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= Global security, late @-@ 1990s = = =
Since the late 1980s, the Australian government had increasingly called upon the ADF to contribute forces to peacekeeping missions around the world. While most of these deployments involved only small numbers of specialists, several led to the deployment of hundreds of personnel. Large peacekeeping deployments were made to Namibia in early 1989, Cambodia between 1992 and 1993, Somalia in 1993, Rwanda between 1994 and 1995 and Bougainville in 1994 and from 1997 onwards. The 1996 election of the Howard Liberal government resulted in significant reforms to the ADF's force structure and role, with the new government's defence strategy placed less singular emphasis on defending Australia from direct attack and greater emphasis on working in co @-@ operation with regional states and Australia's allies to manage potential security threats in recognition of Australia's global security interests. In line with this new focus, the ADF's force structure changed in an attempt to increase the proportion of combat units to support units and to improve the ADF's combat effectiveness.
= = New Millennium = =
= = = East Timor, 1999 – 2013 = = =
The former @-@ Portuguese colony of East Timor was invaded by Indonesia in 1975, however, following years of violent struggle the new Indonesian government of President B.J. Habibie subsequently agreed to allow the East Timorese to vote on autonomy in 1999. The United Nations Mission in East Timor ( UNAMET ) was established to organise and conduct the vote, which was held at the end of August 1999 and resulted with 78 @.@ 5 % of voters deciding in favour of independence. However, following the announcement of the results pro @-@ Indonesian militias supported by elements of the Indonesian military, launched a campaign of violence, looting and arson and many East Timorese were killed, while perhaps more than 500 @,@ 000 were displaced. Unable to control the violence, Indonesia subsequently agreed to the deployment of a multinational peacekeeping force. Australia, which had contributed police to UNAMET, organised and led an international military coalition, known as the International Force for East Timor ( INTERFET ), a non @-@ UN force operating in accordance with UN resolutions. The total size of the Australian force committed numbered 5 @,@ 500 personnel, and included a significant ground force, supported by air and naval forces, in the largest single deployment of Australian forces since 1945.
Under the overall command of Australian Major General Peter Cosgrove, INTERFET began arriving on 12 September 1999 and was tasked with restoring peace and security, protecting and supporting UNAMET, and facilitating humanitarian assistance operations. With the withdrawal of the Indonesian armed forces, police and government officials from East Timor, UNAMET re @-@ established its headquarters in Dili on 28 September. On 19 October 1999, Indonesia formally recognised the result of the referendum and shortly thereafter a UN peacekeeping force, the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor ( UNTAET ) was established, becoming fully responsible for the administration of East Timor during its transition to independence. The hand @-@ over of command of military operations from INTERFET to UNTAET was completed on 28 February 2000. Australia continued to support the UN peacekeeping operation with between 1 @,@ 500 and 2 @,@ 000 personnel, as well as landing craft and Blackhawk helicopters and remained the largest contributor of personnel to the peacekeeping mission. During these operations Australian forces regularly clashed with pro @-@ Indonesian militia and on a number of occasions Indonesian forces as well, especially along the border with West Timor. Significant actions occurred in Suai, Mota 'ain and at Aidabasalala in October 1999. However, with the security situation stabilised the bulk of the Australian and UN forces were withdrawn by 2005. Two Australians died from non @-@ battle related causes, while a number were wounded in action.
The unexpected deployment to East Timor in 1999 led to significant changes in Australian defence policy and to an enhancement of the ADF's ability to conduct operations outside Australia. This successful deployment was the first time a large Australian military force had operated outside of Australia since the Vietnam War and revealed shortcomings in the ADF's ability to mount and sustain such operations. In response, the 2000 Defence White Paper placed a greater emphasis on preparing the ADF for overseas deployments. The Australian government committed to improve the ADF's capabilities by improving the readiness and equipment of ADF units, expanding the ADF to 57 @,@ 000 full @-@ time personnel and increasing real Defence expenditure by 3 % per year.
In May 2006, 2 @,@ 000 ADF personnel were again deployed to East Timor as part of Operation Astute, following unrest between elements of the Timor Leste Defence Force. Australian forces were involved in a number skirmishes during this time, including a heavy clash with rebels commanded by Alfredo Reinado at Same on 4 March 2007. However, by early @-@ 2010 the security situation had been stabilised and just 400 Australian personnel remained to train the local security forces as part of a small international force. Following a drawdown, the International Stabilisation Force commenced withdrawing from Timor @-@ Leste in November 2012, a process which was completed in April 2013.
= = = Afghanistan, 2001 – present = = =
Shortly after the Islamist inspired terrorist attacks in New York and Washington on 11 September 2001, Australian forces were committed to the American @-@ led international coalition against terrorism. The ADF's most visible contribution — codenamed Operation Slipper — has been a special forces task group operating in Afghanistan from 2001 to 2002 and again from mid @-@ 2005 to fight against the Taliban. Over time the Australian commitment has grown, with the addition of further ground forces in the form of a Reconstruction Task Force from 2006 to provide security, reconstruction and to mentor and train the Afghan National Army. Australia has also contributed a frigate and two AP @-@ 3C Orion surveillance aircraft and three C @-@ 130 Hercules transport aircraft to international operations in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean since 2001, supporting both the operations in Afghanistan and those in Iraq under Operation Catalyst. A detachment of four F / A @-@ 18 Hornet fighter @-@ bombers was based at Diego Garcia from late @-@ 2001 to mid @-@ 2002, while two Boeing 707 air @-@ to @-@ air refuelling aircraft were also based in Manas Air Base in Kyrgyzstan to provide support to coalition aircraft operating in Afghan airspace but were later withdrawn. A Special Operations Task Group was deployed to support the Reconstruction Taskforce in April 2007. In addition to radar crews, logistics and intelligence officers, and security personnel, this brought the number of Australian personnel in Afghanistan to 950 by mid @-@ 2007, with further small increases to 1 @,@ 000 in mid @-@ 2008, 1 @,@ 100 in early 2009 and 1 @,@ 550 in mid @-@ 2009.
A modest force remained in Afghanistan over this time and was involved in counter @-@ insurgency operations in Uruzgan Province in conjunction United States and other coalition forces, including the Dutch prior to their withdrawal. The force consisted of motorised infantry, special forces, engineers, cavalry, artillery and aviation elements. By 2010 it included a combined arms battalion @-@ sized battle group known as the Mentoring Task Force, and the Special Operations Task Group, both based at Forward Operation Base Ripley outside of Tarin Kowt, as well as the Rotary Wing Group flying CH @-@ 47D Chinooks, the Force Logistics Asset and an RAAF air surveillance radar unit based in Kandahar. In addition, a further 800 Australian logistic personnel were also based in the Middle East in support, but are located outside of Afghanistan. Meanwhile, detachments of maritime patrol and transport aircraft continued to support operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, based out of Al Minhad Air Base in the United Arab Emirates. Also included is the deployment of one of the RAN's frigates to the Arabian Sea and Gulf of Aden on counter piracy and maritime interdiction duties.
Australian forces were at times involved in heavy fighting, and significant actions included Operation Anaconda in 2002 and Operation Perth in 2006, as well as actions in Chora in 2007, Kakarak in 2009, the Shah Wali Kot and Derapet in 2010, and Doan in 2011 ; although others have yet to be publicly acknowledged due to operational security requirements. Casualties include 41 killed and 256 wounded, while another Australian also died serving with the British Army. Four Australians have been awarded the Victoria Cross for Australia, the first such decorations in forty years. Following a drawdown in forces, the last combat troops were withdrawn on 15 December 2013 ; however, approximately 400 personnel remain in Afghanistan as trainers and advisers, and are stationed in Kandahar and Kabul. Over 26 @,@ 000 Australian personnel have served in Afghanistan.
= = = Iraq, 2003 – 11 = = =
Australian forces later joined British and American forces during the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The initial contribution was also a modest one, consisting of just 2 @,@ 058 personnel — codenamed Operation Falconer. Major force elements included special forces, rotary and fixed wing aviation and naval units. Army units included elements from the SASR and 4th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment ( Commando ), a CH @-@ 47 Chinook detachment and a number of other specialist units. RAN units included the amphibious ship HMAS Kanimbla and the frigates HMAS Darwin and HMAS Anzac, while the RAAF deployed 14 F / A @-@ 18 Hornets from No. 75 Squadron, a number of | wikitext_103 | [
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= 1888 – 89 New Zealand Native football team =
The 1888 – 89 New Zealand Native football team was a New Zealand rugby union team that toured Britain, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand in 1888 and 1889. It mostly comprised players of Māori ancestry, and also included some Pākehā ( white New Zealanders ). A wholly private endeavour, the tour was not under the auspices of any official rugby authority ; it was organised by New Zealand international player Joseph Warbrick, promoted by civil servant Thomas Eyton, and managed by James Scott, a publican. The Natives were the first New Zealand team to perform a haka, and also the first to wear all black. They played 107 rugby matches during the tour, as well as a small number of Victorian Rules football and association football matches in Australia. Having made a significant impact on the development of New Zealand rugby, the Natives were inducted into the International Rugby Board Hall of Fame in 2008.
After a preliminary tour of New Zealand in 1888, the side travelled to England via Melbourne and Suez. The Māori players initially provoked curiosity due to their race, but the British press subsequently expressed some surprise that the side was not as " Māori " as they had expected. Playing their first match, on 3 October against Surrey, the team was subjected to a taxing match schedule, and frequently played three matches per week. Their early matches included a 9 – 0 loss to Middlesex, but their form improved in November, when they won 10 of their 13 matches. The team played its first international match on 1 December, against Ireland, and won 13 – 4. This was followed by a win over one of the strongest English county teams, Yorkshire, and a 5 – 0 defeat against the Wales national team. By January 1889 the Natives had played 36 matches in less than three months, winning 22 of them ; they had spent most of their time in the north of England, where the playing strength was strongest and the crowds largest and most profitable.
In a return match on 19 January, Yorkshire fielded a stronger side than in the first match and inflicted one of the Natives'heaviest losses, a 16 – 4 defeat. The team then went undefeated until 16 February, when they faced England. Officials of the strictly amateur Rugby Football Union ( RFU ) had become increasingly concerned at the behaviour of the New Zealanders, regarding them as unsportsmanlike, and tensions reached a nadir in the aftermath of the England international, during which the RFU secretary George Rowland Hill, refereeing the game, awarded a number of controversial tries to England, prompting three of the Natives to temporarily leave the field in protest ; England eventually won 7 – 0. The Natives apologised afterwards for their behaviour, but the damage was not repaired. The New Zealanders left England without an official send @-@ off, and travelled to Australia where they toured Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland. They then returned to New Zealand, where they displayed a level of combination not seen in their home country before. They went 31 games undefeated before losing their final match, on 24 August 1889, 7 – 2 to Auckland.
The Natives'final record in rugby matches was 78 wins, 6 draws and 23 losses. They introduced a number of tactical innovations to New Zealand rugby on their return home, and their tour contributed to the formation of the New Zealand Rugby Football Union in 1892. Seventeen of the team's 26 players went on to play provincially in New Zealand, and two, Thomas Ellison and David Gage, subsequently captained the New Zealand national rugby team.
= = Background = =
The idea for assembling a team of Māori footballers to tour Britain was conceived by Joseph Warbrick, a rugby player who had toured with the first New Zealand national team in 1884. He initially proposed a team of Māori or part @-@ Māori to play the touring British side in 1888 ; this developed into a venture to have a Māori team tour Britain if a preliminary tour of New Zealand were successful. Hearing of Warbrick's plans, civil servant Thomas Eyton contacted him to offer help managing the tour, which Warbrick accepted. When James Scott, a publican, subsequently joined the partnership, the three men decided that Warbrick would be the team's captain, Scott its manager and Eyton its promoter.
Warbrick started assembling a team for the tour in early 1888. He had difficulties assembling a squad due to player availability, and failed to secure the talented Jack Taiaroa due to his university commitments. Some Māori players who initially agreed to play later pulled out when the eligibility criteria were relaxed to allow squad members who were only part @-@ Māori. Twenty Māori or part @-@ Māori players joined the squad ; five Pākehā ( white New Zealand ) players were added after the team lost to Auckland. Due to the inclusion of these Pākehā players the team was renamed from the " New Zealand Maori " to the " New Zealand Native Football Representatives ". The final squad comprised 26 players ( including Warbrick ) ; of these at least five were full @-@ blooded Māori, while fourteen had a Māori mother and a Pākehā father. The parentage of some of the players is unknown.
The team toured New Zealand before departing overseas, playing against Hawke's Bay, Auckland, Nelson, Wellington, Canterbury, South Canterbury, and Otago. The first game was contested against Hawke's Bay in Napier on 23 June 1888. They played nine games in their preliminary tour of New Zealand, and won seven of them. Their last New Zealand match before departure, against Otago played in Dunedin on 31 July 1888, was won by one try to nil.
The team sailed for Australia from Dunedin, leaving on 1 August 1888. In Melbourne, Scott recruited Jack Lawlor to train the players in Victorian Rules football in Britain as preparation for possible Victorian Rules matches on their return to Australia. The team played two rugby matches against the Melbourne Rugby Union team, winning the first and drawing the second, before continuing to Britain via Suez. They arrived in London on 27 September 1888.
= = Arrival in England and early matches = =
The team were met in Britain by local rugby administrators, including an official of England's Rugby Football Union ( RFU ). The first match of the tour was against Surrey, where the team became the first New Zealand side to perform a haka, and also the first to wear an all black uniform. That the team was predominantly Māori provoked curiosity from the British press – at the time, most Britons had not seen non @-@ white people – but there was some surprise that the team were not as " Māori " as had been expected. " They are not unlike Europeans, " a Scottish reporter wrote in November 1888 ; " that is their resemblance is great when one remembers that they were a savage tribe no further back than a generation ". The Surrey match, which was refereed by the RFU secretary George Rowland Hill, was won 4 – 1 by the Natives after they scored two tries.
The Natives next defeated both Northamptonshire and Kent, before defeats by Moseley and Burton @-@ on @-@ Trent. Both defeats were unexpected, and in the Moseley match, injuries played a part – the tourists played most of the match at least two men down, as replacements were then not allowed. The team recovered to win their next game, against Midlands Counties in Birmingham. Their next fixture was against Middlesex in a match not open to the public, and hosted by the Earl of Sheffield at Sheffield Park, Uckfield. The Middlesex side contained a number of international players, including Arthur Gould. Middlesex won easily, with the Natives play characterised by poor tackling. The final score was 9 – 0, with three tries conceded by the New Zealanders. Prior to the match both sides had enjoyed lunch with wine – an indulgence the Natives were not used to. A report in the Auckland Star had this to say of the game :
The New Zealanders expected to meet a mere exhibition 15 of scratch players, whereas Mr Rowland Hill had carefully collected the best possible team available. Such " passing " as the Home men displayed the Maoris frankly admit they have never previously witnessed. Said McCausland whilst we were on the platform waiting for the London train, " I think they would have just beaten us, even if we had been in good form. "
Following the match against Middlesex, the team travelled to the north, where the strongest English rugby teams were based. Yorkshire and Lancashire dominated the county championship until many of their respective member clubs split from the RFU in 1895 over the issue of " broken time " payments. The New Zealanders lost to Hull 1 – 0, defeated Dewsbury, then lost to Wakefield. After their first draw of the tour ( against Northumberland County ) they defeated Stockton @-@ on @-@ Tees and Tynemouth. Joe Warbrick appeared in the match against Tynemouth, but aggravated the foot injury that had kept him out of the side until that point. These victories were followed by a 13 – 4 defeat to Halifax on 10 November. The team then won seven matches in a row, including one against Hawick RFC, their only Scottish opposition of the tour. The last two matches that month were a loss to Swinton and a 9 – 0 victory over Liverpool and District. The team had played thirteen fixtures during November and won ten of them. By this point, the team was beset by injuries – of the fifteen players that | wikitext_103 | [
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] |
campaign and Battle of Milne Bay with the support of the RAAF and USAAF. Australian and US Army units subsequently assaulted and captured the Japanese bases on the north coast of Papua in the hard @-@ fought Battle of Buna @-@ Gona. The Australian Army also defeated a Japanese attempt to capture the town of Wau in January 1943 and went onto the offensive in the Salamaua @-@ Lae campaign in April. In late 1943, the 7th and 9th Divisions played an important role in Operation Cartwheel, when they landed to the east and west of Lae and secured the Huon Peninsula during the Huon Peninsula campaign and Finisterre Range campaign.
The Australian mainland came under attack during 1942 and 1943. Japanese submarines operated off Australia from May to August 1942 and January to June 1943. These attacks sought to cut the Allied supply lines between Australia and the US and Australia and New Guinea, but were unsuccessful. Japanese aircraft also conducted air raids against Allied bases in northern Australia which were being used to mount the North Western Area Campaign against Japanese positions in the Netherlands East Indies ( NEI ).
Australia's role in the Pacific War declined from 1944. The increasing size of the US forces in the Pacific rendered the Australian military superfluous and labour shortages forced the Government to reduce the size of the armed forces to boost war production. Nevertheless, the Government wanted the Australian military to remain active, and agreed to MacArthur's proposals that it be used in relatively unimportant campaigns. In late 1944, Australian troops and RAAF squadrons replaced US garrisons in eastern New Guinea, New Britain, and Bougainville, and launched offensives aimed at destroying or containing the remaining Japanese forces there. In May 1945, I Corps, the Australian First Tactical Air Force and USAAF and USN units began the Borneo Campaign, which continued until the end of the war. These campaigns contributed little to Japan's defeat and remain controversial.
Following Japan's surrender on 15 August 1945 Australia assumed responsibility for occupying much of Borneo and the eastern Netherlands East Indies until British and Dutch colonial rule was restored. Australian authorities also conducted a number of war crimes trials of Japanese personnel. 993 @,@ 000 Australians enlisted during the war, while 557 @,@ 000 served overseas. Casualties included 39 @,@ 767 killed and another 66 @,@ 553 were wounded. 20 Victoria Crosses were awarded to Australians.
= = Post @-@ war period = =
= = = Demobilisation and peace @-@ time defence arrangements = = =
The demobilisation of the Australian military following the end of the Second World War was completed in 1947. Plans for post @-@ war defence arrangements were predicated on maintaining a relatively strong peacetime force. It was envisioned that the Royal Australian Navy maintaining a fleet that would include two light fleet carriers, two cruisers, six destroyers, 16 others ships in commission and another 52 in reserved. The Royal Australian Air Force would have a strength of 16 squadrons, including four manned by the Citizen Air Force. Meanwhile, in a significant departure from previous Australian defence policy which had previously relied on citizen forces, the Australian Army would include a permanent field force of 19 @,@ 000 regulars organised into a brigade of three infantry battalions with armoured support, serving alongside a part @-@ time force of 50 @,@ 000 men in the Citizen Military Forces. The Australian Regular Army was subsequently formed on 30 September 1947, while the CMF was re @-@ raised on 1 July 1948.
= = = Occupation of Japan, 1946 – 52 = = =
In the immediate post @-@ war period Australia contributed significant forces to the Allied occupation of Japan as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force ( BCOF ), which included forces from Australia, Britain, India and New Zealand. At its height in 1946 the Australian component consisted of an infantry brigade, four warships and three fighter squadrons, totalling 13 @,@ 500 personnel. The Australian Army component initially consisted of the 34th Brigade which arrived in Japan in February 1946 and was based in Hiroshima Prefecture. The three infantry battalions raised for occupation duties were designated the 1st, 2nd and 3rd battalions of the Royal Australian Regiment in 1949, and the 34th Brigade became the 1st Brigade when it returned to Australia in December 1948, forming the basis of the post @-@ war Regular Army. From that time the Australian Army contribution to the occupation of Japan was reduced to a single under @-@ strength battalion. Australian forces remained until September 1951 when the BCOF ceased operations, although by the time the majority of units had been committed to the fighting on the Korean peninsular following the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950. The RAAF component consisted of Nos. 76, 77 and 82 Squadrons as part of No. 81 Wing RAAF flying P @-@ 51 Mustangs, initially based at Bofu from March 1946, before transferring to Iwakuni in 1948. However, by 1950 only No. 77 Squadron remained in Japan. A total of ten RAN warships served in Japan during this period, including HMA Ships Australia, Hobart, Shropshire, Arunta, Bataan, Culgoa, Murchison, Shoalhaven, Quadrant and Quiberon, while HMAS Ships Manoora, Westralia and Kanimbla also provided support.
= = Cold War = =
= = = Early planning and commitments = = =
During the early years of the Cold War, Australian defence planning assumed that in the event of the outbreak of a global war between the Western world and Eastern bloc countries it would need to contribute forces under collective security arrangements as part of the United Nations, or a coalition led by either the United States or Britain. The Middle East was considered the most likely area of operations for Australian forces, where they would most likely operate with British forces. Early commitments included the involvement of RAAF aircrew during the Berlin Airlift in 1948 – 49 and the deployment of No. 78 Wing RAAF to Malta in the Mediterranean from 1952 to 1954. Meanwhile, defence preparedness initiatives included the introduction of a National Service Scheme in 1951 to provide manpower for the citizen forces of the Army, RAAF and RAN.
= = = Korean War, 1950 – 53 = = =
On 25 June 1950, the North Korean Army ( KPA ) crossed the border into South Korea and advanced for the capital Seoul, which fell in less than a week. North Korean forces continued toward the port of Pusan and two days later the United States offered its assistance to South Korea. In response the United Nations Security Council requested members to assist in repelling the North Korean attack. Australia initially contributed P @-@ 51 Mustang fighter @-@ bomber aircraft from No. 77 Squadron RAAF and infantry from the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment ( 3 RAR ), both of which were stationed in Japan as part of the BCOF. In addition, it provided the majority of supply and support personnel to the British Commonwealth Forces Korea. The RAN frigate HMAS Shoalhaven, and the destroyer HMAS Bataan, were also committed. Later, an aircraft carrier strike group aboard HMAS Sydney was added to the force.
By the time 3 RAR arrived in Pusan on 28 September, the North Koreans were in retreat following the Inchon landings. As a part of the invasion force under the UN Supreme Commander, General Douglas MacArthur, the battalion moved north and was involved in its first major action at Battle of Yongju near Pyongyang on 22 October, before advancing towards the Yalu River. Further successful actions followed at Kujin on 25 – 26 October 1950 and at Chongju on 29 October 1950. North Korean casualties were heavy, while Australian losses included their commanding officer, Lieutenant Colonel Charles Green, who was wounded in the stomach by artillery fire after the battle and succumbed to his wounds and died two days later on 1 November. Meanwhile, during the last weeks of October the Chinese had moved 18 divisions of the People's Volunteer Army across the Yalu River to reinforce the remnants of the KPA. Undetected by US and South Korean intelligence, the 13th Army Group crossed the border on 16 October and penetrated up to 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) into North Korea, and were reinforced in early November by 12 divisions from the 9th Army Group ; in total 30 divisions composed of 380 @,@ 000 men. 3 RAR fought its first action against the Chinese at Pakchon on 5 November. The fighting cost the battalion heavily and despite halting a Chinese division the new battalion commander was dismissed in the wake. Following the Chinese intervention, the UN forces were defeated in successive battles and 3 RAR was forced to withdraw to the 38th parallel.
A series of battles followed at Uijeongbu on 1 – 4 January 1951, as the British and Australians occupied defensive positions in an attempt to secure the northern approaches to the South Korean capital. Further fighting occurred at Chuam @-@ ni on 14 – 17 February 1951 following another Chinese advance, and later at Maehwa @-@ San between 7 – 12 March 1951 as the UN resumed the offensive. Australian troops subsequently participated in two more major battles in 1951, with the first taking place during fighting which later became known as the Battle of Kapyong. On 22 April, Chinese forces attacked the Kapyong valley and forced the South Korean defenders to withdraw. Australian and Canadian troops were ordered to halt this Chinese advance. After a night of fighting the Australians recaptured their positions, at the cost of 32 men killed and 59 wounded. In July 1951, the | wikitext_103 | [
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first officer, Garth Beaumont, was 31 years old, and had lived in Rhodesia for most of his life, having immigrated as a child from South Africa. The two air stewardesses were Dulcie Esterhuizen, 21 years old and from Bulawayo, and 23 @-@ year @-@ old Louise Pearson, from Salisbury.
= = = Shootdown = = =
A group of ZIPRA guerrillas, armed with a Strela @-@ 2 launcher, waited in the bush beneath Flight 825's flightpath, and fired on the Hunyani about five minutes after it took off, while the aircraft was still in the climb phase of its flight. The heat @-@ seeking missile hit the plane's starboard wing and exploded, causing the inner engine to also explode. A fuel tank and hydraulic lines ruptured, creating a fire that the passengers and crew could not put out. The second starboard engine failed almost immediately, leaving Hood with only his two port engines. Heaving wildly, the Hunyani began to descend rapidly.
At 17 : 10 Captain Hood sent a distress call to air traffic control, informing them that he had lost the two starboard engines and was going to crash. " We're going in, " he radioed. Telling his passengers to brace for an emergency landing, he aimed for an open field of cotton in the Whamira Hills, in the bush to the west of Karoi, intending to belly land the craft. The landing was relatively stable until the Hunyani hit a previously unseen ditch, cartwheeled and exploded. The remaining fuel tanks ruptured and caught fire, setting the wrecked cabin ablaze.
= = = Massacre on the ground = = =
Of the 56 people on board, 38, including Hood and Beaumont, died in the crash. Eighteen survived, albeit with injuries, and climbed out of the wreckage. After briefly settling the others, one of the passengers, Dr Cecil MacLaren, led four others — young newlyweds Robert and Shannon Hargreaves, Mrs Sharon Coles, and her four @-@ year @-@ old daughter Tracey — off in the direction of a nearby village in search of water. The other 13 remained close to the wreckage. Meanwhile, nine guerrillas made their way towards the crash site, and reached it at about 17 : 45. Three of the 13 survivors remaining at the crash site hid on seeing figures approaching : Rhodesian Army reservist Anthony Hill, 39, took cover in the surrounding bush, while businessman Hans Hansen and his wife Diana did the same. This left 10 passengers in full view near the wreckage, including four women and two girls ( aged 11 and 4 ).
The guerrillas, who were armed with AK @-@ 47 rifles, presented themselves to the 10 passengers as friendly, saying they would summon help and bring water. They spoke in English, both to the survivors and among themselves. They told the passengers to congregate around a point a few metres from the wreckage ; when the survivors said that some of them were too badly injured to walk, the insurgents told the able @-@ bodied men to carry the others. The passengers were assembled into an area of about 10 square metres ( 110 sq ft ). Standing roughly 15 metres ( 49 ft ) away, the cadres now raised their weapons. " You have taken our land, " one of them said. " Please don 't shoot us! " one of the passengers cried, just before they were killed by a sustained burst of automatic gunfire.
Having collected water from the nearby village, MacLaren and his companions were almost back at the crash site when they heard the shots. Thinking it was personal ammunition in the luggage exploding in the heat, they continued on their way, and called out to the other passengers, who they thought were still alive. This alerted the insurgents to the presence of more survivors ; one of the guerrillas told MacLaren's group to " come here ". The insurgents then opened fire on their general location, prompting MacLaren and the others to flee. Hill and the Hansens also ran ; they revealed their positions to the fighters in their haste, but successfully hid themselves behind a ridge. After Hill and the others had hidden there for about two hours, they saw the attackers return to the crash site at about 19 : 45. The guerrillas looted the wrecked cabin and some of the suitcases strewn around the site, filled their arms with various passengers'belongings, then left again.
The survivors were found over the following days by the Rhodesian Army and police ; Hill and Mr and Mrs Hansen were taken to Kariba Hospital, while MacLaren and his group were airlifted to Andrew Fleming Hospital in Salisbury.
= = = Nkomo claims responsibility, but denies killing survivors = = =
Nkomo claimed responsibility for the attack in an interview with the BBC's Today radio programme the next day, laughing as he did so, to the horror of most Rhodesian observers, both black and white. He said that he had received intelligence that the Hunyani was being used for military purposes. Nkomo said he regretted the deaths as it was not his party's policy to kill civilians, and denied that his men had killed any survivors on the ground ; by contrast, he said that his men had helped them, and had left them alive. He also accused Air Rhodesia of surreptitiously hauling troops and war materiel for the government, an allegation that Captain Pat Travers, Air Rhodesia's general manager, called a " downright, deliberate lie ".
According to Eliakim Sibanda, a professor and human rights speaker who wrote a history of ZAPU, Nkomo was implying that responsibility for the massacre actually lay with security force pseudo @-@ guerrillas, more specifically the mixed race Selous Scouts unit, which had often been accused of brutalising rural civilians with the goal of shifting public opinion. Sibanda asserts that the massacre " cannot be put beyond " the Scouts, and also supports Nkomo's claim that the Hunyani had been used militarily, suggesting that ZIPRA might have believed there to be Rhodesian soldiers on board. " Rhodesian television, before attacks on ZANLA in Mozambique, had shown Viscounts ferrying paratroopers for the job, " he writes, "... [ and ] ZIPRA intelligence knew there were paratroopers stationed [ at Victoria Falls ] ".
= = Reactions = =
= = = White Rhodesians turn against blacks = = =
A report published in the American magazine Time a fortnight later described the incident as " a genuine horror story, calculated to make the most alarming of Rhodesian doomsday prophecies seem true. " Indeed, the white community in Rhodesia heard the news with fury, and many turned their minds to exacting retribution for what they and many others saw as an act of terrorism. The prominent Indian @-@ Rhodesian Gulab family was particularly affected by the incident, having lost eight members in the attack. Though Rhodesian authorities did not immediately acknowledge the cause of the crash, doing so only after four days'investigation, the truth was common knowledge in Salisbury within hours. Smith wrote in his memoirs that the " degree of anger... [ was ] difficult to control ". White South Africans were similarly enraged, particularly after reports appeared in the South African press that the killers had raped the female passengers before massacring them. A Friends of Rhodesia Society in South Africa offered a reward of R100,000 to anybody who would either kill Nkomo or bring him to Salisbury to stand trial.
Geoffrey Nyarota, who was then one of the few black reporters at the Rhodesia Herald newspaper, later wrote in his memoirs that many whites became resentful and wary towards blacks in general, believing them all to be " terrorist sympathisers ". Describing the Herald newsroom the night of the incident, he relates a " vile collective temper " among the white sub @-@ editors : " They cursed until their voices became hoarse, threatening dire consequences for all terrs and munts or kaffirs... I sensed that some of the more derogatory remarks made in unnecessarily loud voices that evening were meant specifically for my ears. "
Several racially motivated incidents occurred over the following days. According to the Time article, a group of whites entered an unsegregated Salisbury bar " fingering the triggers of rifles " and forced blacks drinking there to leave. Time also reported a rumour that two white youths, on learning of the massacre, shot the first black man they saw. Smith says that several would @-@ be vigilante groups sought his permission to venture into the bush around the crash site to " make the local people pay for their crime of harbouring and assisting the terrorists ". He instructed them not to, according to his memoirs, telling them that many rural blacks only assisted the guerrillas under extreme duress, and that it would not do to attack them. Many Rhodesians also resented the apparent lack of sympathy emanating from overseas governments, especially considering the character of the attack and its civilian target.
= = = Memorial service, 8 September 1978 = = =
At a memorial service held on 8 September 1978 for Flight 825's passengers and crew at Salisbury's Anglican Cathedral, about 2 @,@ 000 people crowded inside, with another 500 standing outside on the steps and pavement, many listening to the service inside on portable radio sets. Prominent among those present in the cathedral were uniformed Air Rhodesia and South African Airways personnel, as well as Rhodes | wikitext_103 | [
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as you think proper ".
The British fleet was composed of nine man @-@ of @-@ war ships : the flagship 50 @-@ gun Bristol, as well as the 50 @-@ gun Experiment and frigates Actaeon, Active, Solebay, Siren, Sphinx, Friendship and the bomb vessel Thunder, in total mounting nearly 300 cannon. The army forces in the expedition consisted of the 15th, 28th, 33rd, 37th, 54th, and 57th Regiments of Foot, and part of the 46th. On June 7, Clinton issued a proclamation calling on the rebel colonists to lay down their arms. However, the inexperienced defenders fired on the boat sent to deliver it ( which was flying a truce flag ), and it was not delivered until the next day. That same day, Clinton began landing 2 @,@ 200 troops on Long Island. The intent was that these troops would wade across the channel ( now known as Breach Inlet ) between Long and Sullivan's, which the British believed to be sufficiently shallow to do so, while the fleet bombarded Fort Sullivan.
General Lee responded to the British landing with several actions. He began reinforcing positions on the mainland in case the British were intending to launch an attack directly on Charleston. He also attempted to build a bridge of boats to provide an avenue of retreat for the fort's garrison, but this failed because there were not enough boats to bridge the roughly one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) channel separating the island from Charleston ; the unwillingness of Moultrie and Rutledge to support the effort may also have played a role. The Americans also constructed an entrenchment at the northern end of Sullivan's Island, which was manned by more than 750 men and three small cannons, and began to fortify a guard post at Haddrell's Point on the mainland opposite Fort Sullivan.
General Clinton encountered the first major problem of the attack plan on June 17. An attempt to wade the channel between the two islands established that part of the channel was at least shoulder @-@ deep, too deep for troops to cross even without the prospect of enemy opposition. He considered using boats to ferry the troops across, but the Americans, with timely advice from General Lee, adopted a strong defensive position that was virtually impossible to bombard from ships or the Long Island position. As a result, the British and American forces faced each other across the channel, engaging in occasional and largely inconsequential cannon fire at long range. Clinton reported that this meant that Admiral Parker would have " the glory of being defeated alone. " The attack was originally planned for June 24, but bad weather and contrary wind conditions prompted Parker to call it off for several days.
