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{ "title": [ "History.", "Foundation and early history.", "Modern day.", "Location and buildings.", "Campus The Hague.", "Organisation.", "Academic profile.", "Undergraduate studies.", "Graduate studies.", "Doctorate programmes.", "Research schools and affiliated institutes.", "Rankings and reputation.", "Notable alumni and professors.", "Nobel laureates.", "Controversies.", "Confidentiality breach." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "In 1575, the emerging Dutch Republic did not have any universities in its northern heartland. The only other university in the Habsburg Netherlands was the University of Leuven in southern Leuven, firmly under Spanish control. The scientific renaissance had begun to highlight the importance of academic study, so Prince William founded the first Dutch university in Leiden, to give the Northern Netherlands an institution that could educate its citizens for religious purposes, but also to give the country and its government educated men in other fields. It is said the choice fell on Leiden as a reward for the heroic defence of Leiden against Spanish attacks in the previous year. Ironically, the name of Philip II of Spain, William's adversary, appears on the official foundation certificate, as he was still the \"de jure\" count of Holland. Philip II replied by forbidding any subject to study in Leiden. Originally located in the convent of St Barbara, the university moved to the Faliede Bagijn Church in 1577 (now the location of the University museum) and in 1581 to the convent of the White Nuns, a site which it still occupies, though the original building was destroyed by fire in 1616. The presence within half a century of the date of its foundation of such scholars as Justus Lipsius, Joseph Scaliger, Franciscus Gomarus, Hugo Grotius, Jacobus Arminius, Daniel Heinsius and Gerhard Johann Vossius, rapidly made Leiden university into a highly regarded institution that attracted students from across Europe in the 17th century. Renowned philosopher Baruch Spinoza was based close to Leiden during this period and interacted with numerous scholars at the university. The learning and reputation of Jacobus Gronovius, Herman Boerhaave, Tiberius Hemsterhuis and David Ruhnken, among others, enabled Leiden to maintain its reputation for excellence down to the end of the 18th century. At the end of the nineteenth century, Leiden University again became one of Europe's leading universities. In 1896 the Zeeman effect was discovered there by Pieter Zeeman and shortly afterwards given a classical explanation by Hendrik Antoon Lorentz. At the world's first university low-temperature laboratory, professor Heike Kamerlingh Onnes achieved temperatures of only one degree above absolute zero of −273 degrees Celsius. In 1908 he was also the first to succeed in liquifying helium and can be credited with the discovery of the superconductivity in metals.", "The University Library, which has more than 5.2 million books and fifty thousand journals, also has a number of internationally renowned special collections of western and oriental manuscripts, printed books, archives, prints, drawings, photographs, maps, and atlases. It houses the largest collections worldwide on Indonesia and the Caribbean. The research activities of the Scaliger Institute focus on these special collections and concentrate particularly on the various aspects of the transmission of knowledge and ideas through texts and images from antiquity to the present day. In 2005 the manuscript of Einstein on the quantum theory of the monatomic ideal gas (the Einstein-Bose condensation) was discovered in one of Leiden's libraries. The portraits of many famous professors since the earliest days hang in the university aula, one of the most memorable places, as Niebuhr called it, in the history of science. In 2012 Leiden entered into a strategic alliance with Delft University of Technology and Erasmus University Rotterdam in order for the universities to increase the quality of their research and teaching. The university is also the unofficial home of the Bilderberg Group, a meeting of high-level political and economic figures from North America and Europe.", "The university has no central campus; its buildings are spread over the city. Some buildings, like the Gravensteen, are very old, while buildings like Lipsius and Gorlaeus are much more modern. Among the institutions affiliated with the university are The KITLV or Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies (founded in 1851), the observatory 1633; the natural history museum, with a very complete anatomical cabinet; the \"Rijksmuseum van Oudheden\" (National Museum of Antiquities), with specially valuable Egyptian and Indian departments; a museum of Dutch antiquities from the earliest times; and three ethnographical museums, of which the nucleus was Philipp Franz von Siebold's Japanese collections. The anatomical and pathological laboratories of the university are modern, and the museums of geology and mineralogy have been restored. The Hortus Botanicus (botanical garden) is the oldest botanical garden in the Netherlands, and one of the oldest in the world. Plants from all over the world have been carefully cultivated here by experts for more than four centuries. The Clusius garden (a reconstruction), the 18th century Orangery with its monumental tub plants, the rare collection of historical trees hundreds of years old, the Japanese Siebold Memorial Museum symbolising the historical link between East and West, the tropical greenhouses with their world class plant collections, and the central square and Conservatory exhibiting exotic plants from South Africa and southern Europe.", "In 1998, the university has also expanded to The Hague which has become home to Campus The Hague, with six of the seven faculties represented and exclusive home to the Faculty of Governance and Global Affairs, International Studies and Leiden University College The Hague, a liberal arts and sciences college. Here, the University offers academic courses in the fields of law, political science, public administration and medicine. It occupied a number of buildings in the centre of the city, including a college building at Lange Voorhout, before moving into the new 'Wijnhaven' building on Turfmarkt in 2016. The Faculty of Governance and Global Affairs was established in 2011, together with the University College, and one of the largest programmes of the Faculty of Humanities, International Studies. Since 2017 Leiden University Medical Center also has a branch at Campus The Hague.", "The university is divided into seven major faculties which offer approximately 50 undergraduate degree programmes and over 100 graduate programmes.", "", "Most of the university's departments offer their own degree programme(s). Undergraduate programmes lead to either a B.A., B.Sc. or LL.B. degree. Other degrees, such as the B.Eng. or B.F.A., are not awarded at Leiden University.", "Students can choose from a range of graduate programmes. Most of the above-mentioned undergraduate programmes can be continued with either a general or a specialised graduate program. Leiden University offers more than 100 graduate programs leading to either MA, MSc, MPhil, or LLM degrees. The MPhil is the most advanced graduate degree and is awarded by select departments of the university (mostly in the fields of Arts, Social Sciences, Archeology, Philosophy, and Theology). Admission to these programmes is highly selective and primarily aimed at those students opting for an academic career or before going into law or medicine. Traditionally, the MPhil degree enabled its holder to teach at the university levels as an associate professor. The MPhil degree is also common in elite universities in the UK (Oxford and Cambridge), and the Ivy League in the United States.", "In addition, most departments, affiliated (research) institutes or faculties offer doctorate programmes or positions, leading to the PhD degree. Most of the PhD programmes offered by the university are concentrated in several research schools or institutes.", "Leiden University has more than 50 research and graduate schools and institutes. Some of them are fully affiliated with one faculty of the university, while others are interfaculty institutes or even interuniversity institutes.", "", "Of the 97 Spinoza Prize laureates (the highest scientific award of The Netherlands), twenty-three were granted to professors of Leiden. Literary historian Frits van Oostrom was the first professor of Leiden to be granted the Spinoza award for his work on developing the NLCM centre (Dutch literature and culture in the Middle Ages) into a top research centre. Other Spinoza Prize winners are linguists Frederik Kortlandt and Pieter Muysken, mathematician Hendrik Lenstra, physicists Carlo Beenakker, Jan Zaanen, Dirk Bouwmeester and Michel Orrit, astronomers Ewine van Dishoeck, Marijn Franx and Alexander Tielens, transplantation biologist Els Goulmy, clinical epidemiologist Frits Rosendaal, pedagogue Marinus van IJzendoorn, archeologists Wil Roebroeks and Corinne Hofman, neurologist Michel Ferrari, classicist Ineke Sluiter, social psychologist Naomi Ellemers, statistician Aad van der Vaart, cognitive psychologist Eveline Crone, organisation psychologist Carsten de Dreu, chemical immunologist Sjaak Neefjes. Among other leading professors are Wim Blockmans, professor of Medieval History, and Willem Adelaar, professor of Amerindian Languages.", "Kamerlingh Onnes was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1913. Three other professors received the Nobel Prize for their research performed at Universiteit Leiden: Hendrik Antoon Lorentz and Pieter Zeeman received the Nobel Prize for their pioneering work in the field of optical and electronic phenomena, and the physiologist Willem Einthoven for his invention of the string galvanometer, which among other things, enabled the development of electrocardiography. Nobel laureates associated with Leiden include: the physicists Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi and Paul Ehrenfest. Also: Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, Johannes Diderik van der Waals, Tobias Asser, Albert Szent-Györgyi, Igor Tamm, Jan Tinbergen, Nikolaas Tinbergen, Tjalling Koopmans, Nicolaas Bloembergen and Niels Jerne. Other notable Leiden researchers were the Arabist and Islam expert Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje, the law expert Cornelis van Vollenhoven and historian Johan Huizinga, all during the 1920s and 1930s.", "", "In June 2019, Leiden University was convicted by the court in The Hague of having breached the confidentiality and defamed a professorial applicant in a long-running court case. The judgement against Leiden University related to actions by three senior officers of the University, including Rector Carel Stolker, and a former Dean, Wim van Den Doel. The case attracted widespread attention in the Dutch media, and centred on breaches at the Leiden University Centre for Linguistics." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Related terminology.", "Territorial prelatures.", "Personal prelatures.", "Controversies involving prelatures." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In a general sense, a \"prelate\" in the Roman Catholic Church and other Christian churches is a bishop or other ecclesiastical person who possesses ordinary authority of a jurisdiction, i. e. of a diocese or similar jurisdiction, e. g. ordinariates, apostolic vicariates/exarchates, or territorial abbacies. It equally applies to cardinals, who enjoy a kind of \"co-governance\" of the church as the most senior ecclesiastical advisers and moral representatives of the Supreme Pontiff, and certain \"superior prelates of the offices of the Roman Curia\" who are not bishops, e. g. the auditors (judges) of the Roman Rota and protonotaries apostolic. By extension, it refers to \"inferior\" or \"lesser prelates\", that is priests who have the title and dress of prelates as a personal honorific, i. e. Papal chaplains, prelates of honor (formerly \"domestic prelates\"), and honorary protonotaries apostolic. All these enjoy the title of \"\"monsignor\"\", which also is used in some nations for bishops and archbishops. The seven \"de numero\" protonotaries apostolic in Rome, who are special Papal notaries, are true prelates like bishops; others are \"supernumerary\" protonotaries apostolic who enjoy this as an honorific, like Papal chaplains and prelates of honor. In the strict canonical sense, \"prelate\" denominates a priest or bishop who is ordinary of a personal prelature (see below), which is a functional equivalent of a diocese that has a \"particular pastoral or missionary work for various regions or for different social groups\" (cf. \"Code of Canon Law\", Canon 294) yet no territorial jurisdiction. In the Armenian Apostolic Church, \"prelate\" (in English) denominates a diocesan bishop, whose jurisdiction of his diocese is denominated a \"prelacy\".", "In the Catholic Church, a territorial prelate is a prelate whose geographic jurisdiction, denominated a \"territorial prelature\", is outside of and therefore not subject to any diocese. A territorial prelate is sometimes denominated a \"prelate nullius\", from the Latin \"\"nullius diœceseos\"\" (prelate of no diocese), denoting that his territory is directly subject to the Holy See (the Supreme Pontiff) and is not a diocese., there were 44 territorial prelatures, all of which were in the Latin Church. The term also is used generically, in which case it may equally refer to an apostolic prefecture, an apostolic vicariate, or a territorial abbacy.", "In the Catholic Church, the personal prelature was conceived during the Second Vatican Council (1962-5) in no. 10 of the decree \"Presbyterorum ordinis\" and Pope St. Paul VI later enacted it into law in the \"motu proprio\" \"Ecclesiae sanctae\". The institution was later reaffirmed in the \"Code of Canon Law\" of 1983. Such a prelature is an institution having clergy and, possibly, lay members which would execute specific pastoral activities. The adjective \"personal\" refers to the fact that, in contrast with previous canonical use for ecclesiastical institutions, the jurisdiction of the prelate is not territorial and instead is of specific persons wherever they are located. The establishment of personal prelatures is an exercise of the theologically inherent power of self-organization which the Church has in order to pursue its mission, though a personal prelature is not a particular church, as are dioceses and military ordinariates. Personal prelatures are fundamentally secular organizations operating \"in\" the world (members do not take vows and live normal, everyday lives), whereas religious institutes are religious organizations operating \"out\" of the world (members take vows and live in accordance with the proper law of their institute). The first, and presently only, personal prelature is Opus Dei, which Pope John Paul II erected as such in 1982 by the Apostolic constitution \"Ut sit\". In the case of Opus Dei, the Prelate is elected by members of the Prelature and confirmed by the Supreme Pontiff; the laity and clergy of the Prelature remain subject to the government of the particular churches in whose territory they live, and the laity associated with the Prelature, both men and women, are organically united under the jurisdiction of the Prelate.", "On 15 February 2018, a \"motu proprio\" issued by Pope Francis ordered prelates and bishops to live simply and renounce any desire for power after they retire from senior offices of the Roman Curia. A number of such officials and bishops have been criticized in recent years for luxurious living, such as having large apartments and police escorts after they retired. One notable incident involved an apartment that Tarcisio Bertone, an Italian prelate and former Cardinal Secretary of State who was removed in 2013, used, and which had been renovated at the cost of nearly half a million dollars of funds that were diverted from a Vatican-owned hospital. Even after he retired, Tarcisio Bertone used escorts of Vatican City and Italian police to move around Rome." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Publications.", "Controversies.", "Allegations of antisemitism.", "Reactions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The MAUP has published more than 300 study plans and manuals and 200 books for educational programs. The \"Personnel\" magazine is registered by The Presidium of the State Accreditation Committee as a supplement on economics, law, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, social and political sciences. MAUP's editions have been recommended for use by The Ministry of Education of Ukraine. It is an affiliate member of the International Personnel Academy and European University Continuing Education Network (EUCEN). The MAUP asserts that \"Pursuant to the results of Sophiya Kyivska, the Rating of Higher Education Establishments in Ukraine (2000), and International Open Popularity and Quality Rating (1998–2000) IRAPM was recognized as the best non-state higher education establishment in Ukraine.\"", "", "In early and mid-2000s, the MAUP became embroiled in controversies because of evident antisemitism in their publications and conferences. The MAUP maintains that their activities can be classified only as anti-Zionism, but the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) has referred to traditional antisemitic propaganda traits that have no connection to Zionism, such as religious antisemitism or solely blaming the Jews for the Russian October Revolution or the Holodomor of 1932–1933 (as a part of the Judeo-Bolshevist antisemitic conspiracy theory). During October 6, 2004, hearing of the \"Annual Report on International Religious Freedom 2004 and Designations of Countries of Particular Concern\" before the Committee on International Relations of the United States Congress, the MAUP was called \"[t]he most troubling development\" in Ukraine and it was asserted that it receives \"significant funding from Arab and Muslim states\". On April 14–19, 2005 the MAUP weekly newspaper \"Personnel Plus\" published an open letter to President Yushchenko, Ukrainian Verkhovna Rada Speaker Volodymyr Lytvyn and Supreme Court of Ukraine Chief Justice Malyarenko calling for a parliamentary investigation into the \"criminal activities of organized Jewry in Ukraine\". The newspaper claimed that the letter was signed by more than a hundred scientific, civic, and political leaders. On June 3, the MAUP sponsored a one-day conference entitled \"Zionism As the Biggest Threat to Modern Civilization\" attended by the former Knights of the Ku Klux Klan Grand Wizard David Duke of the United States. The \"Kyiv Post\" newspaper called the gathering \"a disgusting orgy of racism and hatred\". In August 2005, the MAUP awarded Duke with a Kandidat Nauk degree in History. After the Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's widespread misquote, \"wipe Israel off the map\" (when his real quote was \"Israel is an unnatural creature, it will not survive\") had evoked international condemnations, on November 4, 2005 the MAUP issued \"a decisive protest against large-scale campaign, organized by Zionists, against the Islamic Republic of Iran and its President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad [...] where he quoted the words of the Iranian spiritual leader Ayatollah Khomeini about future death of Israel and the USA\". In his November 22 statement, Georgy Shchokin, the MAUP's President who also heads the \"International Personnel Academy\" (IPA) and the Ukrainian Conservative Party (UCP), combined traditional Christian antisemitism with what has been defined as \"new antisemitism\", and failed to mention that the UN General Assembly Resolution 3379 of 1975 (equating Zionism and racism) has been revoked in 1991 by the UNGA Resolution 4686: \"We'd like to remind that the Living God Jesus Christ said to Jews two thousand years ago: 'Your father is a devil!'... Zionism in 1975 was acknowledged by General Assembly of UN as the form of racism and race discrimination, that, in the opinion of the absolute majority of modern Europeans, makes the most threat to modern civilization. Israel is the artificially created state (classic totalitarian type).... Their end is known, and only the God's true will rescue all of us. We are not afraid, as God always together with his children!\" On December 1, 2005, the MAUP held a conference \"The Jewish-Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 – the Source of the Red Terrorism and the Starvation of Ukraine\". In the March 2006 issue of the \"Personnel Plus\", an article revived false blood libel accusations from the infamous 1911 Beilis Trial by mischaracterizing the verdict as the jury recognizing the case as ritual murder by persons unknown even though it found Beilis himself not guilty, when in fact the defense had entirely rested on demolishing the concept of Jewish ritual murder. A week earlier, MAUP leaders had visited the grave of Andrei Yuschinsky, the Christian boy who had been the victim in the case. At a conference held at the MAUP Academy in Kiev, the heads of the MAUP accused \"Rothschild's Soldiers\" of the genocide of the Ukrainian people. On August 15, 2006, an article on the MAUP's website denounced the Bnai Brith as \"the Jewish Gestapo\".", "On November 21, 2005, the Simon Wiesenthal Center issued a public statement to Ukraine's government, requesting they denounce and revoke MAUP's accreditation. On December 5, the President of the Ukrainian American Coordinating Council (UACC) Ihor Gawdiak issued a statement \"to convey our profound shock and distress concerning the horrific statement made on 4 November by the heads of the International Academy of Manpower Management (MAUP) in support of the Iranian President's statement that Israel should be wiped off the map.\" On the same day, the office of the President of Ukraine Viktor Yushchenko issued a statement which said in part: \"The Head of State is worried that anti-Semitism spreads throughout Ukraine. He condemned the Interregional Academy of Personnel Management (IAPM) as an institution that systematically publishes anti-Semitic articles in its publication \"Personnel\". Yushchenko said he had left the supervisory council of the journal to protest against this inhumane policy. He called on professors of the IAPM to respect citizens of all nationalities and confessions and to \"stop rousing national hatred.\" Yushchenko once sat on MAUP's board, and Foreign Minister of Ukraine Borys Tarasyuk was honorary director of one of MAUP's subdivisions until 2005. Yushchenko resigned from MAUP several years ago, following its criticism by Jewish organizations. On December 6, the ADL urged the US House of Representatives to delay approval of Ukraine's graduation from the Jackson-Vanik amendment. The ADL National Director Abraham Foxman wrote: \"We expect more from democratic states than we do from totalitarian ones. This year alone has seen a steep increase in acts of violence and vandalism against Jews across Ukraine. There have been attempts to ban everything from Jewish organizations to Jewish holy texts. The university MAUP [...] actively promotes anti-Semitism of the most vicious kind.\" On December 7, the US-Ukraine Foundation (USUF) condemned \"[...] the November 4, 2005 statements by the Interregional Academy of Personnel Management (MAUP) as hateful, virulent and having no place in the public discourse in Ukraine or anywhere else. MAUP's anti-Semitic statements supporting the Iranian President's recent call for Israel to be 'wiped off the map' was an affront to decency that provoked the unequivocal international condemnation it deserved.\" Speaking on national television on January 23, 2006, Foreign Minister of Ukraine Borys Tarasyuk \"strongly condemned the anti-Semitic actions of MAUP University\" and confirmed that \"having exhausted all efforts to convince MAUP leaders to drop their unlawful and wrongful actions\" he broke off contacts with University a year ago. In its press release, the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine accused MAUP of breaking Ukrainian law, noting \"persistent incompliance with requirements of state licensing rules for universities, failure to abide with legally binding decisions of the State Accreditation Commission\", qualifying it as \"a general negligence of law and a desire to pursue activities inconsistent with the status of Higher Education Institute in Ukraine\". This move was welcomed by the UACC, National Coalition Supporting Soviet Jewry, the ADL, and other human rights advocates. The leader of Vaad in Ukraine Joseph Zissels called MAUP \"the most influential center of anti-Semitism in the country.\" The latest rebuke came from Ukraine's High Court which ruled against MAUP as it sought to sue the Jewish Confederation of Ukraine for publishing articles \"about MAUP activities directed against the Jewish community and Zionism\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Campus.", "School buildings.", "Library.", "Hospital.", "Organisation.", "Administration.", "Schools and faculties.", "Institutes.", "Academics.", "Education.", "Rankings.", "Student life.", "Student funding.", "Student politics, unions and services." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The University of Iceland was founded by the Alþingi on June 17, 1911, uniting three former post-secondary institutions: \"Prestaskólinn\", \"Læknaskólinn\" and \"Lagaskólinn\", which taught theology, medicine and law, respectively. The university originally had only faculties for these three fields, in addition to a faculty of humanities. During its first year of operation 45 students were enrolled. The first rector of the university was Björn M. Ólsen, a professor in the faculty of humanities. The university played an important role in the construction of the Icelandic nation-state and was perceived by Icelanders as an important stepping stone towards full independence. Demands for a national Icelandic university stretch as far back as to the first session of the elected assembly of Althingi in 1845. Icelandic nationalist leaders petitioned Denmark at the time to create a \"national school\" to achieve cultural and material progress, but also to make sure that the education that Icelanders obtained was sufficiently national in character. For its first 29 years the university was housed in the Icelandic Parliament building, Alþingishúsið, in central Reykjavík. In 1933, the university received a special licence from Alþingi to operate a cash-prize lottery called \"Happdrætti Háskólans\". The university lottery, which started in 1934, remains a major source of funding for the construction of new university buildings. In 1940, the university moved into the main building, designed by Icelandic state architect Guðjón Samúelsson. The main building forms the core of the university campus on \"Suðurgata\", where most of the principal buildings of the university are located today. In recent years there has been some major restructuring. In 2008 the university was divided into five different schools. Simultaneously, the Iceland University of Education was merged with the University of Iceland to become its School of Education. Increased competition from local colleges has encouraged the university to greatly improve its marketing strategies, which had previously been deemed unnecessary.", "", "The university's main campus lies immediately south-west of Tjörnin lake in the centre of Reykjavík. It covers about 10 hectares in total. There are around 30 buildings in total, the oldest of which, Gamli Garður, was built in 1934. The Main Building overlooks a semi-circular lawn, featuring a statue of Sæmundur fróði. In 2007, a new service centre was opened next to the main building and many of the most vital service desks were relocated there. Some lectures take place in Háskólabíó cinema at the northern end of the campus. There are also a gym, several dormitories, and smaller research institute buildings on the grounds. Most buildings are located on the main campus and nearby neighbourhoods. The Faculty of Sport, Leisure Studies and Social Education, on the other hand, is located in the village of Laugarvatn.", "In 1994 the university library (formally established in 1940) merged with the national library of Iceland, \"Landsbókasafn Íslands\" (est. 1818) to form one large academic library, the National and University Library of Iceland (). The library main building, \"Þjóðarbókhlaðan\", is situated next to the main campus.", "Education and research at the University of Iceland are closely tied with the National University Hospital in Reykjavík. The facilities of the School of Health Sciences are therefore largely located on the hospital grounds.", "", "The University Council is the highest administrative authority within the institution and consists of the Rector and ten other members, including two students and two members endorsed by the University Forum. The University Forum consists of the Rector, faculty heads and various domestic representatives. It does not have any executive powers but works with the Council on the overall strategy of the university. The five academic schools and their faculties are headed by deans and have much control over curricula and day-to-day administration. Jón Atli Benediktsson is the current Rector of the University of Iceland. He took over from Kristín Ingólfsdóttir in 2015.", "The University of Iceland is divided into five \"schools\" (svið) which are further divided into a total of twenty-five \"faculties\" (deildir). Prior to 2008, it was divided into eleven faculties which were then divided into \"departments\" (skorir). The largest current school is the School of Social Sciences with over 4,700 students, while each of the other four have around half that number. The university also operates a continuing education centre.The university consists of the following schools and faculties:", "There are over sixty research institutes and seven rural research stations run by the university. Some of the most notable are:", "In addition to the major faculties there are numerous research institutes attached to the university. With more than 700 tenured teachers, over 2,000 non-tenured teachers and about 300 researchers and administrators, the University of Iceland is the largest single work-place in Iceland. Some of the resources available at the university are uniquely Icelandic; these include the manuscripts preserved in the Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies, Icelandic census records dating from 1703, exceptionally complete genealogical data and climatological, glaciological, seismic and geothermal records.", "The University of Iceland offers studies in more than 160 undergraduate programmes in the humanities, science and social sciences and in professional fields such as theology, law, business, medicine, odontology, nursing, pharmacology and engineering. Postgraduate studies are offered by all faculties, most of them research-based although not exclusively. There are also several multidisciplinary master's programmes available in the fields of health and environmental sciences, some of them in cooperation with other European universities. The principal language of instruction is Icelandic. Textbooks are mainly in English and Icelandic. Most departments offer courses in English and allow foreign students to take their examinations in English. Icelandic language, medieval studies and environmental sciences are some of the university's strongest specialties, owing to Iceland's unique literary heritage and nature. A growing number of English-taught programmes are offered in these fields and others, attracting a large number of foreign students.", "In 2011, Times Higher Education included the University of Iceland for the first time, placing it in the 276-300 band globally. The following year it had risen to the 251-275 band on the same list. Currently, Times ranks the university among the 201-250 best in the world. The 2017 edition of Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) placed it in the 401-500 band globally.", "", "The University of Iceland is a public, government-funded university and as such it does not charge tuition (although an enrollment fee must be paid). In terms of living expenses, most students at the University of Iceland either work part-time to finance their studies or receive student loans at favourable interest rates from the Icelandic Student Loan Fund. The Icelandic Ministry of Education, Science and Culture annually offers awards to foreign students for the study of Icelandic language, history and literature at the University of Iceland. Scholarships are usually restricted to students from selected countries each year. Awards are tenable for one academic year and aim to cover board and lodging. The major source of funding available to foreign graduate students is the Eimskipafélag Íslands University Fund, which is open to both scholars and current or prospective PhD students. Each grant from the fund is approximately 2.5 million ISK per year, for a period of up to three years and is intended to cover living expenses.", "The \"Students' Council\" is the official representative of those studying at the university. It handles all kinds of rights issues and relations with internal and external authorities. Elections for the council take place every year. There are three major parties that participate in the student politics. These are Vaka and Röskva. Many local politicians started their careers as members of the council. There are over 60 student unions in operation within the university. Each union is made up of students of a particular subject or a few related ones. Postgraduate students in some fields have their own unions. Membership is optional. A large part of the unions' function revolves around social activities, the most common of which are the so-called \"science trips\", a tradition where companies and organizations in the industry invite students in a relevant field over for a presentation and drinks. Some postgraduate student unions also organize small-scale academic seminars. Félagsstofnun stúdenta is a self-owned institution that runs several services in and around the campus. These include kindergartens, low-rent apartments, cafeterias and a large bookstore." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Production history.", "Development.", "Improving on the M4.", "T20.", "T22 and T23.", "T25 and T26.", "After the war.", "Delayed production.", "Production.", "Super Pershing.", "Post-World War II.", "Combat history.", "World War II in Europe.", "Super Pershing.", "Use in Okinawa.", "Use in the Korean War.", "Europe." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The M26 was the culmination of a series of medium tank prototypes that began with the T20 in 1942, and it was a significant design departure from the previous line of U.S. Army tanks that had ended with the M4 Sherman. Several design features were tested in the prototypes. Some of these were experimental dead-ends, but many become permanent characteristics of subsequent U.S. Army tanks. The prototype series began as a medium tank upgrade of the M4 Sherman and ended as the U.S. Army's first operational \"heavy\" tank.", "The army's first lineage of tanks evolved from the M1 Combat Car and progressed to the M2 Light Tank, M2 Medium Tank, M3 Lee, and finally the M4 Sherman. These tanks all had rear-mounted Continental air-cooled radial aircraft engines and a front sprocket drive. This layout required a driveshaft to pass under the turret, which increased the overall height of the tank, a characteristic shared with German tanks of World War II that also used this layout. The large diameter of the radial engines in M4 tanks added to the hull height. These features accounted for the high silhouette and large side sponsons that were characteristic of the M4 lineage. In the spring of 1942, as the M4 Sherman was entering production, U.S. Army Ordnance began work on a follow-up tank. The T20 tank reached a mock-up stage in May 1942, and was intended as an improved medium tank to follow the M4. An earlier heavy tank, the M6, had been standardized in February 1942, but proved to be a failure. The U.S. Army had no doctrinal use for a heavy tank at the time.", "The T20 was designed to have a more compact hull than the M4. The Ford GAN V-8, a lower silhouette version of the GAA engine used in later variants of the M4, had become available. The engine had originally been an effort by Ford to produce a V-12 liquid-cooled aircraft engine patterned after the Rolls-Royce Merlin, but failed to earn any aircraft orders and so was adapted as a V-8 for use in tanks; use of this lower profile engine together with the choice of a rear transmission and rear sprocket drive layout made it possible to lower the hull silhouette and eliminate the side sponsons. The T20 was fitted with the new 76 mm M1A1 gun, the 3-inch M7 was considered too heavy at about. New stronger steels were used to create a weapon weighing about 1,200 lb (540 kg). The 3 inch front hull armor was thicker than the front armor of the M4. The glacis plate slope was similar at 46°. The T20's overall weight was approximately the same as the M4. The T20 used an early version of the horizontal volute spring suspension (HVSS), another improvement compared to the less robust vertical volute spring suspension (VVSS) of the early versions of the M4. Later prototypes of the M26 tested a torsion bar suspension, which became the standard for future U.S. tank suspension systems.", "The T22 series reverted to the M4 transmission because of problems with the early Torqmatic transmission used in the T20. The T22E1 tested an autoloader for the main gun, and eliminated the loader's position with a small two-man turret. Through much of 1943, there was little perceived need within the U.S. Army for a better tank than the 75 mm M4 Sherman, and so, lacking any insights from the rest of the army as to what was needed, the Ordnance Department next took a developmental detour into electrical transmissions with the T23 series. The electrical transmission was built by General Electric, and had the engine driving a generator that powered two traction motors. The concept was similar to the drive system of the German \"Porsche Tiger\" (later rebuilt as the Ferdinand/\"Elefant\"). It had performance advantages in rough or hilly terrain, where the system could better handle the rapid changes in torque requirements. The electrical transmission T23 was championed by the Ordnance Department during this phase of development. After the initial prototypes were built in early 1943, an additional 250 T23 tanks were produced from January to December 1944. These were the first tanks in the U.S. Army with the 76 mm M1A1 gun to go into production. However, the T23 would have required that the army adopt an entirely separate line of training, repair, and maintenance, and so was rejected for combat operations. The primary legacy of the T23 would thus be its production cast turret, which was designed from the outset to be interchangeable with the turret ring of the M4 Sherman. The T23 turret was used on all production versions of the 76 mm M4 Sherman as the original M4 75 mm turret was found to be too small to easily mount the 76 mm M1A1 gun. The first production 76 mm M4 with the T23 turret, the M4E6, was built in the summer of 1943.", "The T25 and T26 lines of tanks came into being in the midst of a heated internal debate within the U.S. Army in the mid-1943 to early 1944 over the need for tanks with greater firepower and armor. A 90 mm gun mounted in a massive new turret was installed in both series. The T26 series were given additional frontal hull armor, with the glacis plate increased to. This increased the weight of the T26 series to over and decreased their mobility and durability as the engine and powertrain were not improved to compensate for the weight gain. The T26E3 was the production version of the T26E1 with a number of minor modifications made as the result of field testing. In February 1945, the T26 was fielded in the European theatre, where its performance received early praise from Army Ordnance officials. The Army named the tank after Army General John J. Pershing when it was redesignated the M26 in March.", "Post World War II, some 800 M26 tanks were upgraded with improved engines and transmissions and 90-mm gun and were redesignated as the M46 Patton.", "The M26 was introduced late into World War II and saw only a limited amount of combat. Tank historians, such as Richard P. Hunnicutt, George Forty and Steven Zaloga, have generally agreed that the main cause of the delay in production of the M26 was opposition to the tank from the Army Ground Forces, headed by General Lesley McNair. Zaloga in particular has identified several specific factors that led both to the delay of the M26 program and limited improvements in the firepower of the M4: To see more IS tanks, see IS tank family. From mid-1943 to mid-1944, development of the 90 mm up-armored T26 prototype continued to proceed slowly due to disagreements within the U.S. Army about its future tank needs. The accounts of what exactly happened during this time vary by historian, but all agree that Army Ground Forces was the main source of resistance that delayed production of the T26. In September–October 1943, a series of discussions occurred over the issue of beginning production of the T26E1, which was advocated by the head of the Armored Force, General Jacob Devers. Ordnance favored the 76 mm gun, electrical transmission T23. Theater commanders generally favored a 76 mm gun medium tank such as the T23, and were against a heavy 90 mm gun tank. However, testing of the T23 at Fort Knox had demonstrated reliability problems in the electrical transmission of which most army commanders were unaware. The new 76 mm M1A1 gun approved for the M4 Sherman seemed to address concerns about firepower against the German tanks. All participants in the debate were, however, unaware of the inadequacy of the 76 mm gun against the frontal armor of the Panther tank, as they had not researched the effectiveness of this gun against the new German tanks, which had already been encountered in combat. Gen. Lesley J. McNair had agreed to the production of the 76 mm M4 Sherman, and he strongly opposed the additional production of the T26E1. In the fall of 1943, he wrote this letter to Devers, responding to the latter's advocacy of the T26E1: General Devers pressed on with his advocacy for the T26, going over McNair's head to General George Marshall, and, on 16 December 1943, Marshall overruled McNair and authorized the production of 250 T26E1 tanks. Then, in late December 1943, Devers was transferred to the Mediterranean, where he eventually led the invasion of Southern France with the 6th Army Group. In his absence, further attempts were made to derail the T26 program, but continued support from Generals Marshall and Eisenhower kept the production order alive. Testing and production of the T26E1 proceeded slowly, however, and the T26E1 did not begin full production until November 1944. These production models were designated as the T26E3. A single prototype of a T26 turret mounted on an M4(105) chassis was built by Chrysler in the summer of 1944, but did not progress into production. Hunnicutt, researching Ordnance Department documents, asserts that Ordnance requested production of 500 each of the T23, T25E1, and T26E1 in October 1943. The AGF objected to the 90 mm gun of the tanks, whereas the Armored Force wanted the 90 mm gun mounted in a Sherman tank chassis. General Devers cabled from London a request for production of the T26E1. In January 1944, 250 T26E1s were authorized. General Barnes of Ordnance continued to press for production of 1,000 tanks. According to Forty, Ordnance recommended that 1,500 of the T26E1 be built. The Armored Force recommended only 500. The AGF rejected the 90 mm version of the tank, and wanted it to be built with the 76 mm gun instead. Somehow, Ordnance managed to get production of the T26E1 started in November 1944. Forty primarily quoted from a post-war report from the Ordnance Dept.", "Production finally began in November 1944. Ten T26E3 tanks were produced that month at the Fisher Tank Arsenal, 30 in December, 70 in January 1945, and 132 in February. The Detroit Tank Arsenal also started production in March 1945, and the combined output was 194 tanks for that month. Production continued through the end of the war, and over 2,000 were produced by the end of 1945.", "The 90 mm M3 gun of the Pershing was similar to the German 88 mm KwK 36 used on the Tiger I. In an effort to match the firepower of the King Tiger's more powerful 88 mm KwK 43, the T15E1 90 mm gun was developed and mounted in a T26E1 in January 1945. This tank was designated T26E1-1. The T15E1 gun was 73 calibers in length and had a much longer high-capacity chamber. This gave it a muzzle velocity of with the T30E16 APCR shot and could penetrate the Panther's frontal armor at up to. The model shown used single-piece ammunition and was the only Super Pershing sent to Europe. A second pilot tank was converted from a T26E3 and used a modified T15E2 gun that had two-piece ammunition. Twenty-five production models of the tank, designated T26E4, were built. An improved mounting removed the need for stabilizer springs. Post-war, two M26 tanks had the T54 gun installed, which had the same long gun barrel, but the ammunition cartridge was designed to be shorter and fatter, while still retaining the propellant force of the original round. The tanks were designated as the M26E1 tank, but lack of funds cut off further production.", "In May 1946, due to changing conceptions of the U.S. Army's tank needs, the M26 was reclassified as a medium tank. Designed as a heavy tank, the Pershing was a significant upgrade from the M4 Sherman in terms of firepower and protection. On the other hand, its mobility was unsatisfactory for a medium tank (it used the same engine that powered the M4A3, which was some ten tons lighter) and its transmission was somewhat unreliable. In 1948, the M26E2 version was developed with a new powerplant. Eventually, the new version was redesignated the M46 General Patton and 1,160 M26s were rebuilt to this new standard. Thus the M26 became a base of the Patton tank series, which replaced it in early 1950s. The M47 Patton was an M46 Patton with a new turret. The later M48 Patton and M60 Patton, which saw service later on in Vietnam and the various conflicts in the Middle East and still serve in active duty in many nations today, were evolutionary redesigns of the original layout set down by the Pershing.", "", "Development of the M26 during World War II was prolonged by a number of factors, the most important being opposition to the tank from Army Ground Forces. However, the tank losses experienced in the Battle of the Bulge against a concentrated German tank force composed of some 400 Panther tanks, as well as Tiger II tanks and other German armored fighting vehicles, revealed the deficiencies in the M4 Shermans and tank destroyers in the American units. This deficiency motivated the military to ship the tanks to Europe, and on 22 December 1944, the T26E3 tanks were ordered to be deployed to Europe. Due to the repeated design and production delays, initially only 20 Pershing tanks were introduced into the European theater of operations after the Battle of the Bulge showed the serious mismatch between Allied and German armor. This first shipment of Pershings arrived in Antwerp in January 1945. They were given to the 1st Army, which split them between the 3rd and 9th Armored Divisions. A total of 310 T26E3 tanks were eventually sent to Europe before VE Day, but only the 20 that arrived in January engaged in combat. In February 1945, Major General Gladeon M. Barnes, chief of the Research and Development Section of Army Ordnance, personally led a special team to the European Theater, called the Zebra Mission. Its purpose was to support the T26E3 tanks, which still had teething problems, as well as to test other new weapons. In March, the T26E3 tanks were redesignated as the M26. The 3rd Armored first used the M26 to engage the enemy on 25 February near the Roer River. On 26 February, a T26E3 named \"Fireball\" was knocked out in an ambush at Elsdorf while overwatching a roadblock. Silhouetted by a nearby fire, the Pershing was in a disadvantageous position. A concealed Tiger tank fired three shots from about. The first penetrated the turret through the machine gun port in the mantlet, killing both the gunner and the loader. The second shot hit the gun barrel, causing the round that was in the chamber to fire with the effect of distorting the barrel. The last shot glanced off the turret side, taking off the upper cupola hatch. While backing up to escape, the Tiger became entangled in debris and was abandoned by the crew. \"Fireball\" was quickly repaired and returned to service on 7 March. Shortly afterwards, also at Elsdorf, another T26E3 knocked out a Tiger I and two Panzer IVs. The Tiger was knocked out at with the 90-mm HVAP T30E16 ammunition. Photographs of this knocked out Tiger I in Hunnicutt's book showed a penetration through the lower gun shield. On 6 March, just after the 3rd Armored Division had entered the city of Cologne, a famous tank duel took place. A Panther tank on the street in the front of Cologne Cathedral was lying in wait for enemy tanks. Two M4 Shermans were supporting infantry and came up on the same street as the Panther. They ended up stopping just before the Cathedral because of rubble in the street and didn't see the enemy Panther. The lead Sherman was knocked out, killing three of the five crew. A T26E3 was in the next street over and was called over to engage the Panther. What happened next was described by the T26E3 gunner Cpl. Clarence Smoyer: Four of the Panther's crew were able to successfully bail out of the stricken tank before it was destroyed. The action was recorded by a Signal Corps cameraman T/Sgt. Jim Bates. On the same day, another T26E3 was knocked out in the town of Niehl near Cologne, by a rarely-seen \"Nashorn\" 88 mm tank destroyer, at a range of under. There were two other tank engagements involving the T26E3, with one Tiger I knocked out during the fighting around Cologne, and one Panzer IV knocked out at Mannheim. The T26E3s with the 9th Armored Division saw action in fighting around the Roer River with one Pershing disabled by two hits from a German 150 mm field gun. A platoon of five M26s, less one that was being serviced, played a key role in helping Combat Command B of the 9th Armored capture the Ludendorff Bridge during the Battle of Remagen on 7–8 March 1945, providing fire support to the infantry in order to take the bridgehead before the Germans could blow it up. In encounters with Tigers and Panthers, the M26 performed well. Some of the division's other tanks were able to cross the bridge, but the T26E3s were too large and heavy to cross the damaged bridge and had to wait five days before getting across the river by barge. Europe's bridges were in general not designed for heavy loads, which had been one of the original objections to sending a heavy tank to Europe.", "A single Super Pershing was shipped to Europe and given additional armor to the gun mantlet and front hull by the maintenance unit before being assigned to one of the tank crews of the 3rd Armored Division. The new gun on the Super Pershing could pierce of armor at. The front hull was given two 38 mm steel boiler plates, bringing the front up to 38+38+102 mm of armor. The plates were applied at a greater slope than the underlying original hull plate. The turret had 88 mm thick rolled homogeneous armour (RHA) from a Panther upper glacis welded to the mantlet, covering the front. An account of the combat actions of this tank appeared in the war memoir \"Another River, Another Town\", by John P. Irwin, who was the tank gunner. Zaloga described three actions in his book. On 4 April, between Weser and Nordheim, the Super Pershing engaged and destroyed a German tank, or something resembling a tank, at a range of. According to Zaloga, it is possible this vehicle was a Jagdpanther from the 507th Heavy Panzer Battalion. On 12 April, the Super Pershing claimed a German tank of unknown type. On 21 April, the Super Pershing was involved in a short-range tank duel with a German tank, which it knocked out with a shot to the belly. Irwin described this German tank as a Tiger, but Zaloga was skeptical of this claim. The tank was likely a Panzer IV. After the war, the single Super Pershing in Europe was last photographed in a vehicle dump in Kassel, Germany, and was most likely scrapped.", "In May 1945, as fierce fighting continued on the island of Okinawa, and M4 tank losses mounted, plans were made to ship the M26 Pershing tanks to that battle. On 31 May 1945, a shipment of 12 M26 Pershing tanks were dispatched to the Pacific for use in the Battle of Okinawa. Due to a variety of delays, the tanks were not completely offloaded on the beach at Naha, Okinawa until 4 August. By then, fighting on Okinawa had come to an end, and VJ Day followed on 2 September 1945.", "The M26 saw service in the Korean War. When the war began in June 1950, the four U.S. infantry divisions on occupation duty in Japan had no medium tanks at all, having only one active tank company each, equipped with M24 Chaffee light tanks. When these divisions were sent to Korea at the end of June 1950, they soon found that the 75 mm gun on the M24 could not penetrate the armor of North Korean T-34 tanks, which had no difficulty penetrating the M24's thin armor. Three M26 Pershing tanks were found in poor condition in a Tokyo ordnance depot. They were hastily brought back into operation, despite having to use improvised fanbelts. These three M26s were formed into a provisional tank platoon commanded by Lieutenant Samuel Fowler and sent to Korea in mid-July. When used to defend the town of Chinju, the tanks soon overheated when the substitute fan belts stretched and the cooling fans stopped working, and so the only three American medium tanks in Korea were lost. More medium tanks began arriving in Korea at the end of July 1950. Although no armored divisions were sent because the initial response from battlefield commanders was \"Korea isn't good tank country\", six Army infantry divisions and one Marine division were deployed. Each Army infantry division should have had one divisional tank battalion of 69 tanks, and each Army infantry regiment should have had a company of 22 tanks; the Marine division had a tank battalion of 70 gun tanks and nine combination flamethrower-howitzer tanks, and each Marine infantry regiment had an antitank platoon with five tanks each. While tables of organization and equipment mandated that all tank platoon vehicles should be M26 Pershings, with howitzer tanks in company headquarters and light tanks in reconnaissance units only, some units had a shortfall that had to be filled with other tanks. The 70th Tank Battalion at Fort Knox Kentucky had pulled World War II memorial M26s off of pedestals and reconditioned them for use, but had to fill out two companies with M4A3s; the 72nd Tank Battalion at Fort Lewis Washington and the 73rd Tank Battalion at Fort Benning Georgia were fully equipped with M26s; the 89th Medium Tank Battalion was constituted in Japan with three companies of reconditioned M4A3s and one of M26s from various bases in the Pacific; due to the shortage of M26s, most regimental tank companies had M4A3 Shermans instead. Two battalions detached from the 2nd Armored Division at Fort Hood Texas, the 6th Medium and 64th Heavy Tank Battalions, were fully equipped with M46 Patton tanks. The 1st Marine Division at Camp Pendleton California had all M4A3 howitzer tanks, which were replaced with M26s just days before boarding ships for Korea. A total of 309 M26 Pershings were rushed to Korea in 1950. A 1954 survey concluded that there were in all 119, mostly small scale, tank vs. tank actions involving U.S. Army and Marine units during the Korean War, with 97 T-34-85 tanks knocked out and another 18 probables. The M4A3E8 was involved in 50% of the tank actions, the M26 in 32%, and the M46 in 10%. The M26/M46 proved to be an overmatch for the T-34-85 as its 90 mm HVAP round could - at point blank range - punch all the way through the T-34 from the front glacis armor to the back, whereas the T-34-85 had difficulty penetrating the armor of the M26 or M46. The M4A3E8, firing 76 mm HVAP rounds that were widely available during the Korean War (unlike World War II), was a closer match to the T-34-85 as both tanks could destroy each other at normal combat ranges. After November 1950, North Korean armor was rarely encountered. China entered the conflict in February 1951 with four regiments of tanks (a mix of mostly T-34-85 tanks, with a few IS-2 tanks, and some other AFVs). However, because these Chinese tanks were dispersed with the infantry, tank to tank battles with UN forces were uncommon. With the marked decrease in tank to tank actions, the automotive deficiencies of the M26 in the mountainous Korean terrain became more of a liability, and so all M26s were withdrawn from Korea during 1951 and replaced with M4A3 Shermans and M46 Pattons. The M45 howitzer tank variant was only used by the assault gun platoon of the 6th Medium Tank Battalion, and these six vehicles were withdrawn by January 1951.", "After the end of World War II, U.S. Army units on occupation duty in Germany were converted into constabulary units, a quasi-police force designed to control the flow of refugees and black marketing; combat units were converted to light motorized units and spread throughout the U.S. occupation zone. By the summer of 1947, the army required a combat reserve to back up the thinly spread constabulary; in the following year, the 1st Infantry Division was reconstituted and consolidated, containing three regimental tank companies and a divisional tank battalion. The 1948 tables of organization and equipment for an infantry division included 123 M26 Pershing tanks and 12 M45 howitzer tanks. In the summer of 1951, three more infantry divisions and the 2nd Armored Division were sent to West Germany as a part of the NATO Augmentation Program. While M26 Pershings disappeared from Korea during 1951, tank units deploying to West Germany were equipped with them, until replaced with M47 Pattons during 1952–53. The 1952–53 tables of organization and equipment for an infantry division included 135 M47 Patton tanks replacing M26s and M46s. In 1952, the Belgian Army received 423 M26 and M26A1 Pershings, leased free of charge as part of a Mutual Defense Assistance Program, then the official designation of U.S. military aid to its allies. The tanks were mostly used to equip mobilizable reserve units of battalion strength: 2nd, 3rd and 4th \"Régiments de Guides\"/\"Regiment Gidsen\" (Belgian units have official names in both French and Dutch); 7th, 9th and 10th \"Régiments de Lanciers\"/\"Regiment Lansiers\" and finally the 2nd, 3rd and 5th \"Bataillon de Tanks Lourds\"/\"Bataljon Zware Tanks\". However, in the spring of 1953, M26s for three months equipped the 1st Heavy Tank Battalion of the 1st Infantry Division, an active unit, before they were replaced by M47s. In 1961, the number of reserve units was reduced and the reserve system reorganized, with the M26s equipping the 1st and 3rd \"Escadron de Tanks\"/\"Tank Escadron\" as a general reserve of the infantry arm. In 1969, all M26s were phased out. As the U.S. Army units in West Germany reequipped with M47s in 1952–1953, France and Italy also received M26 Pershings; while France quickly replaced them with M47 Pattons, Italy continued to use them operationally through 1963." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and work.", "Role in fabricating Jewish conspiracy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Goedsche was born in Trachenberg, Silesia, then in the Kingdom of Prussia, today part of Poland. In 1848 he worked for the \"Neue Preußische (Kreuz-)Zeitung\" newspaper, together with prominent Germans like Theodor Fontane, Otto von Bismarck and George Hesekiel. In 1853, he travelled as a journalist to Turkey. Goedsche worked in the genre of historical romance novel, as typified by Sir Walter Scott, Charles Sealsfield and Theodor Mügge, but he was also influenced by authors like Eugène Sue, Alexandre Dumas, père and George Hesekiel. Some of his works are critical of British colonialism. He was openly antisemitic and, although adopting an English pseudonym, he was a Prussian chauvinist who held a profound aversion against Britain and everything British. His political views on \"perfidious Albion\" are clearly expressed in his novels. Goedsche worked as a postal employee, but in reality he was an \"agent provocateur\" for the Prussian secret police. He forged letters which were used as evidence to frame democratic leaders. In 1849, he was caught after forging evidence in the prosecution of political reformer Benedict Waldeck and had to leave the postal service. He died at Bad Warmbrunn, today Cieplice Śląskie-Zdrój in Jelenia Góra, in 1878.", "In his 1868 book \"Biarritz\", Goedsche plagiarized a book by the French satirist Maurice Joly, \"The Dialogue in Hell Between Machiavelli and Montesquieu\", and made an addition: the chapter \"At the Jewish Cemetery in Prague\" described a secret rabbinical cabal, Council of Representatives of The Twelve Tribes of Israel, which meets in the cemetery at midnight for one of their centennial meetings. They report on the progress of their long-term conspiracy to establish world domination. Among the methods to achieve this goal are the acquisition of landed property, the transformation of craftsmen into industrial workers, the infiltration into high public offices, the control of the press, and so on. The chairman Levit expresses at the end of the meeting the desire to be the kings of the world in 100 years. This fictional \"Rabbi's Speech\" was frequently quoted later as an authentic episode and invoked as a proof of the authenticity of the forgery \"The Protocols of the Elders of Zion\" for which, in fact, it is considered to have been a source. In Nazi Germany the chapter was re-printed independently in many editions. To portray the meeting, Goedsche borrowed heavily from the scene in the novel \"Joseph Balsamo\" by Alexandre Dumas, père in which Alessandro Cagliostro and company plot the affair of the diamond necklace, and likewise borrowed Joly's \"Dialogues\" as the outcome of the meeting." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life and education.", "Career as writer.", "Personal life.", "Honors and awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Krasznahorkai was born in Gyula, Hungary, on 5 January 1954, to a middle-class Jewish family on his father's side. His father was György Krasznahorkai, a lawyer, and his mother, Júlia Pálinkás, was a social security administrator. After completing his secondary education in 1972 at the Erkel Ferenc high school where he specialized in Latin, he studied law from 1973 to 1976 at József Attila University (JATE) (now the University of Szeged) and from 1976 to 1978 at the Eötvös Loránd University (ELTE) (formerly the University of Budapest). After completing law studies, he sought a degree in Hungarian language and literature at ELTE. As a requirement of his degree work, he submitted a formal thesis on the work and experiences of Hungarian writer and journalist Sándor Márai (1900–1989) after he fled Hungary in 1948 to escape the Communist regime that seized power after World War II (Márai lived in exile in Italy and later San Diego, California). During his years as a university student in Budapest, Krasznahorkai worked at Gondolat Könyvkiadó, a publishing company. Krasznahorkai received his degree in 1983.", "Since completing his university studies Krasznahorkai has supported himself as an independent author. When in 1985 his first major publication \"Satantango\" achieved success, he was immediately thrust into the forefront of Hungarian literary life. The book, a dystopian novel set in his native Hungary, is regarded as his most famous. It received a Best Translated Book Award in English in 2013. He travelled outside of Communist Hungary for the first time in 1987, spending a year in West Berlin as a recipient of a DAAD fellowship. Since the collapse of the Soviet bloc, he has lived in a variety of locations. In 1990, for the first time, he was able to spend a significant amount of time in East Asia. He drew upon his experiences in Mongolia and China in writing \"The Prisoner of Urga\" and \"Destruction and Sorrow Beneath the Heavens\". He has returned many times to China. In 1993, his novel \"The Melancholy of Resistance\" received the German Bestenliste-Prize for the best literary work of the year. In 1996, he was a guest of the Wissenschaftskolleg in Berlin. While completing the novel \"War and War\", he travelled widely across Europe. The American poet Allen Ginsberg was of great assistance in completing the work; Krasznahorkai resided for some time in Ginsberg's New York apartment, and he described the poet's friendly advice as valuable in bringing the book to life. In 1996, 2000, and 2005 he spent six months in Kyoto. His contact with the aesthetics and literary theory of the Far East resulted in significant changes in his writing style and deployed themes. He returns often to both Germany and Hungary, but he has also spent varying lengths of time in several other countries, including the United States, Spain, Greece, and Japan, providing inspiration for his novel \"Seiobo There Below\", which won the Best Translated Book Award in 2014. Beginning in 1985, the renowned director and the author's good friend Béla Tarr made films almost exclusively based on Krasznahorkai's works, including \"Sátántangó\" and \"Werckmeister Harmonies\". Krasznahorkai said the 2011 film \"The Turin Horse\" would be their last collaboration. Krasznahorkai has received international acclaim from critics. Susan Sontag described him as \"the contemporary Hungarian master of apocalypse who inspires comparison with Gogol and Melville\". W. G. Sebald remarked, \"The universality of Krasznahorkai's vision rivals that of Gogol's \"Dead Souls\" and far surpasses all the lesser concerns of contemporary writing.\" In 2015, he received the Man Booker International Prize, the first Hungarian author to be so awarded.", "After residing in Berlin, Germany for several years, where he was for six months S. Fischer Guest Professor at the Free University of Berlin, Krasznahorkai currently resides \"as a recluse in the hills of Szentlászló\" in Hungary. After divorcing his first wife, Anikó Pelyhe, whom he married in 1990, he married his second wife, Dóra Kopcsányi, a sinologist and graphic designer, in 1997. He has three children: Kata, Ágnes and Emma.", "Krasznahorkai has been honored with numerous literary prizes, among them the highest award of the Hungarian state, the Kossuth Prize, and the Man Booker International Prize for his English-translated oeuvre." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life (1860–1887).", "Maturity (1888–1896).", "Final years (1897–1903).", "Music.", "Recording projects.", "Hugo Wolf Society edition.", "DGG Hugo Wolf Lieder Edition.", "Oxford Lieder Festival edition.", "Austrian Radio Anniversary edition." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Hugo Wolf was born in Windischgrätz in the Duchy of Styria (now Slovenj Gradec, Slovenia), then a part of the Austrian Empire. From his maternal side, he was related to Herbert von Karajan. He spent most of his life in Vienna, becoming a representative of a \"New German\" trend in Lieder, a trend which followed from the expressive, chromatic and dramatic musical innovations of Richard Wagner. A child prodigy, Wolf was taught piano and violin by his father beginning at the age of four, and once in primary school studied piano and music theory with Sebastian Weixler. Subjects other than music failed to hold his interest; he was dismissed from the first secondary school he attended as being \"wholly inadequate,\" left another over his difficulties in the compulsory Latin studies, and after a falling-out with a professor who commented on his \"damned music,\" quit the last. From there, he went to the Vienna Conservatory, much to the disappointment of his father, who had hoped his son would not try to make his living from music. Once again, however, he was dismissed for \"breach of discipline,\" although the oft-rebellious Wolf would claim he quit in frustration over the school's conservatism. After eight months with his family, he returned to Vienna to teach music. Though his fiery temperament was not ideally suited to teaching, Wolf's musical gifts, as well as his personal charm, earned him attention and patronage. Support of benefactors allowed him to make a living as a composer, and a daughter of one of his greatest benefactors inspired him to write to Vally (\"Valentine\") Franck, his first love, with whom he was involved for three years. During their relationship, hints of his mature style would become evident in his Lieder. Wolf was prone to depression and wide mood swings, which would affect him all through his life. When Franck left him just before his 21st birthday, he was despondent. He returned home, although his family relationships were also strained; his father was still convinced his son was a ne'er-do-well. His brief and undistinguished tenure as second Kapellmeister at Salzburg only reinforced this opinion: Wolf had neither the temperament, the conducting technique nor the affinity for the decidedly non-Wagnerian repertoire to be successful, and within a year had again returned to Vienna to teach in much the same circumstances as before. Wagner's death in February 1883 was another deeply moving event in the life of the young composer. The song \"Zur Ruh, zur Ruh\" was composed shortly afterward and is considered to be the best of his early works; it is speculated that it was intended as an elegy for Wagner. Wolf often despaired of his own future in the ensuing years, in a world from which his idol had departed, leaving tremendous footsteps to follow and no guidance on how to do so. This left him often extremely temperamental, alienating friends and patrons, although his charm helped him retain them more than his actions merited. His songs had meanwhile caught the attention of Franz Liszt, whom he respected greatly, and who like Wolf's previous mentors advised him to pursue larger forms; advice he this time followed with the symphonic tone poem \"Penthesilea\". His activities as a critic began to pick up. He was merciless in his criticism of the inferior works he saw taking over the musical atmosphere of the time; those of Anton Rubinstein he considered particularly odious. But he was as fervent in his support of Liszt, Schubert and Chopin, whose genius he recognized. Known as \"Wild Wolf\" for the intensity and expressive strength of his convictions, his vitriol made him some enemies. He composed little during this time, and what he did write he couldn't get performed; the Rosé Quartet (led by Vienna Philharmonic concertmaster Arnold Rosé) would not even look at his D minor Quartet after it was picked apart in a column, and the premiere of \"Penthesilea\" was met by the Vienna Philharmonic, when they tried it out under their celebrated conservative conductor Hans Richter, with nothing but derision for 'the man who had dared to criticize \"Meister Brahms,'\" as Richter himself caustically put it. He abandoned his activities as a critic in 1887 and began composing once more; perhaps not unexpectedly, the first songs he wrote after his compositional hiatus (to poems by Goethe, Joseph von Eichendorff and Joseph Viktor von Scheffel) emphasized themes of strength and resolution under adversity. Shortly thereafter, he completed the terse, witty one-movement \"Italian Serenade\" for string quartet which is regarded as one of the finest examples of his mature instrumental compositional style. Only a week later his father died, leaving him devastated, and he did not compose for the remainder of the year.", "1888 and 1889 proved to be amazingly productive years for Wolf, and a turning point in his career. After the publication of a dozen of his songs late the preceding year, Wolf once again desired to return to composing, and travelled to the vacation home of the Werners—family friends whom Wolf had known since childhood—in Perchtoldsdorf (a short train ride from Vienna), to escape and compose in solitude. Here he composed the \"Mörike-Lieder\" at a frenzied pace. A short break, and a change of house, this time to the vacation home of more longtime friends, the Ecksteins, and the \"Eichendorff-Lieder\" followed, then the 51 \"Goethe-Lieder\", spilling into 1889. After a summer holiday, the \"Spanisches Liederbuch\" was begun in October 1889; though Spanish-flavoured compositions were in fashion in the day, Wolf sought out poems that had been neglected by other composers. Wolf himself saw the merit of these compositions immediately, raving to friends that they were the best things he had yet composed (it was with the aid and urging of several of the more influential of them that the works were initially published). It was now that the world outside Vienna would recognize Wolf as well. Tenor Ferdinand Jäger, whom Wolf had heard in \"Parsifal\" during his brief summer break from composing, was present at one of the first concerts of the Mörike works and quickly became a champion of his music, performing a recital of only Wolf and Beethoven in December 1888. His works were praised in reviews, including one in the \"Münchener Allgemeine Zeitung\", a widely read German newspaper. (The recognition was not always positive; Brahms's adherents, still smarting from Wolf's merciless reviews, returned the favor—when they would have anything to do with him at all. Brahms's biographer Max Kalbeck ridiculed Wolf for his immature writing and odd tonalities; another composer refused to share a program with him, while Amalie Materna, a Wagnerian singer, had to cancel her Wolf recital when allegedly faced with the threat of being on the critics' blacklist if she went on.) Only a few more settings, completing the first half of the \"Italienisches Liederbuch\", were composed in 1891 before Wolf's mental and physical health once again took a downturn at the end of the year; exhaustion from his prolific past few years combined with the effects of syphilis and his depressive temperament caused him to stop composing for the next several years. Continuing concerts of his works in Austria and Germany spread his growing fame; even Brahms and the critics who had previously reviled Wolf gave favorable reviews. However, Wolf was consumed with depression, which stopped him from writing—which only left him more depressed. He completed orchestrations of previous works, but new compositions were not forthcoming, and certainly not the opera which he was now fixated on composing, still convinced that success in the larger forms was the mark of compositional greatness. Wolf had scornfully rejected the libretto to \"Der Corregidor\" when it was first presented to him in 1890, but his determination to compose an opera blinded him to its faults upon second glance. Based on \"The Three-Cornered Hat\", by Pedro Antonio de Alarcón, the darkly humorous story about an adulterous love triangle is one that Wolf could identify with: he had been in love with Melanie Köchert, married to his friend Heinrich Köchert, for several years. (It is speculated that their romance began in earnest in 1884, when Wolf accompanied the Köcherts on holiday; though Heinrich discovered the affair in 1893 he remained Wolf's patron and Melanie's husband.) The opera was completed in nine months and was initially met with success, but Wolf's musical setting could not compensate for the weakness of the text, and it was doomed to failure; it has not yet been successfully revived. A renewal of creative activity resulted in Wolf's completion of the \"Italienisches Liederbuch\" with two dozen songs written in March and April 1896, the composition of three Michelangelo Lieder in March, 1897 (a group of six had been projected) and preliminary work during that year on an opera, \"Manuel Venegas\".", "Wolf's last concert appearance, which included his early champion Jäger, was in February 1897. Shortly thereafter Wolf slipped into syphilitic insanity, with only occasional spells of wellbeing. He left sixty pages of an unfinished opera, \"Manuel Venegas\", in 1897, in a desperate attempt to finish before he lost his mind completely; after mid-1899 he could make no music at all and once even tried to drown himself, after which he was placed in a Vienna asylum at his own insistence. Melanie visited him faithfully during his decline until his death on 22 February 1903, but her unfaithfulness to her husband tortured her and she killed herself in 1906. Wolf is buried in the Zentralfriedhof (Central Cemetery) in Vienna, along with many other notable composers.", "Wolf's greatest musical influence was Richard Wagner, who, in an encounter after Wolf first came to the Vienna Conservatory, encouraged the young composer to persist in composing and to attempt larger-scale works, cementing Wolf's desire to emulate his musical idol. His antipathy to Johannes Brahms was fueled equally by his devotion to Wagner's musical radicalism and his loathing of Brahms' musical \"conservatism\". He is best known by his lieder, his temperament and inclination leading him to more intimate, subjective and terse musical utterances. Although he initially believed that mastering the larger forms was the hallmark of a great composer (a belief his early mentors reinforced), the smaller scale of the art song proved to provide an ideal creative outlet for his musical expression and came to be regarded as the genre best suited to his peculiar genius. Wolf's lieder are noted for compressing expansive musical ideas and depth of feeling, fed by his skill at finding the just right musical setting for the poetry that inspired him. Though Wolf himself was obsessed with the idea that to compose only short forms was to be second-rate, his organization of lyrics of particular poets (Goethe; Mörike; Eichendorff; Heyse and Geibel in the Spanish and Italian Songbooks) into semicyclical anthologies, finding connections between texts not explicitly intended by the poets he set and his conceptions of individual songs as dramatic works in miniature, mark him as a talented dramatist despite having written only one not particularly successful opera, \"Der Corregidor\". Early in his career Wolf modelled his lieder after those of Franz Schubert and Robert Schumann, particularly in the period around his relationship with Vally Franck; in fact, they were good enough imitations to pass off as the real thing, which he once attempted, though his cover was blown too soon. It is speculated that his choice of lieder texts in the earlier years, largely dealing with sin and anguish, were partly influenced by his contraction of syphilis. His love for Vally, not fully requited, inspired highly chromatic and philosophical lieder that could be regarded as successors to Wagner's Wesendonck Lieder cycle. Others were as distant from those in mood as possible; lighthearted and humorous. The rarely heard symphonic poem \"Penthesilea\" is tempestuous and highly colored as well. Although Wolf admired Liszt, who had encouraged him to complete the work, he felt Liszt's own music too dry and academic and strove for color and passion. The year 1888 marked a turning point in his style as well as his career, with the Mörike, Eichendorff and Goethe sets drawing him away from Schubert's simpler, more diatonic lyricism and into \"Wölferl's own howl\". Mörike in particular drew out and complemented Wolf's musical gifts, the variety of subjects suiting Wolf's tailoring of music to text, his dark sense of humor matching Wolf's own, his insight and imagery demanding a wider variety of compositional techniques and command of text painting to portray. In his later works he relied less on the text to give him his musical framework and more on his pure musical ideas themselves; the later Spanish and Italian songs reflect this move toward \"absolute music\". Wolf wrote hundreds of lieder, three operas, incidental music, choral music, as well as some rarely heard orchestral, chamber and piano music. His most famous instrumental piece is the \"Italian Serenade\" (1887), originally for string quartet and later transcribed for orchestra, which marked the beginning of his mature style. Wolf was famous for his use of tonality to reinforce meaning. Concentrating on two tonal areas to musically depict ambiguity and conflict in the text became a hallmark of his style, resolving only when appropriate to the meaning of the song. His chosen texts were often full of anguish and inability to find resolution, and thus so too was the tonality wandering, unable to return to the home key. Use of deceptive cadences, chromaticism, dissonance, and chromatic mediants obscure the harmonic destination for as long as the psychological tension is sustained. His formal structure as well reflected the texts being set, and he wrote almost none of the straightforward strophic songs favoured by his contemporaries, instead building the form around the nature of the work.", "Individual songs have been included in the recorded repertoire of many singers. Significant early Wolf recording artists included Elisabeth Schumann, Heinrich Rehkemper, Heinrich Schlusnus, Josef von Manowarda, Lotte Lehmann, Karl Erb and others. Early post-War collections were recorded by Suzanne Danco, Anton Dermota and Gérard Souzay (all before 1953), Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau (1954), Hans Hotter (1954), Erna Berger (1956), Heinrich Rehfuss (1955) and Elisabeth Schumann (1958), and important individual songs by Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, Nicola Rossi-Lemeni, and Elisabeth Höngen. Gerald Moore was a distinguished accompanist in Wolf song recordings. Fischer-Dieskau recorded a large collection of Mörike songs with Moore in March 1959. Some major projects have attempted more comprehensive coverage.", "In September 1931 the Hugo Wolf Society was formed under the aegis of English His Master's Voice records supervised by Walter Legge for the recording of a substantial proportion of the song repertoire. These were to be issued to subscribers in limited editions. The artists participating were restricted to those under contract to this company. Each volume consisted of six HMV red-label discs (unobtainable separately) and retailed new at $15.00 Am. The Wolf Society recordings were re-released in 1981. Artists included Alexander Kipnis (III, IV, V); Herbert Janssen (II, V, VI); Gerhard Hüsch (II, III, IV, V); John McCormack (accompanied by Edwin Schneider) (II); Alexandre Trianti (II, III); Ria Ginster (IV, V); Friedrich Schorr (II); Elisabeth Rethberg (IV, V); Tiana Lemnitz (VI); Helge Roswaenge (VI); Marta Fuchs (VI) and Karl Erb (VI). Each volume was accompanied by a booklet containing a short essay by Ernest Newman (I: \"Words and Music in Hugo Wolf\", II: \"Wolf's Goethe Songs\", III: \"A Note of Wolf as Craftsman\", IV: \"The Italienisches Liederbuch\") together with German texts, English translations (by Winifred Radford) and notes on each song (by Newman).", "A Hugo Wolf Lieder Edition was recorded by Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau and Daniel Barenboim during the 1970s for DGG, each volume containing three records. Volume I (1974): Mörike Lieder (Paris Grand Prix du Disque). Volume II (1976): Lieder on poems by Goethe, Heine and Lenau. Volume III (1977): Lieder on poems by Eichendorff, Michelangelo, Robert Reinick, Shakespeare, Byron, Hoffmann von Fallersleben, Joseph Viktor von Scheffel, etc. The accompanying volumes include essays by Hans Jancik, texts of the poems, and translations by Lionel Salter (English) and Jacques Fournier and others (French).", "The first project to record every song by Wolf was commenced in 2010, the 150th anniversary of the composer's birth, by Stone Records and the Oxford Lieder Festival. This series of live recordings, featuring a wide variety of singers and Oxford Lieder Festival's artistic director Sholto Kynoch at the piano, is expected to run to 11 or 12 discs: to date, 9 discs have been issued.", "In 2010 Austrian Radio and the Departure Centre for Creative Design in Vienna marked Hugo Wolf’s anniversary with a recital series in which 188 of the songs were performed against visuals created by leading designers. The series was intended to bring Lieder to a new audience and was held at the initiative of baritone Wolfgang Holzmair, who was joined by a team of Austrian singers and pianists. The concerts were released on DVDs the following year, and in 2012 Bridge Records released the Spanish and Italian songbooks on CDs." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Pope Nicholas II.", "Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII.", "Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor.", "English investiture controversy (1102–07).", "Concordat of London (1107).", "Later developments in England.", "Concordat of Worms (1122).", "Terminology.", "Legacy.", "Local authority.", "Selection of leaders.", "Authority and reform.", "Unification of Germany and Italy.", "German culture.", "Liberty and prosperity in northern Europe.", "Cultural references." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "After the decline of the Western Roman Empire, investiture was performed by members of the ruling nobility (and was known as lay investure) despite theoretically being a task of the church. Many bishops and abbots were themselves usually part of the ruling nobility. Given that most members of the European nobility practiced primogeniture, and willed their titles of nobility to the eldest surviving male heir, surplus male siblings often sought careers in the upper levels of the church hierarchy. This was particularly true where the family may have established a proprietary church or abbey on their estate. Since a substantial amount of wealth and land was usually associated with the office of a bishop or abbot, the sale of church offices—a practice known as \"simony\"—was an important source of income for leaders among the nobility, who themselves owned the land and by charity allowed the building of churches. Emperors had", "Benedict X was elected under the influence of the Count of Tusculum, which allegedly included by bribery of the electors. Dissenting cardinals elected Pope Nicholas II in 1058 at Siena. Nicholas II successfully waged war against Benedict X and regained control of the Vatican. Nicholas II convened a synod in the Lateran on Easter in 1059. The results were codified in the papal bull \"In", "In 1075, Pope Gregory VII, composed the \"Dictatus papae\", though this was not published at the time, cataloging principles of his Gregorian Reforms. One clause asserted that the deposal of an emperor was under the sole power of the pope. It declared that the Roman church was founded by God alone – that the papal power (the \"auctoritas\" of Pope Gelasius) was the sole universal power; in particular, a council held in the Lateran Palace from 24 to 28 February the same year decreed that the pope alone could appoint or depose churchmen or move them from see to see. By this time, Henry IV was no longer a child, and he continued to appoint his own bishops. He reacted to this declaration by sending Gregory VII a letter in which he withdrew his imperial support of Gregory as pope in no uncertain terms: the letter was headed \"Henry, king not through usurpation but through the holy ordination of God, to Hildebrand, at present not pope but false monk\". It called for the election of a new pope. His letter ends, \"I, Henry, king by the grace of God, with all of my Bishops, say to you, come down, come down!\", and is often quoted with \"and to be damned throughout the ages\", which is a later addition. The situation was made even more dire when Henry IV installed his chaplain, Tedald, a Milanese priest, as Bishop of Milan, when another priest of Milan, Atto, had already been chosen in Rome by the pope for candidacy. In 1076 Gregory responded by excommunicating Henry, and deposed him as German king, releasing all Christians from their oath of allegiance. Enforcing these declarations was a different matter, but the advantage gradually came to be on the side of Gregory VII. German princes and the aristocracy were happy to hear of the king's deposition. They used religious reasons to continue the rebellion started at the First Battle of Langensalza in 1075, and for seizure of royal holdings. Aristocrats claimed local lordships over peasants and property, built forts, which had previously been outlawed, and built up localized fiefdoms to secure their autonomy from the empire. Thus, because of these combining factors, Henry IV had no choice but to back down, needing time to marshal his forces to fight the rebellion. In 1077, he traveled to Canossa in northern Italy, where the Pope was staying in the castle of Countess Matilda, to apologize in person.", "The Investiture Controversy continued for several decades as each successive pope tried to diminish imperial power by stirring up revolt in Germany. These revolts were gradually successful. The reign of Henry IV ended with a diminished kingdom and waning power. Many of his underlords had been in constant or desultory revolt for years. Henry IV's insistence that Antipope Clement III was the real pope had initially been popular with some of the nobles, and even many of the bishops of Germany. But as years passed, this support was slowly withdrawn. The idea that the German king could and should name the pope was increasingly discredited and viewed as an anachronism from a by-gone era. The Empire of the Ottos was virtually lost because of Henry IV. On 31 December 1105, Henry IV was forced to abdicate by and was succeeded by his son Henry V, who had rebelled against his father in favor of the papacy, and who had made his father renounce the legality of his antipopes before he died. Nevertheless, Henry V chose another antipope, Gregory VIII. Henry V realised swift action and a change in his father's policy was necessary. Pope Paschal II rebuked Henry V for appointing bishops in Germany. The king crossed the Alps with an army in 1111. The pope, who was weak and had few supporters was forced to suggest a compromise, the abortive Concordat of 1111. Its simple and radical solution of the Investiture Controversy between the prerogatives", "At the time of Henry IV's death, Henry I of England and the Gregorian papacy were also embroiled in a controversy over investiture, and its solution provided a model for the eventual solution of the issue in the empire. William the Conqueror had accepted a papal banner and the distant blessing of Pope Alexander II upon his invasion, but had successfully rebuffed the pope's assertion after the successful outcome, that he should come to Rome and pay homage for his fief, under the general provisions of the \"Donation of Constantine\". The ban on lay investiture in \"Dictatus", "The Concordat of London, agreed in 1107, was a forerunner of a compromise that was later taken up in the Concordat of Worms. In England, as in Germany, the king's chancery started to distinguish between the secular and ecclesiastical powers of the prelates. Bowing to political reality and employing this distinction, Henry I of England gave up his right to invest his bishops and abbots while reserving the custom of requiring them to swear homage for the \"temporalities\" (the landed properties tied to the episcopate) directly from his hand, after the bishop had sworn homage and feudal vassalage in the commendation ceremony (\"commendatio\"), like any secular vassal. The system of vassalage was not divided among great local lords in England as it was in France, since the king was in control by right of the conquest.", "Henry I of England perceived a danger in placing monastic scholars in his chancery and turned increasingly to secular clerks, some of whom held minor positions in the Church. He often rewarded these men with the titles of bishop and abbot. Henry I expanded the system of scutage to reduce the monarchy's", "The European mainland experienced about 50 years of fighting, with efforts by Lamberto Scannabecchi, the future Pope Honorius II, and the 1121 Diet of Würzburg to end the conflict. On September 23, 1122, near the German city of Worms, Pope Callixtus II and Holy Roman Emperor Henry V entered into an agreement, now known as the Concordat of Worms, that effectively ended the Investiture Controversy. It eliminated lay investiture, while allowing secular leaders some room for unofficial but significant influence in the appointment process. By the terms of the agreement, the election of bishops and abbots in Germany was to take place in the emperor's presence (or his legate's) as judge (\"without violence\") between potentially disputing parties, free of bribes, thus retaining to the emperor a crucial role in choosing these great territorial magnates of the Empire. But absent a dispute, the canons of the cathedral were to elect the bishop, monks were to choose the abbot. Beyond the borders of Germany, in Burgundy and Italy, the election would be handled by the church without imperial interference. Callixtus' reference to the feudal homage due the emperor on appointment is guarded: \"shall do unto thee for these what he rightfully should\" was the wording of the \"privilegium\" granted by Callixtus. The emperor's right to a substantial imbursement (payment) on the election of a bishop or abbot was specifically denied. The emperor renounced the right to invest ecclesiastics with ring and crosier, the symbols of their spiritual power, and guaranteed election by the canons of cathedral or abbey and free consecration. To make up for this and symbolise the \"worldly\" authority of the bishop which the pope had always recognised to derive from the Emperor, another symbol, the scepter, was invented, which would be handed over by the king (or his legate). The two ended by promising mutual aid when requested and by granting one another peace. The Concordat was confirmed by the First Council of the Lateran in 1123.", "In modern terminology, a concordat is an international convention, specifically one concluded between the Holy See and the civil power of a country to define the relationship between the Catholic Church and the", "", "In the long term, the decline of imperial power would divide Germany until the 19th century. Similarly, in Italy, the investiture controversy weakened", "The papacy grew stronger. Marshalling for public opinion engaged lay people in religious affairs increasing lay piety, setting the stage for the Crusades and the great religious vitality of the 12th century. German kings still had de facto influence over the selection of German bishops, though over time, German princes gained influence among church electors. The bishop-elect would then by invested by the Emperor (or representative) with the scepter and, sometime afterwards, by his ecclesial superior with ring and staff. The resolution of the Controversy produced a significant improvement in the character of men raised to the episcopacy. Kings no longer interfered so frequently in their election, and when they did, they generally nominated more worthy candidates for the office. The Concordat of Worms did not end the interference of European monarchs in the selection of the pope. Practically speaking, the king retained a decisive voice in the selection of the hierarchy. All kings supported King John of England's defiance of Pope Innocent III ninety years after the Concordat of Worms in the matter concerning Stephen Langton. In", "Though the Holy Roman Emperor retained some power over imperial churches, his power was damaged irreparably because he lost the religious authority that previously belonged to the office of the king. In France, England, and the Christian state in Spain, the king could overcome rebellions of his magnates and establish the power of his royal demesne because he could rely on the Church, which, for several centuries, had given him a mystical authority. From time to time, rebellious and recalcitrant monarchs might run afoul of the Church. These could be excommunicated, and after an appropriate time and public penance, be received back into the communion and good graces of the Church. Of the three reforms Gregory VII and his predecessors and successor popes had attempted, they had been most successful in regard to celibacy of the clergy.", "It was the consequence of this lengthy episode that a whole generation grew up in Germany and Northern Italy in an atmosphere of war, doubt and scepticism. The papal backers had been busy propounding arguments to show that royal power was not of divine origin. They had been so successful that the moral authority of the Emperor had been undermined in the minds of many of his subjects. Serious divisions existed from this battle", "The catastrophic political consequences of the struggle between pope and emperor also led to a cultural disaster. Germany lost intellectual leadership in western Europe. In 1050, German monasteries were great centres of learning and art and German schools of theology and canon law were unsurpassed and probably unmatched anywhere in Europe. The long civil war over investiture sapped the energy of both", "The political scientist Bruce Bueno de Mesquita argues that the Concordat of Worms contained within itself the germ of nation-based sovereignty that would one day be confirmed in the Peace of Westphalia (1648). The Concordat of Worms created an incentive structure for the rulers of the Catholic parts of Europe such that in the northern regions, local rulers were motivated to raise the prosperity and liberty of their subjects because such reforms helped those rulers assert their independence from the pope. With the Concordat of Worms, the pope asserted direct personal control over the selection of bishops. Instead of myriad local customs, it all came down to negotiations between the", "Science fiction writer Poul Anderson wrote the novel \"The Shield of Time\", depicting two alternate history scenarios. In one, the imperial power completely and utterly defeated the Papacy, and in the other, the Papacy emerged victorious with the imperial power humbled and marginalized. Both end with a highly authoritarian and repressive 20th century that is completely devoid of democracy or civil rights. The conclusion stated by a protagonist is that the outcome in actual history (neither power gained a clear victory, with both continuing to counterbalance each other) was the best from the point of view of human liberty." