specific element like iron in red soils, or other ideas.
- Go back to the video. He begins talking about the horizons of soil. He mentions that the A horizon has a high organic matter content and makes soils dark, confirming what students should have mentioned in step A. He then mentions that the B horizon is the horizon of accumulation and says that the B horizon has a higher clay content. Pause the video around 3:00 and ask students why they think clay accumulates in the B horizon.
- Students should recall that clay is the smallest soil particle size, and therefore is more easily moved. With rains and gravity, clay particles tend to leach through the soil profile and collect in the subsoil.
- Lead into class discussion on soil formation factors. In lesson one, it was mentioned that soils can form in three ways. Can students remember what those are?
- Chemical processes, physical processes, and biological processes
- Soil scientists look at soil formation using the five soil forming factors. These are
parent material, and
time. You can remember these with the mnemonic device ClORPT.
- Walk through each of the factors as a class, writing down some examples for each of factors and answering questions as they arise. Encourage students to take notes in their science notebooks, as well.
- Climate relates to temperature, precipitation, and other factors. Depending on these factors, microbial activity and leaching of nutrients and soil particles through the profile can be faster or slower. For example, if a climate is cold, microbes will likely not be very active, and biological breakdown of materials will take longer.
- Organisms means the type of vegetation that naturally grows in the area. For example, prairie grass soils are much different than naturally forested soils. Why might that be? (Different root structures, different life cycles, etc.)
- Relief means the topography of the land. For example, land that is on a tectonic plate boundary where mountains form weathers much differently than land that is naturally flat and is not near these boundaries. Discuss some of these geologic differences and why mountains weathering and flat lands weathering might look different.
- Parent material refers to the material that the soils formed from. If we look at a soil profile, like in the video we watched earlier, this is what we find in the C horizon. There are a few sources of parent material, including glacial till, alluvium (brought up from a river), colluvium (brought down from a higher landform â think mudslide), and loess (wind-blown sediment).
- Time is an important soil forming factor, because old soils can behave much differently than young soils. Ask students why this might be. Older soils have more time to leach, erode, and degrade. However, time can also help minerals break down and give microbes time to decompose materials. Time can both build and degrade soils in natural environments.
- Hand out the Iowa Soil sheet (
http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=farmprogressreports) to students. Tell them they will need to read this sheet and write in their science journals about Iowaâs soil forming factors. Have them sketch out climate, organisms, relief, parent material, and time in a way that makes sense to them in their notebooks.
- Optional: Post-it notes, extra pieces of paper, and tape can be provided for this step to allow students to make flip-up sections to add an extra dimension.
- Students should find the following about Iowaâs soil forming factors based on the reading:
- Climate: 26-38â precipitation (via Encyclopedia Brittanica), humid continental
- Organisms: prairie grass
- Relief: most acres are 0-5% slope
- Parent material: loess, glacial till, and alluvium
- Time: cultivation during last 160 years has reduced natural organic matter content and accelerated erosion
- Talk through those factors as a class. What questions do they have (about terminology, etc.)? What surprised them? What didnât?
- Point out that a major parent material in Iowa is glacial till. This means that glaciers pushed new sediment over the state. Glaciers can move in different ways, but can create moraines, kettle holes, and kames.
- Glacial till with brownies activity:
- For this demonstration, you will need a pan of soft brownies or sheet cake with sprinkles or mini chocolate chips on top, hard serve ice cream (well-frozen), and ice cream cones.
- Bring out your pan of brownies. Explain to the class that this pan of brownies is to represent Iowa prior to glaciation.
- Next, bring out the ice cream. Scoop some ice cream into an ice cream cone, packing it in as tightly as you can. Explain to the class that this ice cream is representing the glaciers that moved through Iowa.
- The first glaciers that moved through Iowa came before the Illinois period, in between 500,000 to 2,500,00 years ago. This was a pretty typical glacier that moved very slowly (about .5 miles per year). Since it moved slowly, it created rolling hills that you can still see in the southern half of Iowa.