= = Battle = =
On the morning of June 28, Fort Sullivan was defended by Colonel Moultrie, commanding the 2nd South Carolina Regiment and a company of the 4th South Carolina Artillery, numbering 435 men. At around 9 : 00 am that morning, a British ship fired a signal gun indicating all was ready for the attack. Less than an hour later, nine warships had sailed into positions facing the fort. Thunder and Friendship anchored about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from the fort while Parker took Active, Bristol, Experiment and Solebay to a closer position about 400 yards ( 370 m ) from Sullivan's Island, where they anchored facing broadside to the fort. Each of these ships began to fire upon the fort when it reached its position, and the defenders returned the fire. Although many of Thunder's shots landed in or near the fort, they had little effect ; according to Moultrie, " We had a morass in the middle, that swallowed them up instantly, and those that fell in the sand in and about the fort, were immediately buried ". Thunder's role in the action was also relatively short @-@ lived ; she had anchored too far away from the fort, and the overloading of her mortars with extra powder to increase their range eventually led to them breaking out of their mounts. Owing to shortage of gunpowder, Moultrie's men were deliberate in the pace of their gunfire, and only a few officers actually aimed the cannons. They also fired in small volleys, four cannon at a time. One British observer wrote, " Their fire was surprisingly well served " and it was " slow, but decisive indeed ; they were very cool and took care not to fire except their guns were exceedingly well directed. "
General Clinton began movements to cross over to the northern end of Sullivan's Island. Assisted by two sloops of war, the flotilla of longboats carrying his troops came under fire from Colonel William Thomson's defenses. Facing a withering barrage of grape shot and rifle fire, Clinton abandoned the attempt.
Around noon the frigates Sphinx, Syren, and Actaeon were sent on a roundabout route, avoiding some shoals, to take a position from which they could enfilade the fort's main firing platform and also cover one of the main escape routes from the fort. However, all three ships grounded on an uncharted sandbar, and the riggings of Actaeon and Sphinx became entangled in the process. The British managed to refloat Sphinx and Syren, but Acteon remained grounded, having moved too far onto the submerged sandbar. Consequently, none of these ships reached its intended position, a piece of good fortune not lost on Colonel Moultrie : " Had these three ships effected their purpose, they would have enfiladed us in such a manner, as to have driven us from our guns. "
At the fort, Moultrie ordered his men to concentrate their fire on the two large man @-@ of @-@ war ships, Bristol and Experiment, which took hit after hit from the fort's guns. Chain shot fired at Bristol eventually destroyed much of her rigging and severely damaged both the main- and mizzenmasts. One round hit her quarterdeck, slightly wounding Parker in the knee and thigh. The shot also tore off part of his britches, leaving his backside exposed. By mid @-@ afternoon, the defenders were running out of gunpowder, and their fire was briefly suspended. However, Lee sent more ammunition and gunpowder over from the mainland, and the defenders resumed firing at the British ships ; Lee even briefly visited the fort late in the day, telling Colonel Moultrie, " I see you are doing very well here, you have no occasion for me, I will go up to the town again. " Admiral Parker eventually sought to destroy the fort's walls with persistent broadside cannonades. This strategy failed due to the spongy nature of the palmetto wood used in its constructions ; the structure would quiver, and it absorbed the cannonballs rather than splintering. The exchange continued until around 9 : 00 pm, when darkness forced a cessation of hostilities, and the fleet finally withdrew out of range.
At one point during the battle, the flag Moultrie had designed and raised over the fort was shot down. Sergeant William Jasper reportedly ran to the battlement and raised the flag again, holding it up and rallying the troops until a flag stand could be provided. He was credited by Moultrie with reviving the troops'spirits, and later given commendations for bravery. A painting of this event ( pictured above ) depicts Jasper's actions.
Counting casualties, Parker reported 40 sailors killed and 71 wounded aboard Bristol, which was hit more than 70 times with much damage to the hull, yards, and rigging. Experiment was also badly damaged with 23 sailors killed and 56 wounded. Active and Solebay reported 15 casualties each. The Americans reported their casualties at only 12 killed and 25 wounded. The following morning, the British, unable to drag the grounded Acteon off the sandbar, set fire to the ship to prevent her from falling into enemy hands. Patriots in small boats sailed out to the burning ship, fired some of its cannons at the British ships, took what stores and loot they could, and retreated shortly before the ship's powder magazine exploded.
= = Aftermath = =
The British did not attempt to take the fort again. Within days of the battle, Charlestonians learned of the signing of the Declaration of Independence in Philadelphia. The British troops were reembarked on their transports, and on July 21 the British fleet withdrew northward to help the main British army in its campaign against New York City. To add insult to injury, one of the British transports grounded off Long Island and was captured by Patriot forces.
The British did not return to Charleston until 1780, when General Clinton successfully besieged the city and captured an entire army. Until the South again became a focus of the war in late 1778, its states provided military supplies to the northern war effort and produced trade goods that brought in valuable hard currency to fund the war effort.
Admiral Parker and General Clinton engaged in a war of words after the battle, each seeking to cast the blame on the other for the expedition's failures. Although Clinton was not blamed by the government, popular opinion held him responsible, and Parker was lauded for his personal bravery.
= = Legacy = =
Fort Sullivan was renamed Fort Moultrie shortly after the battle to honor Colonel William Moultrie for his successful defense of the fort and the city of Charleston. Extensively modified in the years after the battle, it was supplanted by Fort Sumter as the principal defense of Charleston prior to the outbreak of the American Civil War. In 1876, to celebrate the centennial, companies from Sav | wikitext_103 | [
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evidence of illegal or unconstitutional activity. The report by the BfV cited knowledge gaps and noted several points that would make the success of any legal undertaking to ban Scientology doubtful. First, the BfV report stated there was no evidence that Scientology could be viewed as a foreign organization ; there were German churches and missions, a German board, German bylaws, and no evidence that the organization was " totally remote @-@ controlled " from the United States. A foreign organization would have been much easier to ban than a German one. The second argument on which those proposing the ban had counted was Scientology's aggressive opposition to the constitution. Here, the report found that Scientology's behaviour gave no grounds to assume that Scientology aggressively sought to attack and overthrow Germany's free and democratic basic order. " Neither its bylaws nor any other utterances " supported the " conclusion that the organization had criminal aims ". The BfV also considered whether there were grounds to act against the Church of Scientology on the basis that they were practising medicine without a licence, but expressed doubts that a court would accept this reasoning.
Commenting on the decision to drop the ban attempt, Ehrhart Körting, Berlin's interior minister, said, " This organization pursues goals – through its writings, its concept and its disrespect for minorities – that we cannot tolerate and that we consider in violation of the constitution. But they put very little of this into practice. The appraisal of the Government at the moment is that [ Scientology ] is a lousy organization, but it is not an organization that we have to take a hammer to. " The Church of Scientology expressed satisfaction with the decision, describing it as the " only one possible ". Monitoring of Scientology's activities by the German intelligence services continues.
In February 2009, the Berlin Administrative Court ruled that a poster placed by local city authorities on an advertising column next to a bus stop in front of the Berlin Scientology headquarters, warning passers @-@ by of the potential dangers Scientology activities posed to democracy and individual freedom, should be removed. The decision was upheld in July 2009 by the Upper Administrative Court of Berlin @-@ Brandenburg which ruled that the poster violated Scientologists'basic religious rights.
= = Criticism of Germany's stance = =
The United States media, while generally reporting negatively on Scientology in domestic news, has taken an at least partially supportive stance towards Scientology in relation to Germany. Richard Cohen for example, writing in the Washington Post, said in 1996 : " Scientology might be one weird religion, but the German reaction to it is weirder still – not to mention disturbing. " Alan Cowell, writing in the New York Times, wrote in 1997 that the German response to Scientology – motivated by officials'fear that Scientology " was a totalitarian movement growing, like the Nazi party, from inconsequential beginnings " – was itself redolent of " the Nazi era's authoritarianism ".
The U.S. Department of State has repeatedly claimed that Germany's actions constitute government and societal discrimination against minority religious groups and expressed its concerns over the violation of Scientologists'individual rights posed by sect filters. The U.S. Department of State began to include the issue of Scientology in Germany in its annual human rights reports after the 1993 agreement between the Church of Scientology and the U.S. Internal Revenue Service, through which Scientology gained the status of a tax @-@ exempt religion in the United States. That decision also marked the beginning of more intense lobbying efforts by the Church of Scientology in Washington, using paid lobbyists. The State Department's 1996 human rights report on Germany, released in January 1997, warned that artists and businesses with Scientology connections " may face boycotts and discrimination, sometimes with government approval. " Past targets of such actions had included Scientologist actors Tom Cruise and John Travolta, as well as jazz pianist Chick Corea.
Also in January 1997, an open letter to then @-@ Chancellor Helmut Kohl appeared, published as a newspaper advertisement in the International Herald Tribune, drawing parallels between the " organized oppression " of Scientologists in Germany and Nazi policies espoused by Germany in the 1930s. The letter was conceived and paid for by Hollywood lawyer Bertram Fields, whose clients have included Tom Cruise and John Travolta, and was signed by 34 prominent figures in the U.S. entertainment industry, including the top executives of MGM, Warner Bros., Paramount, Universal and Sony Pictures Entertainment as well as actors Dustin Hoffman and Goldie Hawn, director Oliver Stone, writers Mario Puzo and Gore Vidal and talk @-@ show host Larry King. It echoed similar parallels drawn by the Church of Scientology itself, which until then had received scant notice, and was followed by lobbying efforts of Scientology celebrities in Washington.
U.S. Department of State spokesman Nicholas Burns rejected the Nazi comparisons in the open letter as " outrageous " and distanced the U.S. government from Nazi comparisons made by the Church of Scientology, saying, " We have criticized the Germans on this, but we aren 't going to support the Scientologists'terror tactics against the German government. " Chancellor Kohl, commenting on the letter, said that those who signed it " don 't know a thing about Germany and don 't want to know. " German officials argued that " the whole fuss was cranked up by the Scientologists to achieve what we won 't give them : tax @-@ exempt status as a religion. This is intimidation, pure and simple. " Officials explained that precisely because of Germany's Nazi past, Germany took a determined stance against all " radical cults and sects, including right @-@ wing Nazi groups ", and not just against Scientology. Kohl's Christian Democratic Union party denounced the letter as " absurd " and cited German court rulings stating that Scientology had primarily economic goals and could legitimately be referred to using phrases such as a " contemptuous cartel of oppression ".
In February 1997, a United States immigration court judge granted asylum to a German Scientologist who claimed she would be subject to religious persecution in her homeland. In April 1997, John Travolta met personally with U.S. President Bill Clinton at a conference in Philadelphia. Travolta later said Clinton assured him that he would " really love to help " with the " issue over in Germany with Scientology ". According to Travolta, Clinton recalled that " he had a roommate years ago who was a Scientologist and had really liked him, and respected his views on it ", stating that Scientologists " were given an unfair hand in [ Germany ] and that he wanted to fix it ". In September 1997, John Travolta, Chick Corea and fellow Scientologist Isaac Hayes were heard by the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe ( CSCE, also known as the Helsinki Commission ), voicing their complaints about the treatment of Scientologists in Germany, and had a briefing with United States National Security Advisor Sandy Berger, whom Clinton had assigned to be " the administration's Scientology point person ". The German ambassador responded with a letter to the CSCE stating that the German government had come to the conclusion that Scientology's " pseudo @-@ scientific courses can seriously jeopardize individuals'mental and physical health and that it exploits its members ", adding that " membership can lead to psychological and physical dependency, to financial ruin, and even to suicide. In addition, there are indications that Scientology poses a threat to Germany's basic political principles. "
A United Nations report in April 1998 raised concerns about the violation of individual rights posed by sect filters. However, it rejected the comparison of the treatment of Scientologists with that of Jews during the Nazi era.
In 2000, the German Stern magazine published the results of its investigation of the asylum case. It asserted that several rejection letters which the woman had submitted as part of her asylum application – ostensibly from potential employers who were rejecting her because she was a Scientologist – had in fact been written by fellow Scientologists at her request and that of Scientology's Office of Special Affairs, and that she was in personal financial trouble and about to go on trial for tax evasion at the time she applied for asylum. On a 2000 visit to Clearwater, Florida, Ursula Caberta of the Scientology Task Force for the Hamburg Interior Authority likewise alleged that the asylum case had been part of an " orchestrated effort " by Scientology undertaken " for political gain ", and " a spectacular abuse of the U.S. system ". German expatriate Scientologists resident in Clearwater, in turn, accused Caberta of stoking a " hate campaign " in Germany that had " ruined the lives and fortunes of scores of Scientologists " and maintained that Scientologists had not " exaggerated their plight for political gain in the United States. " Mark Rathbun, a ( former ) top Church of Scientology official, said that although Scientology had not orchestrated the case, " there would have been nothing improper if it had. "
In 2003, Joachim Güntner, writing in the Swiss Neue Zürcher Zeitung, noted that Gerhard Besier, a German Christian theologian, director of the Hannah Arendt Institute for Research into Totalitarianism in Dresden and recipient of an honorary doctorate from Lund University, Sweden, for his championing of religious freedom, had been pressured to forego publication of his scientific study of Scientology after having found himself the subject of widespread criticism in the German media for advocating a more tolerant attitude towards Scientology. Güntner concluded that " alarmism " had " triumphed " over science and noted an apparent lack of confidence in Germany's ability to engage in open public discourse on the matter.
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o, he finished second, before winning his first race on the road course at Riverside, California the following week. Later that season, he earned his first pole position at Bristol. The tour returned to Riverside for the final race of the season where Richmond won his second race, sweeping both events at the track. Benny Parsons said that " watching Richmond go through the Esses was unbelievable ". For the season, Richmond had twelve top 10s, two wins, and one pole to finish 26th in points.
In 1983, Richmond began racing for Raymond Beadle whom he had known before he started racing. He returned to the three @-@ cornered Pocono racetrack, earning his first oval victory. During the season, he accumulated four pole positions ( Darlington, Pocono, Charlotte, and Atlanta ), one win ( Pocono ), and fifteen top 10s on his way to finishing tenth in season points. He made his first appearance in a NASCAR Busch Series ( now Nationwide Series ) car, but did not finish any of the three races he entered that season.
Esquire magazine named Richmond as one of " the best of the new generation " in 1984. That year he had one win at North Wilkesboro Speedway and second @-@ place finishes at Dover, Darlington and Riverside. Richmond finished the 1984 season 12th in points, with 11 finishes in the top 10 and in six in the top 5. In 1985, the final season that Richmond competed for Beadle, his best finish was a second @-@ place run at Bristol. He ended the season 11th in points with 13 Top 10s in 28 races. In the Busch Series, he qualified at the pole position in the two races he entered, and won the Charlotte race.
Richmond joined Hendrick Motorsports in 1986, where he teamed up with veteran crew chief Harry Hyde. It took the team until the middle of the season to gel. Richmond had suffered a 64 @-@ race winless streak that was finally broken at the Van Scoy Diamond Mine 500 at Pocono in June 1986. After two straight second @-@ place finishes at Charlotte and Riverside, Richmond started the Pocono event in third place inside the second row. That race saw a caution for rain with five laps left before the halfway point. NASCAR wanted the cars to get to the halfway point to make the race official, so the sanctioning body had the drivers slowly circle the track. It took the drivers 26 minutes to complete the laps, and the rain was so heavy that some drivers had to look out their side windows because they could not see out their windshields. Two hours later, the track had dried and the race resumed with Richmond in third. After Richmond's car was adjusted to remove the " push ", the car was more to his liking. Because his radio did not work, he was unable to communicate with his crew chief, Hyde, and he made his final pit stop with 37 laps left. Hyde worried that Richmond had stopped a lap too early to ensure that he would have enough fuel to make it to the end. After Richmond took the lead with 30 laps left in the race, Dale Earnhardt made up three seconds on Richmond's five @-@ second lead. With four laps to go, Buddy Arrington spun in a three @-@ car accident. The remaining laps of the race where completed slowly under caution and Richmond took the checkered flag for the victory. He had led 97 laps, including the final 30, taking his first victory in a Rick Hendrick car.
The tour returned to Pocono a month later, and Richmond battled for another victory in a fog @-@ shortened event. In the final 8 @-@ lap sprint, Richmond competed in a three @-@ car battle with Geoff Bodine and Ricky Rudd. Richmond crossed the finish line beside Rudd, winning the race by 0 @.@ 05 seconds. He notched four more victories that season, and over a span of twelve races, Richmond earned three second @-@ place finishes, and six wins. The National Motorsports Press Association named him Co @-@ Driver of the Year with Earnhardt after Richmond accumulated 13 top 5 finishes and 16 in the top 10. He had a career @-@ best third @-@ place finish in points after winning seven events in 1986, in what was his last full NASCAR season.
= = Illness and death = =
Richmond fell ill the day after the 1986 NASCAR annual banquet during a promotional trip to New York. He was not well enough to begin the 1987 NASCAR season despite lengthy hospitalization in Cleveland and further rest at home ; when Richmond missed the Daytona 500, his condition was reported as double pneumonia. Media later reported that he had tested positive for acquired immune deficiency syndrome ( AIDS ). He returned to Pocono for the Miller High Life 500 during the middle of the year. Starting third, he led by the fifth lap and ultimately led 82 laps, including the final 46, to win the race by eight car @-@ lengths over Bill Elliott. In the middle of the race, Richmond's car suffered gearbox problems. Because he could use only fourth ( high ) gear, he had to use that gear to slowly exit the pits. Richmond was emotional after the victory, saying, " I had tears in my eyes when I took the checkered flag. Then every time anyone congratulated me, I started bawling again. " Richmond earned a victory in the next race at Riverside, and made his final 1987 start at Michigan International Speedway's Champion Spark Plug 400 that August, finishing 29th with a blown engine. He resigned from Hendrick Motorsports in September 1987.
Although Richmond attempted a comeback in 1988, NASCAR suspended him for testing positive for banned substances. The substances were identified as Sudafed, a non @-@ prescription over @-@ the @-@ counter allergy medication, and Advil, an over @-@ the @-@ counter pain reliever. In April 1988, Richmond sued NASCAR over the suspension. Although he retested later that year and was reinstated, he could not find a car to drive. In his final public appearance in February 1988, Richmond denied that he abused drugs and said that a mistake had been made in his drug test. His suit with NASCAR was settled out @-@ of @-@ court, the terms sealed.
Richmond withdrew into his condo in Florida. There were by then rumors of HIV and AIDS, which he denied. He was later hospitalized in West Palm Beach.
ESPN sent a get @-@ well @-@ soon card to Richmond when it aired the July 1989 NASCAR race at Pocono. The television network showed highlights of Richmond's victory at the track from 1986. " Tim had Hollywood good looks and the charisma of Tom Cruise, " said his friend Dr. Jerry Punch. " There he was in victory lane with the team all around him and beauty queens hanging all over him. It was important for the people at the hospital to see Tim the way he really was, when he was healthy and handsome and vital, not the way he was as they saw him every day in the hospital. "
On August 13, 1989, Richmond died at the age of 34, about two years after his final NASCAR race. He was buried in Ashland, Ohio.
The secrecy surrounding the circumstance of his death caused speculation for several days. At the time, Punch stated that Richmond had been hospitalized due to a motorcycle accident, though it is unlikely that Richmond had the strength to ride a motorcycle during his last months. Ten days after his death, on August 23, the Richmond family held a press conference to reveal that Richmond died from complications from AIDS, which he acquired from an unknown woman. Richmond's physician, Dr. David Dodson, said : " There's no way of knowing who that woman was. Tim was a celebrity with a lot of charisma, a handsome guy. He naturally attracted a lot of women. " Punch later claimed that more than 90 drivers and personnel underwent HIV testing in the wake of Richmond's death.
= = Legacy = =
In 1990, a few months after Richmond's death, Washington television station WJLA @-@ TV and reporter Roberta Baskin reported that Dr. Forest Tennant, who was then the National Football League's drug adviser, " falsified drug tests " that ultimately helped shorten Richmond's NASCAR career. Baskin reported that sealed court documents and interviews showed Tennant and NASCAR used " allegedly false drug @-@ test results in 1988 to bar Richmond from racing ". Baskin also stated that NASCAR had targeted Richmond, requesting that Tennant establish a substance @-@ abuse policy with Richmond in mind. A series of drug tests and falsely reported positive results shortly before the 1988 Daytona 500 kept Richmond from driving in what was to have been his last big race... ", the report said. The New York Times published the findings. While neither Tennant nor NASCAR supplied an official response at the time, NASCAR did confirm that they were seeking to replace Tennant.
The Ashland County Sports Hall of Fame inducted Richmond in their second class in 1996. In 1998, NASCAR named Richmond one of its 50 greatest drivers of all time. He was inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 2002. The Mansfield Motorsports Park ARCA Re / Max Series race in 2009 was named the Tim Richmond Memorial ARCA Re / Max 250 in honor of the area native. The race at Mansfield was co @-@ promoted by Mattioli's son Joseph Mattioli III.
The documentary film Tim Richmond : To The Limit was produced as part of ESPN's 30 for 30 series | wikitext_103 | [
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597,
812,
417,
923,
562,
616,
5448,
32770,
84,
964,
5761,
3038,
1996,
1157,
253,
3540,
574,
14245,
285,
253,
5492,
30974,
342,
25380,
275,
2626,
964,
2732,
25380,
686,
84,
1113,
369,
10904,
281,
5386,
253,
346,
7450,
346,
1157,
253,
1113,
369,
625,
281,
521,
35908,
964,
4923,
521,
5553,
858,
417,
789,
1157,
344,
369,
7591,
281,
13791,
342,
521,
10402,
7015,
1157,
42703,
1157,
285,
344,
1160,
521,
2457,
8483,
3523,
342,
5345,
44421,
1669,
964,
42703,
11926,
326,
25380,
574,
6331,
247,
13427,
1512,
2393,
281,
5416,
326,
344,
651,
452,
2217,
7236,
281,
1056,
352,
281,
253,
990,
964,
2732,
25380,
2335,
253,
1421,
342,
1884,
44421,
1669,
275,
253,
5492,
1157,
28710,
444,
1596,
29888,
1160,
598,
1264,
7253,
327,
25380,
686,
84,
2620,
1214,
14,
33,
1273,
1421,
964,
2726,
1740,
44421,
281,
564,
1157,
15731,
6421,
1780,
25915,
28087,
275,
247,
1264,
1214,
14,
33,
1113,
7343,
964,
380,
5780,
44421,
273,
253,
5492,
835,
6312,
7808,
762,
17458,
285,
25380,
2335,
253,
1161,
33144,
433,
7908,
323,
253,
10170,
964,
754,
574,
3977,
10694,
44421,
1157,
1690,
253,
2457,
1884,
1157,
3192,
521,
806,
10170,
275,
247,
15940,
20069,
4662,
1113,
964,
2490,
380,
4892,
4895,
281,
367,
16033,
80,
247,
1770,
1996,
1157,
285,
25380,
11750,
1070,
323,
1529,
10170,
275,
247,
23010,
1214,
14,
33,
36439,
2362,
964,
496,
253,
2457,
854,
1214,
14,
33,
13427,
29644,
1157,
25380,
29177,
275,
247,
1264,
1214,
14,
33,
1113,
6680,
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33418,
34239,
460,
285,
49557,
416,
7937,
964,
25380,
13405,
253,
8416,
1386,
12200,
416,
7937,
1157,
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253,
5492,
407,
470,
1214,
15,
33,
16987,
7253,
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754,
417,
2147,
1740,
625,
34158,
326,
2952,
1157,
285,
689,
247,
13905,
273,
13265,
15820,
1157,
25380,
12431,
1264,
1273,
1214,
14,
33,
1659,
30214,
1157,
285,
2800,
14896,
964,
380,
3313,
31449,
4124,
5687,
7115,
4907,
779,
2434,
1214,
14,
33,
32911,
273,
253,
10519,
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444,
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973,
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281,
3135,
253,
12034,
13170,
25595,
2952,
5747,
24585,
28344,
275,
19802,
285,
2007,
1551,
387,
1728,
3706,
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25380,
9829,
253,
40003,
66,
6783,
1157,
521,
1617,
369,
2361,
347,
4021,
18277,
964,
11263,
1996,
2361,
326,
344,
574,
5762,
2762,
323,
9288,
7026,
14384,
9237,
313,
24482,
2387,
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14,
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12317,
3364,
3237,
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4923,
344,
812,
897,
760,
7002,
313,
1029,
2387,
12317,
1157,
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12317,
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964,
2635,
1046,
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3780,
28858,
2907,
479,
1157,
309,
3053,
270,
1403,
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25380,
12431,
247,
10170,
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253,
1735,
5492,
387,
28160,
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5625,
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23460,
13170,
25595,
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13394,
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7250,
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326,
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30938,
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715,
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407,
840,
28718,
273,
7452,
285,
24482,
1157,
534,
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5868,
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1996,
32943,
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4255,
30193,
13140,
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27478,
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247,
755,
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2962
] |
= Papa Stour =
Papa Stour is one of the Shetland Islands in Scotland, with a population of under twenty people, some of whom immigrated after an appeal for residents in the 1970s. Located to the west of mainland Shetland and with an area of 828 hectares ( 3 @.@ 2 square miles ), Papa Stour is the eighth largest island in Shetland. Erosion of the soft volcanic rocks by the sea has created an extraordinary variety of caves, stacks, arches, blowholes, and cliffs. The island and its surrounding seas harbour diverse populations of wildlife. The west side of the island is a Site of Special Scientific Interest and the seas around the island are a Special Area of Conservation.
The island has several Neolithic burial chamber sites, as well as the remains of Duke Hakon's 13th @-@ century house dating from the Norse occupation of the island. The population reached 380 or more in the nineteenth century, when a fishing station was opened at Crabbaberry in West Voe. Subsequently there was a steady decline in population, although the numbers have increased from a low of 16 in the 1970s.
Today the main settlement on the island is Biggings, just to the east of which is Housa Voe from where the Snolda ferry arrives from its base at West Burrafirth on the Shetland Mainland. Crofting, especially sheep rearing, is the mainstay of island life.
Numerous shipwrecks have occurred around the coast, and the celebrated poem Da Sang o da Papa Men by Vagaland recalls the drama of the days when Papa Stour was a centre for deep @-@ sea fishing.
= = Geography = =
Papa Stour is located at the south western end of St Magnus Bay. There are 34 kilometres ( 21 mi ) of rugged coastline which is indented by numerous small embayments and four larger'voes '. Hamna Voe ( Old Norse :'harbour bay') in the south is the most sheltered anchorage and the surrounding cliffs contain a natural rock arch. Housa Voe to the east ( Old Norse :'house bay') is less secluded but is the main harbour for the island and the ferry's embarkation point.
Brei Holm and Maiden Stack guard the harbour entrance to the south. The former is a tidal island and was a leper colony until the 18th century ( although it has been suggested that many of the " lepers " there were suffering from a vitamin deficiency rather than leprosy ). The latter's name relates to a story from the 14th century. Lord Thorvald Thoresson is said to have constructed the tiny house at its top, whose ruins are still visible, in order to " preserve " his daughter from men. Unfortunately for his plans, when she left she was found to be pregnant ; in another version of the story, she and her fisherman sweetheart successfully eloped. West Voe, the inner part of which is called'Robies Noust'is the main voe in the north coast, the smaller Culla Voe lying immediately to the west.
The main settlement on the island today is Biggings, which overlooks Housa Voe and is surrounded by in @-@ bye land to the east of the hill dyke ( which runs south from West Voe ). To the west the island is bisected by a belt of glacial moraine about one and a half kilometres in length. Much of the rest of the area consists of a shallow stony soil that may be derived from glacial till. There is an almost complete absence of peat on the island and due to the volcanic rocks the soils are relatively fertile. The lack of peat led to'turf scalping'for fuel and the bare areas of rock in the interior.
The highest point on the island is in the north west at Virda Field, which rises to 87 metres ( 285 feet ). Virda is possibly from the Old Norse for'heap of stones '.
= = = List of outliers = = =
In addition to the larger islets mentioned above there are various other isles and skerries around the coast of Papa Stour. They include : Aesha Stack, Boinna Skerry, Borse Skerry, Fogla Skerry, Forewick Holm, Galti Stacks, Holm of Melby, Koda Skerry, Lyra Skerry, Skerries of Quidaness, Skerry of Lambaness, Sula Stack, Swat Skerry, The Horn, Tiptans Skerry and Wilma Skerry. The Ve Skerries lie 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) to the north west. They include : Helliogoblo, North Skerry, Ormal, Reaverack and The Clubb. In between Papa Stour and Ve Skerries lies the shallow bank of Papa @-@ rof.
On 21 June 2008, Stuart Hill, the owner and only resident of the 1 hectare ( 2 @.@ 5 acres ) island of Forewick Holm ( which he has renamed " Forvik Island " ) made a declaration of dependence, creating the Crown Dependency of Forvik. On the basis of a marriage arrangement between King Christian of Norway and King James III of Scotland that dates to 1468, Hill argued that the island should be considered a British crown dependency, and thus not a part of the United Kingdom or of the European Union. This claim was not recognised by the United Kingdom.
= = Geology = =
The island is composed of a variety of volcanic and sedimentary rock formations from the Devonian period. At that time the Scottish landmass formed part of the Old Red Sandstone Continent and lay some 10 @-@ 25 degrees south of the equator. The accumulations of Old Red Sandstone, laid down from 408 to 370 million years ago, were created as earlier Silurian rocks, uplifted by the formation of Pangaea, eroded and then were deposited into river deltas. The freshwater Lake Orcadie existed on the edges of the eroding mountains, stretching from Shetland to the southern Moray Firth. The structure of Papa Stour is largely made up of ashes and lavas from volcanic activity associated with this period, including bands of solidified volcanic ash and lava ( rhyolite ), but there is also a Devonian fish bed at Lamba Banks. There are numerous large boulders deposited by Pleistocene glaciation.
Erosion of the soft volcanic rocks by the sea has created an extraordinary variety of caves, stacks, arches, blowholes, cliffs, voes and geos that are amongst the finest in Britain. The'Holl o Boardie'is a cave that passes right through the north @-@ west tip of the island. It is nearly half a mile long and wide enough to row through. Kirstan ( or Christie's ) Hole in the south west is another spectacular cave, part of the roof of which collapsed in 1981. Yet another is'Francie's Hole'close to Hamna Voe in the west. This was the favourite of John Tudor who wrote of the island in his Victorian memoirs and described the cave as :
... in fairyland, so exquisite is the colouring of the roof and sides and so pellucid is the water... [ with ] alcoves or recesses like stalls in a church.
In 1953 the spectacular headland,'Da Horn o Papa'fell into the sea during a storm. The nearby islet of Brei Holm also has caves that can be accessed by small boats when conditions permit.
= = Ecology = =
Otters, grey seals, killer whales and harbour porpoises are frequently seen on and around Papa Stour. Atlantic puffin, Arctic and common tern, bonxie and Arctic skua, northern fulmar, common guillemot, razorbill, curlew, wheatear, ringed plover and great black @-@ backed gull all breed on the island, and numerous migratory species have been recorded.
There is a profusion of wild flowers, including mountain everlasting, spring squill and eyebright as well as the ubiquitous heather. The west side of the island is a Site of Special Scientific Interest and the seas around Papa Stour are a Special Area of Conservation. The traditional Shetland Pony is still bred.
= = History and archaeology = =
Human settlement of the island dates from circa 3000 BC and there are remains of several Neolithic burial chambers known as'heel @-@ shaped cairns '. Little is known of the pre @-@ Celtic and Celtic eras, but when the Norse arrived it is likely they found a religious settlement as the name of the island derives from Papey Stóra meaning " Big island of the Papar " ( Celtic monks ), in distinction to Papa Little some 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) to the west.
= = = Norse period = = =
Papa Stour is the subject of a 1299 manuscript written in Old Norse, which is the oldest surviving document from Shetland. It deals with a dramatic incident in the house of Duke Hakon Magnusson, who was later to become King Hakon V of Norway. There is a circle of stones near the beach at Housa Voe, which are the remains of a'ting ', or local assembly. This was the scene of a duel, fought and won by Lord Thorvald Thoresson, | wikitext_103 | [
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= = =
In October 1927, HMAS Adelaide was called to the British Solomon Islands Protectorate as part of a punitive expedition in response to the killing of a district officer and sixteen others by Kwaio natives at Sinalagu on the island of Malaita on 3 October, known as the Malaita massacre. Arriving at Tulagi on 14 October, the ship proceeded to Malaita to protect the landing of three platoons of troops, then remained in the area to provide personnel support for the soldiers as they searched for the killers. The ship's personnel took no part in operations ashore, providing only logistic and communications support. Adelaide returned to Australia on 23 November.
= = = Spanish Civil War, 1936 – 39 = = =
A small number of Australian volunteers fought on both sides of the Spanish Civil War, although they predominantly supported the Spanish Republic through the International Brigades. The Australians were subsequently allocated to the battalions of other nationalities, such as the British Battalion and the Lincoln Battalion, rather than forming their own units. Most were radicals motivated by ideological reasons, while a number were Spanish @-@ born migrants who returned to fight in their country of origin. At least 66 Australians volunteered, with only one — Nugent Bull, a conservative catholic who was later killed serving in the RAF during the Second World War — known to have fought for General Francisco Franco's Nationalist forces.
While a celebrated cause for the Australian left — particularly the Communist Party of Australia and the trade union movement — the war failed to spark particular public interest and the government maintained its neutrality. Australian opposition to the Republican cause was marshalled by B.A. Santamaria on an anti @-@ communist basis, rather than a pro @-@ Nationalist basis. Equally, although individual right wing Australians may have served with the Nationalist rebels, they received no public support. Service in a foreign armed force was illegal at the time, however as the government received no reports of Australians travelling to Spain to enlist, no action was taken. Consequently, returned veterans were neither recognised by the government or the Returned and Services League of Australia ( RSL ). Although the number of Australian volunteers was relatively small compared to those from other countries, at least 14 were killed.
= = Second World War, 1939 – 45 = =
= = = Europe and the Middle East = = =
Australia entered the Second World War on 3 September 1939. At the time of the declaration of war against Germany the Australian military was small and unready for war. Recruiting for a Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) began in mid @-@ September. While there was no rush of volunteers like the First World War, a high proportion of Australian men of military age had enlisted by mid @-@ 1940. Four infantry divisions were formed during 1939 and 1940, three of which were dispatched to the Middle East. The RAAF's resources were initially mainly devoted to training airmen for service with the Commonwealth air forces through the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ), through which almost 28 @,@ 000 Australians were trained during the war.