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Taxonomy.", "Description.", "Population and distribution.", "Human interaction.", "Major threats.", "Conservation actions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The species was first described by John Gray in 1846. Gray's initial analysis included the Atlantic spotted dolphin in this species. They are now regarded as separate. Both the genus and specific names come from Latin words meaning thin or thinning. Three subspecies are recognised in Rice's 1998 survey of cetacean taxonomy. Two of these have not been formally named.", "The pantropical spotted dolphin varies significantly in size and coloration throughout its range. The most significant division is between coastal and pelagic varieties. The coastal form is larger and more spotted. (These two forms have been divided into subspecies only in eastern Pacific populations). Spots are key defining characteristics in adults, though immature individuals are generally uniformly colored and susceptible to confusion with the bottlenose dolphin. Populations around the Gulf of Mexico may be relatively spot-free even in adulthood. In the Atlantic, confusion is possible with the Atlantic spotted dolphin. Broadly speaking, the dolphin has a long, thin beak. The upper and lower jaws are darkly colored, but are separated by thin, white \"lips\". The chin, throat, and belly are white to pale grey with a limited number of spots. The flanks are separated into three distinct bands of color — the lightest at the bottom, followed by a thin, grey strip in the middle of the flank, and a dark-grey back. The tall concave dorsal fin is similarly colored. The thick tail stock matches the color of the middle band. The pantropical spotted dolphin is very active and is prone to making large, splashy leaps from the sea. It is a common breacher and will often clear the water for a second or more. Bow-riding and other play with boats is common. In the eastern Pacific, the dolphin is often found swimming with yellowfin tuna (hence the problem with dolphin deaths caused by tuna fishing). However, they do not feed on that fish. In fact, the two species have similar diets of small epipelagic fish. In other areas, the species may also feed on squid and crustaceans. Birth length is 80–90 cm. Adults are about 2.5 m long and weigh 120 kg. Sexual maturity is reached at 10 years in females and 12 years in males. The average lifespan is around 40 years.", "The pantropical spotted dolphin, as its name implies, is found across all tropical and subtropical waters around the world — roughly speaking all oceans and seas between 40°N and 40°S. The total world population is in excess of three million — the second-most abundant cetacean after the bottlenose dolphin — of which two million are found in the eastern Pacific. However, this represents a decrease from at least 7 million since the 1950s. Centres of highest population density are the shallow warmest waters (water temperature in excess of 25 °C). They also tend to concentrate where a high temperature gradient is found. Appearances of vagrancy in the Levantine Basin of the Mediterranean Sea through Suez Canal is expected.", "The pantropical spotted dolphin's propensity for associating with tuna, particularly in the eastern Pacific, has in recent history been a very real danger. In the 1960s and 1970s, fishermen would capture thousands of dolphin and tuna at once using purse seine nets. The dolphins all died. Over a period of about 25 years, 75% of this region's population, and over half the world's total were wiped out. The issue has received wide public attention. Many major supermarkets have found it economically expedient to use tuna suppliers whose fisherman catch tuna by more discriminatory means, and thus advertise their tuna product as dolphin-friendly. Some such products are approved by the Whale and Dolphin Conservation Trust. Negative impacts from fishing activities remain, despite broad \"dolphin safe\" practices. Instead of reducing numbers through direct mortalities, fishing activities have disrupted the reproductive output of the northeastern pantropical spotted dolphin. The fishing had a negative impact on calf survival rates and/or birth rates. This could be caused when fishing operations separate mothers from their suckling calves, interfere with the conception or gestation of calves, or a combination of the two.", "The eastern Pacific populations of pantropical spotted dolphins are divided into 3 units – coastal and 2 offshore populations, northeastern and western-southern. Just under 5 million dolphins were killed between 1959 and 1972. 3 million of these were from the northeastern offshore population unit. Since that time, this subpopulation has been the slowest to recover, if it is truly recovering at all. Natural mortalities are occurring as well, but they are difficult to estimate. The major threat to \"Stenella attenuata\" is individuals killed as by-catch in fisheries. Tuna fishermen follow pantropical spotted dolphins in order to find and catch fish. The height of incidental killings was in the 1960s and 1970s. Tuna fishermen from the 1950s to the 1980s in the eastern Pacific killed massive numbers of dolphins, most of which were offshore spotted dolphins. Another threat to this species is gillnet fisheries in Australia, North Pacific (central and northern areas), Peru, Ecuador, Japan, and Philippines. Trawls in West Africa and long-lining in the Central Atlantic likewise pose significant threats to these species. Small directed catches in other parts of the world are not as well documented. There is a large-mesh pelagic driftnet fishery of eastern Taiwan where a large number of dolphin killings are suspected. The exact number of deaths due to this fishery is unknown. Japan catches pantropical spotted dolphins for human consumption. The average catch between 1995 and 2004, was 129 animals annually. Pantropical spotted dolphins are the preferred species for consumption in Taiwan.", "The eastern tropical Pacific and Southeast Asian populations of the pantropical spotted dolphin are listed in Appendix II of the \"Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals\" (CMS). As the pantropical spotted dolphin can be divided into three subspecies, studies of these distinct populations would be needed to assess conservation efforts. In addition, the pantropical spotted dolphin is covered by the \"Memorandum of Understanding Concerning the Conservation of the Manatee and Small Cetaceans of Western Africa and Macaronesia\" (Western African Aquatic Mammals MoU) and the \"Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region\" (Pacific Cetaceans MoU). The U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act was established in 1972. U.S. Fishing vessels have since reduced dolphin by-catch deaths by 95%. The U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act lists the northeastern and coastal stocks as “Depleted.” Dolphin deaths have greatly decreased since the establishment of the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC). The Commission set mortality limits on the international fleet. In 2005, only 373 spotted dolphin deaths were observed. Dolphin populations are able to grow at 4% per year, but the pantropical spotted dolphin populations did not improve or worsen between 1979 and 2000. The population has not recovered, even though 30 years of management has been in effect. Although the US and international fishing agencies have reduced dolphin bycatch significantly, the northeastern subpopulation is not showing strong signs of recovery. This lack of recovery of the subpopulations of the pantropical spotted dolphins could be due to the following reasons: calf separation, orphaning, fishery stress, under-reported mortality, and ecosystem change. Observed deaths of these dolphins could be under-reported because small vessels do not have observers, observers do not see the net constantly at all times, injured dolphins die after observation, and dead individuals are not always reported." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Source languages.", "Cognates.", "\"Wasei-kango\".", "Writing.", "False friends and \"wasei-eigo\".", "Grammatical function.", "Phonology.", "As a built-in lexicon of English.", "Misconceptions.", "Reborrowings from Japanese." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Japanese has a long history of borrowing from foreign languages. It has been doing so since the late fourth century A.D. Some ancient \"gairaigo\" words are still being used nowadays, but there are also many kinds of \"gairaigo\" words that were borrowed more recently. Most, but not all, modern \"gairaigo\" are derived from English, particularly in the post-World War II era (after 1945). Words are taken from English for concepts that do not exist in Japanese, but also for other reasons, such as a preference for English terms or fashionability – many \"gairaigo\" have Japanese near-synonyms. In the past, more \"gairaigo\" came from other languages besides English. The first period of borrowing occurred during the late fourth century A.D., when a massive number of Chinese characters were adopted. This period could be considered as one of the most significant in the history of \"gairaigo\", because it was the first moment when the written communication systems using \"kanji\" were formed. The first non-Asian countries to have extensive contact with Japan were Portugal and the Netherlands in the 16th and 17th centuries, and Japanese has several loanwords from Portuguese and Dutch, many of which are still used. The interaction between Japan and Portugal lasted from the late middle age until the early Edo era. (1549-1638). An example of the loanwords from Portuguese is \"rasha\", meaning a thick wool cloth that was indispensable during the period, but not used often nowadays. In the Edo era (1603–1853), words from the Dutch language, such as \"glas\", \"gas\", and \"alcohol\", started to have an impact in the Japanese language. Also, during the Edo era, many medical words like \"Gaze\" (meaning gauze) and \"neuroses\" came from German, and many artistic words such as \"rouge\" and \"dessin\" came from French. Most of the \"gairaigo\" since the nineteenth century came from English. In the Meiji era (late 19th to early 20th century), Japan also had extensive contact with Germany, and gained many loanwords from German, particularly for Western medicine, which the Japanese learned from the Germans. Notable examples include (often abbreviated to ) from German (\"work\"), and from German \"Energie\". They also gained several loanwords from French at this time. In modern times, there are some borrowings from Modern Chinese and Modern Korean, particularly for food names, and these continue as new foods become popular in Japan; standard examples include \"ūron\" (烏龍 ウーロン \"oolong tea\") and \"kimuchi\" (キムチ \"kimchi\"), respectively, while more specialized examples include \"hoikōrō\" ( ホイコーロー \"twice cooked pork\") from Chinese, and \"bibinba\" ( \"bibimbap\") from Korean. Chinese words are often represented with Chinese characters, but with \"katakana\" gloss to indicate the unusual pronunciation, while Korean words, which no longer regularly use Chinese characters (\"hanja\"), are represented in \"katakana\". There is sometimes ambiguity in pronunciation of these borrowings, particularly voicing, such as \"to\" (ト) vs. \"do\" (ド) – compare English's Daoism–Taoism romanization issue. Some Modern Chinese borrowings occurred during the 17th and 18th centuries, due both to trade and resident Chinese in Nagasaki, and a more recent wave of Buddhist monks, the Ōbaku school, whose words are derived from languages spoken in Fujian. More recent Korean borrowings are influenced both by proximity, and to the substantial population of Koreans in Japan since the early 20th century. In 1889, there were 85 \"gairaigo\" of Dutch origin and 72 \"gairaigo\" of English origin listed in a Japanese dictionary. From 1911 to 1924, 51% of \"gairaigo\" listed in dictionaries were of English origin, and today, 80% to 90% of \"gairaigo\" are of English origin. There have been some borrowings from Sanskrit as well, most notably for religious terms. These words are generally transliterations which were unknowingly borrowed from Chinese.", "In some cases, cognates or etymologically related words from different languages may be borrowed and sometimes used synonymously or sometimes used distinctly. The most common basic example is versus earlier, where they are used distinctly. A more technical example is (English \"sorbitol\") versus (German ), used synonymously.", "In addition to borrowings, which adopted both meaning and pronunciation, Japanese also has an extensive set of new words that are crafted using existing Chinese morphemes to express a foreign term. These are known as \"wasei-kango\" \"Japanese-made Chinese words\". This process is similar to the creation of classical compounds in European languages. Many were coined in the Meiji period, and these are very common in medical terminology. These are not considered \"gairaigo\", as the foreign word itself has not been borrowed, and sometimes a translation and a borrowing are both used.", "In written Japanese, \"gairaigo\" are usually written in \"katakana\". Older loanwords are also often written using \"ateji\" (\"kanji\" chosen for their phonetic value, or sometimes for meaning instead) or hiragana, for example \"tabaco\" from Portuguese, meaning \"tobacco\" or \"cigarette\" can be written (\"katakana\"), (\"hiragana\"), or (the \"kanji\" for \"smoke grass\", but still pronounced \"tabako\" – meaning-\"ateji\"), with no change in meaning. Another common older example is \"tempura,\" which is usually written in mixed \"kanji\"/\"kana\" (mazegaki) as, but is also written as (rare kanji) or (common kanji) – here it is sound-\"ateji,\" with the characters used for sound value only. Few \"gairaigo\" are sometimes written with a single \"kanji\" character (chosen for meaning or newly created); consequently, these are considered \"kun'yomi\" rather than \"ateji\" because the single characters are used for meaning rather than for sound and are often written as katakana. An example is ; see single-character loan words for details.", "There are numerous causes for confusion in \"gairaigo\": (1) \"gairaigo\" are often abbreviated, (2) their meaning may change (either in Japanese or in the original language after the borrowing has occurred), (3) many words are not borrowed but rather coined in Japanese (\"wasei-eigo\" \"English made in Japan\"), and (4) not all \"gairaigo\" come from English. Due to Japanese pronunciation rules and its mora-based phonology, many words take a significant amount of time to pronounce. For example, a one-syllable word in a language such as English (\"brake\") often becomes several syllables when pronounced in Japanese (in this case, \"burēki\" (), which amounts to four moras). The Japanese language, therefore, contains many abbreviated and contracted words, and there is a strong tendency to shorten words. This also occurs with \"gairaigo\" words. For example, \"remote control\", when transcribed in Japanese, becomes \"rimōto kontorōru\" (), but this has then been simplified to \"rimokon\" (). For another example, the transcribed word for \"department store\" is \"depātomento sutoa\" () but has since been shortened to \"depāto\" (). Clipped compounds, such as \"wāpuro\" () for \"word processor\", are common. \"Karaoke\" (), a combination of the Japanese word \"kara\" \"empty\" and the clipped form, \"oke\", of the English loanword \"orchestra\" (J. \"ōkesutora\" ), is a clipped compound that has entered the English language. Japanese ordinarily takes the first part of a foreign word, but in some cases the second syllable is used instead; notable examples from English include and. Some Japanese people are not aware of the origins of the words in their language, and may assume that all \"gairaigo\" words are legitimate English words. For example, Japanese people may use words like \"tēma\" (, from German \"Thema\", meaning \"topic/theme\") in English, or \"rimokon\", not realizing that the contraction of \"remote control\" to \"rimokon\" took place in Japan. Similarly, \"gairaigo\", while making Japanese easier to learn for foreign students in some cases, can also cause problems due to independent semantic progression. For example, English \"stove\", from which \"sutōbu\" () is derived, has multiple meanings. Americans often use the word to mean a cooking appliance, and are thus surprised when Japanese take it to mean a space heater (such as a wood-burning stove). The Japanese term for a cooking stove is another \"gairaigo\" term, \"renji\" (), from the English \"range\"; a gas stove is a \"gasurenji\" (). Additionally, Japanese combines words in ways that are uncommon in English. As an example, \"left over\" is a baseball term for a hit that goes over the left-fielder's head rather than uneaten food saved for a later meal. This is a term that appears to be a loan but is actually \"wasei-eigo\". It is sometimes difficult for students of Japanese to distinguish among \"gairaigo\", \"giseigo\" (onomatopoeia), and \"gitaigo\" (ideophones: words that represent the manner of an action, like \"zigzag\" in English — \"jiguzagu\" in Japanese), which are also written in katakana. \"Wasei-eigo\" presents more difficulties for Japanese and learners of Japanese as such words, once entered the lexicon, combine to form any number of potentially confusing combinations. For example, the loanwords \"chance\", \"pink\", \"erotic\", \"over\", \"down\", \"up\", \"in\", \"my\", and \"boom\" have all entered \"wasei-eigo\" lexicon, combining with Japanese words and other English loanwords to produce any number of combination words and phrases. 'Up,' or \"appu\", is famously combined with other words to convey an increase, such as \"seiseki appu\" (increased results) and \"raifu appu\" (improved quality of life). 'My,\" or \"mai\", also regularly appears in advertisements for any number and genre of items. From \"My Fanny\" toilet paper to \"My Hand\" electric hand drills, \"mai\" serves as a common advertising tool. Infamously, the beverage brand Calpis sold a product regrettably named \"mai pisu\" or'my piss' for a short time. \"Wasei-eigo\" is often employed to disguise or advertise risque or sexual terms and innuendos, especially when used by women. \"Wasei-eigo\" terms referencing a person's characteristics, personality, and habits also commonly appear as Japanese street slang, from \"poteto chippusu\" or 'potato chips' for a hick and \"esu efu\" 'SF' for a'sex friend.'", "\"Gairaigo\" are generally nouns, which can be subsequently used as verbs by adding auxiliary verb. For example, \"play soccer\" is translated as サッカーをする (sakkā o suru). Some exceptions exist, such as, which conjugates as a normal Japanese verb – note the unusual use of \"katakana\" () followed by \"hiragana\" (). Another example is \"gugu-ru\" (ググる, \"to google\"), which conjugates as a normal Japanese verb, in which the final syllable is converted into \"okurigana\" to enable conjugation. \"Gairaigo\" function as do morphemes from other sources, and, in addition to \"wasei eigo\" (words or phrases from combining \"gairaigo\"), \"gairaigo\" can combine with morphemes of Japanese or Chinese origin in words and phrases, as in (compare ), (compare ) or. In set phrases, there is sometimes a preference to use all \"gairaigo\" (in \"katakana\") or all \"kango/wago\" (in \"kanji\"), as in (\"mansurii manshon\", monthly apartment) versus (\"tsukigime chūshajō,\" monthly parking lot), but mixed phrases are common, and may be used interchangeably, as in (\"tenanto boshū\") and (\"nyūkyosha boshū\"), both meaning \"looking for a tenant\".", "Borrowings traditionally have had pronunciations that conform to Japanese phonology and phonotactics. For example, \"platform\" was borrowed as /hōmu/, because */fo/ is not a sound combination that traditionally occurs in Japanese. However, in recent years, some \"gairaigo\" are pronounced more closely to their original sound, which is represented by non-traditional combinations of \"katakana\", generally using small \"katakana\" or diacritics (voicing marks) to indicate these non-traditional sounds. Compare and \"sumaho\" (スマホ, \"smart phone\"), where traditional sounds are used, and, a variant of the latter word using traditional sounds, where the non-traditional combination (fu-o) is used to represent the non-traditional sound combination /fo/. This leads to long words; e.g., the word for \"fanfare\" is spelled out as, with seven \"kana\", no shorter than the Roman alphabet original (it is possible that it was not loaned from English because the \"e\" is not silent). Similarly, Japanese traditionally does not have any /v/ phoneme, instead approximating it with /b/, but today /v/ (normally realized \"not\" as <nowiki>[</nowiki>v] but as bilabial <nowiki>[</nowiki>β]) is sometimes used in pronunciations: for example, \"violin\" can be pronounced either or, with (literally \"voiced u\"+\"a\") representing /va/. Another example of the Japanese transformation of English pronunciation is, in which the two-syllable word \"taxi\" becomes three syllables (and four morae, thanks to long \"ī\") because consonants don't occur consecutively in traditional Japanese (with the exception of the coda ん/ン or /n/), and in which the sound [si] (\"see\") of English is pronounced <nowiki>[</nowiki>ɕi] (which to monoglot English speakers will sound like \"she\") because /si/ in Japanese is realized as such. This change in Japanese phonology following the introduction of foreign words (here primarily from English) can be compared to the earlier posited change in Japanese phonology following the introduction of Chinese loanwords, such as closed syllables (CVC, not just CV) and length becoming a phonetic feature with the development of both long vowels and long consonants – see Early Middle Japanese: Phonological developments. Due to the difficulties that Japanese have in distinguishing \"l\" and \"r\", this expansion of Japanese phonology has not extended to inventing different \"kana\" for /l/ vs. /r/. Therefore, words with /l/ or /r/ may be spelled identically if borrowed into Japanese. One important exception is due to the fact that Japanese typically borrows English words in a non-rhotic fashion, so that syllable-final \"-r\" and \"-l\" can still be distinguished. For example, \"bell\" is ベル and \"bear\" is ベア, rather than both being ベル.", "The English words that are borrowed into Japanese include many of the most useful English words, including high-frequency vocabulary and academic vocabulary. Thus \"gairaigo\" may constitute a useful built-in lexicon for Japanese learners of English. \"Gairaigo\" have been observed to aid a Japanese child's learning of ESL vocabulary. With adults, \"gairaigo\" assist in English-word aural recognition and pronunciation, spelling, listening comprehension, retention of spoken and written English, and recognition and recall at especially higher levels of vocabulary. Moreover, in their written production, students of Japanese prefer using English words that have become \"gairaigo\" to those that have not.", "The word \"arigatō\" (Japanese for \"thank you\") sounds similar to the Portuguese word \"obrigado\", which has the same meaning. Given the number of borrowings from Portuguese, it may seem reasonable to suppose that the Japanese imported that word—which is the explanation accepted and indeed published by many. However, \"arigatō\" is not a \"gairaigo\"; rather, it is an abbreviation of \"arigatō gozaimasu\", which consists of an inflection of the native Japanese adjective \"arigatai\" () combined with the polite verb \"gozaimasu\". There is evidence, for example in the \"Man'yōshū\", that the word \"arigatai\" was in use several centuries before contact with the Portuguese. This makes the two terms false cognates. If the Portuguese word had been borrowed, it would most likely have taken the form オブリガド (\"oburigado\"), or maybe \"ōrigado\" (due to historical \"afu\" and \"ofu\" collapsing to \"ō\"), and while it is even possible that it would be spelled with as \"ateji\", it would regardless start with \"o\" rather than \"a\", and the final \"o\" would have been short rather than long.", "Some \"gairaigo\" words have been reborrowed into their original source languages, particularly in the jargon of fans of Japanese entertainment. For example, \"anime\" () is \"gairaigo\" derived from the English word for \"animation\", but has been reborrowed by English with the meaning of \"Japanese animation\". Similarly, \"puroresu\" () derives from \"professional wrestling\", and has been adopted by English-speaking wrestling fans as a term for the style of pro wrestling performed in Japan. \"Kosupure\" (), or \"cosplay\", was formed from the English words \"costume play\", referring to dressing in costumes such as those of anime, manga, or videogame characters, and is now used with enthusiasm in English and other languages (also using Western cartoon realms). There are also rare examples of borrowings from Indo-European languages, which have subsequently been borrowed by other Indo-European languages, thus yielding distant cognates. An example is, originally borrowed from Russian икра (\"ikra\"), and possibly distantly cognate (from the same Indo-European root) to English \"roe\" (fish eggs), though the only indication is the shared \"r\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The three dynasties of Bourbon.", "First House of Bourbon.", "Second House of Bourbon (Bourbon-Dampierre).", "Third and current House of Bourbon.", "Origins.", "List of Bourbons.", "Bourbon branches.", "France.", "Rise of Henry IV.", "Early Bourbons in France.", "Louis XIV and Louis XV.", "French Revolution.", "Bourbon Restoration.", "Aftermath.", "Bourbons of Spain and Italy.", "Philip V.", "Ferdinand VI and Charles III.", "Bourbons of Parma.", "Later Bourbon monarchs outside France.", "List of Bourbon rulers.", "France.", "Monarchs of France.", "Claimants to the throne of France.", "Monarchs of France.", "Legitimist claimants in France.", "Legitimist claimants in France (Spanish branch).", "Orléanist and Unionist claimants in France.", "Kingdom of Spain.", "Monarchs of Spain.", "\"Carlist\" claimants in Spain.", "Grand Duchy of Luxembourg.", "Grand Dukes of Luxembourg.", "Surnames used.", "Family trees." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The first were the lords of Bourbon, who died out by the males in 1171, then by the women in 1216. Their coat of arms are: D'or au lion de gueules, et à l'orle de huit coquilles d'azur Nicolas Louis Achaintre, \"Genealogical and chronological history of the royal house of Bourbon\" vol. 1, ed. Didot, 1825, page 45. The second family formed by the marriage of the last descendant of the first family, Mathilde of Bourbon with Guy II of Dampierre, this land passed to the house of Dampierre in 1196. The coat of arms of this family is: \"De gueules à deux léopards d'or, avec couronne de baron\", but they took the coat of arms of the previous ones. The son of Guy de", "The Lords of", "Prince of", "Princes and Dukes of Bourbon from 1327", "The pre-Capetian House of Bourbon was a noble family, dating at least from the beginning of the 13th century, when the estate of Bourbon was ruled by the Sire de Bourbon who was a vassal of the King of France. The term House of Bourbon (\"Maison de Bourbon\") is sometimes used to refer to this and the House of Bourbon-Dampierre, the second family to rule the seigneury. In 1272, Robert, Count of Clermont, sixth and youngest son of King Louis IX of France, married Beatrix of Bourbon, heiress to the lordship of Bourbon and member of the House of Bourbon-Dampierre. Their son Louis was made Duke of Bourbon in 1327. His descendant, the Constable of France Charles de Bourbon, was the last of the senior Bourbon line when he died in 1527. Because he chose to fight under the banner of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and", "", "As per the latest research carried out by Prince Michael of Greece and incorporated in", "", "The first Bourbon king of France was Henry IV. He was born on 13 December 1553 in the Kingdom of Navarre. Antoine de Bourbon, his father, was a ninth-generation descendant of King Louis IX of France. Jeanne d'Albret, his mother was the Queen of Navarre and niece of King Francis I of France. He was baptized Catholic, but raised Calvinist. After his father was killed in 1562, he became Duke of Vendôme at the age of 10, with Admiral Gaspard de Coligny (1519–1572) as his regent. Seven years later, the young duke became the nominal leader of the Huguenots after the death of his uncle the Prince de Condé in 1569. Henry succeeded to Navarre as Henry III when his mother died in 1572. That same year Catherine de' Medici, mother of King Charles IX of France, arranged for the marriage of her daughter, Margaret of Valois, to Henry, ostensibly to advance peace between Catholics and Huguenots. Many Huguenots gathered in Paris for the wedding on 24 August, but were ambushed and slaughtered by Catholics in", "Henry granted the Edict of Nantes on 13 April 1598, establishing Catholicism as an official state religion but also granting the Huguenots a measure of religious tolerance and political freedom short of full equality with the practice of Catholicism. This compromise ended the religious wars in France. That same year the Treaty of Vervins ended the war with Spain, adjusted the Spanish-French border, and resulted in a belated recognition by Spain of Henry as king of France. Ably assisted by Maximilien de Béthune, duc de Sully, Henry reduced the land tax known as the \"taille\"; promoted agriculture,", "Louis XIV succeeded his father at four years of age; he would go on to become the most powerful king in French history. His mother Anne served as his regent with her favorite Jules, Cardinal Mazarin, as chief minister. At age 7 Nicolas V de Villeroy became the teacher of the young king. The main childhood places of Louis XIV were the Palais-Royal and the nearby Hôtel de Villeroy. Mazarin continued the policies of Richelieu, bringing the Thirty Years' War to a successful conclusion in 1648 and defeating the nobility's challenge to royal absolutism in a series of civil wars known as the Frondes. He continued to war with Spain until 1659. In that year the Treaty of the Pyrenees was signed signifying a major shift in power, France had replaced Spain as the dominant state in Europe. The treaty called for an arranged marriage between Louis and his cousin Maria Theresa, a daughter of", "Louis XVI had become the Dauphin of France upon the death of his father Louis, the son of Louis XV, in 1765. He married Marie Antoinette of Austria, a daughter of Holy Roman Empress Maria Theresa, in 1770. Louis intervened in the American Revolution against Britain in 1778, but he is most remembered for his role in the French Revolution. France was in financial turmoil and Louis was forced to convene the Estates-General on 5 May 1789. They formed the National Assembly and forced Louis to accept a constitution that limited his powers on 14 July 1789. He tried to flee France in June 1791, but was captured. The French monarchy was abolished on 21 September 1792 and a republic was proclaimed. The chain of Bourbon monarchs begun in 1589 was broken. Louis XVI was executed on 21 January 1793. Marie Antoinette and her son, Louis, were held as prisoners. Many French royalists proclaimed him Louis XVII, but he never reigned. She was executed on 16 October 1793. He died of tuberculosis on 8 June", "With the abdication of Napoleon on 11 April 1814 the Bourbon dynasty was restored to the kingdom of France in the person of Louis XVIII, brother of Louis XVI. Napoleon escaped from exile and Louis fled in March 1815. Louis was again restored after the Battle of Waterloo on 7 July. The conservative elements of Europe dominated the post-Napoleonic age, but the values of the French Revolution could not be easily swept aside. Louis granted a constitution on 14 June 1814 to appease the liberals, but the ultra-royalist party, led by his brother, Charles, continued to influence his reign. When he died in 1824 his brother became king as Charles X much to the dismay of French liberals. In a saying ascribed to Talleyrand, \"they had learned nothing and forgotten nothing\".", "Charles passed several laws that appealed to the upper class, but angered the middle class. The situation came to a head when he appointed a new minister on 8 August 1829 who did not have the confidence of the chamber. The chamber censured the king on 18 March 1830 and in response Charles proclaimed five ordinances on 26 July intended to silence criticism against him. This almost resulted in another revolution as dramatic as the one in 1789, but moderates were able to control the situation. As a compromise the crown was offered to Louis Philippe, duke of Orléans, a descendant of the brother of Louis XIV, and the head of the Orléanist cadet branch of the Bourbons. Agreeing to reign constitutionally and under the tricolour, he was proclaimed King of the French on 7 August. The resulting regime, known as the July Monarchy, lasted until the Revolution of 1848. The Bourbon monarchy in France ended on 24 February 1848, when Louis Philippe was forced to abdicate and the short-lived Second Republic was established. Some Legitimists refused to recognize the Orléanist monarchy. After the death of Charles in 1836 his son was proclaimed Louis XIX, though this title was never formally recognized. Charles' grandson Henri, Count of", "", "The Spanish branch of the House of Bourbon was founded by Philip V. He was born in 1683 in Versailles, the second son of the Grand Dauphin, son of Louis XIV. He was Duke of Anjou and probably never expected to be raised to a rank higher than that. However King Charles II of Spain, dying without issue, willed the throne to his grand-nephew the Duke of Anjou, younger grandson of his eldest sister Marie-Thérèse, daughter of King Philip IV of Spain who had married Louis XIV of France. The prospect of Bourbons on both the French and Spanish thrones was resisted as creating an imbalance of power in Europe by its dominant regimes and, upon Charles II's death on 1 November 1700, a Grand Alliance of European nations united against Philip. This was known as the War of Spanish Succession. In the Treaty of Utrecht, signed on 11 April 1713, Philip was recognized as king of Spain but his renunciation of succession rights to France was affirmed and, of the Spanish Empire's other European territories, Sicily was ceded to Savoy, and the", "Ferdinand VI, second son of Philip V and his first wife, succeeded his father. He was a peace-loving monarch who kept Spain out of the Seven Years' War. He died in 1759 in the midst of that conflict and was succeeded by his half-brother Charles III. Charles was the eldest son of Philip and Elisabeth Farnese. He was born in 1716 and had become Duke of Parma when the last Farnese duke died in 1731. Following Spain's victory over the Austrians at the battle of Bitonto, it proved inexpedient to reunite Naples and Sicily to Spain, so as a compromise Charles", "Elisabeth Farnese's ambitions were realized at the conclusion of the War of the Austrian Succession in 1748 when the Duchy", "Upon the fall of the French Empire, Ferdinand I was restored to the throne of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1815, founding the House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies. His subjects revolted in 1820 and he was forced to grant a constitution; Austria invaded in March 1821 and revoked the constitution. He was succeeded by his son, Francis I, in 1825 and by his grandson, Ferdinand II, in 1830. Another revolution erupted in January 1848 and Ferdinand was also forced to grant a constitution. This constitution was revoked in 1849. Ferdinand was succeeded by his son, Francis II, in May 1859. When Giuseppe Garibaldi captured Naples in 1860, Francis restored the constitution in an attempt to save his sovereignty. He fled to the fortress of Gaeta, which was captured by the Piedmontese troops in February 1861; his kingdom was incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy on 17 March 1861, after the fall the fortress of Messina (surrendered on 12 March), although the Neapolitan troops in Civitella del Tronto resisted three days longer. After the fall of Napoleon, Napoleon's wife, Maria Louisa, was made Duchess of Parma. As compensation, Charles Louis, the former king of Etruria, was made the Duke of Lucca. When Maria Louisa died in 1847 he was restored to Parma as Charles II. Lucca was incorporated into Tuscany. He was succeeded by his son, Charles III, and grandson, Robert I, in 1854. The people of Parma voted for a union with the kingdom of Sardinia in 1860. After Italian unification the next year, the Bourbon dynasty in Italy was no more. Ferdinand VII was restored to the throne of Spain in March 1814. Like his Italian Bourbon counterpart, his subjects revolted against him in January 1820 and he was forced to grant a constitution. A French army invaded in 1823 and the constitution was revoked. Ferdinand married his fourth wife, Maria Christina, the daughter of Francis I, the Bourbon king of Sicily, in 1829. Despite his many marriages he did not have a son, so in 1833 he was influenced by his wife to abolish the Salic Law so that their daughter, Isabella, could become queen depriving his brother, Don Carlos, of the throne. Isabella II succeeded her father when he died in 1833. She was only three years old and Maria Cristina, her mother, served as regent. Maria knew that she needed the support of the liberals to oppose Don Carlos so she granted a", "", "", "Dates indicate", "Dates indicate", "Dates indicate", "Dates indicate", "Dates indicate", "Dates indicate claims, not lifetimes.", "", "Dates indicate seniority, not lifetimes. Where reign", "Dates indicate claims, not lifetimes.", "", "Dates indicate reigns, not lifetimes.", "Officially, the King of France had no family name. A prince with the rank of \"fils de France\" (Son of France) is surnamed \"\"de France\"\"; all the male-line descendants of each \"fils de France\", however, took his main title (whether an appanage or a courtesy title) as their family or last name. However, when Louis XVI was put on trial and later \"guillotined\" (executed) by the revolutionaries National Convention in France in 1793, they somewhat contemptuously referred to him in written documents and spoken address as \"Citizen Louis Capet\" as if a \"commoner\" (referring back to the Medieval origins of the Bourbon Dynasty's name and referring to Hugh Capet, founder of the Capetian dynasty). Members of the House of Bourbon-Condé and its cadet branches, which never ascended to the throne, used the surname \"de Bourbon\" until their extinction in 1830. The daughters of Gaston, Duke of Orléans, were the first members of", "Simplified family trees showing the relationships between the Bourbons and the other branches of the Royal House of France." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "The early years.", "A new direction.", "The Mike Batt era.", "Late 1970s and early 1980s.", "The wilderness years.", "Maddy 'leaves the bus'.", "Breakup and comeback.", "The Ken Nicol years.", "\"Now We Are Six Again\" / \"Wintersmith\".", "Peter Knight leaves / \"Dodgy Bastards\" album.", "Present day / 50th anniversary.", "Examples of collaborations.", "Discography.", "Lost recordings." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Steeleye Span began in late 1969, when London-born bass player Ashley Hutchings departed Fairport Convention, the band he had co-founded in 1967. Fairport had been involved in a road accident in 1969 in which the drummer, Martin Lamble, was killed and other band members injured. They convalesced in a rented house near Winchester in Hampshire and worked on the album \"Liege & Lief\". Despite the success of the album, Ashley Hutchings and the band's vocalist Sandy Denny left Fairport Convention. In part, Hutchings departed because he wanted to pursue a different, more traditional, direction than the other members of Fairport did at that time. However, Fairport's co-founder, guitarist Simon Nicol, stated \"Whatever the upfront reasons about musical differences and wanting to concentrate on traditional material, I think the accident was the underlying reason why Ashley felt he couldn't continue with us.\" Hutchings' new band was formed after he met established duo Tim Hart and Maddy Prior on the London folk club scene, and the initial line-up was completed by husband and wife team Terry Woods (formerly of Sweeney's Men, later of The Pogues) and Gay Woods. With two female singers, the original line-up was unusual for the time, and indeed, never performed live, as the Woodses departed the band shortly after the release of the group's debut album, \"Hark! The Village Wait\" (1970). While recording the album, the five members were all living in the same house, an arrangement that produced considerable tensions particularly between Hart and Prior on the one hand and the Woodses on the other. Gay and Terry were replaced by veteran folk musician Martin Carthy and fiddler Peter Knight in a longer-term line-up that toured small concert venues, recorded a number of BBC Radio Sessions, and recorded two albums – \"Please to See the King\" (1971) and \"Ten Man Mop, or Mr. Reservoir Butler Rides Again\" (1971). While the first album was traditionally performed – guitars, bass and with two guest drummers – \"Please to See the King\" was revolutionary in its hard electric sound and lack of drums. In 1971, the then Steeleye Span line-up minus Maddy Prior contributed to two songs on Scottish folk musician Ray Fisher's album \"The Bonny Birdy\"; Martin Carthy and Ashley Hutchings were also involved in the selection and arrangement of some songs released on this album, whilst Ashley Hutchings wrote the sleeve notes. Furthermore, Martin Carthy and Peter Knight performed on four songs released on Roy Bailey's eponymous debut album in 1971. The name Steeleye Span comes from a character in the traditional song \"Horkstow Grange\" (which they did not actually record until they released an album by that name in 1998). The song gives an account of a fight between John \"Steeleye\" Span and John Bowlin, neither of whom is proven to have been a real person. Carthy gave Hart the idea to name the band after the song character. When the band discussed names, they decided to choose among the three suggestions \"Middlemarch Wait\", \"Iyubidin's Wait\", and \"Steeleye Span\". Although there were only five members in the band, six ballots appeared and \"Steeleye Span\" won. Only in 1978 did Hart confess that he had voted twice. Terry Woods maintains that the members had agreed that if more than one person departed, the remaining members would select a new name, and he was upset that this did not happen when he and Gay Woods left the band. The liner notes for their first album include thanks to Carthy for the name suggestion.", "Shortly after the release of their third album, the band brought in manager Jo Lustig, who brought a more commercial sound to their recordings. At that time, traditionalists Carthy and Hutchings left the band to pursue purely folk projects. Their replacements were electric guitarist Bob Johnson and bass player Rick Kemp, who brought strong rock and blues influences to the sound. Lustig signed them to the Chrysalis record label, for a deal that was to last for ten albums. With the release of their fourth album, \"Below the Salt\", later in 1972, the revised line-up had settled on a distinctive electrified rock sound, although they continued to play mostly arrangements of very traditional material, including songs dating back a hundred years or more. Even on the more commercial \"Parcel of Rogues\" (1973), the band had no permanent drummer but, in 1973, rock drummer Nigel Pegrum, who had previously recorded with Gnidrolog, The Small Faces and Uriah Heep, joined them, to harden up their sound (as well as occasionally playing flute and oboe). Also, that year, the single \"Gaudete\" from \"Below the Salt\" belatedly became a Christmas hit single, reaching number 14 in the UK Singles Chart, although this a cappella piece, taken from the late renaissance song collection \"Piae Cantiones\" from Finland and sung entirely in Latin, cannot be considered representative of the band's music, nor the album from which it was taken. This proved to be their commercial breakthrough and saw them performing on \"Top of the Pops\" for the first time. They often include it as a concert encore. Their popularity was also helped by the fact that they often performed as an opening act for fellow Chrysalis artists Jethro Tull. Appropriately enough, their sixth album (and sixth member Pegrum's first with the band) was entitled \"Now We Are Six\". Produced by Jethro Tull's Ian Anderson, the album includes the epic track \"Thomas the Rhymer\", which has been a part of the live set ever since. Although successful, the album is controversial among some fans for the inclusion of nursery rhymes sung by \"The St. Eeleye School Choir\" (band members singing in the style of children), and the cover of \"To Know Him Is to Love Him\", featuring a guest appearance from David Bowie on saxophone. The attempts at humour continued on \"Commoners Crown\" (1975), which included Peter Sellers playing electric ukulele on the final track, \"New York Girls\". Their seventh album also included the epic ballad \"Long Lankin\" and novelty instrumental \"Bach Goes To Limerick\".", "With their star now conspicuously ascendant, the band brought in producer Mike Batt (best known for his musical association with \"the Wombles\" and, more recently, Katie Melua) to work on their eighth album, \"All Around My Hat\", and their biggest success would come with the release of the title track as a single – it reached number 5 in the UK Singles Chart in late 1975. The single was also released in other European countries and gave them a breakthrough in the Netherlands and Germany. Other well-known tracks on the album included \"Black Jack Davy\" (sampled by rappers Goldie Lookin Chain on their track \"The Maggot\") and the rocky \"Hard Times of Old England\". While \"All Around My Hat\" was the height of the band's commercial success, the good times were not to last long. Despite touring almost every year since 1975, they have not had another hit single, nor any success in the album chart, since the late 1970s. The follow-up album, \"Rocket Cottage\" (1976), also produced by Batt, proved to be a commercial flop, despite having much in common musically with its immediate predecessor. The opening track, \"London\", was penned by Rick Kemp as a follow-up to \"All Around My Hat\", in response to a request from the record label that Kemp describes as \"we'll have another one of those, please\", and released as a single. The song failed to make the UK Chart, in complete contrast to \"All Around My Hat\", despite having much in common with its predecessor – a 12/8 time signature, upbeat tempo, solo verses and full harmony chorus. \"Rocket Cottage\" also included experimental tracks \"Fighting for Strangers\" (with sparse vocals singing concurrently in a variety of keys) and, on the final track, excerpts of studio banter between the band members and a seemingly impromptu rendition of \"Camptown Races\", in which Prior gets the lyrics wrong. At the time of their seventh album, \"Commoners Crown\", the advent of punk saw the mainstream market turning away from folk rock almost overnight, heralding a downturn in commercial fortunes for the band. However, as a thank you to their committed fans (and also to possibly to garner some publicity for their underperforming album), Steeleye Span showered attendees of a November 1976 concert in London with £8,500 in pound notes (then equivalent to US$13,600). The unannounced idea was Maddy Prior's and, remarkably, no-one was injured in the rush to grab the falling notes. Indeed, contemporary press reports indicated that it took some time for the crowd to even realise what was happening. Thanks to their connection with Mike Batt, band members appeared in Womble costumes on \"Top of the Pops\", performing the Wombles hit \"Superwomble\".", "While they would never regain the commercial success of \"All Around My Hat\", Steeleye remained popular among British folk rock fans and generally respected within the music industry. It has been widely reported that Peter Knight and Bob Johnson left the band to work on another project together, \"The King of Elfland's Daughter\". The actual situation was more complex. Chrysalis Records agreed to allow Knight and Johnson to work on \"King\" only as a way to persuade the duo to continue working with Steeleye. Since the record company had no interest in \"King\" for its own sake, it made no effort to market the album. Chrysalis' ploy failed, however, and Knight and Johnson quit. Their departure left a significant hole in the band. For the 1977 album, \"Storm Force Ten\", early member Martin Carthy rejoined on guitar. When he originally joined the band for their second album, Carthy had tried to persuade the others to bring John Kirkpatrick on board but the band had chosen Knight instead. This time, Carthy's suggestion was accepted and Kirkpatrick's accordion replaced Knight's fiddle, which gave the recording a very different texture from the Steeleye sound of previous years. Kirkpatrick's one-man morris dances quickly became one of the highlights of the band's show. This line-up also recorded their first album outside of the studio, \"Live at Last\", before a \"split\" at the end of the decade that proved to be short-lived. Carthy and Kirkpatrick had only intended to play with the band for a few months and had no interest in a longer association. During 1977 and some time thereafter, Nigel Pegrum and Rick Kemp created a \"porno punk\" band called The Pork Dukes, using pseudonyms. The Pork Dukes released several albums and singles over the years. The band were contractually obliged to record a final album for the Chrysalis label and, with Carthy and Kirkpatrick not wanting to rejoin the re-formed band, the door was open for Knight and Johnson to return, in 1980. The album \"Sails of Silver\" saw the band moving away from traditional material to a greater focus on self-penned songs, many with historical or pseudo-folk themes. \"Sails\" was not a commercial success, in part because Chrysalis chose not to promote the album aggressively but also because many fans felt uncomfortable with the band's new direction in its choice of material. The failure of the album left Hart unhappy enough that he decided to leave the band and give up commercial music entirely, in favour of a reclusive life overseas. After \"Sails of Silver\" there were to be no new albums for several years, and Steeleye became a part-time touring band. The other members spent much of their time and energy working on their various other projects and the band went into a fitful hibernation. \"Sails of Silver\" was used as a theme song for the science fiction literary show \"Hour of The Wolf\", on NYC radio station WBAI 99.5FM since the 1980s. This introduced many younger US listeners to the band. In 1981 Isla St Clair presented a series of four television programmes, called \"The Song and The Story\", about the history of some folk songs, which won the Prix Jeunesse. St Clair sang the songs, and The Maddy Prior Band did the backing instrumentals.", "For much of the 1980s, the members of the band tended to focus on outside projects of various sorts. Johnson opened a restaurant and then studied for a degree in psychology at the University of Hertfordshire. Pegrum ran a music studio. Prior and Kemp devoted much energy to their own band (The Maddy Prior Band; see Maddy Prior (solo albums)), recording 4 albums, and also had children together. The result was that the band's output dropped sharply, producing only three albums over the space of ten years (including a concert album), although the band continued touring. After a quiet spell, the group's 12th studio album (and first without Tim Hart) \"Back in Line\" was released on the Flutterby label in 1986. With no \"relaunch\" as such, the band retained a low profile, although their recording of \"Blackleg Miner\" (previously an obscure song from an 1844 strike) became a political anthem for the NUM during the miners' strike of 1984–5 and was used to intimidate working miners. Steeleye Span continued to perform the song live and included a different version on their 1986 release \"Back in Line\", which put greater stress on the line that threatens death against blacklegs. In 1989, two long-term members departed. One was bassist Rick Kemp, who needed to recover from a serious shoulder injury, exacerbated by playing bass on stage. His eventual replacement (after two tours, each with a different bassist) was Tim Harries, who was brought in less than two weeks before the band was scheduled to start a tour. A friend of Pegrum's, Harries was a self-taught rock bassist, as well as a classically trained pianist and double bassist. With Harries on board, Steeleye released \"Tempted and Tried\" (1989), an album that formed the basis for their live set for many years to come. Not long after recording \"Tempted\", drummer Nigel Pegrum emigrated to Australia for personal relationship reasons. He was replaced by eccentric drummer Liam Genockey (most recently of rock band Gillan), easily identified by his long, plaited beard. He and Knight were simultaneously members of \"Moiré Music\", a free-jazz band with a classical flavour, led by Trevor Watts. Unlike Pegrum, who employed a traditional rock drumming style, Genockey favoured a more varied drumming style, influenced by both Irish and African drumming, in which he hit, brushed, and rubbed the various surfaces of his drums and cymbals, creating a more varied range of sounds. Consequently, when the band embarked on their 20th Anniversary Tour, they did so with a totally new rhythm section. Both Harries and Genockey were interested in experimenting with the band's sound, and they helped re-energise the other members' interest in Steeleye. The band began reworking some of their earlier material, seeking new approaches to traditional favourites. For example, Johnson experimented with an arrangement of \"Tam Lin\", that involved a heavy Bulgarian influence, inspired by Eastern European versions of the Tam Lin legend. In 1992 the band released \"Tonight's the Night...Live\", which demonstrates some of this new energy and direction. The band continued to tour the UK every year, and frequently toured overseas as well.", "In 1995 almost all the past and present members of the band reunited for a concert to celebrate the 25th Anniversary of the band (which would later be released as \"The Journey\"). The only former members not present were founding members Terry Woods, Mark Williamson, and Chris Staines. A by-product of this gig was founding vocalist Gay Woods rejoining the band full-time, partly because Prior was experiencing vocal problems and, for a while, Steeleye toured with two female singers and released the album \"Time\" 1996, their first new studio album in seven years. There were doubts over the future of the band when Prior announced her departure, in 1997, but Steeleye continued in a more productive vein than for many years, with Woods as lead singer, releasing \"Horkstow Grange\" (1998), and then \"Bedlam Born\" (2000). Fans of Steeleye's \"rock\" element felt that \"Horkstow Grange\" was too quiet and folk-oriented, while fans of the band's \"folk\" element complained that \"Bedlam Born\" was too rock-heavy. Woods received considerable criticism from fans, many of whom did not realise that she was one of the founding members and who compared her singing style unfavourably to Prior's. There was also disagreement among the band about what material to perform; Woods advocated performing old favourites such as \"All Around My Hat\" and \"Alison Gross\", while Johnson favoured a set that emphasised their newer material. Liam Genockey had also left the band in 1997 and, on these albums, the drum kit was manned by Dave Mattacks, who was not an official member of the band.", "Reported difficulties among band members saw a split during the recording of \"Bedlam Born\". Woods reportedly was uncomfortable with the financial arrangements of the band, health problems forced Johnson into retirement, and drummer Dave Mattacks' period as an unofficial member came to an end during this time. For a while the band consisted of just Peter Knight and Tim Harries, plus various guest musicians, as they fulfilled live commitments. Rick Kemp resumed playing with the band at some of these gigs, with Harries switching to lead guitar. This was an uncertain time for the future of the band, and when Harries announced he was not keen to continue his role, even the willingness of Kemp to return to the line-up full-time was not enough to prevent what was effectively a break-up. In 2002 Steeleye Span reformed with a \"classic\" line-up (including Prior), bringing an end to the uncertainty of the previous couple of years. Knight hosted a poll on his website, asking the band's fans which Steeleye songs they would most want to see the band re-record. Armed with the results, Knight persuaded Prior and Genockey to rejoin, coaxed Johnson out of a health-induced retirement and, along with Kemp and Knight, they released \"Present—The Very Best of Steeleye Span\" (2002), a 2-disc set of new recordings of the songs. Bob Johnson's health issues prevented him from playing live, shortly before the 2002 comeback tour, and he was replaced at the eleventh hour on guitar by Ken Nicol, formerly of the Albion Band. Nicol had been talking with Rick Kemp about forming a band, when Kemp invited him to play for the tour and this was to herald a significant return to form for the band.", "A revitalised lineup consisting of Prior, Kemp, Knight, Genockey and newcomer Ken Nicol released the album \"They Called Her Babylon\" early in 2004, to considerable acclaim. The band extensively toured the UK, Europe and Australia, and their relatively prolific output continued with the release of the Christmas album \"Winter\" later the same year, as the band ended a busy year of touring with a gala performance in London's Palladium theatre. In 2005 Steeleye Span were awarded the Good Tradition Award at the BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards, while the 2005 book, \"Electric Folk\" by Britta Sweers devotes much space to the band. With a new sense of purpose and a stable line-up, the band carried out a UK tour in April and May 2006, followed by dates in Europe and an appearance at the 2006 Cropredy Festival, where they were the headline act on the opening night. The set started with \"Bonny Black Hare\" and finished with \"All Around My Hat\", with backing vocals from the Cropredy Crowd. The full play list is at Crop Log 2006. The tour was supported by a live album and DVD of their 2004 tour. In November 2006 Steeleye released their studio album \"Bloody Men\". Their Autumn/Winter tour started on 24 November 2006 in Basingstoke and ran until just before Christmas. They headlined at their namesake festival, Spanfest 2007 at Kentwell Hall, Suffolk from 27–29 July 2007, and returned for Spanfest 2008. However, as Kentwell Hall declined to hold the festival again, it was held at Stanford Hall in Leicestershire. A UK tour took place between 17 April and 16 May 2008. For their 40th anniversary tour, in 2009, Pete Zorn joined the line-up on bass, as Rick Kemp was unwell. Kemp and Zorn both toured with the band for the winter tour that year, with Zorn playing guitar, and Kemp announced that he would be retiring at the end of the tour – a decision he later reversed, as usual. 'Live at a Distance\", a live double CD and DVD set, was released in April 2009 by Park Records, and their new studio album entitled \"Cogs, Wheels & Lovers\" was released on 26 October 2009. Several tracks from this album featured in the sets of the autumn tour. Founding member Tim Hart died on 24 December 2009, at his home in La Gomera on the Canary Islands, at the age of 61, after being diagnosed with inoperable lung cancer.", "In June 2010 Ken Nicol announced that he was leaving Steeleye and the band reassembled for a Spring 2011 tour, with Julian Littman joining the line-up as guitarist, replacing Nicol. Multi-instrumentalist Pete Zorn also continued to play with the band, making them a six-piece for the first time in many years. In 2011 they released \"Now We Are Six again\", a live double album based on their set at the time, which included full performances of all the songs on their 1974 \"Now we are Six\" album. In October 2013 the band released their 22nd studio album, \"Wintersmith\", containing original songs based on the writings of Terry Pratchett. This was followed by a winter tour of the UK. This album marked a return to form and media attention as the album reached number 77 in the UK Albums Chart, had tracks played on BBC Radio 2 and led to various radio and TV interviews for Terry Pratchett and Maddy Prior as they promoted the album. Following Pratchett's death, in March 2015, the band made an appearance at the memorial service for him, in April 2016, at Barbican Centre, London.", "In November 2013 Peter Knight announced that he would be leaving Steeleye Span at the end of 2013. He was replaced by Jessie May Smart. The band continued to tour regularly and recorded four new tracks for the 2014 'Deluxe' re-release of the \"Wintersmith\" album. In the summer of 2015 they toured North America, with a reduced line up consisting of Prior, Littman, Smart, Genockey and, for the first time, Maddy's son, Alex Kemp, on bass, replacing his father, Rick. An autumn/winter tour of the UK followed with Rick Kemp back in the line-up, along with Andrew 'Spud' Sinclair, replacing Pete Zorn. In April 2016 Pete Zorn was diagnosed with advanced lung and brain cancer. He died on 19 April. Andrew Sinclair joined the band permanently in 2016 and the line up toured in October 2016 and announced the release of a new studio album, \"Dodgy Bastards\", in November. The album is a mixture of original compositions, traditional songs and original tunes put to traditional lyrics.", "After completing the 'Dodgy Bastards' tour, Rick Kemp retired and has been replaced by Roger Carey, on bass. For the November/December 2017 tour the band was joined by multi-instrumentalist and ex-Bellowhead member Benji Kirkpatrick. Benji is son of former Steeleye Span member, John Kirkpatrick. This seven-piece line-up, the first in the band's history, has continued to tour. 2019 is the band's 50th anniversary year and a new album has been released to celebrate the anniversary: \"Est'd 1969\". The band have undertaken two \"50th Anniversary\" tours in 2019, in Spring and November. The band played the 'Fields of Avalon' area at the Glastonbury Festival 2019 and were the closing act at the Cornbury Music Festival 2019. On December 17 they appeared at the Barbican Theatre, in London, with special guests and previous band members Peter Knight, Martin Carthy and John Kirkpatrick. For the November/December tour, with Jessie May Smart on maternity leave, Violeta Barrena joined the band, on violin.", "Prior sang backing vocals on the title track of Jethro Tull's 1976 album \"Too Old To Rock and Roll, Too Young To Die\", the song \"Salamander's Rag-Time\" from the same session and their 1978 single \"A Stitch In Time\". Later, members of Jethro Tull backed Prior on her album Woman in the Wings. Ray Fisher's rare 1972 album \"Bonny Birdy\" includes one track with the High Level Ranters, one with Steeleye Span, and one with Martin Carthy. Until the 1990s Steeleye often toured as part of a double bill, either supporting Status Quo, or featuring support from artists such as Rock Salt & Nails and The Rankin Family. When Steeleye Span supported Status Quo on tour, in 1996, the latter had just issued their version of \"All Around My Hat\" as a single. \"The video was filmed at Christmas,\" Prior recalled. \"We'd supported them, and I found myself down in the mosh pit. Francis saw me and told the audience, 'Oh look, there's a Maddy lookalike down there... Fuck me, it \"is\" Maddy!' I was hoyed over the barrier [to the stage], to join them for the encore. It was all very jolly.\" Status Quo's single is credited to \"Status Quo with Maddy Prior from Steeleye Span\" and reached number 47 in the charts.", "\"Excluding reissues, compilations and 'irregular' live albums.\" The set called \"Bedrock in Concert\" (2002) contained the audio CD \"Live in Nottingham\" plus the DVD \"Classic Rock Legends\" in a single box.", "In 1995 Steeleye recorded \"The Golden Vanity\" for the \"Time\" album, but it did not appear on it. It was released on the anthology \"The Best of British Folk Rock\". Similarly they recorded \"General Taylor\" for \"Ten Man Mop\" but the song did not appear on it. It resurfaced on the compilation album \"Individually and Collectively\" instead. It was also included in another compilation \"The Lark in The Morning\" (2006), as well as re-issues of Ten Man Mop. \"Bonny Moorhen\" was recorded at the time of the \"Parcel of Rogues\" session. It appears, however, on the compilation album \"Original Masters\", and is also packaged as part of \"A Parcel of Steeleye Span\". The song \"Somewhere in London\", recorded for \"Back in Line\" (1986) was released instead as a B-side single, but returned to its proper place \"Back in Line\" when the album was reissued in 1991. \"Staring Robin\", a song about a man described by Tim Harries as an \"Elizabethan psycho\", was recorded during the \"Bedlam Born\" (2000) sessions, but it was left off the final album as it was deemed by Park Records to be too disturbing. The track \"The Holly and the Ivy\" was released as the B-side of the Gaudete single and did not appear on any album. It was later released on the 'Steeleye Span: A rare collection' oddities compilation. Several Steeleye songs have never been recorded for a studio album and have only been made available in their live versions, including several tracks on 'Live at Last' and 'Tonight's the night... Live'." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Types of foreign exchange risk.", "Economic risk.", "Contingent risk.", "Transaction risk.", "Translation risk.", "Measuring risk.", "Value at risk.", "Managing risk.", "Transaction hedging.", "Translation hedging.", "Strategies other than financial hedging." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Many businesses were unconcerned with, and did not manage, foreign exchange risk under the international Bretton Woods system. It wasn't until the switch to floating exchange rates, following the collapse of the Bretton Woods system, that firms became exposed to an increased risk from exchange rate fluctuations and began trading an increasing volume of financial derivatives in an effort to hedge their exposure. The currency crises of the 1990s and early 2000s, such as the Mexican peso crisis, Asian currency crisis, 1998 Russian financial crisis, and the Argentine peso crisis, led to substantial losses from foreign exchange and led firms to pay closer attention to their foreign exchange risk.", "", "A firm has \"economic risk\" (also known as \"forecast risk\") to the degree that its market value is influenced by unexpected exchange-rate fluctuations, which can severely affect the firm's market share with regard to its competitors, the firm's future cash flows, and ultimately the firm's value. Economic risk can affect the present value of future cash flows. An example of an economic risk would be a shift in exchange rates that influences the demand for a good sold in a foreign country. Another example of an economic risk is the possibility that macroeconomic conditions will influence an investment in a foreign country. Macroeconomic conditions include exchange rates, government regulations, and political stability. When financing an investment or a project, a company's operating costs, debt obligations, and the ability to predict economically unsustainable circumstances should be thoroughly calculated in order to produce adequate revenues in covering those economic risks. For instance, when an American company invests money in a manufacturing plant in Spain, the Spanish government might institute changes that negatively impact the American company's ability to operate the plant, such as changing laws or even seizing the plant, or to otherwise make it difficult for the American company to move its profits out of Spain. As a result, all possible risks that outweigh an investment's profits and outcomes need to be closely scrutinized and strategically planned before initiating the investment. Other examples of potential economic risk are steep market downturns, unexpected cost overruns, and low demand for goods. International investments are associated with significantly higher economic risk levels as compared to domestic investments. In international firms, economic risk heavily affects not only investors but also bondholders and shareholders, especially when dealing with the sale and purchase of foreign government bonds. However, economic risk can also create opportunities and profits for investors globally. When investing in foreign bonds, investors can profit from the fluctuation of the foreign-exchange markets and interest rates in different countries. Investors should always be aware of possible changes by the foreign regulatory authorities. Changing laws and regulations regarding sizes, types, timing, credit quality, and disclosures of bonds will immediately and directly affect investments in foreign countries. For example, if a central bank in a foreign country raises interest rates or the legislature increases taxes, the return on investment will be significantly impacted. As a result, economic risk can be reduced by utilizing various analytical and predictive tools that consider the diversification of time, exchange rates, and economic development in multiple countries, which offer different currencies, instruments, and industries. When making a comprehensive economic forecast, several risk factors should be noted. One of the most effective strategies is to develop a set of positive and negative risks that associate with the standard economic metrics of an investment. In a macroeconomic model, major risks include changes in GDP, exchange-rate fluctuations, and commodity-price and stock-market fluctuations. It is equally critical to identify the stability of the economic system. Before initiating an investment, a firm should consider the stability of the investing sector that influences the exchange-rate changes. For instance, a service sector is less likely to have inventory swings and exchange-rate changes as compared to a large consumer sector.", "A firm has \"contingent risk\" when bidding for foreign projects, negotiating other contracts, or handling direct foreign investments. Such a risk arises from the potential of a firm to suddenly face a transnational or economic foreign-exchange risk contingent on the outcome of some contract or negotiation. For example, a firm could be waiting for a project bid to be accepted by a foreign business or government that, if accepted, would result in an immediate receivable. While waiting, the firm faces a contingent risk from the uncertainty as to whether or not that receivable will accrue.", "Companies will often participate in a transaction involving more than one currency. In order to meet the legal and accounting standards of processing these transactions, companies have to translate foreign currencies involved into their domestic currency. A firm has \"transaction risk\" whenever it has contractual cash flows (receivables and payables) whose values are subject to unanticipated changes in exchange rates due to a contract being denominated in a foreign currency. To realize the domestic value of its foreign-denominated cash flows, the firm must exchange, or translate, the foreign currency for domestic. When firms negotiate contracts with set prices and delivery dates in the face of a volatile foreign exchange market, with rates constantly fluctuating between initiating a transaction and its settlement, or payment, those firms face the risk of significant loss. Businesses have the goal of making all monetary transactions profitable ones, and the currency markets must thus be carefully observed. Applying public accounting rules causes firms with transnational risks to be impacted by a process known as \"re-measurement\". The current value of contractual cash flows are remeasured on each balance sheet.", "A firm's \"translation risk\" is the extent to which its financial reporting is affected by exchange-rate movements. As all firms generally must prepare consolidated financial statements for reporting purposes, the consolidation process for multinationals entails translating foreign assets and liabilities, or the financial statements of foreign subsidiaries, from foreign to domestic currency. While translation risk may not affect a firm's cash flows, it could have a significant impact on a firm's reported earnings and therefore its stock price. Translation risk deals with the risk to a company's equities, assets, liabilities, or income, any of which can change in value due to fluctuating foreign exchange rates when a portion is denominated in a foreign currency. A company doing business in a foreign country will eventually have to exchange its host country's currency back into their domestic currency. When exchange rates appreciate or depreciate, significant, difficult-to-predict changes in the value of the foreign currency can occur. For example, U.S. companies must translate Euro, Pound, Yen, etc., statements into U.S. dollars. A foreign subsidiary's income statement and balance sheet are the two financial statements that must be translated. A subsidiary doing business in the host country usually follows that country's prescribed translation method, which may vary, depending on the subsidiary's business operations. Subsidiaries can be characterized as either an integrated or a self-sustaining foreign entity. An integrated foreign entity operates as an extension of the parent company, with cash flows and business operations that are highly interrelated with those of the parent. A self-sustaining foreign entity operates in its local economic environment, independent of the parent company. Both integrated and self-sustaining foreign entities operate use functional currency, which is the currency of the primary economic environment in which the subsidiary operates and in which day-to-day operations are transacted. Management must evaluate the nature of its foreign subsidiaries to determine the appropriate functional currency for each. There are three translation methods: current-rate method, temporal method, and U.S. translation procedures. Under the current-rate method, all financial statement line items are translated at the \"current\" exchange rate. Under the temporal method, specific assets and liabilities are translated at exchange rates consistent with the timing of the item's creation. The U.S. translation procedures differentiate foreign subsidiaries by functional currency, not subsidiary characterization. If a firm translates by the temporal method, a zero net exposed position is called fiscal balance. The temporal method cannot be achieved by the current-rate method because total assets will have to be matched by an equal amount of debt, but the equity section of the balance sheet must be translated at historical exchange rates.", "If foreign-exchange markets are efficient—such that purchasing power parity, interest rate parity, and the international Fisher effect hold true—a firm or investor needn't concern itself with foreign exchange risk. A deviation from one or more of the three international parity conditions generally needs to occur for there to be a significant exposure to foreign-exchange risk. Financial risk is most commonly measured in terms of the variance or standard deviation of a quantity such as percentage returns or rates of change. In foreign exchange, a relevant factor would be the rate of change of the foreign currency spot exchange rate. A variance, or spread, in exchange rates indicates enhanced risk, whereas standard deviation represents exchange-rate risk by the amount exchange rates deviate, on average, from the mean exchange rate in a probabilistic distribution. A higher standard deviation would signal a greater currency risk. Because of its uniform treatment of deviations and for the automatically squaring of deviation values, economists have criticized the accuracy of standard deviation as a risk indicator. Alternatives such as average absolute deviation and semivariance have been advanced for measuring financial risk.", "Practitioners have advanced, and regulators have accepted, a financial risk management technique called value at risk (VaR), which examines the tail end of a distribution of returns for changes in exchange rates, to highlight the outcomes with the worst returns. Banks in Europe have been authorized by the Bank for International Settlements to employ VaR models of their own design in establishing capital requirements for given levels of market risk. Using the VaR model helps risk managers determine the amount that could be lost on an investment portfolio over a certain period of time with a given probability of changes in exchange rates.", "", "Firms with exposure to foreign-exchange risk may use a number of hedging strategies to reduce that risk. Transaction exposure can be reduced either with the use of money markets, foreign exchange derivatives—such as forward contracts, options, futures contracts, and swaps—or with operational techniques such as currency invoicing, leading and lagging of receipts and payments, and exposure netting. Each hedging strategy comes with its own benefits that may make it more suitable than another, based on the nature of the business and risks it may encounter. Forward and futures contracts serve similar purposes: they both allow transactions that take place in the future—for a specified price at a specified rate—that offset otherwise adverse exchange fluctuations. Forward contracts are more flexible, to an extent, because they can be customized to specific transactions, whereas futures come in standard amounts and are based on certain commodities or assets, such as other currencies. Because futures are only available for certain currencies and time periods, they cannot entirely mitigate risk, because there is always the chance that exchange rates will move in your favor. However, the standardization of futures can be a part of what makes them attractive to some: they are well-regulated and are traded only on exchanges. Two popular and inexpensive methods companies can use to minimize potential losses is hedging with options and forward contracts. If a company decides to purchase an option, it is able to set a rate that is \"at-worst\" for the transaction. If the option expires and it's out-of-the-money, the company is able to execute the transaction in the open market at a favorable rate. If a company decides to take out a forward contract, it will set a specific currency rate for a set date in the future. Currency invoicing refers to the practice of invoicing transactions in the currency that benefits the firm. It is important to note that this does not necessarily eliminate foreign exchange risk, but rather moves its burden from one party to another. A firm can invoice its imports from another country in its home currency, which would move the risk to the exporter and away from itself. This technique may not be as simple as it sounds; if the exporter's currency is more volatile than that of the importer, the firm would want to avoid invoicing in that currency. If both the importer and exporter want to avoid using their own currencies, it is also fairly common to conduct the exchange using a third, more stable currency. If a firm looks to leading and lagging as a hedge, it must exercise extreme caution. Leading and lagging refer to the movement of cash inflows or outflows either forward or backward in time. For example, if a firm must pay a large sum in three months but is also set to receive a similar amount from another order, it might move the date of receipt of the sum to coincide with the payment. This delay would be termed lagging. If the receipt date were moved sooner, this would be termed leading the payment. Another method to reduce exposure transaction risk is natural hedging (or netting foreign-exchange exposures), which is an efficient form of hedging because it will reduce the margin that is taken by banks when businesses exchange currencies; and it is a form of hedging that is easy to understand. To enforce the netting, there will be a systematic-approach requirement, as well as a real-time look at exposure and a platform for initiating the process, which, along with the foreign cash flow uncertainty, can make the procedure seem more difficult. Having a back-up plan, such as foreign-currency accounts, will be helpful in this process. The companies that deal with inflows and outflows in the same currency will experience efficiencies and a reduction in risk by calculating the net of the inflows and outflows, and using foreign-currency account balances that will pay in part for some or all of the exposure.", "Translation exposure is largely dependent on the translation methods required by accounting standards of the home country. For example, the United States Federal Accounting Standards Board specifies when and where to use certain methods. Firms can manage translation exposure by performing a balance sheet hedge, since translation exposure arises from discrepancies between net assets and net liabilities solely from exchange rate differences. Following this logic, a firm could acquire an appropriate amount of exposed assets or liabilities to balance any outstanding discrepancy. Foreign exchange derivatives may also be used to hedge against translation exposure. A common technique to hedge translation risk is called balance-sheet hedging, which involves speculating on the forward market in hopes that a cash profit will be realized to offset a non-cash loss from translation. This requires an equal amount of exposed foreign currency assets and liabilities on the firm's consolidated balance sheet. If this is achieved for each foreign currency, the net translation exposure will be zero. A change in the exchange rates will change the value of exposed liabilities to an equal degree but opposite to the change in the value of exposed assets. Companies can also attempt to hedge translation risk by purchasing currency swaps or futures contracts. Companies can also request clients to pay in the company's domestic currency, whereby the risk is transferred to the client.", "Firms may adopt strategies other than financial hedging for managing their economic or operating exposure, by carefully selecting production sites with a mind for lowering costs, using a policy of flexible sourcing in its supply chain management, diversifying its export market across a greater number of countries, or by implementing strong research and development activities and differentiating its products in pursuit of less foreign-exchange risk exposure. By putting more effort into researching alternative methods for production and development, it is possible that a firm may discover more ways to produce their outputs locally rather than relying on export sources that would expose them to the foreign exchange risk. By paying attention to currency fluctuations around the world, firms can advantageously relocate their production to other countries. For this strategy to be effective, the new site must have lower production costs. There are many factors a firm must consider before relocating, such as a foreign nation's political and economic stability." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Degermed and heat-processed flour.", "Production.", "Modern mills.", "Composition.", "Bleached flour.", "Additives.", "Frequency of additives.", "Enriched flour.", "Cake flour.", "Pastry flour.", "Plain or all-purpose flour.", "Bread flour.", "Hard flour.", "Gluten flour.", "Unbleached flour.", "Self-raising flour.", "Types.", "Gluten-containing flours.", "Wheat flour.", "Gluten-free flours.", "More types.", "Type numbers.", "Flammability.", "Products." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The English word \"flour\" is originally a variant of the word \"flower\", and both words derive from the Old French \"fleur\" or \"flour\", which had the literal meaning \"blossom\", and a figurative meaning \"the finest\". The phrase \"fleur de farine\" meant \"the finest part of the meal\", since flour resulted from the elimination of coarse and unwanted matter from the grain during milling.", "The earliest archaeological evidence for wheat seeds crushed between simple millstones to make flour dates to 6000 BC. The Romans were the first to grind seeds on cone mills. In 1879, at the beginning of the Industrial Era, the first steam mill was erected in London. In the 1930s, some flour began to be enriched with iron, niacin, thiamine and riboflavin. In the 1940s, mills started to enrich flour and folic acid was added to the list in the 1990s.", "An important problem of the industrial revolution was the preservation of flour. Transportation distances and a relatively slow distribution system collided with natural shelf life. The reason for the limited shelf life is the fatty acids of the germ, which react from the moment they are exposed to oxygen. This occurs when grain is milled; the fatty acids oxidize and flour starts to become rancid. Depending on climate and grain quality, this process takes six to nine months. In the late 19th century, this process was too short for an industrial production and distribution cycle. As vitamins, micronutrients and amino acids were completely or relatively unknown in the late 19th century, removing the germ was an effective solution. Without the germ, flour cannot become rancid. Degermed flour became standard. Degermation started in densely populated areas and took approximately one generation to reach the countryside. Heat-processed flour is flour where the germ is first separated from the endosperm and bran, then processed with steam, dry heat or microwave and blended into flour again.", "Milling of flour is accomplished by grinding grain between stones or steel wheels. Today, \"stone-ground\" usually means that the grain has been ground in a mill in which a revolving stone wheel turns over a stationary stone wheel, vertically or horizontally with the grain in between.", "Roller mills soon replaced stone grist mills as the production of flour has historically driven technological development, as attempts to make gristmills more productive and less labor-intensive led to the watermill and windmill. These terms are now applied more broadly to uses of water and wind power for purposes other than milling. More recently, the Unifine mill, an impact-type mill, was developed in the mid-20th century. Home users have begun grinding their own flour from organic wheat berries on a variety of electric flour mills. The grinding process is not much different from grinding coffee but the mills are larger. This provides fresh flour with the benefits of wheat germ and fiber without spoilage. Modern farm equipment allows livestock farmers to do some or all of their own milling when it comes time to convert their own grain crops to coarse meal for livestock feed. This capability is economically important because the profit margins are often thin enough in commercial farming that saving expenses is vital to staying in business.", "Flour contains a high proportion of starches, which are a subset of complex carbohydrates also known as polysaccharides. The kinds of flour used in cooking include all-purpose flour (known as plain outside North America), self-rising flour, and cake flour including bleached flour. The higher the protein content the harder and stronger the flour, and the more it will produce crusty or chewy breads. The lower the protein the softer the flour, which is better for cakes, cookies, and pie crusts.", "\"Bleached flour\" is any refined flour with a whitening agent added. \"Refined flour\" has had the germ and bran removed and is typically referred to as \"white flour\". Bleached flour is artificially aged using a bleaching agent, a maturing agent, or both. A bleaching agent would affect only the carotenoids in the flour; a maturing agent affects gluten development. A maturing agent may either strengthen or weaken gluten development.", "The four most common additives used as bleaching/maturing agents in the US are: Some other chemicals used as flour treatment agents to modify color and baking properties include: Common preservatives in commercial flour include:", "Cake flour in particular is nearly always chlorinated. At least one flour labeled \"unbleached cake flour blend\" (marketed by King Arthur Flour) is not bleached, but the protein content is much higher than typical cake flour at about 9.4% protein (cake flour is usually around 6% to 8%). According to King Arthur, this flour is a blend of a more finely milled unbleached wheat flour and cornstarch, which makes a better end result than unbleached wheat flour alone (cornstarch blended with all-purpose flour is commonly substituted for cake flour when the latter is unavailable). The end product, however, is denser than would result from lower-protein, chlorinated cake flour. All bleaching and maturing agents (with the possible exception of ascorbic acid) have been banned in the United Kingdom. Bromination of flour in the US has fallen out of favor, and while it is not yet actually banned anywhere, few retail flours available to the home baker are bromated anymore. Many varieties of flour packaged specifically for commercial bakeries are still bromated. Retail bleached flour marketed to the home baker is now treated mostly with either peroxidation or chlorine gas. Current information from Pillsbury is that their varieties of bleached flour are treated both with benzoyl peroxide and chlorine gas. Gold Medal states that their bleached flour is treated either with benzoyl peroxide or chlorine gas, but no way exists to tell which process has been used when buying the flour at the grocery store.", "During the process of making flour nutrients are lost. Some of these nutrients may be replaced during refining – the result is \"enriched flour\".", "Cake flour is the lowest in gluten protein content, with 6-7% (5-8% from second source) protein to produce minimal binding so the cake \"crumbles\" easily.", "Pastry flour has the second-lowest gluten protein content, with 7.5-9.5% (8-9% from second source) protein to hold together with a bit more strength than cakes, but still produce flaky crusts rather than hard or crisp ones.", "All-purpose, or \"AP flour\", or plain flour is medium in gluten protein content at 9.5-11.5%(10-12% from second source) protein content. It has adequate protein content for many bread and pizza bases, though bread flour and special 00 grade Italian flour are often preferred for these purposes, respectively, especially by artisan bakers. Some biscuits are also prepared using this type of flour. \"Plain\" refers not only to AP flour's middling gluten content but also to its lack of any added leavening agent (as in self-rising flour).", "Bread flour, or strong flour is high in gluten protein, with 11.5-13.5%(12-14% from second source) protein. The increased protein binds to the flour to entrap carbon dioxide released by the yeast fermentation process, resulting in a stronger rise and more chewy crumb. Bread flour may be made with a hard spring wheat.", "Hard is a general term for flours with high gluten protein content, commonly refers to extra strong flour, with 13.5-16% (or 14-15% from some sources) protein (16% is a theoretically possible protein content). This flour may be used where a recipe adds ingredients that require the dough to be extra strong to hold together in their presence, or when strength is needed for constructions of bread (e.g., some centerpiece displays).", "Gluten flour is refined gluten protein, or a theoretical 100% protein (though practical refining never achieves a full 100%). It is used to strengthen flour as needed. For example, adding approximately one teaspoon per cup of AP flour gives the resulting mix the protein content of bread flour. It is commonly added to whole grain flour recipes to overcome the tendency of greater fiber content to interfere with gluten development, needed to give the bread better rising (gas holding) qualities and chew.", "Unbleached flour is simply flour that has not undergone bleaching and therefore does not have the color of \"white\" flour. An example is graham flour, whose namesake, Sylvester Graham, was against using bleaching agents, which he considered unhealthy.", "Leavening agents are used with some varieties of flour, especially those with significant gluten content, to produce lighter and softer baked products by embedding small gas bubbles. Self-raising (or self-rising) flour is sold mixed with chemical leavening agents. The added ingredients are evenly distributed throughout the flour, which aids a consistent rise in baked goods. This flour is generally used for preparing sponge cakes, scones, muffins, etc. It was invented by Henry Jones and patented in 1845. Plain flour can be used to make a type of self-raising flour, although the flour will be coarser. Self-raising flour is typically composed of (or can be made from):", "", "", "Wheat is the grain most commonly used to make flour. Certain varieties may be referred to as \"clean\" or \"white\". Flours contain differing levels of the protein gluten. \"Strong flour\" or \"hard flour\" has a higher gluten content than \"weak\" or \"soft\" flour. \"Brown\" and wholemeal flours may be made of hard or soft wheat.", "When flours do not contain gluten, they are suitable for people with gluten-related disorders, such as coeliac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity or wheat allergy sufferers, among others. Contamination with gluten-containing cereals can occur during grain harvesting, transporting, milling, storing, processing, handling and/or cooking.", "Flour also can be made from soybeans, arrowroot, taro, cattails, acorns, manioc, quinoa, and other non-cereal foodstuffs.", "In some markets, the different available flour varieties are labeled according to the ash mass that remains after a sample is incinerated in a laboratory oven (typically at 550 °C or 900 °C, see international standards ISO 2171 and ICC 104/1). This is an easily verified indicator for the fraction of the whole grain remains in the flour, because the mineral content of the starchy endosperm is much lower than that of the outer parts of the grain. Flour made from all parts of the grain (extraction rate: 100%) leaves about 2 g ash or more per 100 g dry flour. Plain white flour with an extraction rate of 50–60% leaves about 0.4 g. In the United States and the United Kingdom, no numbered standardized flour types are defined, and the ash mass is only rarely given on the label by flour manufacturers. However, the legally required standard nutrition label specifies the protein content of the flour, which is also a way for comparing the extraction rates of different available flour types. In general, as the extraction rate of the flour increases, so do both the protein and the ash content. However, as the extraction rate approaches 100% (whole meal), the protein content drops slightly, while the ash content continues to rise. The following table shows some typical examples of how protein and ash content relate to each other in wheat flour: This table is only a rough guideline for converting bread recipes. Since flour types are not standardized in many countries, the numbers may differ between manufacturers. There is no French type corresponding to the lowest ash residue in the table. The closest is French Type 45. Also there is no Chinese name corresponding to the highest ash residue in the table. Usually such product are imported from Japan and the Japanese name Zenryufun(全粒粉) is used. It is possible to determine ash content from some US manufacturers. However, US measurements are based on wheat with a 14% moisture content. Thus, a US flour with 0.48% ash would approximate a French Type 55. Other measurable properties of flour as used in baking can be determined using a variety of specialized instruments, such as the farinograph.", "Flour dust suspended in air is explosive—as is any mixture of a finely powdered flammable substance with air (\"see\" dust explosion). Some devastating explosions have occurred at flour mills, including an explosion in 1878 at the Washburn \"A\" Mill in Minneapolis which killed 22 people.", "Bread, pasta, crackers, many cakes, and many other foods are made using flour. Wheat flour is also used to make a roux as a base for thickening gravy and sauces. It can also be used as an ingredient in papier-mâché glue. Cornstarch is a principal ingredient used to thicken many puddings or desserts, and is the main ingredient in packaged custard." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Family.", "Railway engineer.", "Inventor of worldwide standard time.", "Later life.", "Legacy.", "Postage stamps." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "In 1827, Fleming was born in Kirkcaldy, Fife, Scotland to Andrew and Elizabeth Fleming. At the age of 14 he was apprenticed as a surveyor and in 1845, at the age of 18, he emigrated with his older brother David to colonial Canada. Their route took them through many cities of the Canadian colonies: Quebec City, Montreal, and Kingston, before settling in Peterborough with their cousins two years later in 1847. He qualified as a surveyor in Canada in 1849. In 1849 he created the Royal Canadian Institute with several friends, which was formally incorporated on November 4, 1851. Although initially intended as a professional institute for surveyors and engineers it became a more general scientific society. In 1851 he designed the \"Threepenny Beaver\", the first Canadian postage stamp, for the Province of Canada (today's southern portions of Ontario and Quebec). Throughout this time he was fully employed as a surveyor, mostly for the Grand Trunk Railway. His work for them eventually gained him the position as \"Chief Engineer\" of the Northern Railway of Canada in 1855, where he advocated the construction of iron bridges instead of wood for safety reasons. Fleming served in the 10th Battalion Volunteer Rifles of Canada (later known as the Royal Regiment of Canada) and was appointed to the rank of captain on January 1, 1862. He retired from the militia in 1865.", "As soon as he arrived in Peterborough, Ontario in 1845, Fleming became friendly with the family of his future wife, the Halls, and was attracted to Ann Jane (Jeanie) Hall. However, it was not until a sleigh accident almost ten years later that the young people’s love for each other was revealed. A year after this incident, in January 1855, Sandford married Ann Jane (Jean) Hall. They were to have nine children of whom two died young. The oldest son, Frank Andrew, accompanied Fleming in his great Western expedition of 1872. A family man, deeply attached to his wife and children, he also welcomed his father Andrew Greig Fleming, Andrew's wife and six of their other children who came to join him in Canada two years after his arrival. The Fleming and Hall families saw each other often. After the death of his wife Jeanie in 1888, Fleming's niece Miss Elsie Smith, daughter of Alexander and Lily Smith, of Kingussie, Scotland, presided over his household at \"Winterholme\" 213 Chapel Street, Ottawa, Ontario.", "His time at the Northern Railway was marked by conflict with the architect Frederick William Cumberland, with whom he started the Canadian Institute and who was general manager of the railway until 1855. Starting as assistant engineer in 1852, Fleming replaced Cumberland in 1855 but was in turn ousted by him in 1862. In 1863 he became the chief government surveyor of Nova Scotia charged with the construction of a line from Truro to Pictou. When he would not accept the tenders from contractors that he considered too high, he was asked to bid for the work himself and completed the line by 1867 with both savings for the government and profit for himself. In 1862 he placed before the government a plan for a transcontinental railway connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The first part, between Halifax and Quebec became an important part of the preconditions for New Brunswick and Nova Scotia to join the Canadian Federation because of the uncertainties of travel through Maine because of the American Civil War. In 1867 he was appointed engineer-in-chief of the Intercolonial Railway which became a federal project and he continued in this post till 1876. His insistence on building the bridges of iron and stone instead of wood was controversial at the time, but was soon vindicated by their resistance to fire. By 1871, the strategy of a railway connection was being used to bring British Columbia into federation and Fleming was offered the chief engineer post on the Canadian Pacific Railway. Although he hesitated because of the amount of work he had, in 1872 he set off with a small party to survey the route, particularly through the Rocky Mountains, finding a practicable route through the Yellowhead Pass. One of his companions, George Monro Grant wrote an account of the trip, which became a best-seller. By 1880, with 600 miles completed, a change of government brought a desire for a private company to own the whole project and Fleming was dismissed by Sir Charles Tupper, with a $30,000 payoff. It was the hardest blow of Fleming's life, though he obtained a promise of monopoly, later revoked, on his next project, a trans-pacific telegraph cable. Nevertheless, in 1884 he became a director of the Canadian Pacific Railway and was present as the last spike was driven.", "After missing a train while traveling in Ireland in 1876 because a printed schedule listed p.m. instead of a.m., he proposed a single 24-hour clock for the entire world, with the 24 hour divisions (labelled A-Y, excluding J) arbitrarily linked to the Greenwich meridian, which was designated G. At a meeting of the Canadian Institute in Toronto on February 8, 1879, he linked it to the anti-meridian of Greenwich (now 180°). He suggested that standard time zones could be used locally, but they were subordinate to his single world time, which he called Cosmic Time. He continued to promote his system at major international conferences including the International Meridian Conference of 1884. That conference accepted a different version of Universal Time but refused to accept his zones, stating that they were a local issue outside its purview. Nevertheless, by 1929, all major countries in the world had accepted time zones.", "When the railway privatization instituted by Tupper in 1880 forced him out of a job with government, he retired from the world of surveying, and took the position of Chancellor of Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario. He held this position for his last 35 years, where his former Minister George Monro Grant was principal from 1877 until Grant's death in 1902. Not content to leave well enough alone, he tirelessly advocated the construction of a submarine telegraph cable connecting all of the British Empire, the All Red Line, which was completed in 1902. He also kept up with business ventures, becoming in 1882 one of the founding owners of the Nova Scotia Cotton Manufacturing Company in Halifax. He was a member of the North British Society. He also helped found the Western Canada Cement and Coal Company, which spawned the company town of Exshaw, Alberta. In 1910, this business was captured in a hostile take-over by stock manipulators acting under the name Canada Cement Company, which action was said by some to lead to an emotional depression that would contribute to Fleming's death a short time later. In 1880 he served as the vice president of the Ottawa Horticultural Society. In 1888, he became the first president of the Rideau Curling Club, after leaving the Ottawa Curling Club in protest of its temperance policy. His accomplishments were well known worldwide, and in 1897 he was knighted by Queen Victoria. He was a freemason. In 1883, while surveying the route of the Canadian Pacific Railway with George Monro Grant, he met Major A. B. Rogers near the summit of Rogers Pass (British Columbia) and co-founded the first \"Alpine Club of Canada\". That early alpine club was short-lived, but in 1906 the modern Alpine Club of Canada was founded in Winnipeg, and the by then Sir Sandford Fleming became the Club's first Patron and Honorary President. In his later years he retired to his house in Halifax, later deeding the house and the 95 acres (38 hectares) to the city, now known as Sir Sandford Fleming Park (Dingle Park). He also kept a residence in Ottawa, and was buried there, in the Beechwood Cemetery.", "Fleming was designated a National Historic Person in 1950, on the advice of the national Historic Sites and Monuments Board. On January 7, 2017, Google celebrated Sandford Fleming's 190th birthday with a Google Doodle.", "Fleming has been honoured on two Canadian postage stamps: one from 1977 features his image and a railroad bridge of Fleming's design; another in 2002 reflects his promotion of the Pacific Cable. In addition, his design of the Three Penny Beaver, the first postage stamp for the Province of Canada (today's southern portions of Ontario and Quebec), has been used on seven stamp issues—in 1851, 1852, 1859, 1951, and 2001." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Occurrence.", "Tidal flat nodules.", "Salt dome cap rocks.", "Igneous rocks.", "Naming history.", "Other uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Anhydrite is most frequently found in evaporite deposits with gypsum; it was, for instance, first discovered in 1794 in a salt mine near Hall in Tirol. In this occurrence, depth is critical since nearer the surface anhydrite has been altered to gypsum by absorption of circulating ground water. From an aqueous solution, calcium sulfate is deposited as crystals of gypsum, but when the solution contains an excess of sodium or potassium chloride, anhydrite is deposited if the temperature is above. This is one of the several methods by which the mineral has been prepared artificially and is identical with its mode of origin in nature. The mineral is common in salt basins.", "Anhydrite occurs in a tidal flat environment in the Persian Gulf sabkhas as massive diagenetic replacement nodules. Cross sections of these nodular masses have a netted appearance and have been referred to as \"chicken-wire anhydrite\". Nodular anhydrite occurs as replacement of gypsum in a variety of sedimentary depositional environments.", "Massive amounts of anhydrite occur when salt domes form a caprock. Anhydrite is 1–3% of the minerals in salt domes and is generally left as a cap at the top of the salt when the halite is removed by pore waters. The typical cap rock is a salt, topped by a layer of anhydrite, topped by patches of gypsum, topped by a layer of calcite. Interaction with oil can reduce SO creating calcite, water, and hydrogen sulfide (HS).", "Anhydrite has been found in some igneous rocks, for example in the intrusive dioritic pluton of El Teniente, Chile and in trachyandesite pumice erupted by El Chichón volcano, Mexico.", "The name anhydrite was given by A. G. Werner in 1804, because of the absence of water of crystallization, as contrasted with the presence of water in gypsum. Some obsolete names for the species are muriacite and karstenite; the former, an earlier name, being given under the impression that the substance was a chloride (muriate). A peculiar variety occurring as contorted concretionary masses is known as tripe-stone, and a scaly granular variety, from Volpino, near Bergamo, in Lombardy, as vulpinite; the latter is cut and polished for ornamental purposes. A semi-transparent light blue-grey variety from Peru is referred to by the trade name angelite.", "The Catalyst Science Discovery Centre in Widnes, England, has a relief carving of an anhydrite kiln, made from a piece of anhydrite, for the United Sulphuric Acid Corporation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Music.", "Writing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Hyde was born in Adelaide in 1913. Music was an important part of her family life: her mother, Muriel, played and taught piano; her aunt, Clarice Gmeiner, played violin, viola and harp with the South Australian Symphony Orchestra; and her younger sister, Pauline, played violin and sang. Her early music lessons were provided by her mother, but in 1925 she won a scholarship to attend the Elder Conservatorium of Music in Adelaide. After graduating with her Bachelor of Music degree in 1931, she won an Elder Scholarship to the Royal College of Music in London, which she attended from 1932 to 1935. Her teachers were R. O. Morris and Gordon Jacob for composition, and Howard Hadley and Arthur Benjamin for piano. She won several composition prizes while at the College, including the Cobbett Prize. However, during this time she also suffered a nervous collapse, and her mother went to England to be with her. Hyde gave her first London recital at Holland Park in 1933, and in 1934 her Piano Concerto No. 1 in E-flat minor was performed by the London Philharmonic Orchestra, conducted by Leslie Heward with her as soloist. In 1935, she performed Beethoven's Piano Concerto No. 4 under Malcolm Sargent, and her own Piano Concerto No. 2 with the London Symphony Orchestra conducted by Constant Lambert. She saw many of the great musicians of the time, including Rachmaninoff, Stravinsky, Prokofiev, Yehudi Menuhin and Elisabeth Schumann. She returned to Adelaide in 1936 and soon after moved to Sydney, where she worked for several decades as a composer, recitalist, teacher, examiner and lecturer. It was here that she also met her husband, Marcus Edwards, whom she married in 1939 and with whom she had two children, Christine (1950) and Robert (1951). During the war years, while her husband was interned as a German prisoner of war after being captured on Crete, she taught in Adelaide, returning to Sydney at the end of hostilities. Her monumental Sonata in G minor for piano (1941–44) is very much a reflection of the war years. Major works from the post-war period included the \"Happy Occasion Overture\" (1957), the \"Kelso Overture\" (1959), Sonata for Clarinet (1949), String Quartet in E minor (1952), Sonata for Flute (1962) and her two trios for winds and piano (1948, 1952). One of her most famous works is the piano piece \"Valley of Rocks\" (1975). Her work for the Australian Music Examinations Board (AMEB) spanned the years 1945–82, including her valuable contribution on the Advisory Board for New South Wales. Her activities included examining, mentoring, demonstrations and workshops, setting/reviewing/marking exam papers, advising on syllabus content. She also wrote educational materials – books of sight-reading, examples of forms, aural tests for all grades, tutor books including one for adult beginners. Her life in music was supplemented by her poetry. She wrote close to 500 poems, some of which she set to music. In 1981 she was made an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) and in 1991 was made an Officer of the Order of Australia (AO). She was awarded an honorary doctorate by Macquarie University in 1993, and in 2004 she received an award for Distinguished Services to Australian Music at the Australasian Performing Right Association and Australian Music Centre Classical Music Awards. She was appointed Patron of the Music Teachers' Association of South Australia (MTASA) and established the Miriam Hyde Award for the Association. After serving on the Council of the Music Teachers' Association of New South Wales from 1960 to 1991, she was made its patron. In 1991 her autobiography was published, titled \"Complete Accord\". She celebrated her 80th birthday in 1993 by giving a series of recitals throughout the country. At the age of 89, she gave her last performance of her Piano Concerto No. 2, with the Strathfield Symphony Orchestra conducted by Solomon Bard. Her 90th birthday in 2003 was marked with concerts and broadcasts throughout Australia. From the mid 1990s onwards, continuing after her death in 2005, The Keys Press (Perth) and Wirripang Pty Ltd (Wollongong) published more than 100 of her manuscripts for piano, chamber music and voice. Miriam Hyde died in 2005, a few days before her 92nd birthday.", "Miriam Hyde's compositions include works for orchestra, piano concertos, art songs, chamber music, many piano solos, flute solos and more. She wrote in an early 20th-century pastoral style, achieving a highly effective combination of impressionism with post-romanticism. One of her best-known pieces is the piano solo \"Valley of Rocks\", written in 1975. The Piano Concerto No. 1 in E-flat minor (1933), Piano Concerto No. 2 in C-sharp minor (1935) and \"Village Fair\" (1943) for orchestra are the most broadcast of her major works. One of her lesser known pieces is the mystical Reflected Reeds (1956) with its rippling chords sketching the Sydney landscape on a brooding afternoon. Her husband died in 1995 and she ceased writing music at that time. Recording - Romantic Piano Trios - Trio Anima Mundi (Divine Art dda25102) (2013)", "The expression of words in a poetic form meant as much to Miriam Hyde as the expression of music. In an interview filmed in 1992 she revealed that it was often a matter of chance whether her impressions would be embodied in words or in music. Three selections of her poetry were published by the Economy Press, Adelaide: \"The Bliss of Solitude\" (1941), \"A Few Poems\" (1942) and \"Dawn to Dusk\" (1947?). She also wrote her autobiography, \"Complete Accord\" (1991, Currency Press) and donated the royalties to the Elder Scholarship that she won in 1931." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The \"polis\" in Ancient Greek philosophy.", "Archaic and classical \"poleis\".", "Hellenistic and Roman.", "Derived words.", "Names.", "Polis, Cyprus.", "Other cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "Plato analyzes the \"polis\" in \"The Republic\", whose Greek title, Πολιτεία (Politeia), itself derives from the word \"polis\". The best form of government of the \"polis\" for Plato is the one that leads to the common good. The philosopher king is the best ruler because, as a philosopher, he is acquainted with the Form of the Good. In Plato's analogy of the ship of state, the philosopher king steers the \"polis\", as if it were a ship, in the best direction. Books II–IV of \"The Republic\" are concerned with Plato addressing the makeup of an ideal \"polis\". In \"The Republic\", Socrates is concerned with the two underlying principles of any society: mutual needs and differences in aptitude. Starting from these two principles, Socrates deals with the economic structure of an ideal \"polis\". According to Plato, there are five main economic classes of any \"polis\": producers, merchants, sailors/shipowners, retail traders, and wage earners. Along with the two principles and five economic classes, there are four virtues. The four virtues of a \"just city\" include wisdom, courage, moderation, and justice. With all of these principles, classes, and virtues, it was believed that a \"just city\" (\"polis\") would exist.", "The basic and indicating elements of a \"polis \"are:", "During the Hellenistic period, which marks the decline of the classical \"polis\", the following cities remained independent: Sparta until 195 BC after the War against Nabis. Achaean League is the last example of original Greek city-state federations (dissolved after the Battle of Corinth (146 BC)). The Cretan city-states continued to be independent (except Itanus and Arsinoe, which lay under Ptolemaic influence) until the conquest of Crete in 69 BC by Rome. The cities of Magna Graecia, with the notable examples of Syracuse and Tarentum, were conquered by Rome in the late 3rd century BC. There are also some cities with recurring independence like Samos, Priene, Miletus, and Athens. A remarkable example of a city-state that flourished during this era is Rhodes, through its merchant navy, until 43 BC and the Roman conquest. The Hellenistic colonies and cities of the era retain some basic characteristics of a \"polis\", except the status of independence (city-state) and the political life. There is self-governance (like the new Macedonian title politarch), but under a ruler and king. The political life of the classical era was transformed into an individualized religious and philosophical view of life (see Hellenistic philosophy and religion). Demographic decline forced the cities to abolish the status of metic and bestow citizenship; in 228 BC, Miletus enfranchised over 1,000 Cretans. Dyme sold its citizenship for one talent, payable in two installments. The foreign residents in a city are now called paroikoi. In an age when most political establishments in Asia are kingdoms, the Chrysaorian League in Caria was a Hellenistic federation of \"poleis\". During the Roman era, some cities were granted the status of a \"polis\", or free city, self-governed under the Roman Empire. The last institution commemorating the old Greek \"poleis\" was the Panhellenion, established by Hadrian.", "Derivatives of \"polis\" are common in many modern European languages. This is indicative of the influence of the \"polis\"-centred Hellenic world view. Derivative words in English include policy, polity, police, and politics. In Greek, words deriving from \"polis\" include \"politēs\" and \"politismos\", whose exact equivalents in Latin, Romance, and other European languages, respectively \"civis\" (\"citizen\"), \"civilisatio\" (\"civilization\"), etc., are similarly derived. A number of words end in \"-polis\". Most refer to a special kind of city or state. Examples include: Others refer to part of a city or a group of cities, such as:", "", "Located on the northwest coast of Cyprus is the town of Polis, or Polis Chrysochous (), situated within the Paphos District and on the edge of the Akamas peninsula. During the Cypro-Classical period, Polis became one of the most important ancient Cypriot city-kingdoms on the island, with important commercial relations with the eastern Aegean Islands, Attica, and Corinth. The town is also well known due to its mythological history, including the site of the Baths of Aphrodite.", "The names of several other towns and cities in Europe and the Middle East have contained the suffix \"-polis\" since antiquity or currently feature modernized spellings, such as \"-pol\". Notable examples include: The names of other cities were also given the suffix \"-polis\" after antiquity, either referring to ancient names or unrelated: Some cities have also been given nicknames ending with the suffix \"-polis\", usually referring to their characteristics: Cardiff, Wales, UK, once dubbed \"Terracottaopolis\" due to its fame for buildings faced in terracotta, local red brickwork and ceramics." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Prehistoric settlements.", "Phoenicians, Romans, and Late Antiquity.", "Middle Age and Modern history.", "Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages.", "Moorish Mallorca.", "Medieval Mallorca.", "Modern era.", "20th century and today.", "Archaeology.", "Palma.", "Climate.", "Geography.", "Geology.", "Regions.", "World Heritage Site.", "Municipalities.", "Culture.", "Archduke Ludwig Salvator of Austria.", "Chopin in Mallorca.", "Literature and painting.", "Music and dance.", "Art.", "Film.", "Mallorcan cartographic school.", "Cuisine.", "Language.", "Population.", "Economy.", "Top 10 arrivals by nationality.", "Politics and government.", "Regional government.", "Spanish Royal Family.", "Mallorcans.", "Transport.", "Water transport.", "Cycling." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Little is recorded of the earliest inhabitants of the island. Burial chambers and traces of habitation from the Neolithic period (6000–4000 BC) have been discovered, particularly the prehistoric settlements called \"talaiots\", or \"talayots\". They raised Bronze Age megaliths as part of their Talaiotic culture. A non-exhaustive list is the following:", "The Phoenicians, a seafaring people from the Levant, arrived around the eighth century BC and established numerous colonies. The island eventually came under the control of Carthage in North Africa, which had become the principal Phoenician city. After the Second Punic War, Carthage lost all of its overseas possessions and the Romans took over. The island was occupied by the Romans in 123 BC under Quintus Caecilius Metellus Balearicus. It flourished under Roman rule, during which time the towns of Pollentia (Alcúdia), and Palmaria (Palma) were founded. In addition, the northern town of Bocchoris, dating back to pre-Roman times, was a federated city to Rome. The local economy was largely driven by olive cultivation, viticulture, and salt mining. Mallorcan soldiers were valued within the Roman legions for their skill with the sling. In 427, Gunderic and the Vandals captured the island. Geiseric, son of Gunderic, governed Mallorca and used it as his base to loot and plunder settlements around the Mediterranean, until Roman rule was restored in 465.", "", "In 534, Mallorca was recaptured by the Eastern Roman Empire, led by Apollinarius. Under Roman rule, Christianity thrived and numerous churches were built. From 707, the island was increasingly attacked by Muslim raiders from North Africa. Recurrent invasions led the islanders to ask Charlemagne for help.", "In 902, Issam al-Khawlani () conquered the Balearic Islands, ushering in a new period of prosperity under the Emirate of Córdoba. The town of Palma was reshaped and expanded, and became known as Medina Mayurqa. Later on, with the Caliphate of Córdoba at its height, the Moors improved agriculture with irrigation and developed local industries. The caliphate was dismembered in 1015. Mallorca came under rule by the Taifa of Dénia, and from 1087 to 1114, was an independent Taifa. During that period, the island was visited by Ibn Hazm. However, an expedition of Pisans and Catalans in 1114–15, led by Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona, overran the island, laying siege to Palma for eight months. After the city fell, the invaders retreated due to problems in their own lands. They were replaced by the Almoravides from North Africa, who ruled until 1176. The Almoravides were replaced by the Almohad dynasty until 1229. Abú Yahya was the last Moorish leader of Mallorca.", "In the ensuing confusion and unrest, King James I of Aragon, also known as James the Conqueror, launched an invasion which landed at Santa Ponça, Mallorca, on 8–9 September 1229 with 15,000 men and 1,500 horses. His forces entered the city of Medina Mayurqa on 31 December 1229. In 1230 he annexed the island to his Crown of Aragon under the name \"Regnum Maioricae\".", "From 1479, the Crown of Aragon was in dynastic union with that of Castile. The Barbary corsairs of North Africa often attacked the Balearic Islands, and in response, the people built coastal watchtowers and fortified churches. In 1570, King Philip II of Spain and his advisors were considering complete evacuation of the Balearic islands. In the early 18th century, the War of the Spanish Succession resulted in the replacement of that dynastic union with a unified Spanish monarchy under the rule of the new Bourbon Dynasty. The last episode of the War of Spanish Succession was the conquest of the island of Mallorca. It took place on 2 July 1715 when the island capitulated to the arrival of a Bourbon fleet. In 1716, the Nueva Planta decrees made Mallorca part of the Spanish province of Baleares, roughly the same to present-day Illes Balears province and autonomous community.", "A Nationalist stronghold at the start of the Spanish Civil War, Mallorca was subjected to an amphibious landing, on 16 August 1936, aimed at driving the Nationalists from Mallorca and reclaiming the island for the Republic. Although the Republicans heavily outnumbered their opponents and managed to push inland, superior Nationalist air power, provided mainly by Fascist Italy as part of the Italian occupation of Majorca, forced the Republicans to retreat and to leave the island completely by 12 September. Those events became known as the Battle of Majorca. Since the 1950s, the advent of mass tourism has transformed the island into a destination for foreign visitors and attracted many service workers from mainland Spain. The boom in tourism caused Palma to grow significantly. In the 21st century, urban redevelopment, under the so‐called \"Pla Mirall\" (English \"Mirror Plan\"), attracted groups of immigrant workers from outside the European Union, especially from Africa and South America.", "A 3,200-year-old well-preserved Bronze Age sword was discovered by archaeologists under the leadership of Jaume Deya and Pablo Galera on the Mallorca Island in the Puigpunyent from the stone megaliths site called Talaiot. Specialists assumed that the weapon was made when the Talaiotic culture was in critical comedown. The sword will be on display at the nearby Majorca Museum.", "The capital of Mallorca, Palma, was founded as a Roman camp called Palmaria upon the remains of a Talaiotic settlement. The turbulent history of the city had it subject to several Vandal sackings during the fall of the Western Roman Empire. It was later reconquered by the Byzantines, established by the Moors (who called it Medina Mayurqa), and finally occupied by James I of Aragon. In 1983, Palma became the capital of the autonomous region of the Balearic Islands. Palma has a famous tourist attraction, the cathedral, Catedral-Basílica de Santa María de Mallorca, standing in the heart of the City looking out over the ocean.", "The climate of Mallorca is a Mediterranean climate (Köppen: \"Csa\"), with mild and stormy winters and hot, bright, dry summers. Precipitation in the Serra de Tramuntana is markedly higher. Summers are hot in the plains, and winters mild, getting colder in the Tramuntana range, where brief episodes of snow during the winter are not unusual. The two wettest months in Mallorca are October and December.", "", "Mallorca and the other Balearic Islands are geologically an extension of the fold mountains of the Betic Cordillera of Andalusia. They consist primarily of sediments deposited in the Tethys Sea during the Mesozoic era. These marine deposits have given rise to calcareous rocks which are often fossiliferous. The folding of the Betic Cordillera and Mallorcan ranges resulted from subduction of the African plate beneath the Eurasian plate with eventual collision. Tectonic movements led to different elevation and lowering zones in the late Tertiary period, which is why the connection to the mainland has been severed at the current sea level. The limestones, which predominate throughout Mallorca, are readily water-soluble, and have given rise to extensive areas of karst. In addition to limestone, dolomitic rocks are mainly present in the mountainous regions of Mallorca; the Serra de Tramuntana and the Serres de Llevant. The Serres de Llevant also contain marl, the more rapid erosion of which has resulted in the lower elevations of the island's southeastern mountains. Marl is limestone with a high proportion of clay minerals. The eroded material was washed into the sea or deposited in the interior of the island of the Pla de Mallorca, bright marls in the north-east of the island and ferrous clays in the middle of Mallorca, which gives the soil its characteristic reddish colour.", "Mallorca is the largest island of Spain by area and second most populated (after Tenerife in the Canary Islands). Mallorca has two mountainous regions, the Serra de Tramuntana and Serres de Llevant. Each are about in length and occupy the northwestern and eastern parts of the island respectively. The highest peak on Mallorca is Puig Major at in the Serra de Tramuntana. As this is a military zone, the neighbouring peak at Puig de Massanella is the highest accessible peak at. The northeast coast comprises two bays: the Badia de Pollença and the larger Badia d'Alcúdia. The northern coast is rugged and has many cliffs. The central zone, extending from Palma, is a generally flat, fertile plain known as \"Es Pla\". The island has a variety of caves both above and below sea – two of the caves, the above sea level Coves dels Hams and the Coves del Drach, also contain underground lakes and are open to tours. Both are located near the eastern coastal town of Porto Cristo. Small uninhabited islands lie off the southern and western coasts; the Cabrera Archipelago is administratively grouped with Mallorca (in the municipality of Palma), while Dragonara is administratively included in the municipality of Andratx. Other notable areas include the Alfabia Mountains, Es Cornadors and Cap de Formentor.", "The Cultural Landscape of the Serra de Tramuntana was registered as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2011.", "The island (including the small offshore islands of Cabrera and Dragonera) is administratively divided into 53 municipalities. The areas and populations of the municipalities (according to the \"Instituto Nacional de Estadística\", Spain) are:", "", "Archduke Ludwig Salvator of Austria () was the architect of tourism in the Balearic Islands. He first arrived on the island in 1867, travelling under his title \"Count of Neuendorf\". He later settled on Mallorca, buying up wild areas of land in order to preserve and enjoy them. Nowadays, a number of trekking routes are named after him. Ludwig Salvator loved the island of Mallorca. He became fluent in Catalan, carried out research into the island's flora and fauna, history, and culture to produce his main work, \"Die Balearen\", an extremely comprehensive collection of books about the Balearic Islands, consisting of 7 volumes. It took him 22 years to complete.", "The Polish composer and pianist Frédéric Chopin, together with French writer Amantine Lucile Aurore Dupin (pseudonym: George Sand), resided in Valldemossa in the winter of 1838–39. Apparently, Chopin's health had already deteriorated and his doctor recommended that he go to the Balearic Islands to recuperate, where he still spent a rather miserable winter. Nonetheless, his time in Mallorca was a productive period for Chopin. He managed to finish the Preludes, Op. 28, that he started writing in 1835. He was also able to undertake work on his Ballade No. 2, Op. 38; two Polonaises, Op. 40; and the Scherzo No. 3, Op. 39.", "French writer Amantine Lucile Aurore Dupin (pseudonym: George Sand), at that time in a relationship with Chopin, described her stay in Mallorca in \"A Winter in Majorca\", published in 1855. Other famous writers used Mallorca as the setting for their works: While on the island, the Nicaraguan poet Rubén Darío started writing the novel \"El oro de Mallorca\", and wrote several poems, such as \"La isla de oro\". Many of the works of Baltasar Porcel take place in Mallorca. Ira Levin set part of his dystopian novel \"This Perfect Day\" in Mallorca, making the island a centre of resistance in a world otherwise dominated by a computer. Agatha Christie visited the island in the early 20th century and stayed in Palma and Port de Pollença. She would later write the book \"Problem at Pollensa Bay and Other Stories\", a collection of short stories, of which the first one takes place in Port de Pollença, starring Parker Pyne. Jorge Luis Borges visited Mallorca twice, accompanied by his family. He published his poems \"La estrella\" (1920) and \"Catedral\" (1921) in the regional magazine \"Baleares\". The latter poem shows his admiration for the monumental Cathedral of Palma. Nobel prize winner Camilo José Cela came to Mallorca in 1954, visiting Pollença, and then moving to Palma, where he settled permanently. In 1956, Cela founded the magazine \"Papeles de Son Armadans\". He is also credited as founder of Alfaguara. The English poet Robert Graves moved to Mallorca with his family in 1946. The house is now a museum. He died in 1985 and his body was buried in the small churchyard on a hill at Deià.", "The Ball dels Cossiers is the island's traditional dance. It is believed to have been imported from Catalonia in the 13th or 14th century, after the Aragonese conquest of the island under King Jaime I. In the dance, three pairs of dancers, who are typically male, defend a \"Lady,\" who is played by a man or a woman, from a demon or devil. Another Mallorcan dance is Correfoc, an elaborate festival of dance and pyrotechnics that is also of Catalan origin. The island's folk music strongly resembles that of Catalonia, and is centered around traditional instruments like the xeremies (bagpipe) and guitarra de canya (a reed or bone xylophone-like instrument suspended from the neck). While folk music is still played and enjoyed by many on the island, a number of other musical traditions have become popular in Mallorca in the 21st century, including electronic dance music, classical music, and jazz, all of which have annual festivals on the island.", "Joan Miró, a Spanish painter, sculptor, and ceramicist, had close ties to the island throughout his life, he married Pilar Juncosa in Palma in 1929 and settled permanently in Mallorca in 1954. The Fundació Pilar i Joan Miró in Mallorca has a collection of his works. Es Baluard in Palma is a museum of modern and contemporary art which exhibits the work of Balearic artists and artists related to the Balearic Islands.", "The Evolution Mallorca International Film Festival is the fastest growing Mediterranean film festival and has occurred annually every November since 2011, attracting filmmakers, producers, and directors globally. It is hosted at the Teatro Principal in Palma de Mallorca", "Mallorca has a long history of seafaring. The Majorcan cartographic school or the \"Catalan school\" refers to a collection of cartographers, cosmographers, and navigational instrument makers that flourished in Mallorca and partly in mainland Catalonia in the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries. Mallorcan cosmographers and cartographers developed breakthroughs in cartographic techniques, namely the \"normal portolan chart\", which was fine-tuned for navigational use and the plotting by compass of navigational routes, prerequisites for the discovery of the New World.", "In 2005, there were over 2,400 restaurants on the island of Mallorca according to the Mallorcan Tourist Board, ranging from small bars to full restaurants. Olives and almonds are typical of the Mallorcan diet. Among the foods that are typical from Mallorca are \"sobrassada\", \"arròs brut\" (saffron rice cooked with chicken, pork and vegetables), and the sweet pastry \"ensaïmada\". Also Pa amb oli is a popular dish. Herbs de Majorca is a herbal liqueur.", "The main language spoken on the island is Catalan. The two official languages of Mallorca are Catalan and Spanish. The local dialect of Catalan spoken in the island is \"Mallorquí\", with slightly different variants in most villages. Education is bilingual in Catalan and Spanish, with some teaching of English. In 2012, the then-governing People's Party announced its intention to end preferential treatment for Catalan in the island's schools to bring parity to the two languages of the island. It was said that this could lead Mallorcan Catalan to become extinct in the fairly near future, as it was being used in a situation of diglossia in favour of the Spanish language., with the most recent election in May 2015 sweeping a pro-Catalan party and president into power, the Popular Party's policy of trilingualism (Catalán, Spanish, English) has been dismantled, making this outcome unlikely.", "Mallorca is the most populous island in the Balearic Islands and the second most populous island in Spain, after Tenerife, in the Canary Islands, being also the fourth most populous island in the Mediterranean. It had an officially estimated population of 896,038 inhabitants at the start of 2019.", "Since the 1950s, Mallorca has become a major tourist destination, and the tourism business has become the main source of revenue for the island. With thousands of rooms available Mallorca's economy is largely dependent on its tourism industry. Holiday makers are attracted by the large number of beaches, warm weather, and high-quality tourist amenities. Due to the climate and diversity in roads, Majorca attracts a lot of cyclists. The island's popularity as a tourist destination has steadily grown since the 1950s, with many artists and academics choosing to visit and live on the island. Visitors to Mallorca continued to increase with holiday makers in the 1970s approaching 3 million a year. In 2010 over 6 million visitors came to Mallorca. In 2013, Mallorca was visited by nearly 9.5 million tourists, and the Balearic Islands as a whole reached 13 million tourists. In 2017, ten million tourists visited the island. The rapid growth of the tourism industry has led to some locals protesting the effects of mass tourism on the island. Mallorca has been jokingly referred to as the 17th Federal State of Germany, due to the high number of German tourists. Attempts to build illegally caused a scandal in 2006 in Port Andratx that the newspaper \"El País\" named \"caso Andratx\". A main reason for illegal building permits, corruption and black market construction is that communities have few ways to finance themselves other than through permits. The former mayor was incarcerated in 2009 after being prosecuted for taking bribes to permit illegal house building.", "Data from Institute of Statistics of Balearic Islands", "", "The Balearic Islands, of which Mallorca forms part, are one of the autonomous communities of Spain. As a whole, they are currently governed by the Balearic Islands Socialist Party (PSIB-PSOE), with Francina Armengol as their President. The autonomous government for the island, called Consell Insular de Mallorca (Mallorca Insular Council), is responsible for culture, roads, railways (see Serveis Ferroviaris de Mallorca) and municipal administration. The current president (as of June 2015) is Miquel Ensenyat, of More for Mallorca.", "The members of the Spanish Royal Family spend their summer holidays in Mallorca where the Marivent Palace is located. The Marivent Palace is the royal family's summer residence. While most royal residences are administered by Patrimonio Nacional, the Marivent Palace, in Palma de Mallorca, one of many Spanish royal sites, is under the care of the Government of the Balearic Islands. As a private residence it is rarely used for official business. Typically, the whole family meets there and on the Fortuna yacht, where they take part in sailing competitions. The Marivent Palace is used for some unofficial business, as when President Hugo Chávez of Venezuela visited King Juan Carlos in 2008 to mend their relationship and normalize diplomatic relations after the King famously said to him, \"Why don't you shut up?\" during the Ibero-American Summit in November 2007.", "Some of the earliest famous Mallorcans lived on the island before its reconquest from the Moors. Famous Mallorcans include: A trackless train is in operation in several tourist areas.", "", "There are approximately 79 ferries between Mallorca and other destinations every week, most of them to mainland Spain.", "One of Europe's most popular cycling destinations, Mallorca cycling routes such as the popular 24 km cycle track (segregated cycle lane) which runs between Porto Cristo and Cala Bona via Sa Coma and Cala Millor are must rides." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Signs and symptoms.", "Cause.", "Diagnosis.", "Treatment.", "Prognosis.", "Epidemiology.", "History.", "Etymology.", "Society and culture.", "Notable cases.", "Popular culture.", "Research.", "Lamin A.", "Mouse model.", "DNA repair.", "Epigenetic clock analysis of human HGPS." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Children with progeria usually develop the first symptoms during their first few months of life. The earliest symptoms may include a failure to thrive and a localized scleroderma-like skin condition. As a child ages past infancy, additional conditions become apparent usually around 18–24 months. Limited growth, full-body alopecia (hair loss), and a distinctive appearance (a small face with a shallow recessed jaw, and a pinched nose) are all characteristics of progeria. Signs and symptoms of this progressive disease tend to become more marked as the child ages. Later, the condition causes wrinkled skin, atherosclerosis, kidney failure, loss of eyesight, and cardiovascular problems. Scleroderma, a hardening and tightening of the skin on trunk and extremities of the body, is prevalent. People diagnosed with this disorder usually have small, fragile bodies, like those of elderly people. The head is usually large in relation to the body, with a narrow, wrinkled face and a beak nose. Prominent scalp veins are noticeable (made more obvious by alopecia), as well as prominent eyes. Musculoskeletal degeneration causes loss of body fat and muscle, stiff joints, hip dislocations, and other symptoms generally absent in the non-elderly population. Individuals usually retain typical mental and motor development.", "Progeria is caused by mutations that weaken the structure of the cell nucleus, making normal cell division difficult. The histone mark H4K20me3 is involved in Hutchinson-Gilford Progeria syndrome caused by de novo mutations that occurs in a gene that encodes lamin A. Lamin A is made but isn't processed properly. This poor processing creates an abnormal nuclear morphology and disorganized heterochromatin. Patients also don't have appropriate DNA repair, and they also have increased genomic instability. In normal conditions, the \"LMNA\" gene codes for a structural protein called prelamin A, which undergoes a series of processing steps before attaining its final form, called lamin A. Prelamin A contains a “CAAX”where C is a cysteine, an aliphatic amino acid, and X any amino acid. This motif at the carboxyl-termini of proteins triggers three sequential enzymatic modifications. First, protein farnesyltransferase catalyzes the addition of a farnesyl moiety to the cysteine. Second, an endoprotease that recognizes the farnesylated protein catalyzes cleavage of the peptide bond between the cysteine and -aaX. In the third step, isoprenylcysteine carboxyl methyltransferase catalyzes methylation of the carboxyl-terminal farnesylcysteine. The farnesylated and methylated protein is transported through a nuclear pore to the interior of the nucleus. Once in the nucleus, the protein is cleaved by a protease called zinc metallopeptidase STE24 (ZMPSTE24), which removes the last 15 amino acids, which includes the farnesylated cysteine. After cleavage by the protease, prelamin A is referred to as lamin A. In most mammalian cells, lamin A, along with lamin B1, lamin B2 and lamin C, makes up the nuclear lamina, which provides structural support to the nucleus. Before the late 20th century, research on progeria yielded very little information about the syndrome. In 2003, the cause of progeria was discovered to be a point mutation in position 1824 of the \"LMNA\" gene, which replaces a cytosine with thymine. This mutation creates a 5' cryptic splice site within exon 11, resulting in a shorter than normal mRNA transcript. When this shorter mRNA is translated into protein, it produces an abnormal variant of the prelamin A protein, referred to as progerin. Progerin's farnesyl group cannot be removed because the ZMPSTE24 cleavage site is lacking from progerin, so the abnormal protein is permanently attached to the nuclear rim. One result is that the nuclear lamina does not provide the nuclear envelope with enough structural support, causing it to take on an abnormal shape. Since the support that the nuclear lamina normally provides is necessary for the organizing of chromatin during mitosis, weakening of the nuclear lamina limits the ability of the cell to divide. However, defective cell division is unlikely to be the main defect leading to progeria, particularly because children develop normally without any signs of disease until about one year of age. Farnesylated prelamin A variants also leads to defective DNA repair, which may play a role in the development of progeria. Progerin expression also leads to defects in the establishment of fibroblast cell polarity, which is also seen in physiological aging. To date over 1,400 SNPs in the \"LMNA\" gene are known. They can manifest as changes in mRNA, splicing, or protein amino acid sequence (e.g. Arg471Cys, Arg482Gln, Arg527Leu, Arg527Cys, Ala529Val). Progerin may also play a role in normal human aging, since its production is activated in typical senescent cells. Unlike other \"accelerated aging diseases\" (such as Werner syndrome, Cockayne syndrome or xeroderma pigmentosum), progeria may not be directly caused by defective DNA repair. These diseases each cause changes in a few specific aspects of aging, but never in every aspect at once, so they are often called \"segmental progerias.\"", "Diagnosis is suspected according to signs and symptoms, such as skin changes, abnormal growth, and loss of hair. These symptoms normally start appearing by one year of age. A genetic test for LMNA mutations can confirm the diagnosis of progeria.", "No treatment has yet proven effective. Most treatment options have focused on reducing complications (such as cardiovascular disease) with coronary artery bypass surgery and low-dose aspirin. Growth hormone treatment has been attempted. The use of Morpholinos has also been attempted in mice and cell cultures in order to reduce progerin production. Antisense Morpholino oligonucleotides specifically directed against the mutated exon 11–exon 12 junction in the mutated pre-mRNAs were used. A type of anticancer drug, the farnesyltransferase inhibitors (FTIs), has been proposed, but their use has been mostly limited to animal models. A Phase II clinical trial using the FTI lonafarnib began in May 2007. In studies on the cells another anti-cancer drug, rapamycin, caused removal of progerin from the nuclear membrane through autophagy. It has been proved that pravastatin and zoledronate are effective drugs when it comes to the blocking of farnesyl group production. Farnesyltransferase inhibitors (FTIs) are drugs that inhibit the activity of an enzyme needed in order to make a link between progerin proteins and farnesyl groups. This link generates the permanent attachment of the progerin to the nuclear rim. In progeria, cellular damage can occur because that attachment takes place and the nucleus is not in a normal state. Lonafarnib is an FTI, which means it can avoid this link, so progerin can not remain attached to the nucleus rim and it now has a more normal state. Studies of sirolimus, an mTOR Inhibitor, demonstrate that it can minimize the phenotypic effects of progeria fibroblasts. Other observed consequences of its use are: abolishment of nuclear blebbing, degradation of progerin in affected cells and reduction of insoluble progerin aggregates formation. These results have been observed only \"in vitro\" and are not the results of any clinical trial, although it is believed that the treatment might benefit HGPS patients. The Investigational New Drug (IND) application for delivery of lonafarnib has been accepted, but not yet approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Therefore, it can only be used in certain clinical trials. Until treatment with FTIs is thoroughly tested in progeria children in clinical trials, its effects on humans cannot be known, although its effects on mice seem to be positive. A 2012 clinical trial found that it improved weight gain and other symptoms of progeria. A further clinical trial in 2018 points to significantly lower mortality rates ~ treatment with lonafarnib alone compared with no treatment (3.7% vs. 33.3%) ~ at a median post-trial follow-up time span of 2.2 years.", "As there is no known cure, few people with progeria exceed 13 years of age. At least 90 percent of patients die from complications of atherosclerosis, such as heart attack or stroke. Mental development is not adversely affected; in fact, intelligence tends to be average to above average. With respect to the features of aging that progeria appears to manifest, the development of symptoms is comparable to aging at a rate eight to ten times faster than normal. With respect to features of aging that progeria does not exhibit, patients show no neurodegeneration or cancer predisposition. They also do not develop conditions that are commonly associated with aging, such as cataracts (caused by UV exposure) and osteoarthritis. Although there may not be any successful treatments for progeria itself, there are treatments for the problems it causes, such as arthritic, respiratory, and cardiovascular problems. Sufferers of progeria have normal reproductive development and there are known cases of women with progeria who delivered healthy offspring.", "A study from the Netherlands has shown an incidence of 1 in 20 million births. According to the Progeria Research Foundation, there are currently about 161 known cases in the world. Hundreds of cases have been reported in medical history since 1886. However, the Progeria Research Foundation believes there may be as many as 150 undiagnosed cases worldwide. Classical Hutchinson–Gilford progeria syndrome is usually caused by a sporadic mutation taking place during the early stages of embryo development. It is almost never passed on from affected parent to child, as affected children rarely live long enough to have children themselves. There have been only two cases in which a healthy person was known to carry the LMNA mutation that causes progeria. These carriers were identified because they passed it on to their children. One family from India has five children with progeria, though not the classical HGPS type. This family was the subject of a 2005 Bodyshock documentary titled \"The 80 Year Old Children\". The Vandeweert family of Belgium has two children, Michiel and Amber, with classic HGPS.", "Progeria was first described in 1886 by Jonathan Hutchinson. It was also described independently in 1897 by Hastings Gilford. The condition was later named Hutchinson–Gilford progeria syndrome. Scientists are interested in progeria partly because it might reveal clues about the normal process of aging.", "The word \"progeria\" comes from the Greek words \"pro\" (πρό), meaning \"before\" or \"premature\", and \"gēras\" (γῆρας), meaning \"old age\".", "", "In 1987, fifteen-year-old Mickey Hays, who had progeria, appeared along with Jack Elam in the documentary \"I Am Not a Freak\". Elam and Hays first met during the filming of the 1986 film \"The Aurora Encounter\", in which Hays was cast as an alien. The friendship that developed lasted until Hays died in 1992, age 20. Elam said, \"You know I've met a lot of people, but I've never met anybody that got next to me like Mickey.\" Harold Kushner's 1978 book \"When Bad Things Happen to Good People\", which explores God and the problem of evil, was written in response to his 14-year-old son's death due to progeria. Margaret Casey, a 29-year-old progeria victim believed to be the oldest survivor of the premature aging disease, died on Sunday May 26, 1985. Casey, a free-lance artist, was admitted to Yale-New Haven Hospital Saturday night May 25th with respiratory problems, which caused her death. Sam Berns, an American activist who was the subject of the HBO documentary \"Life According to Sam\". Berns also gave a TEDx talk titled My Philosophy for a Happy Life on December 13th, 2013. Hayley Okines was an English progeria patient who spread awareness of the condition.", "Perhaps one of the earliest influences of progeria on popular culture occurred in the 1922 short story \"The Curious Case of Benjamin Button\" by F. Scott Fitzgerald (and later released as a feature film in 2008). The main character, Benjamin Button, is born as a 70-year-old man and ages backwards; it has been suggested that this was inspired by progeria. Charles Dickens may have described a case of progeria in the Smallweed family of \"Bleak House\", specifically in the grandfather and his grandchildren, Judy and twin brother Bart. The condition has also been featured in multiple films. In the 1983 film \"The Hunger\", progeria was the focus of study by Susan Sarandon's character, Dr. Sarah Roberts. The 1984 film \"The Three Wishes of Billy Grier\" stars Ralph Macchio as a teenager who tries to fulfill his wishes before he dies from the disease. The 1996 movie \"Jack\" deals with the eponymous character (Robin Williams) who has a genetic disorder similar to progeria and the difficulties he faces fitting into society.", "Several discoveries have been made that have led to greater understandings and perhaps eventual treatment for this disease. A 2003 report in \"Nature\" said that progeria may be a de novo dominant trait. It develops during cell division in a newly conceived zygote or in the gametes of one of the parents. It is caused by mutations in the LMNA (lamin A protein) gene on chromosome 1; the mutated form of lamin A is commonly known as progerin. One of the authors, Leslie Gordon, was a physician who did not know anything about progeria until her own son, Sam, was diagnosed at 22 months. Gordon and her husband, pediatrician Scott Berns, founded the Progeria Research Foundation.", "Lamin A is a major component of a protein scaffold on the inner edge of the nucleus called the nuclear lamina that helps organize nuclear processes such as RNA and DNA synthesis. Prelamin A contains a CAAX box at the C-terminus of the protein (where C is a cysteine and A is any aliphatic amino acids). This ensures that the cysteine is farnesylated and allows prelamin A to bind membranes, specifically the nuclear membrane. After prelamin A has been localized to the cell nuclear membrane, the C-terminal amino acids, including the farnesylated cysteine, are cleaved off by a specific protease. The resulting protein, now lamin A, is no longer membrane-bound and carries out functions inside the nucleus. In HGPS, the recognition site that the enzyme requires for cleavage of prelamin A to lamin A is mutated. Lamin A cannot be produced, and prelamin A builds up on the nuclear membrane, causing a characteristic nuclear blebbing. This results in the symptoms of progeria, although the relationship between the misshapen nucleus and the symptoms is not known. A study that compared HGPS patient cells with the skin cells from young and elderly normal human subjects found similar defects in the HGPS and elderly cells, including down-regulation of certain nuclear proteins, increased DNA damage, and demethylation of histone, leading to reduced heterochromatin. Nematodes over their lifespan show progressive lamin changes comparable to HGPS in all cells but neurons and gametes. These studies suggest that lamin A defects are associated with normal aging.", "A mouse model of progeria exists, though in the mouse, the LMNA prelamin A is not mutated. Instead, ZMPSTE24, the specific protease that is required to remove the C-terminus of prelamin A, is missing. Both cases result in the buildup of farnesylated prelamin A on the nuclear membrane and in the characteristic nuclear LMNA blebbing. Fong et al. use a farnesyl transferase inhibitor (FTI) in this mouse model to inhibit protein farnesylation of prelamin A. Treated mice had greater grip strength and lower likelihood of rib fracture and may live longer than untreated mice. This method does not directly \"cure\" the underlying cause of progeria. This method prevents prelamin A from going to the nucleus in the first place so that no prelamin A can build up on the nuclear membrane, but equally, there is no production of normal lamin A in the nucleus. Lamin A does not appear to be necessary for life; mice in which the \"Lmna\" gene is knocked out show no embryological symptoms (they develop an Emery–Dreifuss muscular dystrophy-like condition postnatally). This implies that it is the buildup of prelamin A in the wrong place, rather than the loss of the normal function of lamin A, that causes the disease. It was hypothesized that part of the reason that treatment with an FTI such as alendronate is inefficient is due to prenylation by geranylgeranyltransferase. Since statins inhibit geranylgeranyltransferase, the combination of an FTI and statins was tried, and markedly improved \"the aging-like phenotypes of mice deficient in the metalloproteinase Zmpste24, including growth retardation, loss of weight, lipodystrophy, hair loss, and bone defects\".", "Repair of DNA double-strand breaks can occur by either of two processes, non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) or homologous recombination (HR). A-type lamins promote genetic stability by maintaining levels of proteins that have key roles in NHEJ and HR. Mouse cells deficient for maturation of prelamin A show increased DNA damage and chromosome aberrations and have increased sensitivity to DNA damaging agents. In progeria, the inability to adequately repair DNA damages due to defective A-type lamin may cause aspects of premature aging (also see DNA damage theory of aging).", "Fibroblast samples from children with Hutchinson–Gilford progeria syndrome exhibit accelerated epigenetic aging effects according to the epigenetic clock for skin & blood samples" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types of financial markets.", "Raising capital.", "Lenders.", "Individuals and doubles.", "Companies.", "Banks.", "Borrowers.", "Derivative products.", "Analysis of financial markets.", "Components of financial market.", "Based on market levels." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Within the financial sector, the term \"financial markets\" is often used to refer just to the markets that are used to raise finance. For long term finance, the \"Capital markets\"; for short term finance, the \"Money markets\". Another common use of the term is as a catchall for all the markets in the financial sector, as per examples in the breakdown below. The capital markets may also be divided into primary markets and secondary markets. Newly formed (issued) securities are bought or sold in primary markets, such as during initial public offerings. Secondary markets allow investors to buy and sell existing securities. The transactions in primary markets exist between issuers and investors, while secondary market transactions exist among investors. Liquidity is a crucial aspect of securities that are traded in secondary markets. Liquidity refers to the ease with which a security can be sold without a loss of value. Securities with an active secondary market mean that there are many buyers and sellers at a given point in time. Investors benefit from liquid securities because they can sell their assets whenever they want; an illiquid security may force the seller to get rid of their asset at a large discount.", "Financial markets attract funds from investors and channel them to corporations—they thus allow corporations to finance their operations and achieve growth. Money markets allow firms to borrow funds on a short term basis, while capital markets allow corporations to gain long-term funding to support expansion (known as maturity transformation). Without financial markets, borrowers would have difficulty finding lenders themselves. Intermediaries such as banks, Investment Banks, and Boutique Investment Banks can help in this process. Banks take deposits from those who have money to save. They can then lend money from this pool of deposited money to those who seek to borrow. Banks popularly lend money in the form of loans and mortgages. More complex transactions than a simple bank deposit require markets where lenders and their agents can meet borrowers and their agents, and where existing borrowing or lending commitments can be sold on to other parties. A good example of a financial market is a stock exchange. A company can raise money by selling shares to investors and its existing shares can be bought or sold. The following table illustrates where financial markets fit in the relationship between lenders and borrowers:", "The lender temporarily gives money to somebody else, on the condition of getting back the principal amount together with some interest or profit or charge.", "Many individuals are not aware that they are lenders, but almost everybody does lend money in many ways. A person lends money when he or she:", "\"Companies\" tend to be lenders of capital. When companies have surplus cash that is not needed for a short period of time, they may seek to make money from their cash surplus by lending it via short term markets called money markets. Alternatively, such companies may decide to return the cash surplus to their shareholders (e.g. via a share repurchase or dividend payment).", "Banks can be lenders themselves as they are able to create new debt money in the form of deposits.", "Governments borrow by issuing bonds. In the UK, the government also borrows from individuals by offering bank accounts and Premium Bonds. Government debt seems to be permanent. Indeed, the debt seemingly expands rather than being paid off. One strategy used by governments to reduce the \"value\" of the debt is to influence \"inflation\". \"Municipalities and local authorities\" may borrow in their own name as well as receiving funding from national governments. In the UK, this would cover an authority like Hampshire County Council. \"Public Corporations\" typically include nationalized industries. These may include the postal services, railway companies and utility companies. Many borrowers have difficulty raising money locally. They need to borrow internationally with the aid of Foreign exchange markets. Borrowers having similar needs can form into a group of borrowers. They can also take an organizational form like Mutual Funds. They can provide mortgage on weight basis. The main advantage is that this lowers the cost of their borrowings.", "During the 1980s and 1990s, a major growth sector in financial markets was the trade in so called derivatives. In the financial markets, stock prices, share prices, bond prices, currency rates, interest rates and dividends go up and down, creating \"risk\". Derivative products are financial products which are used to \"control\" risk or paradoxically \"exploit\" risk. It is also called financial economics. Derivative products or instruments help the issuers to gain an unusual profit from issuing the instruments. For using the help of these products a contract has to be made. Derivative contracts are mainly 4 types: Seemingly, the most obvious buyers and sellers of currency are importers and exporters of goods. While this may have been true in the distant past, when international trade created the demand for currency markets, importers and exporters now represent only 1/32 of foreign exchange dealing, according to the Bank for International Settlements. The picture of foreign currency transactions today shows:", "Much effort has gone into the study of financial markets and how prices vary with time. Charles Dow, one of the founders of Dow Jones & Company and The Wall Street Journal, enunciated a set of ideas on the subject which are now called Dow theory. This is the basis of the so-called technical analysis method of attempting to predict future changes. One of the tenets of \"technical analysis\" is that market trends give an indication of the future, at least in the short term. The claims of the technical analysts are disputed by many academics, who claim that the evidence points rather to the random walk hypothesis, which states that the next change is not correlated to the last change. The role of human psychology in price variations also plays a significant factor. Large amounts of volatility often indicate the presence of strong emotional factors playing into the price. Fear can cause excessive drops in price and greed can create bubbles. In recent years the rise of algorithmic and high-frequency program trading has seen the adoption of momentum, ultra-short term moving average and other similar strategies which are based on technical as opposed to fundamental or theoretical concepts of market behaviour. The scale of changes in price over some unit of time is called the volatility. It was discovered by Benoit Mandelbrot that changes in prices do not follow a normal distribution, but are rather modeled better by Lévy stable distributions. The scale of change, or volatility, depends on the length of the time unit to a power a bit more than 1/2. Large changes up or down are more likely than what one would calculate using a normal distribution with an estimated standard deviation.", "", "Simply put, primary market is the market where the newly started company issued shares to the public for the first time through IPO (initial public offering). Secondary market is the market where the second hand securities are sold (security Commodity Markets)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and career.", "Works.", "Awards.", "Commentary." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Littell is the son of author Robert Littell. Although his grandparents were Jews who emigrated from Russia to the United States at the end of the 19th century, Littell does not define himself as a Jew \"at all,\" and is quoted as saying, \"for me Judaism is more [of] a historical background.\" Born in New York City, Littell arrived in France at age three, then completed part of his education in his native country from age 13 to 16, before returning to France to achieve his baccalauréat. He returned again to the United States where he attended Yale University and graduated with a bachelor's degree in 1989. During his years in Yale, he finished his first book, \"Bad Voltage\", and later on met William S. Burroughs, who left a lasting impression on him. Due to his influence, he started to read Burroughs, as well as Sade, Blanchot, Genet, Céline, Bataille and Beckett. Afterwards, he worked as a translator, rendering French works by Sade, Blanchot, Genet and Quignard into English. At the same time, he started to write a ten-volume book, but gave up the project after the third volume. From 1994 to 2001, he worked for the international humanitarian organization Action Against Hunger, working mainly in Bosnia and Herzegovina, but also in Chechnya, Democratic Republic of Congo, Sierra Leone, Caucasus, Afghanistan and Moscow. In January 2001 he was victim of an ambush in Chechnya, during which he was slightly wounded. In the same year he decided to quit his job in order to concentrate on the research of his second book, The Kindly Ones. During that time, he also worked as a consultant for humanitarian organizations. Littell obtained French citizenship (while being able to keep the American one) in March 2007 after French officials made use of a clause stating that any French speaker whose \"meritorious actions contribute to the glory of France\" are allowed to become citizens, despite not fulfilling the requirement that he live in France for more than six months out of the year.", "Littell's novel \"The Kindly Ones\" was written in French and was published in France in 2006. The novel is the story of World War II and the Eastern Front, through the fictional memories of an articulate SS officer named Maximilien Aue. Littell said he was inspired to write the novel after seeing a photograph of Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya, a Soviet partisan executed by the Wehrmacht. He traces the original inspiration for the book from seeing Claude Lanzmann’s film \"Shoah\", an acclaimed documentary about the Holocaust, in 1991. He began research for the book in 2001 and started the first draft eighteen months later, after he had read around two hundred books about the Third Reich and the Eastern Front, as well as visiting Germany, East Europe and Caucasus. Littell claims that he undertook the creation of his main character, Aue, by imagining what he himself would have done had he been born in pre-war Germany and had become a National Socialist. Littell's only previously published book, the cyberpunk novel \"Bad Voltage\", which Littell considers \"a very bad science-fiction novel\", tells the story of Lynx, a \"half-breed\" who lives in a futuristic Paris. Many scenes in the novel take place in the Paris Catacombs; he also includes an unusual appendix in this novel which lists all the music and songs he listened to while composing. In addition, Littell has published a detailed intelligence report about the security organs of the Russian Federation, an analysis of Léon Degrelle's book \"La Campagne de Russie\", influenced by the works of the sociologist Klaus Theweleit, one book with four texts written before \"The Kindly Ones\" and, finally, a short essay. Following \"The Kindly Ones\", Littell directed a documentary titled \"Wrong Elements\", in which he interviews the former child soldiers of Joseph Kony. The film was screened out of competition at the 2016 Cannes Film Festival.", "\"The Kindly Ones\" won the 2006 Prix Goncourt and the grand prix du roman of the Académie française. By the end of 2007, more than 700,000 copies had been sold in France. Littell was recognised for his contributions in the area of overwrought erotica when the English translation of \"The Kindly Ones\" won the 2009 Bad Sex in Fiction Award from \"The Literary Review\", a British literary journal. Littell reportedly beat tough competition for that year's honours, with Philip Roth and Nick Cave among the writers filling out the short list.", "In a May 2008 interview with \"Haaretz\", Littell accused Israel of using the Holocaust for political gain and likened Israel's behavior in the occupied territories to that of the Nazis prior to World War II: \"If the [Israeli] government would let the soldiers do worse things, they would. Everyone says, 'Look how the Germans dealt with the Jews even before the Holocaust: cutting the beards, humiliating them in public, forcing them to clean the street.' That kind of stuff happens in the territories every day. Every goddamn day.\" However, he also said that \"[w]e really cannot compare the two\". In October 2019, Littell commented on the decision of Swedish Academy to give Nobel Prize for literature to Peter Handke, saying that \"he might be a fantastic artist, but as a human being he is my enemy - he’s an asshole.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Crew.", "Suborbital mission plan.", "Mission summary.", "Mission anomalies.", "Mission insignia.", "Anniversary.", "External tank.", "In popular culture.", "Wake-up calls.", "Pad fatalities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Both Young and Crippen were selected as the STS-1 crew in March 1978. Young was the most experienced astronaut in NASA at the time and was also the only member of his astronaut class still in service. He flew twice on Gemini and twice on Apollo, walked on the Moon in 1972 as the Commander of Apollo 16, and became Chief of the Astronaut Office in 1974. Crippen, who had joined NASA in 1969 after the cancellation of the Manned Orbiting Laboratory, was a rookie and would become the first of his astronaut group to fly in space. Prior to his selection on STS-1, Crippen participated in the Skylab Medical Experiment Altitude Test and also served as a capsule communicator for all three Skylab missions and the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. \"Columbia\" was manifested with EMUs for both Young and Crippen in the event of an emergency spacewalk. If such an event occurred, Crippen would go outside the orbiter, with Young standing by in case Crippen required assistance.", "During the original planning stages for the early Space Shuttle missions, NASA management felt a need to undertake initial tests of the system prior to the first orbital flight. To that end, they suggested that STS-1, instead of being an orbital flight, be used to test the Return To Launch Site (RTLS) abort scenario. This involved an abort being called in the first few moments after launch, and using its main engines, once the SRBs had been jettisoned, to power it back to the launch site. This scenario, while potentially necessary in the event of an early abort being called, was seen as being extremely dangerous and, as a consequence, Young overruled the proposal, and STS-1 went ahead as the first orbital mission. The NASA managers were swayed by Young questioning the need for the test, and the weight of his opinion was especially strong as he was someone who not only had been to the moon twice, but had walked on it. He would fly the Shuttle again on the STS-9 mission, a ten-day flight in 1983.", "The first launch of the Space Shuttle occurred on 12 April 1981, exactly 20 years after the first crewed space flight, when the orbiter \"Columbia\", with two crew members, astronauts John W. Young, commander, and Robert L. Crippen, pilot, lifted off from Pad A, Launch Complex 39, at the Kennedy Space Center. The launch took place at A launch attempt two days earlier was scrubbed because \"Columbia\"'s four primary general purpose computers (GPCs) failed to provide correct timing to the backup flight system (BFS) when the GPCs were scheduled to transition from vehicle checkout to flight configuration mode. Not only was this the first launch of the Space Shuttle, but it marked the first time that solid-fuel rockets were used for a NASA crewed launch (although previous systems had used solid-fuel motors for their escape towers or retro rockets). STS-1 was also the first U.S. crewed space vehicle launched without an uncrewed powered test flight. The STS-1 orbiter, \"Columbia\", also holds the record for the amount of time spent in the Orbiter Processing Facility (OPF) before launch – 610 days, the time needed for the replacement of many of its heat shield tiles. The NASA mission objective for the maiden flight was to accomplish a safe ascent into orbit and return to Earth for a safe landing of Orbiter and crew. The only payload carried on the mission was a Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, which contained sensors and measuring devices to record the orbiter's performance and the stresses that occurred during launch, ascent, orbital flight, descent and landing. All 113 flight test objectives were accomplished, and the orbiter's spaceworthiness was verified. During the final T−9 minute holding period, Launch Director George Page read a message of good wishes to the crew from President Ronald Reagan, finishing up with his own: Ignition of the three RS-25 main engines was sensed as a sharp increase in noise. The stack rocked \"downwards\" (towards the crew's feet), then back up to the vertical, at which point both Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs) ignited. Crippen likened lift-off to a \"steam catapult shot\" (such as when an aircraft is launched from an aircraft carrier). The stack's combined northwards translation and climb above the launch tower's lightning rod were readily apparent to Young. After clearing the tower the stack began a right roll (until the +Z axis or vertical fin pointed) to a launch azimuth of 067° True (in order to achieve an orbital inclination of 40.3°), and pitched to a \"heads down\" attitude (to reduce loading on the wings). Simultaneously control was passed from the launch team in Florida to Flight Director Neil Hutchinson's Silver team in Flight Control Room 1 (FCR 1) in Texas with astronaut Dan Brandenstein as their CAPCOM. \"Columbia\"'s main engines were throttled down to 65% thrust to transit the region of Max Q, the point during ascent when the shuttle undergoes maximum aerodynamic stress. This occurred 56 seconds into the flight at Mach 1.06. The wind corrected value was (predicted, limit ). The two SRBs performed better than expected causing a lofted trajectory, and were jettisoned after burnout at 2 minutes and 12 seconds (at altitude, higher than planned). After 8 minutes and 34 seconds Mission Elapsed Time (MET) the main engines were shut down (MECO, at altitude ) and the external tank (ET) was jettisoned 18 seconds later to eventually break up and impact in the Indian Ocean. Two twin-engined Orbital Maneuvring System (OMS) engine burns of 86 seconds duration initiated at 10 minutes and 34 seconds MET and 75 seconds duration at 44 minutes 2 seconds MET inserted \"Columbia\" into a orbit. This subtle deviation from the original plan of circular went largely unnoticed. In fact it adjusted the spacecraft's orbital period to take account of the 10 April scrub, so that attempts could still be made to use KH-11 reconnaissance satellites to image \"Columbia\" on orbit. Overall Young commented that there was a lot less vibration and noise during launch than they had expected. However, the sensations accompanying the first firing of the large Reaction Control System (RCS) jets surprised the crew. Crippen commented \"it's like a big cannon just fired... you don't like them the first time you hear them\". Young reported that \"the entire cabin vibrates... it felt like the nose was being bent\". Once on-orbit both crew members safed their ejection seats and unstrapped. The next critical event was payload bay door opening. This was essential to allow heat rejection from \"Columbia\"'s systems via the doors' space radiators. Failure to open these by the end of the second orbit would have resulted in a return to Earth at the end of the fifth orbit, before the limited capacity of the flash evaporator cooling system was exceeded. As they opened the doors the crew noticed that they had sustained damage to thermal protection system (TPS) tiles on the OMS pods. This was televised to the ground. Shortly afterwards Young, then Crippen doffed their emergency ejection suits. The majority of the crew's approximately 53 hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests. Despite the scheduling impact of efforts to image \"Columbia\"'s TPS by utilising external assets, these were all accomplished. They included: Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit performance, manual and automatic RCS testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and photography. The OMS-3 and OMS-4 burns at 006:20:46 and 007:05:32 MET respectively raised this orbit to (compared to a planned circular). These two firings were single engined utilising the crossfeed system. The crew reported a cold first night on board despite acceptable temperature indications. They found the second night comfortable after settings were adjusted. During the second day of the mission, the astronauts received a phone call from Vice President George H. W. Bush. President Ronald Reagan had originally intended to visit the Mission Control Center during the mission, but at the time was still recovering from an assassination attempt which had taken place two weeks before the launch (Reagan had only returned home to the White House the day prior to the launch). The crew awoke from their second sleep period, earlier than planned. Preparations for return to Earth began with breakfast. Stowing of cabin items, flight control system checkout, data processing system reconfigurations, and then ejection suit donning followed. In Houston the Crimson team headed by their Flight Director Don Puddy came on duty in FCR 1 for the mission's final shift. His CAPCOM was astronaut Joe Allen with Rick Hauck assisting. Payload bay door closing was a critical milestone to ensure vehicle structural and thermal integrity for re-entry. If power closing had failed, Crippen was trained to conduct a one-man extravehicular activity (EVA) to manually winch them closed. With cabin switch positions verified, the crew strapped into their ejection seats. Meanwhile, JSC pilots Charlie Hayes and Ted Mendenhall were airborne over California's Edwards Air Force Base area in a Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA) performing a final check of landing weather conditions. Auxiliary Power Units (APUs) 2 and 3 were started (to provide flight control hydraulic pressure). The 160-second twin-engine OMS de-orbit burn took place during the 36th orbit over the southern Indian Ocean and changed the orbital parameters from to. This ensured atmospheric capture of the spacecraft close enough to the planned landing site to have sufficient energy for a controlled glide landing, but not so close that energy would have to be dissipated at a rate exceeding its structural capability. Young then slowly pitched \"Columbia\" up to the wings level nose high entry attitude. Both crew members armed their ejection seats during this pitch around. Nearly half an hour later APU 1 was started as planned. Shortly afterwards \"Columbia\" entered an approximately 21-minute long communications blackout. This was due to a combination of ionisation (16 minutes) and lack of ground station coverage between Guam and Buckhorn. Entry Interface (EI) was reached over the eastern Pacific Ocean from the landing site at a speed of around. EI is merely an arbitrarily defined geodetic altitude of employed by NASA for the purposes of trajectory computations and mission planning. Above this altitude, the spacecraft is considered to be outside the \"sensable atmosphere\". Most of this first orbiter entry was flown automatically. An initial angle of attack of 40° had to be maintained until through the most severe aerodynamic heating after which it was gradually reduced. At about altitude a light pink air glow caused by entry heating became visible, and both crew members lowered their visors. \"Columbia\" had to maneuver \"cross range\" of its orbital ground track to reach the planned landing site during the entry. Consequently, a roll into a right bank was flown when the air density had increased sufficiently to raise dynamic pressure to (with speed still in excess of Mach 24 and approximately altitude). Automatic roll reversals to control energy dissipation rate and cross range steering were performed at around Mach 18.5 and Mach 9.8. The crew clearly observed the coast of California as \"Columbia\" crossed it near Big Sur at Mach 7 and. Both the Mach 4.8 and Mach 2.8 roll reversals were automatically initiated and manually completed by Young. The last RCS jet firing took place at an altitude of — lower than desired (due to a predicted risk of combustion chamber explosion). Young again took manual control for the remainder of the flight as they went subsonic approaching the Heading Alignment Circle (HAC). A wide left turn was flown to line up with lake bed runway 23, whilst T-38 \"Chase 1\", crewed by astronauts Jon McBride and \"Pinky\" Nelson joined formation. Main gear touch down occurred on runway 23 at Edwards Air Force Base, at equivalent airspeed, slightly slower and around further down the runway than planned. This was the result of a combination of better than predicted Orbiter lift-to-drag ratios and tail wind. Touch down time was 10:21 AM PST on 14 April 1981. As they rolled to a stop a pleased John Young remarked over the radio: \"Columbia\" was returned to Kennedy Space Center from California on 28 April atop the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft. The 36-orbit, flight lasted 2 days, 6 hours, 20 minutes and 53 seconds.", "STS-1 was the first test flight of what was, at the time, the most complex spacecraft ever built. Roughly 70 anomalies were observed during and after the flight, owing to the many components and systems that could not otherwise be adequately tested. Notable anomalies included: Despite these problems, the STS-1 mission was completed successfully, and in most respects \"Columbia\" performed optimally. After some modifications to the Shuttle and to the launch and reentry procedures, \"Columbia\" flew the next four Shuttle missions.", "The artwork for the official mission insignia was designed by artist Robert McCall. It is a symbolic representation of the Shuttle. The image does not depict the black wing roots present on the actual Shuttle.", "The ultimate launch date of STS-1 fell on the 20th anniversary of Yuri Gagarin's Vostok 1, the first spaceflight to carry a human crew. In 2001, Yuri's Night was established to celebrate both events. In a tribute to the 25th anniversary of the first flight of Space Shuttle, Firing Room 1 in the Launch Control Center at Kennedy Space Center – which launched STS-1 – was renamed the Young-Crippen Firing Room. NASA described the mission as \"the boldest test flight in history\".", "STS-1 and STS-2 were the only two shuttle flights to have the ET painted white. To reduce the Shuttle's overall weight, all flights from STS-3 onward used an unpainted tank. The use of an unpainted tank provided a weight saving of approximately, and gave the ET the distinctive orange color which later became associated with the Space Shuttle.", "The song \"Countdown\" by Rush, from the 1982 album \"Signals\", was written about STS-1 and the inaugural flight of \"Columbia\". The song was \"dedicated with thanks to astronauts Young and Crippen and all the people of NASA for their inspiration and cooperation\". The footage of the launch was commonly played on MTV throughout the 1980s and 1990s, and was the first thing shown on the channel, along with footage of Neil Armstrong on the Moon and the launch of Apollo 11. IMAX cameras filmed the launch, landing, and mission control during the flight, for a film entitled \"Hail Columbia!\", which debuted in 1982 and later became available on DVD. The title of the film comes from the pre-1930s unofficial American national anthem, \"Hail, Columbia\". The beginning of the song \"Hello Earth\", on Kate Bush's 1985 \"Hounds of Love\" album, contains a short clip of dialogue between \"Columbia\" and Mission Control, during the last few minutes of its descent, beginning with \"Columbia now at nine times the speed of sound...\"", "NASA began a tradition of playing music to astronauts during the Gemini program, and first used music to wake up a flight crew during Apollo 15. A special musical track is chosen for each day in space, often by the astronauts' families, to have a special meaning to an individual member of the crew, or in reference to the day's planned activities.", "An accident occurred on 19 March 1981 that led to the deaths of three people. During a countdown test for STS-1, a pure nitrogen atmosphere was introduced in the aft engine compartment of \"Columbia\" to reduce the danger of an explosion from the many other potentially dangerous gases on board the orbiter. At the conclusion of the test, pad workers were given clearance to return to work on the orbiter, even though the nitrogen had not yet been purged due to a recent procedural change. Three technicians, John Bjornstad, Forrest Cole, and Nick Mullon, entered the compartment without air packs, unaware of the danger since nitrogen gas is odorless and colorless, and lost consciousnesses due to lack of oxygen. Several minutes later, another worker saw them and tried to help, but passed out himself. The fourth did not alert anyone, but was himself seen by two other people. Of those two, one alerted a security guard and another went to help the unconscious group. The security guard entered the compartment with an air pack and removed the five men from the compartment. Security procedures delayed ambulances from arriving on the scene by several minutes. Bjornstad died at the scene; Cole died on 1 April without ever regaining consciousness, and Mullon suffered permanent brain damage and died on 11 April 1995 from complications of his injuries. These were the first launchpad deaths at Canaveral since the Apollo 1 fire, which claimed the lives of three astronauts during preparations for the crewed Moon landing missions. The incident did not delay the launch of STS-1 less than a month later, but pilot Robert Crippen gave an on-orbit tribute to Bjornstad and Cole. A three-month inquiry determined a combination of a recent change in safety procedures and a miscommunication during the operations were the cause of the accident. A report called \"LC-39A Mishap Investigation Board Final Report\" was released with the findings. The names of John Bjornstad, Forrest Cole and Nicholas Mullon are engraved on a monument at the US Space Walk of Fame in Florida." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Medical uses.", "Schizophrenia.", "Prevention of psychosis and symptom improvement.", "First episode psychosis.", "Recurrent psychotic episodes.", "Maintenance therapy.", "Bipolar disorder.", "Dementia.", "Major depressive disorder.", "Other.", "Typicals versus atypicals.", "Adverse effects.", "Long-term effects.", "Discontinuation.", "List of agents.", "Disputed/unknown.", "Mechanism of action.", "History.", "Society and culture.", "Terminology.", "Sales.", "Legal.", "Formulations.", "Recreational use.", "Controversy.", "Special populations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Antipsychotics are most frequently used for the following conditions: They are not recommended for dementia or insomnia unless other treatments have not worked. They are not recommended in children unless other treatments are not effective or unless the child has psychosis. The World Health Organization provides a description of recommendations for the prescription of antipsychotics for the purposes of the treatment of psychosis.", "Antipsychotic drug treatment is a key component of schizophrenia treatment recommendations by the National Institute of Health and Care Excellence (NICE), the American Psychiatric Association, and the British Society for Psychopharmacology. The main aim of treatment with antipsychotics is to reduce the positive symptoms that include delusions and hallucinations. There is mixed evidence to support a significant impact of antipsychotic use on negative symptoms (such as apathy, lack of emotional affect, and lack of interest in social interactions) or on the cognitive symptoms (disordered thinking, reduced ability", "Test batteries such as the PACE (Personal Assessment and Crisis Evaluation Clinic) and COPS (Criteria of Prodromal Syndromes), which measure low-level psychotic symptoms and cognitive disturbances, are used to evaluate people with early, low-level symptoms of psychosis. Test results are combined with family history information to identify patients in the", "First episode psychosis (FEP), is the first time that psychotic symptoms are presented. NICE recommends that all persons presenting with first episode psychosis be treated with both an antipsychotic drug, and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). NICE further recommends that those expressing a preference for CBT alone are informed that combination treatment is more effective. A diagnosis of schizophrenia is not made at this time as it takes longer to determine by both DSM-5 and ICD-11, and only around 60% of those", "Placebo-controlled trials of both first and second generation antipsychotic drugs consistently demonstrate the superiority of active drug to placebo in suppressing psychotic symptoms. A large meta-analysis of 38 trials of antipsychotic drugs in schizophrenia acute psychotic episodes showed an effect size of", "The majority of patients treated with an antipsychotic drug will experience a response within four weeks. The goals of continuing treatment are to maintain suppression of symptoms, prevent relapse, improve quality of life, and support engagement in psychosocial therapy. Maintenance therapy with antipsychotic drugs is clearly superior to placebo in preventing relapse but is associated with weight gain, movement disorders, and high dropout rates. A 3-year trial following persons receiving maintenance therapy after an acute psychotic episode found that 33% obtained long-lasting symptom reduction, 13% achieved remission, and only 27% experienced satisfactory quality of life. The effect of relapse prevention on long term outcomes is uncertain, as historical studies show little difference in long term outcomes before and after the introduction of antipsychotic drugs. While maintenance therapy clearly reduces the rate of relapses requiring hospitalization, a large observational study in Finland found that, in people that eventually discontinued antipsychotics, the risk of being hospitalized again for a mental health problem or dying increased the longer they were dispensed", "Antipsychotics are routinely used, often in conjunction with mood stabilisers such as lithium/valproate, as a first-line treatment for manic and mixed episodes associated with bipolar disorder. The reason for this combination is the therapeutic delay of the aforementioned mood stabilisers (for valproate therapeutic effects are usually seen around five days after treatment is commenced whereas lithium usually takes at least a week before the full therapeutic effects are seen) and the comparatively rapid antimanic effects of antipsychotic drugs. The antipsychotics have a documented efficacy when used alone in acute mania/mixed episodes. Three atypical antipsychotics (lurasidone, olanzapine and quetiapine) have also been found to possess efficacy in the", "Psychosis and agitation develop in as many 80 percent of people living in nursing homes. Despite a lack of FDA approval and black-box warnings, atypical antipsychotics are often prescribed to people with dementia. An assessment for an underlying cause of behavior is needed before prescribing antipsychotic medication for symptoms of dementia. Antipsychotics in old age dementia showed a modest benefit compared to placebo in managing", "A number of atypical antipsychotics have some benefits when used in addition to other treatments in major depressive disorder. Aripiprazole, quetiapine extended-release, and olanzapine (when used in conjunction with fluoxetine) have received the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) labelling for", "Besides the above uses antipsychotics may be used for obsessive–compulsive disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, personality disorders, Tourette syndrome, autism and agitation in those with dementia. Evidence however does not support the use of atypical antipsychotics in eating disorders or personality disorder. Atypical risperidone may be useful for obsessive–compulsive disorder. The use of low doses of antipsychotics for insomnia, while common, is not recommended as there is little evidence of benefit and concerns regarding adverse effects. Low dose antipsychotics may also be used in treatment of impulse-behavioural and cognitive-perceptual symptoms of borderline personality disorder. In children they may be used in those with disruptive behavior disorders, mood disorders and pervasive developmental disorders or intellectual disability. Antipsychotics are only weakly recommended for Tourette syndrome, because although they are effective, side effects are common. The situation is similar", "It is unclear whether the atypical (second-generation) antipsychotics offer advantages over older, first generation antipsychotics. Amisulpride, olanzapine, risperidone and clozapine may be more effective but are associated with greater side effects. Typical antipsychotics have equal drop-out and symptom relapse rates to atypicals when used at low to moderate dosages. Clozapine is an effective treatment for those who respond poorly to other drugs (\"treatment-resistant\" or \"refractory\" schizophrenia), but it has the potentially serious side effect of agranulocytosis (lowered white blood cell count) in less than 4% of people. Due to bias in the research the accuracy of comparisons of atypical antipsychotics is a concern. In 2005, a US government body, the National Institute of Mental Health published the results of", "Biperiden is prescribed for acute extrapyramidal side effects of antypsychotic therapy, such as akathisia. Generally, more than one antipsychotic drug should not be used at a time because of increased adverse effects. Very rarely antipsychotics may cause tardive psychosis.", "Some studies have found decreased life expectancy associated with the use of antipsychotics, and argued that more studies are needed. Antipsychotics may also increase the risk of early death in individuals with dementia. Antipsychotics typically worsen symptoms in people who suffer from depersonalisation disorder. Antipsychotic polypharmacy (prescribing two or more antipsychotics at the same time for an individual) is a common practice but not evidence-based or recommended, and there are initiatives to curtail it. Similarly, the use of excessively high doses (often the result of polypharmacy) continues despite clinical guidelines and evidence indicating that it is usually no more effective but is usually", "The British National Formulary recommends a gradual withdrawal when discontinuing antipsychotics to avoid acute withdrawal syndrome or rapid relapse. Symptoms of withdrawal commonly include nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite. Other symptoms may include restlessness, increased sweating, and trouble sleeping. Less commonly there may be a feeling of the world spinning, numbness, or muscle pains. Symptoms generally resolve after a short period of time. There is tentative evidence that discontinuation of antipsychotics can result in psychosis. It may also result in reoccurrence of the condition that is being treated. Rarely tardive dyskinesia can occur when the medication is stopped. Unexpected psychotic episodes have been observed in patients withdrawing from clozapine. This is referred to as supersensitivity psychosis, not to be equated with tardive psychosis.", "Clinically used antipsychotic medications are listed below by drug group. Trade names appear in parentheses. A 2013 review has stated that the division of antipsychotics into first and second generation is perhaps not accurate. Notes: \"† indicates drugs that are no longer (or were never) marketed in English-speaking countries. \" \"‡ denotes drugs that are no longer (or were never to begin with) marketed in the United States. Some antipsychotics are not firmly placed in either first-generation or second-generation classes.\" \"# denotes drugs that have been withdrawn worldwide.\"", "This category is for drugs that have been", "Antipsychotic drugs such as haloperidol and chlorpromazine tend to block dopamine D receptors in the dopaminergic pathways of the brain. This means that dopamine released in these pathways has less effect. Excess release of dopamine in the mesolimbic pathway has been linked to psychotic experiences. Decreased dopamine release in the prefrontal cortex, and excess dopamine release in other pathways, are associated with psychotic episodes in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. In addition to the antagonistic effects of dopamine, antipsychotics (in particular atypical neuroleptics) also antagonize 5-HT receptors. Different alleles of the 5-HT receptor have been associated with schizophrenia and other psychoses, including depression. Higher concentrations of 5-HT receptors in cortical and subcortical areas, in particular in the right caudate nucleus have been historically recorded. Typical antipsychotics are not particularly selective", "The original antipsychotic drugs were happened upon largely by chance and then tested for their effectiveness. The first, chlorpromazine, was developed as a surgical anesthetic. It was first used on psychiatric patients because of its powerful calming effect; at the time it was regarded as a non-permanent \"pharmacological lobotomy\". Lobotomy at the time was used to treat many behavioral disorders, including psychosis, although its effect was to markedly reduce behavior and mental functioning of all types. However, chlorpromazine proved to reduce the effects of psychosis in a more effective and specific manner than lobotomy, even though it was known to be capable of causing severe sedation. The underlying neurochemistry involved has since been studied in detail, and subsequent antipsychotic drugs have been discovered by an approach that incorporates this sort of information. The discovery of chlorpromazine's psychoactive effects in 1952 led to further research that resulted in the development of antidepressants, anxiolytics, and the majority of other drugs now used in the management of psychiatric conditions. In 1952, Henri Laborit described chlorpromazine only as inducing indifference towards what was happening around them in nonpsychotic, nonmanic patients, and Jean Delay and Pierre Deniker described it as controlling manic or psychotic agitation. The former claimed to have discovered a treatment for agitation in anyone, and the latter team claimed to have discovered a treatment for psychotic illness. Until the 1970s there was considerable debate within psychiatry on the most appropriate term to use to describe the new drugs. In the", "", "The term \"major tranquilizer\" was used for older antipsychotic drugs. The term \"neuroleptic\" is often used as a synonym for \"antipsychotic\", even though -", "Antipsychotics were once among the biggest selling and most profitable of all drugs, generating $22 billion in global sales in 2008. By 2003 in the US, an estimated 3.21 million patients received antipsychotics,", "Antipsychotics are sometimes administered as part of", "They may be administered orally or, in some cases, through long-acting (depot) injections administered in the dorsgluteal, ventrogluteal or deltoid muscle. Short-acting parenteral formulations also exist, which are generally reserved for emergencies or when oral administration is otherwise impossible.", "Certain second-generation antipsychotics are misused or abused for their sedative, tranquilizing, and (paradoxically) \"hallucinogenic\" effects. The most commonly second-generation antipsychotic implicated is quetiapine. In case reports, quetiapine has been abused in doses taken by mouth (which is how", "Joanna Moncrieff has argued that antipsychotic drug treatment is often undertaken as a means of control rather than to treat specific symptoms experienced by the patient. Use of this class of drugs has a history of criticism in residential care. As the drugs used can make patients calmer and more compliant, critics claim that the drugs can be overused. Outside doctors can feel under pressure from care home staff. In an official review commissioned by UK government ministers it was reported that the needless use of antipsychotic medication in dementia care was widespread and was linked to 1800 deaths per year. In the US, the government has initiated legal action against the pharmaceutical company Johnson & Johnson for allegedly paying kickbacks to Omnicare to promote its antipsychotic risperidone (Risperdal) in nursing homes. There has also been controversy about the role of pharmaceutical companies in marketing and promoting antipsychotics, including allegations of downplaying or covering up adverse effects, expanding the number of conditions or illegally promoting off-label usage; influencing drug trials (or their publication) to try to", "It is recommended that persons with dementia who exhibit behavioral and psychological symptoms should not be given antipsychotics before trying other treatments. When taking antipsychotics this population has increased risk of cerebrovascular effects, parkinsonism or extrapyramidal symptoms, sedation, confusion and other cognitive adverse effects, weight gain, and increased mortality. Physicians and caretakers of persons with dementia should try to address symptoms including agitation, aggression, apathy, anxiety, depression, irritability, and psychosis with alternative treatments whenever antipsychotic use can be replaced or reduced. Elderly persons often have their dementia treated first with antipsychotics and this is not the best management strategy." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Neighbouring municipalities.", "History.", "Politics.", "Town council.", "Mayor." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Oberwiesenthal lies in the county of Erzgebirgskreis, on the border with the Czech Republic that follows the course of the Pöhlbach stream as far as Bärenstein (10 km northeast). The highest elevation in the borough is the Fichtelberg (sometimes called the \"Großer Fichtelberg\" or Great Fichtelberg) which, at, is the highest mountain in Saxony. Other important mountains in the region around Oberwiesenthal are the:", "On the Czech side is the municipality of Loučná pod Klínovcem \"(Böhmisch Wiesenthal)\" and, further west, is Boží Dar \"(Gottesgab)\". Adjacent municipalities in Germany are Bärenstein, Crottendorf, Sehmatal, Breitenbrunn/Erzgeb. and Raschau-Markersbach.", "The \"new town in the Wiesen valley\" (\"\"Neustadt am Wiesenthal\"\") was founded in 1527 by the lords of Schönburg as a mining town because, one year earlier, silver ore had been found in the region. By 1530 the new settlement had been granted town rights and, in 1559, its ownership passed to the House of Wettin. Mining operations finally wound up in the 19th century and tourism increasingly took its place during the 20th. However, after the Second World War, there were attempts by the Russians to mine uranium for the nuclear arms race in the Zechengrund, today a nature reserve. Traces of their activity are still visible. On 1 September 1921 Oberwiesenthal was merged with the town of Unterwiesenthal further down the valley, which had first been mentioned in the records in 1406 and had town rights by 1510.", "", "The town council of Oberwiesenthal consists of 14 councillors and the directly elected mayor or \"Bürgermeister\", who presides over the council. The local elections of 7 June 2009, which had a voter participlation of 62.5%, the following result:", "Heinz-Michael Kirsten (CDU) was elected mayor (\"Bürgermeister\") in January 2002. By February 2002 the Annaberg district office (\"Landratsamt Annaberg\") had declared this result void due to unpermitted election advertising. This resulted in a five-year legal battle by all sides that ended with a decision in 2007 by the Federal Administrative Court in Leipzig, that confirmed the decision in February 2007 by the administrative appeals tribunal (\"Oberverwaltungsgericht\") of Bautzen as legal. Heinz-Michael Kirsten was then sent on leave by the regional authority (\"Regierungspräsidium\"). On 4 November 2007 a new election took place in which no party achieved an absolute majority. In the second round of elections on 18 November the independent (now FDP) candidate, Mirko Ernst, was elected mayor." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Styles.", "Jibbing.", "Freeriding.", "Freestyle.", "Alpine snowboarding.", "Slopestyle.", "Big air.", "Half-pipe.", "Boardercross.", "Snowboard racing.", "Competitions.", "Subculture.", "Safety and precautions.", "Media.", "Films.", "Magazines.", "Video games." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Modern snowboarding began in 1965 when Sherman Poppen, an engineer in Muskegon, Michigan, invented a toy for his daughters by fastening two skis together and attaching a rope to one end so he would have some control as they stood on the board and glided downhill. Dubbed the \"snurfer\" (combining snow and surfer) by his wife Nancy, the toy proved so popular among his daughters' friends that Poppen licensed the idea to a manufacturer, Brunswick Corporation, that sold about a million snurfers over the next decade. And, in 1966 alone, over half a million snurfers were sold. Later versions of the \"snurfer\" were flat planks of wood with a pointed bent upward tip with a rope connected to help keep control of the board and later models closer to the modern snowboard made up of various components. In February 1968, Poppen organized the first snurfing competition at a Michigan ski resort that attracted enthusiasts from all over the country. One of those early pioneers was Tom Sims, a devotee of skateboarding (a sport born in the 1950s when kids attached roller skate wheels to small boards that they steered by shifting their weight). As an eighth grader in Haddonfield, New Jersey, in the 1960s, Sims crafted a snowboard in his school shop class by gluing carpet to the top of a piece of wood and attaching aluminum sheeting to the bottom. He produced commercial snowboards in the mid-70s. Articles about his invention in such mainstream magazines as \"Newsweek\" helped publicize the young sport. The pioneers were not all from the United States; in 1976, Welsh skateboard enthusiasts Jon Roberts and Pete Matthews developed their own snowboards to use at their local dry ski slope. Also during this same period, in 1977, Jake Burton Carpenter, a Vermont native who had enjoyed snurfing since the age of 14, impressed the crowd at a Michigan snurfing competition with bindings he had designed to secure his feet to the board. That same year, he founded Burton Snowboards in Londonderry, Vermont. The \"snowboards\" were made of wooden planks that were flexible and had water ski foot traps. Very few people picked up snowboarding because the price of the board was considered too high at $38 and were not allowed on many ski hills, but eventually Burton would become the biggest snowboarding company in the business. Burton's early designs for boards with bindings became the dominant features in snowboarding. In the early 1980s, Aleksey Ostatnigrosh and Alexei Melnikov, two Snurfers from the Soviet Union, patented design changes to the Snurfer to allow jumping by attaching a bungee cord, a single footed binding to the Snurfer tail, and a two-foot binding design for improved control. The first competitions to offer prize money were the National Snurfing Championship, held at Muskegon State Park in Muskegon Michigan. In 1979, Jake Burton Carpenter, came from Vermont to compete with a snowboard of his own design. There were protests about Jake entering with a non-snurfer board. Paul Graves, and others, advocated that Jake be allowed to race. A \"modified\" \"Open\" division was created and won by Jake as the sole entrant. That race was considered the first competition for snowboards and is the start of what has now become competitive snowboarding. Ken Kampenga, John Asmussen and Jim Trim placed 1st, 2nd and 3rd respectively in the Standard competition with best 2 combined times of 24.71, 25.02 and 25.41 and Jake Carpenter won prize money as the sole entrant in the \"open\" division with a time of 26.35. In 1980 the event moved to Pando Winter Sports Park near Grand Rapids, Michigan because of a lack of snow that year at the original venue. As snowboarding became more popular in the 1970s and 1980s, pioneers such as Dimitrije Milovich (founder of Winterstick out of Salt Lake City, UT), Jake Burton Carpenter (founder of Burton Snowboards from Londonderry, Vermont), Tom Sims (founder of Sims Snowboards), David Kemper (founder of Kemper Snowboards) and Mike Olson (founder of Gnu Snowboards) came up with new designs for boards and mechanisms that slowly developed into the snowboards and other related equipment. From these developments, modern snowboarding equipment usually consists of a snowboard with specialized bindings and boots. In April 1981, the \"King of the Mountain\" Snowboard competition was held at Ski Cooper ski area in Colorado. Tom Sims along with an assortment of other snowboarders of the time were present. One entrant showed up on a homemade snowboard with a formica bottom that turned out to not slide so well on the snow. In 1982, the first USA National Snowboard race was held near Woodstock, Vermont, at Suicide Six. The race, organized by Graves, was won by Burton's first team rider Doug Bouton. In 1983, the first World Championship halfpipe competition was held at Soda Springs, California. Tom Sims, founder of Sims Snowboards, organized the event with the help of Mike Chantry, a snowboard instructor at Soda Springs. In 1985, the first World Cup was held in Zürs, Austria, further cementing snowboarding's recognition as an official international competitive sport. In 1990, the International Snowboard Federation (ISF) was founded to provide universal contest regulations. In addition, the United States of America Snowboard Association (USASA) provides instructing guidelines and runs snowboard competitions in the U.S. today, high-profile snowboarding events like the Winter X Games, Air & Style, US Open, Olympic Games and other events are broadcast worldwide. Many alpine resorts have terrain parks. At the 1998 Winter Olympic Games in Nagano, Japan, Snowboarding became an official Olympic event. France's Karine Ruby was the first ever to win an Olympic gold medal for Woman's Snowboarding at the 1998 Olympics, while Canadian Ross Rebagliati was the first ever to win an Olympic gold medal for Men's Snowboarding. Initially, ski areas adopted the sport at a much slower pace than the winter sports public. Indeed, for many years, there was animosity between skiers and snowboarders, which led to an ongoing skier vs snowboarder feud. Early snowboards were banned from the slopes by park officials. For several years snowboarders would have to take a small skills assessment prior to being allowed to ride the chairlifts. It was thought that an unskilled snowboarder would wipe the snow off the mountain. In 1985, only seven percent of U.S. ski areas allowed snowboarding, with a similar proportion in Europe. As equipment and skills improved, gradually snowboarding became more accepted. In 1990, most major ski areas had separate slopes for snowboarders. Now, approximately 97% of all ski areas in North America and Europe allow snowboarding, and more than half have jumps, rails and half pipes. An excellent year for snowboarding was 2004, with 6.6 million participants. An industry spokesman said that \"twelve year-olds are out-riding adults.\" The same article said that most snowboarders are 18–24 years old and that women constitute 25% of participants. There were 8.2 million snowboarders in the US and Canada for the 2009–2010 season. There was a 10% increase over the previous season, accounting for more than 30% of all snow sports participants. On 2 May 2012, the International Paralympic Committee announced that adaptive snowboarding (dubbed \"para-snowboarding\") would debut as a men's and women's medal event in the 2014 Paralympic Winter Games taking place in Sochi, Russia.", "Since snowboarding's inception as an established winter sport, it has developed various styles, each with its own specialized equipment and technique. The most common styles today are: freeride, freestyle, and freecarve/race. These styles are used for both recreational and professional snowboarding. While each style is unique, there is overlap between them.", "\"Jibbing\" is the term for technical riding on non-standard surfaces, which usually includes performing tricks. The word \"jib\" is both a noun and a verb, depending on the usage of the word. As a noun: a jib includes metal rails, boxes, benches, concrete ledges, walls, vehicles, rocks and logs. As a verb: to jib is referring to the action of jumping, sliding or riding on top of objects other than snow. It is directly influenced by grinding a skateboard. Jibbing is a freestyle snowboarding technique of riding. Typically jibbing occurs in a snowboard resort park but can also be done in urban environments.", "Freeriding is a style without a set of governing rules or set course, typically on natural, un-groomed terrain. The basic allows for various snowboarding styles in a fluid motion and spontaneity through naturally rugged terrain. It can be similar to freestyle with the exception that no man-made features are utilized. \"See also Backcountry snowboarding.\"", "Freestyle snowboarding is any riding that includes performing tricks. In freestyle, the rider utilizes natural and man-made features such as rails, jumps, boxes, and innumerable others to perform tricks. It is a popular all-inclusive concept that distinguishes the creative aspects of snowboarding, in contrast to a style like alpine snowboarding.", "Alpine snowboarding is a discipline within the sport of snowboarding. It is practiced on groomed pistes. It has been an Olympic event since 1998. Sometimes called freecarving or hardbooting(due to the equipment used), this discipline usually takes place on hard packed snow or groomed runs(although it can be practiced in any and all conditions) and focuses on carving linked turns, much like surfing or longboarding, and is seen as superior to other disciplines in many Europeans countries. Little or no jumping takes place in this discipline. Alpine Snowboarding consists of a small portion of the general snowboard population, that has a well connected social community and its own specific board manufacturers, most situated in Europe. Alpine Snowboard equipment includes a ski-like hardshell boot and plate binding system with a true directional snowboard that is stiffer and narrower to manage linking turns with greater forces and speed. Shaped skis can thank these \"freecarve\" snowboards for the cutting-edge technology leading to their creation. A skilled alpine snowboarder can link numerous turns into a run placing their body very close to the ground each turn, similar to a motocross turn or waterski carve. Depending on factors including stiffness, turning radius and personality this can be done slowly or fast. Carvers make perfect half-circles out of each turn, changing edges when the snowboard is perpendicular to the fall line and starting every turn on the downhill edge. Carving on a snowboard is like riding a roller coaster, because the board will lock into a turn radius and provide what feels like multiple Gs of acceleration. Alpine snowboarding shares more visual similarities with skiing equipment than it does with snowboarding equipment. Compared to freestyle snowboarding gear:", "Competitors perform tricks while descending a course, moving around, over, across, up, or down terrain features. The course is full of obstacles including boxes, rails, jumps, jibs, or anything else the board or rider can slide across. Slopestyle is a judged event and winning a slopestyle contest usually comes from successfully executing the most difficult line in the terrain park while having a smooth flowing line of difficult, mistake-free tricks performed on the obstacles. However, overall impression and style can play factor in winning a slopestyle contest and the rider who lands the hardest tricks will not always win over the rider who lands easier tricks on more difficult paths.", "Big air competitions are contests where riders perform tricks after launching off a man made jump built specifically for the event. Competitors perform tricks in the air, aiming to attain sizable height and distance, all while securing a clean landing. Many competitions also require the rider to do a complex trick. But not all competitions call for a trick to win the gold; some intermittent competitions are based solely on height and distance of the launch of the snowboarder. Some competitions also require the rider to do a specific trick to win the major prize. One of the first snowboard competitions where Travis Rice attempted and landed a \"double back flip backside 180\" took place at the 2006 Red Bull Gap Session.", "The half-pipe is a semi-circular ditch dug into the mountain or purpose-built ramp made up of snow, with walls between 8 and. Competitors perform tricks while going from one side to the other and while in the air above the sides of the pipe.", "Boardercross, also known as \"Boarder X\" and \"Snowboard X\", is a very popular but relatively recent winter sport, starting in the 1980s and earning its place as an official Winter Olympic sport in the 2006 Turin games. In Boardercross, several riders (usually 4 to 6) race down a course similar to a motorcycle motocross track (with jumps, berms and other obstacles constructed out of snow on a downhill course). Unlike traditional head-to-head races, competitors use the same terrain, sometimes resulting in accidental collisions.", "In snowboard racing, riders must complete a downhill course constructed of a series of turning indicators (gates) placed in the snow at prescribed distances apart. A gate consists of a tall pole, and a short pole, connected by a triangular panel. The racer must pass around the short side of the gate. There are 3 main formats used in snowboard racing including; single person, parallel courses or multiple people on the course at the same time (SBX).", "Some of the larger snowboarding contests include: the European Air & Style, the Japanese X-Trail Jam, Burton Global Open Series, Shakedown, FIS World Championships, the annual FIS World Cup, the Winter X Games, Freeride World Tour and the Winter Dew Tour. Snowboarding has been a Winter Olympic sport since 1998 Winter Olympics. Events have changed through the years. During the 2018 Winter Olympics, the snowboarding events were big air, halfpipe, parallel giant slalom, slopestyle and snowboard cross. Snowboarder Magazine's Superpark event was created in 1996. Over 150 of the World's top pros are invited to advance freestyle snowboarding on the most progressive terrain parks. Part of the snowboarding approach is to ensure maximum fun, friendship and event quality. Reflecting this perspective of snowboarding, you can find \"Anti Contests\" including are an important part of its identity including The Holy Oly Revival at The Summit at Snoqualmie, The Nate Chute Hawaiian Classic at Whitefish, the original anti-contest, the World Quarterpipe Championships and the Grenade Games. The United States of America Snowboarding Association (USASA) features three different divisions which include alpine, freestyle, and boardercross. Alpine consists of giant slalom and slalom which is a competition in which the agility and ability to make sharp turns of the snowboarders are tested. Freestyle consists of slopestyle and halfpipe. In boardercross, the idea is to be the first snowboarder down the mountain where everyone is racing each other through an obstacle course of harsh turns and wipeout potential is very likely. The USASA has 36 regional snowboard series in which anyone can compete.", "The snowboarding way of life came about as a natural response to the culture from which it emerged. Early on, there was a rebellion against skiing culture and the view that snowboarders were inferior. Skiers did not easily accept this new culture on their slopes. The two cultures contrasted each other in several ways including how they spoke, acted, and their entire style of clothing. Snowboarders first embraced the punk and later the hip-hop look into their style. Words such as \"dude\", \"gnarly\", and \"Shred the Gnar\" are some examples of words used in the snowboarding culture. Snowboarding subculture became a crossover between the urban and suburban styles on snow, which made an easy transition from surfing and skateboarding culture over to snowboarding culture. The early stereotypes of snowboarding included \"lazy\", \"grungy\", \"punk\", \"stoners\", \"troublemakers\", and numerous others, many of which are associated with skateboarding and surfing as well. However, these stereotypes may be considered \"out of style\". Snowboarding has become a sport that encompasses a very diverse international based crowd and fanbase of many millions, so much so that it is no longer possible to stereotype such a large community. Reasons for these dying stereotypes include how mainstream and popular the sport has become, with the shock factor of snowboarding's quick take off on the slopes wearing off. Skiers and snowboarders are becoming used to each other, showing more respect to each other on the mountain. \"The typical stereotype of the sport is changing as the demographics change\".", "Like some other winter sports, snowboarding comes with a certain level of risk. The injury rate for snowboarding is about four to six per thousand persons per day, which is around double the injury rate for alpine skiing. Injuries are more likely amongst beginners, especially those who do not take lessons with professional instructors. A quarter of all injuries occur to first-time riders and half of all injuries occur to those with less than a year of experience. Experienced riders are less likely to suffer injury, but the injuries that do occur tend to be more severe. Two thirds of injuries occur to the upper body and one third to the lower body. This contrasts with alpine skiing where two thirds of injuries are to the lower body. The most common types of injuries are sprains, which account for around 40% of injuries. The most common point of injury is the wrists – 40% of all snowboard injuries are to the wrists and 24% of all snowboard injuries are wrist fractures. There are around 100,000 wrist fractures worldwide among snowboarders each year. For this reason the use of wrist guards, either separate or built into gloves, is very strongly recommended. They are often compulsory in beginner's classes and their use reduces the likelihood of wrist injury by half. In addition it is important for snow boarders to learn how to fall without stopping the fall with their hand by trying to \"push\" the slope away, as landing a wrist which is bent at a 90 degree angle increase the chance of it breaking. Rather, landing with the arms stretched out (like a wing) and slapping the slope with the entire arm is an effective way to break a fall. This is the method used by practitioners of judo and other martial arts to break a fall when they are thrown against the floor by a training partner. The risk of head injury is two to six times greater for snowboarders than for skiers and injuries follow the pattern of being rarer, but more severe, with experienced riders. Head injuries can occur both as a consequence of a collision and when failing to carry out a heel-side turn. The latter can result in the rider landing on his or her back and slamming the back of his or her head onto the ground, resulting in an occipital head injury. For this reason, helmets are widely recommended. Protective eyewear is also recommended as eye injury can be caused by impact and snow blindness can be a result of exposure to strong ultra-violet light in snow-covered areas. The wearing of ultra-violet-absorbing goggles is recommended even on hazy or cloudy days as ultra-violet light can penetrate clouds. Unlike ski bindings, snowboard bindings are not designed to release automatically in a fall. The mechanical support provided by the feet being locked to the board has the effect of reducing the likelihood of knee injury – 15% of snowboard injuries are to the knee, compared with 45% of all skiing injuries. Such injuries are typically to the knee ligaments, bone fractures are rare. Fractures to the lower leg are also rare but 20% of injuries are to the foot and ankle. Fractures of the talus bone are rare in other sports but account for 2% of snowboard injuries – a lateral process talus fracture is sometimes called \"\"snowboarder's ankle\"\" by medical staff. This particular injury results in persistent lateral pain in the affected ankle yet is difficult to spot in a plain X-ray image. It may be misdiagnosed as just a sprain, with possibly serious consequences as not treating the fracture can result in serious long-term damage to the ankle. The use of portable ultrasound for mountainside diagnostics has been reviewed and appears to be a plausible tool for diagnosing some of the common injuries associated with the sport. Four to eight percent of snowboarding injuries take place while the person is waiting in ski-lift lines or entering and exiting ski lifts. Snowboarders push themselves forward with a free foot while in the ski-lift line, leaving the other foot (usually that of the lead leg) locked on the board at a 9–27 degree angle, placing a large torque force on this leg and predisposing the person to knee injury if a fall occurs. Snowboard binding rotating devices are designed to minimize the torque force, Quick Stance being the first developed in 1995. They allow snowboarders to turn the locked foot straight into the direction of the tip of the snowboard without removing the boot from the boot binding. Avalanches are a clear danger when on snowy mountain slopes. It is best to learn the different kinds of avalanches, how to prevent causing one and how to react when one is going to happen. Also when going out onto the snow, all who practice an activity with increased chances of injury should have a basic First Aid knowledge and know how to deal with injuries that may occur. Snowboarding boots should be well-fitted, with toes snug in the end of the boot when standing upright and slightly away from the end when in the snowboarding position. Padding or \"armor\" is recommended on other body parts such as hips, knees, spine, and shoulders. To further help avoid injury to body parts, especially knees, it is recommended to use the right technique. To acquire the right technique, one should be taught by a qualified instructor. Also, when snowboarding alone, precaution should be taken to avoid tree wells, a particularly dangerous area of loose snow that may form at the base of trees. Some care is also required when waxing a board as fluorocarbon waxes emit toxic fumes when overheated. Waxing is best performed in a ventilated area with care being taken to use the wax at the correct temperature – the wax should be melted but not smoking or smoldering. In a study conducted to examine the types of snowboarding injuries and changes in injury patterns over time, data was collected on injured snowboarders and skiers in a base-lodge clinic of a ski resort in Vermont over 18 seasons (1988–2006) and included extensive information about injury patterns, demographics, and experience. In conclusion of the study, the highest rate of injury was among young, inexperienced, female snowboarders. Injury rates in snowboarders have fluctuated over time but still remain higher than skiers. No evidence was found that those who spend more time in terrain parks are over represented in the injury population.", "", "Snowboarding films have become a main part of progression in the sport. Each season, many films are released, usually in Autumn. These are made by many snowboard-specific video production companies as well as manufacturing companies that use these films as a form of advertisement. Snowboarding videos usually contain video footage of professional riders sponsored by companies. An example of commercial use of snowboarding films would be \"The White Album\", a film by snowboarding legend and filmmaker Dave Seoane about Shaun White, that includes cameos by Tony Hawk and was sponsored by PlayStation, Mountain Dew and Burton Snowboards. Snowboarding films are also used as documentation of snowboarding and showcasing of current trends and styles of the sport. In addition, the 2011 movie \"The Art of Flight\" showcased snowboarders such as Travis Rice attempting to attain greater feats in the sport of snowboarding. However, sometimes the snowboarding industry is not supportive of all snowboarding-themed films. In 2013, \"The Crash Reel\", a feature-length documentary by filmmaker Lucy Walker about former Shaun White rival Kevin Pearce, premiered on the film festival circuit to critical acclaim and was subsequently broadcast on HBO. Using Pearce's career-ending traumatic brain injury and subsequent recovery as a backdrop, the film examines the physical dangers inherent to pro snowboarders and other extreme sports professional athletes under pressure by sponsors and the media to perform increasingly spectacular feats. Although there are significant references to various brands in the film, Walker is \"adamant\" that the snowboarding industry did not sponsor the film in any way and in fact has been unsupportive, despite the film's mainstream media success.", "Snowboard magazines are integral in promoting the sport, although less so with the advent of the internet age. Photo incentives are written into many professional riders' sponsorship contracts giving professionals not only a publicity but a financial incentive to have a photo published in a magazine. Snowboard magazine staff travel with professional riders throughout the winter season and cover travel, contests, lifestyle, rider and company profiles, and product reviews. Snowboard magazines have recently made a push to expand their brands to the online market, and there has also been a growth in online-only publications. Popular magazines include \"Transworld Snowboarding\" (USA), \"Snowboarder Magazine\" (USA), \"Snowboard Magazine\" (USA), and \"Whitelines\" (UK).", "Snowboarding video games provide interactive entertainment on and off season. Most games for this genre have been made for consoles, such as the Xbox and PlayStation. A plethora of online casual snowboarding games also exist along with games for mobile phone." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Magic tricks.", "Modern stage magic.", "Types of magic performance.", "Stage illusions.", "Parlor magic.", "Close-up magic.", "Escapology.", "Pickpocket magic.", "Mentalism.", "Séances.", "Children's magic.", "Online magic.", "Mathemagic.", "Corporate magic.", "Gospel magic.", "Street magic.", "Bizarre magic.", "Shock magic.", "Comedy magic.", "Quick change magic.", "Camera magic.", "Classical magic.", "Mechanical magic.", "Categories of effects.", "Learning magic.", "Misuse of magic.", "Researching magic." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The term \"magic\" etymologically derives from the Greek word \"mageia\" (μαγεία). In ancient times, Greeks and Persians had been at war for centuries, and the Persian priests, called \"magosh\" in Persian, came to be known as \"magoi\" in Greek. Ritual acts of Persian priests came to be known as \"mageia\", and then \"magika\" — which eventually came to mean any foreign, unorthodox, or illegitimate ritual practice. To the general public, successful acts of illusion could be perceived as if it were similar to a feat of magic supposed to have been able to be performed by the ancient magoi. The performance of tricks of illusion, or magical illusion, and the apparent workings and effects of such acts have often been referred to as \"magic\" and particularly as magic tricks. The earliest known book to explain magic secrets, \"The Discoverie of Witchcraft\", was published in 1584. It was created by Reginald Scot to stop people killed for witchcraft. During the 17th century, many books were published that described magic tricks. Until the 18th century, magic shows were a common source of entertainment at fairs. A founding figure of modern entertainment magic was Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin, who had a magic theatre in Paris in 1845. John Henry Anderson was pioneering the same transition in London in the 1840s. Towards the end of the 19th century, large magic shows permanently staged at big theatre venues became the norm. As a form of entertainment, magic easily moved from theatrical venues to television magic specials. Performances that modern observers would recognize as conjuring have been practiced throughout history. For example, a trick with three cups and balls has been performed since 3 B.C. and is still performed today on stage and in street magic shows. For many recorded centuries, magicians were associated with the devil and the occult. During the 19th and 20th centuries, many stage magicians even capitalized on this notion in their advertisements. The same level of ingenuity that was used to produce famous ancient deceptions such as the Trojan Horse would also have been used for entertainment, or at least for cheating in money games. They were also used by the practitioners of various religions and cults from ancient times onwards to frighten uneducated people into obedience or turn them into adherents. However, the profession of the illusionist gained strength only in the 18th century, and has enjoyed several popular vogues since.", "Opinions vary among magicians on how to categorize a given effect, but a number of categories have been developed. Magicians may pull a rabbit from an empty hat, make something seem to disappear, or transform a red silk handkerchief into a green silk handkerchief. Magicians may also destroy something, like cutting a head off, and then \"restore\" it, make something appear to move from one place to another, or they may escape from a restraining device. Other illusions include making something appear to defy gravity, making a solid object appear to pass through another object, or appearing to predict the choice of a spectator. Many magic routines use combinations of effects. One of the earliest books on the subject is Gantziony's work of 1489, \"Natural and Unnatural Magic\", which describes and explains old-time tricks. In 1584, Englishman Reginald Scot published \"The Discoverie of Witchcraft\", part of which was devoted to debunking the claims that magicians used supernatural methods, and showing how their \"magic tricks\" were in reality accomplished. Among the tricks discussed were sleight-of-hand manipulations with rope, paper and coins. At the time, fear and belief in witchcraft was widespread and the book tried to demonstrate that these fears were misplaced. Popular belief held that all obtainable copies were burned on the accession of James I in 1603. During the 17th century, many similar books were published that described in detail the methods of a number of magic tricks, including \"The Art of Conjuring\" (1614) and \"The Anatomy of Legerdemain: The Art of Juggling\" (c. 1675). Until the 18th century, magic shows were a common source of entertainment at fairs, where itinerant performers would entertain the public with magic tricks, as well as the more traditional spectacles of sword swallowing, juggling and fire breathing. In the early 18th century, as belief in witchcraft was waning, the art became increasingly respectable and shows would be put on for rich private patrons. A notable figure in this transition was the English showman, Isaac Fawkes, who began to promote his act in advertisements from the 1720s—he even claimed to have performed for King George II. One of Fawkes' advertisements described his routine in some detail: From 1756 to 1781, Jacob Philadelphia performed feats of magic, sometimes under the guise of scientific exhibitions, throughout Europe and in Russia.", "A founding figure of modern entertainment magic was Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin, originally a clockmaker, who opened a magic theatre in Paris in 1845. He transformed his art from one performed at fairs to a performance that the public paid to see at the theatre. His speciality was constructing mechanical automata that appeared to move and act as if alive. Many of Robert-Houdin's mechanisms for illusion were pirated by his assistant and ended up in the performances of his rivals, John Henry Anderson and Alexander Herrmann. John Henry Anderson was pioneering the same transition in London. In 1840 he opened the New Strand Theatre, where he performed as \"The Great Wizard of the North\". His success came from advertising his shows and captivating his audience with expert showmanship. He became one of the earliest magicians to attain a high level of world renown. He opened a second theatre in Glasgow in 1845. Towards the end of the century, large magic shows permanently staged at big theatre venues became the norm. The British performer J N Maskelyne and his partner Cooke were established at the Egyptian Hall in London's Piccadilly in 1873 by their manager William Morton, and continued there for 31 years. The show incorporated stage illusions and reinvented traditional tricks with exotic (often Oriental) imagery. The potential of the stage was exploited for hidden mechanisms and assistants, and the control it offers over the audience's point of view. Maskelyne and Cooke invented many of the illusions still performed today—one of his best-known being levitation. The model for the look of a 'typical' magician—a man with wavy hair, a top hat, a goatee, and a tailcoat—was Alexander Herrmann (1844–1896), also known as Herrmann the Great. Herrmann was a French magician and was part of the Herrmann family name that is the \"first-family of magic\". The escapologist and magician Harry Houdini (1874-1926) took his stage name from Robert-Houdin and developed a range of stage magic tricks, many of them based on what became known after his death as escapology. Houdini was genuinely skilled in techniques such as lockpicking and escaping straitjackets, but also made full use of the range of conjuring techniques, including fake equipment and collusion with individuals in the audience. Houdini's show-business savvy was as great as his performance skill. There is a Houdini Museum dedicated to him in Scranton, Pennsylvania. The Magic Circle was formed in London in 1905 to promote and advance the art of stage magic. As a form of entertainment, magic easily moved from theatrical venues to television specials, which opened up new opportunities for deceptions, and brought stage magic to huge audiences. Famous magicians of the 20th century included Okito, David Devant, Harry Blackstone Sr., Harry Blackstone Jr., Howard Thurston, Theodore Annemann, Cardini, Joseph Dunninger, Dai Vernon, Fred Culpitt, Tommy Wonder, Siegfried & Roy, and Doug Henning. Popular 20th- and 21st-century magicians include David Copperfield, Lance Burton, James Randi, Penn and Teller, David Blaine, Criss Angel, Hans Klok, Derren Brown and Dynamo. Well-known women magicians include Dell O'Dell and Dorothy Dietrich. Most television magicians perform before a live audience, who provide the remote viewer with a reassurance that the illusions are not obtained with post-production visual effects. Many of the principles of stage magic are old. There is an expression, \"it's all done with smoke and mirrors\", used to explain something baffling, but effects seldom use mirrors today, due to the amount of installation work and transport difficulties. For example, the famous Pepper's Ghost, a stage illusion first used in 19th-century London, required a specially built theatre. Modern performers have vanished objects as large as the Taj Mahal, the Statue of Liberty, and a space shuttle, using other kinds of optical deceptions.", "Magic is often described according to various specialties or genres.", "Stage illusions are performed for large audiences, typically within a theatre or auditorium. This type of magic is distinguished by large-scale props, the use of assistants and often exotic animals such as elephants and tigers. Famous stage illusionists, past and present, include Harry Blackstone, Sr., Howard Thurston, Chung Ling Soo, David Copperfield, Lance Burton, Silvan, Siegfried & Roy, and Harry Blackstone, Jr.", "Parlor magic is done for larger audiences than close-up magic (which is for a few people or even one person) and for smaller audiences than stage magic. In parlor magic, the performer is usually standing and on the same level as the audience, which may be seated on chairs or even on the floor. According to the \"Encyclopedia of Magic and Magicians\" by T.A. Waters, \"The phrase [parlor magic] is often used as a pejorative to imply that an effect under discussion is not suitable for professional performance.\" Also, many magicians consider the term \"parlor\" old fashioned and limiting, since this type of magic is often done in rooms much larger than the traditional parlor, or even outdoors. A better term for this branch of magic may be \"platform\", \"club\" or \"cabaret\". Examples of such magicians include Jeff McBride, David Abbott, Channing Pollock, Black Herman, and Fred Kaps.", "Close-up magic (or table magic) is performed with the audience close to the magician, sometimes even one-on-one. It usually makes use of everyday items as props, such as cards (see Card manipulation), coins (see Coin magic), and seemingly 'impromptu' effects. This may be called \"table magic\", particularly when performed as dinner entertainment. Ricky Jay, Mahdi Moudini, and Lee Asher, following in the traditions of Dai Vernon, Slydini, and Max Malini, are considered among the foremost practitioners of close-up magic.", "Escapology is the branch of magic that deals with escapes from confinement or restraints. Harry Houdini is a well-known example of an \"escape artist\" or \"escapologist\".", "Pickpocket magicians use magic to misdirect members of the audience while removing wallets, belts, ties and other personal effects. It can be presented on a stage, in a cabaret setting, before small close-up groups, or even for one spectator. Well-known pickpockets include James Freedman, David Avadon, Bob Arno, and Apollo Robbins.", "Mentalism creates the impression in the minds of the audience that the performer possesses special powers to read thoughts, predict events, control other minds, and similar feats. It can be presented on a stage, in a cabaret setting, before small close-up groups, or even for one spectator. Well-known mentalists of the past and present include Alexander, The Zancigs, Axel Hellstrom, Dunninger, Kreskin, Derren Brown, Rich Ferguson, Guy Bavli, Banachek, and Alain Nu.", "Theatrical séances simulate spiritualistic or mediumistic phenomena for theatrical effect. This genre of stage magic has been misused at times by charlatans pretending to actually be in contact with spirits.", "Children's magic is performed for an audience primarily composed of children. It is typically performed at birthday parties, preschools, elementary schools, Sunday schools or libraries. This type of magic is usually comedic in nature and involves audience interaction as well as volunteer assistants.", "Online magic tricks were designed to function on a computer screen. The computer essentially replaces the magician. Some online magic tricks recreate traditional card tricks and require user participation, while others, like Plato's Cursed Triangle, are based on mathematical, geometrical and/or optical illusions. One such online magic trick, called Esmeralda's Crystal Ball, became a viral phenomenon that fooled so many computer users into believing that their computer had supernatural powers, that Snopes dedicated a page to debunking the trick.", "Mathemagic is a genre of stage magic that combines magic and mathematics. It is commonly used by children's magicians and mentalists.", "Corporate magic or trade show magic uses magic as a communication and sales tool, as opposed to just straightforward entertainment. Corporate magicians may come from a business background and typically present at meetings, conferences and product launches. They run workshops and can sometimes be found at trade shows, where their patter and illusions enhance an entertaining presentation of the products offered by their corporate sponsors. Pioneer performers in this arena include Eddie Tullock and Guy Bavli.", "Gospel magic uses magic to catechize and evangelize. Gospel magic was first used by St. John Bosco to interest children in 19th-century Turin, Italy to come back to school, to accept assistance and to attend church.", "Street magic is a form of street performing or busking that employs a hybrid of stage magic, platform and close-up magic, usually performed 'in the round' or surrounded by the audience. Notable modern street magic performers include Jeff Sheridan and Gazzo. Since the first David Blaine TV special \"Street Magic\" aired in 1997, the term \"street magic\" has also come to describe a style of 'guerilla' performance in which magicians approach and perform for unsuspecting members of the public on the street. Unlike traditional street magic, this style is almost purely designed for TV and gains its impact from the wild reactions of the public. Magicians of this type include David Blaine and Cyril Takayama.", "Bizarre magic uses mystical, horror, fantasy, and other similar themes in performance. Bizarre magic is typically performed in a close-up venue, although some performers have effectively presented it in a stage setting. Charles Cameron has generally been credited as the \"godfather of bizarre magic\". Others such as Tony Andruzzi have contributed significantly to its development.", "Shock magic is a genre of magic that shocks the audience. Sometimes referred to as \"geek magic\", it takes its roots from circus sideshows, in which 'freakish' performances were shown to audiences. Common shock magic or geek magic effects include eating razor blades, needle-through-arm, string through neck and pen-through-tongue.,", "Comedy magic is the use of magic in which is combined with stand-up comedy. Famous comedy magicians include The Amazing Johnathan, Mac King, and Penn & Teller.", "Quick change magic is the use of magic which is combined with the very quick changing of costumes. Famous quick change artists include Sos & Victoria Petrosyan.", "Camera magic (or \"video magic\") is magic that is aimed at viewers watching broadcasts or recordings. It includes tricks based on the restricted viewing angles of cameras and clever editing. Camera magic often features paid extras posing as spectators who may even be assisting in the performance. Camera magic can be done live, such as Derren Brown's lottery prediction. Famous examples of camera magic include David Copperfield's Floating Over the Grand Canyon and many of Criss Angel's illusions.", "Classical Magic is a style of magic that conveys feelings of elegance and skill akin to prominent magicians of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Notable classical magicians today include Yu Ho-Jin and Ryan Lally.", "Mechanical magic is a form of stage magic in which the magician uses a variety of mechanical devices to perform acts which appear to be physically impossible. Examples include such things as a false-bottomed mortar in which the magician places an audience member's watch only to later produce several feet away inside a wooden frame. Mechanical magic requires a certain degree of sleight of hand and carefully functioning mechanisms and devices to be performed convincingly. This form of magic was popular around the turn of the 19th century— today, many of the original mechanisms used for this magic have become antique collector's pieces and may require significant and careful restoration to function.", "Magicians describe the type of tricks they perform in various ways. Opinions vary as to how to categorize a given effect, and disagreement as to what categories actually exist. For instance, some magicians consider \"penetrations\" a separate category, while others consider penetrations a form of restoration or teleportation. Some magicians today, such as Guy Hollingworth and Tom Stone have begun to challenge the notion that all magic effects fit into a limited number of categories. Among magicians who believe in a limited number of categories (such as Dariel Fitzkee, Harlan Tarbell, S.H. Sharpe), there has been disagreement as to how many different types of effects there are. Some of these are listed below. Many magic routines use combinations of effects. For example, in \"cups and balls\" a magician may use vanishes, productions, penetrations, teleportation and transformations as part of the one presentation. The methodology behind magic is often referred to as a science (often a branch of physics) while the performance aspect is more of an art form.", "Dedication to magic can teach confidence and creativity, as well as the work ethic associated with regular practice and the responsibility that comes with devotion to an art. The teaching of performance magic was once a secretive practice. Professional magicians were unwilling to share knowledge with anyone outside the profession to prevent the laity from learning their secrets. This often made it difficult for an interested apprentice to learn anything but the basics of magic. Some had strict rules against members discussing magic secrets with anyone but established magicians. From the 1584 publication of Reginald Scot's \"Discoverie of Witchcraft\" until the end of the 19th century, only a few books were available for magicians to learn the craft, whereas today mass-market books offer a myriad titles. Videos and DVDs are a newer medium of tuition, but many of the methods found in this format are readily found in previously published books. However, they can serve as a visual demonstration. Persons interested in learning to perform magic can join magic clubs. Here magicians, both seasoned and novitiate, can work together and help one another for mutual improvement, to learn new techniques, to discuss all aspects of magic, to perform for each other—sharing advice, encouragement, and criticism. Before a magician can join one of these clubs, they usually have to audition. The purpose is to show to the membership they are a magician and not just someone off the street wanting to discover magic secrets. The world's largest magic organization is the International Brotherhood of Magicians; it publishes a monthly journal, \"The Linking Ring\". The oldest organization is the Society of American Magicians, which publishes the monthly magazine \"M-U-M\" and of which Houdini was a member and president for several years. In London, England, there is The Magic Circle, which houses the largest magic library in Europe. Also PSYCRETS—The British Society of Mystery Entertainers—caters specifically to mentalists, bizarrists, storytellers, readers, spiritualist performers, and other mystery entertainers. Davenport's Magic in London's The Strand was the world's oldest family-run magic shop. It is now closed. The Magic Castle in Hollywood, California, is home to the Academy of Magical Arts. Traditionally, magicians refuse to reveal the methods behind their tricks to the audience. Membership in professional magicians' organizations often requires a commitment never to reveal the secrets of magic to non-magicians. Magic performances tend to fall into a few specialties or genres. Stage illusions use large-scale props and even large animals. Platform magic is performed for a medium to large audience. Close-up magic is performed with the audience close to the magician. Escapology involves escapes from confinement or restraints. Pickpocket magicians take audience members' wallets, belts, and ties. Mentalism creates the illusion that the magician can read minds. Comedy magic is the use of magic combined with stand-up comedy, an example being Penn & Teller. Some modern illusionists believe that it is unethical to give a performance that claims to be anything other than a clever and skillful deception. Others argue that they can claim that the effects are due to magic. These apparently irreconcilable differences of opinion have led to some conflicts among performers. Another issue is the use of deceptive practices for personal gain outside the venue of a magic performance. Examples include fraudulent mediums, con men and grifters who use deception for cheating at card games.", "Some modern illusionists believe that it is unethical to give a performance that claims to be anything other than a clever and skillful deception. Most of these performers therefore eschew the term \"magician\" (which they view as making a claim to supernatural power) in favor of \"illusionist\" and similar descriptions; for example, the performer Jamy Ian Swiss makes these points by billing himself as an \"honest liar\". Alternatively, many performers say that magical acts, as a form of theatre, need no more of a disclaimer than any play or film; this policy is advocated by the magician and mentalist Joseph Dunninger, who states \"For those who believe, no explanation is necessary; for those who do not believe, no explanation will suffice.\" These apparently irreconcilable differences of opinion have led to some conflicts among performers. For example, more than thirty years after the illusionist Uri Geller made his first appearances on television in the 1970s to exhibit his self-proclaimed psychic ability to bend spoons, his actions still provoke controversy among some magic performers, because he claimed he was not using conjuring techniques. On the other hand, because Geller bent—and continues to bend—spoons within a performance context and has lectured at several magic conventions, the Dunninger quote may be said to apply. Less fraught with controversy, however, may be the use of deceptive practices by those who employ conjuring techniques for personal gain outside the venue of a magic performance. Fraudulent mediums have long capitalized on the popular belief in paranormal phenomena to prey on the bereaved for financial gain. From the 1840s to the 1920s, during the greatest popularity of the Spiritualism religious movement as well as public interest in séances, a number of fraudulent mediums used conjuring methods to perform illusions such as table-knocking, slate-writing, and telekinetic effects, which they attributed to the actions of ghosts or other spirits. The great escapologist and illusionist Harry Houdini devoted much of his time to exposing such fraudulent operators. Magician James Randi, magic duo Penn & Teller, and the mentalist Derren Brown have also devoted much time to investigating and debunking paranormal, occult, and supernatural claims. Fraudulent faith healers have also been shown to employ sleight of hand to give the appearance of removing chicken-giblet \"tumors\" from patients' abdomens. Con men and grifters too may use techniques of conjuring for fraudulent goals. Cheating at card games is an obvious example, and not a surprising one: one of the most respected textbooks of card techniques for magicians, \"The Expert at the Card Table\" by Erdnase, was primarily written as an instruction manual for card sharps. The card trick known as \"Find the Lady\" or \"Three-card Monte\" is an old favourite of street hustlers, who lure the victim into betting on what seems like a simple proposition: to identify, after a seemingly easy-to-track mixing sequence, which one of three face-down cards is the Queen. Another example is the shell game, in which a pea is hidden under one of three walnut shells, then shuffled around the table (or sidewalk) so slowly as to make the pea's position seemingly obvious. Although these are well known as frauds, people still lose money on them; a shell-game ring was broken up in Los Angeles as recently as December 2009.", "Because of the secretive nature of magic, research can be a challenge. Many magic resources are privately held and most libraries only have small populist collections of magicana. However, organizations exist to band together independent collectors, writers, and researchers of magic history, including the Magic Collectors' Association, which publishes a quarterly magazine and hosts an annual convention; and the Conjuring Arts Research Center, which publishes a monthly newsletter and biannual magazine, and offers its members use of a searchable database of rare books and periodicals. Performance magic is particularly notable as a key area of popular culture from the mid-19th to mid-20th centuries. Many performances and performers can be followed through newspapers of the time. Many books have been written about magic tricks; so many are written every year that at least one magic author has suggested that more books are written about magic than any other performing art. Although the bulk of these books are not seen on the shelves of libraries or public bookstores, the serious student can find many titles through specialized stores catering to the needs of magic performers. Several notable public research collections on magic are the \"WG Alma Conjuring Collection\" at the State Library of Victoria; the \"R. B. Robbins Collection of Stage Magic and Conjuring\" at the State Library of NSW; the \" H. Adrian Smith Collection of Conjuring and Magicana\" at Brown University; and the \"Carl W. Jones Magic Collection, 1870s–1948\" at Princeton University." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Occurrence.", "Crystal structure.", "Uses and economic importance.", "Synthetic rutile." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Rutile is a common accessory mineral in high-temperature and high-pressure metamorphic rocks and in igneous rocks. Thermodynamically, rutile is the most stable polymorph of TiO at all temperatures, exhibiting lower total free energy than metastable phases of anatase or brookite. Consequently, the transformation of the metastable TiO polymorphs to rutile is irreversible. As it has the lowest molecular volume of the three main polymorphs, it is generally the primary titanium bearing phase in most high-pressure metamorphic rocks, chiefly eclogites. Within the igneous environment, rutile is a common accessory mineral in plutonic igneous rocks, though it is also found occasionally in extrusive igneous rocks, particularly those such as kimberlites and lamproites that have deep mantle sources. Anatase and brookite are found in the igneous environment particularly as products of autogenic alteration during the cooling of plutonic rocks; anatase is also found in placer deposits sourced from primary rutile. The occurrence of large specimen crystals is most common in pegmatites, skarns, and granite greisens. Rutile is found as an accessory mineral in some altered igneous rocks, and in certain gneisses and schists. In groups of acicular crystals it is frequently seen penetrating quartz as in the \"fléches d'amour\" from Graubünden, Switzerland. In 2005 the Republic of Sierra Leone in West Africa had a production capacity of 23% of the world's annual rutile supply, which rose to approximately 30% in 2008.", "Rutile has a tetragonal unit cell, with unit cell parameters \"a\" = \"b\" = 4.584 Å, and \"c\" = 2.953 Å. The titanium cations have a coordination number of 6, meaning they are surrounded by an octahedron of 6 oxygen atoms. The oxygen anions have a coordination number of 3, resulting in a trigonal planar coordination. Rutile also shows a screw axis when its octahedra are viewed sequentially. Rutile crystals are most commonly observed to exhibit a prismatic or acicular growth habit with preferential orientation along their \"c\" axis, the [001] direction. This growth habit is favored as the {110} facets of rutile exhibit the lowest surface free energy and are therefore thermodynamically most stable. The \"c\"-axis oriented growth of rutile appears clearly in nanorods, nanowires and abnormal grain growth phenomena of this phase.", "In large enough quantities in beach sands, rutile forms an important constituent of heavy minerals and ore deposits. Miners extract and separate the valuable minerals – e.g., rutile, zircon, and ilmenite. The main uses for rutile are the manufacture of refractory ceramic, as a pigment, and for the production of titanium metal. Finely powdered rutile is a brilliant white pigment and is used in paints, plastics, paper, foods, and other applications that call for a bright white color. Titanium dioxide pigment is the single greatest use of titanium worldwide. Nanoscale particles of rutile are transparent to visible light but are highly effective in the absorption of ultraviolet radiation. The UV absorption of nano-sized rutile particles is blue-shifted compared to bulk rutile, so that higher-energy UV light is absorbed by the nanoparticles. Hence, they are used in sunscreens to protect against UV-induced skin damage. Small rutile needles present in gems are responsible for an optical phenomenon known as asterism. Asteriated gems are known as \"star\" gems. Star sapphires, star rubies, and other \"star\" gems are highly sought after and are generally more valuable than their normal counterparts. Rutile is widely used as a welding electrode covering. It is also used as a part of the ZTR index, which classifies highly weathered sediments. Rutile, as a large band-gap semiconductor, has in recent decades been the subject of significant research towards applications as a functional oxide for applications in photocatalysis and dilute magnetism. Research efforts typically utilize small quantities of synthetic rutile rather than mineral-deposit derived materials.", "Synthetic rutile was first produced in 1948 and is sold under a variety of names. It can be produced from the titanium ore ilmenite through the Becher process. Very pure synthetic rutile is transparent and almost colorless, being slightly yellow, in large pieces. Synthetic rutile can be made in a variety of colors by doping. The high refractive index gives an adamantine luster and strong refraction that leads to a diamond-like appearance. The near-colorless diamond substitute is sold as \"Titania\", which is the old-fashioned chemical name for this oxide. However, rutile is seldom used in jewellery because it is not very hard (scratch-resistant), measuring only about 6 on the Mohs hardness scale. As the result of growing research interest in the photocatalytic activity of titanium dioxide, in both anatase and rutile phases (as well as biphasic mixtures of the two phases), rutile TiO in powder and thin film form is frequently fabricated in laboratory conditions through solution based routes using inorganic precursors (typically TiCl) or organometallic precursors (typically alkoxides such as titanium isopropoxide, also known as TTIP). Depending on synthesis conditions, the first phase to crystallize may be the metastable anatase phase, which can then be converted to the equilibrium rutile phase through thermal treatment. The physical properties of rutile are often modified using dopants to impart improved photocatalytic activity through improved photo-generated charge carrier separation, altered electronic band structures and improved surface reactivity." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Origins of the White Rose.", "Activities of the White Rose.", "Legacy.", "Honours.", "In popular culture.", "In film/TV.", "In literature.", "In theatre.", "In music." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "Scholl was the daughter of Magdalena (Müller) and liberal politician and ardent Nazi critic Robert Scholl, who was the mayor of her hometown of Forchtenberg am Kocher in the Free People's State of Württemberg, when Scholl was born. She was the fourth of six children: Scholl was brought up in the Lutheran church. She entered junior or grade school at the age of seven, learned easily, and had a carefree childhood. In 1930, the family moved to Ludwigsburg and then two years later to Ulm where her father had a business consulting office. In 1932, Scholl started attending a secondary school for girls. At the age of twelve, she chose to join the \"Bund Deutscher Mädel\" (League of German Girls), as did most of her classmates. Her initial enthusiasm gradually gave way to criticism. She was aware of the dissenting political views of her father, friends, and some teachers. Even her own brother Hans, who once eagerly participated in the Hitler Youth program, became entirely disillusioned with the Nazi Party. Political attitude had become an essential criterion in her choice of friends. The arrest of her brothers and friends in 1937 for participating in the German Youth Movement left a strong impression on her. She had a talent for drawing and painting and for the first time, came into contact with a few so-called \"degenerate\" artists. An avid reader, she developed a growing interest in philosophy and theology. In spring 1940, she graduated from secondary school, where the subject of her essay was \"The Hand that Moved the Cradle, Moved the World.\" Scholl nearly did not graduate, having lost all desire to participate in the classes which had largely become Nazi indoctrination. Being fond of children, she became a kindergarten teacher at the Fröbel Institute in Ulm. She had also chosen this job hoping that it would be recognized as an alternative service in the \"Reichsarbeitsdienst\" (National Labor Service), a prerequisite for admission to university. This was not the case and in spring 1941 she began a six-month stint in the auxiliary war service as a nursery teacher in Blumberg. The military-like regimen of the Labor Service caused her to rethink her understanding of the political situation and to begin practicing passive resistance. After her six months in the National Labor Service, in May 1942, she enrolled at the University of Munich as a student of biology and philosophy. Her brother Hans, who was studying medicine there, introduced her to his friends. Although this group of friends eventually was known for their political views, they initially were drawn together by a shared love of art, music, literature, philosophy, and theology. Hiking in the mountains, skiing and swimming were also of importance to them. They often attended concerts, plays, and lectures together. In Munich, Scholl met a number of artists, writers, and philosophers, particularly Carl Muth and Theodor Haecker, who were important contacts for her. The question they pondered the most was how the individual must act under a dictatorship. During the summer vacation in 1942, Scholl had to do war service in a metallurgical plant in Ulm. At the same time, her father was serving time in prison for having made a critical remark to an employee about Hitler.", "Between 1940 and 1941, Scholl's brother, Hans Scholl, a former member of the Hitler Youth, began questioning the principles and policies of the Nazi regime. As a student at the University of Munich, Hans Scholl met two Roman Catholic men of letters who redirected his life, inspiring him to turn from studying medicine and pursue religion, philosophy, and the arts. Gathering around him like-minded friends, Alexander Schmorell, Wil Graff, and Jurgen Wittenstein, they eventually adopted a strategy of passive resistance towards the Nazis by writing and publishing leaflets that called for the toppling of National Socialism, calling themselves the White Rose. In the summer of 1942, four leaflets were written and distributed throughout the school and central Germany. Based upon letters between Scholl and her boyfriend, Fritz Hartnagel (reported and analyzed by Gunter Biemer and Jakob Knab in the journal \"Newman Studien\"), she had given two volumes of Saint John Henry Newman's sermons to Hartnagel when he was deployed to the eastern front in May 1942. This discovery by Jakob Knab shows the importance of religion in Scholl's life and was highlighted in an article in the \"Catholic Herald\" in the UK. Scholl learned of the White Rose pamphlet when she found one at her university. Realizing her brother helped write the pamphlet, Scholl herself began to work on the White Rose. The group of authors had been horrified by Hartnagel's reports of German war crimes on the Eastern Front where Hartnagel witnessed Soviet POWs being shot in a mass grave and learned of the mass killings of Jews. Her correspondence with Hartnagel deeply discussed the \"theology of conscience\" developed in Newman's writings. This is seen as her primary defense in her transcribed interrogations leading to her \"trial\" and execution. Those transcripts became the basis for a 2005 film treatment, \"Sophie Scholl – The Final Days\". With six core members, three more White Rose pamphlets were created and circulated over the summer of 1942.", "The core members initially included Hans Scholl (Sophie's brother), Willi Graf, Christoph Probst and Alexander Schmorell (Schmorell was canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church in 2012). Initially her brother had been keen to keep her unaware of their activities, but once she discovered them she joined him and proved valuable to the group because, as a woman, her chances of being randomly stopped by the SS were much smaller. Calling themselves the White Rose, they instructed Germans to passively resist the Nazi government. The pamphlet used both Biblical and philosophical support for an intellectual argument of resistance. In addition to authorship and protection, Scholl helped copy, distribute and mail pamphlets while also managing the group's finances. She and the rest of the White Rose were arrested for distributing the sixth leaflet at the University of Munich on 18 February 1943. The Scholls brought a suitcase full of leaflets to the university main building. They hurriedly dropped stacks of copies in the empty corridors for students to find when they left the lecture rooms. Leaving before the lectures had ended, the Scholls noticed that there were some left-over copies in the suitcase and decided to distribute them. Sophie flung the last remaining leaflets from the top floor down into the atrium. This spontaneous action was observed by the university maintenance man, Jakob Schmid. Hans and Sophie Scholl were taken into Gestapo custody. A draft of a seventh pamphlet, written by Christoph Probst, was found in the possession of Hans Scholl at the time of his arrest by the Gestapo. While Sophie Scholl got rid of incriminating evidence before being taken into custody, Hans did try to destroy the draft of the last leaflet by tearing it apart and trying to swallow it. However, the Gestapo recovered enough of it and were able to match the handwriting with other writings from Probst, which they found when they searched Hans's apartment. The main Gestapo interrogator was Robert Mohr, who initially thought Sophie was innocent. However, after Hans had confessed, Sophie assumed full responsibility in an attempt to protect other members of the White Rose. In the People's Court before Judge Roland Freisler on 21 February 1943, Scholl was recorded as saying these words: No testimony was allowed for the defendants; this was their only defense. On 22 February 1943, Scholl, her brother, Hans, and their friend, Christoph Probst, were found guilty of treason and condemned to death. They were all beheaded by guillotine by executioner Johann Reichhart in Munich's Stadelheim Prison only a few hours later, at 17:00 hrs. The execution was supervised by Walter Roemer, the enforcement chief of the Munich district court. Prison officials, in later describing the scene, emphasized the courage with which she walked to her execution. Her last words were: Fritz Hartnagel was evacuated from Stalingrad in January 1943, but did not return to Germany before Sophie was executed. In October 1945, he married Sophie's sister Elisabeth.", "After her death, a copy of the sixth leaflet was smuggled out of Germany through Scandinavia to the UK by German jurist Helmuth James Graf von Moltke, where it was used by the Allied Forces. In mid-1943, they dropped over Germany millions of propaganda copies of the tract, now retitled \"The Manifesto of the Students of Munich\". Playwright Lillian Garrett-Groag said in \"Newsday\" on 22 February 1993, that \"It is possibly the most spectacular moment of resistance that I can think of in the twentieth century... The fact that five little kids, in the mouth of the wolf, where it really counted, had the tremendous courage to do what they did, is spectacular to me. I know that the world is better for them having been there, but I do not know why.\" In the same issue of \"Newsday\", Holocaust historian Jud Newborn noted that \"You cannot really measure the effect of this kind of resistance in whether or not X number of bridges were blown up or a regime fell... The White Rose really has a more symbolic value, but that's a very important value.\" Else Gebel shared Sophie Scholl's cell and recorded her last words before being taken away to be executed. \"It is such a splendid sunny day, and I have to go. But how many have to die on the battlefield in these days, how many young, promising lives. What does my death matter if by our acts thousands are warned and alerted. Among the student body there will certainly be a revolt.\"", "On 22 February 2003, a bust of Scholl was placed by the government of Bavaria in the Walhalla temple in her honour. The Geschwister-Scholl-Institut (\"Scholl Siblings Institute\") for Political Science at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich (LMU) is named in honour of Sophie Scholl and her brother Hans. The institute is home to the university's political science and communication departments, and is housed in the former Radio Free Europe building close to the city's Englischer Garten. Many local schools as well as countless streets and squares in Germany have been named after Scholl and her brother. In 2003, Germans were invited by television broadcaster ZDF to participate in \"Unsere Besten\" (Our Best), a nationwide competition to choose the top ten most important Germans of all time. Voters under the age of forty helped Scholl and her brother Hans to finish in fourth place, above Bach, Goethe, Gutenberg, Bismarck, Willy Brandt, and Albert Einstein. If the votes of young viewers alone had been counted, Sophie and Hans Scholl would have been ranked first. Several years earlier, readers of \"Brigitte\", a German magazine for women, voted Scholl \"the greatest woman of the twentieth century\". On 9 May 2014, Google depicted Scholl for its Google Doodle on the occasion of what would have been her 93rd birthday.", "", "In the 1970s and 1980s, there were three film accounts of Sophie Scholl and the White Rose resistance. The first film was financed by the Bavarian state government and released in the 1970s, entitled \"Das Versprechen\" (\"The Promise\"). In 1982, Percy Adlon's \"Fünf letzte Tage\" (\"Five Last Days\") presented Lena Stolze as Scholl in her last days from the point of view of her cellmate Else Gebel. In the same year, Stolze repeated the role in Michael Verhoeven's \"Die Weiße Rose\" (\"The White Rose\"). In an interview, Stolze said that playing the role was \"an honour\". In February 2005, a film about Scholl's last days, \"Sophie Scholl – Die letzten Tage (Sophie Scholl – The Final Days)\", featuring Julia Jentsch in the title role, was released. Drawing on interviews with survivors and transcripts that had remained hidden in East German archives until 1990, it was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film in January 2006. For her portrayal of Scholl, Jentsch won the best actress at the European Film Awards, best actress at the German Film Awards (Lolas), along with the Silver Bear for best actress at the Berlin Film Festival. The German TV docudrama \"Frauen die Geschichte machten – Sophie Scholl\" was broadcast in 2013. Sophie Scholl was played by Liv Lisa Fries.", "In February 2009, The History Press released \"Sophie Scholl: The Real Story of the Woman who Defied Hitler\" by Frank McDonough. In February 2010, Carl Hanser Verlag released \"Sophie Scholl: A Biography\" (in German), by Barbara Beuys.", "American playwright Lillian Garrett-Groag's play \"The White Rose\" features Scholl as a major character. \"We Will Not Be Silent\", a dramatization by David Meyers of Scholl's imprisonment and interrogation, premiered at the Contemporary American Theater Festival in Shepherdstown, West Virginia in July, 2017. In later life Whitney Seymour, his wife Catryna, and their daughters Tryntje and Gabriel, co-wrote and produced Stars in the Dark, a one-act play about Hans and Sophie Scholl and their role in the White Rose resistance group in Nazi Germany in the 1940s. The play, which took around five years to write, was released in 2008 (when Seymour was 85) and had five performances off-Broadway.", "George Donaldson, a Scottish folk singer wrote a song called 'The White Rose' on an Album titled the same, about Sophie and the White Rose movement. The English punk band Zatopeks released an eponymous love song for Sophie Scholl on their debut album (2005). Mickey 3D, a French rock band, wrote a song called \"La Rose Blanche\" on an album titled \"Sebolavy\" (2016). American rock band Sheer Mag recorded a song called \"(Say Goodbye to) Sophie Scholl\" on its 2017 debut album \"Need to Feel Your Love\". Reg Meuross, a British folk singer, released 'For Sophie' on his album \"Faraway People\" in 2017." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Important marginal concepts.", "Marginality.", "Marginal use.", "Marginal utility.", "Quantified marginal utility.", "Law of diminishing marginal utility.", "Marginal rate of substitution.", "Marginal cost.", "Application to price theory.", "Demand.", "Supply.", "Markets.", "Paradox of water and diamonds.", "History.", "Proto-marginalist approaches.", "Marginalists before the Revolution.", "Marginal Revolution.", "Second generation.", "Marginal Revolution as a response to socialism.", "Eclipse.", "Revival.", "Criticism.", "Marxist criticism of marginalism.", "Marxist adaptations to marginalism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "For issues of marginality, constraints are conceptualized as a \"border\" or \"margin\". The location of the margin for any individual corresponds to his or her \"endowment\", broadly conceived to include opportunities. This endowment is determined by many things including physical laws (which constrain how forms of energy and matter may be transformed), accidents of nature (which determine the presence of natural resources), and the outcomes of past decisions made both by others and by the individual. A value that holds true given particular constraints is a \"marginal\" value. A change that would be affected as or by a specific loosening or tightening of those constraints is a \"marginal\" change. Neoclassical economics usually assumes that marginal changes are infinitesimals or limits. Although this assumption makes the analysis less robust, it increases tractability. One is therefore often told that \"marginal\" is synonymous with \"very small\", though in more general analysis this may not be operationally true and would not in any case be literally true. Frequently, economic analysis concerns the marginal values associated with a change of one unit of a resource, because decisions are often made in terms of units; marginalism seeks to explain unit prices in terms of such marginal values.", "The marginal use of a good or service is the specific use to which an agent would put a given increase, or the specific use of the good or service that would be abandoned in response to a given decrease. Marginalism assumes, for any given agent, economic rationality and an ordering of possible states-of-the-world, such that, for any given set of constraints, there is an attainable state which is best in the eyes of that agent. Descriptive marginalism asserts that choice amongst the specific means by which various anticipated specific states-of-the-world (outcomes) might be affected is governed only by the distinctions amongst those specific outcomes; prescriptive marginalism asserts that such choice \"ought\" to be so governed. On such assumptions, each increase would be put to the specific, feasible, previously unrealized use of greatest priority, and each decrease would result in abandonment of the use of lowest priority amongst the uses to which the good or service had been put.", "The marginal utility of a good or service is the utility of its marginal use. Under the assumption of economic rationality, it is the utility of its least urgent possible use \"from\" the best feasible combination of actions in which its use is included. In 20th century mainstream economics, the term \"utility\" has come to be formally defined as a \"quantification\" capturing preferences by assigning greater quantities to states, goods, services, or applications that are of higher priority. But marginalism and the concept of marginal utility predate the establishment of this convention within economics. The more general conception of utility is that of \"use\" or \"usefulness\", and this conception is at the heart of marginalism; the term \"marginal utility\" arose from translation of the German \"Grenznutzen\", which literally means \"border use\", referring directly to the marginal use, and the more general formulations of marginal utility do not treat quantification as an \"essential\" feature. On the other hand, none of the early marginalists insisted that utility were \"not\" quantified, some indeed treated quantification as an essential feature, and those who did not still used an assumption of quantification for expository purposes. In this context, it is not surprising to find many presentations that fail to recognize a more general approach.", "Under the special case in which usefulness can be quantified, the change in utility of moving from state formula_1 to state formula_2 is Moreover, if formula_1 and formula_2 are distinguishable by values of just one variable formula_6 which is itself quantified, then it becomes possible to speak of the ratio of the marginal utility of the change in formula_6 to the size of that change: (where “c.p.” indicates that the \"only\" independent variable to change is formula_6). Mainstream neoclassical economics will typically assume that is well defined, and use \"marginal utility\" to refer to a partial derivative", "The law of diminishing marginal utility, also known as a Gossen's First Law, is that \"ceteris paribus\", as additional amounts of a good or service are added to available resources, their marginal utilities are decreasing. This law is sometimes treated as a tautology, sometimes as something proven by introspection, or sometimes as a mere instrumental assumption, adopted only for its perceived predictive efficacy. It is not quite any of these things, although it may have aspects of each. The law does not hold under all circumstances, so it is neither a tautology nor otherwise proveable; but it has a basis in prior observation. An individual will typically be able to partially order the potential uses of a good or service. If there is scarcity, then a rational agent will satisfy wants of highest possible priority, so that no want is avoidably sacrificed to satisfy a want of \"lower\" priority. In the absence of complementarity across the uses, this will imply that the priority of use of any additional amount will be lower than the priority of the established uses, as in this famous example: However, if there \"is\" a complementarity across uses, then an amount added can bring things past a desired tipping point, or an amount subtracted cause them to fall short. In such cases, the marginal utility of a good or service might actually be \"increasing\". Without the presumption that utility is quantified, the \"diminishing\" of utility should not be taken to be itself an arithmetic subtraction. It is the movement from use of higher to lower priority, and may be no more than a purely ordinal change. When quantification of utility is assumed, diminishing marginal utility corresponds to a utility function whose \"slope\" is continually or continuously decreasing. In the latter case, if the function is also smooth, then the law may be expressed as Neoclassical economics usually supplements or supplants discussion of marginal utility with indifference curves, which were originally derived as the level curves of utility functions, or can be produced without presumption of quantification, but are often simply treated as axiomatic. In the absence of complementarity of goods or services, diminishing marginal utility implies convexity of indifference curves, although such convexity would also follow from quasiconcavity of the utility function.", "The \"rate of substitution\" is the \"least favorable\" rate at which an agent is willing to exchange units of one good or service for units of another. The \"marginal\" rate of substitution (MRS) is the rate of substitution at the margin; in other words, given some constraint. When goods and services are discrete, the least favorable rate at which an agent would trade A for B will usually be different from that at which she would trade B for A: When the goods and services are continuously divisible in the limiting case and the marginal rate of substitution is the slope of the indifference curve (multiplied by formula_15). If, for example, Lisa will not trade a goat for anything less than two sheep, then her If she will not trade a sheep for anything less than two goats, then her However, if she would trade one gram of banana for one ounce of ice cream \"and vice versa\", then When indifference curves (which are essentially graphs of instantaneous rates of substitution) and the convexity of those curves are not taken as given, the \"law\" of diminishing marginal utility is invoked to explain diminishing marginal rates of substitution – a willingness to accept fewer units of good or service formula_19 in substitution for formula_20 as one's holdings of formula_19 grow relative to those of formula_20. If an individual has a stock or flow of a good or service whose marginal utility is less than would be that of some other good or service for which he or she could trade, then it is in his or her interest to effect that trade. As one thing is traded-away and another is acquired, the respective marginal gains or losses from further trades are now changed. On the assumption that the marginal utility of one is diminishing, and the other is not increasing, all else being equal, an individual will demand an increasing ratio of that which is acquired to that which is sacrificed. One important way in which all else might not be equal is when the use of the one good or service complements that of the other. In such cases, exchange ratios might be constant. If any trader can better his or her own marginal position by offering an exchange more favorable to other traders with desired goods or services, then he or she will do so.", "At the highest level of generality, a marginal cost is a marginal opportunity cost. In most contexts, marginal cost refers to marginal \"pecuniary\" cost, that is to say marginal cost measured by forgone money. A thorough-going marginalism sees marginal cost as increasing under the law of diminishing marginal utility, because applying resources to one application reduces their availability to other applications. Neoclassical economics tends to disregard this argument, but to see marginal costs as increasing in consequence of diminishing returns.", "Marginalism and neoclassical economics typically explain price formation broadly through the interaction of curves or schedules of supply and demand. In any case buyers are modelled as pursuing typically lower quantities, and sellers offering typically higher quantities, as price is increased, with each being willing to trade until the marginal value of what they would trade-away exceeds that of the thing for which they would trade.", "Demand curves are explained by marginalism in terms of marginal rates of substitution. At any given price, a prospective buyer has some marginal rate of substitution of money for the good or service in question. Given the \"law\" of diminishing marginal utility, or otherwise given convex indifference curves, the rates are such that the willingness to forgo money for the good or service decreases as the buyer would have ever more of the good or service and ever less money. Hence, any given buyer has a demand schedule that generally decreases in response to price (at least until quantity demanded reaches zero). The aggregate quantity demanded by all buyers is, at any given price, just the sum of the quantities demanded by individual buyers, so it too decreases as price increases.", "Both neoclassical economics and thorough-going marginalism could be said to explain supply curves in terms of marginal cost; however, there are marked differences in conceptions of that cost. Marginalists in the tradition of Marshall and neoclassical economists tend to represent the supply curve for any producer as a curve of marginal pecuniary costs objectively determined by physical processes, with an upward slope determined by diminishing returns. A more thorough-going marginalism represents the supply curve as a \"complementary demand curve\" – where the demand is \"for\" money and the purchase is made \"with\" a good or service. The shape of that curve is then determined by marginal rates of substitution of money for that good or service.", "By confining themselves to limiting cases in which sellers or buyers are both \"price takers\" – so that demand functions ignore supply functions or \"vice versa\" – Marshallian marginalists and neoclassical economists produced tractable models of \"pure\" or \"perfect\" competition and of various forms of \"imperfect\" competition, which models are usually captured by relatively simple graphs. Other marginalists have sought to present what they thought of as more realistic explanations, but this work has been relatively uninfluential on the mainstream of economic thought.", "The law of diminishing marginal utility is said to explain the paradox of water and diamonds, most commonly associated with Adam Smith, although it was recognized by earlier thinkers. Human beings cannot even survive without water, whereas diamonds, in Smith's day, were ornamentation or engraving bits. Yet water had a very small price, and diamonds a very large price. Marginalists explained that it is the \"marginal\" usefulness of any given quantity that matters, rather than the usefulness of a \"class\" or of a \"totality\". For most people, water was sufficiently abundant that the loss or gain of a gallon would withdraw or add only some very minor use if any, whereas diamonds were in much more restricted supply, so that the loss or gain was much greater. That is not to say that the price of any good or service is simply a function of the marginal utility that it has for any one individual nor for some ostensibly typical individual. Rather, individuals are willing to trade based upon the respective marginal utilities of the goods that they have or desire (with these marginal utilities being distinct for each potential trader), and prices thus develop constrained by these marginal utilities.", "", "Perhaps the essence of a notion of diminishing marginal utility can be found in Aristotle's \"Politics\", wherein he writes There has been marked disagreement about the development and role of marginal considerations in Aristotle's' value theory. A great variety of economists concluded that there was \"some\" sort of inter-relationship between utility and rarity that effected economic decisions, and in turn informed the determination of prices. Eighteenth-century Italian mercantilists, such as Antonio Genovesi, Giammaria Ortes, Pietro Verri, Cesare Beccaria, and Giovanni Rinaldo, held that value was explained in terms of the general utility and of scarcity, though they did not typically work-out a theory of how these interacted. In \"Della Moneta\" (1751), Abbé Ferdinando Galiani, a pupil of Genovesi, attempted to explain value as a ratio of two ratios, \"utility\" and \"scarcity\", with the latter component ratio being the ratio of quantity to use. Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, in \"Réflexions sur la formation et la distribution de richesse\" (1769), held that value derived from the general utility of the class to which a good belonged, from comparison of present and future wants, and from anticipated difficulties in procurement. Like the Italian mercantilists, Étienne Bonnot de Condillac saw value as determined by utility associated with the class to which the good belongs, and by estimated scarcity. In \"De commerce et le gouvernement\" (1776), Condillac emphasized that value is not based upon cost but that costs were paid because of value. This last point was famously restated by the 19th century proto-marginalist Richard Whately, who wrote as follows in \"Introductory Lectures on Political Economy\" (1832): Whately's student Nassau William Senior is noted below as an early marginalist. Frédéric Bastiat in chapters V and XI of his \"Economic Harmonies\" (1850) also develops a theory of value as ratio between services that increment utility, rather than between total utility.", "The first unambiguous published statement of any sort of theory of marginal utility was by Daniel Bernoulli, in \"Specimen theoriae novae de mensura sortis\". This paper appeared in 1738, but a draft had been written in 1731 or in 1732. In 1728, Gabriel Cramer produced fundamentally the same theory in a private letter. Each had sought to resolve the St. Petersburg paradox, and had concluded that the marginal desirability of money decreased as it was accumulated, more specifically such that the desirability of a sum were the natural logarithm (Bernoulli) or square root (Cramer) thereof. However, the more general implications of this hypothesis were not explicated, and the work fell into obscurity. In \"A Lecture on the Notion of Value as Distinguished Not Only from Utility, but also from Value in Exchange\", delivered in 1833 and included in \"Lectures on Population, Value, Poor Laws and Rent\" (1837), William Forster Lloyd explicitly offered a general marginal utility theory, but did not offer its derivation nor elaborate its implications. The importance of his statement seems to have been lost on everyone (including Lloyd) until the early 20th century, by which time others had independently developed and popularized the same insight. In \"An Outline of the Science of Political Economy\" (1836), Nassau William Senior asserted that marginal utilities were the ultimate determinant of demand, yet apparently did not pursue implications, though some interpret his work as indeed doing just that. In \"De la mesure de l'utilité des travaux publics\" (1844), Jules Dupuit applied a conception of marginal utility to the problem of determining bridge tolls. In 1854, Hermann Heinrich Gossen published \"Die Entwicklung der Gesetze des menschlichen Verkehrs und der daraus fließenden Regeln für menschliches Handeln\", which presented a marginal utility theory and to a very large extent worked-out its implications for the behavior of a market economy. However, Gossen's work was not well received in the Germany of his time, most copies were destroyed unsold, and he was virtually forgotten until rediscovered after the so-called Marginal Revolution.", "Marginalism as a formal theory can be attributed to the work of three economists, Jevons in England, Menger in Austria, and Walras in Switzerland. William Stanley Jevons first proposed the theory in articles in 1863 and 1871. Similarly, Carl Menger presented the theory in 1871. Menger explained why individuals use marginal utility to decide amongst trade-offs, but while his illustrative examples present utility as quantified, his essential assumptions do not. Léon Walras introduced the theory in \"Éléments d'économie politique pure\", the first part of which was published in 1874. The American John Bates Clark is also associated with the origins of Marginalism, but did little to advance the theory.", "Although the Marginal Revolution flowed from the work of Jevons, Menger, and Walras, their work might have failed to enter the mainstream were it not for a second generation of economists. In England, the second generation were exemplified by Philip Wicksteed, by William Smart, and by Alfred Marshall; in Austria by Eugen Böhm von Bawerk and by Friedrich von Wieser; in Switzerland by Vilfredo Pareto; and in America by Herbert Joseph Davenport and by Frank A. Fetter. There were significant, distinguishing features amongst the approaches of Jevons, Menger, and Walras, but the second generation did not maintain distinctions along national or linguistic lines. The work of von Wieser was heavily influenced by that of Walras. Wicksteed was heavily influenced by Menger. Fetter referred to himself and Davenport as part of \"the American Psychological School\", named in imitation of the Austrian \"Psychological School\". Clark's work from this period onward similarly shows heavy influence by Menger. William Smart began as a conveyor of Austrian School theory to English-language readers, though he fell increasingly under the influence of Marshall. Böhm-Bawerk was perhaps the most able expositor of Menger's conception. He was further noted for producing a theory of interest and of profit in equilibrium based upon the interaction of diminishing marginal utility with diminishing marginal productivity of time and with time preference. (This theory was adopted in full and then further developed by Knut Wicksell and with modifications including formal disregard for time-preference by Wicksell's American rival Irving Fisher.) Marshall was the second-generation marginalist whose work on marginal utility came most to inform the mainstream of neoclassical economics, especially by way of his \"Principles of Economics\", the first volume of which was published in 1890. Marshall constructed the demand curve with the aid of assumptions that utility was quantified, and that the marginal utility of money was constant, or nearly so. Like Jevons, Marshall did not see an explanation for supply in the theory of marginal utility, so he paired a marginal explanation of demand with a more classical explanation of supply, wherein costs were taken to be objectively determined. Marshall later actively mischaracterized the criticism that these costs were themselves ultimately determined by marginal utilities.", "The doctrines of marginalism and the Marginal Revolution are often interpreted as a response to the rise of the worker's movement, Marxian economics and the earlier (Ricardian) socialist theories of the exploitation of labour. The first volume of \"Das Kapital\" was not published until July 1867, when marginalism was already developing, but before the advent of Marxian economics, proto-marginalist ideas such as those of Gossen had largely fallen on deaf ears. It was only in the 1880s, when Marxism had come to the fore as the main economic theory of the workers' movement, that Gossen found (posthumous) recognition. Aside from the rise of Marxism, E. Screpanti and S. Zamagni point to a different 'external' reason for marginalism's success, which is its successful response to the Long Depression and the resurgence of class conflict in all developed capitalist economies after the 1848–1870 period of social peace. Marginalism, Screpanti and Zamagni argue, offered a theory of the free market as perfect, as performing optimal allocation of resources, while it allowed economists to blame any adverse effects of laissez-faire economics on the interference of workers' coalitions in the proper functioning of the market. Scholars have suggested that the success of the generation who followed the preceptors of the Revolution was their ability to formulate straightforward responses to Marxist economic theory. The most famous of these was that of Böhm-Bawerk, \"Zum Abschluss des Marxschen Systems\" (1896), but the first was Wicksteed's \"The Marxian Theory of Value. \"Das Kapital\": a criticism\" (1884, followed by \"The Jevonian criticism of Marx: a rejoinder\" in 1885). The most famous early Marxist responses were Rudolf Hilferding's \"Böhm-Bawerks Marx-Kritik\" (1904) and \"The Economic Theory of the Leisure Class\" (1914) by Nikolai Bukharin.", "In his 1881 work \"Mathematical Psychics\", Francis Ysidro Edgeworth presented the indifference curve, deriving its properties from marginalist theory which assumed utility to be a differentiable function of quantified goods and services. But it came to be seen that indifference curves could be considered as somehow \"given\", without bothering with notions of utility. In 1915, Eugen Slutsky derived a theory of consumer choice solely from properties of indifference curves. Because of the World War, the Bolshevik Revolution, and his own subsequent loss of interest, Slutsky's work drew almost no notice, but similar work in 1934 by John Hicks and R. G. D. Allen derived much the same results and found a significant audience. Allen subsequently drew attention to Slutsky's earlier accomplishment. Although some of the third generation of Austrian School economists had by 1911 rejected the quantification of utility while continuing to think in terms of marginal utility, most economists presumed that utility must be a sort of quantity. Indifference curve analysis seemed to represent a way of dispensing with presumptions of quantification, albeït that a seemingly arbitrary assumption (admitted by Hicks to be a \"rabbit out of a hat\") about decreasing marginal rates of substitution would then have to be introduced to have convexity of indifference curves. For those who accepted that superseded marginal utility analysis had been superseded by indifference curve analysis, the former became at best somewhat analogous to the Bohr model of the atom—perhaps pedagogically useful, but \"old fashioned\" and ultimately incorrect.", "When Cramer and Bernoulli introduced the notion of diminishing marginal utility, it had been to address a paradox of gambling, rather than the paradox of value. The marginalists of the revolution, however, had been formally concerned with problems in which there was neither risk nor uncertainty. So too with the indifference curve analysis of Slutsky, Hicks, and Allen. The expected utility hypothesis of Bernoulli \"et alii\" was revived by various 20th century thinkers, including Frank Ramsey (1926), John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern (1944), and Leonard Savage (1954). Although this hypothesis remains controversial, it brings not merely utility but a quantified conception thereof back into the mainstream of economic thought, and would dispatch the Ockhamistic argument. It should perhaps be noted that in expected utility analysis the law of diminishing marginal utility corresponds to what is called risk aversion.", "", "Karl Marx died before marginalism became the interpretation of economic value accepted by mainstream economics. His theory was based on the labor theory of value, which distinguishes between exchange value and use value. In his \"Capital\", he rejected the explanation of long-term market values by supply and demand: In his early response to marginalism, Nikolai Bukharin argued that \"the subjective evaluation from which price is to be derived really starts from this price\", concluding: Similarly a later Marxist critic, Ernest Mandel, argued that marginalism was \"divorced from reality\", ignored the role of production, further arguing: Maurice Dobb argued that prices derived through marginalism depend on the distribution of income. The ability of consumers to express their preferences is dependent on their spending power. As the theory asserts that prices arise in the act of exchange, Dobb argues that it cannot explain how the distribution of income affects prices and consequently cannot explain prices. Dobb also criticized the \"motives\" behind marginal utility theory. Jevons wrote, for example, \"so far as is consistent with the inequality of wealth in every community, all commodities are distributed by exchange so as to produce the maximum social benefit.\" (See Fundamental theorems of welfare economics.) Dobb contended that this statement indicated that marginalism is intended to insulate market economics from criticism by making prices the natural result of the given income distribution.", "Some economists strongly influenced by the Marxian tradition such as Oskar Lange, Włodzimierz Brus, and Michał Kalecki have attempted to integrate the insights of classical political economy, marginalism, and neoclassical economics. They believed that Marx lacked a sophisticated theory of prices, and neoclassical economics lacked a theory of the social frameworks of economic activity. Some other Marxists have also argued that on one level there is no conflict between marginalism and Marxism as one could employ a marginalist theory of supply and demand within the context of a big picture understanding of the Marxist notion that capitalists exploit surplus labor." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "History.", "Mutscheltag.", "Transport.", "University.", "International relations.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Reutlingen is located about south of the State capital of Baden-Württemberg, Stuttgart. It lies in the Southwest corner of Germany, right next to the Swabian Jura, and that is why it is often called \"The gateway to the Swabian Jura\" (). The Echaz river, a tributary of the Neckar, flows through the town centre. Along with the old university town of Tübingen (about to the west), Reutlingen is the centre of the Neckar-Alb region. It is also part of the larger Stuttgart Metropolitan Region.", "The first settlements in the area are believed to date from the 4th or 5th century. Some time around 1030, Count Egino started to build a castle on top of the \"Achalm\", one of the largest mountains in Reutlingen district (about 706 m). One of the towers of this castle was rebuilt in the 19th century and is open to visitors. The name \"Reutlingen\" was first mentioned in writing in the so-called \"Bempflingen Treaty\" () which is dated approximately 1089–90. Around 1180, Reutlingen received market rights and, between 1220 and 1240 it was promoted to city status and city-walls and fortifications were built. Shortly thereafter, from 1247–1343, the town's landmark, the St. Mary's Church () was built. In 1377 Reutlingen was the scene of a victory by the Swabian League, formed in the previous year by 14 Swabian cities, led by Ulm, over the Count of Württemberg. In 1519, a later Swabian League came to Reutlingen's help when Ulrich, Duke of Württemberg attempted to seize the city; the League landed a crushing blow, conquering Württemberg and selling it to Charles V. In 1495 and 1516 the jews were exiled from the town. As a result of such struggles, Reutlingen became an Imperial City of the Holy Roman Empire, free from allegiance to the Duke of Württemberg. In 1530, Reutlingen's city council signed the Augsburg Confession, and in 1580 and the Formula of Concord, key documents of Lutheranism. In 1803, in the wake of the French Revolutionary Wars, Reutlingen lost its independence in the German Mediatisation, being restored to Württemberg. The worst disaster in the history of Reutlingen happened in 1726, when a major fire swept through the city, destroying 80% of all residential houses and almost all public buildings, and making 1,200 families homeless. The impact of this fire, which lasted three days, is still visible today. During World War II, the wings of the V-1 flying bomb were manufactured in Reutlingen, making the city the target of several allied bombing raids. The reconstruction of Reutlingen and its democratization is closely linked to the name Oskar Kalbfells, who was the first democratically elected mayor of the city to shape Reutlingen's political history until 1973 after World War II. In 1947 Reutlingen came to the newly founded state of Württemberg-Hohenzollern, which merged with the state of Baden-Württemberg in 1952. On 24 July 2016 a Syrian asylum seeker killed a pregnant woman in a machete attack.", "On Mutscheltag (the first Thursday after Epiphany), townspeople gather in halls and homes to play games of dice, the winner of which earns parts or whole Mutschel loaves of bread. The Mutschelspiele (Mutschel games) consist of small games scored by tally marks, and are won both independently and by grand total at the end of the hour or night. This tradition is unique to the city of Reutlingen.", "City buses are run by Reutlinger Stadtverkehr (RSV), while trains from Reutlingen Hauptbahnhof and Reutlingen West, -Sondelfingen and Reutlingen-Betzingen are run by Deutsche Bahn.", "Reutlingen University is a university of applied sciences, focusing on hands-on learning, which is apparent in their mandatory internship for all business majors. The university is an internationally friendly school with over 200 university cooperations worldwide. Classes are generally taught in German; however, in some Bachelor programs and in the Master's programs classes are taught in English.", "", "Reutlingen is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Childhood.", "Education.", "Early career 1804–1810.", "Later career 1810–1826.", "Legacy.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Weber was born in Eutin, Bishopric of Lübeck, the eldest of the three children of and his second wife, Genovefa Weber, a Viennese singer. He was baptized Catholic on November 20 1786 to the name Carl Friedrich Ernst, the second name Maria appeared only later. His brother and sister died as infants. Both his parents were Catholic and originally came from the far south of Germany. The \"von\" was an affectation of his father, who was not actually an aristocrat. In April 1779 Franz Anton had been appointed director of the prince-bishopric orchestra Eutin which, however, was dissolved 1781 because of spending caps. He changed to the position of Eutin's municipal music director. Dissatisfied with this position he took his leave in 1787 and founded a theatre company in Hamburg. After a transitional stay in Vienna, he joined the theatre company of Johann Friedrich Toscani and Peter Carl Santorini, who performed in Kassel, Marburg and Hofgeismar. He tried repeatedly to establish a lasting company of his own but only accomplished interludes which lasted for a year or two. Franz Anton's half-brother, Fridolin, married Cäcilia Stamm and had four musical daughters, Josepha, Aloysia, Constanze and Sophie, all of whom became notable singers. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart attempted to woo Aloysia, composing several pieces for her. But after she rejected his advances, Mozart went on to marry Constanze. So Mozart's wife was a cousin of Carl Maria von Weber. A gifted violinist, Franz Anton had ambitions of turning Carl into a child prodigy like Franz's nephew-by-marriage, Mozart. Carl was born with a congenital hip disease and did not begin to walk until he was four. But by then, he was already a capable singer and pianist.", "Franz Anton gave Carl Maria a comprehensive education, which was however interrupted by the family's frequent moves. In 1796, Carl Maria continued his musical education in Hildburghausen, where he was instructed by the oboist Johann Peter Heuschkel. After moving to Salzburg (autumn 1797) Carl Maria studied with Michael Haydn (starting 1798), the younger brother of Joseph Haydn, who agreed to teach Carl Maria free of charge. The time in Salzburg was overshadowed by the death of Carl Maria's mother Genovefa on 13 March 1798, who succumbed to tuberculosis. His one-year-old sister Antonetta died at the end of the year on 29 December 1798 in Munich. A travel to Josef Haydn in Vienna (presumably in hope of advanced lectures) remained fruitless. In autumn 1798 Weber moved to Munich where he studied singing with Johann Evangelist Wallishauser and composing with Johann Nepomuk Kalcher who supervised Weber's first opera, \"Die Macht der Liebe und des Weins\" (\"The Power of Love and Wine\"). Like other compositions of that period this opera is lost. Six fughettas for piano of the twelve-year-old Weber were published in Leipzig. Carl Maria's musical education was amended by the manual basics of lithography which he learned in the workshop of Alois Senefelder, the inventor of the process, and Franz Gleißner (autumn 1799). A set of his \"Variations for the Pianoforte\" was lithographed by Weber himself. In 1800, the family moved to Freiberg in Saxony, where Weber, then 14 years old, wrote an opera called \"Das stumme Waldmädchen\" (\"The Silent Forest Maiden\"). It was produced at the Freiberg and Chemnitz theatre and later in Saint Petersburg (1804), Vienna (1805/1805) and Prague (1806). The young Weber also began to publish articles as a music critic, for example in the \"Leipziger Neue Zeitung\" in 1801. In 1801, the family returned to Salzburg, where Weber resumed his studies with Michael Haydn. Carl Maria composed his third opera \"Peter Schmoll und seine Nachbarn\" (Peter Schmoll and His Neighbours) which was positively received by his teacher. After a concert tour in 1802 the Webers returned to Augsburg where \"Peter Schmoll\" presumably premiered. In mid 1803 Carl Maria continued his studies in Vienna with Georg Joseph Vogler, known as Abbé Vogler, founder of three important music schools (in Mannheim, Stockholm, and Darmstadt). Another famous pupil of Vogler in Darmstadt was Jakob Meyer Beer, later better known as Giacomo Meyerbeer, who became a close friend of Weber. In letters they addressed each other as \"brother\".", "Vogler recommended his 17-year-old pupil Carl Maria to the post of Director at the Breslau Opera in 1804, who was offered and accepted the mission. Weber sought to reform the Opera by pensioning off older singers, expanding the orchestra, and tackling a more challenging repertoire. His ambitious and dedicated work as director of the orchestra was acknowledged though his tempi were frequently criticized as too fast. As the daily routine did not leave sufficient time for own creative work, Weber abandoned the prolongation of his two-year appointment. After an interlude at the court of Duke Eugen (I.) of Württemberg, who resided in Silesia, Weber served from 1807 to 1810 in Stuttgart as private secretary to Duke Ludwig, brother of King Frederick I of Württemberg. Weber's time in Württemberg was plagued with troubles. He fell deeply into debt and became entangled in financial manipulations of his employer, e.g. the sale of confirmations of ducal service which exempted from military service. Carl Maria was arrested and charged with embezzlement and bribery. As he could disprove the allegations one restricted the case to civil law because one did not want to compromise the conjectured manipulator, the brother of the king. Weber accepted to pay his debts (last payment 1816) and was banished from Württemberg together with his father. As sobering side effect Weber started to keep a diary to list his expenses, sent and received letters and occasional comments of special events. Nevertheless, Carl remained prolific as a composer during this period, writing a quantity of religious music, mainly for the Catholic mass. This however earned him the hostility of reformers working for the re-establishment of traditional chant in liturgy.", "In 1810, Weber visited several cities throughout Germany; 1811 was a pivotal year in his career when he met and worked with the Munich court clarinetist Heinrich Baermann and composed the Concertino in E Major, Op. 26, J. 109, and the two concerti J. 114 and J. 118 for him; from December 1811 through March 1812, Weber went on tour with Baermann playing the clarinet works, and it was some of the final concerts on this tour that changed public, critical and royal opinions of Weber's work, and helped him to mount a successful performance of \"Silvana\" in Berlin later that year; from 1813 to 1816 he was director of the Opera in Prague; from 1816 to 1817 he worked in Berlin, and from 1817 onwards he was director of the prestigious Opera in Dresden, working hard to establish a German opera, in reaction to the Italian opera which had dominated the European music scene since the 18th century. On 4 November 1817, he married Caroline Brandt, a singer who created the title role of \"Silvana\". In 1819, he wrote perhaps his most famous piano piece, \"Invitation to the Dance\". The successful premiere of \"Der Freischütz\" on 18 June 1821 in Berlin led to performances all over Europe. On the very morning of the premiere, Weber finished his \"Konzertstück in F minor for Piano and Orchestra\", and he premiered it a week later. In 1823, Weber composed his first (and only) full-length, through-written opera \"Euryanthe\" to a libretto by Helmina von Chézy, several passages of which (notably the music for the villainous couple Lysiart and Eglantine) anticipate the early, romantic operas of Richard Wagner. In 1824, Weber received an invitation from The Royal Opera, London, to compose and produce \"Oberon\", based on Christoph Martin Wieland's poem of the same name. Weber accepted the invitation, and in 1826 he travelled to England, to finish the work and conduct the premiere on 12 April. Weber was already suffering from tuberculosis when he visited London. He conducted the premiere and twelve sold-out performances of \"Oberon\" in London during April and in May, and despite his rapidly worsening health, he continued to fulfill commitments for private concerts and benefits. He died in his sleep during the night on 5 June 1826 at the home of his good friend and host Sir George Smart; he was 39 years old. He was buried in London. 18 years later in December 1844 his remains were transferred to the family burial plot in the Old Catholic Cemetery (Alter Katholischer Friedhof) in Dresden at the side of his youngest son Alexander, who at the age of 19 had died of measles seven weeks before. The simple gravestone, designed by Gottfried Semper, lies against the northern boundary wall. The eulogy at the reburial was delivered by Richard Wagner. Weber's unfinished opera \"Die drei Pintos\" (\"The Three Pintos\") was originally given by his widow to Giacomo Meyerbeer for completion; it was eventually completed by Gustav Mahler, who conducted the first performance in Leipzig on 20 January 1888.", "Weber's operas \"Der Freischütz\", \"Euryanthe\" and \"Oberon\" greatly influenced the development of the \"Romantische Oper\" (Romantic opera) in Germany. This is discussed at length in \"Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians\" referred to in the sources. \"Der Freischütz\" came to be regarded as the first German opera, \"Euryanthe\" developed the \"Leitmotif\" technique to an unprecedented degree, while \"Oberon\" may have influenced Mendelssohn's music for \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\" and, at the same time, revealed Weber's lifelong interest in the music of non-Western cultures. This interest was first manifested in Weber's incidental music for Schiller's translation of Gozzi's \"Turandot\", for which he used a Chinese melody, making him the first Western composer to use an Asian tune that was not of the pseudo-Turkish kind popularized by Mozart and others. Weber's compositions for clarinet, bassoon, and horn occupy an important place in the musical repertoire. His compositions for the clarinet, which include two concertos, a concertino, a quintet, a duo concertante, and variations on a theme from his opera \"Silvana\", are regularly performed today. His Concertino for Horn and Orchestra requires the performer to simultaneously produce two notes by humming while playing—a technique known as \"multiphonics\". His bassoon concerto and the \"Andante e Rondo ungarese\" (a reworking of a piece originally for viola and orchestra) are also popular with bassoonists. Weber's contribution to vocal and choral music is also significant. His body of Catholic religious music was highly popular in 19th-century Germany, and he composed one of the earliest song cycles, \"Die Temperamente beim Verluste der Geliebten\" (\"[Four] Temperaments on the Loss of a Lover\"). Weber was also notable as one of the first conductors to conduct without a piano or violin. Weber's orchestration has also been highly praised and emulated by later generations of composers – Berlioz referred to him several times in his \"Treatise on Instrumentation\" while Debussy remarked that the sound of the Weber orchestra was obtained through the scrutiny of the soul of each instrument. His operas influenced the work of later opera composers, especially in Germany, such as Marschner, Meyerbeer and Wagner, as well as several nationalist 19th-century composers such as Glinka. Homage has been paid to Weber by 20th-century composers such as Debussy, Stravinsky, Mahler (who completed Weber's unfinished comic opera \"Die drei Pintos\" and made revisions of \"Euryanthe\" and \"Oberon\") and Hindemith (composer of the popular \"Symphonic Metamorphosis of Themes by Carl Maria von Weber\", based on lesser-known keyboard works and the incidental music to \"Turandot\"). Weber also wrote music journalism and was interested in folksong, and learned lithography to engrave his own works. A brilliant pianist himself, Weber composed four sonatas, two concertos and the \"Konzertstück in F minor\" (concert piece), which influenced composers such as Chopin, Liszt and Mendelssohn. The \"\" provided a new model for the one-movement concerto in several contrasting sections (such as Liszt's, who often played the work), and was acknowledged by Stravinsky as the model for his \"Capriccio for Piano and Orchestra\". Weber's shorter piano pieces, such as the \"Invitation to the Dance\", were later orchestrated by Berlioz, while his \"Polacca Brillante\" was later set for piano and orchestra by Liszt. However, Weber's piano music all but disappeared from the repertoire. One possible reason for this is that Weber had very large hands and delighted in writing music that suited them. There are several recordings of the major works for the solo piano, including complete recordings of the piano sonatas and the shorter piano pieces, and there are recordings of the individual sonatas by Claudio Arrau (1st sonata), Alfred Cortot and Emil Gilels (2nd sonata), Sviatoslav Richter (3rd sonata) and Leon Fleisher (4th sonata). The \"Invitation to the Dance\", although better known in Berlioz's orchestration (as part of the ballet music for a Paris production of \"Der Freischütz\"), has long been played and recorded by pianists (e.g., Benno Moiseiwitsch [in Carl Tausig's arrangement]). \"Invitation to the Dance\" also served as the thematic basis for Benny Goodman's swing theme song for the radio program \"Let's Dance\".", "Notes Sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Production.", "Industrial routes.", "Biological routes.", "Historical routes.", "Uses.", "Coolant and heat-transfer agent.", "Antifreeze.", "Precursor to polymers.", "Other uses.", "Dehydrating agent.", "Hydrate inhibition.", "Applications.", "Chemical reactions.", "Toxicity.", "Environmental effects." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Ethylene glycol is produced from ethylene (ethene), via the intermediate ethylene oxide. Ethylene oxide reacts with water to produce ethylene glycol according to the chemical equation: This reaction can be catalyzed by either acids or bases, or can occur at neutral pH under elevated temperatures. The highest yields of ethylene glycol occur at acidic or neutral pH with a large excess of water. Under these conditions, ethylene glycol yields of 90% can be achieved. The major byproducts are the oligomers diethylene glycol, triethylene glycol, and tetraethylene glycol. The separation of these oligomers and water is energy-intensive. About 6.7 million tonnes are produced annually. A higher selectivity is achieved by use of Shell's OMEGA process. In the OMEGA process, the ethylene oxide is first converted with carbon dioxide () to ethylene carbonate. This ring is then hydrolyzed with a base catalyst in a second step to produce mono-ethylene glycol in 98% selectivity. The carbon dioxide is released in this step again and can be fed back into the process circuit. The carbon dioxide comes in part from the ethylene oxide production, where a part of the ethylene is completely oxidized. Ethylene glycol is produced from carbon monoxide in countries with large coal reserves and less stringent environmental regulations. The oxidative carbonylation of methanol to dimethyl oxalate provides a promising approach to the production of C-based ethylene glycol. Dimethyl oxalate can be converted into ethylene glycol in high yields (94.7%) by hydrogenation with a copper catalyst: Methanol is recycled. Therefore, only carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and oxygen are consumed. One plant with a production capacity of 200 000 tons ethylene glycol per year is in Inner Mongolia, a second plant in China with a capacity of 250 000 tons per year was scheduled for 2012 in the province of Henan. As of 2015, four plants in China with a capacity of 200 000 t/a each were operating with at least 17 more to follow.", "The caterpillar of the Greater wax moth, \"Galleria mellonella\", has gut bacteria with the ability to degrade polyethylene (PE) into ethylene glycol.", "According to most sources, French chemist Charles-Adolphe Wurtz (1817–1884) first prepared ethylene glycol in 1856. He first treated \"ethylene iodide\" (CHI) with silver acetate and then hydrolyzed the resultant \"ethylene diacetate\" with potassium hydroxide. Wurtz named his new compound \"glycol\" because it shared qualities with both ethyl alcohol (with one hydroxyl group) and glycerin (with three hydroxyl groups). In 1859, Wurtz prepared ethylene glycol via the hydration of ethylene oxide. There appears to have been no commercial manufacture or application of ethylene glycol prior to World War I, when it was synthesized from ethylene dichloride in Germany and used as a substitute for glycerol in the explosives industry. In the United States, semicommercial production of ethylene glycol via ethylene chlorohydrin started in 1917. The first large-scale commercial glycol plant was erected in 1925 at South Charleston, West Virginia, by Carbide and Carbon Chemicals Co. (now Union Carbide Corp.). By 1929, ethylene glycol was being used by almost all dynamite manufacturers. In 1937, Carbide started up the first plant based on Lefort's process for vapor-phase oxidation of ethylene to ethylene oxide. Carbide maintained a monopoly on the direct oxidation process until 1953, when the Scientific Design process was commercialized and offered for licenses.", "Ethylene glycol is primarily used in antifreeze formulations (50%) and as a raw material in the manufacture of polyesters such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) (40%).", "The major use of ethylene glycol is as a medium for convective heat transfer in, for example, automobiles and liquid-cooled computers. Ethylene glycol is also commonly used in chilled-water air-conditioning systems that place either the chiller or air handlers outside, or systems that must cool below the freezing temperature of water. In geothermal heating/cooling systems, ethylene glycol is the fluid that transports heat through the use of a geothermal heat pump. The ethylene glycol either gains energy from the source (lake, ocean, water well) or dissipates heat to the sink, depending on whether the system is being used for heating or cooling. Pure ethylene glycol has a specific heat capacity about one half that of water. So, while providing freeze protection and an increased boiling point, ethylene glycol lowers the specific heat capacity of water mixtures relative to pure water. A 1:1 mix by mass has a specific heat capacity of about 3140 J/(kg·°C) (0.75 BTU/(lb·°F)), three quarters that of pure water, thus requiring increased flow rates in same system comparisons with water. The formation of large bubbles in cooling passages of internal combustion engines will seriously inhibit heat flow (flux) from that area, thus allowing nucleation (tiny bubbles) heat transfer to occur is not advisable. Large bubbles in cooling passages will be self-sustaining or grow larger, with virtually the complete loss of cooling in that spot. With pure MEG (Mono-Ethylene Glycol) that hot spot has to get to. Cooling due to other effects such as air draft from fan etc. (not considered in pure nucleation analysis) will assist in preventing large-bubble formation. The mixture of ethylene glycol with water provides additional benefits to coolant and antifreeze solutions, such as preventing corrosion and acid degradation, as well as inhibiting the growth of most microbes and fungi.", "Pure ethylene glycol freezes at about −12 °C (10.4 °F) but, when mixed with water, the mixture freezes at a lower temperature. For example, a mixture of 60% ethylene glycol and 40% water freezes at −45 °C (−49 °F). Diethylene glycol behaves similarly. The freezing point depression of some mixtures can be explained as a colligative property of solutions but, in highly-concentrated mixtures such as the example, deviations from ideal solution behavior are expected due to the influence of intermolecular forces. There is a difference in the mixing ratio, depending on whether it is ethylene glycol or propylene glycol. For ethylene glycol, the mixing ratios are typically 30/70 and 35/65, whereas the propylene glycol mixing ratios are typically 35/65 and 40/60. It is important that the mixture is frost-proof at the lowest operating temperature. Because of the depressed freezing temperatures, ethylene glycol is used as a de-icing fluid for windshields and aircraft, as an antifreeze in automobile engines, and as a component of vitrification (anticrystallization) mixtures for low-temperature preservation of biological tissues and organs. Mixture of ethylene glycol and water can also be chemically termed as glycol concentrate/compound/mixture/solution. The use of ethylene glycol not only depresses the freezing point of aqueous mixtures, but also elevates their boiling point. This results in the operating temperature range for heat-transfer fluids being broadened on both ends of the temperature scale. The increase in boiling temperature is due to pure ethylene glycol having a much higher boiling point and lower vapor pressure than pure water, as is typical with most binary mixtures of volatile liquids.", "In the plastic industry, ethylene glycol is an important precursor to polyester fibers and resins. Polyethylene terephthalate, used to make plastic bottles for soft drinks, is prepared from ethylene glycol.", "", "Ethylene glycol is used in the natural gas industry to remove water vapor from natural gas before further processing, in much the same manner as triethylene glycol (TEG).", "Because of its high boiling point and affinity for water, ethylene glycol is a useful desiccant. Ethylene glycol is widely used to inhibit the formation of natural gas clathrates (hydrates) in long multiphase pipelines that convey natural gas from remote gas fields to a gas processing facility. Ethylene glycol can be recovered from the natural gas and reused as an inhibitor after purification treatment that removes water and inorganic salts. Natural gas is dehydrated by ethylene glycol. In this application, ethylene glycol flows down from the top of a tower and meets a rising mixture of water vapor and hydrocarbon gases. Dry gas exits from the top of the tower. The glycol and water are separated, and the glycol recycled. Instead of removing water, ethylene glycol can also be used to depress the temperature at which hydrates are formed. The purity of glycol used for hydrate suppression (monoethylene glycol) is typically around 80%, whereas the purity of glycol used for dehydration (triethylene glycol) is typically 95 to more than 99%. Moreover, the injection rate for hydrate suppression is much lower than the circulation rate in a glycol dehydration tower.", "Minor uses of ethylene glycol include the manufacture of capacitors, as a chemical intermediate in the manufacture of 1,4-dioxane, as an additive to prevent corrosion in liquid cooling systems for personal computers, and inside the lens devices of cathode-ray tube type of rear projection televisions. Ethylene glycol is also used in the manufacture of some vaccines, but it is not itself present in these injections. It is used as a minor (1–2%) ingredient in shoe polish and also in some inks and dyes. Ethylene glycol has seen some use as a rot and fungal treatment for wood, both as a preventative and a treatment after the fact. It has been used in a few cases to treat partially rotted wooden objects to be displayed in museums. It is one of only a few treatments that are successful in dealing with rot in wooden boats, and is relatively cheap. Ethylene glycol may also be one of the minor ingredients in screen cleaning solutions, along with the main ingredient isopropyl alcohol. Ethylene glycol is commonly used as a preservative for biological specimens, especially in secondary schools during dissection as a safer alternative to formaldehyde. It is also used as part of the water-based hydraulic fluid used to control subsea oil and gas production equipment. Ethylene glycol is used as a protecting group in organic synthesis to protect carbonyl compounds such as ketones and aldehydes. Silicon dioxide reacts in heated reflux under dinitrogen with ethylene glycol and an alkali metal base to produce highly reactive, pentacoordinate silicates which provide access to a wide variety of new silicon compounds. The silicates are essentially insoluble in all polar solvent except methanol.", "Ethylene glycol is used as a protecting group for carbonyl groups in organic synthesis. Treating a ketone or aldehyde with ethylene glycol in the presence of an acid catalyst (e.g., p-toluenesulfonic acid; BF·EtO) gives the corresponding a 1,3-dioxolane, which is resistant to bases and other nucleophiles. The 1,3-dioxolane protecting group can thereafter be removed by further acid hydrolysis. In this example, isophorone was protected using ethylene glycol with p-toluenesulfonic acid in moderate yield. Water was removed by azeotropic distillation to shift the equilibrium to the right.", "Ethylene glycol is moderately toxic, with an oral LD = 786 mg/kg for humans. The major danger is due to its sweet taste, which can attract children and animals. Upon ingestion, ethylene glycol is oxidized to glycolic acid, which is, in turn, oxidized to oxalic acid, which is toxic. It and its toxic byproducts first affect the central nervous system, then the heart, and finally the kidneys. Ingestion of sufficient amounts is fatal if untreated. Several deaths are recorded annually in the U.S. alone. Antifreeze products for automotive use containing propylene glycol in place of ethylene glycol are available. They are generally considered safer to use, as propylene glycol isn't as palatable and is converted in the body to lactic acid, a normal product of metabolism and exercise. Australia, the UK, and seventeen US states (as of 2012) require the addition of a bitter flavoring (denatonium benzoate) to antifreeze. In December 2012, US antifreeze manufacturers agreed voluntarily to add a bitter flavoring to all antifreeze that is sold in the consumer market of the US.", "Ethylene glycol is a high-production-volume chemical; it breaks down in air in about 10 days and in water or soil in a few weeks. It enters the environment through the dispersal of ethylene glycol-containing products, especially at airports, where it is used in deicing agents for runways and airplanes. While prolonged low doses of ethylene glycol show no toxicity, at near lethal doses (≥ 1000 mg/kg per day) ethylene glycol acts as a teratogen. \"Based on a rather extensive database, it induces skeletal variations and malformations in rats and mice by all routes of exposure.\" This molecule has been observed in outer space." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "History.", "Prehistory and early history.", "Middle Ages.", "Modern times.", "Vichy French enclave (1944–1945).", "Religions.", "Transportation infrastructure.", "Notable residents." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Sigmaringen lies in the Danube valley, surrounded by wooded hills in the south of the Swabian Alb around 40 km away from Lake Constance. The surrounding towns are on the north, Winterlingen (in the district of Zollernalb) and Veringenstadt, on the east, Bingen, Sigmaringendorf, and Scheer, on the south, Mengen, Krauchenwies, Inzigkofen, and Meßkirch, and on the west, Leibertingen, Beuron, and Stetten am kalten Markt. The city is made up from the following districts: Sigmaringen (inner-city), Gutenstein, Jungnau, Laiz, Oberschmeien and Unterschmeien.", "Sigmaringen was first documented in 1077 and was in the principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen until 1850, after which it became the Prussian Province of Hohenzollern.", "The history of settlement in the territory of the present town Sigmaringen dates back to the Paleolithic.", "In the 11th century, the end of the Early Middle Ages, the first castle was built on the rock that protected the valley. The first written reference is from 1077, when King Rudolf of Rheinfelden tried in vain to conquer Sigmaringen castle. The official city foundation was in 1250. In 1325 the city was sold to Ulrich III, Count of Württemberg. In 1460 and 1500, the castle was rebuilt into a chateau. About the county of Werdenberg Sigmaringen came in 1535 to the high noble family of the Hohenzollern.", "In 1632 the Swedes occupied the castle during the Thirty Years' War. From 1806 to 1849 Sigmaringen was the capital of the sovereign Principality Hohenzollern and residence of the princes of Hohenzollern. As a result of the Revolution in Sigmaringen of 1848, the Princes of Hechingen and Sigmaringen waived on their rule, whereby both principalities in 1850 fell to Prussia. From 1850 to 1945 Sigmaringen was the seat of Prussian Government for the Province of Hohenzollern. Karl Anton von Hohenzollern was 1858-1862 Prime Minister of Prussia. From 1914 to 1918 around 150 men from the town lost their lives during World War I. In the Nazi era a Gestapo office was in Sigmaringen. From 1937 it belonged to the Gestapo Stuttgart. Between 1934 and 1942 more than 100 men were sterilized because of \"hereditary diseases\". During the Nazi medical experiments, the \"T4\", became on 12 December 1940 for the first time 71 mentally handicapped and mentally ill patients victims of Nazi injustice. The deportation led them into the Grafeneck Euthanasia Centre, where the men and women were killed as \"unworthy of life\". After the closure of Grafeneck in December 1940, on 14 March 1941 a further deportation to the Hadamar Euthanasia Centre was made.", "On September 7, 1944, following the Allied invasion of France, Philippe Pétain and members of the Vichy government cabinet were relocated to Germany. A city-state ruled by the government in exile headed by Fernand de Brinon was established at Sigmaringen. There were three embassies in the city-state, representing each of Vichy-France's allies: Germany, Italy, and Japan. French writers Louis-Ferdinand Céline, Lucien Rebatet and Roland Gaucher, fearing for their lives because of their political and anti-Semitic writings, fled along with the Vichy government to Sigmaringen. Céline's novel \"D'un château l'autre\" (English: \"Castle to Castle\") describes the fall of Sigmaringen. The city was taken by Free French forces on April 22, 1945. Pétain returned to France, where he stood trial for treason.", "The following religions are present in Sigmaringen:", "Three railways meet in Sigmaringen, the Danube Valley Railway leading from Donaueschingen to Ulm, the Tübingen–Sigmaringen railway from Tübingen to Aulendorf, and the line operated by the Hohenzollerische Landesbahn from Sigmaringen to Hechingen. Sigmaringen lies in the serving area of Verkehrsverbund Neckar-Alb-Donau (NALDO).", "Sigmaringen was the birthplace of Saint Fidelis of Sigmaringen, a Roman Catholic martyr of the Counter-Reformation in Switzerland, and Ferdinand of Romania, King of Romania. It was one of the residences of deceased Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, the late representative of the house, who was the first in the line of succession to the throne of Romania, by Salic law. Frederick Miller, founder of the Miller Brewing Company, was living in Sigmaringen during the start of his brewing career." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Foundation and early history (1875–1939).", "The Famous Five (1939–1959).", "Turnbull's Tornadoes (1960–1989).", "1990s: Attempted takeover by Hearts.", "Recent history (2000–present).", "Colours and badge.", "Stadium.", "Rivalry.", "Supporters and culture.", "Literature.", "Music.", "Ownership and finances.", "Noted players.", "Noted managers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The club was founded in 1875 by Irishmen living in the Cowgate area of Edinburgh. Its name is derived from Hibernia, an ancient name for Ireland. James Connolly, the famous socialist and Irish Republican leader, was a Hibs fan, while the club were \"closely identified\" with the Irish Home Rule Movement during the 1880s. There was some sectarian resistance initially to an Irish club participating in Scottish football, but Hibs established themselves as a force in Scottish football in the 1880s. Hibs were the first club from the east coast of Scotland to win a major trophy, the 1887 Scottish Cup. They went on to defeat Preston North End, who had reached the semi-finals of the 1887 FA Cup, in a friendly match described as the \"Association Football Championship of the World Decider\". Mismanagement over the next few years led to Hibs becoming homeless and the club temporarily ceased operating in 1891. A lease on the Easter Road site was acquired in late 1892 and Hibs played its first match at Easter Road on 4 February 1893. Despite this interruption, the club today views the period since 1875 as one continued history and therefore counts the honours won between 1875 and 1891, including the 1887 Scottish Cup. The club were admitted to the Scottish Football League in 1893, although they had to win the Second Division twice before being elected into the First Division in 1895. A significant change at this time was that players were no longer required to be members of the Catholic Young Men's Society. Hibs are not seen today as being an Irish or Roman Catholic institution, as it was in the early years of its history. For instance, the Irish harp was only re-introduced to the club badge when it was last re-designed in 2000. This design reflects the three pillars of the club's identity: Ireland, Edinburgh (the castle) and Leith (the ship). Geography rather than religion is now seen as the primary reason for supporting Hibs, who draw most of their support from the north and east of Edinburgh. Hibs had some success after being reformed, winning the 1902 Scottish Cup and their first league championship a year later. After this, however, the club endured a long barren spell. The club lost its placing in the league, and were relegated for the first time in 1931, although they were promoted back to the top division two years later. The notorious Scottish Cup drought began as they reached three cup finals, two in consecutive years, but lost each of them.", "Hibs' most successful era was in the decade following the end of the Second World War, when it was \"among the foremost clubs in Britain\". The forward line of Gordon Smith, Bobby Johnstone, Lawrie Reilly, Eddie Turnbull and Willie Ormond, collectively known as the Famous Five, was \"regarded as the finest ever seen in Scottish football\". Each of the Famous Five scored more than 100 goals for Hibs. The north stand at Easter Road is now named in their honour. Smith was signed by Hibs in 1941, while Ormond, Turnbull, Reilly and Johnstone were all signed during 1946. Of the five, only Ormond cost Hibs a transfer fee, £1200 from Stenhousemuir. Reilly, Johnstone, Smith and Turnbull were all signed from youth or junior leagues. In the first season of competitive football after the Second World War, Hibs reached the 1947 Scottish Cup Final. They took an early lead in the match, but went on to lose 2–1 to Aberdeen. With Reilly added to the first team in 1947–48, Hibs won the Scottish league championship for the first time since 1903. This was achieved despite the death of team manager Willie McCartney in January 1948. McCartney was succeeded by Hugh Shaw, who added Johnstone to the first team during 1948. Hibs finished third in the league in 1948–49. In a friendly match against Nithsdale Wanderers on 21 April 1949, Hibs included all of the famous five players in the same team for the first time. They then made their collective competitive debut on 15 October 1949, in a 2–0 win against Queen of the South. They improved on their season from the year before, by finishing second in the league to Rangers by one point. 1950–51 was the high point of the Famous Five era. With other internationalists such as Tommy Younger and Bobby Combe, Hibs won the league by 10 points (when two points were awarded for each win). They reached the 1950 Scottish League Cup Final. Turnbull had scored a hattrick in the semi-final but was unavailable for the final. Jimmy Bradley started at left wing with Ormond moved to inside left. Motherwell beat them 3–0. Hibs retained the league championship in 1951–52, this time winning by four points. Hibs were narrowly denied a third consecutive title in 1952–53 on the last day of the season. A late Rangers equaliser against Queen of the South took the title to Ibrox on goal average. The Famous Five forward line remained in place until March 1955, when Johnstone was sold to Manchester City. Despite only finishing fifth in the Scottish League in 1955, Hibs were invited to participate in the first season of the European Cup, which was not strictly based on league positions at that time. Eighteen clubs who were thought would generate interest across Europe and who also had the floodlights necessary to play games at night, were invited to participate. Floodlights had been used at Easter Road for the first time in a friendly match against Hearts on 18 October 1954. Hibs became the first British club in Europe because the Football League secretary Alan Hardaker persuaded Chelsea, the English champions, not to enter. Hibs played their first tie against Rot-Weiss Essen, winning 4–0 in the Georg-Melches-Stadion and drawing 1–1 at Easter Road. They defeated Djurgårdens IF to reach the semi-final, but in that tie they were defeated 3–0 on aggregate by Stade Reims, who had the famous France international player Raymond Kopa in their side. Reims lost 4–3 to Real Madrid in the final.", "Hibs frequently participated in the Fairs Cup during the 1960s, winning ties against Barcelona and Napoli. However, the club achieved little domestically until former player Eddie Turnbull was persuaded to return to Easter Road as manager in 1971. The team, popularly known as \"Turnbull's Tornadoes\", finished second in the league in 1974 and 1975, and won the League Cup in 1972. The club also won the Drybrough Cup in 1972 and 1973, and recorded a 7–0 win over Edinburgh derby rivals Hearts at Tynecastle on 1 January 1973. Performances went into decline after the mid-1970s, as Hibs were replaced by the New Firm of Aberdeen and Dundee United as the main challengers to the Old Firm. Turnbull resigned as manager and Hibs were relegated, for the second time in their history, in 1980. They were immediately promoted back to the Scottish Premier Division in 1981, but the club struggled during the 1980s, failing to qualify for European competition until 1989.", "After mismanagement during the late 1980s, Hibs were on the brink of financial ruin in 1990. Wallace Mercer, the chairman of Hearts, proposed a merger of the two clubs, but the Hibs fans believed that the proposal was more like a hostile takeover. They formed the \"Hands off Hibs\" group to campaign for the continued existence of the club. This succeeded when a prominent local businessman, Kwik-Fit owner Sir Tom Farmer, acquired a controlling interest in Hibs. The fans were able to persuade Farmer to take control despite the fact that he had no great interest in football. Farmer was persuaded in part by the fact that a relative of his had been involved in the rescue of Hibs from financial ruin in the early 1890s. After the attempted takeover by Mercer, Hibs had a few good years in the early 1990s, winning the 1991 Scottish League Cup Final and finishing in the top five in the league in 1993, 1994 and 1995. Soon after Alex McLeish was appointed as manager in 1998, Hibs were relegated to the First Division, but immediately won promotion back to the SPL in 1999.", "Hibs enjoyed a good season in 2000–01 as they finished third in the league and reached the 2001 Scottish Cup Final, which was lost 3–0 to Celtic. Manager Alex McLeish departed for Rangers in December 2001; team captain Franck Sauzée was appointed as the new manager, despite the fact that he had no previous coaching experience. A terrible run of form followed and Sauzée was fired after being in charge for 69 days. Kilmarnock manager Bobby Williamson was then hired, but he proved to be unpopular with Hibs supporters. However, a string of exciting young players emerged, including Garry O'Connor, Derek Riordan, Kevin Thomson and Scott Brown. These players featured heavily as Hibs eliminated both halves of the Old Firm to reach the 2004 Scottish League Cup Final, only to lose 2–0 to Livingston. Williamson departed near the end of that season to manage Plymouth Argyle and was replaced by Tony Mowbray. Mowbray promised fast-flowing, passing football, with which Hibs finished third in his first season as manager, while Mowbray won the SFWA Manager of the Year award. Mowbray left Hibs in October 2006 to manage West Bromwich Albion, and was replaced by former player John Collins. The team won the 2007 Scottish League Cup Final under his management, but the club sold Kevin Thomson, Scott Brown and Steven Whittaker for fees totalling more than £8 million. Collins resigned later that year, frustrated by the lack of funds provided to sign new players. Former Hibs player Mixu Paatelainen was hired to replace Collins, but he left after the end of his first full season. Another former Hibernian player, John Hughes, was soon appointed in place of Paatelainen. Hughes, who made high-profile signings such as Anthony Stokes and Liam Miller, led Hibs to a good start to the 2009–10 season. Hibs finished fourth and qualified for the 2010–11 UEFA Europa League. A poor start to the following season, including first round exits in Europe and the League Cup, led to Hughes leaving the club by mutual consent. Hughes was replaced by Colin Calderwood, who was himself sacked on 6 November 2011. Pat Fenlon was appointed to replace Calderwood. The club avoided relegation in 2011–12 and reached the 2012 Scottish Cup Final, but this was lost 5–1 to Hearts. Fenlon largely rebuilt the team after this defeat. This resulted in an improved league position in 2012–13 and the team reaching the 2013 Scottish Cup Final, which was lost 3–0 to league champions Celtic. Hibs qualified for the 2013–14 UEFA Europa League, but they suffered a Scottish record defeat in European competition (9–0 on aggregate against Malmö). Fenlon resigned on 1 November and was replaced by Terry Butcher. A run of 13 games without a win to finish the 2013–14 Scottish Premiership season meant that Hibs fell into a relegation play-off, which was lost after a penalty shootout against Hamilton Academical. Butcher was sacked in June and was replaced by Alan Stubbs. He was unable to lead the team to promotion, but the 2015–16 season saw considerable cup success. The team reached the League Cup final, which was lost to Ross County. This was followed by victory in the Scottish Cup for the first time since 1902, culminating in a cup final win against Rangers. Soon after the cup win, Stubbs resigned as Hibs manager to take charge at Rotherham United and was replaced by Neil Lennon, who led the team to promotion by winning the 2016–17 Scottish Championship. In their first season back in the top flight, Hibs finished fourth in the Premiership and qualified for the Europa League. Lennon left the club in January 2019 and was replaced by Paul Heckingbottom. Heckingbottom was sacked in November 2019 and replaced by Jack Ross.", "The predominant club colours are green and white, which have been used since the formation of the club in 1875. The strip typically has a green body, white sleeves, and a white collar. The shorts are normally white, although green has been used in recent seasons. The socks are green, usually with some white detail. Hibs have used yellow, purple, black, white, and a dark green in recent seasons for their alternate kits. In 1977, Hibs became the first club in Scotland to bear sponsorship on their shirts. This arrangement prompted television companies to threaten a boycott of Hibs games if they used the sponsored kit, which resulted in the club using an alternate kit for the first time. Hibs wore green and white hooped shirts during the 1870s, which was the inspiration for the style later adopted by Celtic. Hibs then wore all-green shirts from 1879 until 1938, when white sleeves were added to the shirts. This was similar in style to Arsenal, who had added white sleeves to their red shirts earlier in the 1930s. The colour of the shorts was changed to a green which matched the shirts in 2004, to celebrate the fortieth anniversary of a friendly win in October 1964 against Real Madrid. Green shorts were used in that match to avoid a colour clash with the all-white colours of Real Madrid. Hibs also used green shorts in the 2006–07, 2007–08 and 2008–09 seasons. For the 2012–13 season, Hibs changed the primary colour of the shirts to a darker \"bottle\" green, instead of the normal emerald green. A darker green had been used until the 1930s. For the 2014–15 season, Hibs removed the traditional white sleeves from their home kit, as they changed to a darker green shirt in commemoration of the Famous Five forward line. The badge used to identify the club has changed frequently over the years, which has reflected an ongoing debate about its identity. This debate has centred on whether its Irish heritage should be proudly displayed, or ignored for fear of being accused of sectarianism. The Irish harp was first removed in the 1950s, then re-introduced to the club badge when it was last re-designed in 2000. Scottish Football Museum director Ged O'Brien said in 2001, that the current design shows that Hibs \"are comfortable with all the strands of their tradition – it has Leith, Edinburgh and Ireland in it.\" As well as the harp representing Ireland, the present badge includes a ship (for the port of Leith) and a castle (as in Edinburgh Castle).", "Hibs played on The Meadows for the first two years of their history, before moving to grounds in Newington (Mayfield Park) and Bonnington Road, Leith (Powderhall), in different spells between 1877 and 1879. After the lease on Mayfield Park expired, Hibs moved to a ground known as Hibernian Park, on what is now Bothwell Street in Leith. Hibs failed to secure the ground lease and a builder started constructing houses on the site in 1890. Hibs obtained a lease on a site that is now known as Easter Road in 1892 and have played their home matches there since February 1893. Before the Taylor Report demanded that the stadium be all-seated, Easter Road had vast banks of terracing on three sides, which meant that it could hold crowds in excess of 60,000. The record attendance of 65,860, which is also a record for a football match played in Edinburgh, was set by an Edinburgh derby played on 2 January 1950. Such vast crowds were drawn by the success of the Famous Five. The pitch was noted for its pronounced slope, but this was removed in 2000. The ground is currently all-seated and has a capacity of. Easter Road is a modern stadium, with all four of its stands having been built since 1995. The most recent redevelopment was the construction of a new East Stand in 2010. Scotland have played seven of their home matches at Easter Road, between 1998 and 2017. Scotland women played their first match at Easter Road in August 2019, a Euro 2021 qualifying match against Cyprus. The ground has hosted one international not involving the Scotland teams, a friendly played between Ghana and South Korea preceding the 2006 FIFA World Cup. Easter Road has also sometimes been used as a neutral venue for Scottish League Cup semi-final matches and once hosted a Scottish Challenge Cup final.", "Hibs have a traditional local rivalry in Edinburgh with Hearts; the derby match between the two clubs is one of the oldest rivalries in world football. Graham Spiers has described it as \"one of the jewels of the Scottish game\". The clubs first met on Christmas Day 1875, when Hearts won 1–0 in the first match ever contested by Hibs. The two clubs became distinguished in Edinburgh after a five-game struggle for the Edinburgh Football Association Cup in 1878, which Hearts finally won with a 3–2 victory after four successive draws. The clubs have met each other in two Scottish Cup Finals, in 1896 and 2012, both of which were won by Hearts. The 1896 match is also notable for being the only Scottish Cup Final to be played outside Glasgow. Both clubs have been champions of Scotland four times, although Hearts have the better record in derby matches. Hibs recorded the biggest derby win in a competitive match when they won 7–0 at Tynecastle on New Year's Day 1973. While it has been noted that religious background lies behind the rivalry, that aspect is \"muted\" and is a \"pale reflection\" of the sectarianism in Glasgow. Although the clubs are inescapable rivals, the rivalry is mainly \"good-natured\" and has had beneficial effects.", "Hibernian are one of only two full-time professional football clubs in Edinburgh, which is the capital of and second largest city in Scotland. The club had the fourth largest average attendance in the Scottish leagues during the 2019–20 season (16,728). In the period after the Second World War, Hibs attracted average attendances in excess of 20,000, peaking at 31,567 in the 1951–52 season. Since Easter Road was redeveloped into an all-seater stadium in the mid-1990s, average attendance has varied between a high of 18,124 in 2017–18 and a low of 9,150 in 2003–04. There has been a significant increase in recent seasons, inspired by the Scottish Cup victory in 2016 and promotion in 2017. In the 1980s and 1990s, a minority of the club's supporters had a reputation as one of Britain's most prominent casuals groups, known as the Capital City Service.", "The works of author Irvine Welsh, particularly \"Trainspotting\", contain several references to Hibernian. The team is often mentioned in casual conversation and is the team many of his characters support. Visual references to Hibs are noticeable in Danny Boyle's film adaptation of Trainspotting; Francis Begbie wears a Hibs shirt while he plays five-a-side football, while many Hibs posters and pictures can be seen on the walls of Mark Renton's bedroom. In the final short story of Welsh's \"The Acid House\", Coco Bryce, a boy from the \"Hibs firm\" Capital City Service, is struck by lightning while under the influence of LSD in a Pilton park. His soul is then transferred to the body of an unborn child from one of the more affluent areas of Edinburgh. Furthermore, the appearances by Hibs in the 2012 and 2016 Scottish Cup finals are described in Welsh's novels \"A Decent Ride\" and \"Dead Men's Trousers\" respectively. Hibernian are also frequently referred to in the Inspector Rebus series of detective novels by Ian Rankin. Rankin has stated that Rebus is a Raith Rovers supporter but he is a Hibs fan in the 2000s television adaptation of the series. Ironically, that version of Rebus is played by a Hearts supporter, Ken Stott. DS Siobhan Clarke, his colleague in the later books, is a \"loyal supporter\" of Hibs.", "The Hibs anthem \"Glory, Glory to the Hibees\" was written and performed by the Scottish comedian, Hector Nicol. Former Marillion singer Fish is a Hibs fan; Easter Road is mentioned in the song \"Lucky\", from the album \"Internal Exile\". The Proclaimers are lifelong Hibs fans, and were heavily involved with the 'Hands off Hibs' campaign to save the club in 1990. The title track from their \"Sunshine on Leith\" album has become a Hibs anthem, which is traditionally played after big victories at Easter Road and the finals of cup competitions. In their song \"Cap in Hand\", also from the \"Sunshine on Leith\" album, The Proclaimers sing: The song \"Joyful Kilmarnock Blues\", from the first album released by The Proclaimers, is about a Hibs victory away from home. The song includes the following lyrics:", "Although the football club was formed in 1875, it was not incorporated until 1903. The club remained a private company until 1988, when it was publicly listed on the London Stock Exchange. This public listing, combined with poor financial performance, made Hibs vulnerable to an attempted takeover in 1990 by Hearts chairman Wallace Mercer. This attempt was averted when Mercer was unable to acquire the 75% shareholding needed to liquidate the company. The club's parent company, Forth Investments plc, entered receivership in 1991. Sir Tom Farmer acquired control of the club from the receiver for £3 million. Farmer continued to fund developments of Easter Road and financial losses made by Hibs, although he delegated control to other figures, such as Rod Petrie. In December 2014, the club publicised plans to sell up to 51% ownership of the club to its supporters. By November 2017, supporters had increased their shareholding in the club to 34%. The majority ownership of the club was sold in July 2019 to Peruvian-born US-based businessman Ronald Gordon, who became the executive chairman.", "Arthur Duncan holds the record for most league appearances for Hibs, with 446. All of the Famous Five – Gordon Smith, Eddie Turnbull, Lawrie Reilly, Bobby Johnstone and Willie Ormond – scored more than 100 league goals for Hibs. Hibernian players have been capped at full international level for 24 different national teams, with 64 Hibernian players appearing for Scotland. Hibernian rank fifth amongst all clubs in providing players for Scotland, behind the Old Firm, Queen's Park and Hearts. James Lundie and James McGhee were the first Hibs players to play for Scotland, in an 1886 British Home Championship match against Wales. Lawrie Reilly holds the record for most international caps earned while a Hibs player, making 38 appearances for Scotland between 1949 and 1957. In 1959, Hibs forward Joe Baker became the first player to play for England without having previously played for an English club. To mark the club's 135th birthday, the club created a Hall of Fame in 2010. The first group of nominees, including 13 former players, were inducted at a dinner later that year.", "From 1875 until 1903, Hibs were managed by a committee, although Dan McMichael, who also acted as treasurer, secretary and physiotherapist, was effectively the manager when the club won the 1902 Scottish Cup and the 1903 league championship. Willie McCartney took charge of part of the league-winning 1947–48 season, but he collapsed and died after a Scottish Cup match in January 1948. Hugh Shaw inherited that team, and went on to win three league championships in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Alan Stubbs won the Scottish Cup in 2015–16, ending a 114-year drought in that competition. Eddie Turnbull, Alex Miller and John Collins all won one Scottish League Cup each. Bobby Templeton, Bertie Auld, Alex McLeish and Neil Lennon all won second tier championships." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Biography.", "Early years.", "Exile.", "Death of his brother.", "Nagid.", "Death.", "13 principles of faith.", "Legal works.", "Philosophy.", "Theology.", "Character development.", "Prophecy.", "The problem of evil.", "Skepticism of astrology.", "True beliefs versus necessary beliefs.", "Eschatology.", "The World to Come.", "The Messianic era.", "Resurrection.", "Maimonides and Kabbalah.", "\"The Oath of Maimonides\".", "Views on circumcision.", "Influence.", "Tributes and memorials.", "Works and bibliography.", "Judaic and philosophical works.", "Medical works.", "Treatise on logic." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "His full Hebrew name is Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon (), whose acronym forms \"Rambam\" (). His full Arabic name is (), or () for short. The portion \"bin ʿUbaidallāh\"", "", "Maimonides was born 1138 in Córdoba, Andalusia in the Berber Muslim-ruled Almoravid Empire during what some scholars consider to be the end of the golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula, after the first centuries of the Moorish rule. His father Maimon ben Joseph, was a spanish dayyan (Jewish judge), whose family claimed direct paternal descent from Simeon ben Judah ha-Nasi, and thus from the Davidic line. Maimonides later stated that there are 38 generations between him and Judah ha-Nasi. At an", "Another Berber dynasty, the Almohads, conquered Córdoba in 1148 and abolished \"dhimmi\" status (i.e., state protection of non-Muslims ensured through payment of a tax, the \"jizya\") in some of their territories. The loss of this status left the Jewish and Christian communities with conversion to Islam, death, or exile. Many Jews were forced to convert, but due to suspicion by the authorities of fake conversions, the new converts had to wear identifying clothing that set them apart and made them subject to public scrutiny. Maimonides's family, along with most other Jews, chose exile. Some say, though, that it is likely that Maimonides feigned a conversion to Islam before escaping. This forced conversion was ruled legally invalid under Islamic law when brought up", "Following this triumph, the Maimonides family, hoping to increase their wealth, gave their savings to his brother, the youngest son David ben Maimon, a merchant. Maimonides directed his brother to procure goods only at the Sudanese port of ‘Aydhab. After a long arduous trip through the", "Around 1171, Maimonides was appointed the \"Nagid\" of the Egyptian Jewish community. Arabist Shelomo Dov Goitein believes the leadership he displayed during the ransoming of the Crusader captives led to this appointment. However he was replaced by Sar Shalom ben Moses in 1173. Over the controversial course of Sar Shalom's appointment, during which Sar Shalom was accused of tax farming, Maimonides excommunicated and fought with him for several years until Maimonides was appointed Nagid in 1195. A work known as \"Megillat Zutta\" was written", "Maimonides died on December 12, 1204 (20th of Tevet 4965) in Fustat. It is widely believed that he was briefly buried in the beth midrash of the synagogue courtyard, and that, soon after, in accordance with his wishes, his remains were exhumed and taken to Tiberias, where he was reinterred. The Tomb of Maimonides on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee in Israel marks his grave. This location for his final resting-place has been debated, for in the Jewish", "In his commentary on the Mishnah (tractate Sanhedrin, chapter 10), Maimonides formulates his \"13 principles of faith\". They summarized what he viewed as the required beliefs of Judaism: Maimonides compiled the principles from various Talmudic sources. These principles were controversial when first proposed, evoking criticism by Rabbis Hasdai Crescas and Joseph Albo, and were effectively ignored by much of the", "With \"Mishneh Torah\", Maimonides composed a code of Jewish law with the widest-possible scope and depth. The work gathers all the binding laws from the Talmud, and incorporates the positions of the Geonim (post-Talmudic early Medieval scholars, mainly from Mesopotamia). Later codes of Jewish law, e.g. Arba'ah Turim by Rabbi Jacob ben Asher and Shulchan Aruch by Rabbi Yosef Karo, draw heavily on \"Mishneh Torah\": both often quote whole sections verbatim. However, it met initially with much opposition. There were two main reasons for this opposition. First, Maimonides had refrained from adding references to his work for the sake of brevity; second, in the introduction, he gave the impression of wanting to \"cut out\" study of the Talmud, to arrive at a conclusion in Jewish law, although Maimonides later wrote that this was not his intent. His most forceful opponents were the rabbis of Provence (Southern France), and a running critique by Rabbi Abraham ben David (Raavad III) is printed in virtually all editions of \"Mishneh Torah\". It was still recognized as a monumental contribution to the systemized writing of halakha. Throughout the centuries, it has been widely studied and its halakhic decisions have weighed heavily in later rulings. In response to those who would attempt to force followers of Maimonides and his \"Mishneh Torah\" to abide by the rulings of his own Shulchan Aruch or other later works, Rabbi Yosef Karo wrote: \"Who would dare force communities who follow the Rambam to follow any other decisor, early or late?... The Rambam is the greatest of the decisors, and all the communities of the Land of Israel and the Arabistan and the Maghreb practice according to his word, and accepted him as their rabbi.\" An oft-cited legal maxim from his pen is: \"It is better and more satisfactory to acquit a thousand guilty persons than to put a single innocent one to death.\" He argued that executing a defendant on anything less than absolute certainty would lead to a slippery slope of decreasing burdens of proof, until we would be convicting merely according to the judge's caprice. Scholars specializing in the study of the history and subculture of Judaism in premodern China (Sino-Judaica) have noted surprising similarities between this work and the liturgy of the Kaifeng Jews, descendants of Persian merchants who settled in the Middle Kingdom during the early Song dynasty. Beyond scriptural similarities, Michael Pollak comments the Jews' Pentateuch was divided into 53 sections according to the Persian style. He also points out:", "Through \"The Guide for the Perplexed\" (which was initially written in Arabic as \"Dalālat al-ḥāʾirīn\") and the philosophical introductions to sections of his commentaries on the Mishna, Maimonides exerted an important influence on the Scholastic philosophers, especially on Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus. He was a Jewish Scholastic. Educated more by reading the works of Arab Muslim philosophers than by personal contact with Arabian teachers, he acquired an intimate acquaintance not only with Arab Muslim philosophy, but with the doctrines of Aristotle. Maimonides strove to reconcile Aristotelianism and science with the teachings of the Torah. In his \"Guide for the Perplexed\", he often explains the function and purpose of the statutory provisions contained in the Torah against the backdrop of the historical conditions. Maimonides is said to have been influenced by Asaph the Jew, who was the first Hebrew medical writer.", "Maimonides equated the God of Abraham to what philosophers refer to as the Necessary Being. God is unique in the universe, and the Torah commands that one love and fear God (Deut 10:12) on account of that uniqueness. To Maimonides, this meant that one ought to contemplate God's works and to marvel at the order and wisdom that went into their creation. When one does this, one inevitably comes to love God and to sense how insignificant one is in comparison to God. This is the basis of the Torah. The principle that inspired his philosophical activity was identical to a fundamental tenet of scholasticism: there can be no contradiction between the truths which God has revealed and the findings of the human mind in science and philosophy. Maimonides", "Maimonides taught about the developing of one's moral character. Although his life predated the modern concept of a personality, Maimonides believed that each person has an innate disposition along an ethical and emotional spectrum. Although one's disposition is often determined by factors outside of one's control, human beings have free will to", "He agrees with \"the Philosopher\" (Aristotle) in teaching that the use of logic is the \"right\" way of thinking. In order to build an inner understanding of how to know God, every human being must, by study, meditation and uncompromising strong will, attain the", "Maimonides wrote on theodicy (the philosophical attempt to reconcile the existence of a God with the existence of evil). He took the premise that an omnipotent and good God exists. In \"The Guide for the Perplexed\", Maimonides writes that all the evil that exists within human beings stems from their individual attributes, while all good comes from a universally shared humanity (Guide 3:8). He says that there are people who are guided by higher purpose, and there are those who are guided by physicality and must strive to find the higher purpose with which to guide their actions. To justify the existence of evil, assuming God is both omnipotent and omnibenevolent, Maimonides postulates that one who created something by causing its opposite not to exist is not the same as creating something that exists; so evil is merely the absence of good. God did not create evil, rather God created good, and evil exists where good is absent (Guide 3:10). Therefore, all good is divine invention,", "Maimonides answered an inquiry concerning astrology, addressed to him from Marseille. He responded that man should believe only what can be supported either by rational proof, by the evidence of the senses, or by trustworthy authority.", "In \"The Guide for the Perplexed\" Book III, Chapter 28, Maimonides draws a distinction between \"true beliefs,\" which were beliefs about God that produced intellectual perfection, and \"necessary beliefs,\" which were conducive to improving social order. Maimonides places anthropomorphic personification", "", "Maimonides distinguishes two kinds of intelligence in man, the one material in the sense of being dependent on, and influenced by, the body, and the other immaterial, that is, independent of the bodily organism. The latter is a direct emanation from the universal active intellect; this is his interpretation of the \"noûs poietikós\" of Aristotelian philosophy. It is acquired as the result of the efforts of the soul to attain a correct knowledge of the absolute, pure intelligence of God. The knowledge of God is a form of knowledge which develops in us the immaterial", "Perhaps one of Maimonides's most highly acclaimed and renowned writings is his treatise on the Messianic era, written originally in Judeo-Arabic", "Religious Jews believed in immortality in a spiritual sense, and most believed that the future would include a messianic era and a resurrection of the dead. This is the subject of Jewish eschatology. Maimonides wrote much on this topic, but in most cases he wrote about the immortality of the soul for people of perfected intellect; his writings were usually \"not\" about the resurrection of dead bodies. Rabbis of his day were critical of this aspect of this thought, and there was controversy over his true views. Eventually, Maimonides felt pressured to write a treatise on the subject, known as \"The Treatise on Resurrection.\" In it, he wrote that those who claimed that he believed the verses of the Hebrew Bible referring to the resurrection were only allegorical were spreading falsehoods. Maimonides asserts that belief in resurrection is a fundamental truth of Judaism about which there is no disagreement.", "In \"The Guide for the Perplexed\", Maimonides declares his intention to conceal from the average reader his explanations of \"Sod\" esoteric meanings of Torah. The nature of these \"secrets\" is debated. Religious Jewish rationalists, and the mainstream academic view, read Maimonides' Aristotelianism as a mutually-exclusive alternative metaphysics to Kabbalah. Some academics hold that Maimonides' project fought against the Proto-Kabbalah of his time. However, many Kabbalists and their heirs read Maimonides according to Kabbalah or as an actual covert subscriber to Kabbalah, due to the similarities", "The \"Oath of Maimonides\" is a document about the medical calling and recited as a substitute for the \"Hippocratic Oath\". It is not to be confused", "In \"The Guide for the Perplexed\", Maimonides proposes that two important purposes of circumcision", "Maimonides' \"Mishneh Torah\" is considered by Jews even today as one of the chief authoritative codifications of Jewish law and ethics. It is exceptional for its logical construction, concise and clear expression and extraordinary learning, so that it became a standard against which other later codifications were often measured. It is still closely studied in rabbinic yeshivot (academies). A popular medieval saying that also served as his epitaph states, \"From Mosheh (of the Torah) to Mosheh (Maimonides) there was none like Mosheh.\" It chiefly referred to his rabbinic writings. But Maimonides was also one of the most influential figures in medieval Jewish philosophy. His brilliant adaptation of Aristotelian thought to Biblical faith deeply impressed later Jewish thinkers, and had an unexpected immediate historical impact. Some more acculturated Jews in the century that followed his death, particularly in Spain, sought to apply Maimonides's Aristotelianism in ways that undercut traditionalist belief and observance, giving rise to an intellectual controversy in Spanish and southern French Jewish circles. The intensity of debate spurred Catholic Church interventions against \"heresy\" and a general confiscation of rabbinic texts. In reaction, the more radical interpretations of Maimonides were defeated. At least amongst Ashkenazi Jews, there was a tendency to ignore his specifically philosophical writings and to stress instead the rabbinic and halakhic writings. These writings often included considerable philosophical chapters or discussions in support of halakhic observance; David Hartman observes that Maimonides clearly expressed \"the traditional support for a philosophical understanding of God both in the Aggadah of Talmud and in the behavior of the hasid [the pious Jew].\" Maimonidean thought continues to influence traditionally observant Jews. The most rigorous medieval critique of Maimonides is Hasdai Crescas's \"Or Adonai\". Crescas bucked the eclectic trend, by demolishing the certainty of the Aristotelian world-view, not only in religious matters but also in the most basic areas of medieval science (such as physics and geometry). Crescas's critique provoked a number of 15th-century scholars to write defenses of Maimonides. A partial translation of Crescas was produced by Harry Austryn Wolfson of Harvard University in 1929. Because of his path-finding synthesis of Aristotle and Biblical faith, Maimonides had a fundamental influence on the great Christian theologian Saint Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas refers specifically to Maimonides in several of his works, including the \"Commentary on the Sentences\". Maimonides's combined abilities in the fields of theology, philosophy and medicine make his work attractive today as a source during discussions of evolving norms in these fields, particularly medicine. An example is the modern citation of his method of determining death of the body in the controversy regarding declaration of death to permit organ donation for transplantation.", "Maimonides has been memorialized in numerous ways. For example, one of the Learning Communities at the Tufts University School of Medicine bears his name. There is also Maimonides School in Brookline, Massachusetts, Maimonides Academy School in Los Angeles, California, Lycée Maïmonide in Casablanca, the Brauser Maimonides Academy in Hollywood, Florida, and Maimonides Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York. In 2004, conferences were held at Yale, Florida International University, Penn State, and", "", "Maimonides composed works of Jewish scholarship, rabbinic law, philosophy, and medical texts. Most", "Maimonides wrote ten known medical works in Arabic that", "The \"Treatise on Logic\" (Arabic: \"Maqala Fi-Sinat Al-Mantiq\") has been printed 17 times, including editions in Latin (1527), German (1805, 1822, 1833, 1828), French (1935), and English (1938), and in an abridged Hebrew form. The work illustrates the essentials of Aristotelian logic to be found in the teachings of the great Islamic philosophers such as Avicenna and, above all, Al-Farabi, \"the Second Master,\" the \"First Master\" being Aristotle. In his work devoted to the Treatise, Rémi Brague stresses the fact that Al-Farabi is the only philosopher mentioned therein. This indicates a line of conduct for the reader, who must read the text keeping in mind Al-Farabi's works on logic. In the Hebrew versions, the Treatise is called \"The words of Logic\" which describes the bulk of the" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Gameplay.", "Legacy.", "\"Enhanced Edition\".", "Browser game." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Unlike many similar titles, there is no treasury of abstract currency with which the player constructs buildings and issues edicts. Instead, the player designates construction sites for various classes of citizen, who are divided into private workers and government workers. Any citizen who is eligible for social advancement will move in and construct his dwelling, performing the functions of his new profession. Most of these construction sites are free to designate and will be constructed in a few moments by their new occupants, but most government buildings must be constructed with bricks, which are created in government-run brickworks and carried to construction sites by bricklayers. All citizens, private or government, use bread as a form of currency, and all bread is made from grain grown by farmers of the peasant class, whose numbers are themselves limited by the number and personal wealth of citizens of the noble class. All in-game wealth, therefore, ultimately derives from the estates of the nobility. Harvested food is automatically distributed to the nobility and farmers (with nobility taking a far larger share, based on the size of their townhouse, which is itself based on the amount of food the occupants possess). Shopkeepers, who sell various crafted goods and luxury items, earn food by selling their wares to other citizens. Servants and entertainers earn food by selling their services to the nobility; servants can also work for luxury shopkeepers. Government workers, which include soldiers, priests and scribes, are allotted some of the food which has been taxed by government-employed scribes working as tax assessors; food to be distributed this way is stored in bakeries while the surplus is stored in granaries. The palace of the Pharaoh is a cross between a private townhouse and granary; it receives a percentage of all taxed food, which the palace staff uses to purchase crafted goods for the royal family, which, together with palace enhancements (purchased with government-owned food and bricks), improve the player's prestige rating. Surplus food stored in granaries or the palace may be used in trade or in the various world map-level missions, some of which may be required to complete the scenario. All citizens' needs must be tended to in order to keep them happy and working efficiently, with upper-class citizens such as nobles requiring the most goods and services to remain happy. All citizens will want common crafted goods and access to religious and healthcare facilities, while upper-class citizens also desire a variety of luxury goods, some of which cannot be made and must be imported. Nobles also require the services of entertainers, who perform in exchange for food, and will eventually wish to purchase a family tomb, which the player must construct and make available to the nobility. All families will desire the services of a priest working as a mortician when a family member dies, regardless of tomb availability. Dissatisfied citizens will stop working and protest; the royal family will never do this, but the player's prestige rating will suffer until their needs are addressed. Luxury shopkeepers and nobles will have children who can be educated by priests, becoming \"graduates\" who may perform advanced services like serving as military commanders, working as overseers of the laborers who extract stone and build monuments, or becoming scribes and priests, who provide health care, religious services, education and perform various government administrative duties, like assessing fields for taxation or running exchanges to make shopkeepers more efficient by centralizing the supply of raw materials. The number of \"graduates\" in a city is unlimited, but only a certain number can be employed as educated workers at a time. This number is determined by the player's prestige rating, which can be increased in various ways, namely: the completion of world map missions; the purchase of palace upgrades and ensuring a wealthy and well-supplied royal family; monumental tomb construction; and propaganda in the form of steles and obelisks commemorating the player's achievements on the world map. Prestige can also be lowered if a member of the royal family dies without being properly mummified by a mortician and interred in a royal tomb; the reduction in prestige is especially high if this family member was the Pharaoh.", "", "On July 8, 2008, Tilted Mill released a new enhanced edition of the game with several refinements to the game titled \"\"Children of the Nile: Enhanced Edition\". Among the changes made were new buildings like the brickyard. On July 10, patch 1.3 for the retail version was released which upgrades it to the enhanced edition. \"Children of the Nile: Alexandria\", an expansion for the \"Enhanced Edition\", was released September 10, 2008.", "\"Immortal Cities: Nile Online\" is a browser-based game set in Ancient Egypt, developed by Tilted Mill. It was released on March 5, 2009. Like many browser games, there is no set goal. The game is played on an infinite-round basis—there are no resets planned. The main focus of the game is on trading resources in order to progress a player's palace level or increase the number of cities he or she has. There is a player versus player aspect that allows players to gain control of \"monuments\" from either an artificial intelligence force or other players. As of March 3, 2009, there were approximately 5000 registered players. Part of a discussion about \"Nile Online\", during an interview with Tilted Mill's President, Chris Beatrice, by gamersetwatch.com: \"A lot of different goals came together with Nile Online. First we wanted to see if we could make a much simpler, much more accessible and less demanding game that still provided a lot of the city building experience, and also looked really great\". The blog \"The Freshman\" highlighted the real-time nature of the gameplay, in which the player can start lengthy tasks and return to the game later to find them completed, and described the relative honesty of the players in the game. Krish Raghav, in his Wall Street Journal blog, commended the game's careful balance of goods, raw materials and trading; the co-operation required between players and the roleplaying effect this has on the game's social aspect; and the \"unconscious, tangential teaching and learning of complex economic concepts\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology and terminology.", "History.", "East Asia.", "Southeast Asia.", "Islamic world.", "Western Europe.", "Eastern Europe.", "Offensive vs defensive use.", "Early modern period.", "18th and 19th centuries.", "20th and 21st centuries.", "Materials, parts, and terms.", "Solid spaces.", "Operation.", "Deceptive use.", "In popular culture.", "Restoration." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Cannon\" is derived from the Old Italian word \"cannone\", meaning \"large tube\", which came from Latin \"canna\", in turn originating from the Greek κάννα (\"kanna\"), \"reed\", and then generalised to mean any hollow tube-like object; cognate with Akkadian \"qanu(m)\" and Hebrew \"qāneh\",", "", "The cannon may have appeared as early as the 12th century in China, and was probably a parallel development or evolution of the fire-lance, a short ranged anti-personnel weapon combining a gunpowder-filled tube and a polearm of some sort. Co-viative projectiles such as iron scraps or porcelain shards were placed in fire lance barrels at some point, and eventually, the paper and bamboo materials of fire lance barrels were replaced by metal. The earliest known depiction of a cannon is a sculpture from the Dazu Rock Carvings in Sichuan dated to 1128, however the earliest archaeological samples and textual accounts do not appear until the 13th century. The primary extant specimens", "The Javanese Majapahit Empire was arguably able to encompass much of modern-day Indonesia due to its unique mastery of bronze-smithing and use of a central arsenal fed by a large number of cottage industries within the immediate region. Documentary and archeological evidence indicate that Arab traders introduced gunpowder, gonnes, muskets, blunderbusses, and cannons to the Javanese, Acehnese, and Batak via long established commercial trade routes around the early to mid 14th century. The resurgent Singhasari Empire overtook Sriwijaya and later emerged as the Majapahit whose warfare featured the use of fire-arms and cannonade. Cannons were introduced to Majapahit when Kublai Khan's Chinese army under", "There is no clear consensus of when the cannon first appeared in the Islamic world, with dates ranging from 1260 to the mid-14th century. The cannon may have appeared in the Islamic world in the late 13th century, with Ibn Khaldun in the 14th century stating that cannons were used in the Maghreb region of North Africa in 1274, and other Arabic military treatises in the 14th century referring to the use of cannon by Mamluk forces in 1260 and 1303, and by Muslim forces at the 1324 Siege of Huesca in Spain. However, some scholars do not accept these early dates. While the date of its first appearance is not entirely clear, the general consensus among most historians is that there is no doubt the Mamluk forces were using cannon by 1342. According to historian Ahmad Y. al-Hassan, during the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, the Mamluks used cannon against the Mongols. He claims that this was \"the first cannon in history\" and used a gunpowder formula almost identical to the ideal composition for explosive gunpowder. He also argues that this was not known in China or Europe until much later. Hassan further claims that the earliest textual evidence of cannon is from the Middle East, based on earlier originals which report hand-held cannon being used by the Mamluks at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260. Such an early date is not accepted by some historians, including David Ayalon, Iqtidar Alam Khan, Joseph Needham and Tonio Andrade. Khan argues that it was the Mongols who introduced gunpowder to the Islamic world, and believes cannon only reached Mamluk Egypt in the 1370s. Needham argued that the term \"midfa\", dated to textual sources from 1342 to 1352, did not refer to true hand-guns or bombards, and that contemporary accounts of a metal-barrel cannon in the Islamic world did not occur until 1365. Similarly, Andrade dates the textual appearance of cannon", "Outside of China, the earliest texts to mention gunpowder are Roger Bacon's \"Opus Majus\" (1267) and \"Opus Tertium\" in what has been interpreted as references to firecrackers. In the early 20th century, a British artillery officer proposed that another work tentatively attributed to Bacon, \"Epistola de Secretis Operibus Artis et Naturae, et de Nullitate Magiae\", also known as \"Opus Minor\", dated to 1247, contained an encrypted formula for gunpowder hidden in the text. These claims have been disputed by science historians. In any case, the formula itself is not useful for firearms or even firecrackers, burning slowly and producing mostly smoke. There is a record of a gun in Europe dating to 1322 being discovered in the nineteenth century but the artifact has since been lost. The earliest known European depiction of a gun appeared in 1326 in a manuscript by Walter de Milemete, although not necessarily drawn by him, known as \"De Nobilitatibus, sapientii et prudentiis regum\" (Concerning the Majesty, Wisdom, and Prudence of Kings), which displays a gun with a large arrow emerging from it and its user lowering a long stick to ignite the gun through the touchole In the same year, another similar illustration showed a darker gun being set off", "Documentary evidence of cannon in Russia does not appear until 1382 and they were used only in sieges, often by the defenders. It was not until 1475 when Ivan III established the first Russian cannon foundry in Moscow that they began to produce cannon natively. Later on large cannon were known as bombards, ranging from three to five feet in length and were used by Dubrovnik and Kotor in defence during the later 14th century. The first bombards were made of iron, but bronze became more prevalent as it was recognized as more stable and capable of propelling stones weighing as much as. Around the same", "While previous smaller guns could burn down structures with fire, larger cannon were so effective that engineers were forced to develop stronger castle walls to prevent their keeps from falling. This isn't to say that cannon were only used to batter down walls as fortifications began using cannon as defensive instruments such as an example in India where the fort of Raicher had gun ports built into its walls to accommodate the use of defensive", "By the 16th century, cannon were made in a great variety of lengths and bore diameters, but the general rule was that the longer the barrel, the longer the range. Some cannon made during this time had barrels exceeding in length, and could weigh up to. Consequently, large amounts of gunpowder were needed to allow them to fire stone balls several hundred yards. By mid-century, European monarchs began to classify cannon to reduce the confusion. Henry II of France opted for six sizes of cannon, but others settled for more; the Spanish used twelve sizes, and the English sixteen. Better powder had been developed by this time as well. Instead of the finely ground powder used by the first bombards, powder was replaced by a \"corned\" variety of coarse grains. This coarse powder had pockets of air between grains, allowing fire to travel through and ignite the entire charge quickly and uniformly. The end of the Middle Ages saw the construction of larger, more powerful cannon, as well as their spread throughout the world. As they were not effective at breaching the newer fortifications resulting from the development of cannon, siege engines—such as siege towers and trebuchets—became less widely used. However, wooden \"battery-towers\" took on a similar role as siege", "The lower tier of 17th-century English ships of the line were usually equipped with demi-cannon, guns that fired a solid shot, and could weigh up to. Demi-cannon were capable of firing these heavy metal balls with such force that they could penetrate more than a metre of solid oak, from a distance of, and could dismast even the largest ships at close range. Full cannon fired a shot, but were discontinued by the 18th century, as they were too unwieldy. By the end of the 18th century, principles long adopted in Europe specified the characteristics of the Royal Navy's cannon, as well as the acceptable defects, and their severity. The United States Navy tested guns by measuring them, firing them two or three times—termed \"proof by powder\"—and using pressurized water to detect leaks. The carronade was adopted by the Royal Navy in 1779; the lower muzzle velocity of the round shot when fired from this cannon was intended to create more wooden splinters when hitting the structure of an enemy vessel, as they were believed to be more deadly than the ball by itself. The carronade was much shorter, and", "Cannon in the 20th and 21st centuries are usually divided into sub-categories and given separate names. Some of the most widely used types of modern cannon are howitzers, mortars, guns, and autocannon, although a few very large-calibre cannon, custom-designed, have also been constructed. Nuclear artillery was experimented with, but was abandoned as impractical. Modern artillery is used in a variety of roles, depending on its type. According to NATO, the general role of artillery is to provide fire support, which is defined as \"the application of fire, coordinated with the manoeuvre of forces to destroy, neutralize, or suppress the enemy.\" When referring to cannon, the term \"gun\" is often used incorrectly. In military usage, a gun is a cannon with a high muzzle velocity and a flat trajectory, useful for hitting the sides of targets such as walls, as opposed to howitzers or mortars, which have lower muzzle velocities, and fire indirectly, lobbing shells up and over obstacles to hit the target from above. By the early 20th century, infantry weapons had become more powerful, forcing most artillery away from the front lines. Despite the change to indirect fire, cannon proved highly effective during World War I, directly or indirectly causing over 75% of casualties. The onset of trench warfare after the first few months of World War I greatly increased the demand for howitzers, as they were more suited at hitting targets in trenches. Furthermore, their shells carried more explosives than those of guns, and caused considerably less barrel wear. The German army had the advantage here as they began the war with many more howitzers than the French. World War I also saw the use of the Paris Gun, the longest-ranged gun ever fired. This calibre gun was used by the Germans against Paris and could hit targets more than away. The Second World War sparked new developments in cannon technology. Among them were sabot rounds, hollow-charge projectiles, and proximity fuses, all of which increased the effectiveness of cannon against specific target. The proximity fuse emerged on the battlefields of Europe in late December 1944. Used to great effect in anti-aircraft projectiles, proximity fuses were fielded in both the European and Pacific Theatres of Operations; they were particularly useful against V-1 flying bombs and kamikaze planes. Although widely used in naval warfare, and in anti-air guns, both the British and Americans feared unexploded proximity", "Cannon in general have the form of a truncated cone with an internal cylindrical bore for holding an explosive charge and a projectile. The thickest, strongest, and closed part of the cone is located near the explosive charge. As any explosive charge will dissipate in all directions equally, the thickest portion of the cannon is useful for containing and directing this force. The backward motion of the cannon as its projectile leaves the bore is termed its recoil and the effectiveness of the cannon can be measured in terms of how much this response can be diminished, though obviously diminishing recoil through increasing the overall mass of the cannon means decreased mobility. Field artillery cannon in Europe and the Americas were initially made most often of bronze, though later forms were constructed of cast iron and eventually steel. Bronze has several characteristics that made it preferable as a construction material: although it is relatively expensive, does not always alloy well, and can result in a final product that is \"spongy about the bore\", bronze is more flexible than iron and therefore less prone to bursting when exposed to high pressure; cast iron cannon are less expensive and more durable generally than bronze and withstand being fired more times without deteriorating. However, cast iron cannon have a tendency to burst without having shown any previous weakness or wear, and this makes them more dangerous to operate. The older and more-stable forms of cannon were muzzle-loading as opposed to breech-loading—in order to be used they had to have their ordnance packed down the bore through the muzzle rather than inserted through the breech. The following terms refer to the components or aspects of a classical western cannon (c. 1850) as illustrated here. In what follows, the words \"near\", \"close\", and \"behind\" will refer to those parts towards the thick, closed end of the piece, and \"far\", \"front\", \"in front of\", and \"before\" to the thinner, open end.", "The main body of a cannon consists of three basic extensions: the foremost and the longest is called the \"chase\", the middle portion is the \"reinforce\", and the closest and briefest portion is the \"cascabel\" or \"cascable\". To pack a muzzle-loading cannon, first gunpowder is poured down the bore. This is followed by a layer of wadding (often nothing more than paper), and then the cannonball itself. A certain amount of windage allows the ball to fit down the bore, though the greater the windage the less efficient the propulsion of the ball when the gunpowder is ignited. To fire the cannon, the fuse located in", "In the 1770s, cannon operation worked as follows: each cannon would be manned by two gunners, six soldiers, and four officers of artillery. The right gunner was to prime the piece and load it with powder, and the left gunner would fetch the powder from the magazine and be ready to fire the cannon at the officer's command. On each side of the cannon, three soldiers stood, to ram and sponge the cannon, and hold the ladle. The second soldier on the left was tasked with providing 50 bullets. Before loading, the cannon would be cleaned with a wet sponge to extinguish any smouldering material from the last shot. Fresh powder could be set off prematurely by lingering ignition sources. The powder was added, followed by wadding of paper or hay, and the ball was placed in and rammed down. After ramming, the cannon would be aimed with the elevation set using a", "Historically, logs or poles have been used as decoys to mislead the enemy as to the strength of an emplacement. The \"Quaker Gun trick\" was used by Colonel William Washington's Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War; in 1780, approximately", "Cannon sounds have sometimes been used in classical pieces with a military theme. One of the best known examples of such a piece is Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's \"1812 Overture\". The overture is to be performed using an artillery section together with the orchestra, resulting in noise levels high enough that musicians are required to wear ear protection. The cannon fire simulates Russian artillery bombardments of the Battle of Borodino, a critical battle in Napoleon's invasion", "Cannons recovered from the sea are often extensively damaged from exposure to salt water; because of this, electrolytic reduction treatment is required to forestall the process of corrosion. The cannon is then washed in deionized water to remove the electrolyte, and is treated in tannic acid, which prevents further rust and gives the metal a bluish-black colour. After this process, cannon on display may be protected from oxygen and moisture by a wax sealant. A coat of polyurethane may also be painted over the wax sealant, to prevent the wax-coated cannon from attracting dust in outdoor displays. In 2011, archaeologists say six cannon recovered from a river in Panama that could have belonged to legendary pirate Henry Morgan are being studied and could eventually be displayed after going through a restoration process." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin.", "Sources.", "Selected works.", "Revival.", "Women creators and characters." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The term \"sword and sorcery\" was coined in 1961 by the celebrated American author Fritz Leiber in response to a letter from British author Michael Moorcock in the fanzine \"Amra\", demanding a name for the sort of fantasy-adventure story written by Robert E. Howard. Moorcock had initially proposed the term \"epic fantasy\". Leiber replied in the journal \"Ancalagon\" (6 April 1961), suggesting \"sword-and-sorcery as a good popular catchphrase for the field\". He expanded on this in the July 1961 issue of \"Amra\", commenting: Since its inception, many attempts have been made to provide a precise definition of \"sword and sorcery\". Although many have debated the finer points, the consensus characterizes it by a strong bias toward fast-paced, action-rich tales set within a quasi-mythical or fantastical framework. Unlike high fantasy, the stakes in sword and sorcery tend to be personal, the danger confined to the moment of telling. Settings are typically exotic, and protagonists often morally compromised. Many sword and sorcery tales have been turned into a lengthy series of adventures. Their lower stakes and less-than world-threatening dangers make this more plausible than a repetition of the perils of epic fantasy. So too does the nature of the heroes; most sword-and-sorcery protagonists, travellers by nature, find peace after adventure deathly dull. At one extreme, the heroes of E. R. Eddison's \"The Worm Ouroboros\" grieve for the end of the war and that they have no more foes equal to those they defeated; in answer to their prayers, the gods restore the enemy city so that they can fight the same war over again.", "In his introduction to the reference \"Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers\" by L. Sprague de Camp, Lin Carter notes that the heritage of Sword and Sorcery is illustrious, and can be traced back to mythology, including the labors of Hercules, as well as to classical epics such as Homer's \"Odyssey\", the Norse sagas, and Arthurian legend. It also has been influenced by historical fiction, for instance that of Sir Walter Scott which was influenced by Scottish folklore and ballads. However, very few of Scott's stories contain fantastic elements; in most, the appearance of such is explained away. However, its themes of adventure in a strange society influenced the adventures set in foreign lands by H. Rider Haggard and Edgar Rice Burroughs. Haggard's works included many fantastic elements. Sword and sorcery's immediate progenitors are the swashbuckling tales of Alexandre Dumas, père (\"The Three Musketeers\" (1844), etc.), Rafael Sabatini (\"Scaramouche\" (1921), etc.) and their pulp magazine imitators, such as Talbot Mundy, Harold Lamb, and H. Bedford-Jones, who all influenced Robert E. Howard. However, these historical \"swashbucklers\" lack the truly supernatural element (even though Dumas' fiction contained many fantasy tropes) that defines the genre. Another influence was early fantasy fiction such as Lord Dunsany's \"The Fortress Unvanquishable, Save for Sacnoth\" (1910) and A. Merritt's \"The Ship of Ishtar\" (1924). All of these authors influenced sword and sorcery for the plots, characters, and landscapes used. In addition, many early sword and sorcery writers, such as Robert E. Howard and Clark Ashton Smith, were heavily influenced by the Middle Eastern tales of the Arabian Nights, whose stories of magical monsters and evil sorcerers were a major influence on the genre-to-be. Sword and sorcery's frequent depictions of smoky taverns and fetid back alleys draw upon the picaresque genre; for example, Rachel Bingham notes that Fritz Leiber's city of Lankhmar bears considerable similarity to 16th century Seville as depicted in Cervantes' tale \"Rinconete y Cortadillo\". Sword and sorcery proper only truly began in the pulp fantasy magazines, where it emerged from \"weird fiction\". Particularly important was the magazine \"Weird Tales\", which published Howard's Conan stories and C. L. Moore's Jirel of Joiry tales, as well as key S&S influences like Lovecraft and Clark Ashton Smith.", "The genre has been defined, strongly, by the work of Robert E. Howard, particularly his tales of \"Conan the Barbarian\" and \"Kull of Atlantis\", mostly in \"Weird Tales\" from 1932 and 1929 respectively. Other books and series that define the genre of sword-and-sorcery include: Other pulp fantasy fiction—such as Edgar Rice Burroughs' \"Barsoom\" series and Leigh Brackett's \"Sea Kings of Mars\"—have a similar feel to sword and sorcery, but, because alien science replaces the supernatural, it is usually described as planetary romance or sword and planet, and considered to fall more in the area of science fiction. Despite this, planetary romance is closely aligned with sword and sorcery, and the work of Burroughs, Brackett, and others in the former field have been significant in creating and spreading S&S proper. Sword and sorcery itself has often blurred the lines between fantasy and science fiction, drawing elements from both like the \"weird fiction\" it sprang from.", "From the 1960s up till the 1980s, under the guiding force of Lin Carter, a select group of writers formed the Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America (SAGA) to promote and enlarge the sword and sorcery genre. From 1973 to 1981, five anthologies featuring short works by SAGA members were published. Edited by Carter, these were collectively known as \"Flashing Swords!\". Because of these and other anthologies, such as the Ballantine Adult Fantasy series, his own fiction, and his criticism, Carter is considered one of the most important popularizers of genre fantasy in general, and S&S in particular. Another notable sword and sorcery anthology series that ran from 1977 through 1979 was called \"Swords Against Darkness\" (Zebra Books), edited by Andrew J. Offutt. This series ran to five volumes and featured stories by such authors as Poul Anderson, David Drake, Ramsey Campbell, Andre Norton, and Manly Wade Wellman. Despite such authors' best efforts, some critics have used sword and sorcery as a dismissive or pejorative term. During the 1980s, influenced by the success of the 1982 feature film \"Conan the Barbarian,\" many cheaply made fantasy films were released in a subgenera that would be called \"Sword & Sorcery\". The term is sometimes used in a derogatory manner by writers and readers of the fantasy genre. After the boom of the early 1980s, sword and sorcery once again dropped out of favor, with epic fantasy largely taking its place in the fantasy genre. However, there was another resurgence in sword and sorcery at the end of the 20th century. Sometimes called the \"new\" or \"literary\" sword and sorcery, this development places emphasis on literary technique, and draws from epic fantasy and other genres to broaden the typical scope of S&S. Stories may feature the wide-ranging struggles national or world-spanning concerns common to high fantasy, but told from the point of view of characters more common to S&S, and with the sense of adventure common to the latter. Writers associated with this include Steven Erikson, Joe Abercrombie, and Scott Lynch, magazines such as \"Black Gate\" and the ezines \"Flashing Swords\" (not to be confused with the Lin Carter anthologies), and \"Beneath Ceaseless Skies\" publish short fiction in the style. These authors and editors are attempting to return the genre to the status it enjoyed during the pulp era of the twenties and thirties. According to the literary critic Higashi Masao, of Japanese works, Guin Saga and Sorcerous Stabber Orphen were initially planned by their authors as novels that could be classified as belonging to the European sword and sorcery subgenre, however, later \"Guin Saga\" volumes centered too much around conspiracy, while \"Sorcerous Stabber Orphen\" was only officially published in light novel format and its later development involved increased reliance on magic and elements of high fantasy.", "Despite the importance of C. L. Moore, Leigh Brackett, Andre Norton, and other female authors, as well as Moore's early heroine, sword and sorcery has been characterized as having a strongly masculine bias. Female characters were generally distressed damsels to be rescued or protected, or otherwise served as an inducement or reward for a male hero's adventures. Women who had adventures of their own often did so to counter the threat of rape, or to gain revenge for same. Marion Zimmer Bradley's \"Sword and Sorceress\" anthology series (1984 onwards) attempted the reverse. Bradley encouraged female writers and protagonists. The stories feature skillful swordswomen and powerful sorceresses, working from a variety of motives. Jessica Amanda Salmonson similarly sought to broaden the range of roles for female characters in sword and sorcery through both her own stories and in editing the World Fantasy Award-winning \"Amazons\" (1979) and \"Amazons II\" (1982) anthologies; both drew on real and folkloric female warriors, often from areas outside of Europe. Early sword and sorcery writer Robert E. Howard had feminist views, which he espoused in both personal and professional life. He wrote to his friends and associates defending the achievements and capabilities of women. Strong female characters in Howard's works of fiction include Dark Agnes de Chastillon (first appearing in \"Sword Woman\", circa 1932–34), the early modern pirate Helen Tavrel (\"The Isle of Pirates' Doom\", 1928), as well as two pirates and Conan the Barbarian supporting characters, Bêlit (\"Queen of the Black Coast\", 1934), and Valeria of the Red Brotherhood (\"Red Nails\", 1936). Introduced as the co-star in a non-fantasy historical story by Howard, \"The Shadow of the Vulture\", Red Sonya of Rogatino would later inspire a fantasy heroine named Red Sonja, who first appeared in the comic book series \"Conan the Barbarian\" written by Roy Thomas and illustrated by Barry Windsor-Smith. Red Sonja received her own comic book title and eventually a series of novels by David C. Smith and Richard L. Tierney, as well as Richard Fleischer's film adaptation in 1985." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Philosophy.", "Science and mathematics.", "Politics.", "Other religions.", "Influence.", "Works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Nicholas was born in Kues (Latinized as \"Cusa\") in southwestern Germany. He was the second of four children of Johan Krebs (or Cryfftz) and Katherina Roemer. His father was \"a prosperous boat owner and ferryman.\" He entered the Faculty of Arts of the Heidelberg University in 1416 as \"a cleric of the Diocese of Trier,\" studying the liberal arts. He seemed to have left Heidelberg soon afterwards, as he received his doctorate in canon law from the University of Padua in 1423. In Padua, he met with the later cardinals Julian Cesarini and Domenico Capranica and became friends with the mathematician Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli. Afterwards, he entered the University of Cologne in 1425 as \"a doctor of canon law,\" which he appears to have both taught and practiced there. In Cologne, he made friends with the scholastic theologian Heymeric de Campo. Following a brief period in Cologne, Nicholas returned to his hometown and became secretary to Otto of Ziegenhain, the Prince–Archbishop of Trier. Otto appointed him canon and dean at the stift of Saint Florinus in Koblenz affiliated with numerous prebends. In 1427 he was sent to Rome as an episcopal delegate. The next year he travelled to Paris to study the writings of Ramon Llull. At the same time he rejected a calling by the newly established University of Leuven. He acquired great knowledge in the research of ancient and medieval manuscripts as well as in textual criticism and the examination of primary sources. In 1433 he identified the \"Donation of Constantine\" as a fake, confirmed by Lorenzo Valla a few years later, and revealed the forgery of the \"Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals\". He made friends with the Austrian astronomer Georg von Peuerbach and advocated a reform of the Julian calendar and the Easter computus, which, however, was not realized until the introduction of the Gregorian calendar in 1582. After the Archbishop Otto of Trier had died in 1430, Pope Martin V appointed the Speyer bishop Raban of Helmstatt his successor. Nevertheless, the Electorate was contested by opposing parties, and in 1432 Nicholas attended the Council of Basel representing the Cologne dean Ulrich von Manderscheid, one of the claimants, who hoped to prevail against the new Pope Eugene IV. Nicholas stressed the determining influence of the cathedral chapter and its given right to participate in the succession policy, which even places the pope under an obligation to seek a consent. His efforts were to no avail in regard to Ulrich's ambitions; however, Nicholas's pleadings earned him a great reputation as an intermediary and diplomat. While present at the council, he wrote his first work, \"De concordantia catholica\" (\"The Catholic Concordance\"), a synthesis of ideas on church and empire balancing hierarchy with consent. This work remained useful to critics of the papacy long after Nicholas left Basel. Initially as conciliarist, Nicholas approached his university friend Cardinal Julian Cesarini, who had tried to reconcile pope and council, combining reform and hierarchic order. Nicholas supported transfer of the council to Italy to meet with the Greeks, who needed aid against the Ottoman Turks. He arbitrated in the conflict with the Hussites. Between the summer of 1437 and early 1438 he was a member of the delegation sent to Constantinople with the pope's approval to bring back the Byzantine emperor and his representatives to the papally summoned Council of Florence of 1439, which was attempting to bring the Eastern Orthodox Church into union with the Western Catholic Church. The reunion achieved at this conference turned out to be very brief. Nicholas would later claim (in the postfaced dedicatory letter of \"On Learned Ignorance\", which Nicholas finished writing on 12 February 1440) that he had chosen to write on this metaphysical topic because of a shipboard experience of divine illumination while on the ship returning from this mission to Constantinople. After a successful career as a papal envoy, he was made a cardinal by Pope Nicholas V in 1448 or 1449. In 1450 he was both named Bishop of Brixen, in Tyrol, and commissioned as a papal legate to the German lands to spread the message of reform. This latter role, his 'Great Legation' of 1450–1452, involved travel of almost 3000 miles, preaching, teaching and reforming. He became known as the \"Hercules of the Eugenian cause.\" His local councils enacted reforms, many of which were not successful. Pope Nicholas canceled some of Nicholas's decrees, and the effort to discourage pilgrimages to venerate the bleeding hosts of Wilsnack (the so-called Holy Blood of Wilsnack) was unsuccessful. His work as bishop between 1452 and 1458 – trying to impose reforms and reclaim lost diocesan revenues – was opposed by Duke Sigismund of Austria. The duke imprisoned Nicholas in 1460, for which Pope Pius II excommunicated Sigismund and laid an interdict on his lands. Nicholas returned to Rome, but was never able to return to his bishopric. He died at Todi in Umbria on 11 August 1464. Sigismund's capitulation came a few days after Nicholas's death. Upon his death, Nicholas's body was interred in the church of San Pietro in Vincoli in Rome, probably near the relic of Peter's chains; but it was later lost. His monument, with a sculpted image of the cardinal, remains. Two other tombstones, one medieval and one modern, also are found in the church. In accordance with his wishes, his heart rests within the chapel altar at the Cusanusstift in Kues. To this charitable institution that he had founded he bequeathed his entire inheritance; it still stands, and serves the purpose Nicholas intended for it, as a home for the aged. The Cusanusstift also houses many of his manuscripts.", "Nicholas was noted for his deeply mystical writings about Christianity, particularly on the possibility of knowing God with the divine human mind – not possible through mere human means – via \"learned ignorance.\" He wrote of the enfolding of creation in God and their unfolding in creation. He was suspected by some of holding pantheistic beliefs, but his writings were never accused of being heretical. Physicist and philosopher Max Bernhard Weinstein wrote that Nicholas was, to a certain extent, a Pandeist. Nicholas also wrote in \"De coniecturis\" about using conjectures or surmises to rise to better understanding of the truth. The individual might rise above mere reason to the vision of the intellect, but the same person might fall back from such vision. Theologically, Nicholas anticipated the profound implications of Reformed teaching on the harrowing of Hell (Sermon on Psalm 30:11), followed by Pico della Mirandola, who similarly explained the \"descensus\" in terms of Christ’s agony.", "Most of Nicholas's mathematical ideas can be found in his essays, \"De Docta Ignorantia\" (\"Of Learned Ignorance\"), \"De Visione Dei\" (\"On the Vision of God\") and \"On Conjectures\". He also wrote on squaring the circle in his mathematical treatises. From the \"Catholic Encyclopedia\" (1913 edition): The astronomical views of the cardinal are scattered through his philosophical treatises. They evince complete independence of traditional doctrines, though they are based on symbolism of numbers, on combinations of letters, and on abstract speculations rather than observation. The earth is a star like other stars, is not the centre of the universe, is not at rest, nor are its poles fixed. The celestial bodies are not strictly spherical, nor are their orbits circular. The difference between theory and appearance is explained by relative motion. Had Copernicus been aware of these assertions he would probably have been encouraged by them to publish his own monumental work. Like Nicole Oresme, Nicholas also wrote about the possibility of the plurality of worlds. Norman Moore tells us in The Fitz-Patrick Lectures of 1905: In medicine he introduced an improvement which in an altered form has continued in use to this day. This improvement was the counting of the pulse which up to his time had been felt and discussed in many ways but never counted....Nicholas of Cusa proposed to compare the rate of pulses by weighing the quantity of water run out of a water clock while the pulse beat one hundred times....The manufacture of watches with second-hands has since given us a simpler method of counting, but the merit of introducing this useful kind of observation into clinical medicine belongs to Nicholas of Cusa.", "In 1433, Nicholas proposed reform of the Holy Roman Empire and a method to elect Holy Roman Emperors. Although it was not adopted by the Church, his method was essentially the same one known today as the Borda count, which is used in many academic institutions, competitions, and even some political jurisdictions, in original form and a number of variations. His proposal preceded Borda's work by over three centuries. Nicholas's opinions on the Empire, which he hoped to reform and strengthen, were cited against papal claims of temporal power in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Protestant writers were happy to cite a cardinal against Rome's pretensions. Protestants, however, found his writings against the Hussites wrong. Nicholas seemed to Protestants to give the church too much power to interpret Scripture, instead of treating it as self-interpreting and self-sufficient for salvation, the principle of sola scriptura. Nicholas's own thought on the church changed with his departure from Basel. He tried arguing that the Basel assembly lacked the consent of the church throughout the world, especially the princes. Then he tried arguing that the church was unfolded from Peter (\"explicatio Petri\"). This allowed him to support the pope without abandoning ideas of reform. Thus, he was able to propose to Pius II reform of the church, beginning with the pope himself. Then it was to spread through the Roman curia and outward throughout Christendom. Nicholas noted that government was founded on the consent of the governed:", "Shortly after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, Nicholas wrote \"De pace fidei\", \"On the Peace of Faith\". This visionary work imagined a summit meeting in Heaven of representatives of all nations and religions. Islam and the Hussite movement in Bohemia are represented. The conference agrees that there can be \"una religio in varietate rituum\", a single faith manifested in different rites, as manifested in the eastern and western rites of the Catholic Church. The dialog presupposes the greater accuracy of Christianity but gives respect to other religions. Nicholas's position was for not for Europeans to retake Constantinople but simply to trade with the Ottomans and allow them their conquests. Less irenic but not virulent, is his \"Cribratio Alchorani\", \"Sifting the Koran\", a detailed review of the Koran in Latin translation. While the arguments for the superiority of Christianity are still shown in this book, it also credits Judaism and Islam with sharing in the truth at least partially. Nicholas's attitude toward the Jews was not always mild; on 21 September 1451 he ordered that Jews of Arnhem were to wear badges identifying them as such. The \"De pace fidei\" mentions the possibility that the Jews might not embrace the larger union of \"una religio in varietate rituum\", but it dismisses them as politically insignificant. This matches the decrees from his legation restricting Jewish activities, restrictions later canceled by Pope Nicholas V.", "Nicholas was widely read, and his works were published in the sixteenth century in both Paris and Basel. Sixteenth-century French scholars, including Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples and Charles de Bovelles, cited him. Lefèvre even edited the Paris 1514 \"Opera\". Nonetheless, there was no Cusan school, and his works were largely unknown until the nineteenth century, though Giordano Bruno quoted him, while some thinkers, like Gottfried Leibniz, were thought to have been influenced by him. Neo-Kantian scholars began studying Nicholas in the nineteenth century, and new editions were begun by the \"Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften\" in the 1930s and published by Felix Meiner Verlag. In the early twentieth century, he was hailed as the \"first modern thinker,\" and much debate since then has centered around the question whether he should be seen as essentially a medieval or Renaissance figure. Societies and centers dedicated to Nicholas can be found in Argentina, Japan, Germany, Italy and the United States. His well-known quote about the infinity of the universe is found paraphrased in the Central Holy Book of the Thelemites, The Book of the Law, which was \"received\" from the Angel Aiwass by Aleister Crowley in Cairo in April 1904: \"In the sphere I am everywhere the centre, as she, the circumference, is nowhere found.\"", "Nicholas wrote a large number of works, which include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geology.", "Climate.", "Flooding.", "Ecology.", "History.", "In popular culture.", "Films." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Death Valley is an example of a graben, or a downdropped block of land between two mountain ranges. It lies at the southern end of a geological trough known as Walker Lane, which runs north to Oregon. The valley is bisected by a right lateral strike slip fault system, represented by the Death Valley Fault and the Furnace Creek Fault. The eastern end of the left lateral Garlock Fault intersects the Death Valley Fault. Furnace Creek and the Amargosa River flow through the valley but eventually disappear into the sands of the valley floor. Death Valley also contains salt pans. According to current geological consensus, at various times during the middle of the Pleistocene era, which ended roughly 10,000–12,000 years ago, an inland lake referred to as Lake Manly formed in Death Valley. Lake Manly was nearly long and deep, the end-basin in a chain of lakes that began with Mono Lake in the north and continued through multiple basins down the Owens River Valley through Searles and China Lakes and the Panamint Valley to the immediate west. As the area turned to desert, the water evaporated, leaving the abundance of evaporitic salts such as common sodium salts and borax, which were later exploited during the modern history of the region, primarily 1883 to 1907.", "Death Valley has a subtropical, hot desert climate (Köppen: \"BWh\"), with long, extremely hot summers and short, mild winters, as well as little rainfall. Death Valley is extremely dry because it sits in the rain shadow of four major mountain ranges (including the Sierra Nevada and Panamint Range). Moisture moving inland from the Pacific Ocean must pass eastward over multiple mountains to reach Death Valley; as air masses are forced upwards by each range, the air cools and moisture condenses to fall as rain or snow on the western slopes. When the air masses ultimately reach Death Valley, most of the moisture has already been \"squeezed out\" and there is little left to fall as precipitation. The extreme heat of Death Valley is attributable to a confluence of geographic and topographic factors. Scientists have identified a number of key contributors to Death Valley's famously hot conditions: Severe heat and dryness contribute to perpetual drought-like conditions in Death Valley and prevent much cloud formation from passing through the confines of the valley, where precipitation is often in the form of a virga. The depth and shape of Death Valley strongly influence its climate. The valley is a long, narrow basin that reaches down to below sea level, yet is walled by high, steep mountain ranges. The clear, dry air and sparse plant cover allow sunlight to heat the desert surface. Summer nights provide little relief, as overnight lows may only dip into the range. Moving masses of super-heated air blow through the valley creating extremely high temperatures. The hottest air temperature ever recorded in Death Valley was on July 10, 1913, at Greenland Ranch (now Furnace Creek), which is the highest atmospheric temperature ever recorded on earth. A report of a temperature of 58 °C (136.4 °F) recorded in Libya in 1922 was later determined to be inaccurate. During the heat wave that peaked with that record, five consecutive days reached or above. Some meteorologists dispute the accuracy of the 1913 temperature measurement.The lowest temperature recorded at Greenland Ranch was in January 1913. The highest surface temperature ever recorded in Death Valley was on July 15, 1972, at Furnace Creek, which is the highest ground surface temperature ever recorded on earth, as well as the only recorded surface temperature of above. The greatest number of consecutive days with a maximum temperature of or above was 154 days in the summer of 2001. The summer of 1996 had 40 days over, and 105 days over. The summer of 1917 had 52 days where the temperature reached or above with 43 of them consecutive. The highest overnight or low temperature recorded in Death Valley is, recorded on July 5, 1918. However this value is disputed and a record high low of on July 12, 2012 is considered reliable. This is one of the highest values ever recorded Also on July 12, 2012, the mean 24-hour temperature recorded at Death Valley was, which makes it the world's warmest 24-hour temperature on record. Four major mountain ranges lie between Death Valley and the ocean, each one adding to an increasingly drier rain shadow effect, and in 1929, 1953, and 1989, no rain was recorded for the whole year. The period from 1931 to 1934 was the driest stretch on record with only of rain over a 40-month period. The average annual precipitation in Death Valley is, while the Greenland Ranch station averaged. The wettest month on record is January 1995, when fell on Death Valley. The wettest period on record was mid-2004 to mid-2005, in which nearly of rain fell in total, leading to ephemeral lakes in the valley and the region and tremendous wildflower blooms. Snow with accumulation has only been recorded in January 1922, while scattered flakes have been recorded on other occasions.", "In 2005, Death Valley received four times its average annual rainfall of. As it has done before for hundreds of years, the lowest spot in the valley filled with a wide, shallow lake, but the extreme heat and aridity immediately began evaporating the ephemeral lake. The pair of images (seen at right) from NASA's Landsat 5 satellite documents the short history of Death Valley's Lake Badwater: formed in February 2005 (top) and evaporated by February 2007 (bottom). In 2005, a big pool of greenish water stretched most of the way across the valley floor. By May 2005 the valley floor had resumed its more familiar role as Badwater Basin, a salt-coated salt flats. In time, this freshly dissolved and recrystallized salt will darken. The western margin of Death Valley is traced by alluvial fans. During flash floods, rainfall from the steep mountains to the west pours through narrow canyons, picking up everything from fine clay to large rocks. When these torrents reach the mouths of the canyons, they widen and slow, branching out into distributary channels. The paler the fans, the younger they are.", "In spite of the overwhelming heat and sparse rainfall, Death Valley exhibits considerable biodiversity. Wildflowers, watered by snowmelt, carpet the desert floor each spring, continuing into June. Bighorn sheep, red-tailed hawks, and wild burros may be seen. Death Valley has over 600 springs and ponds. Salt Creek, a mile-long shallow depression in the center of the valley, supports Death Valley Pupfish. These isolated pupfish populations are remnants of the wetter Pleistocene climate. Darwin Falls, on the western edge of Death Valley Monument, falls into a large pond surrounded by willows and cottonwood trees. Over 80 species of birds have been spotted around the pond.", "Death Valley is home to the Timbisha tribe of Native Americans, formerly known as the Panamint Shoshone, who have inhabited the valley for at least the past millennium. The Timbisha name for the valley, \"tümpisa\", means \"rock paint\" and refers to the red ochre paint that can be made from a type of clay found in the valley. Some families still live in the valley at Furnace Creek. Another village was in Grapevine Canyon near the present site of Scotty's Castle. It was called in the Timbisha language \"maahunu\", whose meaning is uncertain, although it is known that \"hunu\" means \"canyon\". The valley received its English name in 1849 during the California Gold Rush. It was called Death Valley by prospectors and others who sought to cross the valley on their way to the gold fields, after 13 pioneers perished from one early expedition of wagon trains. During the 1850s, gold and silver were extracted in the valley. In the 1880s, borax was discovered and extracted by mule-drawn wagons. Death Valley National Monument was proclaimed on February 11, 1933, by President Herbert Hoover, placing the area under federal protection. In 1994, the monument was redesignated as Death Valley National Park, as well as being substantially expanded to include Saline and Eureka Valleys.", "", "A number of movies have been filmed in Death Valley, such as the following:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Career.", "Personal life.", "Honours.", "Collaborations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Nyman was born in Stratford, London to a family of Polish secular Jewish furriers. Nyman was educated at the Sir George Monoux Grammar School, Walthamstow. He studied at King's College London and at the Royal Academy of Music, with Alan Bush and Thurston Dart, focusing on piano and seventeenth-century baroque music. He won the Howard Carr Memorial Prize for composition in July 1964. In 1965–66 Nyman secured a residency in Romania, to study folk-song, supported by a British Council bursary.", "Nyman says he discovered his aesthetic playing the aria, \"Madamina, il catalogo è questo\" from Mozart's \"Don Giovanni\" on his piano in the style of Jerry Lee Lewis, which \"dictated the dynamic, articulation and texture of everything I've subsequently done.\" It subsequently became the base for his 1977 piece \"In Re Don Giovanni.\" In 1969, Nyman provided the libretto of Harrison Birtwistle's opera \"Down by the Greenwood Side\" and directed the short film \"Love Love Love\" (based on, and identical in length to, the Beatles' \"All You Need Is Love\") before settling into music criticism, where he is generally acknowledged to have been the first to apply the term \"minimalism\" to music (in a 1968 article in \"The Spectator\" magazine about the English composer Cornelius Cardew). He wrote introductions for George Frideric Handel's Concerti Grossi, Op. 6 and interviewed George Brecht in 1976. One of his earliest film scores was the British sex comedy \"Keep It Up Downstairs\" (1976), and he has since scored numerous films, many of them European art films, including several of those directed by Peter Greenaway. Nyman drew frequently on early music sources in his scores for Greenaway's films: Henry Purcell in \"The Draughtsman's Contract\" (1982) and \"The Cook, the Thief, His Wife & Her Lover\" (1989) (which included Memorial and Miserere Paraphrase), Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber in \"A Zed & Two Noughts\" (1985), Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart in \"Drowning by Numbers\" (1988), and John Dowland in \"Prospero's Books\" (1991), largely at the request of the director. He wrote settings to various texts by Mozart for \"Letters, Riddles and Writs\", part of \"Not Mozart\". He also produced a soundtrack for the silent film \"Man with a Movie Camera\". Nyman's popularity increased after he wrote the score to Jane Campion's award-winning 1993 film \"The Piano\". The album became a classical music best-seller. He was nominated for both a British Academy Award and a Golden Globe. His few forays into Hollywood have been \"Gattaca\" (1997), \"Ravenous\" (1999) (with musician Damon Albarn), and \"The End of the Affair\" (1999). Among Nyman's other works are the opera \"Noises, Sounds & Sweet Airs\" (1987), for soprano, alto, tenor and instrumental ensemble (based on Nyman's score for the ballet \"La Princesse de Milan\"); \"Ariel Songs\" (1990) for soprano and band; MGV (Musique à Grande Vitesse) (1993) for band and orchestra; concertos for saxophone, piano (based on \"The Piano\" score), violin, harpsichord, trombone, and saxophone & cello recorded by John Harle and Julian Lloyd Webber; the opera \"The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat\" (1986), based on a case-study by Oliver Sacks; and five string quartets. In 2000, he produced a new opera on the subject of cloning on a libretto by Victoria Hardie titled \"Facing Goya\", an expansion of their one-act opera \"Vital Statistics\". The lead, a widowed art banker, is written for contralto and the role was first created by Hilary Summers. His newest operas are \"\" (2003) and \"Love Counts\" (2005), both on libretti by Michael Hastings. He has also composed the music for the children's television series \"Titch\" which is based on the books written and illustrated by Pat Hutchins. Many of Nyman's works are written for his own ensemble, the Michael Nyman Band, a group formed for a 1976 production of Carlo Goldoni's \"Il Campiello\". Originally made up of old instruments such as rebecs and shawms alongside more modern instruments like the saxophone to produce as loud a sound as possible without amplification, it later switched to a fully amplified line-up of string quartet, three saxophones, trumpet, horn, bass trombone, bass guitar and piano. This line up has been variously altered and augmented for some works. Nyman also published an influential book in 1974 on experimental music called \"Experimental Music: Cage and Beyond\", which explored the influence of John Cage on classical composers. In the 1970s, Nyman was a member of the Portsmouth Sinfonia – the self-described World's Worst Orchestra – playing on their recordings and in their concerts. He was the featured pianist on the orchestra's recording of \"Bridge Over Troubled Water\" on the Martin Lewis-produced \"20 Classic Rock Classics\" album on which the Sinfonia gave their unique interpretations of the pop and rock repertoire of the 1950s–1970s. Nyman created a similar group called Foster's Social Orchestra, which specialised in the work of Stephen Foster. One of their pieces appeared in the film \"Ravenous\" and an additional work, not used in the film, appeared on the soundtrack album. He has also recorded pop music with the Flying Lizards; a version of his \"Bird List\" from the soundtrack to Peter Greenaway's \"The Falls\" (1980) appears on their album \"Fourth Wall\" as \"Hands 2 Take\". On 7 July 2007, Nyman performed at Live Earth in Japan. Nyman also began a long-term artistic collaboration with the filmmaker Max Pugh which has resulted in many short art films, three experimental feature documentaries and a number of video installations. In 2008 Nyman realised, in collaboration with the cultural association Volumina, Sublime, an artist's book that unified his music with his passion for photography. In October 2009, Nyman released \"The Glare\", a collaborative collection of songs with David McAlmont, which cast his work in a new light. The album – recorded with the Michael Nyman Band – finds McAlmont putting lyrics based on contemporary news stories to 11 pieces of Nyman music drawn from different phases of his career. In 2012, he made a soundtrack for film \"Everyday\". Keith H. Yoo in 2012 commissioned Nyman to write a 26 minutes long piano quintet in four movements titled \"Through the Only Window\". It premiered at the gala dinner for his father Yoo Byung-eun's photographic exhibition \"Through My Window\" in the Tuileries Garden of The Louvre in Paris on 25 June 2012. The work has been recorded by Nyman Quintet in the Abbey Road Studios, and has been released on Nyman's record label. In 2013 Nyman was again commissioned to compose a piece for Yoo Byung-eun's exhibition in the Orangerie Hall of the Palace of Versailles, and wrote the 32 minutes long symphony in four movements, Symphony No. 6\"AHAE\", representing the four seasons in nature as depicted by Ahae, a pseudonym for Yoo Byung-eun. The London Symphony Orchestra premiered both pieces at L'Opéra of the Palace of Versailles in Paris on 8 September 2013 under the baton of the composer. It has been recorded for a planned future release.", "He was married to Aet Nyman and has two daughters, Molly and Martha. His first string quartet quotes \"Unchained Melody\" in homage to Aet, who appears in Greenaway's \"The Falls\", for which he also composed music. Molly is also a composer and in collaboration with Harry Escott has written several film scores including for \"The Road to Guantanamo\" by her father's frequent collaborator, Michael Winterbottom. Martha is a development researcher for the BBC. Nyman is a supporter of Queen's Park Rangers Football Club.", "Nyman was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2008 Birthday Honours. Nyman was awarded an honorary doctorate (DLitt) from The University of Warwick on 30 January 2007. At the ceremony The University of Warwick Brass Society and Chamber Choir, conducted by Paul McGrath, premiered a specially composed procession and recession fanfare composed by Nyman. In 2015, he was awarded the Golden Duke for Lifetime Achievement, the special award of the 6th Odessa International Film Festival.", "In addition to his composing and film-making activities, Nyman has a full international touring schedule with the Michael Nyman Band as well as a series of unique one-off performances with a variety of collaborators, including musicians from outside the western/classical/experimental traditions such as the Orqestra Andalusi de Tetouan, Rajan and Sajan Misra, U. Shrinivas, Estrella Morente, Seijin Noborakawa, Ute Lemper, Evan Parker, Peter Brotzmann, Paolo Fresu, Mike Giles, the Flying Lizards, Dagmar Krause, Sting, Damon Albarn, David McAlmont and Alva Noto." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Early career.", "Kodeksi.", "Jutro.", "Bijelo Dugme.", "Guest appearances, collaborations, and business venture.", "Solo career.", "Wedding and Funeral Orchestra.", "Eurovision.", "Musical style.", "Personal.", "Political views.", "Controversy.", "Enrico Macias plagiarism lawsuit.", "2015 denial of entry into Poland." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Born in Sarajevo, PR Bosnia-Herzegovina, FPR Yugoslavia to a Croat father Franjo Bregović and Serb mother Borka Perišić, Goran grew up with two younger siblings — sister Dajana and brother Predrag. Their father was from the Croatian region of Zagorje, specifically Sveti Petar Čvrstec village near Križevci, while their mother was born in Virovitica to parents that had shortly before her birth arrived in the nearby village of Čemernica, settling there from the village of Kazanci near Gacko in eastern Herzegovina. Goran's maternal grandfather, fought in the Royal Serbian Army at the Salonica Front during World War I and as a reward received land in Slavonia where he soon moved his family. Goran's parents met shortly after World War II in Virovitica where his mother Borka lived and his father Franjo (who fought on the Partisan side during the war) attended a Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) military school. Franjo Bregović soon got his first job, teaching ballistics at a military school in Sarajevo, so the couple that at the time moved there. Goran, their first child, was born in 1950 in Sarajevo. Goran was 10 years old when his parents divorced. In later interviews, he mentioned his father's alcoholism as the reason for the breakdown of their marriage. Soon after the split, his father moved to Livno, taking Goran's younger brother Predrag with him while Goran remained living with his mother in Sarajevo, visiting his father and brother every summer in Livno. Their father soon retired and eventually moved back to his home village in Zagorje while Goran's brother Predrag later moved back to Sarajevo for university studies. Goran played violin in a music school. However, deemed untalented, he was thrown out during second grade. His musical education was thus reduced to what his friend taught him until Goran's mother bought him his first guitar in his early teens. Bregović wanted to enroll in a fine arts high school, but his aunt told his mother that it was supposedly full of homosexuals, which precipitated his mother's decision to send him to a technical (traffic) school. As a compromise for not getting his way, she allowed him to grow his hair long.", "Upon entering high school, teenage Bregović joined the school band Izohipse where he began on bass guitar. Soon, however, he was kicked out of that school too (this time for misbehavior – he crashed into a school-owned Mercedes-Benz). Bregović then entered grammar school and its school band Beštije (again as a bass guitar player). When he was 16, his mother left him and moved to the coast, meaning that other than having a few relatives to rely on, he mostly had to take care of himself. He did that by playing folk music in a kafana in Konjic, working on construction sites, and selling newspapers. Spotting him at a Beštije gig in 1969, Željko Bebek invited eighteen-year-old Bregović to play bass guitar in his band Kodeksi, which Goran gladly accepted.", "Eventually, Kodeksi shifted setup so Bregović moved from bass to lead guitar, resulting in Kodeksi having the following line-up during summer 1970: Goran Bregović, Željko Bebek, Zoran Redžić and Milić Vukašinović. All of them would eventually become members of Bijelo Dugme at some point in the future. At the time, they were largely influenced by Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath. During the fall of 1970, this resulted in the departure of Željko Bebek, who (both as rhythm guitar player and singer) got phased out of the band. At the end of the year, Goran's mother and Zoran's brother arrived in Naples and took them back to Sarajevo.", "Then, in the autumn of 1971, Bregović enrolled at the University of Sarajevo's Faculty of Philosophy, studying philosophy and sociology. He soon quit, however. At the same time, Milić Vukašinović left for London, so Bregović formed a band with Nuno Arnautalić called Jutro (Morning), which Redžić soon joined as well. Over the next few years, the band changed lineups frequently, and on 1 January 1974 modified its name to Bijelo Dugme (\"White Button\").", "From 1974 until 1989, Bregović played lead guitar and was the main creative force behind Bijelo Dugme (\"White Button\"). For years they stood as one of the most popular bands in SFR Yugoslavia. From the get-go, he established himself as the band's undisputed leader as well as its public face in the Yugoslav print and electronic media. Over the band's fifteen-year run, in addition to their enormous popularity at home, led by Bregović, Bijelo Dugme made several attempts at expanding their prominence abroad. In late 1975, while recording their second album \"Šta bi dao da si na mom mjestu\" in London, they additionally recorded an English language track called \"Playing the Part\" (translated version of their Serbo-Croatian track \"Šta bi dao da si na mom mjestu\", itself an uncredited cover of Argent's 1972 track \"I Am the Dance of Ages\") that was packaged as a promo single for English music journalists. Never officially released for mass distribution, the track quickly fell into oblivion. Bijelo Dugme had somewhat better luck with touring abroad, which almost entirely took place in the Eastern Bloc countries as part of their respective cultural exchange programs with SFR Yugoslavia. The band briefly toured the Polish People's Republic during April 1977, a 9-concert leg as part of the tour in support of their third album \"Eto! Baš hoću!\". During their 10-day Polish tour, the band played two concerts on back-to-back nights in Warsaw, followed by Olsztyn, Zielona Góra, three shows on back-to-back days in Poznań, and finally two shows on the same day in Kalisz. While in Poland, they also shot a 30-minute television special for TVP3 Katowice, a regional Katowice-based branch of the state-owned Telewizja Polska. Later that year, following the tour that culminated in a triumphant open-air concert at Hajdučka Česma in Belgrade, Bregović went to serve his mandatory Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) stint. Assigned to a unit based in Niš, he would spend the following year away from music, a period during which the band was on hiatus. During early 1982, the band played in Innsbruck, Austria as representatives of the city of Sarajevo and SFR Yugoslavia, the site of the upcoming Winter Olympics, as part of an event bringing together past and future Winter Olympic hosts. On return to Yugoslavia from Innsbruck, the band had its equipment confiscated by the Yugoslav customs after undeclared musical equipment was found among their luggage. Some six months after that, during summer 1982, Bijelo Dugme went on a tour of the People's Republic of Bulgaria, playing 41 shows throughout the country from 15 July until 31 August 1982. Despite the tour in support of their latest studio album \"Doživjeti stotu\" being over for more than a year, and having no new material to promote, the band reportedly accepted the tour of Bulgaria in order to recover some of the funds lost after getting fined by the Yugoslav customs over the attempt to bring undeclared musical equipment into the country. In summer 1985, following a decade of continuous rejection for tours of the Soviet Union by the cultural attaché of the Soviet embassy in Yugoslavia, Bijelo Dugme was finally scheduled to play in Moscow on 28 July 1985 at a huge open-air concert at Gorky Park on the same bill with another Yugoslav act Bajaga i Instruktori as part of the 12th World Festival of Youth and Students. Ahead of the show, Bregović decided to take the band to Budva for two weeks in order to practice for the Moscow appearance, an indication of the seriousness with which they approached this particular concert. However, due to overcrowding and safety concerns, the event got interrupted around 10 pm after the Bajaga i Instruktori set before Bijelo Dugme even took the stage. Instead at Gorky Park, Bijelo Dugme played the Dynamo Arena on the Moscow outskirts two days later at noon on 30 July 1985.", "In between Bijelo Dugme's studio releases and tours, in-demand Bregović worked on various side projects in Yugoslavia. These included releasing a solo record in 1976 and composing two movie soundtracks — 1977's \"Leptirov oblak\" and 1979's \"Lične stvari\". He also tried his hand at music production, producing Idoli's 1980 seven-inch single \"Maljčiki\" / \"Retko te viđam sa devojkama\" and co-producing, alongside Kornelije Kovač, Zdravko Čolić's fourth studio album \"Malo pojačaj radio\" in 1981. Bregović furthermore made guest appearances on guitar on various studio recordings by different Yugoslav pop, folk, and rock acts: Neda Ukraden's track \"Tri djevojke\" (together with Bijelo Dugme bandmates Vlado Pravdić and Zoran Redžić) off her 1976 album \"Ko me to od nekud doziva\", Hanka Paldum's track \"Zbog tebe\" off her 1980 album \"Čežnja\", \"Ne da/ne nego i/ili\" track by Kozmetika off their 1983 eponymous album, Valentino's track \"Pazi na ritam\" off their 1983 debut album \"ValentiNo1\", Riblja Čorba's track \"Disko mišić\" off their 1985 album \"Istina\", Merlin's 1986 album \"Teško meni sa tobom (a još teže bez tebe)\", Mjesečari track \"Gdje izlaziš ovih dana\" off their 1988 album \"One šetaju od 1 do 2\", and Piloti track \"Tiho, tiho\" off their 1990 album \"Nek te Bog čuva za mene\". During his time leading Bijelo Dugme, Bregović also became involved in the financial and organizational side of the music business. In 1984, dissatisfied with their respective financial terms at the state-owned Jugoton label, Bijelo Dugme bandleader Bregović and one of Yugoslavia's biggest pop stars Zdravko Čolić got together to establish their own music label Kamarad, which, via a deal with state-owned Diskoton and later another newly-established private label Komuna, would end up co-releasing all of Bijelo Dugme's subsequent studio albums including three of Čolić's studio albums from 1984 until 1990. Considered an unusual move at the time in a socialist country with nearly across-the-board public ownership that had just recently began allowing certain modes of private entrepreneurship, starting a privately-owned record label, combined with Bregović's and Čolić's high public profile in Yugoslavia, got them both a lot of additional attention in the country's press. The company was registered in Radomlje near Domžale in SR Slovenia. Due to not having its own production facilities and distribution network, the new label entered into a co-releasing agreement with Diskoton thus essentially functioning as the legal entity that holds the licensing rights to the works of Bijelo Dugme and Zdravko Čolić. Kamarad's debut co-release was Čolić's 1984 studio album \"Ti si mi u krvi\" followed by Bijelo Dugme's self-titled studio album later that year with new vocalist Mladen \"Tifa\" Vojičić. The label would also co-release many of Dugme's and Čolić's later 'best of' compilations in addition to Bregović's movie soundtrack albums as well as Vesna Zmijanac's 1992 album \"Ako me umiriš sad\".", "At the time Bijelo Dugme was falling apart, Goran entered the world of film music. His first project was Emir Kusturica's \"Time of the Gypsies\" (1989). This turned out to be a great success (both the film and the soundtrack). Goran and Emir's collaboration continued, and Goran composed music (which was performed by Iggy Pop) for Emir's next film \"Arizona Dream\" (1993). During the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Goran lived in Paris, but he also lived in Belgrade. His next major project, music for Patrice Chéreau's \"Queen Margot\" was a great success as well, and as a result, the film won two awards on the 1994 Cannes Film Festival. The next year's Golden Palm award went to \"Underground\", for which Goran Bregović composed the music. In 1997, he worked with Turkish singer Sezen Aksu on her album \"Düğün ve Cenaze\" (\"Wedding and Funeral\"). After that album, he continued making composite albums with other musicians that were based on his music and singers' lyrics. He made an album with George Dalaras in 1999 named \"Thessaloniki – Yannena with Two Canvas Shoes\". In the same year, Bregović recorded an album called \"Kayah i Bregović\" (Kayah and Bregović) with popular Polish singer Kayah which sold over 700,000 copies in Poland (seven times platinum record). In 2001, he recorded another album with another Polish singer, Krzysztof Krawczyk, titled \"Daj mi drugie życie\" (\"Give Me Second Life\"). In 2005, Bregović took part in three large farewell concerts of Bijelo Dugme. A number of works created by Bregović can be heard on the soundtrack to the 2006 film \", most notably \"Đurđevdan\". The film itself actually features more Bregović samples than the soundtrack. Two musical numbers by Bregović, \"Ne Siam Kurve Tuke Sijam Prostitutke,\" and \"Gas, Gas\" were featured in the soundtrack of the 2012 Brazilian telenovela, \"Salve Jorge\", on the television network Rede Globo.", "For many years Bregović performed with a large ensemble of musicians: a brass band, bagpipes, a string ensemble, a tuxedo-clad all-male choir from Belgrade, women wearing traditional Bulgarian costumes, and Roma singers make up his 40-piece band and orchestra. Since 1998, and until about 2012, Bregović has been performing his music mainly in the form of concerts all over the world with his Wedding and Funeral Orchestra. This consists of 10 people (in the small version) or 37 (in the large version, although, in some instances, this number varies, depending on participants from the host country). Since 2012 the orchestra consists of 9 people (in the small version) or 19 (in the large version), as it played in New York at the Lincoln Center on 15 and 16 July 2016. The small orchestra consists of Muharem \"Muki\" Rexhepi (vocals, drums), Bokan Stanković (first trumpet), Dragić Velićović (second trumpet), Stojan Dimov (sax, clarinet), Aleksandar Rajković (first trombone, glockenspiel), Miloš Mihajlović (second trombone), female vocals Bulgarian singers Daniela Radkova-Aleksandrova and Lyudmila Radkova-Traykova, and Goran himself. The large orchestra includes also string quartet: Ivana Mateijć (first violin), Bojana Jovanović-Jotić (second violin), Saša Mirković (viola), and Tatjana Jovanović-Mirković, as well as sextet of male voices: Dejan Pesić (first tenor), Milan Panić and Ranko Jović (second tenors), Aleksandar Novaković (baritone), Dušan Ljubinković and Siniša Dutina (basses). In previous years, in the orchestra the following musicians have performed: Ogi Radivojević and Alen Ademović (vocals, drums), Dalibor Lukić (second trumpet), Dejan Manigodić (tuba), Vaska Jankovska (vocals). In 2013, as part of his Asia-Pacific tour (including Australia, New Zealand, and Hong Kong), Bregović performed with a string quartet, a male choir, Bulgarian singers and half of a brass band. The other part of the brass band – including bass and percussions – were being played from his computer. In 2017, he was a guest artist on Puerto Rican rapper Residente's album \"Residente\" on the song \"El Futuro Es Nuestro\" (Spanish for \"The Future is Ours\").", "During the Eurovision 2008 final in Belgrade Arena, Serbia, he had a small concert. He also composed the Serbian entry for the Eurovision Song Contest 2010; 'Ovo Je Balkan' sung by Milan Stanković.", "Bregović's compositions, extending Balkan musical inspirations to innovative extremes, draw upon European classicism and Balkan rhythms. Bregović's music carries: Yugoslav, Bulgarian, Romani, Greek, Romanian, Albanian, Italian and Turkish themes and is a fusion of popular music, with traditional polyphonic music from the Balkans, tango and brass bands.", "During the early 1970s, Bregović's first child, daughter Željka, was born out of wedlock from a brief relationship with a Sarajevo-based dancer named Jasenka. Željka lives in Austria where she gave birth to Goran's granddaughter, Bianca. With Bijelo Dugme's mid-1970s breakout commercial success and Bregović's increased public profile in Yugoslavia, details of his lifestyle and romantic relationships also became fodder for the country's press. Throughout the late 1970s and early 1980s, various Yugoslav print media outlets documented his high-profile relationship with Serbian model Ljiljana Tica who reportedly inspired his song \"Bitanga i princeza\" off Bijelo Dugme's eponymous 1979 album. In 1993, Bregović married his long-time girlfriend Dženana Sudžuka, a Bosniak model. The wedding ceremony held in Paris featured film director Emir Kusturica as the groom's best man and longtime Bijelo Dugme backing vocal Amila Sulejmanović as the bride's maid of honour. The couple has three daughters: Ema (born in March 1995), Una (February 2002), and Lulu (May 2004). Bregović owns real-estate all over the world, but divides most of his time between Belgrade due to most of his musical collaborators residing in Serbia and Paris where his spouse lives with their three daughters. In Belgrade, Bregović owns multiple properties in the upscale Senjak neighbourhood. On 12 June 2008, fifty-eight-year-old Bregović injured his spine, falling from a tree. He fell four meters from a cherry tree in the garden of his home in Senjak, a Belgrade district, breaking vertebrae. However, according to the doctors, his condition was \"stable without neurological complications.\" After surgery, he made a quick recovery and on 8 and 9 July, he held two big concerts in New York City, where for more than two hours each night, he proved his performance skills had not suffered from the accident. Bregović's siblings, brother Predrag and sister Dajana, live in New York City and Split, respectively.", "During mid-1971, while studying at the University of Sarajevo's Faculty of Philosophy, twenty-one-year-old Bregović got accepted into the Yugoslav Communist League (SKJ), the only party in SFR Yugoslavia's political system. Throughout the mid-to-late 1970s, by now a famous rock musician in SFR Yugoslavia, Bregović often publicly expressed his support for communism and the importance of being active in the party. In 1990, ahead of the general elections in the SR Bosnia and Herzegovina constituent unit of SFR Yugoslavia, Bregović publicly expressed his support for Ante Marković's Union of Reform Forces of Yugoslavia (SRSJ). He furthermore participated in their campaign and contributed to it in creative capacity. Despite securing public support and endorsements from many prominent public figures in SR Bosnia and Herzegovina such as Emir Kusturica, Nele Karajlić, Branko Đurić, etc., the party got only 8.9% of the total vote. In the years following the Yugoslav Wars and the breakup of Yugoslavia, Bregović has described himself as Yugonostalgic. In 2009, he stated: \"Yugoslavia is the intersection of so many worlds: Orthodox, Catholic, Muslim. With music, I don't have to represent anyone, except myself – because I speak the first language of the world, the one everyone understands: music.\"", "Bregović has frequently been accused of plagiarizing other performers' works as well as republishing his own previously released material as new.", "In the mid-2000s, French singer-songwriter Enrico Macias reportedly sued Bregović over Bregović's song \"In the Deathcar\" off the \"Arizona Dream\" soundtrack album, claiming it plagiarized Macias' song \"Solenzara\". Media outlets in the Balkans reported in 2015 that the French court ruled in Macias' favour, ordering Bregović to pay Macias €1 million in damages. In response, via a press release distributed to media outlets throughout the Balkans, Bregović's representative Svetlana Strunić claimed that there never was a plagiarism court process against Bregović in France.", "In March 2015, Bregović performed in a concert in Crimea, which was annexed by Russia the previous year. The following month, the Life Festival in Oświęcim, Poland canceled an appearance by Bregović, saying that his statements were \"contrary to the values cherished by the Life Festival founders.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Theological and juridical status.", "List of episcopal conferences.", "Other episcopal bodies.", "Synods of eastern rite churches.", "Assemblies of bishops." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "The operation, authority, and responsibilities of episcopal conferences are currently governed by the 1983 Code of Canon Law (see especially canons 447-459) In addition, there are assemblies of bishops which include the bishops of different rites in a nation, both Eastern Catholic and Latin Catholic; these are described in canon 322 §2 of the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches. The nature of episcopal conferences, and their magisterial authority in particular, was subsequently clarified by Pope John Paul II in his 1998 \"motu proprio\", \"Apostolos suos\", which stated that the declarations of such conferences \"constitute authentic magisterium\" when approved unanimously by the conference; otherwise the conference must achieve a two-thirds majority and seek the, that is, recognition of approval, of the Holy See, which they will not receive if the majority \"is not substantial\". In the 2013 apostolic exhortation, \"Evangelii Gaudium\", Pope Francis expressed his concern that the intent of the Second Vatican Council, which would give episcopal conferences \"genuine doctrinal authority, has not yet been sufficiently elaborated.\" On September 9, 2017, Pope Francis modified canon law, granting episcopal conferences specific authority \"to faithfully prepare... approve and publish the liturgical books for the regions for which they are responsible after the confirmation of the Apostolic See.\" The Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, which formerly had primary responsibility for translations, was ordered to \"help the Episcopal Conferences to fulfil their task.\" On October 22, 2017, the Holy See released a letter that Pope Francis had sent to the Prefect of the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, Cardinal Robert Sarah, clarifying that the Holy See and its departments would have only limited authority to confirm liturgical translations recognized by a local episcopal conference. In late February, 2018, the Council of Cardinals and Pope Francis undertook a consideration of the theological status of episcopal conferences, re-reading Pope John Paul II's \"Apostolos Suos\" in the light of Pope Francis's \"Evangelii Gaudium\".", "", "In addition to the episcopal conferences as defined by the Holy See, there are a number of other regional groupings of bishops:", "Synods of Bishops of the Patriarchal and Major Archiepiscopal Churches", "National assemblies of Hierarchs of Churches Sui Iuris (including eastern Catholic as well as Latin ordinaries)" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early reign.", "Conflict with the Greeks.", "Philip's campaign.", "Alexander's campaign.", "Flight, imprisonment, and death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Artashata was the son of Arsames, son of Ostanes; and Sisygambis, daughter of Artaxerxes II Mnemon. He had distinguished himself in a combat of champions in a war against the Cadusii and was serving at the time as a royal courier. However, prior to being appointed as a royal courier, he had served as a satrap of Armenia. He may have been promoted from his satrapy to the postal service after the ascension of Arses, for he is referred to as one of the king's \"friends\" at court after that occasion. In 336 BC, he took the throne at the age of 43 after the death of Artaxerxes III and Arses. According to Greek historian Diodorus of Sicily, Artashata was installed by the vizier Bagoas, after the latter had poisoned the king Artaxerxes III and subsequently his sons, including Arses, who had succeeded him on the throne. Artashata took the regnal name Darius III, and quickly demonstrated his independence from his possible assassin benefactor. Bagoas then tried to poison Darius as well, when he learned that even Darius couldn't be controlled, but Darius was warned and forced Bagoas to drink the poison himself. The new king found himself in control of an unstable empire, large portions of which were governed by jealous and unreliable satraps and inhabited by disaffected and rebellious subjects, such as Khabash in Egypt. Compared to his ancestors and his fellow heirs who had since perished, Darius had a distinct lack of experience ruling an empire, and a lack of any previous ambition to do so. Darius was a ruler of entirely average stamp, without the striking talents and qualities which the administration of a vast empire required during that period of crisis.", "", "In 336 BC Philip II of Macedon was authorized by the League of Corinth as its Hegemon to initiate a sacred war of vengeance against the Persians for desecrating and burning the Athenian temples during the Second Persian War, over a century before. He sent an advance force into Asia Minor under the command of his generals Parmenion and Attalus to liberate the Greeks living under Persian control. After they took the Greek cities of Asia from Troy to the Maiandros river, Philip was assassinated and his campaign was suspended while his heir consolidated his control of Macedonia and the rest of Greece.", "In the spring of 334 BC, Philip's heir, Alexander, who had himself been confirmed as Hegemon by the League of Corinth, invaded Asia Minor at the head of an army of Macedonian and other Greek soldiers. This invasion, which marked the beginning of the Wars of Alexander the Great, was followed almost immediately by the victory of Alexander over the Persians at Battle of the Granicus. Darius never showed up for the battle, because there was no reason for him to suppose that Alexander intended to conquer the whole of Asia, and Darius may well have supposed that the satraps of the ‘lower’ satrapies could deal with the crisis, so he instead decided to remain at home in Persepolis and let his satraps handle it. In the previous invasion of Asia Minor by the Spartan king Agesilaus II, the Persians had pinned him in Asia Minor while fomenting rebellion in Greece. Darius attempted to employ the same strategy, with the Spartans rebelling against the Macedonians, but the Spartans were defeated at Megalopolis. Darius did not actually take the field against Alexander's army until a year and a half after Granicus, at the Battle of Issus in 333 BC. His forces outnumbered Alexander's soldiers by at least a 2 to 1 ratio, but Darius was still outflanked, defeated, and forced to flee. It is told by Arrian that at the Battle of Issus the moment the Persian left went to pieces under Alexander's attack and Darius, in his war-chariot, saw that it was cut off, he incontinently fled – indeed, he led the race for safety. On the way, he left behind his chariot, his bow, and his royal mantle, all of which were later picked up by Alexander. Greek sources such as Diodorus Siculus' \"Library of History\" and Justin's \"Epitoma Historiarum Philippicarum\" recount that Darius fled out of fear at the Battle of Issus and again two years later at the Battle of Gaugamela despite commanding a larger force in a defensive position each time. At the Battle of Issus, Darius III even caught Alexander by surprise and failed to defeat Alexander's forces. Darius fled so far so fast that Alexander was able to capture Darius’ headquarters and take Darius’ family as prisoners in the process. Darius petitioned to Alexander through letters several times to get his family back, but Alexander refused to do so unless Darius would acknowledge him as the new emperor of Persia. Circumstances were more in Darius’ favor at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. He had a good number of troops who had been organized on the battlefield properly, he had the support of the armies of several of his satraps, and the ground on the battlefield was almost perfectly even, so as not to impede movement of his scythed chariots. Despite all these beneficial factors, he still fled the battle before any victor had been decided and deserted his experienced commanders as well as one of the largest armies ever assembled. Another source accounts that when Darius perceived the fierce attack of Alexander, as at Issus he turned his chariot around, and was the first to flee, once again abandoning all of his soldiers and his property to be taken by Alexander. Many Persian soldiers lost their lives that day, so many in fact that after the battle the casualties of the enemy ensured that Darius would never again raise an imperial army. Darius then fled to Ecbatana and attempted to raise a third army, while Alexander took possession of Babylon, Susa, and the Persian capital at Persepolis. Darius reportedly offered all of his empire west of the Euphrates River to Alexander in exchange for peace several times, each time denied by Alexander against the advice of his senior commanders. Alexander could have declared victory after the capture of Persepolis, but he instead decided to pursue Darius. The Battle of Gaugamela, in which Alexander the Great defeated Darius III of Persia in 331 BC, took place approximately 100 kilometres (62 mi) west of Erbil, Iraq. After the battle, Darius managed to flee to the city. However, somewhat inaccurately, the confrontation is sometimes known as the \"Battle of Arbela.\"", "Darius did attempt to restore his once great army after his defeat at the hands of Alexander, but he failed to raise a force comparable to that which had fought at Gaugamela, partly because the defeat had undermined his authority, and also because Alexander's liberal policy, for instance in Babylonia and in Persis, offered an acceptable alternative to Persian policies. When at Ecbatana, Darius learned of Alexander's approaching army, he decided to retreat to Bactria where he could better use his cavalry and mercenary forces on the more even ground of the plains of Asia. He led his army through the Caspian Gates, the main road through the mountains that would work to slow a following army. Persian forces became increasingly demoralized with the constant threat of a surprise attack from Alexander, leading to many desertions and eventually a coup led by Bessus, a satrap, and Nabarzanes, who managed all audiences with the King and was in charge of the palace guard. The two men suggested to Darius that the army regroup under Bessus and that power would be transferred back to the King once Alexander was defeated. Darius obviously did not accept this plan and his conspirators became more anxious to remove him for his successive failures against Alexander and his forces. Patron, a Greek mercenary, encouraged Darius to accept a bodyguard of Greek mercenaries rather than his usual Persian guard to protect him from Bessus and Nabarzanes, but the King could not accept for political reasons and grew accustomed to his fate. Bessus and Nabarzanes eventually bound Darius and threw him in an ox-cart while they ordered the Persian forces to continue on. According to Curtius' \"History of Alexander\", at this point Alexander and a small, mobile force arrived and threw the Persians into a panic, leading Bessus and two other conspirators, Satibarzanes and Barsaentes, to wound the king with their javelins and leave him to die. A Macedonian soldier found Darius either dead or dying in the wagon shortly thereafter—a disappointment to Alexander, who wanted to capture Darius alive. Alexander saw Darius’ dead body in the wagon, and took the signet ring off the dead king's finger. Afterwards he sent Darius's body back to Persepolis, gave him a magnificent funeral and ordered that he be buried, like all his royal predecessors, in the royal tombs. Darius's tomb has not yet been discovered. Alexander eventually married Darius' daughter Stateira at Susa in 324 BC. With the old king defeated and given a proper burial, Alexander's rulership of Persia became official. This led to Darius being regarded by some historians as cowardly and inefficient, as under his rulership, the entirety of the Persian Empire fell to a foreign invader. After killing Darius, Bessus took the regal name Artaxerxes V and began calling himself the King of Asia. He was subsequently captured by Alexander, tortured, and executed. Another of Darius' generals ingratiated himself to Alexander by giving the conqueror Darius' favored companion, Bagoas." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Scientific.", "Perception.", "Physics.", "Technical.", "Cultural.", "Artistic.", "Literature.", "Religion.", "Philosophy.", "Poetry.", "Language." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "", "The perception of darkness differs from the mere absence of light due to the effects of after images on perception. In perceiving, the eye is active, and the part of the retina that is unstimulated produces a complementary afterimage.", "In terms of physics, an object is said to be dark when it absorbs photons, causing it to appear dim compared to other objects. For example, matte black paint does not reflect much visible light and appears dark, whereas white paint reflects much light and appears bright. For more information, see color. An object may appear dark, but it may be bright at a frequency that humans cannot perceive. A dark area has limited light sources, making things hard to see. Exposure to alternating light and darkness (night and day) has caused several evolutionary adaptations to darkness. When a vertebrate, like a human, enters a dark area, its pupils dilate, allowing more light to enter the eye and improving night vision. Also, the light detecting cells in the human eye (rods and cones) will regenerate more unbleached rhodopsin when adapting to darkness. One scientific measure of darkness is the Bortle Dark-Sky Scale, which indicates the night sky's and stars' brightness at a particular location, and the observability of celestial objects at that location. (See also: Sky brightness) The material known as Vantablack is one of the darkest substances known, absorbing up to 99.965% of visible light (at 663 nm if the light is perpendicular to the material) is a material developed by Surrey NanoSystems in the United Kingdom. The name is a compound of the acronym VANTA (vertically aligned nanotube arrays)[6] and the color black.", "The color of a point, on a standard 24-bit computer display, is defined by three RGB (red, green, blue) values, each ranging from 0-255. When the red, green, and blue components of a pixel are fully illuminated (255,255,255), the pixel appears white; when all three components are unilluminated (0,0,0), the pixel appears black.", "", "Artists use darkness to emphasize and contrast the presence of light. Darkness can be used as a counterpoint to areas of lightness to create leading lines and voids. Such shapes draw the eye around areas of the painting. Shadows add depth and perspective to a painting. See chiaroscuro for a discussion of the uses of such contrasts in visual media. Color paints are mixed together to create darkness, because each color absorbs certain frequencies of light. Theoretically, mixing together the three primary colors, or the three secondary colors, will absorb all visible light and create black. In practice it is difficult to prevent the mixture from taking on a brown tint.", "As a poetic term in the Western world, darkness is used to connote the presence of shadows, evil, and foreboding, or in modern parlance, to connote that a story is grim, heavy, and/or depressing.", "The first creation narrative in Judaism begins with darkness, into which is introduced the creation of light, and the separation of this light from the darkness (as distinct from the creation of the sun and moon on the fourth day of creation). Thus, although both light and darkness are included in the comprehensive works of the almighty God—darkness was considered \"the second to last plague\" (Exodus 10:21), and the location of \"weeping and gnashing of teeth\" (Matthew 8:12). Erebus was a primordial deity in Greek mythology, representing the personification of darkness.", "In Chinese philosophy, Yin is the complementary feminine part of the Taijitu and is represented by a dark lobe.", "The use of darkness as a rhetorical device has a long-standing tradition. Shakespeare, working in the 16th and 17th centuries, made a character called the \"prince of darkness\" (King Lear: III, iv) and gave darkness jaws with which to devour love. (A Midsummer Night's Dream: I, i) Chaucer, a 14th-century Middle English writer of \"The Canterbury Tales\", wrote that knights must cast away the \"workes of darkness\". In \"The Divine Comedy\", Dante described hell as \"solid darkness stain'd\".", "In Old English there were three words that could mean darkness: \"heolstor\", \"genip\", and \"sceadu\". \"Heolstor\" also meant \"hiding-place\" and became holster. \"Genip\" meant \"mist\" and fell out of use like many strong verbs. It is however still used in the Dutch saying \"in het geniep\" which means secretly. \"Sceadu\" meant \"shadow\" and remained in use. The word \"dark\" eventually evolved from the word \"deorc\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Design.", "Present day." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Traditional masonry is labor-intensive; individual projects were slow and not scalable to the needs of overcrowded cities. To ameliorate a severe housing shortage, during 1947–1951 Soviet architects evaluated various technologies attempting to reduce costs and completion time. During January 1951, an architects' convention, supervised by Khrushchev (then the party director of Moscow), declared low-cost, quick technologies the objective of Soviet architects. Two concrete plants were later established in Moscow (Presnensky, 1953; Khoroshevsky, 1954). By this time, competing experimental designs were tested by real-life construction, and prefabricated concrete panels were considered superior. Other possibilities, like in situ concrete, or encouraging individual low-rise construction, were discarded. During 1954–1961, engineer Vitaly Lagutenko, chief planner of Moscow since 1956, designed and tested the mass-scale, industrialized construction process, relying on concrete panel plants and a quick assembly schedule. During 1961, Lagutenko's institute released the K-7 design of a prefabricated 5-story building that became typical of the Khrushchyovka. 64,000 units (3,000,000 m (32,000,000 sq ft)) of this type were built in Moscow from 1961 to 1968. In Moscow, space limitations forced a switch to 9 or 12-story buildings; the last 5-story Khrushyovka was completed there during 1971. The rest of the USSR continued building Khrushyovkas until the fall of the Soviet Union; millions of such units are now past their design lifetime.", "The Khrushchyovka design represented an early attempt at industrialised and prefabricated building, with elements (or panels) made at concrete plants and trucked to sites as needed. Planners regarded elevators as too costly and as too time-consuming to build, and Soviet health/safety standards specified five stories as the maximum height of a building without an elevator. Thus almost all Khrushchyovkas have five stories. Khrushchyovkas featured combined bathrooms. They had been introduced with Ivan Zholtovsky's prize-winning \"Bolshaya Kaluzhskaya\" building, but Lagutenko continued the space-saving idea, replacing regular-sized bathtubs with 120 cm (4 ft) long \"sitting baths\". Completed bathroom cubicles, assembled at a Khoroshevsky plant, were trucked to the site; construction crews would lower them in place and connect the piping. Some theorists even considered combining toilet-bowl functions with the shower's sink, but the idea was discarded. Kitchens were small, usually 6 m (65 sq ft). This was also common for many non-élite class Stalinist houses, some of which had dedicated dining rooms. Typical apartments of the K-7 series have a total area of 30 m (323 sq ft) (one-room), 44 m (474 sq ft) (two-room) and 60 m (646 sq ft) (three-room). Later designs further reduced these meager areas. Rooms of K-7 are \"isolated\", in the sense that they all connect to a small entrance hall, not to each other. Later designs (П-35, et al.) disposed with this \"redundancy\": residents had to pass through the living room to reach the bedroom. These apartments were planned for small families, but in reality it was not unusual for three generations of people to live together in two-room apartments. Some apartments had a \"luxurious\" storage room. In practice it often served as another bedroom, albeit one without windows or ventilation.", "The panel buildings called 'Khrushchyovka' are found in great numbers all over the former Soviet Union. They were originally considered to be temporary housing until the housing shortage could be alleviated by mature Communism, which would not have any shortages. Khrushchev predicted the achievement of Communism in 20 years (by the 1980s). Later, Leonid Brezhnev promised each family an apartment \"with a separate room for each person plus one room extra\", but many people continue to live in Khrushchyovkas today. Khrushchyovka standard types are classified into \"disposable\", with a planned 25-year life (сносимые серии) and \"permanent\" (несносимые серии). This distinction is important in Moscow and other affluent cities, where disposable Khrushchyovkas are being demolished to make way for new, higher-density construction. The City of Moscow had planned to complete this process by 2015. More than 1,300 out of around 1,700 buildings had been already demolished by 2012. In 2017, Moscow city authorities announced that some 8,000 Khrushchyovkas would be torn down, a move that would cause 1.6 million people to lose their homes. The announcement came after the completion of a smaller demolition project in which 1,700 buildings were torn down. In some parts of the former Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc countries, efforts to renovate and beautify Khrushchyovkas have been made, such as in Czechia, Slovakia, and Belarus. In many cities, Khrushchyovkas have been transformed from drab, gray buildings to colorful housing blocks through series of renovations. In addition, efforts to improve the quality of the buildings have been made. In Tartu, Estonia, the European Union-funded SmartEnCity turned three Khrushchyovka blocks into energy efficient \"smart homes.\" The renovations are usually heavily subsidized by the state, and in many cases, by the European Union if the country is a member state of the EU. In Russia, Ukraine, and Central Asia these same styles of renovations have not taken place, resulting in further dilapidation of the buildings or, in some cases, the demolition of many Krushchyovkas. In these parts of the former Soviet Union, private renovation has been the norm, explaining the difference in the conditions of the buildings." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "The Mystic Knights and Oingo Boingo.", "Film scoring.", "Concert and stage music.", "Television and other projects.", "Influences and style.", "Process.", "Film music.", "Concert music.", "Vocals.", "Lyrics.", "Personal life.", "In popular culture.", "Awards and nominations.", "American Film Institute.", "Discography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Elfman was born on May 29, 1953, in Los Angeles, California, to a Jewish family with Polish and Russian roots. He is the son of Blossom Elfman (née Bernstein), a writer and teacher, and Milton Elfman, a teacher who was in the Air Force. Elfman was raised in a racially mixed affluent community in Baldwin Hills, California, where he spent much of his time at the local movie theater discovering classic sci-fi, fantasy and horror films and first noticed the music of such film composers as Bernard Herrmann and Franz Waxman. In his early school days, Elfman exhibited an aptitude for science with almost no interest in music, and was even rejected from elementary school orchestra \"for having no propensity for music.\" This would change when he switched high schools in the late 1960s and fell in with a musical crowd, who introduced him to early jazz and the work of Stravinsky and his 20th century contemporaries. After finishing high school early with plans to travel the world, Elfman followed his brother Richard to France, where he performed violin with Jérôme Savary's Le Grand Magic Circus, an avant-garde musical theater group. He then embarked on a ten-month, self-guided tour through Africa, busking and collecting a range of West African percussion instruments until a series of illnesses forced him to return home. At this time, Richard was forming a new musical theater group in Los Angeles. While Elfman was never officially a student at CalArts, an instructor in the Indonesian music department encouraged him to attend classes and perform music there for two years.", "", "After returning to Los Angeles from Africa in the early 1970s, Elfman was asked by his brother Richard to serve as musical director of his street theatre performance art troupe The Mystic Knights of the Oingo Boingo. Elfman was tasked with adapting and arranging 1920s and 1930s jazz and big band music by artists such as Cab Calloway, Duke Ellington, Django Reinhardt and Josephine Baker for the ensemble, which consisted of up to 15 performers swapping 30 instruments. He also composed original pieces and helped build instruments unique for the group, including an aluminum gamelan, the 'Schlitz celeste' made from tuned beer cans, and a \"junkyard orchestra\" built from car parts and trash cans. The Mystic Knights performed on the street and in nightclubs throughout Los Angeles until Richard left in 1979 to pursue filmmaking. As a send-off to the group's original concept, Richard created the film \"Forbidden Zone\" based on The Mystic Knights' stage performances. Elfman composed the songs and his first score for the film, and appeared as the character Satan, who performs a reworked version of Calloway's \"Minnie the Moocher\" with ensemble members playing backup as henchmen. Before the release of \"Forbidden Zone\", Elfman had taken over The Mystic Knights as lead singer-songwriter in 1979, paring the group down to eight players, shortening the name to Oingo Boingo, and recording and touring as a ska-influenced new wave band. Their biggest success among eight studio albums penned by Elfman was 1985's \"Dead Man's Party\", featuring the hit song \"Weird Science\" from the movie of the same name. The band also appeared performing their single \"Dead Man's Party\" in the 1986 movie \"Back to School\", for which Elfman also composed the score. Elfman shifted the band to a more guitar-oriented rock sound in the late 1980s, which continued through their last album \"Boingo\" in 1994. Citing permanent hearing damage from performing live and conflicts with his film-scoring career, Elfman retired Oingo Boingo in 1995 with a series of five sold-out final concerts at the Universal Amphitheatre ending on Halloween night. On October 31, 2015, Elfman and Oingo Boingo guitarist Steve Bartek performed the song \"Dead Man's Party\" with an orchestra as an encore to a live-to-film concert of \"The Nightmare Before Christmas\" score at the Hollywood Bowl. Elfman told the audience the performance was \"20 years to the day\" of Oingo Boingo's retirement.", "As fans of Oingo Boingo and The Mystic Knights respectively, Tim Burton and Paul Reubens invited Elfman to write the score for their first feature film \"Pee-wee's Big Adventure\" in 1985. Elfman was initially apprehensive because of his lack of formal training and having never scored a studio feature, but after Burton accepted his initial demo of the title music and with orchestration assistance from Oingo Boingo guitarist and arranger Steve Bartek, he completed his score to great effect, while paying homage to his love of early film music and influential film composers Nino Rota and Bernard Herrmann. Elfman described the first time he heard his music played by a full orchestra as one of the most thrilling experiences of his life. Following \"Pee Wee's Big Adventure\", Elfman scored mainly quirky comedies in the late 1980s, including \"Back to School\" starring Rodney Dangerfield, Burton's \"Beetlejuice\" and the Bill Murray vehicle \"Scrooged\". Notable exceptions were the all-synth score to Emilio Estevez's crime drama \"Wisdom\" and the big band, blues-infused music for Martin Brest's buddy cop action film \"Midnight Run\". In 1989, Elfman's influential, Grammy-winning score for Burton's \"Batman\" marked a major stylistic shift to dark, densely orchestrated music in the romantic idiom, which would carry over to his scores for Warren Beatty's \"Dick Tracy\", Sam Raimi's \"Darkman\" and Clive Barker's \"Nightbreed\", all released in 1990. With \"Batman\", Elfman firmly established a career-spanning relationship with Burton, scoring all but three of the director's major studio releases. Highlights include \"Edward Scissorhands\" (1990), \"Batman Returns\" (1992), \"Sleepy Hollow\" (1999), \"Big Fish\" (2003) and \"Alice in Wonderland\" (2010). In 2005 he wrote the score and songs for Burton's \"Corpse Bride\" and provided the voice of the character of Bonejangles, as well as providing the score, songs and Oompa-Loompa vocals for Burton's \"Charlie and the Chocolate Factory\" that same year. In addition to writing the score and ten songs for the Burton-produced stop motion animated film \"The Nightmare Before Christmas\", Elfman also provided the singing voice for main character Jack Skellington, as well as the voices for side characters Barrel and the Clown with the Tear-Away Face. In addition to frequent collaborations with Burton, Raimi and Gus Van Sant, Elfman has worked with esteemed directors such as Brian De Palma, Peter Jackson, Joss Whedon, Errol Morris, Ang Lee, Richard Donner, Guillermo del Toro, David O. Russell, Taylor Hackford, Jon Amiel, Joe Johnston, and Barry Sonnenfeld. His scores for Sonnenfeld's \"Men in Black\", Van Sant's \"Good Will Hunting\" and \"Milk\", and Burton's \"Big Fish\" all received Academy Award nominations. Since the mid 1990s, Elfman has expanded his craft to a range of genres, including thrillers (\"Dolores Claiborne\", \"A Simple Plan\", \"The Kingdom\"), dramas (\"Sommersby\", \"A Civil Action\", \"Hitchcock\"), indies (\"Freeway\", \"Silver Linings Playbook\", \"Don't Worry, He Won't Get Far on Foot\"), family (\"Flubber\", \"Charlotte's Web\", \"Frankenweenie\", \"Goosebumps\"), documentary (\"Standard Operating Procedure\", \"The Unknown Known\"), and straight horror (\"Red Dragon\", \"The Wolfman\"), as well as notable entries in his well-established areas of horror comedy (\"The Frighteners\", \"Mars Attacks!\", \"Dark Shadows\") and comic book-inspired action films (\"Hulk\", \"Wanted\", \"\", \"\"). Among his franchise work, Elfman composed the scores for all four \"Men in Black\" films (1997–2019) and all three \"Fifty Shades of Grey\" films (2015–2018). Elfman scored Raimi's \"Spider-Man\" in 2002 and \"Spider-Man 2\" in 2004, themes and selections from which were used for Raimi's \"Spider-Man 3\", though Elfman did not compose the score. In 1996, he also provided the score for the first film in the, adapting themes for the original television series by Lalo Schifrin as well as composing his own. For several high-profile sequel and reboot projects in the 2010s, Elfman incorporated established musical themes with his own original thematic material, including the DC Extended Universe's \"Justice League\", \"The Grinch,\" \"Dumbo\" and. Elfman was featured in the 2016 documentary \"Score\", in which he appeared among over 50 film composers to discuss the craft of movie music and influential figures in the business.", "Elfman's first piece of original concert music, \"Serenada Schizophrana\", was commissioned by the American Composers Orchestra, who premiered the piece on February 23, 2005, at Carnegie Hall. Subsequent concert works include his first \"Violin Concerto \"Eleven Eleven\"\", co-commissioned by the Czech National Symphony Orchestra, Stanford Live at Stanford University, and the Royal Scottish National Orchestra, which premiered at Smetana Hall in Prague on June 21, 2017, with Sandy Cameron on violin and John Mauceri conducting the Czech National Symphony Orchestra; the \"Piano Quartet\", co-commissioned by the Lied Center for Performing Arts University of Nebraska and the Berlin Philharmonic Piano Quartet, which premiered February 6, 2018, in Lincoln, Nebraska; and the \"Percussion Quartet\", commissioned by Third Coast Percussion and premiered at the Philip Glass Days And Nights Festival in Big Sur on October 10, 2019. In 2008, Elfman accepted his first commission for the stage, composing the music for Twyla Tharp's \"Rabbit and Rogue\" ballet, co-commissioned by American Ballet Theatre and Orange County Performing Arts Center and premiering on June 3, 2008, at the Metropolitan Opera House, Lincoln Center. Other works for stage include the music for Cirque Du Soleil's \"Iris\" in 2011, and incidental music for the Broadway production of Taylor Mac's \"\" in 2019. In October 2013, Elfman returned to the stage for the first time since his band Oingo Boingo disbanded to sing his vocal parts to a handful of \"The Nightmare Before Christmas\" songs as part of a concert titled \"Danny Elfman's Music from the Films of Tim Burton\", featuring suites of music from 15 Tim Burton films newly arranged by Elfman. The concert has since toured internationally and has played in Japan, Australia, Mexico and throughout Europe and the United States. Since 2015, Elfman has appeared near annually in a Hollywood Bowl Halloween concert featuring full orchestra performing the \"Nightmare Before Christmas\" score live to the film projection. In 2019 it was announced Elfman had been commissioned to write a piece for the National Youth Orchestra of Great Britain set to premiere in 2020, and a percussion concerto for Colin Currie and the London Philharmonic Orchestra for spring 2021. Other works in the planning phase are a cello concerto and a project that involves chamber orchestra and Elfman's own voice. It was announced that Elfman would be taking part in Coachella 2020 with a set titled \"Past, Present and Future! From Boingo to Batman and Beyond!\" Elfman clarified on his Instagram page that this would not be an Oingo Boingo reunion, writing \"I’m creating a live mix of my last 40 years— both film music and songs... that includes my Boingo years, my composer years and a few things I’ve been working on for the last year or so, which will be world premieres.\"", "In addition to his music for film, Elfman has had a prolific career in television, penning themes for \"The Simpsons\", \"Tales from the Crypt\", \"The Flash\" and \"Desperate Housewives\", which won Elfman his first Emmy. He also adapted his original themes for the animated versions of \"\" and \"Beetlejuice\". Occasional forays into serial television include episodes of \"Alfred Hitchcock Presents\", \"Amazing Stories\" and Pee-wee's Playhouse, as well as the miniseries \"When We Rise\", co-composed with Chris Bacon. He has composed music for animated shorts, including Sally Cruikshank's \"Face Like A Frog\" and Tim Burton's \"Stainboy\" internet series. Elfman provided background music for Luigi Serafini's solo exhibition \"il Teatro della Pittura\" at the Fondazione Mudima di Milano in Milan, Italy in 1998 and for the \"Tim Burton\" exhibition at MoMA in 2009. In the 1990s, Elfman composed music for advertising campaigns for Nike, Nissan and Lincoln-Mercury, and in 2002 wrote the music for Honda's \"Power of Dreams\" advertising campaign, which was the first cinema commercial to be shot in the IMAX format. In 2013 he composed the music and provided the English-language vocals for the Hong Kong Disneyland attraction Mystic Manor. On October 31, 2019, the MasterClass online educational series released \"Making Music out of Chaos,\" presenting 21 compositional and career lessons from Elfman's four decades of experience primarily in the film industry.", "Elfman has said his major influences are composers from Hollywood's Golden Age, such as Bernard Herrmann, Dimitri Tiomkin, Max Steiner, David Tamkin, Erich Korngold and Carl Stalling; 20th century classical composers Sergei Prokofiev, Igor Stravinsky, Béla Bartók, Dmitri Shostakovich, and Carl Orff; and jazz, experimental and minimalist composers Kurt Weill, Duke Ellington, Harry Partch, Philip Glass, Lou Harrison, Terry Riley and Steve Reich. Influences on specific scores include Erik Satie (\"Forbidden Zone)\", Nino Rota (\"Pee-wee's Big Adventure\"), George Gershwin (\"Dick Tracy\"), Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (\"Edward Scissorhands\"), and Jimi Hendrix (\"Dead presidents\"). Though not considered direct influences \"per se\", Elfman has discussed his respect and admiration for film composers Jerry Goldsmith, Ennio Morricone, Thomas Newman, Alexandre Desplat and John Williams, as well as classical composer John Adams. Though many believe Richard Wagner informed his influential score to \"Batman\", Elfman has said it was more likely from Wagner's influence on classic film composers such as Herrmann, Steiner, Waxman and Korngold, as he was unfamiliar with Wagner's work at the time. Elfman counts Herrmann as his biggest influence, and has said hearing Herrmann's score to \"The Day the Earth Stood Still\" when he was a child was the first time he recognized film music as a cinematic artform and realized the powerful contribution a composer makes to the movies. Pastiche of Herrmann's music can be heard in Elfman's \"Pee-Wee's Big Adventure,\" especially the cues \"Stolen Bike\" and \"Clown Attack\", which directly reference Herrmann's music from \"Psycho\" and \"7th Voyage of Sinbad\" respectively. His score to \"Batman\" makes more subtle nods to Herrmann's \"Journey to the Center of the Earth\" and \"Vertigo\", and more integral homage can be heard in later scores for \"Mars Attacks!\" and \"Hitchcock,\" as well as the \"Blue Strings\" movement of his first concert work \"Serenada Schizophrana\". While Elfman is primarily known for writing large-scale orchestral works in the romantic, 20th century and Hollywood Golden Age film score traditions, his compositions have used a wide range of idioms, including rock and blues (\"Midnight Run, Hot to Trot\"), big band and jazz (\"Dick Tracy\", \"Chicago\"), operetta (\"The Nightmare Before Christmas\", \"Corpse Bride\"), funk and hip hop (\"Dead presidents\", \"Notorious\"), folk and indie rock (\"Taking Woodstock\", \"Silver Linings Playbook\"), Americana (\"Article 99\", \"Sommersby\", \"Big Fish),\" minimalism (\"Good Will Hunting\", \"Standard Operating Procedure\", \"The Unknown Known\"), and atonal or experimental (\"Freeway\", \"A Simple Plan, The Girl on the Train\"). Given his appreciation and study of world music and his vast collection of instruments from non-Western cultures, Elfman will often use traditional instruments in his scores when there is an international setting, such as African percussion for \"Instinct,\" the oud for \"The Kingdom\" set in Saudi Arabia, and pan flute for \"Proof of Life\" set in South America. When working on films with established musical identifiers, Elfman will often incorporate original themes in addition to his own thematic material. Examples include Lalo Schifrin's main theme and \"The Plot\" from the original for \"\"; John Williams' theme for \"Superman\", the Hans Zimmer/Junkie XL theme for \"Wonder Woman\" and his own original \"Batman\" theme for \"Justice League;\" the \"Welcome Christmas\" song from the 1966 \"How the Grinch Stole Christmas!\" for \"The Grinch\"; and \"Casey Junior,\" \"Pink Elephants on Parade,\" and \"When I See an Elephant Fly\" from Disney's original 1941 animated film for \"Dumbo\". Even when not directly quoting themes from related films, Elfman will often pay homage through established musical gesture or tonality, for example Howard Shore's \"The Silence of the Lambs\" for \"Red Dragon\", Brad Fiedel's music for the \"Terminator\" franchise for \"Terminator Salvation\", Robert Cobert's original television series music for \"Dark Shadows,\" and Alan Silvestri's work on \"The Avengers\" for the sequel \"\". Notable exceptions are Tim Burton's \"Batman\", \"Planet of the Apes\" and \"Charlie and the Chocolate Factory,\" which do not make musical reference to pre existing material. Elfman's work in pop music and specifically as songwriter for Oingo Boingo was influenced by The Specials, Madness, the Selecter, and XTC. The songs for \"The Nightmare Before Christmas\" and \"Corpse Bride\" were overarchingly influenced by Kurt Weill, Gilbert and Sullivan and early Rodgers and Hammerstein, whereas the songs in \"Charlie and the Chocolate Factory\" were influenced by Bollywood, The Mamas and the Papas, Earth, Wind & Fire, ABBA, and Queen individually.", "", "For his film scores, Elfman draws musical inspiration almost exclusively from viewing a cut of the film, and occasionally from visits to the set while the film is in production (he famously wrote and orchestrated his theme for \"Batman\" on an airplane to Los Angeles after visiting the set in London). While he prefers not to work from script, story or concept, notable exceptions are \"The Nightmare Before Christmas,\" for which ten songs needed to be written in advance of filmmaking, and \"Dumbo,\" for which he composed the main theme before filming began. Once a rough cut of the film is ready, Elfman and the director have a spotting session to decide where to place music in the film, the emotional undercurrents of each scene, and overall tone. Elfman then spends a few weeks of free composition and experimentation to begin working out thematic material and to develop sounds and the harmonic pallette. When he has received approval on initial material from the filmmakers, Elfman begins to compose anywhere from 60 to 120 minutes of music cue-by-cue. He says two of the most important things to capture at this point are the tone of each scene and editorial rhythm. Next to thematic development, action set pieces tend to take Elfman the most time given the complexity of timing music to action. One element where Elfman's compositional process deviates from most film composers is that he will often compose three or more often radically different versions of a single cue to give the director more options for musicalizing a scene. Early in his career, he wrote out his scores using pencil, but has composed largely digitally since the mid-1990s. Before recording the score, he demos each cue by mocking orchestral and choral parts on synthesizer to get approval from the director. Once approved, he provides a detailed, multi-line sketch of his composition to his lead orchestrator Steve Bartek, who ensures the sketches are appropriately broken down for sections of the orchestra (i.e. string, brass woodwind, some percussion), choir (SATB) and individual players. Elfman also typically samples or records his own percussion and guitar playing to overlay with live orchestra. More than half of some scores feature Elfman's performance, including \"Dead presidents\", \"\", \"Planet of the Apes\", \"The Kingdom\", \"The Girl on the Train\" and \"The Circle.\" To produce the score, Elfman rents a recording studio and hires a conductor and orchestra/choir. He oversees the recording from the control booth so that he can troubleshoot with the film's director and recording engineers. The final recording is given to the film's sound department to mix with dialogue and sound effects for the film's complete soundtrack. Elfman will usually do a separate mix of select cues for an album presentation of the score, and has produced nearly 100 to date. On the occasion that there are compressed deadlines or in the event he is not available to rescore or adapt his music if there are major edits to the film after the score's completion, Elfman will hire additional composers to work on small cues or sections of cues, adapting his existing material or themes. Examples include Jonathan Sheffer on \"Darkman\", David Buckley on the \"Fifty Shades of Grey\" films, and Pinar Toprak on \"Justice League.\" Since the 1990s, Elfman has occasionally co-composed music or shared music writing credit (e.g.\"When We Rise\", \"Spy Kids\", \", \"), or written themes that are then used or adapted by other composers, including Jonathan Sheffer (\"Pure Luck\"), Steve Bartek (\"Novacaine\"), John Debney (\"Heartbreakers),\" Deborah Lurie (\"9\"), and The Newton Brothers (\"Before I Wake\").", "In the liner notes for the 2006 CD recording of his first concert work \"Serenada Schizophrana\", Elfman wrote: \"I began composing several dozen short improvisational compositions, maybe a minute each. Slowly, some of them began to develop themselves until finally I had six separate movements that, in some abstract, absurd way, felt connected.\" To create the cadenzas for his violin concerto \"Eleven Eleven\", Elfman collaborated with soloist Sandy Cameron, for whom the piece was written.", "Elfman often incorporates choral or vocal arrangements into his film scores, notably the use of women's and children's choirs (\"Scrooged\", \"Nightbreed, Edward Scissorhands, Batman Returns\", \"Sleepy Hollow, Alice in Wonderland\", \"The Grinch\"), and solo voice or vocal effects (\"Beetlejuice\", \"Mars Attacks!\", \"Men in Black II\", \"Flubber\", \"Nacho Libre\", \"Iris\", \"Dark Shadows\", \"The Girl on the Train\"). Evoking the \"O Fortuna\" from Carl Orff's \"Carmina Burana\", he set made-up, Latin-sounding text for SATB choir in standout cue \"Descent into Mystery\" from \"Batman.\" Elfman also adds his own vocals into compositions in much the same way he mixes his percussion and guitar performances into orchestral arrangements. Prominent use can be heard in the scores for \"To Die For\" (sung with director Gus Van Sant, credited to \"Little Gus and the Suzettes\"), \"Silver Linings Playbook\", and his music for the Hong Kong Disneyland ride Mystic Manor. He provided the singing voice for characters in \"The Nightmare Before Christmas\" and \"Corpse Bride\" in addition to composing the scores and songs\",\" and can be heard singing the \"Day-O\" call in the style of Harry Belafonte's \"Banana Boat Song\" in the first bars of the \"Beetlejuice\" main title. For Tim Burton's \"Charlie and the Chocolate Factory,\" Elfman set Roald Dahl's text for the Oompa-Loompa characters as four stylistically distinct songs: the Bollywood-influenced \"Augustus Gloop,\" the funk-infused \"Violet Beauregarde,\" the psychedelic pop stylings of \"Veruca Salt,\" and the baroque rock of \"Mike Teevee.\" For all songs in the film, Elfman sang, manipulated and mixed several layers of his vocals to create the singing voices and harmonies of the Oompa Loompas, and incorporated his vocals into non-song score tracks that featured the characters, including \"Loompa Land,\" \"Chocolate River,\" \"The Boat Arrives,\" and \"The River Cruise.\"", "Unique among film composers, Elfman typically writes the lyrics to songs he has composed for movies. He employs song structures from Tin Pan Alley and early musical theatre composers (32-bar form), and pop and rock of the 1950s and 1960s (verse-chorus). As his songs serve to advance the plot and develop characters, lyrics reflect storylines and imagery specific to the film and express the inner life of characters. A major achievement was writing the lyrics and music for ten songs featured in the stop-motion musical \"The Nightmare Before Christmas\". Drawing from Tim Burton's parody poem of \"A Visit from St. Nicholas\" and concept drawings, Elfman wrote each song in consultation with Burton before the film even had a script. These include the full-cast songs \"This Is Halloween,\" \"Town Meeting Song,\" and \"Making Christmas\"; four songs for the main character Jack Skellington \"Jack's Lament,\" \"What's This,\" \"Jack's Obsession,\" and \"Poor Jack\" all sung by Elfman; and the other character songs \"Kidnap The Sandy Claws,\" \"Oogie Boogie's Song,\" and \"Sally's Song.\" An eleventh song, \"Finale/Reprise,\" reworks lyrics from the songs \"This Is Halloween,\" \"What's This\" and \"Sally's Song\" for the film's ending. Though uncredited, Burton contributed some lyrics to \"Nightmare\", including the line \"Perhaps it's the head that I found in the lake\" in \"Town Meeting Song.\" Elfman composed five songs for Burton's \"Corpse Bride\": \"According to Plan\" with lyrics co-written by screenwriter John August; \"Remains of the Day,\" which he sung as the character Bonejangles, and \"Tears To Shed,\" both with additional lyrics by August, and \"The Wedding Song\" credited solely to Elfman. The song \"Erased\" was not used in the final film. He wrote the lyrics to \"Lullaby\" from \"Charlotte's Web\", the rock track \"The Little Things\" from \"Wanted\" which he also sang in English and Russian, and \"Alice's Theme\" from \"Alice in Wonderland\". Elfman co-wrote the music and lyrics to Batman Returns's \"Face To Face\" with Siouxsie and the Banshees, and co-wrote the lyrics to \"Twice The Love\" from \"Big Fish\" and the \"Wonka's Welcome Song\" for \"Charlie and the Chocolate Factory\" with John August. Elfman wrote the lyrics to all of Oingo Boingo's original songs 1979–1994, provided lyrics for Mike Oldfield's album \"Islands\" in 1987, and has made residuals on the titular two-word opening phrase sung in his \"The Simpsons\" theme since the series first aired in 1989.", "As a teenager, Elfman dated his classmate Kim Gordon, who would later become one of the members of the rock band Sonic Youth. He has two daughters, Lola (*1979) and Mali (*1984), from his marriage to Geri Eisenmenger. Mali is a film producer and actress. Elfman and his daughter collaborated on her 2011 film \"Do Not Disturb\". On November 29, 2003, Elfman married actress Bridget Fonda. They have a son, Oliver. In 1998, Elfman scored \"A Simple Plan\", starring Fonda. He is the uncle of actor Bodhi Elfman, who is married to actress Jenna Elfman. Elfman has been an atheist since the age of 11 or 12. According to him, he is a cynicologist. Describing his politics during the 1980s, Elfman said, \"I'm not a doomist. My attitude is always to be critical of what's around you, but not ever to forget how lucky we are. I've traveled around the world. I left thinking I was a revolutionary. I came back real right-wing patriotic. Since then, I've kind of mellowed in between.\" In 2008, he expressed support for Barack Obama and said that Sarah Palin was his \"worst nightmare\". During the 18 years with Oingo Boingo, Elfman developed significant hearing damage as a result of the continuous exposure to the high noise levels involved in performing in a rock band. Afraid of worsening his condition, he decided to leave the band, saying that he would never return to that kind of performance. His impairment was so bad that he could not \"even sit in a loud restaurant or bar anymore.\" However, he found performing in front of orchestras more tolerable, and returned several times to reprise his live performance of Jack Skellington. On June 25, 2019, \"The New York Times Magazine\" listed Danny Elfman among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.", "Since \"The Simpsons\"' second annual \"Treehouse of Horror\" episode aired in 1991, launching \"scary names\" tradition in the opening and closing titles, Elfman has been alternately credited for the theme music as \"Red Wolf Elfman,\" \"Danny Skellingelfman,\" \"Li'l Leakin Brain Elfman,\" \"Boris Elfmonivich,\" \"Danny Elfblood,\" \"Danny 'Hell'fman,\" \"The Bloody Elf,\" \"Danny Elfbones,\" \"Elfmunster\" and \"Daniel Beilzebelsman.\" Elfman's composition \"Clown Dream\" from \"Pee-wee's Big Adventure\" is used in the video game \"Grand Theft Auto V\" and has often been used as the opening music for Primus concerts. In the 2007 sixth season \"Star Wars\" parody \"Blue Harvest\", \"Family Guy\" lampooned Elfman's orchestral style. A scene shows Elfman replacing an incinerated John Williams to conduct a full orchestra playing the score, only to be decapitated by a lightsaber after conducting a few bars of oom-pah music. Episode five of the 14th season of \"South Park\" in 2010 criticized Tim Burton for using the \"same\" music in all his films, referring to Elfman's scores. In October 2016, Elfman produced a video clip for Funny or Die with original \"horror\" music composed to footage of Donald Trump pacing around Hillary Clinton at the second United States presidential election debates, 2016. In 2019, selections from Elfman's \"Midnight Run\" score were used in the third season of Netflix's \"Stranger Things,\" including \"Stairway Chase\" in episodes 5 and 6, and \"Wild Ride\" and \"Package Deal\" in episode 6.", "", "Elfman's scores for \"Batman\" and \"Edward Scissorhands\" were nominated for AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores.", "Including commercial recordings of his film scores and the Oingo Boingo discography, Elfman has produced over 100 albums as of 2019." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Structure.", "Primary lymphoid organs.", "Bone marrow.", "Thymus.", "Secondary lymphoid organs.", "Spleen.", "Lymph nodes.", "Tertiary lymphoid organs.", "Other lymphoid tissue.", "Lymphatic vessels.", "Development.", "Function.", "Fat absorption.", "Immune function.", "Clinical significance.", "Enlarged lymph nodes.", "Lymphedema.", "Cancer.", "History.", "Etymology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The lymphatic system consists of a conducting network of lymphatic vessels, lymphoid organs, lymphoid tissues, and the circulating lymph.", "The primary (or central) lymphoid organs generate lymphocytes from immature progenitor cells. The thymus and the bone marrow constitute the primary lymphoid organs involved in the production and early clonal selection of lymphocyte tissues.", "Bone marrow is responsible for both the creation of T cells and the production and maturation of B cells, which are important cell types of the immune system. From the bone marrow, B cells immediately join the circulatory system and travel to secondary lymphoid organs in search of pathogens. T cells, on the other hand, travel from the bone marrow to the thymus, where they develop further and mature. Mature T cells then join B cells in search of pathogens. The other 95% of T cells begin a process of apoptosis, a form of programmed cell death.", "The thymus increases in size from birth in response to postnatal antigen stimulation. It is most active during the neonatal and pre-adolescent periods. At puberty, by the early teens, the thymus begins to atrophy and regress, with adipose tissue mostly replacing the thymic stroma. However, residual T lymphopoiesis continues throughout adult life. The loss or lack of the thymus results in severe immunodeficiency and subsequent high susceptibility to infection. In most species, the thymus consists of lobules divided by septa which are made up of epithelium; it is therefore often considered an epithelial organ. T cells mature from thymocytes, proliferate, and undergo a selection process in the thymic cortex before entering the medulla to interact with epithelial cells. The thymus provides an inductive environment for the development of T cells from hematopoietic progenitor cells. In addition, thymic stromal cells allow for the selection of a functional and self-tolerant T cell repertoire. Therefore, one of the most important roles of the thymus is the induction of central tolerance.", "The secondary (or peripheral) lymphoid organs (SLO), which include lymph nodes and the spleen, maintain mature naive lymphocytes and initiate an adaptive immune response. The peripheral lymphoid organs are the sites of lymphocyte activation by antigens. Activation leads to clonal expansion and affinity maturation. Mature lymphocytes recirculate between the blood and the peripheral lymphoid organs until they encounter their specific antigen.", "The main functions of the spleen are: The spleen synthesizes antibodies in its white pulp and removes antibody-coated bacteria and antibody-coated blood cells by way of blood and lymph node circulation. A study published in 2009 using mice found that the spleen contains, in its reserve, half of the body's monocytes within the red pulp. These monocytes, upon moving to injured tissue (such as the heart), turn into dendritic cells and macrophages while promoting tissue healing. The spleen is a center of activity of the mononuclear phagocyte system and can be considered analogous to a large lymph node, as its absence causes a predisposition to certain infections. Like the thymus, the spleen has only efferent lymphatic vessels. Both the short gastric arteries and the splenic artery supply it with blood. The germinal centers are supplied by arterioles called \"penicilliary radicles\". Until the fifth month of prenatal development, the spleen creates red blood cells; after birth, the bone marrow is solely responsible for hematopoiesis. As a major lymphoid organ and a central player in the reticuloendothelial system, the spleen retains the ability to produce lymphocytes. The spleen stores red blood cells and lymphocytes. It can store enough blood cells to help in an emergency. Up to 25% of lymphocytes can be stored at any one time.", "A lymph node is an organized collection of lymphoid tissue, through which the lymph passes on its way back to the blood. Lymph nodes are located at intervals along the lymphatic system. Several afferent lymph vessels bring in lymph, which percolates through the substance of the lymph node, and is then drained out by an efferent lymph vessel. Of the nearly 800 lymph nodes in the human body, about 300 are located in the head and neck. Many are grouped in clusters in different regions, as in the underarm and abdominal areas. Lymph node clusters are commonly found at the proximal ends of limbs (groin, armpits) and in the neck, where lymph is collected from regions of the body likely to sustain pathogen contamination from injuries. Lymph nodes are particularly numerous in the mediastinum in the chest, neck, pelvis, axilla, inguinal region, and in association with the blood vessels of the intestines. The substance of a lymph node consists of lymphoid follicles in an outer portion called the cortex. The inner portion of the node is called the medulla, which is surrounded by the cortex on all sides except for a portion known as the hilum. The hilum presents as a depression on the surface of the lymph node, causing the otherwise spherical lymph node to be bean-shaped or ovoid. The efferent lymph vessel directly emerges from the lymph node at the hilum. The arteries and veins supplying the lymph node with blood enter and exit through the hilum. The region of the lymph node called the paracortex immediately surrounds the medulla. Unlike the cortex, which has mostly immature T cells, or thymocytes, the paracortex has a mixture of immature and mature T cells. Lymphocytes enter the lymph nodes through specialised high endothelial venules found in the paracortex. A lymph follicle is a dense collection of lymphocytes, the number, size, and configuration of which change in accordance with the functional state of the lymph node. For example, the follicles expand significantly when encountering a foreign antigen. The selection of B cells, or \"B lymphocytes\", occurs in the germinal centre of the lymph nodes. Secondary lymphoid tissue provides the environment for the foreign or altered native molecules (antigens) to interact with the lymphocytes. It is exemplified by the lymph nodes, and the lymphoid follicles in tonsils, Peyer's patches, spleen, adenoids, skin, etc. that are associated with the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT). In the gastrointestinal wall, the appendix has mucosa resembling that of the colon, but here it is heavily infiltrated with lymphocytes.", "Tertiary lymphoid organs (TLOs) are abnormal lymph node-like structures that form in peripheral tissues at sites of chronic inflammation, such as chronic infection, transplanted organs undergoing graft rejection, some cancers, and autoimmune and autoimmune-related diseases. TLOs are regulated differently from the normal process whereby lymphoid tissues are formed during ontogeny, being dependent on cytokines and hematopoietic cells, but still drain interstitial fluid and transport lymphocytes in response to the same chemical messengers and gradients. TLOs typically contain far fewer lymphocytes, and assume an immune role only when challenged with antigens that result in inflammation. They achieve this by importing the lymphocytes from blood and lymph. TLOs often have an active germinal center. TLOs play an important role in the immune response to cancer. Patients with TLOs in the vicinity of their tumors tend to have a better prognosis, although the opposite is true for certain cancers. TLOs that contain an active germinal center tend to have a better prognosis than those with TLOs without a germinal center. The reason that these patients tend to live longer is thought to be the immune response against the tumor, which is mediated by the TLOs. TLOs may also promote an anti-tumor response when patients are treated with immunotherapy. TLOs have been referred to in many different ways, including as tertiary lymphoid structures (TLS) and ectopic lymphoid structures (ELS). When associated with colorectal cancer, they are often referred to as a Crohn's-like lymphoid reaction.", "Lymphoid tissue associated with the lymphatic system is concerned with immune functions in defending the body against infections and the spread of tumours. It consists of connective tissue formed of reticular fibers, with various types of leukocytes (white blood cells), mostly lymphocytes enmeshed in it, through which the lymph passes. Regions of the lymphoid tissue that are densely packed with lymphocytes are known as \"lymphoid follicles\". Lymphoid tissue can either be structurally well organized as lymph nodes or may consist of loosely organized lymphoid follicles known as the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT). The central nervous system also has lymphatic vessels. The search for T cell gateways into and out of the meninges uncovered functional meningeal lymphatic vessels lining the dural sinuses, anatomically integrated into the membrane surrounding the brain.", "The lymphatic vessels, also called lymph vessels, are thin-walled vessels that conduct lymph between different parts of the body. They include the tubular vessels of the lymph capillaries, and the larger collecting vessels–the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct (the left lymphatic duct). The lymph capillaries are mainly responsible for the absorption of interstitial fluid from the tissues, while lymph vessels propel the absorbed fluid forward into the larger collecting ducts, where it ultimately returns to the bloodstream via one of the subclavian veins. The tissues of the lymphatic system are responsible for maintaining the balance of the body fluids. Its network of capillaries and collecting lymphatic vessels work to efficiently drain and transport extravasated fluid, along with proteins and antigens, back to the circulatory system. Numerous intraluminal valves in the vessels ensure a unidirectional flow of lymph without reflux. Two valve systems, a primary and a secondary valve system, are used to achieve this unidirectional flow. The capillaries are blind-ended, and the valves at the ends of capillaries use specialised junctions together with anchoring filaments to allow a unidirectional flow to the primary vessels. The collecting lymphatics, however, act to propel the lymph by the combined actions of the intraluminal valves and lymphatic muscle cells.", "Lymphatic tissues begin to develop by the end of the fifth week of embryonic development. Lymphatic vessels develop from lymph sacs that arise from developing veins, which are derived from mesoderm. The first lymph sacs to appear are the paired jugular lymph sacs at the junction of the internal jugular and subclavian veins. From the jugular lymph sacs, lymphatic capillary plexuses spread to the thorax, upper limbs, neck, and head. Some of the plexuses enlarge and form lymphatic vessels in their respective regions. Each jugular lymph sac retains at least one connection with its jugular vein, the left one developing into the superior portion of the thoracic duct. The next lymph sac to appear is the unpaired retroperitoneal lymph sac at the root of the mesentery of the intestine. It develops from the primitive vena cava and mesonephric veins. Capillary plexuses and lymphatic vessels spread from the retroperitoneal lymph sac to the abdominal viscera and diaphragm. The sac establishes connections with the cisterna chyli but loses its connections with neighbouring veins. The last of the lymph sacs, the paired posterior lymph sacs, develop from the iliac veins. The posterior lymph sacs produce capillary plexuses and lymphatic vessels of the abdominal wall, pelvic region, and lower limbs. The posterior lymph sacs join the cisterna chyli and lose their connections with adjacent veins. With the exception of the anterior part of the sac from which the cisterna chyli develops, all lymph sacs become invaded by mesenchymal cells and are converted into groups of lymph nodes. The spleen develops from mesenchymal cells between layers of the dorsal mesentery of the stomach. The thymus arises as an outgrowth of the third pharyngeal pouch.", "The lymphatic system has multiple interrelated functions:", "Lymph vessels called lacteals are at the beginning of the gastrointestinal tract, predominantly in the small intestine. While most other nutrients absorbed by the small intestine are passed on to the portal venous system to drain via the portal vein into the liver for processing, fats (lipids) are passed on to the lymphatic system to be transported to the blood circulation via the thoracic duct. (There are exceptions, for example medium-chain triglycerides are fatty acid esters of glycerol that passively diffuse from the GI tract to the portal system.) The enriched lymph originating in the lymphatics of the small intestine is called chyle. The nutrients that are released into the circulatory system are processed by the liver, having passed through the systemic circulation.", "The lymphatic system plays a major role in the body's immune system, as the primary site for cells relating to adaptive immune system including T-cells and B-cells. Cells in the lymphatic system react to antigens presented or found by the cells directly or by other dendritic cells. When an antigen is recognized, an immunological cascade begins involving the activation and recruitment of more and more cells, the production of antibodies and cytokines and the recruitment of other immunological cells such as macrophages.", "The study of lymphatic drainage of various organs is important in the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of cancer. The lymphatic system, because of its closeness to many tissues of the body, is responsible for carrying cancerous cells between the various parts of the body in a process called metastasis. The intervening lymph nodes can trap the cancer cells. If they are not successful in destroying the cancer cells the nodes may become sites of secondary tumours.", "Lymphadenopathy refers to one or more enlarged lymph nodes. Small groups or individually enlarged lymph nodes are generally \"reactive\" in response to infection or inflammation. This is called \"local\" lymphadenopathy. When many lymph nodes in different areas of the body are involved, this is called \"generalised\" lymphadenopathy. Generalised lymphadenopathy may be caused by infections such as infectious mononucleosis, tuberculosis and HIV, connective tissue diseases such as SLE and rheumatoid arthritis, and cancers, including both cancers of tissue within lymph nodes, discussed below, and metastasis of cancerous cells from other parts of the body, that have arrived via the lymphatic system.", "Lymphedema is the swelling caused by the accumulation of lymph, which may occur if the lymphatic system is damaged or has malformations. It usually affects limbs, though the face, neck and abdomen may also be affected. In an extreme state, called elephantiasis, the edema progresses to the extent that the skin becomes thick with an appearance similar to the skin on elephant limbs. Causes are unknown in most cases, but sometimes there is a previous history of severe infection, usually caused by a parasitic disease, such as lymphatic filariasis. Lymphangiomatosis is a disease involving multiple cysts or lesions formed from lymphatic vessels. Lymphedema can also occur after surgical removal of lymph nodes in the armpit (causing the arm to swell due to poor lymphatic drainage) or groin (causing swelling of the leg). Conventional treatment is by manual lymphatic drainage and compression garments. Two drugs for the treatment of lymphedema are in clinical trials: Lymfactin and Ubenimex/Bestatin. There is no evidence to suggest that the effects of manual lymphatic drainage are permanent.", "Cancer of the lymphatic system can be primary or secondary. Lymphoma refers to cancer that arises from lymphatic tissue. Lymphoid leukaemias and lymphomas are now considered to be tumours of the same type of cell lineage. They are called \"leukaemia\" when in the blood or marrow and \"lymphoma\" when in lymphatic tissue. They are grouped together under the name \"lymphoid malignancy\". Lymphoma is generally considered as either Hodgkin lymphoma or non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Hodgkin lymphoma is characterised by a particular type of cell, called a Reed–Sternberg cell, visible under microscope. It is associated with past infection with the Epstein–Barr virus, and generally causes a painless \"rubbery\" lymphadenopathy. It is staged, using Ann Arbor staging. Chemotherapy generally involves the ABVD and may also involve radiotherapy. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is a cancer characterised by increased proliferation of B-cells or T-cells, generally occurs in an older age group than Hodgkin lymphoma. It is treated according to whether it is \"high-grade\" or \"low-grade\", and carries a poorer prognosis than Hodgkin lymphoma. Lymphangiosarcoma is a malignant soft tissue tumour, whereas lymphangioma is a benign tumour occurring frequently in association with Turner syndrome. Lymphangioleiomyomatosis is a benign tumour of the smooth muscles of the lymphatics that occurs in the lungs. Lymphoid leukaemia is another form of cancer where the host is devoid of different lymphatic cells.", "Hippocrates, in the 5th century BC, was one of the first people to mention the lymphatic system. In his work \"On Joints\", he briefly mentioned the lymph nodes in one sentence. Rufus of Ephesus, a Roman physician, identified the axillary, inguinal and mesenteric lymph nodes as well as the thymus during the 1st to 2nd century AD. The first mention of lymphatic vessels was in the 3rd century BC by Herophilos, a Greek anatomist living in Alexandria, who incorrectly concluded that the \"absorptive veins of the lymphatics,\" by which he meant the lacteals (lymph vessels of the intestines), drained into the hepatic portal veins, and thus into the liver. The findings of Ruphus and Herophilos were further propagated by the Greek physician Galen, who described the lacteals and mesenteric lymph nodes which he observed in his dissection of apes and pigs in the 2nd century AD. In the mid 16th century, Gabriele Falloppio (discoverer of the fallopian tubes), described what is now known as the lacteals as \"coursing over the intestines full of yellow matter.\" In about 1563 Bartolomeo Eustachi, a professor of anatomy, described the thoracic duct in horses as \"vena alba thoracis.\" The next breakthrough came when in 1622 a physician, Gaspare Aselli, identified lymphatic vessels of the intestines in dogs and termed them \"venue alba et lacteal,\" which is now known as simply the lacteals. The lacteals were termed the fourth kind of vessels (the other three being the artery, vein and nerve, which was then believed to be a type of vessel), and disproved Galen's assertion that chyle was carried by the veins. But, he still believed that the lacteals carried the chyle to the liver (as taught by Galen). He also identified the thoracic duct but failed to notice its connection with the lacteals. This connection was established by Jean Pecquet in 1651, who found a white fluid mixing with blood in a dog's heart. He suspected that fluid to be chyle as its flow increased when abdominal pressure was applied. He traced this fluid to the thoracic duct, which he then followed to a chyle-filled sac he called the \"chyli receptaculum,\" which is now known as the cisternae chyli; further investigations led him to find that lacteals' contents enter the venous system via the thoracic duct. Thus, it was proven convincingly that the lacteals did not terminate in the liver, thus disproving Galen's second idea: that the chyle flowed to the liver. Johann Veslingius drew the earliest sketches of the lacteals in humans in 1647. The idea that blood recirculates through the body rather than being produced anew by the liver and the heart was first accepted as a result of works of William Harvey—a work he published in 1628. In 1652, Olaus Rudbeck (1630–1702), a Swede, discovered certain transparent vessels in the liver that contained clear fluid (and not white), and thus named them \"hepatico-aqueous vessels\". He also learned that they emptied into the thoracic duct and that they had valves. He announced his findings in the court of Queen Christina of Sweden, but did not publish his findings for a year, and in the interim similar findings were published by Thomas Bartholin, who additionally published that such vessels are present everywhere in the body, not just in the liver. He is also the one to have named them \"lymphatic vessels.\" This had resulted in a bitter dispute between one of Bartholin's pupils, Martin Bogdan, and Rudbeck, whom he accused of plagiarism. Galen's ideas prevailed in medicine until the 17th century. It was thought that blood was produced by the liver from chyle contaminated with ailments by the intestine and stomach, to which various spirits were added by other organs, and that this blood was consumed by all the organs of the body. This theory required that the blood be consumed and produced many times over. Even in the 17th century, his ideas were defended by some physicians. Alexander Monro, of the University of Edinburgh Medical School, was the first to describe the function of the lymphatic system in detail.", "\"Lymph\" originates in the Classical Latin word'\"water\", which is also the source of the English word \"limpid\". The spelling with \"y\" and \"ph\" was influenced by folk etymology with Greek (') \"nymph\". The adjective used for the lymph-transporting system is \"lymphatic\". The adjective used for the tissues where lymphocytes are formed is \"lymphoid\". Lymphatic comes from the Latin word \"\", meaning \"connected to water.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin.", "Anatomy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In Greek mythology, when Achilles was a baby, it was foretold that he would die young. To prevent his death, his mother Thetis took Achilles to the River Styx, which was supposed to offer powers of invulnerability, and dipped his body into the water; however, as Thetis held Achilles by the heel, his heel was not washed over by the water of the magical river. Achilles grew up to be a man of war who survived many great battles. Although the death of Achilles is predicted by Hector in Homer’s \"Iliad\", it does not actually occur in the \"Iliad\", but is described in later Greek and Roman poetry and drama concerning events after the \"Iliad\", later in the Trojan War. In the myths surrounding the war, Achilles was said to have died from a wound to his heel, ankle, or torso, which was the result of an arrow—possibly poisoned—shot by Paris. Classical myths attribute Achilles’s invulnerability to his mother Thetis having treated him with ambrosia and burned away his mortality in the hearth fire except on the heel, by which she held him. Peleus, his father, discovered the treatment and was alarmed to see Thetis holding the baby in the flames, which offended her and made her leave the treatment incomplete. According to a myth arising later, his mother had dipped the infant Achilles in the river Styx, holding onto him by his heel, and he became invulnerable where the waters touched him—that is, everywhere except the areas of his heel that were covered by her thumb and forefinger. The oldest-known written record of the tendon being named for Achilles is in 1693 by the Flemish/Dutch anatomist Philip Verheyen. In his widely used text \"Corporis Humani Anatomia\" he described the tendon's location and said that it was commonly called \"the cord of Achilles.\" As an expression meaning \"area of weakness, vulnerable spot,\" the use of \"Achilles heel\" dates only to 1840, with implied use in Samuel Taylor Coleridge's \"Ireland, that vulnerable heel of the British Achilles!\" from 1810 (\"Oxford English Dictionary\").", "The large and prominent tendon of the gastrocnemius, soleus, and plantaris muscles of the calf is called the \"tendo achilleus\" or Achilles tendon. This is commonly associated with the site of Achilles’ death wound. Tendons are avascular, so such an injury is unlikely to be fatal; however, the myth has the arrow poisoned with the blood of the Lernaean Hydra. A more likely anatomical basis for Achilles's death, assuming an unpoisoned dart, would have been an injury to his posterior tibial artery behind the medial malleolus, in between the tendons of the flexor digitorum longus and the posterior tibial vein. This area could also have been included in Thetis’s grip." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The functions of a forum." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "In addition to its standard function as a marketplace, a forum was a gathering place of great social significance, and often the scene of diverse activities, including political discussions and debates, rendezvous, meetings, et cetera. In that case it supplemented the function of a \"conciliabulum\". Every municipium had a forum. Fora were the first of any civitas synoecized whether Latin, Italic, Etruscan, Greek, Celtic or some other. The first forums were sited between independent villages in the period, known only through archaeology. After the rise of the Roman Republic, the most noted forum of the Roman world, the Roman Forum in Rome itself, served as a model of new construction. By the time of the late Republic expansions refurbishing of the forums of the city had inspired Pompey Magnus to create the Theatre of Pompey in 55 BC. The Theatre included a massive forum behind the theatre arcades known as the Porticus Pompei (Colonnades of Pompey). The structure was the forebearer to Julius Caesar's first Imperial forum and the rest to follow. Other major fora are found in Italy; however, they are not to be confused with the piazza of the modern town, which may have originated from a number of different types of ancient civic centers, or more likely was its own type. While similar in use and function to fora, most were created in the Middle Ages and are often not a part of the original city footprint. Fora were a regular part of every Roman province in the Republic and the Empire, with archaeological examples at: In new Roman towns the forum was usually located at, or just off, the intersection of the main north-south and east-west streets (the cardo and decumanus). All fora would have a Temple of Jupiter at the north end, and would also contain other temples, as well as the Basilica; a public weights and measures table, so customers at the market could ensure they were not being sold short measures; and would often have the baths nearby. At election times, candidates would use the steps of the temples in the forum to make their election speeches, and would expect their clients to come to support them." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Climbing history.", "Notable ascents.", "Makalu-Barun Valley.", "In other media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first climb on Makalu was made by an American team led by Riley Keegan in the spring of 1954. The expedition was composed of Sierra Club members including Allen Steck, and was called the California Himalayan Expedition to Makalu. They attempted the southeast ridge but were turned back at by a constant barrage of storms. A New Zealand team including Sir Edmund Hillary was also active in the spring, but did not get very high due to injury and illness. In the fall of 1954, a French reconnaissance expedition made the first ascents of the subsidiary summits Kangchungtse (October 22: Jean Franco, Lionel Terray, sirdar Gyalzen Norbu Sherpa and Pa Norbu) and Chomo Lonzo (October 30?: Jean Couzy and Terray). Makalu was first summited on May 15, 1955 by Lionel Terray and Jean Couzy of a French expedition led by Jean Franco. Franco, Guido Magnone and Gyalzen Norbu Sherpa summitted the next day, followed by Jean Bouvier, Serge Coupé, Pierre Leroux and André Vialatte on the 17th. This was an amazing achievement at the time, to have the vast majority of expedition members summit, especially on such a difficult peak. Prior to this time, summits were reached by one to two expedition members at most, with the rest of teams providing logistical support before turning around and heading home. The French team climbed Makalu by the north face and northeast ridge, via the saddle between Makalu and Kangchungtse (the Makalu-La), establishing the standard route. An ascent without oxygen was attempted by the 1960-61 Silver Hut expedition but two attempts did not succeed.", "Makalu is one of the more difficult eight-thousanders, and is considered one of the most difficult mountains in the world to climb. The mountain is notorious for its steep pitches and knife-edged ridges that are completely open to the elements. The final ascent of the summit pyramid involves technical rock/ice climbing.", "Makalu-Barun Valley is a Himalayan glacier valley situated at the base of Makalu in the Sankhuwasabha district of Nepal. This valley lies entirely inside the Makalu Barun National Park. Barun Valley provides stunning contrasts, where high waterfalls cascade into deep gorges, craggy rocks rise from lush green forests, and colorful flowers bloom beneath white snow peaks. This unique landscape shelters some of the last pristine mountain ecosystems on Earth. Rare species of animals and plants flourish in diverse climates and habitats, relatively undisturbed by human kind.", "Makalu Peak is referenced in the animated \"\" series episode titled \"Dark Horizon – Part 2\". It is the burial place of the villain Apocalypse. The Makalu area has been a focus for yeti expeditions." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "By region.", "Italian.", "Polish.", "Ukrainian.", "Soviet.", "Yugoslav.", "Lithuania." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The initial concept of partisan warfare involved the use of troops raised from the local population in a war zone (or in some cases regular forces) who would operate behind enemy lines to disrupt communications, seize posts or villages as forward-operating bases, ambush convoys, impose war taxes or contributions, raid logistical stockpiles, and compel enemy forces to disperse and protect their base of operations. One of the first manuals of partisan tactics in the 18th century was \"The Partisan, or the Art of Making War in Detachment...\", published in London in 1760 by de Jeney, a Hungarian military officer who served in the Prussian Army as captain of military engineers during the Seven Years' War of 1756–1763. Johann von Ewald described techniques of partisan warfare in detail in his \"Abhandlung über den kleinen Krieg\" (1789). The concept of partisan warfare would later form the basis of the \"Partisan Rangers\" of the American Civil War. In that war, Confederate States Army Partisan leaders, such as John S. Mosby, Jesse James, William Quantrill, or Bloody Bill Anderson, operated along the lines described by von Ewald (and later by both Jomini and Clausewitz). In essence, 19th-century American partisans were closer to commando or ranger forces raised during World War II than to the \"partisan\" forces operating in occupied Europe. Mosby-style fighters would have been legally considered uniformed members of their state's armed forces. Partisans in the mid-19th century were substantially different from raiding cavalry, or from unorganized/semi-organized guerrilla forces. Russian partisans played a crucial part in the downfall of Napoleon. Their fierce resistance and persistent inroads helped compel the French emperor to retreat from Russia after invading in 1812. During the Second Boer War, the Boers waged a successful guerrilla campaign against the British. Imperial Russia also made use of partisans in World War I, for example Stanisław Bułak-Bałachowicz.", "", "In 1922, Benito Mussolini and Fascist troop entered Rome. One of the most important episodes of resistance by Italian armed forces after the armistice was the battle of Piombino, Tuscany. On 10 September 1943, during Operation Achse, a small German flotilla, commanded by Kapitänleutnant Karl-Wolf Albrand, tried to enter the harbour of Piombino but was denied access by the port authorities.", "The order to organize partisan groups was issued by Marshal of Poland Rydz-Smigly on the 16th of September, 1939. The first sabotage groups were created in Warsaw on September 18, 1939. Each battalion was to choose 3 soldiers who were to sabotage enemy's war effort behind the front lines. The sabotage groups were organized before Rydz-Smigly's order was received. The situation amongst the Polish partisans and the situation of the Polish partisans were both complicated. The founding organizations that lead to the creation of the Home Army or Armia Krajowa, also known as AK, were themselves organized in 1939. Home Army was the largest Polish partisan organization; moreover, organizations such as peasant Bataliony Chlopskie, created primarily for self--defence against the Nazi German abuse, or the armed wing of the Polish Socialist Party and most of the nationalist National Armed Forces did subordinate themselves, before the end of the World War II, to the very Home Army. The communist Gwardia Ludowa remained indifferent and even hostile towards the Home Army, and of two Jewish organizations, the Jewish Military Union did cooperate with the Home Army, when the leftist and pro-Soviet Jewish Combat Organization did not. Both Jewish combat organizations staged the Ghetto uprising in 1943. Armia Krajowa staged Warsaw Uprising in 1944, amongst other activities. Bataliony Chlopskie fought mainly in Zamosc Uprising. The Polish partisans faced many enemies. The main enemies were the Nazi Germans, Ukrainian nationalists, Lithuanian Nazi collaborators, and even the Soviets. In spite of the ideological enmity, the Home Army did launch a massive sabotage campaign after the Germans began Operation Barbarossa. Amongst other acts of sabotage, the Polish partisans damaged nearly 7,000 locomotives, over 19,000 railway cars, over 4,000 German military vehicles and built-in faults into 92,000 artillery projectiles as well as 4710 built-in faults into aircraft engines, just to mention a few and just in between 1941 and 1944. In Ukraine and southeastern Poland, the Poles fought against the Ukrainian nationalists and UPA (Ukrainian Insurgent Army) to protect the ethnic Poles from mass murder visited upon them during Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia. They were aided, until after the war was over, by the Soviet partisans. At least 60,000 Poles lost their lives, the majority of them civilians, men, women, and children. Some of the victims were Poles of Jewish descent who had escaped from the ghetto or death camp. The majority of the Polish partisans in Ukraine assisted the invading Soviet Army. Few of them got mistreated or killed by the Soviets or the Polish communists. In Lithuania and Belarus, after a period of initial cooperation, the Poles defended themselves against the Soviet partisans as well as fought against the Lithuanian Nazi collaborators. The Poles failed to defeat the Soviet Partisans, but did achieve a decisive victory against the Lithuanian Nazi collaborators, Battle of Murowana Oszmianka. Afterward, about half of the Polish partisans in Lithuania assisted the invading Soviet Army, and many ended up mistreated and even killed by the Soviets and the Polish communists.", "The Ukrainian Insurgent Army (, Ukrayins’ka Povstans’ka Armiya; UPA) was a Ukrainian nationalist paramilitary and later partisan army that engaged in a series of guerrilla conflicts during World War II against Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, and both Underground and Communist Poland. The group was the military wing of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists—Bandera faction (the OUN-B), originally formed in Volyn in the spring and summer of 1943. Its official date of creation is 14 October 1942, day of Intercession of the Theotokos feast. The OUN's stated immediate goal was the re-establishment of a united, independent national state on Ukrainian ethnic territory. Violence was accepted as a political tool against foreign as well as domestic enemies of their cause, which was to be achieved by a national revolution led by a dictatorship that would drive out the occupying powers and set up a government representing all regions and social groups. The organization began as a resistance group and developed into a guerrilla army. During its existence, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army fought against the Poles and the Soviets as their primary opponents, although the organization also fought against the Germans starting from February 1943. From late spring 1944, the UPA and Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists-B (OUN-B)—faced with Soviet advances—also cooperated with German forces against the Soviets and Poles in the hope of creating an independent Ukrainian state. The army also perpetrated ethnic cleansing of the Polish population of Volhynia and East Galicia.", "Soviet partisans during World War II, especially those active in Belarus, effectively harassed German troops and significantly hampered their operations in the region. As a result, Soviet authority was re-established deep inside the German-held territories. In some areas partisan collective farms raised crops and livestock to produce food. However this was not usually the case and partisans also requisitioned supplies from the local populace, sometimes involuntarily. Soviet partisans in Finland were known to have attacked villages and indiscriminately targeted the populace, killing entire families. The war crimes committed in Finland by Soviet partisans were investigated by the since 1999. However, Russia refused access to Soviet archives and the investigation ended in 2003. Partisan warfare was routinely distorted in the Soviet Union. According to historian Veikko Erkkilä the Russian attitude towards civilian atrocities has been marred by the Great Patriotic War propaganda. In East Karelia, most partisans attacked Finnish military supply and communication targets, but inside Finland proper, almost two-thirds of the attacks targeted civilians, killing 200 and injuring 50, mostly women, children and elderly.", "The Yugoslav Partisans or the National Liberation Army (officially the National Liberation Army and Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia), was Europe's most effective anti-Nazi resistance movement. It was led by the Communist Party of Yugoslavia during World War II. Its commander was Marshal Josip Broz Tito. They were a leading force in the liberation of their country during the People's Liberation War of Yugoslavia. By late 1944, the total forces of the Partisans numbered 650,000 men and women organized in four field armies and 52 divisions, which engaged in conventional warfare. By April 1945, the Partisans numbered over 800,000. Shortly before the end of the war, in March 1945, all resistance forces were reorganized into the regular armed force of Yugoslavia and renamed Yugoslav Army. It would keep this name until 1951, when it was renamed Yugoslav People's Army. Postwar Yugoslavia was one of only two European countries that were largely liberated by its own forces during World War II. It received significant assistance from the Soviet Union during the liberation of Serbia, and substantial assistance from the Balkan Air Force from mid-1944, but only limited assistance, mainly from the British, prior to 1944. At the end of the war no foreign troops were stationed on its soil. Partly as a result, the country found itself halfway between the two camps at the onset of the Cold War.", "Among the three countries, the resistance was best organized in Lithuania, where guerrilla units controlled whole regions of the countryside until 1949. Their armaments included Czech Skoda guns, Russian Maxim heavy machine guns, assorted mortars and a wide variety of mainly German and Soviet light machine guns and submachine guns. When not in direct battles with the Red Army or special NKVD units, they significantly delayed the consolidation of Soviet rule through ambush, sabotage, assassination of local Communist activists and officials, freeing imprisoned guerrillas, and printing underground newspapers. On July 1, 1944, Lithuanian Freedom Army (Lithuanian: Lietuvos laisvės armija, LLA) declared the state of war against Soviet Union and ordered all its able members to mobilize into platoons, stationed in forests and do not leave Lithuania. The departments were replaced by two sectors – operational, called \"Vanagai\" (Hawks or Falcons; abbreviated VS), and organizational (abbreviated OS). \"Vanagai\", commanded by Albinas Karalius (codename Varenis), were the armed fighters while the organizational sector was tasked with passive resistance, including supply of food, information, and transport to \"Vanagai\". In the middle of 1944, Lithuanian Freedom Army had 10 000 members. The Soviets killed 659 and arrested 753 members of the Lithuanian Freedom Army by January 26, 1945. Founder Kazys Veverskis was killed in December 1944, the headquarters were liquidated in December 1945. This represented the failure of highly centralized resistance, as the organization was too dependent on Veverskis and other top commanders. In 1946 remaining leaders and fighters of LLA started to merge with Lithuanian partisans. In 1949 all members of presidium of Union of Lithuanian Freedom Fighters - captain Jonas Žemaitis-Tylius, Petras Bartkus-Žadgaila, Bronius Liesys-Naktis ir Juozas Šibaila-Merainis came from LLA. Supreme Committee for the Liberation of Lithuania (Lithuanian: \"Vyriausiasis Lietuvos išlaisvinimo komitetas\", VLIK), was created on November 25, 1943. VLIK published underground newspapers and agitated for resistance against Nazis. Gestapo arrested most influential members in 1944. After the reoccupation of Lithuania by the Soviets, VLIK moved to the West set its goal to maintain non-recognition of Lithuania's occupation and dissemination of information from behind the iron curtain – including the information provided by the Lithuanian partisans. Former members of Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force, Lithuanian Freedom Army, Lithuanian Armed Forces, Lithuanian Riflemen's Union formed the basis of Lithuanian partisans. Farmers, Lithuanian officials, students, teachers, even the pupils joined the partisan movement. The movement was actively supported by the society and the Catholic church. It is estimated that by the end of 1945, 30 000 armed people stayed in forests in Lithuania. The partisans were well-armed. During the 1945-1951 Soviet repressive structures seized from partisans 31 mortars, 2,921 machine guns, 6,304 assault rifles, 22,962 rifles, 8,155 pistols, 15,264 grenades, 2,596 mines, and 3,779,133 catridges. The partisans usually replenished their arsenal by killing \"istrebiteli\", members of Soviet secret-police forces or by purchasing ammunition from Red Army soldiers. Every partisan had binoculars and few grenades. One grenade was usually saved to blow themselves and their faces to avoid being taken as prisoner, since the physical tortures of Soviet MGB/NKVD were very brutal and cruel, and be recognised, to prevent their relatives from suffering. Captured Lithuanian Forest Brothers themselves often faced torture and summary execution while their relatives faced deportation to Siberia (cf. quotation). Reprisals against anti-Soviet farms and villages were harsh. The NKVD units, named \"People's Defense Platoons\" (known by the Lithuanians as pl. \"stribai\", from the – \"destroyers\"), used shock tactics such as displaying executed partisans' corpses in village courtyards to discourage further resistance. The report of a commission formed at a KGB prison a few days after the October 15, 1956, arrest of Adolfas Ramanauskas (\"Vanagas\"), chief commander of the Union of Lithuanian Freedom Fighters, noted the following: Juozas Lukša was among those who managed to escape to the West; he wrote his memoirs in Paris - Fighters for Freedom. Lithuanian Partisans Versus the U.S.S.R. and was killed after returning to Lithuania in 1951. Pranas Končius (code name \"Adomas\") was the last Lithuanian anti-Soviet resistance fighter, killed in action by Soviet forces on July 6, 1965 (some sources indicate he shot himself in order to avoid capture on July 13). He was awarded the Cross of Vytis posthumously in 2000. Benediktas Mikulis, one of the last known partisans to remain in the forest, emerged in 1971. He was arrested in the 1980s and spent several years in prison." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Precursors.", "History.", "\"Tableau économique\".", "Characteristics.", "Natural order.", "Individualism and laissez-faire.", "Private property.", "Diminishing returns.", "Investment capital.", "Subsequent developments.", "The New Physiocrats." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Physiocracy is an agrarianist philosophy which developed in the context of the prevalent European rural society of the time. In the late Roman Republic, the dominant senatorial class was not allowed to engage in banking or commerce but relied on their \"latifundia\", large plantations, for income. They circumvented this rule through freedmen proxies who sold surplus agricultural goods. Other inspiration came from China's economic system, then the largest in the world. Chinese society broadly distinguished four occupations, with scholar-bureaucrats (who were also agrarian landlords) at the top and merchants at the bottom (because they did not produce but only distributed goods made by others). Leading physiocrats like François Quesnay were avid Confucianists who advocated China's agrarian policies. Some scholars have advocated connections with the school of agriculturalism, which promoted utopian communalism. One of the integral parts of physiocracy, laissez-faire, was adopted from Quesnay's writings on China, being a translation of the Chinese term wu wei. The concept natural order of physiocracy originated from \"Way of Nature\" of Chinese Taoism.", "The growing power of the centralized state control in the era of enlightened absolutism necessitated centralized systematic information on the nation. A major innovation was the collection, use and interpretation of numerical and statistical data, ranging from trade statistics, harvest reports, and death notices to population censuses. Starting in the 1760s, officials in France and Germany began increasingly to rely on quantitative data for systematic planning, especially regarding long-term economic growth. It combined the utilitarian agenda of \"enlightened absolutism\" with the new ideas being developed in economics. In Germany the trend was especially strong in Cameralism while in France it was an important theme in physiocracy. Pierre Le Pesant, sieur de Boisguilbert served as a member of Louis XIV's local administration of Paris, and wrote pamphlets and booklets on subjects related to his work: taxation, grain trade, and money. Le Pesant asserted that wealth came from self-interest and markets were connected by money flows (i.e. an expense for the buyer is revenue for the producer). Thus he realized that lowering prices in times of shortage – common at the time – was dangerous economically as it acted as a disincentive to production. Generally, Le Pesant advocated less government interference in the grain market, as any such interference would generate \"anticipations\" which would prevent the policy from working. For instance, if the government bought corn abroad, some people would speculate that there was likely to be a shortage and would buy more corn, leading to higher prices and more of a shortage. This was an early example of advocacy of free trade. In anonymously published tracts, Vauban proposed a system known as \"La dîme royale\": this involved major simplification of the French tax code by switching to a relatively flat tax on property and trade. Vauban's use of statistics contrasted with earlier empirical methods in economics. The event that led Mirabeau to devote himself to political economy was undoubtedly his work on a manuscript of Richard Cantillon's \"Essai sur la nature du commerce en général\", which he had in his possession as early as 1740. He elaborated a commentary of this text that gradually became what became his \"Ami des hommes\". Around the time of the Seven Years' War between France and England (1756–63), the physiocracy movement grew. Several journals appeared, signaling an increasing audience in France for new economic ideas. Among the most important were the \"Journal Œconomique\" (1721–72), which promoted agronomy and rational husbandry and the \"Journal du commerce\" (1759–62), which was heavily influenced by the Irishman Richard Cantillon (1680–1734), both dominated by physiocrats; the \"Journal de l'agriculture, du commerce et des finances\" (1765–74) and the \"Ephémérides du citoyen\" (1767–72 and 1774–76). Also, Vincent de Gournay (1712–1759), the Intendant du commerce, brought together a group of young researchers including François Véron Duverger de Forbonnais (1722–1800) and one of the two most famous physiocrats, Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot (1727–1781). The other, François Quesnay (1694–1774), was among those writing prolifically in contemporaneous journals. In the 19th century Henry George in the United States advocated the collection of land rent as the primary if not the sole source of public revenue.", "The \"Tableau économique\" or \"Economic Table\" is an economic model first described by François Quesnay in 1759, which laid the foundation of the physiocrats’ economic theories. It also contains the origins of modern ideas on the circulation of wealth and the nature of interrelationships in the economy. The model Quesnay created consisted of three economic agents: the \"proprietary\" class consisted only of landowners; the \"productive\" class consisted of agricultural laborers; the \"sterile\" class was made up of artisans and merchants. The flow of production and cash between the three classes originated with the proprietary class because they owned the land and bought from both of the other classes.", "", "The physiocrats thought there was a \"natural order\" that allowed human beings to live together. Men did not come together via a somewhat arbitrary \"social contract\". Rather, they had to discover the laws of the natural order that would allow individuals to live in society without losing significant freedoms. This concept of natural order had originated in China. The Chinese had believed that there can be good government only when a perfect harmony exists between the \"Way of Man\" (governmental institutions) and the \"Way of Nature\" (Quesnay's natural order).", "The physiocrats, especially Turgot, believed that self-interest was the motivation for each segment of the economy to play its role. Each individual is best suited to determine what goods they want and what work would provide them with what they want out of life. While a person might labor for the benefit of others, they will work harder for their own benefit; however, each person's needs are being supplied by many other people. The system works best when there is a complementary relationship between one person's needs and another person's desires, and so trade restrictions place an unnatural barrier to achieving one's goals. Laissez-faire was popularized by physiocrat Vincent de Gournay who is said to have adopted the term from François Quesnay's writings on China.", "None of the theories concerning the value of land could work without strong legal support for the ownership of private property. Combined with the strong sense of individualism, private property becomes a critical component of the Tableau's functioning. The physiocrats believed in the institution of private property. They saw property as a tree and its branches, as social institutions. They actually stated that landlords must enjoy 2/5 on the land surpluses. They also advocated that landlords should be given dues, otherwise they would take the land away from the cultivators.", "Turgot was one of the first to recognize that \"successive applications of the variable input will cause the product to grow, first at an increasing rate, later at a diminishing rate until it reaches a maximum.\" This was a recognition that the productivity gains required to increase national wealth had an ultimate limit, and, therefore, wealth could not be infinite.", "Both Quesnay and Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune recognized that capital was needed by farmers to start the production process, and both were proponents of using some of each year's profits to increase productivity. Capital was also needed to sustain the laborers while they produced their product. Turgot recognizes that there is opportunity cost and risk involved in using capital for something other than land ownership, and he promotes interest as serving a \"strategic function in the economy\".", "The ideas of the Physiocrats had an influence on Adam Smith, David Ricardo, John Stuart Mill, and above all Henry George, who appears at first to have come to similar beliefs independently. George was the driving force behind what became known as the Single Tax movement (not to be confused with Flat Tax). The Single Tax is a proposal for the use of the annual rental value of land (land value taxation) as the principal or sole source of public revenue.", "The New Physiocratic League, also known as the New Physiocrats, is the most recent development in physiocratic ideology. It introduced a comprehensive platform rooted in the original physiocratic philosophy, and expanded and updated it to be adopted by modern political platforms. The New Physiocrats advocate for an implementation of a variant of the land value tax, which they refer to as the \"unified location tax,\" as a main source of government revenues, while returning all income taxes back to the labour market as an income supplement." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Politics.", "Landmarks.", "Jemaa el-Fnaa.", "Souks.", "City walls and gates.", "Gardens.", "Palaces and Riads.", "El Badi Palace.", "Royal Palace.", "Bahia Palace.", "Mosques.", "Koutoubia Mosque.", "Ben Youssef Mosque.", "Kasbah Mosque.", "Mouassine Mosque.", "Tombs.", "Saadian Tombs.", "Tombs of the Seven Saints.", "Mellah.", "Hotels.", "Culture.", "Museums.", "Marrakech Museum.", "Dar Si Said Museum.", "Museum of Islamic Art.", "Music, theatre and dance.", "Crafts.", "Festivals.", "Food.", "Education.", "Ben Youssef Madrasa.", "Sports.", "Transport.", "Rail.", "Road.", "Air.", "Healthcare.", "International relations.