- Holding on to the ice cream cone, flip the cone over and slowly push the ice cream across the pan of brownies. Tell students to observe whatâs happening with the pan of brownies. As the sprinkles are moved and deposited and as the ice cream melts, try to point out what those landforms would be. If there are puddles of ice cream, they would be kettle holes. Where you stop pushing the ice cream would create a moraine in the brownie. If there are any piles of sprinkles or brownie crumbs deposited by the ice cream, they would be kames or eskers depending on shape.
- If the ice cream in the cone has begun to melt, put it in a bowl and set aside. Then scoop a fresh cone. Explain that this ice cream cone represents the most recent glacier that came through Iowa during the Wisconsinan period.
- Move this ice cream cone similar to the previous one, but be sure to press firmly and move faster. Explain that this glaciation happened only 10,000 years ago (very recent in geology) and moved very fast â two whole miles per year. This glaciation pushed the land flat, creating what we now call the Des Moines Lobe of the Laurentide Ice Sheet, or just the Des Moines Lobe.
- This part of Iowa has very young soils that have not had a lot of time to erode. There are also more glacial landforms here, like moraines and kettle holes.
- Fun fact: the terminal moraine of this glacier is the hill that our capitol was built on!
- Optional: After the demonstration and observations, serve the brownies and ice cream to students who would like some.
- While students eat their brownies, have a class discussion. What did the activity show them? What is glacial till?
- The activity should show some ways that glaciers impact the land. Glacial till is the sediment deposited by a glacier moving across the land.
- Have students take out their science notebooks and journal about their observations and takeaways while they finish their snack.
- After students are finished journaling, review some of Iowaâs soil formation factors as a class. How do these factors impact our soils?
- Precipitation can erode soils and cause minerals and soil particles to leach through the soil profile, but also feed plants that contribute to soil health. Native prairie soils have lots of organic matter and a thriving microbe population. Flatter lands donât erode as quickly, but also donât drain water as well. Glacial till and loess deposits have left fertile sediment for the soil to build from. Very old glaciations have since been weathered. Newer glaciations have not been eroded as badly. In the last couple hundred years, erosion has increased more due to human intervention.
- Our current soil biology is dependent on the native vegetation of our soils. The first plants (that may have been moss or lichen) started the cycle of contributing organic material that feeds microbes and builds the A horizon of a new soil. Eventually grasses began to grow, reaching their roots deep into the glacial till, further providing structure, organic material, and feeding microbial life.
- In the last few minutes of class, have students brainstorm how soils could be different if each of Iowaâs soil forming factors were to change.
Did You Know? (Ag facts)
- Iowaâs capitol building is built on the terminal moraine of the Laurentide Ice Sheet of the Wisconsinan Glaciation.
- Iowaâs principal soil order is Mollisol.
- Iowaâs state soil is the Tama soil series.
Extension Activities (how students can carry this beyond the classroom)
- Explore the soil profile: reach out to an area Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) or Extension and Outreach office to see if they could dig your class a soil pit or procure a soil core for your class to observe. If there is construction going on near your school building, any soil pit where the profile is visible and soil has been largely undisturbed will work well.
- Take the class to the pit or bring the soil core to the classroom. Gather students around it and ask them questions about what they see. Where does the A horizon start and end? Where does the B Horizon start and end? Where is the C horizon or parent material? What does the parent material look like? Does this soil have lots of organic material or not (is the A horizon dark)? Can we see bedrock or the R horizon? Do we see an E horizon?
- Talk with students about what this means about the soil around them. In Iowa, most of our soilsâ parent material is glacial till, which is a bit rocky. Iowaâs native plants are mostly prairie grasses, which made our soils deep, dark, and rich. In some areas of the state, trees have been more present, which could form an E horizon. In some areas of the state, the soil may be shallower or more eroded.
- Have students write a one-page summary on their observations of their local soil, and have them draw conclusions about the soil forming factors that created this soil.
Suggested Companion Resources (books and websites)
- Iowaâs Climate: https://www.britannica.com/place/Iowa-state/Climate
- Why Iowa Isnât All Flat: https://iowaagliteracy.wordpress.com/2016/08/11/why-iowa-isnt-all-flat/
- Iowaâs State Soil, Tama: https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1236956.pdf
- State Soils, NRCS: https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/edu/?cid=stelprdb1236841
- The Climate of Iowa: https://www.weather-us.com/en/iowa-usa-climate
- This material is based upon work supported by the Natural Resources Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, under number NR196114XXXXC003. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.