The Australian military's first major engagements of the war were against Italian forces in the Mediterranean and North Africa. During 1940 the light cruiser HMAS Sydney and five elderly destroyers ( dubbed the " Scrap Iron Flotilla " by Nazi Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels — a title proudly accepted by the ships ) took part in a series of operations as part of the British Mediterranean Fleet, and sank several Italian warships. The Army first saw action in January 1941, when the 6th Division formed part of the Commonwealth forces during Operation Compass. The division assaulted and captured Bardia on 5 January and Tobruk on 22 January, with tens of thousands of Italian troops surrendering at both towns. The 6th Division took part in the pursuit of the Italian Army and captured Benghazi on 4 February. In late February it was withdrawn for service in Greece, and was replaced by the 9th Division.
The Australian forces in the Mediterranean endured a number of campaigns during 1941. During April, the 6th Division, other elements of I Corps and several Australian warships formed part of the Allied force which unsuccessfully attempted to defend Greece from German invasion during the Battle of Greece. At the end of this campaign, the 6th Division was evacuated to Egypt and Crete. The force at Crete subsequently fought in the Battle of Crete during May, which also ended in defeat for the Allies. Over 5 @,@ 000 Australians were captured in these campaigns, and the 6th Division required a long period of rebuilding before it was again ready for combat. The Germans and Italians also went on the offensive in North Africa at the end of March and drove the Commonwealth force there back to near the border with Egypt. The 9th Division and a brigade of the 7th Division were besieged at Tobruk ; successfully defending the key port town until they were replaced by British units in October. During June, the main body of the 7th Division, a brigade of the 6th Division and the I Corps headquarters took part in the Syria @-@ Lebanon Campaign against the Vichy French. Resistance was stronger than expected ; Australians were involved in most of the fighting and sustained most of the casualties before the French capitulated in early July.
The majority of Australian units in the Mediterranean returned to Australia in early 1942, after the outbreak of the Pacific War. The 9th Division was the largest unit to remain in the Middle East, and played a key role in the First Battle of El Alamein during June and the Second Battle of El Alamein in October. The division returned to Australia in early 1943, but several RAAF squadrons and RAN warships took part in the subsequent Tunisia Campaign and the Italian Campaign from 1943 until the end of the war.
The RAAF's role in the strategic air offensive in Europe formed Australia's main contribution to the defeat of Germany. Approximately 13 @,@ 000 Australian airmen served in dozens of British and five Australian squadrons in RAF Bomber Command between 1940 and the end of the war. Australians took part in all of Bomber Command's major offensives and suffered heavy losses during raids on German cities and targets in France. Australian aircrew in Bomber Command had one of the highest casualty rates of any part of the Australian military during the Second World War and sustained almost 20 percent of all Australian deaths in combat ; 3 @,@ 486 were killed and hundreds more were taken prisoner. Australian airmen in light bomber and fighter squadrons also participated in the liberation of Western Europe during 1944 and 1945 and two RAAF maritime patrol squadrons served in the Battle of the Atlantic.
= = = Asia and the Pacific = = =
From the 1920s Australia's defence thinking was dominated by British Imperial defence policy, which was embodied by the " Singapore strategy ". This strategy involved the construction and defence of a major naval base at Singapore from which a large British fleet would respond to Japanese aggression in the region. To this end, a high proportion of Australian forces in Asia were concentrated in Malaya during 1940 and 1941 as the threat from Japan increased. However, as a result of the emphasis on co @-@ operation with Britain, relatively few Australian military units had been retained in Australia and the Asia @-@ Pacific region. Measures were taken to improve Australia's defences as war with Japan loomed in 1941, but these proved inadequate. In December 1941, the Australian Army in the Pacific comprised the 8th Division, most of which was stationed in Malaya, and eight partially trained and equipped divisions in Australia. The RAAF was equipped with 373 aircraft, most of which were obsolete trainers, and the RAN had three cruisers and two destroyers in Australian waters.
The Australian military suffered a series of defeats during the early months of the Pacific War. The 8th Division and RAAF squadrons in Malaya formed a part of the British Commonwealth forces which were unable to stop a smaller Japanese invasion force which landed on 7 December. The British Commonwealth force withdrew to Singapore at the end of January, but was forced to surrender on 15 February after the Japanese captured much of the island. Smaller Australian forces were also overwhelmed and defeated during early 1942 at Rabaul, and in Ambon, Timor, and Java. The Australian town of Darwin was heavily bombed by the Japanese on 19 February, to prevent it from being used as an Allied base. Over 22 @,@ 000 Australians were taken prisoner in early 1942 and endured harsh conditions in Japanese captivity. The prisoners were subjected to malnutrition, denied medical treatment and frequently beaten and killed by their guards. As a result, 8 @,@ 296 Australian prisoners died in captivity.
The rapid Allied defeat in the Pacific caused many Australians to fear that the Japanese would invade the Australian mainland. While elements of the Imperial Japanese Navy proposed this in early 1942, it was judged to be impossible by the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters, which instead adopted a strategy of isolating Australia from the United States by capturing New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Fiji, Samoa, and New Caledonia. This fact was not known by the Allies at the time, and the Australian military was greatly expanded to meet the threat of invasion. Large numbers of United States Army and Army Air Forces units arrived in Australia in early 1942, and the Australian military was placed under the overall command of General Douglas MacArthur in March.
Australians played a central role in the New Guinea campaign during 1942 and 1943. After an attempt to land troops at Port Moresby was defeated in the Battle of the Coral Sea, the Japanese attempted to capture the strategically important town by advancing overland across the Owen Stanley Ranges and Milne Bay. Australian Army units defeated these offensives in the Kokoda Track | wikitext_103 | [
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= Battle of Edson's Ridge =
The Battle of Edson's Ridge, also known as the Battle of the Bloody Ridge, Battle of Raiders Ridge, and Battle of the Ridge, was a land battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II between Imperial Japanese Army and Allied ( mainly United States Marine Corps ) ground forces. It took place from 12 – 14 September 1942, on Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands, and was the second of three separate major Japanese ground offensives during the Guadalcanal Campaign.
In the battle, U.S. Marines, under the overall command of U.S. Major General Alexander Vandegrift, repulsed an attack by the Japanese 35th Infantry Brigade, under the command of Japanese Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi. The Marines were defending the Lunga perimeter that guarded Henderson Field on Guadalcanal, which was captured from the Japanese by the Allies in landings on Guadalcanal on 7 August 1942. Kawaguchi's unit was sent to Guadalcanal in response to the Allied landings with the mission of recapturing the airfield and driving the Allied forces from the island.
Underestimating the strength of Allied forces on Guadalcanal – about 12 @,@ 000 – Kawaguchi's 6 @,@ 000 soldiers conducted several nighttime frontal assaults on the U.S. defenses. The main Japanese assault occurred around Lunga ridge south of Henderson Field, manned by troops from several U.S. Marine Corps units, primarily troops from the 1st Raider and 1st Parachute Battalions under U.S. Marine Corps Lieutenant Colonel Merritt A. Edson. Although the Marine defenses were almost overrun, Kawaguchi's attack was ultimately defeated, with heavy losses for the Japanese.
Because of the key participation by Edson's unit in defending the ridge, the ridge was commonly referred to as " Edson's " ridge in historical accounts of the battle in Western sources. After Edson's Ridge, the Japanese continued to send troops to Guadalcanal for further attempts to retake Henderson Field, affecting Japanese offensive operations in other areas of the South Pacific.
= = Background = =
= = = Guadalcanal campaign = = =
On 7 August 1942, Allied forces ( primarily U.S. ) landed on Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands. The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases for threatening the supply routes between the U.S. and Australia. They were also intended to secure the islands as starting points for a campaign to neutralize the major Japanese base at Rabaul and support the Allied New Guinea campaign. The landings initiated the six @-@ month @-@ long Guadalcanal campaign.
Taking the Japanese by surprise, by nightfall on 8 August the Allied landing forces had secured Tulagi and nearby small islands, as well as an airfield under construction at Lunga Point ( 9 ° 25 ′ 45 ″ S 160 ° 3 ′ 4 ″ E ) on the north shore of the island of Guadalcanal east of the present day capital of Honiara. Vandegrift placed his 11 @,@ 000 troops of the 1st Marine Division on Guadalcanal in a loose perimeter around the Lunga Point area.
On 12 August, the airfield was named Henderson Field after Major Lofton Henderson, a Marine aviator who had been killed at the Battle of Midway. The Allied aircraft and pilots that subsequently operated out of Henderson Field were called the " Cactus Air Force " after the Allied code name for Guadalcanal.
In response to the Allied landings on Guadalcanal, the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters assigned the Imperial Japanese Army's 17th Army — a corps @-@ sized command based at Rabaul ( 4 ° 11 ′ 56 ″ S 152 ° 9 ′ 57 ″ E ) and under the command of Lieutenant @-@ General Harukichi Hyakutake — with the task of retaking Guadalcanal from Allied forces. The 17th Army — heavily involved with the Japanese campaign in New Guinea — had only a few units available to send to the southern Solomons area. Of these units, the 35th Infantry Brigade — under Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi — was at Palau, the 4th ( Aoba ) Infantry Regiment was in the Philippines and the 28th ( Ichiki ) Infantry Regiment — under the command of Colonel Kiyonao Ichiki — was embarked on transport ships near Guam. The different units began to move toward Guadalcanal immediately ; Ichiki's regiment — the closest — arrived first. The " First Element " of Ichiki's unit — consisting of about 917 soldiers — landed from destroyers at Taivu Point ( 9 ° 24 ′ 38 ″ S 160 ° 20 ′ 56 ″ E ), about 18 mi ( 29 km ) east of the Lunga perimeter, on August 19.
Underestimating the strength of Allied forces on Guadalcanal, Ichiki's First Element conducted a nighttime frontal assault on Marine positions at Alligator Creek on the east side of the Lunga perimeter in the early morning hours of August 21. Ichiki's assault was repulsed with devastating losses for the attackers in what became known as the Battle of the Tenaru : all but 128 of the 917 men of the First Element ( including Ichiki himself ) were killed in the battle. The survivors returned to Taivu Point, notified 17th Army headquarters of their defeat in the battle and awaited further reinforcements and orders from Rabaul.
By 23 August, Kawaguchi's unit had reached Truk and was loaded onto slow transport ships for the rest of the trip to Guadalcanal. Because of the damage caused by Allied air attack to a separate troop convoy during the Battle of the Eastern Solomons, the Japanese decided not to deliver Kawaguchi's troops to Guadalcanal by slow transport ship ; instead, the ships carrying Kawaguchi's soldiers were sent to Rabaul. From there, the Japanese planned to deliver Kawaguchi's men to Guadalcanal by destroyers, staging through a Japanese naval base in the Shortland Islands. The Japanese destroyers were usually able to make the round trip down " The Slot " to Guadalcanal and back in a single night, minimizing their exposure to Allied air attack. However, most of the soldiers'heavy equipment and supplies, such as heavy artillery, vehicles, and much food and ammunition, could not be taken to Guadalcanal with them. These high @-@ speed destroyer runs to Guadalcanal, which occurred throughout the campaign, were later called the " Tokyo Express " by Allied forces and " Rat Transportation " by the Japanese. The Japanese controlled the seas around the Solomon Islands during the nighttime and were not challenged by the Allies. However, any Japanese ship remaining within the 200 mi ( 320 km ) range of the aircraft at Henderson Field in daylight was in great danger from air attacks. This " curious tactical situation " held for several months.
= = = Troop movement = = =
On 28 August, 600 of Kawaguchi's troops were loaded onto the destroyers Asagiri, Amagiri, Yugiri, and Shirakumo, designated Destroyer Division 20 ( DD20 ). Because of a shortage of fuel, DD20 could not make the entire round trip to Guadalcanal at high speed in one night, but had to start the trip earlier in the day so that they could complete the trip by the next morning at a slower speed which conserved fuel. At 18 : 05 that day, 11 U.S. dive bombers from VMSB @-@ 232 under the command of Lt. Col. Richard Mangrum, flew from Henderson Field and located and attacked DD20 about 70 mi ( 110 km ) north of Guadalcanal, sinking Asagiri and heavily damaging Yugiri and Shirakumo. Amagiri took Shirakumo in tow and the three destroyers returned to the Shortlands without completing their mission. The attack on DD20 killed 62 of Kawaguchi's soldiers and 94 crew members.
Subsequent " Express " runs were more successful. Between 29 August and 4 September, various Japanese light cruisers, destroyers, and patrol boats were able to land almost 5 @,@ 000 troops at Taivu Point, including all of the 35th Infantry Brigade, one battalion of the Aoba Regiment, and the rest of Ichiki's regiment. General Kawaguchi, who landed at Taivu Point on the 31 August Express run, was placed in command of all the Japanese troops on Guadalcanal. On the night of 4 / 5 September, as three of the Express destroyers — Yūdachi, Hatsuyuki, and Murakumo — prepared to shell Henderson Field after landing their troops, they detected and sank two U.S. ships in the vicinity, the small, old destroyer transports ( called " APDs " by the U.S. Marines ) USS Little and Gregory that were used to shuttle Allied troops around the Guadalcanal / Tulagi area.
In spite of the successes of the destroyer runs, Kawaguchi insisted that as many soldiers of his brigade as possible be delivered to Guadalcanal by slow barges. Therefore, a convoy carrying 1 @,@ 100 of Kawaguchi's troops and heavy equipment in 61 barges, mainly from the 2nd Battalion, 124th Infantry Regiment under the command of Colonel Akinosuka | wikitext_103 | [
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Johnny Devine, Kamala, Karen Angle, Koko B. Ware, Raisha Saeed, Rhaka Khan, Salinas, Scott Steiner, SoCal Val, Sonjay Dutt, and Tomko all appeared on camera, either in backstage or in ringside segments. The wedding of Lethal and Val took place after the second $ 25 @,@ 000 Fan Challenge. The segment ended when Dutt proclaimed his love for Val in the storyline and attacked Lethal. Young, Steele, Roberts, Kamala, and Ware came to Lethal's defense before Roberts placed a snake on top of an unconscious Dutt to end the segment.
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The TNA X Division Championship was defended by then @-@ champion Petey Williams against Kaz in the opening contest of the telecast. Williams was accompanied by Rhaka Khan and Scott Steiner. The duration of the bout was 15 minutes and 19 seconds. Williams wore a protective face mask due to a broken orbital bone. Khan and Steiner interfered in the bout several times. Kaz was legitimately busted open during the match after Williams bashed him in the face with a steel pipe. Williams won the encounter after performing his signature Canadian Destroyer maneuver by slamming Kaz head @-@ first into the mat to retain the TNA X Division Championship. Abyss returned after this match by aiding Kaz who was being attacked by Khan, Steiner, and Williams.
The team of The Beautiful People and Mickie Knuckles — renamed Moose — fought the team of Gail Kim, ODB, and Roxxi in a Six Woman Tag Team match next. It lasted 10 minutes and 14 seconds. ODB won the bout for her team after running and slamming Moose against the mat back @-@ first and following with the pin.
The TNA World Tag Team Championship was defended in the third match of the event by LAX against Team 3D. Héctor Guerrero and Salinas accompanied LAX to the ring. Salinas, Guerrero, and Team 3D's associate Johnny Devine all interfered in the encounter. Near the end when Team 3D were waiting to perform their signature 3D tag team maneuver on Hernandez, Homicide came up behind Devon and pinned him with a schoolboy pin at 15 minutes to retain the championship.
TNA held two $ 25 @,@ 000 Fan Challenge segments next with then @-@ TNA Women's Knockout Champion Awesome Kong and her manager Raisha Saeed offering fans in the crowd the chance to face Kong. Kong and Saeed then chose a willing participant and if they defeated Kong they won $ 25 @,@ 000. The participants chosen for these segments were predetermined, with each planted in the crowd. The first encounter pitted Serena D against Kong, which Kong won after slamming Serena face @-@ first into the mat with her signature Implant Buster maneuver at 2 minutes and 26 seconds. The second was between Josie Robinson and Kong, lasting 1 minute and 42 seconds. Kong won the bout after slamming Josie back @-@ first into the mat with her signature Awesome Bomb maneuver.
= = = Main event matches = = =
A.J. Styles fought Kurt Angle in the sixth encounter of the show next. The match lasted 22 minutes and 44 seconds. Angle was accompanied by Tomko to the ring. The referee forced Tomko to head to the backstage area due to the referee believing he would interfere. Styles attempted to perform his signature Styles Clash maneuver on Angle, which Angle countered into his signature Ankle Lock submission hold. Styles escaped the hold, causing Angle to crash into the referee, knocking him out in the storyline. Karen Angle then ran down to the ringside area and attempted to hand Angle a steel chair. Once Angle grabbed the chair she refused to release, allowing Styles to grab Angle and perform the Styles Clash by slamming Angle face @-@ first into the mat. Styles then followed with the pin attempt to win the contest. After the encounter, Angle and Tomko assaulted Styles.
The main event was a King of the Mountain match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship with Kevin Nash as Special Guest Ringside Enforcer between then @-@ champion Samoa Joe and the challengers Booker T, Christian Cage, Rhino, and Robert Roode. In a King of the Mountain match, the objective is to climb a ladder and hang the championship belt on a hook above the ring. In order to do so, a wrestler must first qualify by either pinning or making another wrestler submit in the match. A wrestler who is pinned or made to submit is this placed in a penalty box for two minutes. The match is fought under no disqualification rules. Booker T was the first to qualify by pinning Rhino after slamming him back @-@ first into the mat with his signature Book End maneuver. Rhino was this placed in the penalty box. Roode was the next to qualify after bashing a ladder Cage held with a chair into him and following with a pin. Immediately afterwards, Rhino pinned Roode with a roll @-@ up pin to qualify. Later, Joe held Booker T in his signature Coquina Clutch submission hold when Cage ascended a padded turnbuckle and jumped off onto Booker T and Joe. He followed by pinning Booker T to qualify and send Booker T to the penalty box. When Booker T was released from the box, he attacked Nash with the title belt and then attempted to hang it. Nash stopped him and then dropped Booker T back @-@ first against the mat with his signature Jackknife Powerbomb maneuver. Joe was the last to qualify by pinning Roode after slamming him back and neck @-@ first into the mat with his signature Muscle Buster maneuver. Joe then hung the title belt at 19 minutes and 49 seconds to win the competition.
= = Reception = =
A total of 2 @,@ 000 people attended Slammiversary, while the The Wrestling Observer Newsletter reported that 20 @,@ 000 people bought the event. Canadian Online Explorer writer Jon Waldman rated the entire event a 7 out of 10, which was lower than the 8 out of 10 given to the 2007 edition by Jason Clevett. The 7 out of 10 was the same rating given to the 2009 edition by Chris and Bryan Sokol. The previous PPV event Sacrifice and TNA's next PPV event Victory Road both received a 7 out of 10 by Chris Sokol and Bob Kapur, respectively. Compared to rival World Wrestling Entertainment's ( WWE ) One Night Stand PPV event on June 1, both performed equally, as One Night Stand received the same rating from Matt Mackinder.
Waldman felt that " TNA put on a strong PPV " that was in " large part to little gimmickery. " Regarding the main event, Waldman gave it a 6 out of 10, while the World Tag Team Championship match received a 4 out of 10. He gave the Six Woman Tag Team match a 4 @.@ 5 out of 10 and the A.J. Styles versus Kurt Angle bout a 9 out of 10. The X Division Championship contest was given a 7 out of 10.
Wade Keller of the Pro Wrestling Torch Newsletter reviewed the show. He felt the main event had " lots of action and drama, " but that having to hang the belt on a hook does not make for a " particularly dramatic end to a match as it seems like someone hanging a plant in the corner " than " beating someone to win a fight. " Keller said the World Tag Team Championship contest was a " solid tag match " with some " elaborate sequences " that were " well executed. " Keller stated that the X Division Championship match was a " very good opener. " Regarding the Styles and Angle bout, Keller commented that it was a " good match, but short of a classic must @-@ see match in part because there were too many chinlocks mid @-@ match from Angle that took the crowd out of it. "
James Caldwell, also of the Pro Wrestling Torch Newsletter, posted a review of the show in which he felt the main event was a " slow, plodding match " with an " anticlimactic finish. " Caldwell stated that the Styles versus Angle contest was a " fine spotlight singles match, " but was a " bit underwhelming when the expectations were reasonably high for two of TNA's best wrestlers in a featured singles match. " He went on to say that he felt it was " missing something " and that it " seemed like the match just never moved out of second gear. Caldwell felt the X Division Championship bout was a " very good opening match, " which " could have been a featured match to sell a few additional PPV buys, but TNA didn 't give the X Division any focus until the final show before the PPV. " Caldwell stated the World Tag Team Championship was " just a slow, plodding tag match. " Regarding the marriage segment during the show, Caldwell said " it was just a bad, bad, bad segment that died slowly and painfully in front of the live audience. " Overall, Caldwell felt that " TNA showcased the X Division in the opening match, " but needed more " athleticism on the show to balance the slow, plodding former WWE heavyweight wrestlers in the main event slots. "
= = Accident = =
After Slammiversary ended, crews began to disassemble the set used for the event. During this time, a man named Kevin | wikitext_103 | [
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= Battle of Sullivan's Island =
The Battle of Sullivan's Island or the Battle of Fort Sullivan was fought on June 28, 1776, during the American Revolutionary War. It took place near Charleston, South Carolina, during the first British attempt to capture the city from American rebels. It is also sometimes referred to as the First Siege of Charleston, owing to a more successful British siege in 1780.
The British organized an expedition in early 1776 for operations in the rebellious southern colonies of North America. Delayed by logistical concerns and bad weather, the expedition reached the coast of North Carolina in May 1776. Finding conditions unsuitable for their operations, General Henry Clinton and Admiral Sir Peter Parker decided instead to act against Charleston. Arriving there in early June, troops were landed on Long Island, near Sullivan's Island where Colonel William Moultrie commanded a partially constructed fort, in preparation for a naval bombardment and land assault. General Charles Lee, commanding the southern Continental theater of the war, would provide supervision.
The land assault was frustrated when the channel between the two islands was found to be too deep to wade, and the American defenses prevented an amphibious landing. The naval bombardment had little effect due to the sandy soil and the spongy nature of the fort's palmetto log construction. Careful fire by the defenders wrought significant damage on the British fleet, which withdrew after an entire day's bombardment. The British withdrew their expedition force to New York, and did not return to South Carolina until 1780.
= = Background = =
When the American Revolutionary War broke out in 1775, the city of Charleston in the colony of South Carolina was a center of commerce in southern North America. The city's citizens joined other colonists in opposing the British parliament's attempts to tax them, and militia recruitment increased when word arrived of the April 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord. Throughout 1775 and into 1776, militia recruits arrived in the city from the colony's backcountry, the city's manufacturers and tradesmen began producing war materiel, and defensive fortifications began to take shape around the city.
= = = British operations = = =
British army forces in North America were primarily tied up with the Siege of Boston in 1775. Seeking bases of operations where they had more control, the British planned an expedition to the southern colonies. Major General Henry Clinton, then in Boston, was to travel to Cape Fear, North Carolina, where he would join with largely Scottish Loyalists raised in the North Carolina backcountry, and a force of 2 @,@ 000 men from Ireland under the command of Major General Charles Cornwallis.
The plan was beset by difficulties from the start. The Irish expedition, originally supposed to depart at the beginning of December 1775, was delayed by logistical difficulties, and its 2 @,@ 500 troops did not depart until February 13, 1776, escorted by 11 warships under the command of Admiral Sir Peter Parker. Clinton left Boston on January 20 with two companies of light infantry, and first stopped at New York City to confer with William Tryon, New York's royal governor. Major General Charles Lee, sent by Major General George Washington to see to the defense of New York, coincidentally arrived there the same day as Clinton. New York was at that time extremely tense ; Patriot forces were beginning to disarm and evict Loyalists, and the British fleet anchored there was having difficulty acquiring provisions. Despite this, Clinton made no secret that his final target was in the south. Lee observed that this was " certainly a droll way of proceeding ; to communicate his full plan to the enemy is too novel to be credited. " This was not even the first notice of the expedition to the colonists ; a letter intercepted in December had already provided intelligence that the British were planning to go to the South.
Clinton arrived at Cape Fear on March 12, expecting to find the European convoy already there. He met with the royal governors of North and South Carolina, Josiah Martin and William Campbell, and learned that the recruited Scottish Loyalists had been defeated at Moore's Creek Bridge two weeks earlier. Clinton also received pleas for assistance from the royal governor of Georgia, James Wright, who had been arrested, and then escaped to a navy ship.
Parker's fleet had an extremely difficult crossing. Battered by storms and high seas, the first ships of the fleet did not arrive at Cape Fear until April 18, and Cornwallis did not arrive until May 3. After several weeks there, in which the British troops raided Patriot properties, Clinton, Cornwallis and Parker concluded that Cape Fear was not a suitable base for further operations. Parker had sent out some ships on scouting expeditions up and down the coast, and reports on the partially finished condition of the Charleston defenses were sufficiently promising that the decision was made to go there.
= = = American defenses = = =
John Rutledge, recently elected president of the General Assembly that remained as the backbone of South Carolina's revolutionary government, organized a defense force under the command of 46 @-@ year @-@ old Colonel William Moultrie, a former militiaman and Indian fighter. These forces comprised three infantry regiments, two rifle regiments, and a small artillery regiment ; they were augmented by three independent artillery companies, and the total force numbered about 2 @,@ 000. These forces were further augmented by the arrival of Continental regiments from North Carolina and Virginia ( 1 @,@ 900 troops ), as well as militia numbering 2 @,@ 700 from Charleston and the surrounding backcountry.
Moultrie saw Sullivan's Island, a sandy spit of land at the entrance to Charleston Harbor extending north about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) long and a few hundred yards wide, as a place well suited to build a fort that could protect the entrance from intruding enemy warships. A large vessel sailing into Charleston first had to cross Charleston Bar, a series of submerged shoals lying about 8 miles ( 13 km ) southeast of the city, and then pass by the southern end of Sullivan's Island as it entered the channel to the inner harbor. Later it would also have to pass the northern end of James Island, where Fort Johnson commanded the southeastern approach to the city. Moultrie and his 2nd South Carolina Regiment arrived on Sullivan's Island in March 1776, and began construction of a fortress to defend the island and the channel into Charleston Harbor. The construction moved slowly ; Captain Peter Horry of the Patriot naval detachment described the site as " an immense pen 500 feet long, and 16 feet wide, filled with sand to stop the shot ". The gun platforms were made of planks two inches thick and fastened with wooden spikes.
Congress had appointed General Lee to command the Continental Army troops in the southern colonies, and his movements by land shadowed those of Clinton's fleet as it sailed south. Lee wrote from Wilmington on June 1 that the fleet had sailed, but that he did not know whether it was sailing for Virginia or South Carolina. He headed for Charleston, saying " [ I ] confess I know not whether I shall go to or from the enemy. " He arrived in Charleston shortly after the fleet anchored outside the harbor, and took command of the city's defenses. He immediately ran into a problem : the South Carolina troops ( militia or the colonial regiments ) were not on the Continental line, and thus not formally under his authority. Some South Carolina troops resisted his instructions, and Rutledge had to intervene by proclaiming Lee in command of all South Carolina forces.
Square @-@ shaped Fort Sullivan consisted only of the completed seaward wall, with walls made from palmetto logs 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) high and 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) wide. The walls were filled with sand, and rose 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) above the wooden platforms on which the artillery were mounted. A hastily erected palisade of thick planks helped guard the powder magazine and unfinished northern walls. An assortment of 31 cannon, ranging from 9- and 12 @-@ pounders to a few British 18 @-@ pounders and French 26 @-@ pounders, dotted the front and rear walls. General Lee, when he had seen its unfinished state, had recommended abandoning the fort, calling it a " slaughter pen ". President Rutledge refused, and specifically ordered Colonel Moultrie to " obey [ Lee ] in everything, except in leaving Fort Sullivan ". Moultrie's delaying tactics so angered Lee that he decided on June 27 that he would replace Moultrie ; the battle began the next day before he could do so. Lee did make plans for an orderly retreat to Haddrell's Point.
= = = British arrival = = =
The British fleet weighed anchor at Cape Fear on May 31, and arrived outside Charleston Harbor the next day. Moultrie noticed a British scout boat apparently looking for possible landing points on nearby Long Island ( now known as the Isle of Palms ), just a few hundred yards from Sullivan's Island ; troops were consequently sent to occupy the northern end of Sullivan's. By June 8, most of the British fleet had crossed the bar and anchored in Five Fathom Hole, an anchorage between the bar and the harbor entrance. With the fort on Sullivan's Island only half complete, Admiral Parker expressed confidence that his warships would easily breach its walls. Optimistically believing he would not even need Clinton's land forces, he wrote to Clinton that after the fort's guns were knocked out, he would " land seamen and marines ( which I have practiced for the purpose ) under the guns " and that they could " keep possession till you send as many troops | wikitext_103 | [
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] |
= Nazarov cyclization reaction =
The Nazarov cyclization reaction ( often referred to as simply the Nazarov cyclization ) is a chemical reaction used in organic chemistry for the synthesis of cyclopentenones. The reaction is typically divided into classical and modern variants, depending on the reagents and substrates employed. It was originally discovered by Ivan Nikolaevich Nazarov ( 1906 – 1957 ) in 1941 while studying the rearrangements of allyl vinyl ketones.
As originally described, the Nazarov cyclization involves the activation of a divinyl ketone using a stoichiometric Lewis acid or protic acid promoter. The key step of the reaction mechanism involves a cationic 4π @-@ electrocyclic ring closure which forms the cyclopentenone product ( See Mechanism below ). As the reaction has been developed, variants involving substrates other than divinyl ketones and promoters other than Lewis acids have been subsumed under the name Nazarov cyclization provided that they follow a similar mechanistic pathway.
The success of the Nazarov cyclization as a tool in organic synthesis stems from the utility and ubiquity of cyclopentenones as both motifs in natural products ( including jasmone, the aflatoxins, and a subclass of prostaglandins ) and as useful synthetic intermediates for total synthesis. The reaction has been used in several total syntheses and several reviews have been published.
= = Mechanism = =
The mechanism of the classical Nazarov cyclization reaction was first demonstrated experimentally by Shoppe to be an intramolecular electrocyclization and is outlined below. Activation of the ketone by the acid catalyst generates a pentadienyl cation which undergoes a thermally allowed 4π conrotatory electrocyclization as dictated by the Woodward @-@ Hoffman rules. This generates an oxyallyl cation which undergoes an elimination reaction to lose a β @-@ hydrogen. Subsequent tautomerization of the enolate produces the cyclopentenone product.
As noted above, variants that deviate from this template are known ; what designates a Nazarov cyclization in particular is the generation of the pentadienyl cation followed by electrocyclic ring closure to an oxyallyl cation. In order to achieve this transformation, the molecule must be in the s @-@ trans / s @-@ trans conformation, placing the vinyl groups in an appropriate orientation. The propensity of the system to enter this conformation dramatically influences reaction rate, with α @-@ substituted substrates having an increased population of the requisite conformer due to allylic strain. Coordination of an electron donating α @-@ substituent by the catalyst can likewise increase the reaction rate by enforcing this conformation.
Similarly, β @-@ substitution directed inward restricts the s @-@ trans conformation so severely that E @-@ Z isomerization has been shown to occur in advance of cyclization on a wide range of substrates, yielding the trans cyclopentenone regardless of initial configuration. In this way, the Nazarov cyclization is a rare example of a stereoselective pericyclic reaction, whereas most electrocyclizations are stereospecific. The example below uses triethylsilyl hydride to trap the oxyallyl cation so that no elimination occurs. ( See Interrupted cyclizations below )
Along this same vein, allenyl vinyl ketones of the type studied extensively by Marcus Tius of the University of Hawaii show dramatic rate acceleration due to the removal of β @-@ hydrogens, obviating a large amount of steric strain in the s @-@ cis conformer.
= = Classical Nazarov cyclizations = =
Though cyclizations following the general template above had been observed prior to Nazarov's involvement, it was his study of the rearrangements of allyl vinyl ketones that marked the first major examination of this process. Nazarov correctly reasoned that the allylic olefin isomerized in situ to form a divinyl ketone before ring closure to the cyclopentenone product. The reaction shown below involves an alkyne oxymercuration reaction to generate the requisite ketone.
Research involving the reaction was relatively quiet in subsequent years, until in the mid @-@ 1980s when several syntheses employing the Nazarov cyclization were published. Shown below are key steps in the syntheses of Trichodiene and Nor @-@ Sterepolide, the latter of which is thought to proceed via an unusual alkyne @-@ allene isomerization that generates the divinyl ketone.
= = = Shortcomings = = =
The classical version of the Nazarov cyclization suffers from several drawbacks which modern variants attempt to circumvent. The first two are not evident from the mechanism alone, but are indicative of the barriers to cyclization ; the last three stem from selectivity issues relating to elimination and protonation of the intermediate.
Strong Lewis or protic acids are typically required for the reaction ( e.g. TiCl4, BF3, MeSO3H ). These promoters are not compatible with sensitive functional groups, limiting the substrate scope.
Despite the mechanistic possibility for catalysis, multiple equivalents of the promoter are often required in order to effect the reaction. This limits the atom economy of the reaction.
The elimination step is not regioselective ; if multiple β @-@ hydrogens are available for elimination, various products are often observed as mixtures. This is highly undesirable from an efficiency standpoint as arduous separation is typically required.
Elimination destroys a potential stereocenter, decreasing the potential usefulness of the reaction.
Protonation of the enolate is sometimes not stereoselective, meaning that products can be formed as mixtures of epimers.
= = Modern variants = =
The shortcomings noted above limit the usefulness of the Nazarov cyclization reaction in its canonical form. However, modifications to the reaction focused on remedying its issues continue to be an active area of academic research. In particular, the research has focused on a few key areas : rendering the reaction catalytic in the promoter, effecting the reaction with more mild promoters to improve functional group tolerance, directing the regioselectivity of the elimination step, and improving the overall stereoselectivity. These have been successful to varying degrees.
Additionally, modifications focused on altering the progress of the reaction, either by generating the pentadienyl cation in an unorthodox fashion or by having the oxyallyl cation " intercepted " in various ways. Furthermore, enantioselective variants of various kinds have been developed. The sheer volume of literature on the subject prevents a comprehensive examination of this field ; key examples are given below.