- The grant by which this project is funded is administered by the Conservation Districts of Iowa.
- The Origin and Development of Soil: https://passel.unl.edu/pages/informationmodule.php?idinformationmodule=1130447038&topicorder=2&maxto=10&minto=1
- Soil Genesis and Development, How Parent Material Affects Soil Profile Development: https://passel.unl.edu/pages/informationmodule.php?idinformationmodule=1130447021&topicorder=7&maxto=7&minto=1
- Iowaâs Loess Hills: http://www.iptv.org/iowapathways/mypath/iowa%E2%80%99s-loess-hills
- Introduction to Geological Process in Illinois: https://www.dnr.illinois.gov/education/Documents/OnlineGeology(7-8).pdf
- Kame: http://www.landforms.eu/cairngorms/kame.htm
- When Does Rock Become Soil: https://soilsmatter.wordpress.com/2017/08/15/when-does-rock-become-soil/
Iowa Agriculture Literacy Foundation
Agriculture Literacy Outcomes
- T5.9-12.g: Evaluate and discuss the impact of major agricultural events and agricultural inventions that influenced world and U.S. history.
Iowa Core Standards
Iowa Core Science Standards:
- HS-ESS2-5: Plan and conduct an investigation of the properties of water and its effects on Earth materials and surface processes.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. |
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Early history of gauge theory---a science history paper one way to enrich one's understanding of scientific theories is to learn about the people who discovered them and what they were thinking about at the time, and how other scientists reacted etc. gauge theory apparently got started in 1918 - 1929 by Hermann Weyl he corresponded with Einstein and Pauli about it and got some interesting reactions it gradually became a prevalent style in theoretical physics. I guess the main theories from 1950 onwards are gauge theories, the ones that have proven useful----and some of the one's that havent yet too. maybe you could call the gauge way of doing things a 20th century paradigm or a "mental habit" among theorists---one that has had great success. So what about the HISTORY of this invention? I am not an expert about this so I would like to ask what other people think about this RECENT PAPER on gauge history. http://arxiv.org/hep-ph/0509116 [Broken] Gauge principle and QED Norbert Straumann Invited talk at PHOTON2005, 31.8-04.09, 2005, Warsaw, 19 pages "One of the major developments of twentieth century physics has been the gradual recognition that a common feature of the known fundamental interactions is their gauge structure. In this talk the early history of gauge theory is reviewed, emphasizing especially Weyl's seminal contributions of 1918 and 1929." SAMPLE PARAGRAPH: "The history of gauge theories begins with GR,which can be regarded as a nonAbelian gauge theory of as pecial type. To a large extent the other gauge theories emerged in a slow and complicated process gradually from GR. Their common geometrical structureâbest expressed in terms of connections of fiber bundles â is now widely recognized..." Is this a good History of Science paper? Can one learn anything new, or get to understand the gauge way of doing business any better, by reading it? |
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Mutual aid could, quite literally, save your life. According to Peter Kropotkin â the philosopher who coined the term âMutual Aidâ â mutual aid has been the driving force of evolution because of the millions of everyday citizens who step up as leaders and caretakers during times of need.
While there are many ways to aid communities during times of crisis, mutual aid is one of the oldest and most effective forms of lending a helping hand.
What makes mutual aid different from a nonprofit organization, for example, is that mutual aid isnât necessarily a âformedâ organization.
Most mutual aid groups are led by organizers and activists and donât have the traditional hierarchical structure that nonprofits and for-profit organizations have. Most mutual aid organizations are also central to their region, making them extremely effective in getting help to those who need it.
For example, when someone cannot afford or access the basic necessities of life (food, water, shelter, clothes, etc.), fellow members of the community step up to provide for them through a collective effort.
Also unlike a nonprofit or for-profit organization, most mutual aid organizations are volunteer-led versus it being an actual, paying job.
Mutual aid leaders have deep ties to their community and oftentimes have a direct connection to the issues at hand, enabling them to offer relief efforts quicker than nonprofits and government programs.