= = = Silicon @-@ directed cyclization = = =
The earliest efforts to improve the selectivity of the Nazarov cyclization took advantage of the β @-@ silicon effect in order to direct the regioselectivity of the elimination step. This chemistry was developed most extensively by Professor Scott Denmark of the University of Illinois, Urbana @-@ Champaign in the mid @-@ 1980s and utilizes stoichiometric amounts of iron trichloride to promote the reaction. With bicyclic products, the cis isomer was selected for to varying degrees.
The silicon @-@ directed Nazarov cyclization reaction was subsequently employed in the synthesis of the natural product Silphinene, shown below. The cyclization takes place before elimination of the benzyl alcohol moiety, so that the resulting stereochemistry of the newly formed ring arises from approach of the silyl alkene anti to the ether.
= = = Polarization = = =
Drawing on the substituent effects compiled over various trials of the reaction, Professor Alison Frontier of the University of Rochester developed a paradigm for " polarized " Nazarov cyclizations in which electron donating and electron withdrawing groups are used to improve the overall selectivity of the reaction. Creation of an effective vinyl nucleophile and vinyl electrophile in the substrate allows catalytic activation with copper triflate and regioselective elimination. In addition, the electron withdrawing group increases the acidity of the α @-@ proton, allowing selective formation of the trans @-@ α @-@ epimer via equilibration.
It is often possible to achieve catalytic activation using a donating or withdrawing group alone, although the efficiency of the reaction ( yield, reaction time, etc. ) is typically lower.
= = = Alternative cation generation = = =
By extension, any pentadienyl cation regardless of its origin is capable of undergoing a Nazarov cyclization. There have been a large number of examples published where the requisite cation is arrived at by a variety of rearrangements. One such example involves the silver catalyzed cationic ring opening of allylic dichloro cylopropanes. The silver salt facilitates loss of chloride via precipitation of insoluble silver chloride.
In the total synthesis of rocaglamide, epoxidation of a vinyl alkoxyallenyl stannane likewise generates a pentadienyl cation via ring opening of the resultant epoxide.
= = = Interrupted cyclization = = =
Once the cyclization has occurred, an oxyallyl cation is formed. As discussed extensively above, the typical course for this intermediate is elimination followed by enolate tautomerization. However, these two steps can be interrupted by various nucleophiles and electrophiles, respectively. Oxyallyl cation trapping has been developed extensively by Fredrick G. West of the University of Alberta and his review covers the field. The oxyallyl cation can be trapped with heteroatom and carbon nucleophiles and can also undergo cationic cycloadditions with various tethered partners. Shown below is a cascade reaction in which successive cation trapping generates a pent | wikitext_103 | [
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, and it does not entitle an individual to vote in the tribe as a member. The Keetoowah Band states that Churchill still holds the associate membership and it has not been rescinded. In a separate interview, Ernestine Berry, formerly on the tribe's enrollment committee and four years on its council, said that Churchill had never fulfilled a promise to help the tribe.
In June 2005, the Rocky Mountain News published an article about Churchill's genealogy and family history. It " turned up no evidence of a single Indian ancestor " among 142 direct ancestors [ of Churchill's ] identified from records. The News reported that both Churchill's birth parents were listed as white on the 1930 census, as were all but two of his great @-@ great @-@ grandparents listed on previous census and other official documents. The News found that some of Churchill's accounts of where his ancestors had lived did not agree with documented records. Numerous members of Churchill's extended family have longstanding family legends of Indian ancestry among ancestors ; but, none was confirmed among the 142 direct forebears of Churchill who were identified.
Documents in Churchill's university personnel file show that he was granted tenure in a " special opportunity position. " In 1994, then CU @-@ Boulder Chancellor James Corbridge refused to take action on allegations that Churchill was fraudulently claiming to be an Indian, saying " it has always been university policy that a person's race or ethnicity is self @-@ proving. "
Some of Churchill's Native American critics, such as Vernon Bellecourt ( White Earth Ojibwe ) and Suzan Shown Harjo ( Southern Cheyenne @-@ Muscogee Creek ), argue that his assertion of Native American ancestry without the ability to prove it might constitute misrepresentation and grounds for termination. The University has said that it does not hire on the basis of ethnicity. The University of Colorado's Research Misconduct Committee conducted a preliminary investigation into whether Churchill misrepresented his ethnicity to " add credibility and public acceptance to his scholarship. " The committee concluded that the allegation was not " appropriate for further investigation under the definition of research misconduct. "
In a 2005 interview in The Rocky Mountain News, Churchill said, " I have never been confirmed as having one @-@ quarter blood, and never said I was. And even if [ the critics ] are absolutely right, what does that have to do with this issue? I have never claimed to be goddamned Sitting Bull. " The longtime indigenous activist Russell Means said in February of that year, " So I want, from this day forward, every media person nationally, internationally and locally to know that we have ascertained that Ward Churchill is a full @-@ blooded Indian leader. "
= = = Blood quantum = = =
Churchill has responded to requests for verification of his claimed Indian heritage in various ways, including attacking the blood quantum upon which some Native American tribes establish their membership requirements. Churchill argues that the United States instituted blood quantum laws based upon rules of descendancy in order to further goals of personal enrichment and political expediency.
For decades in his writings, Churchill has argued that blood quantum laws have an inherent genocidal purpose. He says,
" Set the blood quantum at one @-@ quarter, hold to it as a rigid definition of Indians, let intermarriage proceed as it [ has ] and eventually Indians will be defined out of existence ".
Churchill's assertions have been raised as one of the several research @-@ misconduct allegations that were brought against him in 2005 ( see below ). He has been accused of using his interpretation of the Dawes Act to attack tribal governments that would not recognize him as a member.
= = Writing = =
Churchill has written on American Indian history and culture, and speaks about genocide inflicted on the indigenous people of the Americas by European settlers and what he describes as the repression of native peoples that continues to this day.
As of 2007, according to a report submitted on his behalf, Churchill has written 10 books on his own and co @-@ authored 4. Some have been reprinted with updates. He has written 51 book chapters, 3 law reviews, and 50 scholarly essays ; 27 of these were refereed. He has edited 4 volumes and co @-@ edited 3 more.
According to the University of Colorado investigation, " His academic publications are nearly all works of synthesis and reinterpretation, drawing upon studies by other scholars, not monographs describing new research based on primary sources. " The investigation also noted that " he has decided to publish largely in alternative presses or journals, not in the university presses or mainstream peer @-@ reviewed journals often favored by more conventional academics. " In addition to his academic writing, Churchill has written for several general readership magazines of political opinion.
In 1986, Churchill wrote an essay titled Pacifism as Pathology : Notes on an American Pseudopraxis criticizing pacifist politics within the U.S. left as being hypocritical, de facto racist and ineffectual. In 1998, Arbeiter Ring Publishing published the essay in a book entitled Pacifism as Pathology : Reflections on the Role of Armed Struggle in North America and listing Ward Churchill as the author. The book included a preface by Ed Mead, a new introduction to the essay by Churchill and a commentary by Mike Ryan. The book sparked much debate in leftist circles and inspired more aggressive tactics within the anti @-@ globalization movement in the following few years.
Agents of Repression ( 1988 ), co @-@ authored by Jim Vander Wall, describes what the authors claim was a secret war against the Black Panther Party and American Indian Movement carried out during the late 1960s and'70s by the FBI under the COINTELPRO program. The COINTELPRO Papers ( 1990 ; reissued 2002 ), also co @-@ authored with Jim Vander Wall, examines a series of original FBI memos that detail the Bureau's activities against various leftist groups, from the U.S. Communist Party in the 1950s to activists concerned with Central American issues in the 1980s.
In Fantasies of the Master Race ( 1992 ), Churchill examines the portrayal of American Indians and the use of American Indian symbols in popular American culture. He focuses on such phenomena as Tony Hillerman's mystery novels, the film Dances with Wolves, and the New Age movement, finding examples of cultural imperialism and exploitation. Churchill calls author Carlos Castaneda's claims of revealing the teachings of a Yaqui Indian shaman, the " greatest hoax since Piltdown Man. "
Struggle for the Land ( 1993 ; reissued 2002 ) is a collection of essays in which Churchill chronicles what he describes as the U.S. government's systematic exploitation of Native lands and the killing or displacement of American Indians. He details Native American efforts in the 19th and 20th centuries to prevent defoliation and industrial practices such as surface mining.
Churchill's Indians Are Us? ( 1994 ), a sequel to Fantasies of the Master Race, further explores American Indian issues in popular culture and politics. He examines the movie Black Robe, the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation killings, the prosecution of Leonard Peltier, sports mascots, the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990, and blood quantum laws, calling them tools of genocide. Churchill is particularly outspoken about New Age exploitations of shamanism and American Indian sacred traditions, and the " do @-@ it @-@ yourself Indianism " of certain contemporary authors. John P. LaVelle of the University of New Mexico School of Law published a review of Indians Are Us? in The American Indian Quarterly. Professor LaVelle, an enrolled member of the Santee Sioux Nation, states that Indians Are Us? twists historical facts and is hostile toward Indian tribes. It was in this book that Churchill first made the claim that the United States distributed " smallpox @-@ infested blankets " to Indian tribes, a claim which he repeated several times over the next decade. The claim has been criticized as a falsification. Churchill has, however, received support from some scholars.
From a Native Son : Selected Essays on Indigenism, 1985 – 1995 ( 1996 ) is a collection of 23 previously published essays on Native American history, culture, and political activism. In his introduction to this volume, Howard Zinn lauds " the emergence of a new generation of Native @-@ American scholars " and describes Churchill's writing as " powerful, eloquent, unsparing of cant and deception ".
Churchill's A Little Matter of Genocide ( 1997 ) is a survey of ethnic cleansing in the Americas from 1492 to the present. He compares the treatment of North American Indians to historical instances of genocide by the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia, Turks against Armenians, and Europeans against the Gypsies, as well as Nazis against the Poles and Jews.
In Perversions of Justice ( 2002 ), Churchill argues that the U.S.'s legal system was adapted to gain control over Native American people. Tracing the evolution of federal Indian law, Churchill argues that the principles set forth were not only applied to non @-@ Indians in the U.S., but later adapted for application abroad. He concludes that this demonstrates the development of the U.S.'s " imperial logic, " which depends on a " corrupt form of legalism " to establish colonial control and empire.
Churchill's controversial essay on 9 / 11 was expanded into a book @-@ length manuscript, published as On the Justice of Roosting Chickens : Reflections on the Consequences of U.S. Imperial Arrogance and Criminality ( 2003 ) by AK Press. The book features two other chapters, one listing US military interventions, another listing what Churchill believes to be US | wikitext_103 | [
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] |
,@ 000 in bonds was approved for the city to build new public schools. From this bond, the Wechsler School was built in 1894, becoming the first brick public school building in the state built for blacks.
From this early district and later additions, the Meridian Public School District grew to its current size, which now includes six elementary schools, 3 middle schools, and 3 high schools. The city also contains several private schools including Lamar School, Calvary Christian School, Community Christian School, and St. Patrick's Catholic School. The campus of Meridian High School, the main high school in the district, occupies 37 acres ( 15 ha ), including six buildings and 111 classrooms. The school is made up of grades 10 @-@ 12 and enrolls approximately 1 @,@ 500 students.
Meridian is home to two post @-@ secondary educational institutions. Meridian Community College, founded in 1937, is located at 910 Highway 19 N and offers free tuition for four semesters to graduates from the Meridian Public and Lauderdale County School Districts as well as homeschooled children who reside inside Lauderdale County. Originally known as Meridian Junior College and located at Meridian High School, the college moved to its present location in 1965. After desegregation laws were passed, MJC merged with T.J. Harris Junior College in 1970, which had previously enrolled African @-@ American students. The name change from Meridian Junior College to Meridian Community College took place In 1987 " to more accurately reflect the diversity of opportunities it provides for a growing community area. " Mississippi State University also operates a campus in the city. As of the Fall 2008 semester, 763 students from 33 counties throughout the state and several in Alabama attended the college.
Meridian is served by the Meridian @-@ Lauderdale County Public Library, located at the corner of 7th Street and 26th Avenue. The city originally had two Carnegie libraries, both built in 1913 – one for blacks and one for whites. A group of women had formed the Fortnightly Book and Magazine Club in the 1880s and began raising money to build a library for the city. The books they collected and shared within the club were later the basis of the library collection for Meridian. With wide support for the library, the club enlisted Israel Marks, a city leader, to approach the national philanthropist Andrew Carnegie for funding assistance. The library for blacks was built at 13th Street and 28th Avenue on land donated by St. Paul Methodist Church, and the library for whites was established in a building originally owned by members of the First Presbyterian Church of Meridian, who sold it to the city on September 25, 1911. The African American library was the only library for blacks in the state until after World War I and is the only Carnegie library ever built for African Americans in the country. The two libraries served the city until 1967, when the institutions became integrated because of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, combined their collections, and moved all materials to their current location. The former white library was renovated and converted into the Meridian Museum of Art in 1970, and the former African @-@ American library was demolished on May 28, 2008.
= = Media = =
The only daily newspaper printed in the city is The Meridian Star, which has been in operation since 1898. The paper was originally named The Evening Star but was renamed in 1915 and has been Meridian's only daily newspaper since 1921. With a daily circulation of about 12 @,@ 000 in March 2010, the paper serves Lauderdale County as well as adjacent portions of western Alabama and eastern Mississippi.
Though the Meridian Star is now the only newspaper printed in the city, there have been a few other historical newspapers. One such paper is the Memo Digest, a ten to twenty page publication published during the 1970s. The Digest focused on issues relevant to the African @-@ American population of the region, gathering a circulation of about 5 @,@ 000 people. Other newspapers in the city have included The Colored Messenger, The State, The Weekly Mercury, The Blade, Weekly Echo, Fair Play, Headlight, Meridian Morning Sun, Teacher and Preacher, and Clarion.
The city is the principal city in the Meridian, Mississippi Designated Market Area ( DMA ), which includes 72 @,@ 180 households with televisions. WTOK @-@ TV broadcasts as an ABC affiliate from the city, headquartered at 815 23rd Avenue. WTOK operates two digital subchannels, WTOK @-@ DT2, a MyNetworkTV affiliate, and WTOK @-@ DT3, Meridian's CW. WGBC @-@ TV, the market's NBC affiliate, is headquartered at 1151 Crestview Circle. Since January 5, 2009, WGBC has also been the market's FOX affiliate, and it also features some programming from the Retro Television Network ( RTN ). WGBC operates under a program services agreement with WMDN @-@ TV, the market's CBS affiliate which operates a local AccuWeather service on its second subchannel. WMAW @-@ TV is the local affiliate of Mississippi Public Broadcasting.
The city is also the principal city in the Meridian Arbitron Radio Market, which includes 64 @,@ 500 people over the age of 12. WJXM ( FM 105 @.@ 7 ), headquartered at 3436 Highway 45 North, takes the largest share of ratings in the market at 14 @.@ 8 % in Fall 2009. In the same period, WZKS ( FM 104 @.@ 1 ) was second with 11 @.@ 1 %, and WMOX ( AM 1010 ) was third with 7 @.@ 4 %. Other popular stations in the market include WUCL ( FM 97 @.@ 9 ), WOKK ( FM 97 @.@ 1 ), WEXR ( FM 106 @.@ 9 ), WYHL ( AM 1450 ), and WKZB ( FM 95 @.@ 1 ). Mississippi Public Broadcasting can be found on WMAW @-@ FM ( FM 88 @.@ 1 ).
= = Notable people = =
Meridian has produced or hosted many famous people in the arts and other areas. For example :
= = = In acting = = =
Alvin Childress, who played the lead role in the Amos'n'Andy Show, was born in the city in 1907.
Diane Ladd was also born in the city in 1932 @,@
Sela Ward was born in Meridian, in 1956.
= = = In business and politics = = =
Gil Carmichael, Meridian businessman and transportation specialist, was the Republican nominee for the Mississippi Senate in 1966 and 1967, U.S. Senate in 1972, governor in 1975 and 1979, and lieutenant governor in 1983.
Winfield Dunn, former Governor of Tennessee, lived in Meridian
John Fleming, current U.S. Representative for Louisiana's 4th congressional district lived in Meridian ;
The late Lieutenant Governor Carroll Gartin, who was born in Meridian, lived in Laurel ;
Lewis McAllister, a businessman in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, was the first Republican to serve in the Mississippi House of Representatives since Reconstruction, 1962 @-@ 1968 ; he resided in Meridian prior to 1971.
Gillespie V. Montgomery, former U.S. Representative, lived in Meridian
Hartley Peavey, founder of Peavey Electronics which is headquartered in Meridian, is a Meridian native.
Tom Stuart from 1973 to 1977 was the first Republican to serve as mayor of Meridian in the 20th century.
= = = In broadcasting = = =
Emmy award winning meteorologist Bill Evans ( meteorologist ) ( WABC @-@ TV New York ) was born in Meridian, where he held his first broadcasting jobs.
= = = In literature and comics = = =
Novelist Edwin Granberry, who won the 1932 O. Henry Award for Best Short Short Story, was born in Meridian. For 30 years, Granberry wrote the Buz Sawyer comic strip. Meridian is the birthplace of novelist and short story writer Barry Hannah.
= = = In music = = =
Classical composer John Luther Adams is a Meridian native.
The Island Def Jam rapper Big K.R.I.T. was born in Meridian. K.R.I.T is known for his many mixtapes and albums such as K.R.I.T. Wuz Here and Cadillactica. He has gained a large following for his lyricism and self @-@ produced beats as well as his ability to change his style on songs from slow and conscious tracks ( " The Vent " ) to fiery and upbeat tracks ( " Mt. Olympus " ).
The guitarist @-@ songwriter George Cummings, born in Meridian in 1938, was a founding member of Dr. Hook & the Medicine Show.
Paul Davis, a singer @-@ songwriter best known for the late 1970s and early 1980s pop hits " I Go Crazy " and "'65 Love Affair ", was born in Meridian in 1948 ; after retiring from the music business, he returned to the city where he remained until a fatal heart attack in 2008.
Chris Ethridge ( February 10, 1947 – April 23, 2012 ) was an American country rock bass guitarist. He was a member of the International Submarine Band ( ISB ) and The Flying Burrito Brothers, and he co @-@ wrote | wikitext_103 | [
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= Meridian, Mississippi =
Meridian is the sixth largest city in the state of Mississippi, in the United States. It is the county seat of Lauderdale County and the principal city of the Meridian, Mississippi Micropolitan Statistical Area. Along major highways, the city is 93 mi ( 150 km ) east of Jackson, Mississippi ; 154 mi ( 248 km ) west of Birmingham, Alabama ; 202 mi ( 325 km ) northeast of New Orleans, Louisiana ; and 231 mi ( 372 km ) southeast of Memphis, Tennessee.
Established in 1860, at the intersection of the Mobile and Ohio Railroad and Southern Railway of Mississippi, Meridian's economy was built on the railways and goods transported on them, and it became a strategic trading center. During the American Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman burned much of the city to the ground in the Battle of Meridian ( February, 1864 ).
Rebuilt after the war, the city entered a " Golden Age " it become the largest city in Mississippi between 1890 and 1930, and a leading center for manufacturing in the South, with 44 trains arriving and departing daily. Union Station, built in 1906, is now a multi @-@ modal center, giving access to the Meridian Transit System, Greyhound Buses, and Trailways, averaging 242 @,@ 360 passengers per year. Although the economy slowed with the decline of the railroad industry, the city has diversified, with healthcare, military, and manufacturing employing the most people in 2010. The population within the city limits, according to 2008 census estimates, is 38 @,@ 232, but a population of 232 @,@ 900 in a 45 @-@ mile ( 72 km ) radius and 526 @,@ 500 in a 65 @-@ mile ( 105 km ) radius, of which 104 @,@ 600 and 234 @,@ 200 people respectively are in the labor force, feed the economy of the city.
The area is served by two military facilities, Naval Air Station Meridian and Key Field, which provide over 4 @,@ 000 jobs. NAS Meridian is home to the Regional Counter @-@ Drug Training Academy ( RCTA ) and the first local Department of Homeland Security in the state. Key Field is named after brothers Fred and Al Key, who set a world endurance flight record in 1935. The field is now home to the 186th Air Refueling Wing of the Air National Guard and a support facility for the 185th Aviation Brigade of the Army National Guard. Rush Foundation Hospital is the largest non @-@ military employer in the region, employing 2 @,@ 610 people.
Among the city's many arts organizations and historic buildings are the Riley Center, the Meridian Museum of Art, Meridian Little Theatre, and the Meridian Symphony Orchestra. Meridian was home to two Carnegie libraries, one for whites and one for African Americans. The Carnegie Branch Library, now demolished, was one of a number of Carnegie libraries built for blacks in the Southern United States during the segregation era.
The city has been selected as the future location of the Mississippi Arts and Entertainment Center ( MAEC ). Jimmie Rodgers, the " Father of Country Music ", was born in Meridian. Highland Park houses a museum which displays memorabilia of his life and career, as well as railroad equipment from the steam @-@ engine era. The park is also home to the Highland Park Dentzel Carousel, a National Historic Landmark. It is the world's only two @-@ row stationary Dentzel menagerie in existence. Other notable natives include Miss America 1986 Susan Akin, James Chaney – an activist who was killed in the Mississippi civil rights workers murders in 1964, and Hartley Peavey, founder of Peavey Electronics headquartered in Meridian. The federal courthouse was the site of the 1966 @-@ 1967 trial of suspects in the murder of Chaney and two other activists ; it was the first time a white jury convicted a white official of a civil rights killing.
= = History = =
Previously inhabited by the Choctaw Native Americans, the area now called Meridian was obtained by the United States under the terms of the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek in 1830 during the period of Indian Removal. After the treaty was ratified, European @-@ American settlers began to move into the area.
After receiving a federal land grant of about 2 @,@ 000 acres ( 810 ha ), Richard McLemore, the first settler of Meridian, began offering free land to newcomers to attract more settlers to the region and develop the area. Most of McLemore's land was bought in 1853 by Lewis A. Ragsdale, a lawyer from Alabama. John T. Ball, a merchant from Kemper County, bought the remaining 80 acres ( 0 @.@ 32 km2 ). Ragsdale and Ball, now known as the founders of the city, began laying out lots for new development on their respective land sections.
There was much competition over the proposed name of the settlement. Ball and the more industrial residents of the city supported the name " Meridian, " believing the term to be synonymous with " junction " ; the more agrarian residents of the city preferred " Sowashee " ( meaning " mad river " in a Native American language ), from the name of a nearby creek ; and Ragsdale proposed " Ragsdale City. " Ball erected a station house on the Mobile and Ohio Railroad – the sign on which would alternate between " Meridian " and " Sowashee " each day. Eventually the continued development of the railroads led to an influx of railroad workers who overruled the others in the city and left " Meridian " on the station permanently. The town was officially incorporated as Meridian on February 10, 1860.
Meridian was a small village at the start of the American Civil War in 1861. Its strategic position at the railroad junction led to the Confederate construction of several military installations to support the war. During the Battle of Meridian in 1864, General William Tecumseh Sherman led troops into the city, destroying the railroads in every direction, as well as an arsenal and immense storehouses ; his forces burned much of the buildings to the ground. Sherman is reported to have said afterwards, " Meridian, with its depots, store @-@ houses, arsenal, hospitals, offices, hotels, and cantonments no longer exists. " Despite the destruction, the railroad lines in the city were rapidly repaired, back in operation 26 working days after the battle. Race relations remained tense during the Reconstruction era, with the riot of 1871 following a fire that damaged many businesses.
The town boomed in the aftermath of the Civil War, and experienced its " Golden Age " from 1880 to 1910. The railroads in the area provided for a means of transportation and an influx of industries, which caused a population boom. As the population rose, commercial activity increased in the downtown area. Between 1890 and 1930, Meridian was the largest city in Mississippi and a leading center for manufacturing in the South. Many of the city's historic buildings were built during and just after this era, including the Grand Opera House in 1890, the Wechsler School in 1894, two Carnegie libraries in 1913, and the Threefoot Building, Meridian's tallest skyscraper, in 1929.
The city continued to grow thanks to a commission government's efforts to bring in 90 new industrial plants in 1913 and a booming automobile industry in the 1920s. Even through the stock market crash of 1929 and the following Great Depression, the city continued to attract new businesses. With escapism becoming popular in the culture during the depth of the Depression, the S. H. Kress & Co. building, built to " provide luxury to the common man, " opened in downtown Meridian, as did the Temple Theater, which was used as a movie house. The federal courthouse was built in 1933 as a WPA project.
After a brief slowdown of the economy at the end of the Depression, the country entered World War II, which renewed the importance of railroads. The rails were essential to transport gasoline and scrap metal to build military vehicles, so Meridian became the region's rail center again. This renewed prosperity continued until the 1950s, when the automobile and Interstate Highway System became more popular than passenger rails. The decline of the railroad industry caused significant job losses, resulting in a population decline as workers left for other areas.
During the American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s, Meridian was home to a Council of Federated Organizations ( COFO ) office and several other activist organizations. James Chaney and other local residents, along with Michael Schwerner, his wife Rita, and Andrew Goodman, volunteers from the North, worked to create a community center, holding classes to help prepare African Americans in the area to regain the power to vote. Whites in the area resented the activism, and racial tension often resulted in violence. In June 1964, Chaney, Schwerner, and Goodman went to Neshoba County, Mississippi, to meet with members of a black church that had been bombed and burned. The three disappeared that night on their way back to Meridian. Following a massive FBI investigation, their murdered bodies were found two months later, buried in an earthen dam.
Seven Klansmen, including a deputy sheriff, were convicted in the federal courthouse in Meridian of " depriving the victims of their civil rights " and three were acquitted in the Mississippi civil rights workers murders trial. It was the first time that a white jury had convicted " a white official in a civil rights killing. " In 2005, the case was reopened by the state, which brought charges in the case for the first time. Edgar Ray Killen was convicted of manslaughter and sentenced to 60 years in prison | wikitext_103 | [
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= Daniel Radcliffe =
Daniel Jacob Radcliffe ( born 23 July 1989 ) is an English actor who rose to prominence as the title character in the Harry Potter film series. He made his acting debut at 10 years of age in BBC One's 1999 television film David Copperfield, followed by his cinematic debut in 2001's The Tailor of Panama. At age 11, he was cast as Harry Potter in the first Harry Potter film, and starred in the series for 10 years until the release of the eighth and final film in 2011.
Radcliffe began to branch out to stage acting in 2007, starring in the London and New York productions of Equus, and in the 2011 Broadway revival of the musical How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying. He starred in the 2012 horror film The Woman in Black, and played beat poet Allen Ginsberg in the 2013 independent film Kill Your Darlings.
He has contributed to many charities, including Demelza Hospice Care for Children, and The Trevor Project for suicide prevention among LGBTQ youth, which gave him its Hero Award in 2011.
= = Early life = =
Radcliffe was born in West London, England. He is the only child of Alan George Radcliffe, a literary agent, and Marcia Jeannine Gresham ( née Marcia Gresham Jacobson ), a casting agent who was involved in several films for the BBC, including The Inspector Lynley Mysteries and Walk Away and I Stumble. His father, who was raised in Banbridge, County Down, Northern Ireland, is from " a very working @-@ class " Protestant background. His mother is Jewish, and was born in South Africa and raised in Westcliff @-@ on @-@ Sea, Essex. Her family had originally come from Poland and Russia. Radcliffe's parents had both acted as children.
In a 2012 interview, Radcliffe stated : " There was never [ religious ] faith in the house. I think of myself as being Jewish and Irish, despite the fact that I'm English. " He has stated : " We were Christmas tree Jews ", and that he is " very proud of being Jewish ".
Radcliffe first expressed a desire to act at the age of five, and in December 1999, aged 10, he made his acting debut in BBC One's televised two @-@ part adaptation of the Charles Dickens novel David Copperfield, portraying the title character as a young boy. He was educated at two independent schools for boys : Sussex House School, a day school in Chelsea's Cadogan Square, and the City of London School, a day school on the North Bank of the River Thames in London's financial district ( known as the City of London ). Attending school became difficult for Radcliffe after the release of the first Harry Potter film, with some fellow pupils becoming hostile, though he says it was people just trying to " have a crack at the kid that plays Harry Potter " rather than jealousy.
As his acting career began to consume his schedule, Radcliffe continued his education through on @-@ set tutors. He admitted he was not very good at school, considering it useless and finding the work " really difficult. " He achieved A grades in the three AS @-@ level exams that he took in 2006, but decided to take a break from education and did not go to college or university. Part of his reasoning was that he already knew he wanted to act and write, and that it would be difficult to have a normal college experience. " The paparazzi, they 'd love it, " he told Details magazine in 2007. " If there were any parties going on, they 'd be tipped off as to where they were. "
= = Career = =
= = = Harry Potter = = =
In 2000, producer David Heyman asked Radcliffe to audition for the role of Harry Potter for the film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, the best @-@ selling book by British author J. K. Rowling. Rowling had been searching for an unknown British actor to personify the character, and the movie's director Chris Columbus recalled thinking, " This is what I want. This is Harry Potter ", after he saw a video of the young actor in David Copperfield. Eight months later, and after several auditions, Radcliffe was selected to play the part. Rowling also endorsed the selection saying, " I don 't think Chris Columbus could have found a better Harry. " Radcliffe's parents originally turned down the offer, as they had been told that it would involve six films shot in Los Angeles. Warner Bros. instead offered Radcliffe a two @-@ movie contract with shooting in the UK ; Radcliffe was unsure at the time if he would do any more than that.
The release of Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone ( released as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone in the United States ) took place in 2001. Radcliffe received a seven figure salary for the lead role, but asserted that the fee was " not that important " to him ; his parents chose to invest the money for him. The film was highly popular and was met with positive reviews, and critics took notice of Radcliffe : " Radcliffe is the embodiment of every reader's imagination. It is wonderful to see a young hero who is so scholarly looking and filled with curiosity and who connects with very real emotions, from solemn intelligence and the delight of discovery to deep family longing, " wrote Bob Graham of the San Francisco Chronicle.
A year later Radcliffe starred in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, the second installment of the series. Reviewers were positive about the lead actors'performances but had polarised opinions on the movie as a whole. The 2004 release Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was the third film in the series. Radcliffe's performance was panned by New York Times journalist A. O. Scott, who wrote that Watson had to carry him with her performance. Next was Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire in 2005. The film was the second @-@ highest grossing Harry Potter film at that point, and Radcliffe singled out the humour as being a reason for the movie's creative success.
The future of the franchise was put into question when Radcliffe and his co @-@ leads Emma Watson and Rupert Grint hesitated signing on to continue their roles for the final two episodes ; however, by March 2007 Radcliffe had signed for the final films, which put an end to weeks of press " speculation that he would be denied the role due to his involvement in Equus ", in which he had performed nude on stage. Radcliffe reprised his role for the fourth time in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix ( 2007 ). Radcliffe stated that director David Yates and actress Imelda Staunton made Order of the Phoenix the " most fun " film in the series to work on. His performance earned several award nominations, and he received the 2008 National Movie Award for " Best Male Performance. " As his fame and the series continued, Radcliffe, Grint, and Watson left imprints of their hands, feet, and wands in front of Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood. In July 2009 Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince was released, the series'sixth instalment. Radcliffe received nominations for " Best Male Performance " and " Global Superstar " at the 2010 MTV Movie Awards.
For financial and scripting reasons the last book was divided into two films, shot back to back, which drew criticism from the series'fanbase. Radcliffe defended the split, stating that it would have been impossible to properly adapt the final novel into a single film. He added that the last movie was going to be extremely fast @-@ paced with a lot of action, while the first part would be far more sedate, focusing on character development ; he added that, had they combined them, those things would not have made it to the final cut. Filming lasted for a year, concluding in June 2010 and on the last day of shooting, like most of the cast and crew, Radcliffe openly wept.
The final film, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2, was released in July 2011. Radcliffe, along with the film, was critically acclaimed : Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post asked, " Who could have predicted that Radcliffe, Grint and Watson would turn out to be good actors? " ; similarly, Rex Reed said : " Frankly, I ’ m sorry to see [ Radcliffe ] go " ; while Rolling Stone critic Peter Travers commented on Radcliffe : " Well played, sir. " Roger Ebert gave the film a highly positive review, but felt that Radcliffe, Grint and Watson were " upstaged by the supporting [ actors ]. "
Radcliffe admitted that some people would never be able to separate him from the character, but also said he is " proud to be associated with this film series forever. " Despite positive feelings about the movies, he has no interest in doing more Harry Potter films. After Rowling hinted about writing an eighth book, Radcliffe was asked if he would do another film to which he replied : " [ It is ] very doubtful. I think 10 years is a long time to spend with one character. " Despite devoting so much time to the series, Radcliffe has asserted that he did not miss out on a childhood like other child actors : " I ’ ve been given a much better perspective on life by doing Potter. "
= = = 2001 – 09 = = =
Radcliffe made his film debut in The Tailor of Panama, an American 2001 film based on John le Carré's 1996 | wikitext_103 | [
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8441
] |
-@ 89608 @-@ 178 @-@ 9.
Sharon Venne, ed. ( 1997 ). Islands in Captivity : The International Tribunal on the Rights of Indigenous Hawaiians. Boulder CO : South End Press. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89608 @-@ 568 @-@ 8. Re @-@ released as Churchill, Ward ( 2005 ). Sharon Venne, ed. Islands in Captivity : The Record of the International Tribunal on the Rights of Indigenous Hawaiians. Boulder CO : South End Press. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89608 @-@ 738 @-@ 5.
Natsu Saito, ed. ( 2006 ). Confronting The Crime Of Silence : Evidence Of U.S. War Crimes In Indochina. AK Press. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 904859 @-@ 21 @-@ 5.
Books, as author and co @-@ author :
Culture versus Economism : Essays on Marxism in the Multicultural Arena. with Elisabeth Lloyd. Indigena Press. 1984.
Agents of Repression : The FBI's Secret Wars Against the Black Panther Party and the American Indian Movement. with Jim Vander Wall. Boulder CO : South End Press. 1988. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89608 @-@ 294 @-@ 6.
The COINTELPRO Papers : Documents from the FBI's Secret War Against Domestic Dissent. with Jim Vander Wall. Boulder CO : South End Press. 1990. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89608 @-@ 359 @-@ 2.
Fantasies of the Master Race : Literature, Cinema, and the Colonization of American Indians. Common Courage Press. 1992. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87286 @-@ 348 @-@ 4.
Churchill, Ward ( 1992 ). Jennie and Jim Vander Wall, ed. Cages of Steel : The Politics of Imprisonment in America ( Activism, Politics, Culture, Theory, Vol. 4 ed. ). Maisonneuve Press. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 944624 @-@ 17 @-@ 3. Re @-@ released as Churchill, Ward ( 2004 ). Jim Vander Wall, ed. Politics of Imprisonment in the United States. AK Press. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 904859 @-@ 12 @-@ 3.
Struggle for the Land : Indigenous Resistance to Genocide, Ecocide and Expropriation in Contemporary North America. Common Courage Press. 1993. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56751 @-@ 001 @-@ 0. Revised and expanded edition : Struggle for the Land : Native North American Resistance to Genocide, Ecocide and Colonization. San Francisco CA : City Lights Books. 2002. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87286 @-@ 415 @-@ 3.
Indians Are Us? : Culture and Genocide in Native North America. Common Courage Press. 1994. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56751 @-@ 021 @-@ 8.
Since Predator Came : Notes from the Struggle for American Indian Liberation. Aigis Press. 1995. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 883930 @-@ 03 @-@ 5.
Churchill, Ward ( 1996 ). From a Native Son : Selected Essays on Indigenism 1985 – 1995. Boulder CO : South End Press. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89608 @-@ 553 @-@ 4.
Pacifism as Pathology : Reflections on the Role of Armed Struggle in North America. with Mike Ryan ( introduction by Ed Mead ). Arbeiter Ring. 1998. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 894037 @-@ 07 @-@ 5.
A Little Matter of Genocide. San Francisco CA : City Lights Books. 1998. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87286 @-@ 343 @-@ 9.
Draconian Measures : The History of FBI Political Repression. Common Courage Press. 2000. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56751 @-@ 059 @-@ 1.
Acts Of Rebellion : The Ward Churchill Reader. Routledge. 2002. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 93156 @-@ 4.
Perversions of Justice : Indigenous Peoples and Angloamerican Law. San Francisco CA : City Lights Books. 2002. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87286 @-@ 416 @-@ 0.
On the Justice of Roosting Chickens : Reflections on the Consequences of U.S. Imperial Arrogance and Criminality. AK Press. 2003. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 902593 @-@ 79 @-@ 1.
Kill the Indian, Save the Man : The Genocidal Impact of American Indian Residential Schools. San Francisco CA : City Lights Books. 2004. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87286 @-@ 434 @-@ 4.
Speaking Truth in the Teeth of Power : Lectures on Globalization, Colonialism, and Native North America. AK Press. 2004. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 904859 @-@ 04 @-@ 8.
To Disrupt, Discredit And Destroy : The FBI's Secret War Against The Black Panther Party. Routledge. 2005. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 92957 @-@ 8.
Articles
Churchill, Ward ( July – September 1992 ). " I Am Indigenist : Notes on the Ideology of the Fourth World ". Z Papers 1 ( 3 ). Archived from the original on October 14, 2007.
Churchill, Ward ( 1994 ). " Let's Spread the Fun Around ". First published as " Crimes Against Humanity " in Margaret Anderson and Patricia Hill ( eds. ) ( 1994 ). Race, Class and Gender : An Anthology. Belmont, CA : Wadsworth. pp. 366 – 73. Also published under the titles " The Indian Chant and the Tomahawk Chop " and " Using Indian Names as Mascots Harms Native Americans ".
Churchill, Ward ( November 1998 ). " Smoke Signals : A History of Native Americans in Cinema ". LiP Magazine.
Churchill, Ward ( Winter – Spring 2003 ). " An American Holocaust? The Structure of Denial ". Socialism and Democracy 17 ( 2 ) : 25 – 76 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 08854300308428341.
Churchill, Ward ( Spring 2005 ). " The Ghosts of 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 : Reflections on History, Justice and Roosting Chickens ". Alternative Press Review 9 ( 1 ) : 45 – 56. Archived from the original on October 2, 2006.
Churchill, Ward ( July – August 2007 ). " The Fourth World : Struggles for Traditional Lands and Ways of Life ". Left Turn 25 : 25 – 29.
Audio and video
Doing Time : The Politics of Imprisonment, audio CD of a lecture, recorded at the Doing Time Conference at the University of Winnipeg, September 2000 ( AK Press, 2001, ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 902593 @-@ 47 @-@ 0 )
Life In Occupied America ( AK Press, 2003, ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 902593 @-@ 72 @-@ 2 )
In A Pig's Eye : Reflections on the Police State, Repression, and Native America ( AK Press, 2002, ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 902593 @-@ 50 @-@ 0 )
US Off The Planet! : An Evening In Eugene With Ward Churchill And Chellis Glendinning, VHS video recorded July 17, 2001 ( Cascadia Media Collective, 2002 )
Pacifism and Pathology in the American Left, 2003 audio CD recorded at an AK Press warehouse in Oakland ( AK Press Audio )
Z Mag Ward Churchill Audio August 10, 2003 and earlier
Churchill Speaks About Academic Freedom – Free Speech Radio News February 9, 2005
Ward Churchill Under Fire – Free Speech Radio News, February 3, 2005.
The Justice of Roosting Chickens : Ward Churchill Speaks The Pacifica Network Show, Democracy Now! from February 18, 2005 features extended Audio / Video exclusive interview with Churchill.
A Little Matter of Genocide : Linking U.S. Aggression Abroad to the Domestic Repression of Indigenous Peoples ", recorded in North Battleford, Saskatchewan on March 19, 2005
Debate with David Horowitz and Ward Churchill at George Washington University April 6, 2006
" Full two @-@ hour audio of debate with David Horowitz ". rightalk.listenz.com. Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 02.
" David Horowitz vs. Ward Churchill — Round 1 ". Young Americans Foundation. Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 02. Video and audio ( excerpt )
" David Horowitz vs. Ward Churchill ". insidehighered.com. Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 02.
= = Artwork = =
Churchill's subjects are often American Indian figures and other themes associated with Native American Culture. He uses historical photographs as source material for | wikitext_103 | [
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= Calvin McCarty =
Calvin McCarty ( born November 2, 1984 ) is a Canadian football running back for the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League ( CFL ). He played as a tailback until 2014, when he became the starting fullback for the Eskimos. McCarty is known for being able to fill many roles at his position, with TSN sportscaster Chris Schultz noting in 2010 that he is a " multi @-@ purpose running back who catches the ball extremely well, blocks well and runs well ". He is a champion of the 103rd Grey Cup.
Prior to being drafted by the Edmonton Eskimos in the fourth round of the 2007 CFL Draft, McCarty played high school football for the St. Thomas More Knights, where he broke multiple school records. He later played college football for the Western Washington Vikings. With the Vikings, McCarty developed into a dual threat, being used heavily as a rusher and receiver. McCarty has spent his entire professional career with the Edmonton Eskimos, making him the most veteran player on the team as of the 2015 season.
= = High school career = =
McCarty played high school football for the St. Thomas More Knights in Burnaby, British Columbia beginning in 1998, playing as both a running back and middle linebacker on the Grade 8 team. He quickly became a key player on the team, including rushing for 185 yards and four touchdowns while adding 10 defensive tackles in the Grade 8 provincial semi @-@ finals on November 24 against the Handsworth Royals. For that performance, he was named " Star of the Week " by The Vancouver Sun. The Knights went on to defeat the Vancouver College Fighting Irish 48 – 0 in the Grade 8 B.C. championship game, where McCarty scored another three touchdowns.
The following year, McCarty joined the senior team at St. Thomas More, skipping the junior team entirely. He continued in his role as a running back while switching to the secondary defensively. Despite being a rare Grade 9 player on the senior team, he was one of the Knights'two leading rushers that year. McCarty scored a touchdown in the AAA B.C. championship game, helping the Knights win their first senior title as they beat the Pinetree T @-@ Wolves 29 – 6. While K.C. Steele, the Knights'coach, has a policy of not recording player statistics, it is estimated that McCarty finished 1999 with over 1 @,@ 000 rushing yards and 15 touchdowns.
In 2000, McCarty played a significant role in the Knights'rushing and return game. He rushed for 150 yards and three touchdowns against the Burnaby Central Wildcats in the annual Burnaby Bowl, adding two punt returns for touchdowns. By the end of October, the Knights had compiled a perfect 6 – 0 record, and defensive coordinator and former CFL defensive back Lou Deslauriers called McCarty " the best player for his age and talent that we've ever had at our school ". He recorded 238 yards and four consecutive touchdowns with only 23 carries in the Knights'46 – 12 victory over the W. J. Mouat Hawks in the AAA championship game. For his role in earning the Knights their second AAA title, McCarty was named the game's MVP, becoming the youngest player to earn this award.
McCarty remained a presence on the field for the Knights in 2001, expanding his role by playing some snaps as a fullback. He rushed for 160 yards in that year's Burnaby Bowl, including three touchdowns as a halfback and one as a fullback. McCarty had another notable performance in a 67 – 7 blowout against the South Delta Sun Devils, running for 200 yards and three touchdowns. He also showed himself to be a capable receiver, including making five catches for 66 yards in a match against the Holy Cross Crusaders. McCarty also finished that game with 110 yards and two touchdowns on only three carries. Despite giving up only 19 points during the entire regular season, the Knights lost 32 – 26 in the quarter @-@ finals of the playoffs against the Centennial Centaurs after McCarty was stopped one yard away from the endzone on the last play of the game.
As a senior, McCarty recorded 2 @,@ 400 yards and scored 33 touchdowns in just nine games, averaging 266 @.@ 7 yards and over three touchdowns per game. He ran for 380 yards and three touchdowns in a 21 – 20 loss against the W. J. Mouat Hawks in the quarter @-@ finals of the AAA playoffs. He was named the 2002 Provincial Player of the Year for his performance and finished his four @-@ year AAA career at St. Thomas More with 84 touchdowns, breaking a school record.
= = = Other sports = = =
McCarty played basketball and baseball during high school as well. He lettered in basketball with the Knights. At the 2001 Big League World Series, McCarty played for Team Canada as a shortstop and center fielder, helping the team to third place in the international competition. Despite being skilled as a baseball player, McCarty chose football over professional baseball due to the physicality of the former sport.
= = College career = =
= = = Boise State = = =
McCarty originally committed to Boise State University and played for the Broncos. In 2003, he was given redshirt status and did not play. McCarty played a limited role the following year, but capitalized on the opportunities he was given, rushing for 104 yards on only 10 carries. His only touchdown came on a 7 @-@ yard carry in the October 24 game against the Fresno State Bulldogs. The Bulldogs finished with an 11 – 1 season in 2004.
= = = Reedley = = =
McCarty transferred to Reedley College and played for the Tigers in 2005. He ended the season with 620 rushing yards, 500 receiving yards, and 14 touchdowns, as the Tigers earned a 10 – 1 record along their way to the Central Valley Conference championship title. McCarty also played baseball at Reedley.
= = = Western Washington = = =
After his single season at Reedley, McCarty transferred to Western Washington University and played football for the Vikings. McCarty was immediately a significant factor in the Vikings'gameplan. In the season opener, he rushed for 139 yards and three touchdowns on 30 carries against the Humboldt State Lumberjacks. He also played a large role in the passing game early in the season, making eight receptions for 126 yards through the first two games. After starting the first seven games for the Vikings, McCarty broke his foot in a game against the South Dakota Hardrockers. At the time of his injury, he led the Vikings in rushing and receiving yards. He finished the season with 492 rushing yards and five touchdowns on 130 carries, as well as 30 receptions for 278 yards. McCarty was also named a second @-@ team all @-@ star of the North Central Conference.
= = Professional career = =
= = = Edmonton Eskimos = = =
Following his only season at Western Washington, McCarty declared himself eligible for the 2007 CFL Draft. He was selected in the fourth round of the draft by the Edmonton Eskimos with the 27th overall pick. He was re @-@ signed on December 19, 2008 to a multiple @-@ year contract, and again following the 2011 season.
= = = = 2007 season = = = =
McCarty made the active roster and played in all 18 regular season games his rookie season. He was used in the passing game and on the special teams, finishing with seven receptions for 99 yards and a touchdown as well as five special @-@ teams tackles. McCarty made his CFL debut on June 28 in the season opener against the Winnipeg Blue Bombers. He received his first carry and reception in a Week 10 game against the Calgary Stampeders, where he was given two carries for one yard and caught one reception for 10 yards.
= = = = 2008 season = = = =
McCarty played a larger role in his second season with the Eskimos, especially as a receiver. On September 1 in a match against the Stampeders, starting running back A. J. Harris was injured, and McCarty rushed for 73 yards on 12 carries as a backup. Filling in again for the injured Harris on September 13 against the Montreal Alouettes, McCarty was named Canadian Player of the Week for the first time with 72 yards on only 9 carries and a touchdown. Receiving his first start of his career on October 4, McCarty rushed for 88 yards on 19 carries with a touchdown along with eight catches for 80 yards, earning him another Canadian Player of the Week award. He played in all 18 games and started three times in his second year, finishing with 490 yards and four touchdowns on 88 carries. He had 70 catches, the second @-@ highest amount among running backs. He also continued his role on the special teams, ending the season with 11 special @-@ teams tackles. During the season, head coach Danny Maciocia referred to McCarty as " the best fourth @-@ round pick he 'd ever been associated with ".
= = = = 2009 season = = = =
McCarty split time with Arkee Whitlock in 2009. He rushed for two touchdowns in Week 4, being named the Canadian Player of the Week for the third time. He was also named the Canadian Player of the Month in July after continuing to play a large role in the rushing game. In August, McCarty injured his hamstring in a game against the Stampeders and missed several games. He briefly returned in mid @-@ September before being sidelined again with recurring hamstring | wikitext_103 | [
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= Frank Headlam =
Air Vice Marshal Frank Headlam, CB, CBE ( 15 July 1914 – 23 December 1976 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ). Born and educated in Tasmania, he joined the RAAF as an air cadet in January 1934. He specialised in flying instruction and navigation before the outbreak of World War II. In April 1941, he became commanding officer of No. 2 Squadron, which operated Lockheed Hudsons. The squadron was deployed to Dutch Timor in December, and saw action against Japanese forces in the South West Pacific. After returning to Australia in February 1942, Headlam held staff appointments and training commands, finishing the war a group captain.
Headlam served as Officer Commanding North @-@ Western Area in 1946, and as Director of Training from 1947 to 1950. In 1950 – 51, during the Malayan Emergency, he was stationed at Singapore as commander of No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing and, later, RAF Tengah. He twice served as acting Air Member for Personnel, in 1957 and 1959 – 60, receiving appointment as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1958. Promoted air vice marshal, he successively held the positions of Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) Operational Command in 1961 – 62, AOC No. 224 Group RAF from 1962 to 1965 during the Indonesia – Malaysia Konfrontasi, Deputy Chief of the Air Staff in 1965 – 66, and AOC Support Command in 1966 – 67. He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1965. Following a posting to London as Head of the Australian Joint Services Staff from 1968 to 1971, he retired from the Air Force and died in Melbourne five years later.
= = Early career = =
The son of farmers Malcolm and Hilda Headlam, Frank Headlam was born on 15 July 1914 in Launceston, Tasmania. He was schooled at Clemes College, Hobart, and matriculated in 1932. Against the wishes of his parents he joined the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) as an air cadet on 16 January 1934. He underwent flying instruction with No. 1 Flying Training School ( FTS ) at RAAF Point Cook, Victoria, and was commissioned as a pilot officer on 1 January 1935.
After completing a conversion course, Headlam was assigned to the Seaplane Squadron at Point Cook. No larger than a flight according to the official history of the pre @-@ war RAAF, Seaplane Squadron was part of No. 1 FTS and operated Supermarine Southampton flying boats and de Havilland Gipsy Moth floatplanes, among other types. During this posting Headlam was promoted to flying officer, on 1 July 1935, and wrote a paper on national defence in which he suggested that with " strong air forces, naval forces ( including submarines ), and fixed defences, Australia may be made practically invulnerable ". According to Air Force historian Alan Stephens, this paper " in effect, defined the'anti @-@ lodgment'concept which has been a persistent feature of RAAF strategic thinking ".
Headlam completed a flying instructors course in July 1936 and joined the staff of No. 1 FTS. He was promoted to flight lieutenant on 1 March 1937. Commencing in July 1938, he was one of six students to take part in the RAAF's first Long Specialist Navigation Course, run by Flight Lieutenants Bill Garing and Alister Murdoch at Point Cook. The course involved several epic training flights that attracted considerable media attention, including a twelve @-@ day, 10 @,@ 800 @-@ kilometre ( 6 @,@ 700 mi ) round @-@ Australia trip by three Avro Ansons, one of which was piloted by Headlam, in November. The following month, Headlam led the three Ansons on a six @-@ day journey back and forth over Central Australia. He subsequently passed the navigation course with a special distinction. On 27 January 1939 he was posted to RAAF Station Laverton, Victoria, as a flight commander. He served initially with No. 2 Squadron, before transferring to No. 1 Squadron on 29 August. Both units operated Ansons.
= = World War II = =
Following the outbreak of World War II, No. 1 Squadron was engaged in convoy escort and maritime reconnaissance duties off south @-@ eastern Australia. Headlam continued to serve with the squadron as a flight commander until 15 January 1940, when he was assigned to Headquarters Laverton as the station navigation officer. On 27 March he was posted to the staff of RAAF Headquarters, Melbourne. He was promoted to squadron leader on 1 June 1940. Two weeks later he married Katherine Bridge at St Paul's Anglican Church in Frankston ; the couple would have a son and a daughter.
Headlam was given command of No. 2 Squadron at Laverton on 15 April 1941, and raised to wing commander on 1 July. Equipped with Lockheed Hudsons, the squadron mainly conducted maritime patrols in southern waters until 5 December, when four of its aircraft were ordered to Darwin, Northern Territory, in response to fears of Japanese aggression in the Pacific. On 7 December, this detachment established itself at Penfui, near Koepang in Dutch Timor, while No. 2 Squadron's eight remaining Hudsons were stationed at Darwin on standby. The following day, aware that Australia was now at war in the Pacific, one of the Penfui @-@ based Hudsons attacked the Japanese pearler Nanyo Maru, which was suspected of being a radio ship, and forced it aground. By 12 December, Headlam had transferred to Penfui as commanding officer of the base, as well as No. 2 Squadron.
During January 1942, No. 2 Squadron's aircraft were dispersed at Penfui, Boeroe Island, and Darwin. The Penfui detachment attacked Japanese shipping taking part in the invasion of Celebes. Two Hudsons shot down or damaged three Japanese floatplanes that attacked them as they were bombing a transport ship on 11 January ; the next day both Hudsons were themselves shot down by Mitsubishi Zeros. Penfui was bombed by the Japanese for the first time on 26 January 1942, and attacked regularly thereafter, damaging some aircraft. The intact Hudsons were withdrawn to Darwin but Headlam and his staff remained at Penfui to enable the base to be used by aircraft during reconnaissance missions from Australia. On 18 February, Headlam was ordered to evacuate all his personnel except a small party to demolish the airfield with assistance from Sparrow Force. He returned to Darwin the following day, just as the city experienced its first raid by the Japanese. Four of No. 2 Squadron's Hudsons were destroyed in the attack ; the remainder were relocated to Daly Waters, where they continued to carry out reconnaissance and bombing missions against Japanese targets in Timor.
Headlam remained in Darwin as Controller of Operations at Headquarters North @-@ Western Area Command until 12 May 1942, when he was posted to Nhill, Victoria, as commanding officer of No. 2 Air Navigation School, operating Ansons. No. 97 ( Reserve ) Squadron was formed from the school's personnel in June. On 20 July 1943, Headlam took command of No. 2 Air Observer School ( AOS ), also operating Ansons, at Mount Gambier, South Australia. He was promoted to group captain on 1 December 1943, and was appointed the inaugural commanding officer of No. 3 AOS, operating Ansons and Fairey Battles out of Port Pirie, on 9 December. After handing over command of No. 3 AOS, he commenced studies at RAAF Staff School in Mount Martha, Victoria, on 2 October 1944. He was appointed senior administrative staff officer at North @-@ Western Area Command on 12 January 1945.
= = Post @-@ war career = =
Headlam became Officer Commanding North @-@ Western Area in January 1946. Posted to Britain at the end of the year, he attended the Royal Air Force Staff College, Andover, and served with RAAF Overseas Headquarters, London. On his return to Australia, in November 1947, he became Director of Training at RAAF Headquarters. In November 1950, Headlam was appointed to take over command of No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing from Group Captain Paddy Heffernan. Headquartered at RAF Changi, Singapore, No. 90 Wing controlled RAAF units operating during the Malayan Emergency : No. 1 ( Bomber ) Squadron, flying Avro Lincolns, and No. 38 ( Transport ) Squadron, flying Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas. The Lincolns conducted area bombing missions over communist @-@ held territory, as well as strikes against pinpoint targets. The Dakotas were tasked with courier flights, VIP transport and medical evacuations across South East Asia, and in Malaya with airlifting troops and cargo, dropping supplies to friendly forces and despatching propaganda leaflets. Headlam was slightly injured on 20 December, when a No. 38 Squadron Dakota he was co @-@ piloting on a supply drop crash @-@ landed at Kampong Aur in Pahang, following engine failure. In August 1951 he was named commander of RAF Tengah, Singapore, in addition to his post as commanding officer of No. 90 Wing. Headlam handed over command of No. 90 Wing in December 1951.
On 19 February 1952, Headlam became senior air staff officer ( SASO ) at Eastern Area Command in Penrith, New South Wales. During his term as SASO, the RAAF began | wikitext_103 | [
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and 50 men volunteered. They rode on a reconnaissance to Takdul on 6 May and were heavily involved in a skirmish during which more than 100 Arabs were killed or captured. On 15 May, they made one last sortie to bury the dead from the fighting of the previous March. Meanwhile, the artillery were posted at Handoub and drilled for a month, but they soon rejoined the camp at Suakin.
Eventually the British government decided that the campaign in Sudan was not worth the effort required and left a garrison in Suakin. The New South Wales Contingent sailed for home on 17 May, arriving in Sydney on 19 June 1885. Approximately 770 Australians served in Sudan ; nine subsequently died of disease during the return journey while three had been wounded during the campaign.
= = = Second Boer War, 1899 – 1902 = = =
British encroachment into areas of South Africa already settled by the Afrikaner Boers and the competition for resources and land that developed between them as a result, led to the Second Boer War in 1899. Pre @-@ empting the deployment of British forces, the Afrikaner Republics of the Orange Free State and the Transvaal Republic under President Paul Kruger declared war on 11 October 1899, striking deep into the British territories of Natal and the Cape Colony. After the outbreak of war, plans for the dispatch of a combined Australian force were subsequently set aside by the British War Office and each of the six colonial governments sent separate contingents to serve with British formations, with two squadrons each of 125 men from New South Wales and Victoria, and one each from the other colonies. The first troops arrived three weeks later, with the New South Wales Lancers — who had been training in England before the war, hurriedly diverted to South Africa. On 22 November, the Lancers came under fire for the first time near Belmont, and they subsequently forced their attackers to withdraw after inflicting significant casualties on them.
Following a series of minor victories, the British suffered a major setback during Black Week between 10 – 17 December 1899, although no Australian units were involved. The first contingents of infantry from Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania arrived in Cape Town on 26 November and were designated the Australian Regiment under the command of Colonel John Charles Hoad. With a need for increased mobility, they were soon converted into mounted infantry. Further units from Queensland and New South Wales arrived in December and were soon committed to the front. The first casualties occurred soon after at Sunnyside on 1 January 1900, after 250 Queensland Mounted Infantry and a column of Canadians, British and artillery attacked a Boer laager at Belmont. Troopers David McLeod and Victor Jones were killed when their patrol clashed with the Boer forward sentries. Regardless, the Boers were surprised and during two hours of heavy fighting, more than 50 were killed and another 40 taken prisoner. Five hundred Queenslanders and the New South Wales Lancers subsequently took part in the Siege of Kimberley in February 1900.
Despite serious set @-@ backs at Colenso, Stormberg, Magersfontein, and Spion Kop in January — and with Ladysmith still under siege — the British mounted a five division counter @-@ invasion of the Orange Free State in February. The attacking force included a division of cavalry commanded by Lieutenant General John French with the New South Wales Lancers, Queensland Mounted Infantry and New South Wales Army Medical Corps attached. First, Kimberley was relieved following the battles of Modder River and Magersfontein, and the retreating Boers defeated at Paardeberg, with the New South Wales Mounted Rifles locating the Boer general, Piet Cronjé. The British entered Bloemfontein on 13 March 1900, while Ladysmith was relieved. Disease began to take its toll and scores of men died. Still the advance continued, with the drive to Pretoria in May including more than 3 @,@ 000 Australians. Johannesburg fell on 30 May, and the Boers withdrew from Pretoria on 3 June. The New South Wales Mounted Rifles and Western Australians saw action again at Diamond Hill on 12 June. Mafeking was relieved on 17 May.
Following the defeat of the Afrikaner republics still the Boers held out, forming small commando units and conducting a campaign of guerrilla warfare to disrupt British troop movements and lines of supply. This new phase of resistance led to further recruiting in the Australian colonies and the raising of the Bushmen's Contingents, with these soldiers usually being volunteers with horse @-@ riding and shooting skills, but little military experience. After Federation in 1901, eight Australian Commonwealth Horse battalions of the newly created Australian Army were also sent to South Africa, although they saw little fighting before the war ended. Some Australians later joined local South African irregular units, instead of returning home after discharge. These soldiers were part of the British Army, and were subject to British military discipline. Such units included the Bushveldt Carbineers which gained notoriety as the unit in which Harry " Breaker " Morant and Peter Handcock served in before their court martial and execution for war crimes.
With the guerrillas requiring supplies, Koos de la Rey lead a force of 3 @,@ 000 Boers against Brakfontein, on the Elands River in Western Transvaal. The post held a large quantity of stores and was defended by 300 Australians and 200 Rhodesians. The attack began on 4 August 1900 with heavy shelling causing 32 casualties. During the night the defenders dug in, enduring shelling and rifle fire. A relief force was stopped by the Boers, while a second column turned back believing that the post had already been relieved. The siege lasted 11 days, during which more than 1 @,@ 800 shells were fired into the post. After calls to surrender were ignored by the defenders, and not prepared to risk a frontal attack, the Boers eventually retired. The Siege of Elands River was one of the major achievements of the Australians during the war, with the post finally relieved on 16 August.
In response the British adopted counter @-@ insurgency tactics, including a scorched earth policy involving the burning of houses and crops, the establishment of concentration camps for Boer women and children, and a system of blockhouses and field obstacles to limit Boer mobility and to protect railway communications. Such measures required considerable expenditure, and caused much bitterness towards the British, however they soon yielded results. By mid @-@ 1901, the bulk of the fighting was over, and British mounted units would ride at night to attack Boer farmhouses or encampments, overwhelming them with superior numbers. Indicative of warfare in last months of 1901, the New South Wales Mounted Rifles travelled 1 @,@ 814 miles ( 2 @,@ 919 km ) and were involved in 13 skirmishes, killing 27 Boers, wounding 15, and capturing 196 for the loss of five dead and 19 wounded. Other notable Australian actions included Slingersfontein, Pink Hill, Rhenosterkop and Haartebeestefontein.
Australians were not always successful however, suffering a number of heavy losses late in the war. On 12 June 1901, the 5th Victorian Mounted Rifles lost 19 killed and 42 wounded at Wilmansrust, near Middleburg after poor security allowed a force of 150 Boers to surprise them. On 30 October 1901, Victorians of the Scottish Horse Regiment also suffered heavy casualties at Gun Hill, although 60 Boers were also killed in the engagement. Meanwhile, at Onverwacht on 4 January 1902, the 5th Queensland Imperial Bushmen lost 13 killed and 17 wounded. Ultimately the Boers were defeated, and the war ended on 31 May 1902. In all 16 @,@ 175 Australians served in South Africa, and perhaps another 10 @,@ 000 enlisted as individuals in Imperial units ; casualties included 251 killed in action, 267 died of disease and 43 missing in action, while a further 735 were wounded. Six Australians were awarded the Victoria Cross.
= = = Boxer Rebellion, 1900 – 01 = = =
The Boxer Rebellion in China began in 1900, and a number of western nations — including many European powers, the United States, and Japan — soon sent forces as part of the China Field Force to protect their interests. In June, the British government sought permission from the Australian colonies to dispatch ships from the Australian Squadron to China. The colonies also offered to assist further, but as most of their troops were still engaged in South Africa, they had to rely on naval forces for manpower. The force dispatched was a modest one, with Britain accepting 200 men from Victoria, 260 from New South Wales and the South Australian ship HMCS Protector, under the command of Captain William Creswell. Most of these forces were made up of naval brigade reservists, who had been trained in both ship handling and soldiering to fulfil their coastal defence role. Amongst the naval contingent from New South Wales were 200 naval officers and sailors and 50 permanent soldiers headquartered at Victoria Barracks, Sydney who originally enlisted for the Second Boer War. The soldiers were keen to go to China but refused to be enlisted as sailors, while the New South Wales Naval Brigade objected to having soldiers in their ranks. The Army and Navy compromised and titled the contingent the NSW Marine Light Infantry.
The contingents from New South Wales and Victoria sailed for China on 8 August 1900. Arriving in Tientsin, the Australians provided 300 men to an 8 @,@ 000 @-@ strong multinational force tasked with capturing the Chinese forts at Pei Tang, which dominated a key railway. They arrived too late to take part in the battle, but were involved in the attack on the fortress at | wikitext_103 | [
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] |
ikal rapidly developed into the most dynamic city in the Maya region, stimulating the development of other nearby Maya cities.
The site, however, was often at war and inscriptions tell of alliances and conflict with other Maya states, including Uaxactun, Caracol, Naranjo and Calakmul. The site was defeated at the end of the Early Classic by Caracol, which rose to take Tikal's place as the paramount center in the southern Maya lowlands. The earlier part of the Early Classic saw hostilities between Tikal and its neighbor Uaxactun, with Uaxactun recording the capture of prisoners from Tikal.
There appears to have been a breakdown in the male succession by AD 317, when Lady Unen Bahlam conducted a katun @-@ ending ceremony, apparently as queen of the city.
= = = = Tikal and Teotihuacan = = = =
The fourteenth king of Tikal was Chak Tok Ich 'aak ( Great Jaguar Paw ). Chak Tok Ich 'aak built a palace that was preserved and developed by later rulers until it became the core of the Central Acropolis. Little is known about Chak Tok Ich 'aak except that he was killed on 14 January 378 AD. On the same day, Siyah K ’ ak ’ ( Fire Is Born ) arrived from the west, having passed through El Peru, a site to the west of Tikal, on 8 January. On Stela 31 he is named as " Lord of the West ". Siyah K ’ ak ’ was probably a foreign general serving a figure represented by a non @-@ Maya hieroglyph of a spearthrower combined with an owl, a glyph that is well known from the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the distant Valley of Mexico. Spearthrower Owl may even have been the ruler of Teotihuacan. These recorded events strongly suggest that Siyah K ’ ak ’ led a Teotihuacan invasion that defeated the native Tikal king, who was captured and immediately executed. Siyah K 'ak'appears to have been aided by a powerful political faction at Tikal itself ; roughly at the time of the conquest, a group of Teotihuacan natives were apparently residing near the Lost World complex. He also exerted control over other cities in the area, including Uaxactun, where he became king, but did not take the throne of Tikal for himself. Within a year, the son of Spearthrower Owl by the name of Yax Nuun Ayiin I ( First Crocodile ) had been installed as the tenth king of Tikal while he was still a boy, being enthroned on 13 September 379. He reigned for 47 years as king of Tikal, and remained a vassal of Siyah K 'ak'for as long as the latter lived. It seems likely that Yax Nuun Ayiin I took a wife from the preexisting, defeated, Tikal dynasty and thus legitimized the right to rule of his son, Siyaj Chan K 'awiil II.
Río Azul, a small site 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) northeast of Tikal, was conquered by the latter during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The site became an outpost of Tikal, shielding it from hostile cities further north, and also became a trade link to the Caribbean.
Although the new rulers of Tikal were foreign, their descendants were rapidly Mayanized. Tikal became the key ally and trading partner of Teotihuacan in the Maya lowlands. After being conquered by Teotihuacan, Tikal rapidly dominated the northern and eastern Peten. Uaxactun, together with smaller towns in the region, were absorbed into Tikal's kingdom. Other sites, such as Bejucal and Motul de San José near Lake Petén Itzá became vassals of their more powerful neighbor to the north. By the middle of the 5th century Tikal had a core territory of at least 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) in every direction.
Around the 5th century an impressive system of fortifications consisting of ditches and earthworks was built along the northern periphery of Tikal's hinterland, joining up with the natural defenses provided by large areas of swampland lying to the east and west of the city. Additional fortifications were probably also built to the south. These defenses protected Tikal's core population and agricultural resources, encircling an area of approximately 120 square kilometres ( 46 sq mi ). Recent research suggests that the earthworks served as a water collection system rather than a defensive purpose.
= = = = Tikal and Copán = = = =
In the 5th century the power of the city reached as far south as Copán, whose founder K 'inich Yax K 'uk'Mo'was clearly connected with Tikal. Copán itself was not in an ethnically Maya region and the founding of the Copán dynasty probably involved the direct intervention of Tikal. K 'inich Yax K 'uk'Mo'arrived in Copán in December 426 and bone analysis of his remains shows that he passed his childhood and youth at Tikal. An individual known as Ajaw K 'uk'Mo'( lord K 'uk'Mo') is referred to in an early text at Tikal and may well be the same person. His tomb had Teotihuacan characteristics and he was depicted in later portraits dressed in the warrior garb of Teotihuacan. Hieroglyphic texts refer to him as " Lord of the West ", much like Siyah K ’ ak ’. At the same time, in late 426, Copán founded the nearby site of Quiriguá, possibly sponsored by Tikal itself. The founding of these two centers may have been part of an effort to impose Tikal's authority upon the southeastern portion of the Maya region. The interaction between these sites and Tikal was intense over the next three centuries.