When Hurricane Katrina landed in New Orleans, it caused over 1,800 deaths and $125 billion in damage. Community membersâ response to this? Mutual aid funds.
There were grass-roots, low-income, people-of-color-led fundraisers to help both families and greater communities build themselves back up by distributing means (food, money, shelter, etc) directly to those affected.
This is an example of mutual aid â when an entire community comes together to help each other out, without requiring the government to step in.
Unfortunately, while there is state and federal aid that is supposed to be available to the public during times of crisis like Katrina, itâs not always fairly distributed to those who need it.
When our government programs fail and nonprofits arenât reaching everyone they should, thatâs when mutual aid steps in â and for a lot of people, itâs life-changing.
Mutual aid has deep roots in Black and Indigenous culture â and has been around for a long time. But itâs also understandable if the concept of mutual aid isnât familiar, especially since theyâre not formal organizations.
Thatâs why Good Good Good put together an explainer on what exactly mutual aid is, how to find efforts in your area, and how you can start one yourself.
Whatâs An Example of Mutual Aid?
Between the start of the COVID-19 pandemic and January 2021, approximately 8.4 million people lost their jobs, leaving them unable to afford food, rent, and other necessities.
Over the course of the pandemic, we saw that there was a disproportionate racial impact on marginalized communities, which left vulnerable populations even more susceptible to already existing injustices in healthcare, housing, employment, and more.
During this time, there was a clear need for mutual aid. While mutual aid has been around for ages, the concept has gained significant traction and awareness over the last two years, as communities across the country stepped up to support their neighbors and their immediate needs through direct giving.
Across the United States, and across the globe, mutual aid groups organized to provide people with preventative healthcare services (doctorâs visits, vaccination clinics, or administrative assistance), protective resources (masks, face shields, etc.), access to food, and direct funds for those who have lost their source of income.
For example, according to the COVID-19 Mutual Aid Organization of Seattle, donations were urged to be made for âUndocumented, LGBTQI, Black, Indigenous, People of Color, Elderly, and Disabled, folxs who are bearing the brunt of this social crisis.â These donations have been used to purchase masks, groceries, financial and rental assistance, and other supplies.
Additionally, these teams of Seattle volunteers are working to fulfill requests, âprioritizing folks who were sick, quarantined without pay, elderly, undocumented, LGBTQI and BIPOC.â
While not all mutual aid groups work directly with traditional nonprofits, this group partnered with organizations such as United Way and Lifelong to create a network of volunteers delivering groceries and hot meals weekly to five hundred families and elders.
The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the hundreds of mutual aid organizations and campaigns calling for the safety of populations vulnerable to the virus.
If youâre looking for COVID-specific mutual aid groups, hereâs a directory of local mutual aid groups across the world.
As we continue to battle the COVID-19 pandemic, itâs reassuring to know there are mutual aid groups doing the important work of supporting vulnerable populations during this time.
How Can I Know Where Mutual Aid Money Is Going?
While traditional nonprofits are ultimately monitored by the IRS and the federal government and therefore have to subscribe to tracking systems, mutual aid, and community-led initiatives are more trust-based.
Trust in a relationship with a mutual aid organization is everything, which is why most mutual aid groups have a clear breakdown of where your money is going.
Think of it this way: studies have shown that the best way to help someone through hardship is by providing direct cash relief. Mutual aid ensures that the people in need of relief are able to access that cash quickly and effectively.
If youâre donating to a mutual aid group and want a step-by-step breakdown of where your money (and time) is going, you can check the organization for a public health mutual agreement. A public health mutual agreement is a statement where they explain their role in providing donations and other funds to other people or organizations. For a list of verified mutual aid organizations, the Idealist vets through groups listed on their platform for discoverability.
How Can I Start My Own Mutual Aid Fund?
The incredible thing about mutual aid organizations is that anyone can start one. That being said, mutual aid groups also take a good amount of organizational responsibility and upkeep; but if youâre able to shoulder the work, then mutual aid is a great way to help your community in a way that itâs not currently being helped.
Mutual aid organizers are the ultimate do-gooders and weâre seeing a lot more of them over the past few years.