A long @-@ running rivalry between Tikal and Calakmul began in the 6th century, with each of the two cities forming its own network of mutually hostile alliances arrayed against each other in what has been likened to a long @-@ running war between two Maya superpowers. The kings of these two capitals adopted the title kaloomte ', a term that has not been precisely translated but that implies something akin to " high king ".
The early 6th century saw another queen ruling the city, known only as the " Lady of Tikal ", who was very likely a daughter of Chak Tok Ich 'aak II. She seems never to have ruled in her own right, rather being partnered with male co @-@ rulers. The first of these was Kaloomte'B 'alam, who seems to have had a long career as a general at Tikal before becoming co @-@ ruler and 19th in the dynastic sequence. The Lady of Tikal herself seems not have been counted in the dynastic numbering. It appears she was later paired with lord " Bird Claw ", who is presumed to be the otherwise unknown 20th ruler..
= = = Late Classic = = =
= = = = Tikal hiatus = = = =
In the mid 6th century, Caracol seems to have allied with Calakmul and defeated Tikal, closing the Early Classic. The " Tikal hiatus " refers to a period between the late 6th to late 7th century where there was a lapse in the writing of inscriptions and large @-@ scale construction at Tikal. In the latter half of the 6th century AD, a serious crisis befell the city, with no new stelae being erected and with widespread deliberate mutilation of public sculpture. This hiatus in activity at Tikal was long unexplained until later epigraphic decipherments identified that the period was prompted by Tikal's comprehensive defeat at the hands of Calakmul and the Caracol polity in AD 562, a defeat that seems to have resulted in the capture and sacrifice of the king of Tikal. The badly eroded Altar 21 at Caracol described how Tikal suffered this disastrous defeat in a major war in April 562. It seems that Caracol was an ally of Calakmul in the wider conflict between that city and Tikal, with the defeat of Tikal having a lasting impact upon the city. Tikal was not sacked but its power and influence were broken. After its great victory, Caracol grew rapidly and some of Tikal's population may have been forcibly relocated there. During the hiatus period, at least one ruler of Tikal took refuge with Janaab'Pakal of Palenque, another of Calakmul's victims. Calakmul itself thrived during Tikal's long hiatus period.
The beginning of the Tikal hiatus has served as a marker by which archaeologists commonly subdivide the Classic period of Mesoamerican chronology into the Early and Late Classic.
= = = = Tikal and Dos Pilas = = = =
In 629 Tikal founded Dos Pilas, some 110 kilometres ( 68 mi ) to the southwest, as a military outpost in order to control trade along the course of the Pasión River. B 'alaj Chan | wikitext_103 | [
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] |
capsule. When he got out he went right back to the clothes he thought were hot when he went in. "
During the six @-@ year development of the film, several actors were in negotiations to star, including Owen Wilson, Vince Vaughn, Matthew McConaughey, Ryan Reynolds, Dax Shepard, and Johnny Knoxville.
Donald Sutherland portrays Jack Pellitt, Bobby's father and Kurt's boss. On July 27, 2010, Isaiah Mustafa was confirmed as joining the cast. Mustafa was quoted as saying " It's a smaller role ". He appears as Officer Wilkens. Julie Bowen appears in the film as Rhonda, Harken's wife. Bowen stated that her character " may or may not be a hussy ", the character described as intentionally making her husband jealous. Ioan Gruffudd has a cameo as a male prostitute erroneously hired as a hitman. Lindsay Sloane appears as Dale's fiancee Stacy. P. J. Byrne plays Kenny Sommerfeld, a former investment manager, now scrounging for drinks, while Wendell Pierce and Ron White play a pair of cops. Bob Newhart makes a cameo as sadistic Comnidyne CEO Louis Sherman. John Francis Daley, a screenwriter on the film, cameos as Nick's co @-@ worker Carter.
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Markowitz's script for Horrible Bosses was sold at auction to New Line Cinema by Ratner's production company Rat Entertainment in 2005 for a six @-@ figure amount. Ratner initially was interested in directing, but became occupied with directing the comedy Tower Heist. Frank Oz and David Dobkin were in talks to direct. Jonathan Goldstein and John Francis Daley rewrote the script in 2010, and the project went into production with Seth Gordon directing.
= = = Design = = =
Production designer Shepherd Frankel specifically set out to create distinctly different environments for the three employees and their respective bosses'homes and offices. Nick and Harken's workplace is the " Comnidyne " bullpen, which was designed to " enhance the discomfort and anxiety of lower @-@ level employees clustered in the center of the room where every movement is monitored by the boss from his corner office. " The design team met with financial strategists and management companies to learn about the architecture of their office layouts to visually represent the experience of starting from a low @-@ ranking position in a cubicle and aspiring to an office. Costume designer Carol Ramsey worked with Frankel and set decorator Jan Pascale to match Harken's suit to that of the surrounding " cold grey and blue " color palette of his office. Harken's home was described as " equally lacking in warmth " as the office but more lavishly decorated and " for show ", including an intentionally oversized portrait of him with his " trophy wife ".
Designing Julia's office was described as a " challenge ", infusing a " sensual vibe " into a dental office. Frankel approached the design through Julia's mentality, stating, " She's a Type A professional at the top of her game, who likes to play cat @-@ and @-@ mouse, so it's a completely controlled environment, with apertures and views into other rooms so she always knows what's going on ". " It's highly designed, with rich wallpaper and tones, sumptuous artwork and subtle lighting — all very disarming till you step into her private office. The blinds close, the door locks and you think,'It's the Temple of Doom.'" Similarly approaching the character's home, the design allowed for wide windows which face onto a public street " which afford her the opportunity to put on the kind of show she couldn 't get away with at work. "
Bobby's environments were designed with more contrast, the character being new to the work area. Frankel described the contrast as " the company reflects [ Jack Pellitt's ] human touch, whereas [ Bobby Pellitt's ] home is a shameless shrine to himself and his hedonistic appetites. " Frankel continued, " It features a mishmash of anything he finds exotic and erotic, mostly Egyptian and Asian motifs with an'80s Studio 54 vibe, a makeshift dojo, lots of mirrors and a massage table. " Some parts of the house design were provided by Farrell and Gordon's interpretation of the character and his " infatuation " with martial arts and " his delusions of prowess ".
= = = Filming = = =
Filming of Horrible Bosses took place in and around Los Angeles. The production team attempted to find locations " that people haven 't already seen a hundred times in movies and on TV ", aiming for the film to appear as if it could be taking place anywhere in America " where people are trying to pursue the American dream but getting stopped by a horrible boss. " " Comnidyine " was represented by an office building in Torrance, California, with the crew building the set on a vacant floor. For " Pellitt Chemical ", the production team found a " perfect landscape of pipes and containers " in Santa Fe Springs, surrounding an unoccupied water cleaning and storage facility. To take advantage of the surrounding imagery, the warehouse required an extensive series of overhauls, including cutting windows into concrete walls and creating new doorways to allow for visuals of the warehouse exterior and provide a setting for the final scene of Sutherland's character. A T.G.I. Friday's in Woodland Hills, Los Angeles, was used as a bar frequented by Nick, Dale, and Kurt, while the bar scene where they meet with Jones was staged in downtown Los Angeles.
The film was shot digitally using the Panavision Genesis camera. Gordon encouraged the actors to improvise, though Aniston claimed to not have taken advantage of the offer as much as her co @-@ stars, stating, " My dialogue was just so beautifully choreographed that there wasn ’ t much that I needed to do ”.
= = = Music = = =
The soundtrack was composed by award @-@ winning composer Christopher Lennertz, with music contributed by Mike McCready of Pearl Jam, Stefan Lessard of Dave Matthews Band and Money Mark — a collaborator with the Beastie Boys. McCready, Lessard, and Mark worked with musicians Matt Chamberlain, David Levita, Aaron Kaplan, Victor Indrizzo, Chris Chaney, Davey Chegwidden and DJ Cheapshot to develop the music. Major contributions were provided by Mark on keyboard, McCready and Levita on guitar, Chaney and Lessard on bass, Indrizzo on drums and DJ Cheapshot on turntables.
Lennertz recorded the soundtrack at The Village recording studio in West Los Angeles and Capitol Records. Lennertz attempted to remain " authentic " to the characters'progression from average worker to calculated killer. To achieve this aim, he decided against recording digitally, instead recording the tracks on two @-@ inch analog tape, intending each musical cue to sound as if it was emanating from a vinyl record. He explained, " The idea was to put together a band that would record the score together the same way that they would make an album. It isn 't over @-@ produced or shiny and digital in any way. It's brash, noisy, and full of bravado and swagger. I knew that if we could harness some of this sonic magic in the score, then the toughness and confidence of the music would play against Bateman, Sudeikis, and Charlie Day to really emphasize and elevate the humor in the situations that transpire. " Lennertz continued, " We tracked through tape before Pro Tools to get that fat sound, and made every choice based on feel rather than perfection. We even used the same Wurlitzer that Money Mark played on Beck's classic ‘ Where It's At ’. At the end of the day, Seth [ Gordon ] and I wanted to produce a score that is as irreverent and full of attitude as the movie itself. I think we did it... and most of all, everyone had a blast in the process. "
Horrible Bosses : The Original Motion Picture Soundtrack was released in physical and digital formats on July 5, 2011, by WaterTower Music. The soundtrack consists of 33 tracks with a runtime of 63 minutes.
= = Release = =
The world premiere of Horrible Bosses took place on June 30, 2011 at Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood, California.
= = = Box office = = =
Horrible Bosses grossed $ 117 @.@ 5 million ( 56 @.@ 1 % ) in the North America and $ 92 @.@ 2 million ( 43 @.@ 9 % ) in other territories for a worldwide gross of $ 209 @.@ 6 million, against its budget of $ 35 million.
North America
Horrible Bosses was released on July 8, 2011 in the United States and Canada across 3 @,@ 040 theaters. It grossed $ 9.9M on the first day, giving it the second largest opening gross for an original R @-@ rated comedy of the summer, behind Bad Teacher ( $ 12.2M ). For the opening weekend, the film took in a total of $ 28 @,@ 302 @,@ 165, an average of $ 9 @,@ 310 per theater, making it the number two film for the weekend, behind Transformers : Dark of the Moon ( $ 47 | wikitext_103 | [
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= Thelnetham Windmill =
Thelnetham Windmill, also known as Button's Mill is a Grade II * listed tower mill constructed of brick. The windmill is located at Thelnetham, Suffolk, England. It was built in the early nineteenth century to grind wheat into flour. Thelnetham windmill worked by wind power until 1924, latterly on two sails, after which it became derelict.
In 1979, a group of enthusiasts purchased Thelnetham windmill for restoration. Numerous volunteers helped to restore the mill to full working order over an eight @-@ year period. The mill is open to the public, and flour ground at the mill can be bought at the site.
The mill is a small four storey tower mill with Patent sails and winded by a fantail. It drives two pairs of millstones, with a third pair driven by an auxiliary engine.
= = History = =
The windmill at Thelnetham was built by millwright George Bloomfield for William Button in 1819. It replaced a post mill which had been moved to Sandy Lane, Diss, Norfolk the previous year. The mill was set to work on Christmas Day 1819. In 1832, the mill was modernised by the fitting of a cast @-@ iron windshaft, Patent sails and a fantail. The new windshaft was fitted on 16 July 1832. It was made by J Aickman, the Kings Lynn millwright, and weighs 1 ¾ tons ( 1 @,@ 780 kg ). A new stock was fitted in September 1836. William Button died on 11 February 1837. The mill passed jointly to his widow Rebecca and their son Richard. Richard Button worked the mill until 1860, at which date it was conveyed to his sons Richard and William, who sold it to Richard Peverett from Kenninghall, Norfolk in 1862.
The mill was worked by Stephen Peverett, Richard's son. He inherited the mill on the death of his father in 1875 and leased it to Henry Bryant in 1879. In 1884, the mill was sold by auction, and Henry Bryant purchased the freehold. Bryant rebuilt the floors of the mill. From 1892, a portable steam engine was used as auxiliary power, driving an extra pair of millstones on the ground floor. This was replaced in 1914 by a Hornsby oil engine. Bryant ran the mill until 1920 when he sold it to Alphonso Vincent, a retired millwright from Garboldisham, Norfolk. The Hornsby engine was sold in the early 1920s. The mill was tailwinded c1920, and as a result one pair of sails was removed. Vincent carried out some repairs to the mill and ran it until he retired in 1924. One of the remaining two sails was wrecked in 1926 when the mill was again tailwinded.
On the death of Alphonso Vincent in 1932, his son George inherited the property. He lived at the site in an old lorry until his death in 1973. The mill passed to his daughter, who sold it in 1974 to Mr and Mrs Humphries, who intended to convert it into a house. They later changed their minds and offered it for sale for restoration. In 1976, the cap of the mill was blown to pieces in a gale. Thelnetham windmill was purchased by five members of the Suffolk Mills Group in November 1979, and plans for restoration were made. The consortium consisted of Mark Barnard, Charles Dolman, Peter Dolman, David Pearce and Chris Seago. The derelict mill and an acre of land cost £ 6 @,@ 000.
= = Restoration = =
The mill was restored over a period of six years. Much of the work was carried out by enthusiasts who used working holidays to repair the mill.
= = = 1979 – 1980 = = =
The consortium took possession of the mill in November 1979. The first priority was to make the mill as weathertight as possible. Polythene sheets were spread on the dust floor of the mill to prevent further water penetration of the structure. The mill was surveyed and recorded. In spring 1980, the dust floor partially collapsed and was removed as a safety measure. Scaffolding was erected to allow the fanstage to be dismantled, and the cap centering wheels were removed in preparation for the removal of the cap frame.
A two @-@ week work @-@ in was held at the end of July and beginning of August 1980. Thirty @-@ three volunteers worked on the mill over the work @-@ in. Two new main floor beams for the dust floor were made from baulks of pitch pine which had previously been in a maltings at Bury St Edmunds. On 3 August 1980, the windshaft and remaining sail fragments were removed by a mobile crane, followed by the cap frame and the cast @-@ iron curb sections.
New oak joists were laid on the dust floor and temporary boarding laid to provide a working platform for repairs to the top of the mill tower. The bin floor was removed, apart from one oak main beam which was repairable. A replacement main beam was made from pitch pine, and the oak beam was repaired. New oak joists were fitted, along with some salvaged from the original floor which were fit to be reused. One of these had previously been a whip from a Common sail. Some of the joists were made from pitch pine from the Eastbridge Windpump, which, following its collapse on 19 February 1977, had been re @-@ erected at the Museum of East Anglian Life, Stowmarket. The sack hoist was dismantled to enable its repair, brickwork was repaired, and new lintels were made for some of the windows. A tarpaulin was secured over the mill tower to keep the weather out over winter. The floorboards on the bin floor were replaced and one of the two pairs of millstones was removed.
The work was financed by grants of £ 500 from the Council for the Preservation of Rural Essex, £ 250 from St Edmundsbury Borough Council, £ 200 from the Scarfe Trust, and £ 200 from the Suffolk Mills Group. Other donations and income amounted to £ 65, with the balance of expenditure being met jointly by the five owners.
The " work @-@ in " was reported in both local and national media, including BBC Look East, Bury Free Press, Eastern Daily Press, East Anglian Daily Times, Daily Telegraph, and Radio Orwell.
= = = 1981 = = =
In the 1981 season two separate work @-@ ins were held, the first from 25 July to 2 August and the second from 22 August to 30 August. A total of 37 volunteers participated over the two weeks.
The millstones were removed from the stone floor, which was then repaired. One of the main beams was found to have been attacked by Death Watch beetles, and over a third of the elm beam was replaced with oak. The six supports for the hurst frame were repaired one at a time, as they bore the whole of the weight of the machinery above. One post required replacement. It had rotted and the floor had sunk by 4 inches ( 100 mm ) causing the second main floor beam to fracture. When this work had been completed, the stone floor was removed, including the second main floor beam, which was removed in one piece so that the most suitable route to install its replacement could be assessed.
The new main beam for the stone floor was installed and the ground floor was concreted. The stone floor was reconstructed, reusing the old stone bearers and those joists that were fit for reuse. Other joists were made new from oak or pitch pine. New floorboards were laid in the dust floor, the 1 1 ⁄ 4 inches ( 32 mm ) thick elm boards being double @-@ grooved with a metal tongue between them. Those on the bin floor are of a similar configuration. The top four courses of brickwork of the mill tower were removed and work began on rebuilding them, aided by a trammel attached to the upright shaft.
During the second work @-@ in, the remainder of the stone floor was boarded, again using double @-@ grooved boards with a metal tongue between them. The window on the dust floor was rebuilt and the reconstruction of the top four courses of brickwork continued. The top two courses were rebuilt with red engineering bricks. The dust floor window had a reinforced concrete lintel cast as the tower was weak at this point and had distorted. The windshaft, the curb segments and fantail gearing were given two coats of red lead paint. A new finial for the cap was made from a piece of oak 3 feet ( 910 mm ) long by 16 inches ( 410 mm ) diameter. A start was made on removing the old pointing on the brickwork and repointing with gauged mortar.
After the work @-@ in had finished, the boarding of the stone floor was completed and the mill thoroughly cleaned in preparation for an open day which was held in late autumn. The work done in 1981 cost £ 3 @,@ 250. Donations received were £ 2 @,@ 000 from Rank Xerox, £ 1 @,@ 704 from the Historic Buildings Council and £ 130 from St Edmundsbury Borough Council. Other donations and income received amounted to £ 70. The project received further coverage in local media, the Eastern Daily Press, and South Norfolk News.
= = = 1982 = = =
The 1982 work @-@ ins took place from 24 July to 1 August and 21 August to 29 August. The work planned included the completion of the brickwork at the top of the tower, installation of the Elm curb, a start on the | wikitext_103 | [
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] |
= Sorry ( Madonna song ) =
" Sorry " is a song by American singer Madonna from her tenth studio album Confessions on a Dance Floor ( 2005 ). It was written and produced by Madonna and Stuart Price, and released as the second single from the album on February 7, 2006. It later appeared on Celebration, her 2009 greatest hits album. An uptempo dance song, " Sorry " was one of the first tracks developed for the album and had numerous remix treatments before the ultimate version of the track was finalized. One of the remixes was done by the Pet Shop Boys, featuring added lyrics by the band. The actual song features a dance groove tempo. It talks about personal empowerment and self @-@ sufficiency.
" Sorry " received positive reviews from contemporary critics, who declared the track the strongest song on Confessions on a Dance Floor. Some critics also commented on the song's disco @-@ influenced beats while comparing it to Madonna's older dance songs. It achieved commercial success, topping the singles charts in Italy, Spain, Romania and the United Kingdom, where it became Madonna's twelfth number one single. Elsewhere, the song was a top ten hit. However, in the United States, the song did not perform well due to an underplay on radio but was able to reach the top of Billboard's dance charts and became one of the decade's most successful dance hits.
The accompanying music video, directed by Madonna's choreographer Jamie King, was a continuation from the " Hung Up " music video. It featured Madonna and her dancers roaming around a city in a van, dancing on roller skates and Madonna fighting with a group of men in a cage. She performed the song on her 2006 Confessions Tour in a similar fight sequence to that shown in the video. An additional video was created as a backdrop for a remix of the song, which depicted political leaders and scenes of war and destruction.
= = Background and composition = =
" Sorry " was one of the first tracks developed for Confessions on a Dance Floor, along with " Hung Up " and " Future Lovers ". It was also the one which took the most time to finish because Madonna " thought it was too melodramatic and could never decide when it was right. " The songs were developed with a remixed perspective in mind. Madonna commented that, " Whenever I make records, I often like the remixes better than the original ones. [... ] So I thought, screw that. I'm going to start from that perspective ". She promoted the album at the dance party " Misshapes " held at Luke & Leroy's nightclub in Greenwich Village, invited by Junior Sanchez to take over the DJ booth where she mixed " Hung Up " with " Sorry ". Musically, " Sorry " is an uptempo dance song containing layers of beats and strong vocal on the chorus. It is set in common time with a moderately fast dance groove tempo of 132 beats per minute. Composed in the key of C minor, Madonna's vocal range spans from F3 to G4. It follows the chord progression of E ♭ – Cm – A ♭ – B ♭ during the spoken introduction. It then changes to Fm – Gm @-@ Cm in the chorus, while continuing in A ♭ – Cm – A ♭ – Fm in the intermediate verses, ultimately ending in repeated lines of " I've heard it all before ".
Lyrically the song has excerpts of different languages including French, Spanish, Italian, Dutch, Hebrew, Hindi, Polish and Japanese. The song talks about personal empowerment and self @-@ sufficiency, denoting a shift in focus of Madonna as an artist from her previous songs about supremacy like " Everybody " ( 1982 ), " Vogue " ( 1990 ) or " Music " ( 2000 ) which was centered around the subject of music itself. Among the various remixes, the Pet Shop Boys remix incorporated Whitney Houston's " I Wanna Dance with Somebody ( Who Loves Me ) " with a more pronounced bassline and uses a double breakdown in the introduction. Pet Shop Boys and Madonna had always mutually admired each other, from the time they wrote the song " Heart " ( 1988 ) for Madonna but never delivered it. The remix had added lyrics sung by band member Neil Tennant which subsequently appeared on their remix album Disco Four. Madonna's voice hits on the first chorus which was remixed to have a masculine synth and a serious hook. A breakdown happens before the fifth minute ends, leading to the entry of programmed drum sounds after which the song ends.
= = Critical response = =
Jennifer Vineyard of MTV News wrote that " Sorry " is the " album's strongest track " and that it is a " Pet Shop Boys @-@ esque " song. Vineyard went on to say that it "... wistfully evokes the sounds of the'80s @-@ era dance clubs that first lofted her toward stardom. " According to a review in the BBC's Collective, " New single'Sorry'states Queen Madge's unapologetic stance, and though the song is wrapped up in relationship sentiment, one cannot help but hear the subtext, perhaps directed at her more savage critics :'there are more important things than hearing you speak '. " Alan Braidwood from BBC Music called the song " lethally catchy ". Mike Pattenden of The Times and Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine noted that the bassline of the song utilizes The Jacksons'1980 song " Can You Feel It ". The song was noted by Slant Magazine as one of the best songs of 2006. In a review of " Sorry " from Virgin Media, it wrote that the song's musicscape features an " infectious combo of pumping, filtered synths and disco beats ". Keith Caulfield from Billboard commented that, " [ Sorry ] should keep fans hung up on Madonna's ability to create instant radio and club classics. " He also called the song " springy " while reviewing the album.
Ben Williams of New York magazine, wrote that the song is " propelled by a catchy bass melody ". Joan Morgan of The Village Voice, in review of Confessions on a Dance Floor, wrote : " The party continues admirably with the multilingual, kick @-@ your @-@ man @-@ to @-@ the @-@ curb'Sorry '. " Stephen M. Deusner of Pitchfork Media wrote, " The cascades of sound wash directly into'Sorry ', setting up the song's panlingual apologies and shifting bass tectonics. " Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote that the first half of the album consists of love songs, happy and sad, and included " Sorry " into the mix. Alexis Petridis from The Guardian called the song as triumphant. Kitty Empire from the same newspaper said that "'Sorry'sees Madonna taking a lover to task over an insistent dance @-@ pop rush. " Alan Light from Rolling Stone called the song " throbbing ". Thomas Inksweep from Stylus magazine commented that " Sorry " and first single " Hung Up " may not be as sleazy like Madonna's initial singles " Burning Up " ( 1984 ) or " Physical Attraction " ( 1984 ), but they have the same modus operandi of being designed for all @-@ night dancing.
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States, " Sorry " debuted at number 70 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart for the issue dated March 11, 2006 and reached a peak of 58 the following week. The same week it reached a peak of 46 on the Pop 100 chart. Its low chart performance in America was attributed to limited radio airplay. A petition was signed by about 3 @,@ 300 fans at petitionline.com. Known as the " End the Madonna U.S. Radio Boycott " ; it was addressed to Clear Channel Communications CEO Mark P. Mays. Message boards at Entertainment Weekly and VH1 were filled with entries by users showing support for Madonna, as well as conspiracy theories about why she was not played on radio. The song, however, reached the top of the Hot Dance Club Play chart for two weeks, as well as Hot Dance Airplay chart for five weeks. As of April 2010, the song has sold 366 @,@ 000 digital units in the United States.
In the United Kingdom, it debuted at number one on the chart dated February 26, 2006. The song became Madonna's 12th number one single in Britain and second consecutive single from the album to peak the British chart, after " Hung Up. " This made Madonna the female artist with most number one songs in the United Kingdom, while placing her in fifth place in overall tabulation. According to the Official Charts Company, the song has sold 200 @,@ 000 digital downloads there and was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ). In Australia, the song debuted and peaked at four.
The song peaked at number two on the Canadian Singles Chart and was certified platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) on April 10, 2006 for sales of 80 @,@ 000 units of paid digital downloads. " Sorry " debuted at number five in Ireland and was on the chart for 12 weeks. Elsewhere in Europe, the song became a top ten hit for Madonna reaching the top ten of countries like Austria, Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ), Denmark, Finland, France | wikitext_103 | [
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] |
Asia after the Second World War, and the fear of its spread which developed in Australia during the 1950s and early 1960s. As a consequence, Australia supported South Vietnam throughout the early 1960s. In 1961 and 1962, the leader of the South Vietnamese government, Ngo Dinh Diem, asked for assistance from the US and its allies in response to a growing insurgency supported by communist North Vietnam. Australia offered 30 military advisors from the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam, which became known simply as " The Team ". They arrived in July and August 1962, beginning Australia's involvement in the war. Later in August 1964, the RAAF sent a flight of Caribou transport aircraft to the port city of Vung Tau.
However, with the security situation in South Vietnam continuing to deteriorate, the US increased its involvement to 200 @,@ 000 combat troops by early 1965. Australia also committed ground forces, dispatching the 1 RAR to serve with the US 173rd Airborne Brigade in Bien Hoa province in June 1965 and it subsequently fought a number of significant actions, including Gang Toi, Operation Crimp and Suoi Bong Trang. In March 1966, the Australian government announced the deployment of a brigade @-@ sized unit — the 1st Australian Task Force ( 1 ATF ) — to replace 1 RAR. Included were a large number of conscripts, under the increasingly controversial National Service Scheme. Consisting of two infantry battalions as well as armour, aviation, artillery and other support arms, the task force was assigned primary responsibility for its own area and was based at Nui Dat, in Phuoc Tuy Province. Included were the Iroquois helicopters of No. 9 Squadron RAAF. At the Battle of Long Tan on 18 August 1966, D Company, 6 RAR with considerable artillery support held off and defeated a Viet Cong force that was at least six times bigger than itself. 18 Australians were killed and 24 wounded, while 245 communist dead were later recovered from the battlefield. The battle allowed the Australians to gain dominance over Phuoc Tuy Province and 1 ATF was not fundamentally challenged again. Regardless, during February 1967 the Australians suffered their heaviest casualties in the war to that point, losing 16 men killed and 55 wounded in a single week, the bulk during Operation Bribie.
Yet with the Phuoc Tuy province coming progressively under control throughout 1967, the Australians increasingly spent a significant period of time conducting operations further afield. 1 ATF was subsequently deployed astride infiltration routes leading to Saigon to interdict communist movement against the capital as part of Operation Coburg during the 1968 Tet Offensive and later during the Battle of Coral – Balmoral in May and June 1968. At Fire Support Bases Coral and Balmoral the Australians had clashed with regular North Vietnamese Army and Viet Cong main force units operating in battalion and regimental strength for the first time in near conventional warfare, ultimately fighting their largest, most hazardous and most sustained battle of the war. During 26 days of fighting Australian casualties included 25 killed and 99 wounded, while communist casualties included 267 killed confirmed by body count, 60 possibly killed, 7 wounded and 11 captured. Other significant Australian actions included Binh Ba in June 1969, Hat Dich in late @-@ December 1968 and early 1969 and Long Khanh in June 1971. At the height of the Australian commitment, 1 ATF numbered 8 @,@ 500 troops, including three infantry battalions, armour, artillery, engineers, logistics and aviation units in support. A third RAAF unit, No. 2 Squadron RAAF, flying Canberra bombers, was sent in 1967, and four RAN destroyers joined US patrols in the waters off North Vietnam.
The Australian withdrawal effectively commenced in November 1970. As a consequence of the overall allied strategy of Vietnamization and with the Australian government keen to reduce its own commitment to the war, 8 RAR was not replaced at the end of its tour of duty. 1 ATF was again reduced to just two infantry battalions, albeit with significant armour, artillery and aviation support remaining. Australian combat forces were further reduced during 1971 as part of a phased withdrawal, and 1 ATF ceased operations in October. Meanwhile, the advisors remained to train South Vietnamese troops until withdrawn on 18 December 1972 by the newly elected Labor government of Gough Whitlam. The last Australian forces were finally withdrawn in 1973. The Vietnam War was Australia's longest and most controversial war and although initially enjoying broad support, as the nation's military involvement increased a vocal anti @-@ war movement developed. More than 50 @,@ 000 Australians served in Vietnam ; 519 were killed and 2 @,@ 398 were wounded. Four were awarded the Victoria Cross.
= = Post @-@ Vietnam era = =
= = = Creation of the Australian Defence Force, 1976 = = =
Although the importance of'joint'warfare had been highlighted during Second World War when Australian naval, ground and air units frequently served as part of single commands, the absence of a central authority continued to result in poor co @-@ ordination between the services in the post @-@ war era, with each organising and operating on the basis of a different military doctrine. The need for an integrated command structure received more emphasis during the Australian military's experiences in the Vietnam War. In 1973, the Secretary of the Department of Defence, Arthur Tange, submitted a report to the Government that recommended the unification of the separate departments supporting each service into a single department and the creation of the post of Chief of the Defence Force Staff.
The Whitlam Labor Government subsequently amalgamated the five defence ministries ( Defence, Navy, Army, Air Force, and Supply ) into a single Department of Defence in 1973, while conscription under the National Service scheme was abolished. On 1 January 1976, the three branches of the Australian military were brought together as a unified, all @-@ volunteer, professional force known as the Australian Defence Force ( ADF ). Today, the ADF is headquartered at Russell Offices in Canberra and is divided into Air, Land, Maritime and Special Operations Commands. In addition, Northern Command is based in Darwin, and is responsible for operations in Northern Australia.
= = = Defence of Australia, 1980s and 1990s = = =
Until the 1970s, Australia's military strategy centred on the concept of Forward Defence, in which the role of Australian military and naval forces were to co @-@ operate with Allied forces to counter threats in Australia's region. Following the adoption of the Guam Doctrine by the United States in 1969, and the British withdrawal'east of Suez'in the early 1970s, Australia developed a defence policy emphasising self @-@ reliance and the defence of the Australian continent. Known as the Defence of Australia Policy, it focused Australian defence planning on protecting the nation's northern maritime approaches ( the'air @-@ sea gap') against possible attack.
In line with this goal, the ADF was restructured to increase its ability to strike at enemy forces from Australian bases and to counter raids on continental Australia. This was achieved by increasing the capabilities of the RAN and RAAF, and relocating regular Army units to Northern Australia. During this time the ADF had no military units on operational deployment outside Australia. However, in 1987 the ADF made its first operational deployment as part of Operation Morris Dance, in which several warships and a rifle company deployed to the waters off Fiji in response to the 1987 Fijian coups d 'état. While broadly successful, this deployment highlighted the need for the ADF to improve its capability to rapidly respond to unforeseen events.
During this period Australia continued to retain forces in Malaysia as part of the Five Power Defence Arrangements ( FPDA ) agreed in 1971 to defend it in the event of external attack, with this commitment initially including significant air, ground and naval forces. However, these forces were gradually reduced with the infantry battalion withdrawn from Singapore in 1973, and the two Mirage fighter squadrons in 1988. Since then a detachment of Orion maritime patrol aircraft, support personnel, and an infantry company known as Rifle Company Butterworth have been maintained, as well as occasional deployments of F / A @-@ 18 Hornet fighter aircraft. Australian submarines were reportedly also involved in a number of clandestine surveillance missions throughout Asian waters in the last decades of the Cold War. Airforce and Navy units were also involved in tracking Soviet ship and submarine movements in the region. Since then the Orions have continued to participate in maritime security operations as part of Operation Gateway, conducting patrols over the Indian Ocean, Strait of Malacca and South China Sea. They have reportedly also been involved in freedom of navigation flights.
= = = Gulf War, 1991 = = =
Australia was a member of the international coalition which contributed military forces to the 1991 Gulf War, deploying a naval task group of two warships, a support ship and a clearance diving team ; in total about 750 personnel. The Australian contribution was the first time Australian personnel were deployed to an active war zone since the establishment of the ADF and the deployment tested its capabilities and command structure. However, the Australian force did not see combat, and instead playing a significant role in enforcing the sanctions put in place against Iraq following the invasion of Kuwait. Some ADF personnel serving on exchange with British and American units did see combat, and a few were later decorated for their actions. Following the war, the Navy regularly deployed a frigate to the Persian Gulf or Red Sea to enforce the trade sanctions which continued to be applied to Iraq. A number of Australian airmen and ground crew posted to or on exchange with US and British air forces subsequently participated in enforcing no @-@ fly zones imposed over Iraq between 1991 and 2003.
= = | wikitext_103 | [
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= Die Another Day =
Die Another Day ( 2002 ) is the twentieth spy film in the James Bond series, and the fourth and final film to star Pierce Brosnan as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond. The film follows Bond as he leads a mission to North Korea, during which he is betrayed and, after seemingly killing a rogue North Korean colonel, is captured and imprisoned. Fourteen months later, Bond is released as part of a prisoner exchange. Surmising that someone within the British government betrayed him, he attempts to earn redemption by tracking down his betrayer and killing a North Korean agent he believes was involved in his torture.
Die Another Day, produced by Michael G. Wilson and Barbara Broccoli, and directed by Lee Tamahori, marked the James Bond franchise's 40th anniversary. The series began in 1962 with Sean Connery starring as Bond in Dr. No. Die Another Day includes references to each of the preceding films.