The American Friends Service Committee published a listicle with a few ways to organize your own mutual aid network. Consider reading the Mutual Aid Toolkit 101, created by Congresswoman Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez and organizer Mariame Kaba.
Itâs also helpful to create channels of communication (Facebook, Twitter, Slack), where you can communicate with both your team and your audience. Youâll then be able to create a general mission and list of goals, all of which can help you with your actions (raising money for communities after a natural disaster, delivering groceries to those in need, etc.).
No matter what platform you choose to host information on â whether it be a website or social media account â access is everything; people in need and people supporting mutual aid will need to be able to contact you in order for the aid to be successful.
Ultimately, mutual aid can only work if we continue doing it together. Itâs one of the oldest forms of community care and as weâve seen from the past few years, itâs extremely effective and will continue to be around in times of crisis.
The examples above prove the power of both teamwork and our inherent desire to help one another in times of need â you, too, can help your community. |
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GSRC True/False Questionnaire
Think you're informed? Take our True/False questionaire and find out just how much you know about LGBT issues.
- LGB People make of about 5% of the Population.
- Sexual orientation is genetic.
- Sexual orientation can change.
- Someone who is transgender is gay.
- Most child molesters are heterosexual.
- Bisexuals are promiscuous.
- Transgender people are flamboyant and loud.
- Gay people have rights.
- Civil unions and marriage are essentially the same.
- Gay men are feminine and lesbians are masculine.
- HIV/AIDS is a disease mostly affecting gay men.
- Not all transgender people wnat surgery to make their physical body match their gender identity.
- You can easily tell when someone is LGBT from their apperance or mannerisms.
- Most gays and lesbians what to be memebers of the opposite sex.
- Sexual orientation can be viewed as a continuum.
- Gay men are sissies and lesbians were toboys when they where children.
- Examples of same-sex behavior can be found in other species and cultures.
- There are only two sexes (male and female) or at the most, three (male, female, and transgender)
*****Answers listed below.
*Answers: 1. T 2. Both. 3. Both. 4. F. 5. T. 6. F. 7. F 8. both. 9.F. 10. F. 11. F. 12. T 13. F 14. F. 15. T. 16. F. 17. T. 18. F |
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Words are essential
There is no doubt that words play a vital role in learning. They can be used to describe, inform, explain, persuade, ask questions, prompt reflective thought and more.
Did you know?
Mayer et al (1996) conducted research to examine the impact of wordiness on learning. They compared three undergraduate introductory lessons on meteorology, each involving differing amounts of text. They found that the lesson with the fewest words resulted in the most retention of information and a greater ability to apply that information to solving related problems. They concluded that the lesson with the fewest words resulted in the best learning. No subsequent research has refuted this finding.
Perhaps âless is moreâ because of the way we read on screen. It is well known that unlike printed matter, we tend to skim when we read the screen. That is, we sample blocks of text, moving rapidly from one to the next in an effort to get the gist (see work by Muter and Maurutto, 1991). Given that this is the case, it is important to decide on the key messages of the learning, and to ensure that each block or paragraph of text includes a single key message.
A word from our expert
Sir George Bernard Shaw supposedly once wrote, âIâm sorry this letter is so long, I didnât have time to make it shorterâ. This illustrates the extra work required to make text succinct, but we have proved time and again that it is worth it.
For example, we designed a programme on compliance for a large financial institution that included phrasing which was essential to meet legal requirements. We worked closely with subject experts to establish essential messages and exact wording. Then we used these to write concise yet engaging short paragraphs of text. The result was an extremely effective and well-received course.
You can find many more LEO Learning insights, including white papers and ebooks, on our resources page.
Mayer, R.E., Bove, W., Bryman, A., Mars, R. and Tapangco, L. (1996). âWhen less is more: Meaningful learning from visual and verbal summaries of science textbook lessonsâ, Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 88, no.1, pp64-73. Muter, P. and Maurotto, P. (1991) âReading and skimming from computer screens and books: the paperless office revisited?â, Behaviour & Information Technology, vol. 10, pp.257-266. |
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The building blocks of matter
The question of what everything around us is made from has fascinated humanity since ancient times. The development of ideas on what the building blocks of matter are, and how these building blocks come together to form materials, are discussed in this contribution. In order to manipulate matter in a useful way, an understanding of the structure of the building blocks is the key. For this reason, atomic theory and bonding theory are introduced. An explanation of the periodic table shows why it is such a powerful predictive tool, and the use of symbols in chemistry is discussed.