The film received mixed reviews. Some critics praised the work of Lee Tamahori, while others criticised the film's heavy use of computer @-@ generated imagery, which they found unconvincing and a distraction from the film's plot. Nevertheless, Die Another Day was the highest @-@ grossing James Bond film up to that time if inflation is not taken into account.
= = Plot = =
MI6 officer James Bond — agent 007 — infiltrates a North Korean military base, where Colonel Tan @-@ Sun Moon is illegally trading weapons for African blood diamonds. After Moon's assistant Zao discovers that Bond is a British agent, the colonel attempts to kill Bond and a hovercraft chase ensues, which ends with Moon's apparent death. Bond survives, but is captured by North Korean soldiers and imprisoned by the Colonel's father, General Moon.
After 14 months of captivity and torture, Bond is traded for Zao in a prisoner exchange. He is sedated and taken to meet M, who informs him that his status as a 00 Agent is suspended under suspicion of having leaked information under duress. Bond is convinced that he has been set up by a double agent in the British government and decides to avenge his betrayal. After escaping from the custody of MI6, he discovers that he is in Hong Kong, where he learns from a Chinese agent that Zao is in Cuba.
In Havana Bond meets NSA agent Giacinta'Jinx'Johnson and follows her to a gene therapy clinic, where patients can have their appearances altered through DNA restructuring. Bond locates Zao inside the clinic and attempts to kill him, but Zao escapes. He leaves behind a pendant which leads Bond to a cache of diamonds, identified as conflict diamonds, but bearing the crest of the company owned by British billionaire Gustav Graves.
At Blades Club in London Bond meets Graves, along with his assistant Miranda Frost, who is also an undercover MI6 agent. After a fencing exercise ( and a literal sword @-@ fight ), Bond is invited by Graves to Iceland for a scientific demonstration. Shortly afterwards, M restores Bond's Double @-@ 0 status and offers assistance in the investigation.
At his ice palace in Iceland Graves unveils a new orbital mirror satellite, " Icarus ", which is able to focus solar energy on a small area and provide year @-@ round sunshine for crop development. During the night, Jinx infiltrates Graves'command centre, but is captured by Graves and Zao. Bond rescues her and later discovers that Colonel Moon is still alive. Moon has used the gene therapy technology to change his appearance, assuming the identity of Gustav Graves.
Bond confronts Graves, but Frost arrives to reveal herself as the traitor who betrayed Bond in North Korea, forcing 007 to escape from Graves'facility. Bond then returns in his Aston Martin Vanquish to rescue Jinx, who has been captured once again. Zao pursues him in his own vehicle, both cars driving inside the rapidly melting ice palace. Bond kills Zao by shooting an ice chandelier onto him, and then revives Jinx after she has drowned.
Bond and Jinx pursue Graves and Frost to the Korean peninsula and stow away on Graves'cargo plane. Graves reveals his true identity to his father, and the purpose of the Icarus satellite : to cut a path through the Korean Demilitarized Zone with concentrated sunlight, allowing North Korean troops to invade South Korea and reunite the peninsula by force. Horrified, General Moon tries to stop the plan, but he is murdered by his own son.
Bond attempts to shoot Graves but he is prevented by one of the soldiers on board. In their struggle, a gunshot pierces the fuselage, causing the plane to descend rapidly. Bond engages Graves in a fist fight, and Jinx attempts to regain control of the plane. Frost attacks Jinx, forcing her to defend herself in a sword duel. After the plane passes through the Icarus beam and is further damaged, Jinx kills Frost. Graves attempts to escape by parachute, but Bond opens the parachute, causing Graves to be pulled out of the plane and into one of its engines, killing him and disabling the Icarus beam. Bond and Jinx then escape from the disintegrating plane in a helicopter from the cargo hold, carrying away Graves'stash of diamonds in the process.
= = Cast = =
Pierce Brosnan as James Bond 007, an MI6 agent.
Halle Berry as Giacinta'Jinx'Johnson, an NSA agent.
Toby Stephens as Gustav Graves, a British entrepreneur, alter ego of Colonel Moon.
Rosamund Pike as Miranda Frost, undercover MI6 agent and double agent.
Rick Yune as Zao, a North Korean terrorist working for Moon.
Judi Dench as M, the head of MI6.
Will Yun Lee as Colonel Moon, a rogue North Korean army colonel, later uses his alter ego.
Kenneth Tsang as General Moon, Colonel Moon's father.
John Cleese as Q, MI6's quartermaster and armourer.
Colin Salmon as Charles Robinson, M's Deputy Chief of Staff.
Ho Yi as the Hotel manager and Chinese special agent Mr. Chang. In early drafts of the script, it was Wai Lin ( Michelle Yeoh ) who aided Bond in Hong Kong, but the idea fell through and Chang was created to replace her.
Rachel Grant as Peaceful Fountains of Desire, a Chinese agent working for Mr. Chang, undercover as a masseuse.
Emilio Echevarría as Raoul, the manager of a Havana cigar factory, and a British sleeper.
Samantha Bond as Miss Moneypenny, M's secretary.
Michael Gorevoy as Vladimir Popov, Gustav Graves'personal scientist
Lawrence Makoare as Mr. Kil, one of Gustav Graves'henchmen.
Michael Madsen as Damian Falco, Jinx's superior in the NSA.
Vincent Wong as General Li
Joaquin Martinez as an elderly cigar factory worker
Deborah Moore as an airline hostess ( Moore is the daughter of former Bond Roger Moore )
Madonna as Verity, a fencing instructor ( cameo )
= = Production = =
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography of Die Another Day began on 11 January 2002 at Pinewood studios. The film was shot primarily in the United Kingdom, Iceland, and Cádiz, Spain. Other locations included Pinewood Studios'007 Stage and Maui, Hawaii, in December 2001. Laird Hamilton, Dave Kalama, and Darrick Doerner performed the pre @-@ title surfing scene at the surf break known as Jaws in Peʻahi, Maui, while the shore shots were taken near Cádiz and Newquay, Cornwall. Scenes inside Graves'diamond mine were also filmed in Cornwall, at the Eden Project. The scenes involving the Cuban locations of Havana and the fictional Isla de Los Organos were filmed at La Caleta, Spain.
The scenes featuring Berry in a bikini were shot in Cádiz. The location was reportedly cold and windy, and footage has been released of Berry wrapped in thick towels between takes to avoid catching a chill. Berry was injured during filming when debris from a smoke grenade flew into her eye. The debris was removed in a 30 @-@ minute operation.
Gadgets and other props from every previous Bond film and stored in Eon Productions'archives appear in Q's warehouse in the London Underground. Examples include the jetpack in Thunderball and Rosa Klebb's poison @-@ tipped shoe in From Russia with Love. Q mentions that the watch he issues Bond is " your 20th, I believe ", a reference to Die Another Day being the 20th Eon @-@ produced Bond film. In London, the Reform Club was used to shoot several places in the film, including the lobby and gallery at the Blades Club, MI6 Headquarters, Buckingham Palace, Green Park, and Westminster. Svalbard, Norway and Jökulsárlón, Iceland were used for the car chase on the ice with additional scenes filmed at Jostedalsbreen National Park, Norway and RAF Little Rissington, Gloucestershire ; Manston Airport in Kent was used for the scenes involving the Antonov cargo plane scenes. The scene in which Bond surfs the wave created by Icarus when Graves was attempting to kill Bond was shot on the blue screen. The waves, along with all the glaciers in the scene are computer @-@ generated.
The hangar interior of the " US Air Base in South Korea ", shown crowded with Chinook | wikitext_103 | [
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645
] |
to add many more Mississippi @-@ born stars to the Walk of Fame ; names mentioned include Morgan Freeman, Jimmy Buffett, Elvis Presley, Conway Twitty, and others.
Another location in the city used for large productions is the Hamasa Shrine Temple Theater. The Temple Theater houses a 778 @-@ pipe Robert Morgan organ, one of two Theater Organs still in their original installations in the state. With seating for 1800 persons, the silent movie era was a prosperous time for the Temple. At the time, it was one of the largest stages in the United States, second only to the Roxy Theater in New York City. Today, seating 1576 persons, the Temple is used year @-@ round for area events, live stage shows, plays, concerts, Hamasa Shrine functions, and public screenings of classic movies.
Highland Park houses a Jimmie Rodgers museum which displays the original guitar of " The Singing Brakeman " and other memorabilia of his life and career, as well as railroad equipment from the steam @-@ engine era. In addition to the museum building itself, there are outside memorials, and a vintage steam locomotive on display. A Mississippi Blues Trail historic marker has been placed in Meridian to honor the city as the birthplace of Jimmie Rodgers and emphasizes his importance to the development of the blues style of music in Mississippi. The city was the first site to receive this designation outside the Mississippi Delta. Also, a Mississippi Country Music Trail marker was placed in Oak Grove Cemetery in honor of Rodgers on June 1, 2010. Each year since 1953, the city has held a festival during May to honor the anniversary of his death.
The park is also home to a 19th @-@ century carousel manufactured around 1895 by Gustav Dentzel of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Highland Park Dentzel Carousel has been in operation since 1909, is a National Historic Landmark, and is the world's only two @-@ row stationary Dentzel menagerie in existence. Its house is the only remaining original carousel building built from a Dentzel blueprint. Around Town Carousels Abound is a public arts project of 62 carousel horses, representing the historic carousel. Sixty @-@ two pieces have been sponsored by local businesses and citizens, and design of the horses was conceived and painted by local artists. They are placed throughout the city and county.
= = = Recreation = = =
The city contains several recreational parks, including Highland Park, Bonita Lakes, and Okatibbee Lake. Highland Park contains picnic shelters, swimming pools, tennis courts, a baseball field, softball fields, and a playground, all open year round to visitors. Bonita Lakes is a city @-@ owned, 3 @,@ 300 @-@ acre ( 13 km2 ) park including three lakes. The park also includes the Long Creek Reservoir and Lakeview Municipal Golf Course, along with nature trails, a jogging and walking track, biking paths, horseback riding trails, pavilions, picnic facilities, boat ramps, paddle boats, concessions, and fishing. Along with the lakes, the Bonita Lakes area includes Bonita Lakes Mall, Bonita Lakes Crossing, and Bonita Lakes Plaza. Okatibbee Lake is a 7 @,@ 150 @-@ acre ( 28 @.@ 9 km2 ) establishment containing a 4 @,@ 144 @-@ acre ( 16 @.@ 77 km2 ) lake which offers boating, fishing, swimming, water skiing, picnicking, hunting, hiking and camping. Splashdown Country Water Park, a 25 @-@ room motel, and cabins are located on the lake.
Since 1992, Meridian has been a host of the State Games of Mississippi, a statewide annual multi @-@ sport event modeled after the Olympic Games. The organization is a member of the National Congress of State Games, which is affiliated with the U.S. Olympic Committee. In its first year 1 @,@ 200 athletes competed in twelve sports, and since then over 70 @,@ 000 athletes have participated in the Games. In 2009, more than 4500 athletes participated in 27 sports. All competitors in the games can compete in the Southeast Sports Festival while medalists may move up to the bi @-@ annual State Games of America.
Originally the games were held in one weekend in June, but as more sports were added, the event was expanded to two weekends. Opening ceremonies always begin on the 3rd Friday of June in downtown Meridian. The games are held at several sports parks, including Northeast Park, Sammie Davidson Complex, and other various fields throughout the city. Northeast Park is an 85 @-@ acre ( 34 ha ) park on Highway 39 that contains ten tennis courts, four softball fields, three soccer fields, an asphalt track, and a large picnic pavilion. The Sammie Davidson Sports Complex includes six tennis courts, four softball fields, and a half @-@ mile track. Other sports fields include the Meridian Jaycee Soccer Complex, Sykes Park, and Phil Hardin Park.
There are also several golf courses in the city, including the aforementioned Lakeview Municipal Golf Course, an 18 @-@ hole course open to the public daily. Briarwood County Club, located on Highway 39 North, is a private club with golf, swimming, fishing, and dining facilities. Other golf courses serving the city include Northwood Country Club, Okatibbee Creek Golf Center, and Ponta Creek Golf Course.
= = Transportation = =
= = = Railroads and public transit = = =
Amtrak's Crescent line connects Meridian with the cities of New York, New York ; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania ; Baltimore, Maryland ; Washington, D.C. ; Charlotte, North Carolina ; Atlanta, Georgia ; Birmingham, Alabama ; and New Orleans, Louisiana. The Union Station Multi @-@ Modal Transportation Center ( MMTC ) is located at 1901 Front Street, part of the Meridian Downtown Historic District, which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Originally built in 1906, but later demolished in 1966 then rebuilt in 1997, the station includes several modes of transportation including the Meridian Transit System, Amtrak, Norfolk Southern rail corridor, Greyhound buses, Trailways and other providers of transit services. The number of passengers on Amtrak trains, Greyhound buses, and Meridian Transit System buses averages 242 @,@ 360 per year.
= = = Air = = =
The city is served by Meridian Regional Airport, located at Key Field, 2811 Airport Boulevard South, 3 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) southwest of the city. At 10 @,@ 004 foot ( 3 @,@ 049 m ), the airport's runway is the longest public runway in Mississippi. The airport, which has been in service since 1930, offers daily flights to Dallas / Fort Worth, TX.
During the Great Depression, residents of the city contemplated abandoning the airport because of the cost of maintenance, but in 1935 Brothers Fred and Al Key, managers of the airport, thought of a way to keep the airport operating. From June 4 until July 1, 1935, the brothers flew over the city in their plane, the " Ole Miss. " The record they established in their 27 days aloft, totaling 653 hours and 34 minutes, attracted enough publicity and funds to the city to keep the airport running. Key Field is therefore named after the brothers, whose flight endurance record remains unbroken in conventional flight.
= = = Highways = = =
Interstate Highways
Interstate 20
Runs west through Jackson, Mississippi, eventually terminating near Kent, Texas, and east through Tuscaloosa, Alabama, eventually terminating in Florence, South Carolina. Interstate 59
Joins with I @-@ 20 in the city and runs north through Tuscaloosa, Alabama, ending in Wildwood, Georgia. It also runs south through Hattiesburg, Mississippi, and on to Slidell, Louisiana.
U.S. Highways
U.S. Highway 11
Runs parallel to Interstate 59 south to New Orleans, Louisiana, and north all the way to the Canada – US border. U.S. Highway 45
Transnational route which runs north through Columbus, Mississippi, to the US @-@ Canada border and south through Quitman, Mississippi, to Mobile, Alabama, and the Gulf of Mexico. U.S. Highway 80
Runs west through Jackson, Mississippi, to Dallas, Texas, and east through Demopolis, Alabama, all the way to Tybee Island, Georgia and the Atlantic Ocean.
State Highways
Mississippi Highway 19
Runs north to West, Mississippi, and south to the Mississippi @-@ Alabama border, where it continues as Alabama State Route 10. Mississippi Highway 39
Begins in Meridian and runs north to Shuqualak, Mississippi. Mississippi Highway 145
Formerly US 45, but now only exists as an alternate route in several cities. Mississippi Highway 493
Begins in Meridian and runs north to Lynville, Mississippi.
= = Education = =
Early public education in Meridian was based on the 1870 Mississippi Constitution. From 1870 to 1885, trustees appointed by the City Council served on the Board of School Directors, which had authority to operate the schools. Although there were several schools in the city before 1884, they were privately owned and only enrolled about 400 students. The city did not build its first publicly owned school until September 1884. The first public school for blacks in the city was held in facilities rented from St. Paul Methodist Church. The Mississippi Legislature amended the city charter in January 1888 to allow the city to maintain its own municipal school district, and in March of the same year $ 30 @ | wikitext_103 | [
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] |
= Sonic the Hedgehog ( 1991 video game ) =
Sonic the Hedgehog is a platform video game developed by Sonic Team and published by Sega for the Sega Genesis console. The game was first released in North America, Europe and Australia in June 1991, and in Japan the following month. The game features an anthropomorphic hedgehog named Sonic in a quest to defeat Dr. Robotnik, a scientist who has imprisoned animals in robots and stolen the magical Chaos Emeralds. Sonic the Hedgehog's gameplay involves collecting rings as a form of health and a simple control scheme, with jumping and attacking controlled by a single button.
The game's development began in 1990, when Sega ordered its AM8 development team to create a game featuring a mascot for the company. After considering a number of suggestions, the developers decided on a blue hedgehog with spikes along his head and spine and renamed themselves " Sonic Team " to match their character. Sonic the Hedgehog, designed for fast gameplay, was influenced by the games of Super Mario series creator, Shigeru Miyamoto. Sonic the Hedgehog uses a novel technique that allows Sonic's sprite to roll along curved scenery, which originated in a tech demo created by the game's programmer, Yuji Naka.
The game was well received by critics, who praised its visuals, music, and speed of gameplay. The game was also commercially successful, establishing the Genesis as a key player in the 16 @-@ bit era and allowing it to compete with Nintendo and their Super NES console. It has been ported a number of times, and inspired several clones, a successful franchise, and adaptations by other media.
= = Plot = =
In an attempt to steal the six Chaos Emeralds and harness their power, the game's antagonist, Dr. Ivo Robotnik, has trapped the animal inhabitants of South Island in aggressive robots and stationary metal capsules. The player controls Sonic, who aims to halt Robotnik's plans by freeing his animal friends and collecting the emeralds himself.
If the player collects all the Chaos Emeralds and completes the game, a reward ending sequence is shown. If all the emeralds are not collected, Robotnik taunts the player while juggling the Chaos Emeralds instead.
= = Gameplay = =
Sonic the Hedgehog is a 2D, side @-@ scrolling platformer, whose gameplay centers around Sonic's ability to run at high speed through levels incorporating springs, slopes, high falls, and loop @-@ the @-@ loops. The levels contain hazards in the form of robots ( " badniks " in the Western game manuals ) inside of which Dr. Robotnik has trapped animals. Although destroying a robot frees the animal within, this is not required to complete the game. The player must avoid rows of sharp spikes, falling into bottomless pits, being crushed by moving walls or platforms, and drowning ( which can be avoided by breathing air bubbles periodically released from vents ). Sonic's main attack is his spin, where he curls into a ball and rotates rapidly ( damaging enemies and some obstacles ). This can be performed by jumping in the air or rolling on the ground.
Scattered around each level map are gold rings, and collecting 100 rings rewards the player with an extra life. Rings are a layer of protection against hazards ; if Sonic has at least one ring when he collides with an enemy ( or obstacle ), he will survive. However, all his rings will be scattered ; they will flicker and disappear in a few seconds if they are not picked up again. If Sonic is hit without any rings, he loses a life. Although shields and temporary invincibility may be collected to provide additional protection, certain hazards ( such as drowning, being crushed, falling down a bottomless pit or running out of time ) will cost Sonic a life regardless of rings or other protection.
The game is divided into six zones ( Green Hill, Marble, Spring Yard, Labyrinth, Star Light, and Scrap Brain ), each with its own visual style and enemies. A player must navigate through each zone ( subdivided into three acts ) to progress. At the end of each zone's third act, the player confronts Dr. Robotnik ( who pilots a different vehicle each time ) in a boss fight. After the sixth zone, the player continues directly to the Final Zone for a last encounter with Robotnik.
The player begins with three lives ( power @-@ ups and rings add more ), which are lost when Sonic collides with hazardous enemies ( or objects ) without rings, falls off @-@ screen or exceeds an act's ten @-@ minute time limit. Lampposts acting as checkpoints allow Sonic to return to the most @-@ recently activated post when he loses a life. If he loses a life as a result of time running out but has another life, the timer will reset to 0 : 00 when he returns to the checkpoint. If all lives are lost at any point in the game, the game over screen will appear ( when the player can return to the beginning of the act with three lives, if they have any continues ).
When Sonic reaches the end of act one or act two of a zone with at least fifty rings, a large ring appears through which he can jump to enter a Special Stage ( a " Secret Zone " in the original Genesis manual ). In each of six Special Stages, Sonic bounces off the bumpers and walls of a rotating maze in spin attack. Although the player earns a continue with each 50 rings found, their main goal is to obtain the Chaos Emerald at the end of the maze without colliding with a " goal block " ( which ends the level ).
= = Development = =
= = = Background and character design = = =
In 1990, Sega ordered its in @-@ house development studio, AM8, to develop a game featuring a mascot for the company. This was a position already held by the character Alex Kidd, but he was considered similar to Mario and deemed unsatisfactory ; Sega president Hayao Nakayama wanted a character as iconic as Mickey Mouse. Sega had competition from Nintendo and its mascot, Mario, in mind ; Nintendo was dominant at the time, particularly after the release of the successful Super Mario Bros. 3, and Sega wanted a foothold in the industry. Although the company had some success with Genesis ports of its arcade titles, it knew this would not be enough.
AM8 developed ideas for characters, an engine, and gameplay mechanics. Development emphasized speed, so AM8 eliminated character designs not associated with fast animals, as well as fast creatures like kangaroos and squirrels. One idea, a rabbit able to grasp objects with prehensile ears, showed promise at first but was too complex for the available hardware. The team narrowed its search to animals that can roll into a ball, their idea for an attacking move. Designers then realized that this would not seem aggressive enough, so they focused on two animals with spikes : armadillos and hedgehogs. The hedgehog character, first proposed by Naoto Ohshima, prevailed, although the armadillo would later become the basis for Mighty the Armadillo ( who first appeared in 1993's SegaSonic the Hedgehog ). Ohshima has admitted since that he created Sonic's basic design by combining Felix the Cat's head with Mickey Mouse's body.
Sonic was originally teal @-@ colored, then a light shade of blue, but he was changed to dark blue so he would stand out against certain backgrounds and to match the Sega logo. His shoes were colored red through the inspiration of Michael Jackson's boots on the album cover for Bad and the outfit of Santa Claus, whom Ohshima saw as the most " famous character in the world ". Sonic's spikes were emphasized to make him look sleeker, and he was given the ability to spin while jumping ( so attacking and jumping could be controlled with one button ). The new character was originally named " Mr. Needlemouse ", but the eight @-@ member AM8 changed his name to " Sonic " and their studios to Sonic Team. Ideas proposed to flesh out the character included placing him in a rock band, giving him vampire fangs, and giving him a human girlfriend named Madonna, but Sega of America scrapped these ideas to keep his identity simple. Sega of America also expressed concerns that most Americans would not know what a hedgehog is and initially proposed a full @-@ scale recreation of the character, but compromised with Sonic Team to simply make design changes. The antagonist ended up being named " Dr. Eggman " in Japan and " Dr. Robotnik " in other regions as a result of a dispute between Sega's American and Japanese divisions.
= = = Programming and prototyping = = =
With a satisfying protagonist completed, Sega turned to esteemed programmer Yuji Naka, who had impressed them through his work on Phantasy Star and the Genesis port of Ghouls'n Ghosts. The gameplay originated with a tech demo by Naka, who developed an algorithm allowing a sprite to move smoothly on a curve by determining its position with a dot matrix. Naka's prototype was a platform game with a fast @-@ moving character rolling in a ball through a long, winding tube, and this concept was fleshed out with Ohshima's character designs and levels by designer Hirokazu Yasuhara. Yasuhara originally intended to work on the game for three | wikitext_103 | [
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helicopters, was filmed at RAF Odiham in Hampshire, UK, as were the helicopter interior shots during the Switchblade sequence. These latter scenes, though portrayed in the air, were actually filmed entirely on the ground with the sky background being added in post @-@ production using blue screen techniques. Although the base is portrayed in the film as a US base, all the aircraft and personnel in the scene are British in real life. In the film, Switchblades ( one @-@ person gliders resembling fighter jets in shape ) are flown by Bond and Jinx to stealthily enter North Korea. The Switchblade was based on a workable model called " PHASST " ( Programmable High Altitude Single Soldier Transport ). Kinetic Aerospace Inc.'s lead designer, Jack McCornack was impressed by director Lee Tamahori's way of conducting the Switchblade scene and commented, " It's brief, but realistic. The good guys get in unobserved, thanks to a fast cruise, good glide performance, and minimal radar signature. It's a wonderful promotion for the PHASST. "
= = = Music = = =
The soundtrack was composed by David Arnold and released on Warner Bros. Records. He again made use of electronic rhythm elements in his score, and included two of the new themes created for The World Is Not Enough. The first, originally used as Renard's theme, is heard during the mammoth " Antonov " cue on the recording, and is written for piano. The second new theme, used in the " Christmas in Turkey " track of The World Is Not Enough, is reused in the " Going Down Together " track.
The title song for Die Another Day was co @-@ written and co @-@ produced by Mirwais Ahmadzai and performed by Madonna, who also had a cameo in the film as Verity, a fencing instructor. This is the first Bond title sequence to directly reflect the film's plot since Dr. No ; all the other previous Bond titles are stand @-@ alone set pieces. The concept of the title sequence is to represent Bond trying to survive 14 months of torture at the hands of the North Koreans. Critics'opinions of the song were sharply divided — it was nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Original Song and the 2004 Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording, but also for a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Original Song of 2002 ( while Madonna herself won the Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actress for her cameo ). In a MORI poll for the Channel 4 programme " James Bond's Greatest Hits ", the song was voted 9th out of 22, and also came in as an " overwhelming number one " favourite among those under the age of 24.
= = Marketing tie @-@ ins = =
MGM and Eon Productions granted Mattel the license to sell a line of Barbie dolls based around the franchise. Mattel announced that the Bond Barbies will be at her " stylish best ", clad in evening dress and red shawl. Lindy Hemming created the dress, which is slashed to the thigh to reveal a telephone strapped to Barbie's leg. The doll was sold in a gift set, with Barbie's boyfriend Ken posing as Bond in a tuxedo designed by the Italian fashion house Brioni.
Revlon also collaborated with the makers of Die Another Day to create a cosmetics line based around the character Jinx. The limited edition 007 Colour Collection was launched on 7 November 2002 to coincide with the film's release. The product names were loaded with puns and innuendo, with shades and textures ranging from the " warm " to " cool and frosted ".
= = Release and reception = =
Die Another Day had its world premiere on 18 November 2002 at the Royal Albert Hall in London. Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip were guests of honour, making it the second Bond film premiere to be attended by the Queen, the first one being You Only Live Twice in 1967. The Royal Albert Hall had a make @-@ over for the screening and had been transformed into an ice palace. Proceeds from the première, about £ 500 @,@ 000, were donated to the Cinema and Television Benevolent Fund of which the Queen is patron. On the first day, ticket sales reached £ 1 @.@ 2 million. Die Another Day was the highest grossing James Bond film until the release of Casino Royale. It earned $ 432 million worldwide, becoming the sixth highest grossing film of 2002.
Die Another Day became a controversial subject in eastern Asia. The North Korean government disliked the portrayal of their state as brutal and war @-@ hungry. The South Koreans boycotted 145 theatres where it was released on 31 December 2002, as they were offended by the scene in which an American officer issues orders to the South Korean army in the defence of their homeland, and by a lovemaking scene near a statue of the Buddha. The Jogye Buddhist Order issued a statement that the film was " disrespectful to our religion and does not reflect our values and ethics ". The Washington Post reported growing resentment in the nation towards the United States. An official of the South Korean Ministry of Culture and Tourism said that Die Another Day was " the wrong film at the wrong time. "
The amount of product placement in the film was a point of criticism, specifically from various news outlets such as the BBC, Time and Reuters who all used the pun " Buy Another Day ". Reportedly 20 companies, paying $ 70 million, had their products featured in the film, a record at the time, although USA Today reported that number to be as high as $ 100 million. By choice, the number of companies involved in product placement was dropped to eight for the next Bond film Casino Royale in 2006.
Rotten Tomatoes listed Die Another Day with a 58 % rating. Metacritic gave the film a 56 out of 100 rating, representing " mixed or average reviews. " Michael Dequina of Film Threat praised the film as the best of the series to star Pierce Brosnan and " the most satisfying installment of the franchise in recent memory. " Larry Carroll of CountingDown.com praised Lee Tamahori for having " magnificently balanced the film so that it keeps true to the Bond legend, makes reference to the classic films that preceded it, but also injects a new zest to it all. " Entertainment Weekly magazine also gave a positive reaction, saying that Tamahori, " a true filmmaker ", has re @-@ established the series'pop sensuality. Dana Stevens of The New York Times called the film the best of the James Bond series since The Spy Who Loved Me. Kyle Bell of Movie Freaks 365 stated in his review that the " first half of Die Another Day is classic Bond ", but that " Things start to go downhill when the ice palace gets introduced. "
However, Die Another Day was strongly criticised by some reviewers who felt that the film relied too heavily on gadgets and special effects, with the plot being neglected. James Berardinelli of Reelviews.net said, " This is a train wreck of an action film – a stupefying attempt by the filmmakers to force @-@ feed James Bond into the mindless xXx mold and throw 40 years of cinematic history down the toilet in favor of bright flashes and loud bangs. " Of the action sequences, he said, " Die Another Day is an exercise in loud explosions and excruciatingly bad special effects. The CGI work in this movie is an order of magnitude worse than anything I have seen in a major motion picture. Coupled with lousy production design, Die Another Day looks like it was done on the cheap. Gary Brown of the Houston Community Newspapers also described the weak point of the film as " the seemingly non @-@ stop action sequences and loud explosions that appear to take centre stage while the Bond character is almost relegated to second string. " Roger Moore remarked, " I thought it just went too far – and that ’ s from me, the first Bond in space! Invisible cars and dodgy CGI footage? Please! "
= = Novelisation = =
Die Another Day was written into a novel by the then @-@ current official James Bond writer, Raymond Benson, based on the screenplay by Neal Purvis and Robert Wade. Fan reaction to it was above average. After its publication Benson retired as the official James Bond novelist and a new series featuring the secret agent's adventures as a teenager, by Charlie Higson, was launched in 2005. As the novelisation was published after Benson's final original 007 novel, The Man with the Red Tattoo, it was the final literary work featuring Bond as originally conceived by Ian Fleming until the publication of Devil May Care by Sebastian Faulks in 2008 to mark the 100th anniversary of Fleming's birth.
= = Cancelled spin @-@ off = =
Speculation arose in 2003 of a spin @-@ off film concentrating on Jinx, which was scheduled for a November / December 2004 release. It was originally reported that MGM was keen to set up a film series that would be a " winter olympics " alternative to'James Bond '. In the late 1990s, MGM had originally considered developing a spin @-@ off film based on Michelle Yeoh's character, Wai Lin, in 1997's Tomorrow Never Dies. However, despite much speculation of an imminent movie, on 26 October 2003, Variety reported that MGM had completely pulled the plug on this project, to the dismay of Barbara Broccoli and Michael G. Wilson of Eon Entertainment, who | wikitext_103 | [
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= Angel of Death ( Slayer song ) =
" Angel of Death " is the opening track on the American thrash metal band Slayer's 1986 album Reign in Blood. The lyrics and music were written by Slayer guitarist, Jeff Hanneman and are based on Nazi physician Josef Mengele, who conducted human experiments at the Auschwitz concentration camp during World War II. " Angel of Death " led to the band facing accusations of Nazi sympathizing and racism throughout their career.
Despite the controversy surrounding the song and its contribution to the delay in the release of Reign in Blood, " Angel of Death " is featured on all of Slayer's live albums and DVDs and has appeared in several movies. The song was well received by critics ; Steve Huey of AllMusic described it as a " classic ".
= = Composition and origins = =
Slayer guitarist Jeff Hanneman wrote " Angel of Death " after reading books about Nazi physician Josef Mengele while on tour with the band : " I remember stopping someplace where I bought two books on Mengele. I thought,'This has gotta be some sick shit.'So when it came time to do the record, that stuff was still in my head — that's where the lyrics to'Angel of Death'came from. "
The lyrics detail Mengele's surgical experiments on patients at the Auschwitz concentration camp during World War II. Mengele's explorations were conducted on such groups as dwarfs and twins, and included both physical and psychological examinations. Among the tests he performed that are mentioned in " Angel of Death " are experimental surgeries performed without anesthesia, transfusion of blood between twins, isolation endurance, gassing, injections with lethal germs, sex change operations, the removal of organs and limbs, and abacination.
" Sewn together, joining heads. Just a matter of time'til you rip yourselves apart ", a line from the penultimate verse, is a reference to the allegation Mengele stitched together twins, one of them deformed ; " the hunchback was sewn to the other child, back to back, their wrists back to back too. " This claim was first made by Auschwitz survivor Vera Alexander at the 1961 trial of SS @-@ Hauptscharführer Adolf Eichmann the " architect of the Holocaust ", where it was asserted that Mengele " sewed the veins together " and turned " them into Siamese twins. " This allegation became more widely known when Vera Alexander was featured in the 1985 documentary The Search for Mengele, which has been cited by several authors including Gerald Posner, an expert on Mengele.
Towards the end of the song, there is a line " Feeding off the screams of the mutants he's creating ", which was taken from the film The Boys from Brazil in which Dr. Mengele was the villain.
= = Controversy = =
The lyrical content of " Angel of Death " contributed to the delay of the release of Slayer's 1986 album Reign in Blood. The band were signed to Def Jam Records whose distributor, Columbia Records, refused to release the album due to lyrical themes and artwork concerns, deeming the artwork " too graphic ". Reign in Blood was eventually distributed by Geffen Records on October 7, 1986. However, due to the controversy, Reign in Blood did not appear on Geffen Records official release schedule.
" Angel of Death " caused outrage among survivors of the Holocaust, as well as their families and the general public. The controversy led to accusations of Nazi sympathizing which have followed Slayer throughout their career. People took Hanneman's interest in Nazi history and his collection of Nazi medals as evidence of sympathizing – his most prized item being a German Knight's Cross. Hanneman counteracted asserting :
" I know why people misinterpret it – it's because they get this knee – jerk reaction to it. When they read the lyrics, there's nothing I put in the lyrics that says necessarily he was a bad man, because to me – well, isn 't that obvious? I shouldn 't have to tell you that. "
According to guitarist Kerry King : " Yeah,'Slayer are Nazis, fascists, communists'— all that fun shit. And of course we got the most flak for it in Germany. I was always like,'Read the lyrics and tell me what's offensive about it. Can you see it as a documentary, or do you think Slayer's preaching fucking World War II?'People get this thought in their heads — especially in Europe — and you 'll never talk them out of it. "
The song drew accusations of racism, which the band has denied. The band members are often asked about the accusations in interviews, and have stated numerous times that they do not condone racism and are merely interested in the subject.
In 2006, the song " Jihad " from Slayer's 2006 album Christ Illusion drew comparison to " Angel of Death ". " Jihad " deals with the September 11, 2001, attacks, and tells the story from a terrorist's perspective. Vocalist Araya was expecting the subject matter to create a similar backlash to that of " Angel of Death ", although it did not materialise, in part, he believes, due to peoples'view that the song is " just Slayer being Slayer ".
= = Music and structure = =
" Angel of Death " is the longest track on the album Reign in Blood, spanning 4 minutes and 51 seconds, where the total duration of the album is 29 minutes. Additionally, it has one of the most conventional song structures on the album, featuring prominent verses and choruses, where most tracks on the album eschew them. Hanneman and King deliver their'intricate riffs ', which offer the few hints of melody on the album according to PopMatters reviewer Adrien Begrand, and Araya bursts out his piercing scream, with Lombardo performing beats of 210 beats per minute.
When drummer Lombardo left Slayer in 1992, the band hired a full @-@ time replacement in Forbidden drummer Paul Bostaph. Bostaph made one mistake out of the nine songs the band trialled him with, on " Angel of Death ". Before the " big double bass part " there is a lead section, which Bostaph could not understand, as he had to learn from live records recorded with Lombardo. Bostaph could not tell how many revolutions the guitar riff goes before the bass sequence. The band members told him there were eight, " perfecting " the song afterwards.
= = Reception = =
Although " Angel of Death " did not enter any charts, it received strong praise from critics in reviews for Reign in Blood. Clay Jarvas of Stylus Magazine noted that the song " smokes the asses of any band playing fast and / or heavy today. Lyrically outlining the horrors to come, while musically laying the groundwork for the rest of the record : fast, lean and filthy. "
Adrien Begrand of PopMatters remarked that " There's no better song to kick things off than the masterful'Angel of Death ', one of the most monumental songs in metal history, where guitarists Kerry King and Jeff Hanneman deliver their intricate riffs, drummer Dave Lombardo performs some of the most powerful drumming ever recorded, and bassist / vocalist Tom Araya screams and snarls his tale of Nazi war criminal Josef Mengele. "
Capitalizing on the publicity generated by the controversy, the band utilized Nazi imagery by adapting a logo to one similar to the eagle atop swastika, during the Seasons in the Abyss period. Hanneman placed SS stickers on his guitar, and wrote " SS @-@ 3 " a song about Reinhard Heydrich, the second in command in the Schutzstaffel organization.
= = Appearances = =
" Angel of Death " has appeared in several movies and TV shows including Gremlins 2 : The New Batch in a scene when the gremlin Mohawk is turning into a spider, Jackass : The Movie during a car stunt, the 2005 Iraq War documentary Soundtrack to War, which details the role of music on the contemporary battlefield, and on an episode of The Leftovers when Nora asks a female escort to shoot her.
The half @-@ time riff was sampled by Public Enemy in their 1988 song " She Watch Channel Zero?! ", sampled by M.O.P. in their song " Raise Hell ", which appeared in the Breaking Bad episode " Thirty @-@ Eight Snub ", and sampled by KMFDM on their 1990 single " Godlike ", and featured in the multi @-@ platform video game Tony Hawk's Project 8. Nolan Nelson, who selected the soundtrack for the game asserts the song is " one of the greatest heavy metal songs ever recorded. Don 't know who Slayer is? I feel sorry for you. "
A Slayer tribute band called Dead Skin Mask released an album with eight Slayer tracks, " Angel of Death " being one of them. The death metal bands Debauchery and Monstrosity covered the song, and the track was featured on cello metal band Apocalyptica's 2006 album Amplified / / A Decade of Reinventing the Cello. Sgt. Discharge, a thrash metal band with members from Morbid Saint, has also covered this song. Al Sur del Abismo ( Tributo Argentino a Slayer ), a Slayer tribute album | wikitext_103 | [
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construction of the new cap, installing machinery and making and fitting various doors and windows. The cap frame was constructed, incorporating two beams from the original cap frame that were fit to be reused. The cap frame was completed in autumn 1982. It had been constructed upside down and a mobile crane was used to turn it over and place the windshaft into position.
= = = 1983 = = =
Work in the early part of 1983 was mainly confined to smaller jobs such as casting various brasses and overhaul of the various parts of the fantail drivetrain and mechanism for controlling the Patent sails. The mill was generally made as safe as possible inside in preparation for scheduled visits, including one from the Wind and Watermill Section of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings. Other work included the overhaul of the final drive to the 4 feet 7 inches ( 1 @.@ 40 m ) stones, including dismantling the stone nut and replacement of three cogs in beech.
When the weather improved, work commenced outside. The cap circle was mostly constructed before the first work @-@ in commenced. The work @-@ ins took place over two separate weeks in July and August, with 35 people participating. During the first work @-@ in, the fantail posts and braces were fitted. The oak cap ribs, which had been prefabricated offsite were fitted and the finial was supported by scaffolding ready for final fitting. Intermdiate noggings of oak were fitted and the finial was pulled into position using a windlass. The cap frame was competed with the fitting of intermediate ribs and noggings. The rear of the cap circle was also completed during this time.
Between the two work @-@ ins, the rear dormer was completed and the fitting of noggings to the cap frame completed. This enabled a start to be made on boarding the cap on the Monday of the second work @-@ in. The boards for the cap are ½ inch ( 13 mm ) thick and 9 inches ( 230 mm ) wide at the petticoat, tapering towards the top. A new neck bearing was installed under the windshaft, not without difficulty and much machining before it would fit. When the boarding of the cap was completed, the cover strips were fitted over the joints. The petticoat was drawn into position using a rope and windlass, and the galvanised steel reinforcing band screwed into position, producing a sturdy structure. The striking rod was fitted through the windshaft and the axle for the fantail fitted in position on top of the fantail posts. At the top of the mill tower, the curb was prepared to accept the cap, and the cast iron curb track plates bolted into position. Repointing of the brickwork of the tower continued, with nearly half of it completed at the end of the second work @-@ in.
After the work @-@ ins had ended, work continued on finishing the cap which was scheduled for lift @-@ on in October. The weather hampered the work initially, but the application of a modern microporous paint, designed to withstand normal movement of the timber and yet remain waterproof, was completed in time for the lift @-@ on. A mini work @-@ in was held the weekend before the cap was lifted, with 17 people participating over the weekend. Final work was done to the cap and a new window was fitted to the stone floor of the mill. The tarpaulin was removed and the trammel dismantled. The 5 @-@ ton cap was lifted into place by a mobile crane on 24 October 1983, watched by a crowd of some 70 people. The fitting of the cap was toasted with beer from Adnams Brewery, Southwold.
Restoration work in 1983 cost £ 1 @,@ 408. Grants were received from the Association of Independent Museums, Blo'Norton Women's Institute, Ipswich Historical Transport Society, the National Association for Gifted Children, Mr D. Porter and the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings. Further income came from the sale of guide books and a drawing of the mill by Wilf Foreman.
= = = 1984 = = =
Four work @-@ ins were held during 1984. The first two were by apprentices from Eastern Electricity Board. Thelnetham Windmill was chosen at the project to benefit from the Young Person's Development Project for that year. Pakenham Watermill had previously benefited from the project, and its owners, the Suffolk Preservation Trust, had suggested that Thelnetham Windmill would be a good candidate for the scheme. Two separate parties spent a week each at the mill. A mains electricity supply was provided. An underground cable was laid with assistance from British Telecom who were trialling a thrust borer which had been developed at their research facility at Martlesham Heath. The thrust borer laid 25 yards ( 23 m ) of ducting through which the mains cable was pulled into position. The mill was then supplied with lights and sockets on each floor.
Other work undertaken by the apprentices involved repairing some frost damage to the foundation brickwork, digging a drainage trench around the mill and moving the auxiliary engine into position. A concrete path around the tower was trapping moisture, leading to rising damp. A French drain was constructed around the mill to remedy these problem. A 21 horsepower ( 16 kW ) Ruston & Hornsby 4YHR diesel engine had been purchased in 1981 and was fitted onto a permanent concrete base with the aid of a mobile crane. After fitting it was then painted. Some missing or broken parts were made or repaired as necessary.
Off @-@ site, the new brake wheel and fantail were made. The original brake wheel was too rotten to repair, and showed evidence that it had been altered from the original one installed in 1819. The original brake wheel was 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 83 m ) diameter to allow the Common sails to run at their optimum speed. When the mill was modernised in 1832 it was necessary to alter the gear ratios within the mill, as Patent sails run at a slower speed than Common sails. The great spur wheel was increased in diameter and the stone nuts reduced in diameter. The brake wheel was also rebuilt, with a cast iron segment ring fitted in place of the original cogs, resulting in a wheel 7 feet 2 inches ( 2 @.@ 18 m ) in diameter. The opinion of professional millwrights was sought, and it was decided that a scaled @-@ up version of the original brake wheel would be made, but retaining the cast iron teeth segments. The remains of the original brake wheel were retained as an exhibit in the mill. The original iron segments were all broken, so a pattern was made and new segments were cast in heat @-@ treated malleable cast iron. When the brake wheel was completed it was dismantled and transported to the mill ready for reassembly.
The fantail was made. Some of the small gears were replaced. The stocks were made from pitch pine and the blades from Douglas fir. Work at the mill over the winter included repairs to the brickwork and windows, with only one window still needing attention when the first work @-@ in began. New beech cogs were fitted to the crown wheel, which was restored to its correct position on the upright shaft.
The stocks and sails were made during the two work @-@ ins held in July and August, a total of 41 people attending over the two weeks. A second @-@ hand stock had been bought in the 1920s and preserved at the mill, but upon examination it was found to be unfit for use. Thus two new stocks were required instead of one. Modern steel stocks had already been discounted on cost and durability grounds, leaving two options. Traditional stocks made from a single piece of timber, or laminated stocks. Good quality pitch pine was not obtainable in the lengths required. Douglas fir was obtainable in such lengths but was discounted on strength and durability grounds. A Douglas fir stock on a nearby mill had rotted after only seven years. Thus it was decided that laminated stocks would be made.
The 52 feet ( 15 @.@ 85 m ) long stocks were made from Douglas fir. All timber had been pressure treated with preservative and well seasoned. It was estimated that a laminated stock would be up to 20 % stronger than a similar stock of solid timber. The timber used was 1 1 ⁄ 2 inches ( 38 mm ) thick and nine laminations were required at the centre, where the stock passes through the poll end of the windshaft. Careful attention was paid to where individual joints occurred between different pieces of timber. Both stocks were made during the work @-@ in, with one of them being trimmed and finished ready for use. The stocks were the first laminated stocks made by amateurs.
The four sails were made. The originals being slightly different pairs. Those on the inner stock having bays of 3 feet ( 910 mm ) pitch and those on the outer stock having bays of 3 feet 2 inches ( 970 mm ) pitch. It was decided that the new sails would be identical, at the larger pitch. Four 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 23 m ) long whips were cut from a baulk of pitch pine obtained from a demolished maltings at Bury St Edmunds. The whips are 6 inches ( 150 mm ) square at their inner end. Sail bars and uplongs were made from modern pitch pine, selected for quality. The mortices for the sail bars were cut. That at the heel of the sail being at 27 ° and that at the tip being 15 °, decreasing by 1 ½ ° at each sail bar. Three of the four sails had been completed at the end of the work in.
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] |
= Exit Through the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart =
" Exit Through the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart " is the fifteenth episode of the twenty @-@ third season of the American animated television sitcom The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 4, 2012. In the episode, Bart is punished by Homer after causing trouble. He gets revenge on his father by spray @-@ painting images of him with the word " dope " all over Springfield. Street artist Shepard Fairey encounters Bart one night and offers him a gallery show of Bart's artworks. However, Chief Wiggum suddenly appears during the show and arrests Bart for covering the town in graffiti. It turns out that Fairey is an undercover officer working for Wiggum.
The episode references the 2010 street art documentary Exit Through the Gift Shop by graffiti artist Banksy, and features guest appearances from street artists Ron English, Kenny Scharf, and Robbie Conal as themselves. Fairey, who is a long @-@ time fan of The Simpsons, also guest starred in the episode as himself. Around 5 @.@ 09 million Americans tuned in to watch " Exit Through the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart " during its original broadcast. Since then, the episode has received praise from television critics for its opening sequence, which parodies the opening sequence of the medieval fantasy television series Game of Thrones.
= = Plot = =
As a birthday gift for Marge, Homer buys a blender designed by television chef Paula Paul. He goes to a health food store called Swapper Jack's, where Paula is giving away autographs, to have Paula sign it. Homer is impressed by the store and says he will not be shopping at the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart any more. Apu, who is there to spy, overhears Homer and the two engage in a fight until the security guards grab hold of Apu and take him away. At the signing, Homer tells Paula that Marge is a big fan of hers. Paula decides that she will call Marge live during her upcoming show to wish her a happy birthday. Meanwhile, Bart gets his mother a rabbit for her birthday. The rabbit chews through the phone lines in the Simpsons'home, causing Marge to miss Paula's call. Paula becomes furious at Marge for not answering the phone as she embarrassed herself on her show. Homer punishes Bart by locking him up in the rabbit's cage.
To get revenge on Homer, Bart goes around Springfield spray @-@ painting graffiti of Homer's face and the word " dope ". When his work appears on the television news, it encourages Bart to create even more graffiti in the town. Street artists Shepard Fairey, Ron English, Kenny Scharf, and Robbie Conal encounter Bart one night when he is making some graffiti. The four tell Bart that they are impressed by his work and would like to showcase his art in a gallery show, at first Bart is unsure, but Bart remembers how Homer treated him, and then agrees. Meanwhile, the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart suffers because of the competition from Swapper Jack's. Apu ends up attempting to rob Swapper Jack's in a desperate measure, but the cashier ( Snake Jailbird ) convinces him to hand over the gun. Later, Apu is about to shut down the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart when his wife Manjula tells him that Swapper Jack's is closing because it was discovered they were selling monkey meat imported from Brazil as chicken.
Homer initially refuses to attend Bart's show because he discovers the artwork is an insult to him, but changes his mind after Bart apologizes and writes " I'm sorry " on the hood of Homer's car. At the show, Chief Wiggum and the Springfield Police Department suddenly appear to arrest Bart for making graffiti throughout the town. It is revealed that the gallery show is a sham and that Fairey is an undercover officer who helped the police identify Bart as the graffiti artist that had been spray @-@ painting Springfield. Since Bart is just a boy, he is not sent to jail. Instead, he is punished by once again being locked up in the rabbit cage. When Bart tells Wiggum that he has to go to the bathroom, Wiggum covers the cage with the blanket and finds Bart gone when he removes the blanket from the cage.
= = Production = =
" Exit Through the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart " was written by Marc Wilmore and directed by Steven Dean Moore as part of the twenty @-@ third season of The Simpsons ( 2011 – 12 ). It spoofs the debated status of street art as a true form of art. The title is a reference to Exit Through the Gift Shop, a 2010 street art documentary by graffiti artist Banksy who produced the opening sequence of an earlier Simpsons episode titled " MoneyBART " ( 2010 ). The Richard Hawley song " Tonight The Streets Are Ours ", which is the theme song of Exit Through the Gift Shop, is included in the episode during a montage of Bart painting graffiti in Springfield. Hayden Childs of The A.V. Club noted in his review of " Exit Through the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart " that the " reveal that the art show was a police sting gives the show a moment to joke about the anti @-@ art market theme from Exit Through The Gift Shop. Wiggum asks who would be stupid enough to pay for work that an amateur puts up for free in public, and the answer is, as in Banksy ’ s movie, the very wealthy, here represented by Mr. Burns. "
American street artist Fairey guest starred in " Exit Through the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart " as himself. The graffiti art featuring Homer's face and the word " dope " that Bart creates in the episode is a reference to Fairey's Barack Obama " Hope " poster and his OBEY Giant image. Fairey has said that The Simpsons has been one of his favorite television shows since the early 1990s because of its " blend of humor and social commentary ", and he felt " deeply honored " to be included in an episode. Fairey wrote on his website that " Part of being on The Simpsons, is you ’ re being honored as a reference point in culture. " He described the plot of the episode as " great ", adding that the staff members of the show " were kind enough to indulge a couple of my dialogue suggestions designed to make the social commentary more pointed ( even though I had to make fun of myself to do so ). " This was Fairey's first acting performance. Street artists English, Scharf, and Conal also guest starred in the episode as themselves.
The traditional Simpsons opening sequence was replaced in this episode with a redesigned version that spoofed the opening sequence of the HBO medieval fantasy series Game of Thrones. The Game of Thrones opening shows the various locations featured in the series on a three @-@ dimensional map of the fictional continent Westeros. In the Simpsons opening, these locations were substituted with places in Springfield, and The Wall was replaced with the Simpson family's couch. The theme song featured in the Game of Thrones opening sequence was arranged by The Simpsons composer Alf Clausen and used in the Simpsons opening as well. Nicholas McKaig, known for uploading a cappella covers of famous songs on YouTube, performed the Simpsons theme song over the closing credits of " Exit Through the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart ". He was recruited after a staff member of the show saw his cover of the Simpsons theme on YouTube.
= = Release = =
" Exit Through the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart " was originally broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on March 4, 2012. It was watched by approximately 5 @.@ 09 million people during this broadcast, and in the demographic for adults aged 18 – 49, the episode received a 2 @.@ 5 Nielsen rating and a seven percent share. This was a slight decrease from the previous episode, " At Long Last Leave ", which acquired a 2 @.@ 6 rating. The episode became the second highest @-@ rated broadcast in Fox's Animation Domination lineup for the night in terms of both total viewers and in the 18 – 49 demographic, finishing higher than new episodes of American Dad!, Napoleon Dynamite, and The Cleveland Show, but lower than a new Family Guy episode ( which received a 2 @.@ 8 rating and was seen by 5 @.@ 33 million people ). For the week of February 27 – March 4, 2012, " Exit Through the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart " placed 25th in the ratings among all prime @-@ time broadcasts in the 18 – 49 demographic, and seventh among all Fox prime @-@ time broadcasts.
Writing for The A.V. Club, television reviewer Hayden Childs commented that " Exit Through the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart " was " somewhat amusing and far more coherent than many recent episodes, but the satire is relatively mild. The episode curdles a bit while looking for a sweet ending, but it is otherwise solid enough. " Critics have praised the opening sequence that parodies Game of Thrones. Tim Surette of TV.com called it " one minute of genius ", and MTV's Brandon Freeberg wrote : " | wikitext_103 | [
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] |
= Hu Zhengyan =
Hu Zhengyan ( Chinese : 胡正言 ; c. 1584 – 1674 ) was a Chinese artist, printmaker and publisher. He worked in calligraphy, traditional Chinese painting, and seal @-@ carving, but was primarily a publisher, producing academic texts as well as records of his own work.
Hu lived in Nanjing during the transition from the Ming dynasty to the Qing dynasty. A Ming loyalist, he was offered a position at the rump court of the Hongguang Emperor, but declined the post, and never held anything more than minor political office. He did, however, design the Hongguang Emperor's personal seal, and his loyalty to the dynasty was such that he largely retired from society after the emperor's capture and death in 1645. He owned and operated an academic publishing house called the Ten Bamboo Studio, in which he practised various multi @-@ colour printing and embossing techniques, and he employed several members of his family in this enterprise. Hu's work at the Ten Bamboo Studio pioneered new techniques in colour printmaking, leading to delicate gradations of colour which were not previously achievable in this art form.
Hu is best known for his manual of painting entitled The Ten Bamboo Studio Manual of Painting and Calligraphy, an artist's primer which remained in print for around 200 years. His studio also published seal catalogues, academic and medical texts, books on poetry, and decorative writing papers. Many of these were edited and prefaced by Hu and his brothers.
= = Biography = =
Hu was born in Xiuning County, Anhui Province in 1584 or early 1585. Both his father and elder brother Zhengxin ( 正心, art name Wusuo, 無所 ) were physicians, and after he turned 30 he travelled with them while they practised medicine in the areas around Lu 'an and Huoshan. It is commonly stated that Zhengyan himself was also a doctor, though the earliest sources attesting to this occur only in the second half of the 19th century.
By 1619, Hu had moved to Nanjing where he lived with his wife Wu. Their home on Jilongshan ( 雞籠山, now also known as Beiji Ge ), a hill located just within the northern city wall, served as a meeting @-@ house for like @-@ minded artists. Hu named it the Ten Bamboo Studio ( Shizhuzhai, 十竹齋 ), after the ten bamboo plants that grew in front of the property. It functioned as the headquarters for his printing business, where he employed ten artisans including his two brothers Zhengxin and Zhengxing ( 正行, art name Zizhu, 子著 ) and his sons Qipu ( 其樸 ) and Qiyi ( 其毅, courtesy name 致果 ).
During Hu's lifetime, the Ming dynasty, which had ruled China for over 250 years, was overthrown and replaced by China's last imperial dynasty, the Qing. Following the fall of the capital Beijing in 1644, remnants of the imperial family and a few ministers set up a Ming loyalist regime in Nanjing with Zhu Yousong on the throne as the Hongguang Emperor. Hu, who was noted for his seal @-@ carving and facility with seal script, created a seal for the new Emperor. The court offered him the position of Drafter for the Secretariat ( zhongshu sheren, 中書舍人 ) as a reward, but he did not accept the role ( although he did accord himself the title of zhongshu sheren in some of his subsequent personal seals ).
According to Wen Ruilin's Lost History of the South ( Nanjiang Yishi, 南疆繹史 ), prior to the Qing invasion of Nanjing Hu studied at the National University there, and whilst a student was employed by the Ministry of Rites to record official proclamations ; he produced the Imperial Promotion of Minor Learning ( Qin Ban Xiaoxue, 御頒小學 ) and the Record of Displayed Loyalty ( Biaozhong Ji, 表忠記 ) as part of this work. As a result, he was promoted to the Ministry of Personnel and gained admittance to the Hanlin Academy, but before he could take up this appointment, Beijing had fallen to the Manchu rebellion. Since contemporaneous biographies ( Wen's work was not published until 1830 ) make no mention of these events, it has been suggested that they were fabricated after Hu's death.
Hu retired from public life and went into seclusion in 1646, after the end of the Ming dynasty. Xiao Yuncong and Lü Liuliang recorded visiting him during his later years, in 1667 and 1673 respectively. He died in poverty at the age of 90, sometime around late 1673 or early 1674.
= = Seal @-@ carving = =
Hu Zhengyan was a noted seal @-@ carver, producing personal seals for numerous dignitaries. His style was rooted in the classical seal script of the Han dynasty, and he followed the Huizhou school of carving founded by his contemporary He Zhen. Hu's calligraphy, although balanced and with a clear compositional structure, is somewhat more angular and rigid than the classical models he followed. Huizhou seals attempt to impart an ancient, weathered impression, although unlike other Huizhou artists Hu did not make a regular practice of artificially aging his seals.
Hu's work was known outside his local area. Zhou Lianggong, a poet who lived in Nanjing around the same time as Hu and was a noted art connoisseur, stated in his Biography of Seal @-@ Carvers ( Yinren Zhuan, 印人傳 ) that Hu " creates miniature stone carvings with ancient seal inscriptions for travellers to fight over and treasure ", implying that his carvings were popular with visitors and travellers passing through Nanjing.
In 1644, Hu took it upon himself to create a new Imperial seal for the Hongguang Emperor, which he carved after a period of fasting and prayer. He presented his creation with an essay, the Great Exhortation of the Seal ( Dabao Zhen, 大寶印 ), in which he bemoaned the loss of the Chongzhen Emperor's seal and begged Heaven's favour in restoring it. Hu was concerned that his essay would be overlooked because he had not written it in the form of rhyming, equally @-@ footed couplets ( pianti, 駢體 ) used in the Imperial examinations, but his submission and the seal itself were nevertheless both accepted by the Southern Ming court.
= = Ten Bamboo Studio = =
Despite his reputation as an artist and seal @-@ carver, Hu was primarily a publisher. His publishing house, the Ten Bamboo Studio, produced reference works on calligraphy, poetry and art ; medical textbooks ; books on etymology and phonetics ; and copies of as well as commentaries on the Confucian Classics. Unlike other publishers in the area, the Ten Bamboo Studio did not publish works of narrative fiction such as plays or novels. This bias towards academia was likely a consequence of the studio's location : the mountain on which Hu took up residence was just to the north of the Nanjing Guozijian ( National Academy ), which provided a captive market for academic texts. Between 1627 and 1644, the Ten Bamboo Studio produced over twenty printed books of this kind, aimed at a wealthy, literary audience. The studio's earliest publications were medical textbooks, the first of which, Tested Prescriptions for Myriad Illnesses ( Wanbing Yanfang, 萬病驗方 ) was published in 1631 and proved popular enough to be reissued ten years later. Hu's brother Zhengxin was a medical practitioner and appears to have been the author of these books.
During the 1630s the Ten Bamboo Studio also produced political works extolling the rule of the Ming ; these included the Imperial Ming Record of Loyalty ( Huang Ming Biaozhong Ji, 皇明表忠紀 ), a biography of loyal Ming officials, and the Edicts of the Imperial Ming ( Huang Ming Zhaozhi, 皇明詔制 ), a list of Imperial proclamations. After the fall of the Ming Dynasty, Hu renamed the studio the Hall Rooted in the Past ( Digutang, 迪古堂 ) as a sign of his affiliation with the previous dynasty, although the Ten Bamboo imprint continued to be used. Despite Hu's withdrawal from society after 1646, the studio continued to publish well into the Qing dynasty, for the most part focussing on seal impression catalogues showcasing Hu's carving work.
The Ming dynasty had seen considerable advancement in the process of colour printing in China. At his studio, Hu Zhengyan experimented with various forms of woodblock printing, creating processes for producing multi @-@ coloured prints and embossed printed designs. As a result, he was able to produce some of China's first printed publications in colour, using a block printing technique known as " assorted block printing " ( douban yinshua, � | wikitext_103 | [
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] |
= Air Rhodesia Flight 825 =
Air Rhodesia Flight 825 was a scheduled passenger flight that was shot down by the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army ( ZIPRA ) on 3 September 1978, during the Rhodesian Bush War. The aircraft involved, a Vickers Viscount named the Hunyani, was flying the last leg of Air Rhodesia's regular scheduled service from Victoria Falls to the capital Salisbury, via the resort town of Kariba.
Soon after Flight 825 took off, a group of ZIPRA guerrillas scored a direct hit on its starboard wing with a Soviet @-@ made Strela 2 surface @-@ to @-@ air infrared homing missile, critically damaging the aircraft and forcing an emergency landing. An attempted belly landing in a cotton field just west of Karoi was foiled by an unseen ditch, which caused the plane to cartwheel and break up. Of the 52 passengers and four crew, 38 died in this crash ; the insurgents then approached the wreckage, rounded up the 10 survivors they could see and massacred them with automatic gunfire. Three passengers survived by hiding in the surrounding bush, while a further five lived because they had gone to look for water before the guerrillas arrived.
ZIPRA leader Joshua Nkomo publicly claimed responsibility for shooting down the Hunyani in an interview with the BBC's Today programme the same evening, saying the aircraft had been used for military purposes, but denied that his men had killed survivors on the ground. The majority of Rhodesians, both black and white, saw the attack as an act of terrorism. A fierce white Rhodesian backlash followed against perceived enemies, with many whites becoming violently resentful and suspicious of blacks in general, even though few black Rhodesians supported attacks of this kind. Reports viewing the attack negatively appeared in international journals such as Time magazine, but there was almost no acknowledgement of it by overseas governments, much to the Rhodesian government's indignation.
Talks between Nkomo and Prime Minister Ian Smith, which had been progressing promisingly, were immediately suspended by the furious Rhodesians, with Smith calling Nkomo a " monster ". On 10 September, Smith announced the extension of martial law over selected areas. The Rhodesian Security Forces launched several retaliatory strikes into Zambia and Mozambique over the following months, attacking both ZIPRA and its rival, the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ( ZANLA ). The attack on ZIPRA in particular brought great controversy as many of those killed were refugees camping in and around guerrilla positions. Five months later, in February 1979, ZIPRA shot down Air Rhodesia Flight 827, another civilian flight, in an almost identical incident.
= = Background = =
A dispute over the terms for the granting of full sovereignty to the self @-@ governing colony of Rhodesia ( or Southern Rhodesia ) led the colonial government, headed by Prime Minister Ian Smith, to unilaterally declare independence from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965. The idea of " no independence before majority rule " had recently gained ground in Britain and elsewhere amid decolonisation, and Rhodesia's government was dominated by the country's white minority, so the unilateral declaration went unrecognised internationally. Britain and the United Nations imposed economic sanctions on Rhodesia.
Two rival communist @-@ backed black nationalist groups initiated military campaigns to overthrow the government and introduce majority rule : the Chinese @-@ aligned Zimbabwe African National Union ( ZANU ), mostly comprising Shonas, created the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ( ZANLA ) and adopted aspects of Maoist doctrine, while the Ndebele @-@ dominated Zimbabwe African People's Union ( ZAPU ), aligned with Soviet @-@ style Marxism – Leninism and the Warsaw Pact, mobilised the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army ( ZIPRA ). These guerrilla armies proceeded to wage what they called the " Second Chimurenga " against the Rhodesian government and security forces. The resulting conflict, the Rhodesian Bush War, began in earnest in December 1972, when ZANLA attacked Altena and Whistlefield Farms in north @-@ eastern Rhodesia.
After the security forces mounted a successful counter @-@ insurgency campaign during 1973 and 1974, developments overseas caused the conflict's momentum to shift in the insurgents'favour. The leftist Carnation Revolution of April 1974 caused Portugal to withdraw its key economic support for Smith's administration, and led to Mozambique's independence the following year as a communist state openly allied with ZANU. Around the same time, Rhodesia's other main backer, South Africa, adopted a détente initiative that forced a ceasefire, giving the guerrillas time to regroup. Following the abortive Victoria Falls Conference of August 1975, Smith and the ZAPU leader Joshua Nkomo held unsuccessful talks between December 1975 and March 1976. ZANU and ZAPU announced in October 1976, during the run @-@ up to the unsuccessful Geneva Conference in December, that they would henceforth attend conferences as a joint " Patriotic Front ".
In March 1978, Smith and non @-@ militant nationalist groups headed by Bishop Abel Muzorewa, the Reverend Ndabaningi Sithole and Chief Jeremiah Chirau agreed what became the " Internal Settlement ". This created a joint black – white transitional government, with the country due to be reconstituted as Zimbabwe Rhodesia in June 1979, pursuant to multiracial elections. ZANU and ZAPU were invited to participate, but refused ; Nkomo sardonically dubbed Smith's black colleagues " the blacksmiths ". ZANU proclaimed 1978 to be " The Year of the People " as the war continued. Officials from Muzorewa's United African National Council, sent to the provinces to explain the Internal Settlement to rural blacks, were killed by Marxist – Leninist guerrillas. Insurgents also began to target Christian missionaries, climaxing in the killing of nine British missionaries and four children at Elim Mission near the Mozambican border on 23 June.
The transitional government was badly received abroad, partly because the Internal Settlement kept control of law enforcement, the military, the judiciary and the civil service under white control. No country recognised Rhodesia's interim administration. Smith again worked to bring Nkomo into the government, hoping this would lend it some credence domestically, prompt diplomatic recognition overseas, and help the security forces defeat ZANLA. Starting on 14 August 1978, he attended secret meetings with Nkomo in Lusaka, Zambia ( where ZAPU was based ), doing so with the assistance of the mining corporation Lonrho. Attempts were made to also involve the ZANU leader Robert Mugabe, but Mugabe would have no part in the talks. According to the South African military historian Jakkie Cilliers, negotiations between Smith and Nkomo progressed well and " seemed on the verge of success " by the start of September 1978. On 2 September, Smith and Nkomo revealed publicly that the secret meetings had taken place.
= = Incident = =
= = = Prior threats to Rhodesian air traffic = = =
Rhodesian air traffic was not seriously threatened until about 1977, in the latter stages of the war ; before this time, neither revolutionary force had the weapons to launch a viable attack against an aerial target. The weapon that made such attacks feasible for ZIPRA was the Strela 2 shoulder @-@ launched surface @-@ to @-@ air missile launcher, supplied by the Soviet Union from the mid @-@ 1970s as part of the Warsaw Pact's materiel support. By September 1978, there had been 20 reported attempts to shoot down Rhodesian military aircraft using these weapons, none of which had been successful. Some Rhodesian Air Force Dakotas had been hit, but all had survived and landed safely. No civilian aircraft had yet been targeted during the Bush War.
= = = Flight = = =
Air Rhodesia was the country's national airline, established by the government on 1 September 1967 to succeed Central African Airways, which was dissolved at the end of that year. Based at Salisbury Airport, Air Rhodesia's flight network during the late 1970s comprised a domestic programme of passenger and cargo flights, as well as international services to the South African cities of Johannesburg and Durban.
The Flight 825 aircraft was a Vickers Viscount 782D, a British @-@ made turboprop aircraft with two engines on each wing. It was named the Hunyani after the river of the same name, which flowed between Lake Kariba and the Rhodesian capital Salisbury.
The Hunyani was on the second and final leg of its regular scheduled journey between Victoria Falls and Salisbury, stopping over in the resort town of Kariba. Despite the occasional rocket and mortar attacks launched on Kariba by ZIPRA guerrillas on the northern side of the Zambezi ( in Zambia ), the resort had endured as one of Rhodesia's choice tourist destinations. The flight on 3 September 1978, Sunday afternoon, from Kariba to Salisbury carried four crew members and 52 passengers, most of whom were holidaymakers from Salisbury, returning home after a weekend at the lake. The flight took off from Kariba Airport on schedule soon after 17 : 00 Central Africa Time.
Flight 825 was piloted by 36 @-@ year @-@ old Captain John Hood, a native of Bulawayo who had gained his commercial pilot licence in 1966. He had flown Viscounts for Air Rhodesia since 1968, and had also served in the Rhodesian Air Force on a voluntary basis. His | wikitext_103 | [
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