Contribution: In this article, the historical development of key ideas in our understanding of matter is presented, along with some of the important ideas in understanding how matter behaves. As part of this special collection, the implications of the meaning and utilisation of this knowledge are also considered.
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Read more here: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
The authors retain the non-exclusive right to do anything they wish with the published article(s), provided attribution is given to the applicable journal with details of the original publication, as set out in the official citation of the article published in the journal. The retained right specifically includes the right to post the article on the authorsâ or their institutionâs websites or in institutional repositories.
Previously published work may have been published under a different licence. We advise the community that if they would like to reuse the work to consult the applicable licence at article level. |
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What are allergies?
Allergies are caused by an overreaction of the bodyâs immune system to a particular substance, called an allergen. Allergies, also called allergic reactions, are common and include food allergies, allergic conjunctivitis, respiratory allergies, insect bite allergies, drug allergies, and skin allergies. Skin allergies are linked to conditions, such as eczema and contact dermatitis. Allergies are also associated with asthma and other respiratory problems.
The immune system is made up of special cells that circulate throughout the body to defend the body against foreign substances, such as viruses and bacteria. If you have allergies, your immune system overreacts when you inhale, swallow or touch normally harmless substances, such as pollen or dust. This results in the release of the chemical histamine that causes the swelling, inflammation, and itching of tissues.
People with allergies are often allergic to more than one substance. Common allergies include those to dust, pollen, mold spores, animal dander, bee stings, and cockroach or dust mite droppings. Some people have allergies to certain plants; medications, such aspirin or penicillin; foods, such as eggs or milk; or chemicals and other substances, such as latex.
A very common type of allergy is hay fever, which is an allergy to pollen. Hay fever and other respiratory allergies, such as allergies to mold and dust, are types of allergic rhinitis. Symptoms of these allergies can mimic the symptoms of a cold and include runny nose and sneezing. Symptoms of other types of allergies can affect the respiratory system, the gastrointestinal system, and the skin.
Diagnosis and treatment of allergies can control symptoms of allergies to a degree that allows you to live a full and active life. Treatment may include a combination of lifestyle changes, medications and other measures.
Allergic reactions can range in severity from mild to life threatening. Seek prompt medical care if you, or your child, have symptoms of allergies, such as sneezing, watery eyes, nasal congestion, rash, or nausea and vomiting after eating certain foods.
An anaphylactic reaction is an immediately life-threatening type of allergic reaction characterized by a swollen tongue (and swelling in general), combined with hives, itching, shortness of breath, and rapid breathing (more than about 16 breaths per minute for an adult). The reaction is sudden, severe and can include respiratory distress. Seek immediate medical care (call 911) if you, or someone you are with, have symptoms of an anaphylactic reaction or other serious allergic reaction, even if there is no history of allergies.
What are the symptoms of allergies?
When a person has allergies, exposure to an allergen can cause a wide variety of symptoms, depending on the specific allergies, the type of exposure, and the severity of the allergies. Symptoms can occur alone or in combination with other symptoms.... Read more about allergies symptoms
What causes allergies?
Allergies are caused by an overreaction of the bodyâs immune system to a particular substance, called an allergen. The immune system is made up of special cells that circulate throughout the body to defend the body against foreign substances, such as viruses and bacteria. For people with allergies, the immune system overreacts when the person inhales, swallows or touches normally harmless substances, such as pollen, dust, and certain foods. This results in the release of the chemical histamine, which causes the swelling, inflammation, and itching of tissues that are characteristic of allergies.... Read more about allergies causes
How are allergies treated?
Allergy treatment plans use a multifaceted approach that is individualized to best address the specific cause and severity of your allergies and your age and medical history. In general, allergies are highly treatable, although they are generally not curable. Allergy treatment includes prevention of symptoms, medications to control symptoms, and lifestyle and dietary changes. Occasionally, the allergy becomes less severe as the child gets older.... Read more about allergies treatments |
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