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The exact meaning of the name is debated. One possible origin of the name Marrakesh is from the Berber (Amazigh) words \"amur (n) akush\" (ⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴽⵓⵛ), which means \"Land of God\". According to historian Susan Searight, however, the town's name was first documented in an 11th-century manuscript in the Qarawiyyin library in Fez, where its meaning was given as \"country of the sons of Kush\". The word \"mur\" is used now in Berber mostly in the feminine form \"tamurt\". The same word \"mur\" appears in Mauretania, the North African kingdom from antiquity, although the link remains controversial as this name possibly originates from μαύρος \"mavros\", the ancient Greek word for black. The common English spelling is \"Marrakesh\", although \"Marrakech\" (the French spelling) is also widely used. The name is spelt \"Mṛṛakc\" in the Berber Latin alphabet, \"Marraquexe\" in Portuguese, \"Marraquech\" in Spanish, and \"Mer-raksh\" in", "The Marrakesh area was inhabited by Berber farmers from Neolithic times, and numerous stone implements have been unearthed in the area. Marrakesh was founded in 1062 (454 in the Hijri calendar) by Abu Bakr ibn Umar, chieftain and second cousin of the Almoravid king Yusuf ibn Tashfin (c. 1061–1106). Under the berber dynasty of the Almoravids, pious and learned warriors from the desert, numerous mosques and madrasas (Quranic schools) were built, developing the community into a trading centre for the Maghreb and sub-Saharan Africa. Marrakesh grew rapidly and established itself as a cultural and religious centre, supplanting Aghmat, which had long been the capital of Haouz. Andalusian craftsmen from Cordoba and Seville built and decorated numerous palaces in the city, developing the Umayyad style characterised by carved domes and cusped arches. This Andalusian influence merged with designs from the Sahara and West Africa, creating a unique style of architecture which was fully adapted to the Marrakesh environment. Yusuf ibn Tashfin completed the city's first mosque (the Ben Youssef mosque, named after his son), built houses, minted coins, and brought gold and silver to the city in caravans. The city became the capital of the Almoravid Emirate, stretching from the shores of Senegal to the centre of Spain and from the Atlantic coast to Algiers. Marrakesh is one of the great citadels of the Muslim world. The city was fortified by Tashfin's son, Ali ibn Yusuf, who in 1122–1123 built the ramparts which remain to this day, completed further mosques and palaces, and developed an underground water system in the city known as the \"rhettara\" to irrigate his new garden. In 1125, the preacher Ibn Tumert settled in Tin Mal in the mountains to the south of Marrakesh. He preached against the Almoravids and influenced a revolt which succeeded in bringing about the fall of nearby Aghmat, but stopped short of bringing down Marrakesh following an unsuccessful siege in 1130. The Almohads, Masmouda tribesmen from the High Atlas mountains who practiced orthodox Islam, took the city in 1147 under leader Abd al-Mu'min. After a long siege and the killing of some 7,000 people, the last of the Almoravids were exterminated apart from those who sought exile in the Balearic Islands. As a result, almost all the city's monuments were destroyed. The Almohads constructed a range of palaces and religious buildings, including the famous Koutoubia Mosque (1184–1199), and built upon the ruins of an Almoravid palace. It was a twin of the Giralda in Seville and the unfinished Hassan Tower in Rabat, all built by the same designer. The Kasbah housed the residence of the caliph, a title borne by the Almohad rulers from the reign of Abd al-Mu'min, rivaling the far eastern Abbasid Caliphate. The Kasbah was built by the caliph Yaqub al-Mansur. The irrigation system was perfected to provide water for new palm groves and parks, including the Menara Garden. As a result of its cultural reputation, Marrakesh attracted many writers and artists, especially from Andalusia, including the famous philosopher Averroes of Cordoba. The death of Yusuf II in 1224 began a period of instability. Marrakesh became the stronghold of the Almohad tribal sheikhs and the \"ahl ad-dar\" (descendants of Ibn Tumart), who sought to claw power back from the ruling Almohad family. Marrakesh was taken, lost and retaken by force multiple times by a stream of caliphs and pretenders, such as during the brutal seizure of Marrakesh by the Sevillan caliph Abd al-Wahid II al-Ma'mun in 1226, which was followed by a massacre of the Almohad tribal sheikhs and their families and a public denunciation of Ibn Tumart's doctrines by the caliph from the pulpit of the Kasbah Mosque. After al-Ma'mun's death in 1232, his widow attempted to forcibly install her son, acquiring the support of the Almohad army chiefs and Spanish mercenaries with the promise to hand Marrakesh over to them for the sack. Hearing of the terms, the people of Marrakesh sought to make an agreement with the military captains and saved the city from destruction with a sizable payoff of 500,000 dinars. In 1269, Marrakesh was conquered by nomadic Zenata tribes who overran the last of the Almohads. The city then fell into a state of decline, which soon led to the loss of its status as capital to rival city Fez. In the early 16th century, Marrakesh again became the capital of the kingdom, after a period when it was the seat of the Hintata emirs. It quickly reestablished its status, especially during the reigns of the Saadian sultans Abu Abdallah al-Qaim and Ahmad al-Mansur. Thanks to the wealth amassed by the Sultans, Marrakesh was embellished with sumptuous palaces while its ruined monuments were restored. El Badi Palace, built by Ahmad al-Mansur in 1578, was a replica of the Alhambra Palace, made with costly and rare materials including marble from Italy, gold dust from Sudan, porphyry from India and jade from China. The palace was intended primarily for hosting lavish receptions for ambassadors from Spain, England, and the Ottoman Empire, showcasing Saadian Morocco as a nation whose power and influence reached as far as the borders", "By road, Marrakesh is southwest of Tangier, southwest of the Moroccan capital of Rabat, southwest of Casablanca, southwest of Beni Mellal, east of Essaouira, and northeast of Agadir. The city has expanded north from the old centre with suburbs such as Daoudiat, Diour El Massakine, Sidi Abbad, Sakar and Amerchich, to the southeast with Sidi Youssef Ben Ali, to the west with Massira and Targa, and southwest to M'hamid beyond the airport. On the P2017 road leading south out of the city are large villages such as Douar Lahna, Touggana, Lagouassem, and Lahebichate, leading eventually through desert to the town of Tahnaout at the edge of the High Atlas, the highest mountainous barrier in North Africa. The average elevation of the snow-covered High Atlas lies above. It is mainly composed of Jurassic limestone. The mountain range runs along the Atlantic coast, then rises to the east of Agadir and extends northeast into Algeria before disappearing into Tunisia. The Ourika River valley is about south of Marrakesh. The \"silvery valley of the Ourika river curving north towards Marrakesh\", and the \"red heights of Jebel Yagour still capped with snow\" to the south are sights in this area. David Prescott Barrows, who describes Marrakesh as Morocco's \"strangest city\", describes the landscape in the following terms: \"The city lies some fifteen or twenty miles [25–30 km] from the foot of the Atlas mountains, which here rise to their grandest proportions. The spectacle of the mountains is superb. Through the clear desert air the eye can follow the rugged contours of the range for great distances to the north and eastward. The winter snows mantle them with white, and the turquoise sky gives a setting for their grey rocks and gleaming caps that is of unrivaled beauty.\" With 130,000 hectares of greenery and over 180,000 palm trees in its Palmeraie, Marrakesh is an oasis of rich plant variety. Throughout the seasons, fragrant orange, fig, pomegranate and olive trees display their color and fruits in Agdal Garden, Menara Garden and other gardens in the city. The city's gardens feature numerous native plants alongside other species that have been imported over the course of the centuries, including giant bamboos, yuccas, papyrus, palm trees, banana trees, cypress, philodendrons, rose bushes, bougainvilleas, pines and various kinds of cactus plants.", "A hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification \"BSh\") predominates at Marrakesh. Average temperatures range from in the winter to in the summer. The relatively wet winter and dry summer precipitation pattern of Marrakesh mirrors precipitation patterns found in Mediterranean climates. However, the city receives less rain than is typically found in a Mediterranean climate, resulting in a semi-arid climate classification. Between 1961 and 1990 the city averaged of precipitation annually. Barrows says of the climate, \"The region of Marrakesh is", "According to the 2014 census, the population of Marrakesh was 928,850", "Marrakesh is a vital component to the economy and culture of Morocco. Improvements to the highways from Marrakesh to Casablanca, Agadir and the local airport have led to a dramatic increase in tourism in the city, which now attracts over two million tourists annually. Because of the importance of tourism to Morocco's economy, King Mohammed VI has vowed to attract 20 million tourists a year to Morocco by 2020, doubling the number of tourists from 2012. The city is popular with the French, and many French celebrities have bought property in the city, including fashion moguls Yves St Laurent and Jean-Paul Gaultier. In the 1990s very few foreigners lived in the city, but real estate developments have dramatically increased in the last 15 years; by 2005 over 3,000 foreigners had purchased properties in the city, lured by its culture and the relatively cheap house prices. It has been cited in French weekly magazine \"Le Point\" as the second St Tropez: \"No longer simply a destination for a scattering of adventurous elites, bohemians or backpackers seeking Arabian Nights fantasies, Marrakech is becoming a desirable stopover for the European jet set.\" However, despite the tourism boom, the majority of the city's inhabitants are still poor, and, some 20,000 households still have no access to water or electricity. Many enterprises in the city are facing colossal debt problems. Despite the global economic crisis that began in 2007, investments in real estate progressed substantially in 2011 both in the area of tourist accommodation and social housing. The main developments have been in facilities for tourists including hotels and leisure centres such as golf courses and health spas, with investments of 10.9 billion dirham (US$1.28 billion) in 2011. The hotel infrastructure in", "Marrakesh, the regional capital, constitutes a prefecture-level administrative unit of Morocco, Marrakech Prefecture, forming part of the region of Marrakech-Safi. Marrakesh is a major centre for law and jurisdiction in Morocco and most of the major courts of the region are here. These include the regional Court of Appeal, the Commercial Court, the Administrative Court, the Court of First Instance, the Court of Appeal of Commerce, and the Administrative Court of Appeal. Numerous organizations of the region are based here, including the regional government administrative offices, the Regional Council of Tourism office, and regional public maintenance organisations such as the Governed Autonomous Water Supply and Electricity and Maroc Telecom. Testament to Marrakesh's development as a modern city, on 12 June 2009, Fatima-Zahra Mansouri, a then 33-year-old lawyer and daughter of a former assistant to the local authority chief in Marrakesh, was elected the first female mayor of the city, defeating outgoing Mayor Omar Jazouli by 54 votes to", "", "The Jemaa el-Fnaa is one of the best-known squares in Africa and is the centre of city activity and trade. It has been described as a \"world-famous square\", \"a metaphorical urban icon, a bridge between the past and the present, the place where (spectacularized) Moroccan tradition encounters modernity.\" It has been part of the UNESCO World Heritage site since 1985. The name roughly means \"the assembly of trespassers\" or malefactors. Jemaa el-Fnaa was renovated along with much of the Marrakech city, whose walls were extended by Abu Yaqub Yusuf and particularly by Yaqub al-Mansur in 1147–1158. The surrounding mosque, palace, hospital, parade ground and gardens around the edges of the marketplace were also overhauled,", "Marrakesh has the largest traditional market in Morocco and the image of the city is closely associated with its \"souks\". Paul Sullivan cites the \"souks\" as the principal shopping attraction in the city: \"A honeycomb of intricately connected alleyways, this fundamental section of the old city is a micro-medina in itself, comprising a dizzying number of stalls and shops that range from itsy kiosks no bigger than an elf's wardrobe to scruffy store-fronts that morph into glittering Aladdin's Caves once you're inside.\" Historically the souks of Marrakesh were divided into retail areas for particular goods such as leather, carpets, metalwork and pottery. These divisions still roughly exist but with significant overlap. Many of the souks sell items like carpets and rugs, traditional Muslim attire, leather bags, and lanterns. Haggling is", "The ramparts of Marrakesh, which stretch for some around the medina of the city, were built by the Almoravids in the 12th century as protective fortifications. The walls are made of a distinct orange-red clay and chalk, giving the city its nickname as the \"red city\"; they stand up to high and have 20 gates and 200 towers along them. Bab Agnaou was built in the 12th century during the Almohad dynasty. The Berber name Agnaou, like Gnaoua, refers to people of Sub-Saharan African origin (cf. Akal-n-iguinawen – land of the black). The gate was called Bab al Kohl (the word \"kohl\" also meaning \"black\") or Bab al Qsar (palace gate) in some historical sources. The corner-pieces are", "The Menara gardens are to the west of the city, at the gates of the Atlas mountains. They were built around 1130 by the Almohad ruler Abd al-Mu'min. The name \"menara\" derives from the pavilion with its small green pyramid roof (\"menzeh\"). The pavilion was built during the 16th century Saadi dynasty and renovated in 1869 by sultan Abderrahmane of Morocco, who used to stay here in summertime. The pavilion and a nearby artificial lake are surrounded by orchards and olive groves. The lake was created to irrigate the surrounding gardens and orchards using a sophisticated system of underground channels called a \"qanat\". The basin is supplied with water through an old hydraulic system which conveys water from the mountains approximately away from Marrakesh. There is also a small amphitheater and a symmetrical pool where films are screened. Carp fish can be seen in the pond. The Majorelle Garden,", "The historic wealth of the city is manifested in palaces, mansions and other lavish residences. The main palaces are El Badi Palace, the Royal Palace and Bahia Palace. \"Riads\" (Moroccan mansions) are common in Marrakesh. Based on the design of the Roman villa, they are characterized by an open central garden courtyard surrounded by high walls. This construction provided the occupants with privacy and lowered the temperature within the building. Buildings of note inside the Medina are Riad Argana, Riad Obry, Riad Enija, Riad el Mezouar, Riad Frans Ankone, Dar Moussaine, Riad Lotus, Riad Elixir, Riad les Bougainvilliers, Riad Dar Foundouk, Dar Marzotto, Dar Darma, and Riad Pinco Pallino. Others of note outside the Medina area include Ksar Char Bagh, Amanjena, Villa Maha, Dar Ahlam, Dar Alhind and Dar Tayda.", "The El Badi Palace flanks the eastern side of the Kasbah. It was built by Saadian sultan Ahmad al-Mansur after his success against the Portuguese at the Battle of the Three Kings in 1578. The lavish palace, which took around a quarter of a century to build, was funded", "The Royal Palace, also known as Dar el-Makhzen, is next to the Badi Palace. The Almohads built the palace in the 12th century on the site of their kasba, and it was partly remodeled by the Saadians in the 16th century and the Alaouites in the 17th", "The Bahia Palace, set in extensive gardens, was built in the late 19th century by the Grand Vizier of Marrakesh, Si Ahmed ben Musa (Bou-Ahmed). Bou Ahmed resided here with his four wives, 24 concubines and many children. With a name meaning \"brilliance\", it was intended to be the greatest palace of its time, designed to capture the essence of Islamic and Moroccan architectural styles. Bou-Ahmed paid special attention to the privacy of the palace in its construction and employed architectural features such as multiple doors which prevented passers-by from seeing into the interior. The palace took seven years to build, with hundreds of craftsmen from Fez working on its wood, carved stucco and \"zellij\". The palace is set in a two-acre (8,000 m2) garden with rooms opening onto courtyards. The palace acquired a reputation as one of the finest in Morocco and was the envy of other wealthy citizens. Upon the death of Bou-Ahmed in 1900, the palace was raided by Sultan Abd al-Aziz.", "", "The Koutoubia Mosque is the largest mosque in the city, in the southwest of the medina quarter of Marrakesh, within sight of the Jemaa al-Fnaa. It was completed under the reign of the Almohad Caliph Yaqub al-Mansur (1184–1199), and has inspired other buildings such as the Giralda of Seville and", "Ben Youssef Mosque, distinguished by its green tiled roof and minaret, is in the medina and is Marrakesh's oldest mosque. It was originally built in the 12th century by the Almoravid Sultan Ali ibn Yusuf, whom it is named after. It served as the city's main Friday mosque. After being abandoned during the Almohad period and falling into ruin, it was rebuilt in the 1560s by the Saadian sultan Abdallah al-Ghalib and then completely rebuilt again by the Alaouite sultan Moulay Sliman at the beginning of the 19th century, with construction of the minaret finishing in 1819 or 1820. This reconstruction has eliminated all traces of the original mosque, and the current mosque is much smaller than the original and features a very different \"qibla\" orientation. Abdallah al-Ghalib was also responsible for building the adjacent Ben Youssef Madrasa, which contained a library and operated as an educational institution up until the 20th century.", "The Kasbah Mosque overlooks Place Moulay Yazid in the Kasbah district of Marrakesh, close to the El Badi Palace. It was built by the Almohad caliph Yaqub al-Mansour in the late 12th century to serve as the main mosque of the kasbah (citadel) where he and his high officials resided. It features a unique floor plan", "The Mouassine Mosque (also known as the Al Ashraf Mosque) was built by the Saadian Sultan Moulay Abdallah al-Ghalib between 1562–63 and 1572–73. It is in the Mouassine district and is part of a larger architectural complex which includes a library, hammam (public bathhouse), madrasa (school) and a triple arched fountain known as the Mouassine Fountain. The fountain, which provided locals with access to water, is one of the largest and most important in the city, decorated with geometric patterns and Arabic inscriptions. Along with Bab Doukkala Mosque further west, which was built around the same time, the Mouassine Mosque appears to have been originally designed to anchor the development of new neighbourhoods after the relocation of the Jewish district from this area to the new \"mellah\" near the Kasbah.", "", "The Saadian Tombs were built in the 16th century as a royal necropolis for the Saadian sultans and their family members. It is next to the south wall of the Kasbah Mosque. It was lost for many years until the French rediscovered it in 1917 using aerial photographs. The mausoleum comprises the remains of about sixty members of the Saadi Dynasty which originated in the valley of the Draa River. Among the tombs are those of Saadian sultan Ahmad al-Mansur and his family; al-Mansur buried his mother in", "The medina holds the tombs of the seven patron saints of the city, which are visited every year by pilgrims during the week-long \"ziara\" pilgrimage. A pilgrimage to the tombs offers an alternative to the \"hajj\" to Mecca and Medina for people of western Morocco who could not visit Arabia due to the arduous and costly journey involved. This ritual is performed over seven days in the following order: Sidi Yusuf ibn Ali Sanhaji, Sidi al-Qadi Iyyad al-Yahsubi, Sidi Bel Abbas, Sidi Mohamed ibn Sulayman al-Jazouli, Sidi Abdellaziz Tabba'a, Sidi Abdellah al-Ghazwani, and lastly, Sidi Abderrahman al-Suhayli. Many of these mausoleums also serve as the focus of their own zawiyas (Sufi religious complexes with mosques), including: the Zawiya and mosque of Sidi Bel Abbes (the most important of them), the Zawiya of al-Jazuli, the Zawiya of Sidi Abdellaziz, the Zawiya of Sidi Yusuf ibn Ali, and the Zawiya of Sidi al-Ghazwani (also known as Moulay el-Ksour).", "The old Jewish Quarter (\"Mellah\") is in the kasbah area of the city's medina, east of Place des Ferblantiers. It was created in 1558 by the Saadians at the site where the sultan's stables were. At the time, the Jewish community consisted of a large portion of the city's bankers, jewelers, metalworkers, tailors and sugar traders. During the 16th century, the Mellah had its own fountains, gardens, synagogues and souks. Until the", "As one of the principal tourist cities in Africa, Marrakesh has over 400 hotels. Mamounia Hotel is a five-star hotel in the Art Deco-Moroccan fusion style, built in 1925 by Henri Prost and A. Marchis. It is considered the most eminent hotel of the city and has been described as the \"grand dame of Marrakesh hotels.\" The hotel has hosted numerous internationally renowned people including Winston Churchill, Prince Charles of", "", "", "The Marrakech Museum, housed in the Dar Menebhi Palace in the old city centre, was built at the end of the 19th century by Mehdi Menebhi. The palace was carefully restored by the Omar Benjelloun Foundation and converted into a museum in 1997. The house itself represents an example", "Dar Si Said Museum, also known as the Museum of Moroccan Arts is to the north of the Bahia Palace. It was the mansion of Si Said, brother to Grand Vizier Ba Ahmad, and was constructed at the same time as Ahmad's own Bahia Palace. The collection of", "The Museum of Islamic Art (\"Musée d'Art Islamique\") is a blue-coloured building in the Marjorelle Gardens. The private museum was created by Yves Saint Laurent and Pierre Bergé in the home of Jacques Majorelle, who had his art studio there. Recently renovated, its small exhibition rooms have displays of Islamic artifacts and decorations including Irke pottery, polychrome plates, jewellery, and antique doors.", "Two types of music are traditionally associated with Marrakesh. Berber music is influenced by Andalusian classical music and typified by its \"oud\" accompaniment. By contrast, Gnaoua music is loud and funky with a sound reminiscent of the Blues. It is performed on handmade instruments such as castanets, \"ribabs\" (three-stringed banjos) and \"deffs\" (handheld drums). Gnaoua music's rhythm and crescendo take the audience into a mood of trance; the style is said to have emerged in", "The arts and crafts of Marrakesh have had a wide and enduring impact on Moroccan handicrafts to the present day. Riad décor is widely used in carpets and textiles, ceramics, woodwork, metal work and \"zelij\". Carpets and textiles are weaved, sewn or embroidered, sometimes used for upholstering. Moroccan women who practice craftsmanship are known as \"Maalems\" (expert craftspeople) and make such fine products as Berber carpets and shawls made of \"sabra\" (cactus silk). Ceramics are in monochrome Berber-style only,", "Festivals, both national and Islamic, are celebrated in Marrakesh and throughout the country, and some of them are observed as national holidays. Cultural festivals of note held in Marrakesh include the National Folklore Festival, the Marrakech Festival of Popular Arts (in which a variety of famous Moroccan musicians and artists participate), international folklore festival Marrakech Folklore Days and the", "Surrounded by lemon, orange, and olive groves, the city's culinary characteristics are rich and heavily spiced but not hot, using various preparations of \"Ras el hanout\" (which means \"Head of the shop\"), a blend of dozens of spices which include ash berries, chilli, cinnamon, grains of paradise, monk's pepper, nutmeg, and turmeric. A specialty of the city and the symbol of its cuisine is \"tanjia marrakshia\" a local \"tajine\" prepared with beef meat, spices and \"smen\" and slow-cooked in a traditional oven in hot ashes. Tajines can be prepared with chicken, lamb, beef or fish, adding fruit, olives and preserved lemon, vegetables and spices, including cumin, peppers, saffron, turmeric, and \"ras el hanout\". The meal is prepared in a tajine pot and slow-cooked with steam. Another version of tajine includes vegetables and chickpeas seasoned", "Marrakesh has several universities and schools, including Cadi Ayyad University (also known as the University of Marrakech), and its component, the École nationale des sciences appliquées de Marrakech (ENSA Marrakech), which was created in 2000 by the Ministry of Higher Education and specializes in engineering and scientific research, and the La faculté des sciences et techniques-gueliz which known to be number one in Morocco in its kind of faculties. Cadi Ayyad University was established in 1978 and operates 13 institutions in the Marrakech Tensift Elhaouz and Abda Doukkala regions of Morocco in four main cities, including Kalaa of Sraghna, Essaouira and Safi in addition to Marrakech. Sup de Co Marrakech, also known as the École Supérieure de Commerce de Marrakech, is a private four-year college that was founded in 1987 by Ahmed Bennis. The school is affiliated with the École Supérieure de Commerce of Toulouse, France; since 1995 the school has built partnership programs with numerous American universities including the University of Delaware, University of St. Thomas, Oklahoma State University, National-Louis University, and Temple University.", "The Ben Youssef Madrasa, north of the Medina, was an Islamic college in Marrakesh named after the Almoravid sultan Ali ibn Yusuf (1106–1142) who expanded the city and its influence considerably. It is the largest madrasa in all of Morocco and was one of the largest theological colleges in North Africa, at one time housing as many as 900 students. The college, which was affiliated with the neighbouring Ben Youssef Mosque, was founded during the Marinid dynasty in the 14th century by Sultan Abu al-Hassan.", "Football clubs based in Marrakesh include Najm de Marrakech, KAC Marrakech, Mouloudia de Marrakech and Chez Ali Club de Marrakech. The city contains the Circuit International Automobile Moulay El Hassan a race track which hosts the World Touring Car Championship and from 2017 FIA Formula E. The Marrakech Marathon is also held here. Roughly 5000", "", "The Marrakesh railway station is linked by several trains running daily to other major cities in", "The main road network within and around Marrakesh is well paved. The major highway connecting Marrakesh with Casablanca to the south is A7, a", "The Marrakesh-Menara Airport (RAK) is southwest of the city centre. It is an international facility that receives several European flights as well as flights from Casablanca and several Arab nations. The airport is at an elevation of at. It has two formal passenger", "Marrakesh has long been an important centre for healthcare in Morocco, and the regional rural and urban populations alike are reliant upon hospitals in the city. The psychiatric hospital installed by the Merinid Caliph Ya'qub al-Mansur in the 16th century was described by the historian 'Abd al-Wahfd al- Marrakushi as one of the greatest in the world at the time. A strong Andalusian influence was evident in the hospital, and many of the physicians to the Caliphs came from places such as Seville, Zaragoza and Denia in eastern Spain. A severe strain has been placed upon the healthcare facilities of", "", "Marrakesh" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early years.", "National competition.", "Early international career (1997–1998).", "International debut (1997).", "1998 World Aquatics Championships.", "1998 Commonwealth Games.", "Record-breaking years (1999–2002).", "1999 Pan Pacific Championships.", "2000 Olympic build-up.", "2000 Summer Olympics.", "2001 World Aquatics Championships.", "2002 Commonwealth Games and Pan Pacific Championships.", "Tracey Menzies era (2003–2006).", "2003 World Aquatics Championships.", "2004 Summer Olympics.", "2006: Attempted return and retirement.", "Comeback (2011–2012).", "2012: Australian Olympic Trials and aftermath.", "Athletic attributes.", "Honours.", "Post-swimming career.", "Personal life.", "Sexuality.", "Activism.", "Sponsorship.", "Philanthropy.", "Depression." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Born in Sydney, Thorpe grew up in the suburb of Milperra and hailed from a sporting family. His father Ken was a promising cricketer at junior level, representing Bankstown District Cricket Club in Sydney's district competition. A talented batsman, he once topped the season's batting averages ahead of former Australian captain Bob Simpson. However, paternal pressure detracted from Ken's enjoyment of cricket, and he retired at the age of 26. Thorpe's mother Margaret played A-grade netball, but he did not inherit his parents' ball skills. His elder sister Christina was advised to take up swimming to strengthen a broken wrist, so by chance, the five-year-old Thorpe followed her into the pool. Due to his unhappy experiences, Ken Thorpe regarded enjoyment as the most critical aspect of his children's participation in sport. A large baby, Thorpe weighed and measured in length at birth. As a young child, Thorpe was sidelined by an allergy to chlorine. As a result, he did not swim in his first race until a school carnival at the age of seven. The allergy forced Thorpe to swim with his head out of the water; despite this ungainly technique, he won the race, primarily because of his significant size advantage. Thorpe gradually overcame the ailment and progressed to the captaincy of New South Wales for the Australian Primary Schools Championships in 1994. He subsequently won nine individual gold medals at the New South Wales Short Course Age Championships in September of the same year. In 1995, Thorpe started his secondary education at East Hills Boys Technology High School and switched coaches to swim alongside his sister under the tutelage of Doug Frost. It was a busy year for the family; Christina was selected for the Australian team to compete at the 1995 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships in Atlanta. Now six feet tall, Ian competed at his first Australian Age Championships, winning bronze medals in the 200 m and 400 m freestyle. He won all ten events at the New South Wales Age Championships.", "Thorpe competed at the 1996 Australian Age Championships in Brisbane, winning five gold, two silver and two bronze medals. His times in the 400 m freestyle and 200 m backstroke qualified him for the Australian Championships, which doubled as selection trials for the 1996 Atlanta Olympics. Frost knew that Thorpe had no realistic chance of making the top two in any event, which would have meant Olympic selection at only 13 years and six months. He sent Thorpe to Sydney merely to gain competition experience at senior national level. As expected, Thorpe missed selection; he finished 23rd in the 400 m freestyle and 36th in the 200 m backstroke. At the end of the year, Thorpe qualified for the Australian Short Course Championships. It was another chance to gain national selection, as the event served as the selection trials for the 1997 FINA World Swimming Championships. Thorpe qualified in second place in the heats of the 400 m individual medley and reached his first", "", "In June 1997, two months before the Pan Pacific Championships, Thorpe required an appendix operation, which caused him to miss two weeks of training. Upon reaching Japan, Thorpe placed fourth in his heat of the 200 m freestyle with a new personal best time of 1 min 51.46 s. Thorpe's time was not enough to qualify for the final, but earned him selection in the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay team. Along with teammates Michael Klim, Ian van der Wal and Hackett,", "Thorpe's first international appearance in his home country, at the 1998 World Championships in Perth, began with the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay. Swimming the third leg after Klim and Hackett, Thorpe broke away from 200 m butterfly Olympic champion Tom Malchow to set a split time of 1 min 47.67 s, just 0.26 seconds slower than Klim's winning time in the 200 m final. By the end of Thorpe's leg, the Australians were two seconds ahead of the world record pace, and three seconds ahead of the Americans, having extended the lead by two body lengths. Although anchorman Kowalski finished", "Thorpe's next competition was in March at the Australian Championships in Melbourne, which were selection trials for the 1998 Commonwealth Games in Malaysia. Thorpe's improvement continued when he defeated Klim in the 200 m freestyle in 1 min 47.24 s, faster than Klim's winning time at the World Championship two months earlier. Thorpe's time was a Commonwealth record and with it, he secured his first national title. He then claimed the 400 m freestyle title from Hackett and clocked 50.36 s in the 100 m freestyle. His time earned silver in his first 100 m race at the national level, gaining him Commonwealth selection in three individual events. Thorpe's rise continued when the Australians arrived in Kuala Lumpur during September for the Commonwealth Games. Thorpe's", "The year 1999 began with heavy media expectations that Thorpe would inevitably break both 200 m and 400 m world records, given his continuing physical growth. The first opportunity came in late March at the 1999 Australian Championships in Brisbane, which doubled as a selection event for the 1999 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships. Thorpe again won the 400 m, but Perkins' record eluded him, this time by just 0.05 s. Hackett turned the tables in the 200 m event, passing Thorpe in the final 50 m to win Thorpe's title. Although both were outside Lamberti's mark, Hackett went on to break it the following night in a relay event. Thorpe finished the Championships by continuing his improvement in the 100 m freestyle, posting a time of 49.98 s, his first under the 50 s barrier. The Australian team then travelled to Hong Kong for the 1999 World Short Course Championships, where Thorpe broke Lamberti's mark in the 200 m freestyle, the longest standing world record at the time. However, Hackett defeated him in the 400 m. This was the start of a three-year phase where Thorpe was to set his 13 individual long course world records. He led the men's relay team to unprecedented success in relay events, scoring historic victories over the Americans. Thorpe was to peak in 2001 when he became the first person to win six gold medals at one world championships, setting three world records and helping Australia top the medal tally at a global meet for the first time since 1956. In this period, he was named \"Swimming World\" Swimmer of the Year three times.", "The 1999 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships were held in August at Sydney Olympic Park, and were viewed as a rehearsal for the 2000 Summer Olympics to be held in the same venue. With Thorpe expected to deliver world records at his first international meet in Sydney, the event was shown live on Australian television for the first time. The opening night saw him pitted against Hackett and South Africa's Ryk Neethling in the 400 m freestyle final. The trio reached the 200 m mark in a group, on world record pace, before Thorpe", "Thorpe started 2000 looking to add a third individual event to his Olympic schedule. He explored his options by contesting the 1500 m freestyle at the New South Wales Championships in January, which he won. Thorpe embarked on a European FINA World Cup tour to hone his racecraft, but this was overshadowed by comments made by German head coach Manfred Thiesmann accusing him of using steroids. Thiseman claimed that Thorpe's physical attributes were symptomatic of steroid use and that his ability to exceed prior records believed to be drug-fuelled made his feats worthy of suspicion. Thorpe's difficulties heightened at the subsequent German leg of the tour in Berlin, when a standoff over a drug-test arose when officials wanted to take an", "Entering the Olympics, the Australian public expected Thorpe to deliver multiple world records and gold medals as a formality; Sydney's \"Daily Telegraph\" posted a front-page spread headlined \"Invincible\". Thorpe cruised through the heats of the 400 m on the first morning of competition, posting a new Olympic record and shortening bookmakers' odds to 50–1. By the time the final was held that night, the pressure had intensified—the host nation had yet to win its first gold medal. Thorpe led throughout, and although Italy's Massimiliano Rosolino was within a body length at the 300 m mark, Thorpe's finishing kick extended the final margin to three body lengths. This set a new world record of 3 min 40.59 s. Secret tests carried out by the Italian National Olympic", "With the 2001 Australian Championships held in Hobart in March, Thorpe added the 800 m freestyle to his repertoire, after FINA had added the event for the 2001 World Aquatics Championships. Thorpe began his campaign by successfully defending his 400 m title with a time just 0.17 s outside his world record. The following night in the 800 m event, he drew away from Hackett in the last 100 m to break Kieren Perkins' 1994 world record by over four seconds. He earned his third title by cutting 0.66 s from van den Hoogenband's 200 m world record to set a new mark of 1 min 44.69 s. This performance", "Thorpe began competition in 2002 at the Australian Championships in Brisbane in March, which were used to select the team for the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester and the 2002 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships. After his record six gold medals in Fukuoka, the meet was surrounded by further expectations of world records and speculation that he would match Spitz's seven gold medals. His winning time in the 400 m was the second fastest in history, but such was the expectation on him that his failure to break a world record was the talking point. He claimed the 100 m and 200 m events in times", "After the 2002 Pan Pacific Championships, Thorpe announced that he was splitting with Frost to train with one of his assistants, Tracey Menzies, who had no prior international experience. Admitting that tension existed between him and Frost, Thorpe asserted that the split was amicable. He cited waning motivation for the split, stating \"I decided I either had to make the change or it was to walk away from the sport\". The retired Talbot expressed concerns that Thorpe was making a decision whilst he was physically and emotionally drained, while other coaches felt that the new relationship would end up with Thorpe, rather than Menzies, making the decisions. Despite a turbulent year, he was again named by \"Swimming World\" as its World Swimmer of the Year. Along with the switch of coaches, Thorpe indicated that he would put more focus on improving his sprinting ability. He thus dropped the 800 m freestyle despite being the reigning world champion and record holder. During this period, his times in the 400 m and 200 m freestyle deteriorated, and both he and Menzies were criticised. The criticism continued to mount during their partnership, particularly during the build-up to the 2004 Olympics. Following his victory in the 200 and 400 events in Athens, Thorpe said that his results justified his decision, despite posting substantially faster times as a young swimmer under Frost.", "The first major test of Thorpe's partnership with Menzies came at the Australian Championships held in Sydney in March. Thorpe did not threaten any of his world records, completing the 400 m and 200 m freestyle more than two and one seconds respectively off his best. Despite defeating Hackett in both races to retain his titles, he later admitted that he was \"pretty disappointed\" with his performances. When he tied with Ashley Callus in a time of 49.05 s, he was criticised by \"The Sydney Morning Herald\" which stated \"The measure of Thorpe's sprinting ability is that he could only match the efforts of a virus-riddled Callus\". Thorpe found some relief by setting a new Commonwealth record of 2 min 00.11 s in his first long course 200 m individual medley outing, the fifth fastest time in the past year. Thorpe attracted further criticism when he withdrew from the inaugural Duel in the Pool with a medical complaint, despite travelling overseas for commercial and charity work. Thorpe arrived for the 2003 World Championships in Barcelona for", "After his feats at the 2003 World Championships, Speedo had generated significant media publicity by offering Michael Phelps US$1 million if he could match Spitz's seven golds. Thorpe was adamant that this was impossible, and scrapped his seventh event, the 200 m individual medley from his Olympic program. In late March 2004 at the Australian Championships in Sydney, Thorpe overbalanced whilst on the blocks in the heats of the 400 m freestyle and fell into the water, resulting in his disqualification and ending the defence of his Olympic 400 m title. This resulted in a large debate among the swimming and", "Thorpe returned to competition at the New South Wales Championships in December 2005. He raced in the 200 m and stated his intention to retire after the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. Thorpe announced that due to a desire to concentrate on the 100 m freestyle, he had dropped his pet event, the 400 m. He was unmoved by national coach Alan Thompson, who implored him to continue swimming the event. In February, Thorpe qualified for the 2006 Commonwealth Games by winning the 100 m and 200 m freestyle in times of 49.24 s and 1 min 46.42 s respectively. He expressed disappointment with his performances; he speculated that he may have misjudged his new training schedule and anticipated further improvement. Soon after, Thorpe announced his withdrawal from the Commonwealth Games due to a bout of bronchitis, which had stopped him from training. Thorpe's illness was later diagnosed as a strain of glandular fever, and after a further delay caused by a broken hand, he moved to the United States in July to work with Dave Salo.", "In February 2011, Thorpe announced that he would come out of retirement and attempt to qualify for the 2012 Olympics in London. Thorpe's major focus was the 100 m and 200 m freestyle at 2012's trials, stating he could offer the most value to the Australian team in the relays. He would not swim the 400 m, claiming he would not have enough time to build up endurance for that event. Thorpe swam the 100 m butterfly and 100 m medley in Singapore (4–5 November) and Beijing (8–9 November) before also taking on the 100 m freestyle in the Tokyo (12–13 November) round of the 2011 FINA Swimming World Cup.", "Thorpe's comeback attempt in the 200 m freestyle came to an abrupt end on Day Two of Australia's Olympic Trials in Adelaide, on 16 March 2012. No longer allowed to wear the full-body racing suit (covering from neck to ankles and wrists) with which he set all of his world records – but are now banned by FINA rule changes – he competed wearing just the \"jammer\" (hip to thigh) racing shorts. He swam very well in the morning heats, cruising to 1:49.18, a time which placed him equal fifth fastest. However, in the semi-finals that", "Thorpe's success has been attributed to his work ethic, mental strength, powerful kick, ability to accelerate and a physiology suited to swimming. This led former Australian head coach Don Talbot to label him as \"the greatest swimmer the world has seen\". Although \"Swimming World\" labelled Thorpe's technique as \"extraordinary\" and \"superior\", Talbot disagreed, stating his belief that Thorpe relied on his kick too heavily at the expense of his arms. He also cited Thorpe's ability to manage his workload and his day-to-day recovery between races during a meet as a deficiency. Thorpe was known for using his trademark six-beat", "Aside from his swimming achievements, Thorpe", "Thorpe will present a two-part television documentary called \"Bullied\" on ABC Television,", "", "In a July 2014 televised interview with British talk show host Michael Parkinson Thorpe came out as gay, after years of denying his homosexuality publicly. He stated \"I'm comfortable saying I'm a gay man. And I don't want people to feel the same way I did. You can grow up, you can be comfortable and you", "In the lead up to the Australian Marriage Law Postal Survey, Thorpe campaigned for a 'yes' vote, encouraging people to enroll", "Thorpe is known for his interests in fashion, and serves as an ambassador for Armani, and has his own line of designer jewellery and underwear. During his career, Thorpe was one of the most prominent and popular sportspeople in Australia. Despite competing in a sport in which the vast majority of international athletes' earnings are below the poverty line, marketing surveys consistently ranked Thorpe as the most sought-after Australian athlete for sponsorship deals, surpassing footballers who compete on a weekly basis in much larger stadia. Aside from his swimsuit sponsor Adidas, Thorpe was sponsored by Australian corporate giants such as Qantas, Telstra, and the Seven Network. Thorpe's interests in fashion and culture led him to make frequent visits to New York City—which he describes as a second home—often for engagements with Armani and particularly because of the city's status as a global fashion capital. He was present at the World Trade Center on the morning of 11 September 2001, having stopped there on his jog, before returning to his hotel after forgetting his camera. It was during this trip that he appeared on \"The Tonight Show with Jay Leno\", which was notable because of the relative lack of interest in competitive swimming in America. Thorpe later became a spokesperson for the unsuccessful New York bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics, even promising to continue his career until", "More recently, Thorpe has also emerged as a philanthropist, starting the charity \"Ian Thorpe's Fountain for Youth\" in 2000. The organisation raises funds for research into childhood illnesses and sponsors a school in Beijing for", "In 2014, it was confirmed that Thorpe had been admitted to a rehabilitation clinic after neighbours found him dazed near his parents' Panania home. Thorpe" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Initial specifications.", "Design.", "Armament.", "Prototypes and service evaluation.", "Operational history.", "RAF.", "Antisubmarine and maritime patrols.", "USAAF.", "Introduction to service, 1941–1942.", "Strategic bombing, 1942–1945.", "Radar/Electronic warfare and PGM deployment.", "Assembly ships.", "\"Carpetbaggers\".", "Transport variants.", "C-87 Liberator Express.", "C-109 version.", "U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps.", "PB4Y-1.", "Australia.", "RAAF.", "Qantas.", "SAAF.", "Luftwaffe use.", "Soviet use.", "Chinese use.", "Production.", "Variants.", "British Commonwealth nomenclature and sub-variants." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The Liberator originated from a United States Army Air Corps (USAAC) request in 1938 for Consolidated to produce the B-17 under license. After company executives including President Reuben Fleet visited the Boeing factory in Seattle, Washington, Consolidated decided instead to submit a more modern design of its own. The new Model 32 combined designer David R. Davis's wing, a high-efficiency airfoil design created by unorthodox means, with the twin tail design from the Consolidated Model 31 flying boat, together on a new fuselage.", "The B-24 had a shoulder mounted high aspect ratio Davis wing. This wing was highly efficient allowing a relatively high airspeed and long range. Compared to the B-17 it had a 6-foot larger wingspan, but a lower wing area. This gave the B-24 a 35% higher wing loading. The relatively thick wing held the promise of increased tankage while delivering increased lift and speed, but became unpleasant to fly when committed to heavier loadings as experienced at high altitude and in bad weather. The Davis wing was also more susceptible to ice formation than contemporary designs, causing distortions of the aerofoil section and resulting in the loss of lift (unpleasant experiences drawing such comments as 'The Davis wing won't hold", "The defensive armament of the B-24 varied from transport variants, which were usually unarmed, to bombers armed with up to 10.50 caliber (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns located in turrets and waist gun positions. Early model Liberators were fitted with a top mounted turret, a tail turret and single machine guns located in the waist and in the glazed nose. The B-24D initially featured upper, belly and tail turrets, plus swiveling single guns in the waist and on either side of the nose.", "The U.S. Army Air Corps awarded a contract for the prototype XB-24 in March 1939, with the requirement that one example should be ready before the end of the year. Consolidated finished the prototype and had it ready for its first flight two days before the end of 1939. The design was simple in concept but, nevertheless, advanced for its time. Consolidated incorporated innovative features such as a tricycle landing gear and Davis wing. Compared to the B-17, the proposed Model 32 had a shorter fuselage and 25% less wing area, but had a greater wingspan and a substantially larger carrying capacity, as well as", "", "The first British Liberators had been ordered by the Anglo-French Purchasing Board in 1940. After the Fall of France the French orders were in most cases transferred to the United Kingdom. The RAF found, as did the US, that global war increased the need for air transports and early type bombers and seaplanes were converted or completed as cargo carriers and transports. LB-30As were assigned to transatlantic flights by RAF Ferry Command, between Canada and Prestwick, Scotland. The first Liberators in British service were ex-USAAF YB-24s converted to Liberator GR Is (USAAF designation: LB-30A). The aircraft", "The Liberators made a significant contribution to Allied victory in the Battle of the Atlantic against German U-boats. Aircraft had the ability to undertake surprise air attacks against surfaced submarines. Liberators assigned to the RAF's Coastal Command in 1941, offensively to patrol against submarines in the eastern Atlantic Ocean, produced immediate results. The introduction of Very Long Range (VLR) Liberators vastly increased the reach of the UK's maritime reconnaissance force, closing the Mid Atlantic Gap where a lack of air cover had allowed U-boats to operate without risk of aerial attack. For 12 months, No. 120 Squadron RAF of Coastal Command with its handful of worn and modified early model Liberators supplied the only air cover for convoys in the Atlantic Gap, the Liberator being the only airplane with sufficient range. The VLR Liberators sacrificed some armor and often gun turrets to save weight, while carrying extra aviation gasoline in their bomb-bay tanks. Liberators were equipped with ASV Mk. II radar, which together with the Leigh light, gave them the ability to hunt U-boats by day and by night. Before the Leigh light not a single enemy submarine had been sunk in over 5 months,", "", "The United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) took delivery of its first B-24As in mid-1941. Over the next three years, B-24 squadrons deployed to all theaters of the war: African, European, China-Burma-India, the Anti-submarine Campaign, the Southwest Pacific Theater and the Pacific Theater. In the Pacific, to simplify logistics and to take advantage of its longer range, the B-24 (and its twin, the U.S. Navy PB4Y) was the chosen standard heavy bomber. By mid-1943, the shorter-range B-17 was phased out. The Liberators which had served early in the war in the Pacific continued the efforts from the Philippines, Australia, Espiritu Santo, Guadalcanal, Hawaii, and Midway Island. The Liberator peak overseas deployment was 45.5 bomb groups in June 1944. Additionally, the Liberator equipped a number of independent squadrons in a variety of special combat roles. The cargo", "On 12 June 1942, 13 B-24s of the Halverson Project (HALPRO) flying from Egypt attacked the Axis-controlled oil fields and refineries around Ploiești, Romania. Within weeks, the First Provisional Bombardment Group formed from the remnants of the Halverson and China detachments. This unit then was formalized as the 376th Bombardment Group, Heavy, and along with the 98th BG formed the nucleus of the IX Bomber Command of the Ninth Air Force, operating from Africa until absorbed into the Twelfth Air Force briefly, and then the Fifteenth Air Force, operating from Italy. The Ninth Air Force moved to England in late 1943. This was a major component of the USSTAF and took a major role", "The B-24 advanced the use of electronic warfare and equipped Search Bomber (SB), Low Altitude (LAB) and Radar Counter Measure (RCM) squadrons in addition to high-altitude bombing. Among the specialized squadrons were the 20th RS (RCM), 36th BS (RCM), 406th NLS, 63rd BS (SB) SeaHawks, 373rdBS (LAB) and 868th BS (SB) Snoopers. The 36th Bombardment Squadron was the Eighth Air Force's only electronic warfare squadron using specially equipped B-24s to jam German VHF communications during large Eighth Air Force daylight raids. In addition, the 36th BS flew night", "In February 1944, the 2nd Division authorized the use of \"Assembly Ships\" (or \"Formation Ships\") specially fitted to aid assembly of individual group formations. They were equipped with signal lighting, provision for quantity discharge of pyrotechnics, and were painted with distinctive group-specific high-contrast patterns of stripes, checkers or polka dots to enable easy recognition by their flock of bombers. The aircraft used in the first allocation were B-24Ds retired by the 44th, 93rd and 389th Groups. Arrangements for signal lighting varied from group to group, but", "From August 1943 until the end of the war in Europe, specially modified B-24Ds were used in classified missions. In a joint venture between the Army Air Forces and the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) code named Operation Carpetbagger, pilots and crews flew specially modified B-24Ds painted with a glossy black anti-searchlight paint to supply friendly underground forces throughout German occupied Europe. They also flew C-47s, Douglas A-26 Invaders, and British de Havilland Mosquitos. Carpetbagger aircraft flew spies called \"Joes\" and commando groups prior to the Allied invasion of Europe on", "", "In early 1942, with the need for a purpose-built transport with better high-altitude performance and longer range than the Douglas C-47 Skytrain, the San Diego plant began sending B-24D models to Fort Worth for conversion into the C-87 transport. The conversion had a hinged cargo door at the nose eliminating transparent nose and large cargo doors installed in the waist area. The C-87 had a large cargo floor, less powerful supercharged engines, no gun turrets, a floor in the bomb bay for freight, and some side windows. The navigator's position was relocated behind the pilot. Indigenous Fort Worth C-87 and AT-22 production began with the FY 1943 order for 80 serial numbered airframes", "The C-109 was a dedicated fuel transport version of the B-24 conceived as a support aircraft for Boeing B-29 Superfortress operations in central China. Unlike the C-87, the C-109 was not built on the assembly line, but rather was converted from existing B-24 bomber production; to save weight, the glass nose, armament, turret fairings and bombardment equipment were removed. Several storage tanks were added, allowing a C-109 to carry 2,900 gal (11,000 L) of fuel weighing over. Plans originally called for 2,000 C-109s to support 10 groups of B-29s (approximately 400) in China, but the capture of the Mariana Islands provided a far more easily resupplied location for raids on mainland Japan, and the plans were greatly scaled back. Only 218 C-109s were actually converted. After the transfer of the B-29s, the C-109s were reassigned to the Air Transport Command. According to the", "", "B-24s were also used by the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps for ASW, anti-ship patrol, and photographic reconnaissance in the Pacific Theater, and by the U.S. Coast Guard for patrol and SAR. Naval B-24s were redesignated PB4Y-1, meaning the fourth patrol bomber design built by Consolidated Aircraft. Navy PB4Y-1s assigned to Atlantic ASW and all Coast Guard PB4Y-1s had the ventral turret replaced by a retractable radome. Also, most naval aircraft had an Erco ball turret installed in the nose position, replacing the glass nose and other styles of turret.", "", "Australian aircrew seconded to the Royal Air Force flew Liberators in all theatres of the war, including with RAF Coastal Command, in the Middle East, and with South East Asia Command, while some flew in South African Air Force squadrons. Liberators were introduced into service in the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) in 1944, after the American commander of the Far East Air Forces (FEAF), General George C. Kenney, suggested that seven heavy bomber squadrons be raised to supplement the efforts of American Liberator squadrons. The USAAF transferred some aircraft to the RAAF, while the remainder would be delivered from the USA under Lend-Lease. Some RAAF aircrew were given operational experience in Liberators while attached to", "In June 1944, Qantas Empire Airways began service with the first of two converted LB-30 Liberators on the Perth to Colombo route to augment Consolidated PBY Catalinas that had been used since May 1943. The Double Sunrise route across the Indian Ocean was long, the longest non-stop airline route in the world at the time. The Liberators flew a shorter over-water route from Learmonth to an airfield northeast of Colombo, but they could make the flight in 17 hours with a payload, whereas the Catalinas required 27 hours and had to carry so much auxiliary fuel that their payload was limited to only. The route was named \"Kangaroo Service\" and marked the first time that Qantas's now-famous Kangaroo logo was used; passengers received a certificate proclaiming them as members of \"The Order of the Longest Hop\". The Liberators were later replaced by Avro Lancastrians.", "Two squadrons of the South African Air Force (SAAF) also flew B-24s: 31 and 34 Squadrons under No", "Three B-24s were captured and then operated by the German secret operations unit KG 200, which also tested, evaluated and sometimes clandestinely operated captured enemy aircraft during World War II. One of these was captured at Venegono, Italy on 29 March", "Only one B-24 was officially delivered to the USSR according to the Lend-Lease agreements, stranded in Yakutsk while flying a government mission", "The B-24 bombers of the 308th Bombardment Group (Heavy) joined the Chinese Battlefield in March 1944 as the heavy bombers of the Fourteenth Air Force to fight against the Japanese during the", "Approximately 18,500 B-24s were produced across a number of versions, including over 4,600 manufactured by Ford. It holds records as the world's most produced bomber, heavy bomber, multi-engine aircraft, and American military aircraft in history. Production took place at 5 plants. At Ford's Ypsilanti, Michigan based Willow Run Bomber plant alone, one B-24 was being produced every 59 minutes at its peak, a rate so large that production exceeded the military's ability to use the aircraft. Such were the production numbers it has been said that more aluminum, aircrew, and effort went into the B-24 than any other aircraft in history. Continued development work by Consolidated produced a handful of transitional B-24Cs with turbocharged instead of supercharged engines. The turbocharged engines led to the flattened oval nacelles that distinguished all subsequent Liberator models. The B-24D was the first mass-produced series. The B-24D was the Liberator III in British service. It entered US service in early 1942. It had turbocharged engines and increased fuel capacity. Three more 0.50 caliber (12.7 mm) machine guns brought the defensive armament up to 10 machine guns. At (29.76 short tons) maximum takeoff weight, it was one of the heaviest aircraft in the world; comparable with the British \"heavies\", with fully loaded weights of 30 short tons for (and nearly identical to) the Stirling, the 34 short ton Lancaster and the 27 short ton Halifax. Production of B-24s increased at an astonishing rate throughout 1942 and 1943. Consolidated Aircraft tripled the size of its plant in San Diego and built a large new plant outside Fort Worth, Texas in order to receive the massive amounts of knock down kits that the Ford Motor Company shipped via truck from its Ypsilanti Michigan Facility. A new government plant was built in Tulsa, Oklahoma with Reconstruction Finance Corporation funds and leased to Douglas Aircraft for assembly of B-24s from Ford parts; Douglas ultimately built a total of 962 of the D, E, H, and J models there. Bell Aircraft built the B-24 under license at a factory near Marietta, Georgia, just northwest of Atlanta. Online by mid-1943, the new plant produced hundreds of B-24 Liberator bombers. The aircraft was also built at North American plant B in the city of Grand Prairie, Texas having only starting production of the B-24G in 1943. None of these were minor operations, but they were dwarfed by Ford's vast new purpose-built factory constructed at Willow Run near Detroit,", "", "Late in the war RAF Liberator aircraft modified in England for use in South" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Film and television scoring.", "1950s and work at CBS.", "1960s.", "1970s.", "1980s.", "1990s.", "2000s and final scores.", "Personal life and death.", "Style and influences.", "Legacy.", "Awards and nominations.", "AFI." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Goldsmith was born February 10, 1929 in Los Angeles, California. His family was Romanian Jewish. His parents were Tessa (née Rappaport), a school teacher, and Morris Goldsmith, a structural engineer. He started playing piano at age six, but only \"got serious\" by the time he was eleven. At age thirteen, he studied piano privately with concert pianist and educator Jakob Gimpel (whom Goldsmith would later employ to perform piano solos in his score to \"The Mephisto Waltz\") and by the age of sixteen he was studying both theory and counterpoint under Italian composer Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, who also tutored such noteworthy composers and musicians as Henry Mancini, Nelson Riddle, Herman Stein, André Previn, Marty Paich, and John Williams. At age sixteen, Goldsmith saw the 1945 film \"Spellbound\" in theaters and was inspired by veteran composer Miklós Rózsa's soundtrack to pursue a career in music. Goldsmith later enrolled and attended the University of Southern California where he was able to attend courses by Rózsa, but dropped out in favor of a more \"practical music program\" at the Los Angeles City College. There he was able to coach singers, work as an assistant choral director, play piano accompaniment, and work as an assistant conductor.", "", "In 1950, Goldsmith found work at CBS as a clerk typist in the network's music department under director Lud Gluskin. There he began writing scores for such radio shows as \"CBS Radio Workshop\", \"Frontier Gentleman\", and \"Romance\". In an interview with Andy Velez from BarnesandNoble.com, Goldsmith stated, \"It was about 1950. CBS had a workshop, and once a week the employees, whatever their talents, whether they were ushers or typists, would produce a radio show. But you had to be an employee. They needed someone to do music, and I knew someone there who said I'd be great for this. I'd just gotten married and needed a job, so they faked a typing test for me. Then I could do these shows. About six months later, the music department heard what I did, liked it, and gave me a job.\" He later progressed into scoring such live CBS television shows as \"Climax!\" and \"Playhouse 90\". He also scored multiple episodes of the television series \"The Twilight Zone\". He remained at CBS until 1960, after which he moved on to Revue Studios and then to MGM Studios for producer Norman Felton, whom he had worked for during live television and would later compose music for such television shows as \"Dr. Kildare\" and \"The Man from U.N.C.L.E.\". His feature film debut occurred when he composed the music to the 1957 western \"Black Patch\". He continued with scores to such films as the 1957 western \"Face of a Fugitive\" and the 1959 science fiction film \"City of Fear\".", "Goldsmith began the decade composing for such television shows as \"Dr. Kildare\" and \"Thriller\" as well as the 1960 drama film \"The Spiral Road\". However, he only began receiving widespread name recognition after his intimate score to the 1962 classic western \"Lonely Are the Brave\". His involvement in the picture was the result of a recommendation by veteran composer Alfred Newman who had been impressed with Goldsmith's score on the television show \"Thriller\" and took it upon himself to recommend Goldsmith to the head of Universal Pictures' music department, despite having never met him. That same year, Goldsmith composed the mostly atonal and dissonant score to the 1962 pseudo-biopic \"\" that focused on a five-year period of the life of psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. Goldsmith's score went on to garner him his first Academy Award nomination for Best Original Score, though he lost to fellow first-time nominee Maurice Jarre for his music to \"Lawrence of Arabia\" (1962). In 1963, Goldsmith composed a score to \"The Stripper\", his first collaboration with director Franklin J. Schaffner for whom Goldsmith would later score the films \"Planet of the Apes\" (1968), \"Patton\" (1970), \"Papillon\" (1973), \"Islands in the Stream\" (1977), and \"The Boys from Brazil\" (1978). Following his success with \"Lonely Are the Brave\" and \"Freud\", Goldsmith went on to achieve even more critical recognition with the theme music to \"The Man from U.N.C.L.E.\" (1964), and scores to such films as the 1964 western \"Rio Conchos\", the 1964 political thriller \"Seven Days in May\", the 1965 romantic drama \"A Patch of Blue\", the 1965 epic war film \"In Harm's Way\" (in which Goldsmith also made a brief cameo appearance), the 1966 World War I air combat film \"The Blue Max\", the 1966 period naval war epic \"The Sand Pebbles\", the 1967 thriller \"Warning Shot\", the 1967 western \"Hour of the Gun\", and the 1968 controversial mystery \"The Detective\". His score for \"The Blue Max\" is regarded by many Goldsmith aficionados as one of the very best scores he wrote during his long and distinguished career. He almost didn't accept the assignment when he watched the final cut with the producers who had temp-tracked it with Richard Strauss's \"Also Sprach Zarathustra\". He said, \"I admit it worked fairly well but my first reaction was to get up and walk away from the job, but I couldn't. Once you've heard music like that with the picture, it makes your own scoring more difficult to arrive at, it clouds your thinking.\" Nonetheless, what resulted was breathtaking and the main theme captures the fear and joy of flight many times throughout the film. It is curious that films with significant sequences that involve flight inspired Goldsmith to write some of his most exhilarating music, such as in \"Supergirl\", \"Star Trek: The Motion Picture\", \"A Gathering of Eagles\", \"Night Crossing\", \"Air Force One\" and \"Tora! Tora! Tora!\". Goldsmith's scores to \"A Patch of Blue\" and \"The Sand Pebbles\" garnered him his second and third Academy Award nominations, respectively, and were both one of the 250 nominees for the American Film Institute's top twenty-five American film scores. His scores for \"Seven Days in May\" and \"The Sand Pebbles\" also garnered Goldsmith his first two respective Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Original Score in 1965 and 1967. During this time, he also composed for many lighter, comedic films such as the family comedy \"The Trouble with Angels\" (1966), the James Bond parodies \"Our Man Flint\" (1966) and its sequel \"In Like Flint\" (1967), and the comedy \"The Flim-Flam Man\" (1967). In 1968, Goldsmith caught massive critical attention with his landmark, controversial soundtrack to the post-apocalyptic science fiction epic \"Planet of the Apes\", which was one of the first film scores to be written entirely in an Avant garde style. When scoring \"Planet of the Apes\", Goldsmith used such innovative techniques as looping drums into an echoplex, using the orchestra to imitate the grunting sounds of apes, having horns blown without mouthpieces, and instructing the woodwind players to finger their keys without using any air. He also used stainless steel mixing bowls, among other objects, to create unique percussive sounds. The score went on to garner Goldsmith another Oscar nomination for Best Original Score and now ranks in 18 on the American Film Institute's top twenty-five American film scores. Though he did not return to compose for its 1970 sequel \"Beneath the Planet of the Apes\", Goldsmith scored the third installment in the \"Planet of the Apes\" franchise, 1971's \"Escape from the Planet of the Apes\". Goldsmith concluded the decade with scores to such films as the 1968 western \"Bandolero!\", the 1969 spy thriller \"The Chairman\", the 1969 science fiction film \"The Illustrated Man\", and the 1969 western \"100 Rifles\". In 1969, he also composed the theme to the comedy-drama television series \"Room 222\".", "Goldsmith received more critical praise with his daring music to the 1970 World War II biopic \"Patton\". Throughout the score, Goldsmith used an echoplex to loop recorded sounds of \"call to war\" triplets played on the trumpet that musically represented General George S. Patton's belief in reincarnation. The main theme also consisted of a symphonic march accompanied by a pipe organ to represent the protagonist's militaristic yet deeply religious nature. The film's music subsequently earned Goldsmith an Oscar nomination for Best Original Score and was one of the American Film Institute's 250 nominees for the top twenty-five American film scores. Goldsmith's critical success continued with his emotional score to the 1973 prison escape film \"Papillon\", which also earned him an Academy Award nomination and a nomination as one of the AFI's top twenty-five American film scores. In 1973, Goldsmith also wrote the theme for the TV series \"Barnaby Jones\". In 1974, Goldsmith was faced with the daunting task of replacing a score by composer Phillip Lambro to the neo-film noir \"Chinatown\". With only ten days to compose and record an entirely new score, Goldsmith quickly produced a score that mixed an eastern music sound with elements of jazz in an ensemble that only featured a trumpet, four pianos, four harps, two percussionists, and a string section. Goldsmith received an Academy Award nomination for his efforts though he lost to Nino Rota and Carmine Coppola for \"The Godfather Part II\". The score to \"Chinatown\" is often regarded as one of the greatest scores of all time and ranks 9 on the AFI's list of top 25 American film scores. It was also nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score. Goldsmith earned further critical praise with his score to the 1975 epic period adventure film \"The Wind and the Lion\", which, true to the style of such Golden Age scores as Maurice Jarre's \"Lawrence of Arabia\", relied upon a diverse ensemble including many Moroccan instruments and a large percussion section. The score garnered Goldsmith an Oscar nomination for Best Original Score, though he lost to fellow composer John Williams for his score to \"Jaws\". \"The Wind and the Lion\" was also one of the AFI's 250 nominees for the top twenty-five American film scores. In 1976, Goldsmith composed a dark choral score to the horror film \"The Omen\", which was the first film score to feature the use of a choir in an avant-garde style. The score was successful among critics and garnered Goldsmith his only Academy Award for Best Original Score and a nomination for Best Original Song for \"Ave Satani\". It was also one of the AFI's 250 nominees for the top twenty-five American film scores. His wife, Carol Heather Goldsmith, also wrote lyrics and performed a vocal track titled \"The Piper Dreams\" released solely on the soundtrack album. Goldsmith would go on to compose for two more entries in the franchise; \"\" (1978) and \"\" (1981). He continued to have critical success with scores to such films as the 1976 dystopian science fiction \"Logan's Run\", the 1977 period drama \"Islands in the Stream\" (which remained one of his personal favorites), the 1978 science fiction suspense \"Coma\", the 1978 science fiction thriller \"Capricorn One\", the 1978 disaster film \"The Swarm\", the 1979 period comedy \"The Great Train Robbery\", and his Academy Award-nominated score to the 1978 science fiction thriller \"The Boys from Brazil\", in which he utilized lively waltzes to juxtapose the film's horrific concept, cloning Adolf Hitler. In 1979, Goldsmith composed a score to the landmark science fiction film \"Alien\". His score featured an orchestra augmented by an Indian conch horn, didgeridoo, steel drum, and serpent (a 16th-century instrument), while creating further \"alien\" sounds by delaying string pizzicati through an echoplex. Many of the instruments were used in such atypical ways they were virtually unidentifiable. His score was, however, heavily edited during post-production and Goldsmith was required to rewrite music for several scenes. The final score resulted in several pieces being moved, replaced, or cut entirely. Director Ridley Scott and editor Terry Rawlings also, without Goldsmith's consent, purchased the rights to the \"Main Title\" from \"\" (1962) which they used during the acid blood sequence. Despite the heavy edits and rewrites, Goldsmith's score for the film earned him a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Original Score and was one of the AFI's 250 nominees for the top twenty-five American film scores. Scott would later prominently reuse Goldsmith's main theme in \"\", released in 2017, scored by Australian musician Jed Kurzel. That same year, Goldsmith concluded the decade composing what is widely considered his most recognized score for \"\". Having been Gene Roddenberry's initial choice to compose the original \"Star Trek\" pilot \"\" yet being unable to do so due to scheduling conflicts, Goldsmith was the first pick of both Paramount Pictures and director Robert Wise to compose a score for \"The Motion Picture\". Faced with composing a new \"Star Trek\" theme for the film, Goldsmith initially struggled for inspiration, and proceeded to compose as much of the score as possible before the need to develop the main title theme. His initial score for the scene in which the newly-refit Starship \"Enterprise\" is revealed to the audience was not well received by the filmmakers, director Robert Wise feeling that it lacked a strong thematic hook and evoked sailing ships. Though somewhat irked by its rejection, Goldsmith consented to re-work his initial idea and finally arrived at the \"Star Trek\" theme which was ultimately used. The film's soundtrack also provided a debut for the Blaster Beam, an electronic instrument long, created by musician Craig Huxley. The Blaster had steel wires connected to amplifiers fitted to the main piece of aluminum; the device was played with an artillery shell. Goldsmith heard it and immediately decided to use it for V'Ger's cues. An enormous pipe organ first plays the V'Ger theme on the \"Enterprise\"s approach, a literal indication of the machine's power. His score for \"The Motion Picture\" earned him Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations, and was one of the AFI's 250 nominees for the top twenty-five American film scores. Goldsmith would later compose the scores for \"\" (1989), \"\" (1996), \"\" (1998), and \"\" (2002), as well as the theme to the television series \"\" in 1995. In addition, his theme for \"The Motion Picture\", as arranged by Dennis McCarthy, was reused as the theme for \"\" in 1987.", "Throughout the 1980s, Goldsmith found himself increasingly scoring science fiction and fantasy films in the ongoing wake of the successful 1977 film \"Star Wars\", composing for such films as \"The Omen\" sequels \"\" (1978) and \"\" (1981), 1981 space western \"Outland\", 1982 animated fantasy \"The Secret of NIMH\", and the movie version of \"\", which he composed in four different styles to accompany the film's four stories. In 1982, Goldsmith was hired to compose the music to the classic Tobe Hooper-directed, Steven Spielberg-produced horror film \"Poltergeist\". He wrote several themes for the film including a gentle lullaby for the protagonist Carol Anne and her family's suburban life, a semi-religious theme for scenes concerning the souls trapped between the two worlds, and bombastic atonal bursts during scenes of horror. The film's score garnered him an Oscar nomination, though he lost again to fellow composer John Williams for Spielberg's \"E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial\". Goldsmith later returned in 1986 to compose the more synthetic score to \"Poltergeist II\", the first of two sequels. He did, however, still manage to compose for such non-fantasy productions as the 1981 period television miniseries \"Masada\" (for which he won an Emmy Award), the controversial 1982 war film \"Inchon\", the 1982 action classic \"First Blood\", and his Oscar- and Golden Globe Award-nominated score to 1983 political drama \"Under Fire\" in which he used the ethnic sounds of a South American pan flute, synthetic elements, and the prominently featured solo work of jazz guitarist Pat Metheny. Throughout the decade, many of his compositions became increasingly laced with synthetic elements such as his scores for the 1983 horror sequel \"Psycho II\", the 1984 comedy horror film \"Gremlins\" (for which he won a Saturn Award for Best Music), the 1984 fantasy superhero adaptation \"Supergirl\", Ridley Scott fantasy \"Legend\" (initially heard only in European prints and then years later in a 2002 director's cut), 1985 action sequel \"\", 1985 family fantasy \"\", and 1986 horror movie \"Poltergeist II\". He garnered another Oscar nomination for his innovative, critically acclaimed score to 1986 sports drama \"Hoosiers\", though he lost to Herbie Hancock for \"Round Midnight\". The score incorporates synthesizers, orchestra, and the recorded sounds of basketball hits on a gymnasium floor. During the 1980s, Goldsmith scored the Michael Crichton film \"Runaway,\" the composer's first all-electronic score. In an interview with Keyboard Magazine in 1984, Goldsmith said that in order to simulate the ambiance of a real orchestra, several speakers were set up in an actual orchestra hall similar to how they would be arranged if they were live players. The playback was re-recorded to capture the feel of the hall. Goldsmith finished out the decade with noteworthy scores to such films as the 1985 science-fiction fantasy family film \"Explorers\", 1987 medieval adventure \"Lionheart\", the 1987 science fiction comedy \"Innerspace\", the 1988 action film \"Rambo III\", the 1989 science fiction horror \"Leviathan\", and \"\" (1989), his second \"Star Trek\" film score. Goldsmith's score to \"Leviathan\" (1989) incorporated the use of recorded whale sounds during the main titles. His critically acclaimed comedy score to \"The 'Burbs\" (1989) is also noteworthy for the use of pipe organ, recorded dog barking sound effects, and for parodying the trumpet \"call to war\" triplets on an echoplex from his previous score to \"Patton\" (1970).", "In 1990, Jerry Goldsmith received critical acclaim for his score to the romantic drama \"The Russia House\", which featured a unique mixture of Russian music and jazz to complement the nationalities and characteristics of the two main characters. He also composed critically acclaimed music for the 1990 science fiction action film \"Total Recall\", which Goldsmith later regarded as one of his best scores. Other noteworthy scores of the era include \"\" (1990) (in which Goldsmith also made a brief cameo appearance), the 1991 psychological thriller \"Sleeping with the Enemy\", the 1991 family comedy \"Mom and Dad Save the World\", the 1992 fantasy romance \"Forever Young\", the 1993 thriller \"The Vanishing\", and the 1993 family comedy \"Dennis the Menace\". In 1992, Goldsmith also composed a critically acclaimed score for the medical drama \"Medicine Man\". In concert, Goldsmith would later recount a story of how actor Sean Connery copied Goldsmith's signature ponytail hairstyle for his character Robert Campbell in the film. In 1992, Goldsmith composed and conducted a score to the erotic thriller \"Basic Instinct\". The soundtrack, an unsettling hybrid of orchestral and electronic elements, garnered him another Oscar nomination as well as a Golden Globe Award nomination and was later regarded by the composer as one of his most challenging works. In 1993, Goldsmith also wrote an acclaimed score for the classic sports film \"Rudy\", which has since been used in the trailers for numerous films including \"Angels in the Outfield\" (1994), \"Good Will Hunting\" (1997), \"\" (2002), and \"Seabiscuit\" (2003). It was also heard on the TV spot of \"The Little Vampire\" (2000) and an Arnold Schwarzenegger fitness advert. Goldsmith composed acclaimed scores for such films as the 1994 superhero adaptation \"The Shadow\", the 1994 thriller \"The River Wild\", the 1994 romantic comedy \"I.Q.\", the 1995 action film \"Congo\", the 1995 fantasy adventure \"First Knight\", the 1995 science fiction drama \"Powder\", the 1996 action film \"Executive Decision\", and his third \"Star Trek\" film installment \"\" (1996) which he composed with his son Joel Goldsmith. In 1995, Goldsmith also composed the theme for the UPN series \"\" for which he won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Main Title Theme Music. In 1996, Goldsmith composed the critically successful score to the horror action film \"The Ghost and the Darkness\" which featured a traditional Irish folk melody interwoven with African rhythms. In 1997, he was hired to replace a score by Randy Newman for \"Air Force One\". Goldsmith, with the assistance of composer Joel McNeely, completed the brassy, heroic score in only twelve days. In 1997, Goldsmith also composed a percussive, jazzy score for the critically acclaimed crime drama \"L.A. Confidential\". His score garnered him Oscar and Golden Globe Award nominations, and was also one of the AFI's 250 nominees for the top twenty-five American film scores. In 1997, he composed a new theme for the Universal Studios opening logo, first heard in \"\". He also continued with scores for such films as the 1997 survival drama \"The Edge\", his fourth \"Star Trek\" film installment in 1998, \"\", the 1998 science fiction horror \"Deep Rising\", and the 1998 action thriller \"U.S. Marshals\". In 1998, he also composed a score of combined Eastern, orchestral, and synthetic elements for the Disney-animated film \"Mulan\", which subsequently earned him his final Oscar and Golden Globe Award nominations along with songwriter Matthew Wilder and lyricist David Zippel. Goldsmith concluded the decade with critically successful scores to such popular films as the 1998 science fiction film \"Small Soldiers\", his penultimate \"Star Trek\" film \"\" (1998), the 1999 action adventure horror \"The Mummy\", the 1999 horror film \"The Haunting\", and the 1999 action adventure \"The 13th Warrior\". In 1999, he also composed \"Fanfare for Oscar\" for the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.", "During the early 2000s, Goldsmith composed scores to the 2000 science fiction thriller \"Hollow Man\", the 2001 mystery film \"Along Came a Spider\", the 2001 drama \"The Last Castle\", the 2002 action/political thriller \"The Sum of All Fears\", and his last \"Star Trek\" film \"\" (2002). Goldsmith had composed the scores to five of the first ten \"Star Trek\" movies up to that point. Goldsmith also composed an original score to the simulator attraction \"Soarin' Over California\" which debuted 8 February 2001 at the Disneyland Resort, and the same attraction \"Soarin\"' which opened 5 May 2005 in Epcot at the Walt Disney World Resort. It was later said that when Goldsmith first rode the ride, he left in tears and said, \"I'd do anything to be part of this project. I'd even score the film for free.\" Goldsmith's final cinematic score, composed during declining health, was the critically acclaimed music for the 2003 live action/animated film \"\", directed by long-time Goldsmith collaborator Joe Dante. His last work was with another long-time collaborator, Richard Donner (for whom Goldsmith had scored \"The Omen\" in 1976), on the 2003 science fiction film \"Timeline\". However, due to a complicated post-production process, Goldsmith's score had to be replaced. Goldsmith's score was for the preliminary cuts. But the score didn't fit the later cuts of the film and had to be re-scored. Goldsmith's unavailability led to composer Brian Tyler taking over. Goldsmith's unused score was later released on CD, 7 September 2004 through Varèse Sarabande, not long after his death in 2004. The album quickly became out of print and has since become a sought rarity among soundtrack collectors.", "Goldsmith was married twice. He was first married to Sharon Hennagin in 1950; they divorced in 1970. He married Carol Heather in 1972, and the couple remained together until his death in 2004. His oldest son Joel Goldsmith (1957–2012) was also a composer and collaborated with his father on the score for \"\", composing approximately twenty-two minutes of the score. Goldsmith also conducted Joel's theme for \"The Untouchables\" and composed the theme for the pilot \"Hollister\", scored by Joel. Goldsmith's daughter, Carrie Goldsmith, went to high school with famed \"Titanic\" composer James Horner, who also composed music for \"Star Trek\"'s second and third films: \"\" and \"\". Carrie Goldsmith was working on a biography of her father, though the book has been suspended indefinitely for unspecified reasons. Ellen Smith, who sang the title song for \"Wild Rovers\", shortened her surname but was actually his daughter, Ellen Goldsmith. Goldsmith died at his Beverly Hills home on July 21, 2004, from colon cancer at the age of 75. He was survived by his wife Carol and his children Aaron, Joel (who also died of cancer on April 29, 2012), Carrie, Ellen Edson, and Jennifer Grossman.", "Goldsmith was greatly influenced by movements of early 20th-century classical music, notably modernism, Americana, impressionism, dodecaphonism, and early film scores. He has cited Igor Stravinsky, Aaron Copland, Miklós Rózsa, Bernard Herrmann, Béla Bartók, and Alban Berg, among others, as some of the main influences to his style of composition. His style has been noted for its unique instrumentation, utilizing a vast array of ethnic instruments, recorded sounds, synthetic textures, and the traditional orchestra, often concurrently. When asked about his inclination for embracing new techniques and constantly shifting his musical palette throughout his career, Goldsmith said, \"It seems like it's me, and that's that! Certain composers are doing the same thing over and over again, which I feel is sort of uninteresting. I don't find that you grow very much in that way. I like to keep changing, trying to do new things. Basically, I'm saying the same thing with a little different twist on it. Once you get caught up in the creative process, something inside takes over, and your subconscious just does it for you.\" One reason for the consistency of Goldsmith's aural resonance and signature sound is his long time professional association with orchestrator Arthur Morton. Their first collaboration was on the film, \"Take Her She's Mine\". In 1965, Goldsmith was tapped to score the features, \"Von Ryan's Express\" and \"Morituri\". He recruited Morton to serve as his orchestrator. Their bond for a unique and expressive sound was borne, and their friendship flourished. Goldsmith went on to compose the soundtracks for \"Our Man Flint\", \"The Trouble with Angels\" (with Frank De Vol), \"The Blue Max\", \"The Sand Pebbles\", and \"Stagecoach\", all in 1966. Morton was there providing his orchestration services, assisting Goldsmith in attaining his visionary sounds. Their partnership endured for over 30 years and included the notable scores for \"Planet of the Apes\" (1968), \"Patton\" (1970), \"Tora! Tora! Tora!\" (1970), \"Papillon\" (1973), \"Chinatown\" (1974), \"The Omen\" (1976), \"MacArthur\" (1977), \"Capricorn One\" (1978), \"Alien\" (1979), \"Star Trek: The Motion Picture\" (1979), \"Poltergeist\" (1982), \"First Blood\" (1982), \"Under Fire\" (1983), \"The Russia House\" (1990). The final score that Arthur Morton orchestrated for Goldsmith was \"L.A. Confidential\" (1997).", "Jerry Goldsmith has often been considered one of film music history's most innovative and influential composers. While presenting Goldsmith with a Career Achievement Award from the Society for the Preservation of Film Music in 1993, fellow composer Henry Mancini (\"Breakfast at Tiffany's\", \"The Pink Panther\") said of Goldsmith, \"... he has instilled two things in his colleagues in this town. One thing he does, he keeps us honest. And the second one is he scares the hell out of us.\" In his review of the 1999 re-issue of the \"\" soundtrack, Bruce Eder highly praised Goldsmith's ability, stating, \"...one of the new tracks, 'Spock's Arrival,' may be the closest that Goldsmith has ever come to writing serious music in a pure Romantic idiom; this could have been the work of Rimsky-Korsakov or Stravinsky — it's that good.\" In a 2001 interview, film composer Marco Beltrami (\"\", \"The Hurt Locker\") stated, \"Without Jerry, film music would probably be in a different place than it is now. I think he, more than any other composer bridged the gap between the old Hollywood scoring style and the modern film composer.\" In 2006, upon composing \"The Omen\" (a remake of the Goldsmith-scored 1976 film), Marco Beltrami dedicated his score to Goldsmith, which also included an updated arrangement of \"Ave Satani\" titled \"Omen 76/06\". Likewise, when composer Brian Tyler was commissioned in 2012 to update the Universal Studios logo for the Universal centennial, he retained the \"classic melody\" originally composed by Goldsmith in 1997, opting to \"bring it into the 21st century.\"", "Over the course of his career, Goldsmith received 18 total Academy Award nominations, making him one of the most nominated composers in Academy Awards history. Despite this, Goldsmith won only one Oscar, for his score to the 1976 film \"The Omen\". This makes Goldsmith the most nominated composer to have won an Oscar only on one occasion. In 1991, Goldsmith received an Honorary Doctorate of Music from Berklee College of Music. On May 9, 2017, Goldsmith posthumously received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his achievements in the music industry, located at 6752 Hollywood Boulevard.", "The American Film Institute respectively ranked Goldsmith's scores for \"Chinatown\" (1974) and \"Planet of the Apes\" (1968) 9 and 18 on their list of the 25 greatest film scores. He is one of only five composers to have more than one score featured in the list, including Elmer Bernstein, Bernard Herrmann, Max Steiner, and John Williams. His scores for the following films were also nominated for inclusion:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Nazi period.", "After the war.", "Research focus.", "Campus.", "Museum.", "Libraries.", "Organisation.", "Faculties.", "Governance.", "Rankings and reputation.", "Controversies.", "Student life.", "Nobel laureates.", "Notable alumni." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The University of Tübingen was founded in 1477 by Count Eberhard V (Eberhard im Bart, 1445–1496), later the first Duke of Württemberg, a civic and ecclesiastic reformer who established the school after becoming absorbed in the Renaissance revival of learning during his travels to Italy. Its first rector was Johannes Nauclerus. Its present name was conferred on it in 1769 by Duke Karl Eugen who appended his first name to that of the founder. The university later became the principal university of the kingdom of Württemberg. Today, it is one of nine state universities funded by the German federal state of Baden-Württemberg. The University of Tübingen has a history of innovative thought, particularly in theology, in which the university and the Tübinger Stift are famous to this day. Philipp Melanchthon (1497–1560), the prime mover in building the German school system and a chief figure in the Protestant Reformation, helped establish its direction. Among Tübingen's eminent students (and/or professors) have been the astronomer Johannes Kepler; the economist Horst Köhler (President of Germany); Joseph Ratzinger (Pope Benedict XVI), poet Friedrich Hölderlin, and the philosophers Friedrich Schelling and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. \"The Tübingen Three\" refers to Hölderlin, Hegel and Schelling, who were roommates at the Tübinger Stift. Theologian Helmut Thielicke revived postwar Tübingen when he took over a professorship at the reopened theological faculty in 1947, being made administrative head of the university and President of the Chancellor's Conference in 1951. The university rose to the height of its prominence in the middle of the 19th century with the teachings of poet and civic leader Ludwig Uhland and the Protestant theologian Ferdinand Christian Baur, whose circle, colleagues and students became known as the \"Tübingen School\", which pioneered the historical-critical analysis of biblical and early Christian texts, an approach generally referred to as \"higher criticism.\" The University of Tübingen also was the first German university to establish a faculty of natural sciences, in 1863. DNA was discovered in 1868 at the University of Tübingen by Friedrich Miescher. Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard, the first female Nobel Prize winner in medicine in Germany, also works at Tübingen. The faculty for economics and business was founded in 1817 as the \"Staatswissenschaftliche Fakultät\" and was the first of its kind in Germany.", "The University played a leading role in efforts to legitimize the policies of the Third Reich as \"scientific\". Even before the victory of the Nazi Party in the general election in March 1933, there were hardly any Jewish faculty and a few Jewish students. Physicist Hans Bethe was dismissed on 20 April 1933 because of \"non-Aryan\" origin. Religion professor Traugott Konstantin Oesterreich and the mathematician Erich Kamke were forced to take early retirement, probably in both cases the \"non-Aryan\" origin of their wives. At least 1158 people were sterilized at the University Hospital.", "In 1966, Joseph Ratzinger, who would later become Pope Benedict XVI, was appointed to a chair in dogmatic theology in the Faculty of Catholic Theology at Tübingen, where he was a colleague of Hans Küng.In 1967, Jürgen Moltmann (b. 1926), one of the most influential Protestant theologians of the 20th century, was appointed Professor of Systematic Theology in the Faculty of Protestant Theology. Drafted in 1944 by Nazi Germany, he was an Allied prisoner of war 1945-1948. He was influenced by his colleague and friend Ernst Bloch, the Marxist philosopher. In 1970, the university was restructured into a series of faculties as independent departments of study and research after the manner of French universities. The university made the headlines in November 2009 when a group of left-leaning students occupied one of the main lecture halls, the Kupferbau, for several days. The students' goal was to protest tuition fees and maintain that education should be free for everyone. In May 2010, Tübingen joined the Matariki Network of Universities (MNU) together with Dartmouth College (USA), Durham University (UK), Queen's University (Canada), University of Otago (New Zealand), University of Western Australia (Australia) and Uppsala University (Sweden).", "The University of Tübingen undertakes a broad range of research projects in various fields. Among the more prominent ones in the natural sciences are the Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, which focuses on general, cognitive and cellular neurology as well as neurodegeneration, and the Centre for Interdisciplinary Clinical Research, which deals primarily with cell biology in diagnostics and therapy of organ system diseases. In the liberal arts, the University of Tübingen is noteworthy for having the only faculty of rhetoric in Germany – the department was founded by Walter Jens, an important intellectual and literary critic. The university also boasts continued pre-eminence in its centuries-old traditions of research in the fields of philosophy, theology and philology. Since at least the nineteenth century, Tübingen has been the home of world-class research in prehistoric studies and the study of antiquity, including the study of the ancient Near East; a particular focus of the research in these areas at the University of Tübingen has been Anatolia, e.g., through the continued excavations of the university at Troy.", "The University of Tübingen is not a campus university, but is spread throughout the town: Tübingen is one of five classical \"university towns\" in Germany. The other four are Marburg, Göttingen, Freiburg and Heidelberg. In Tübingen there are four areas with a major concentration of university institutions. Accommodation provided by the Tübingen Studentenwerk is in several locations throughout the town. The largest of the eleven halls of residence are in the city's northern neighbourhood of \"Waldhäuser Ost\" (1,700 rooms) and in the city's southeasternmost neighbourhood, \"Französisches Viertel\" (500 rooms).", "Since 2006, the young Museum of the University of Tübingen (MUT) has made it its task to professionalize the 65 sometimes very old, singular teaching, show and research collections of the university from all faculties in terms of collection, curatorial and organizational aspects. In interdisciplinary exhibitions, both the broader public should be provided with insights into the history of science as well as researched in the field of science itself. In addition, the master's degree program \"Museum & Collections\" of the MUT, with the participation of six humanities and cultural studies subjects, offers the training of students in the field of exhibitions. Eight scientific teaching collections - Origins of Art, Pile Dwellings + Celts, Cuneiform, Gods + Tombs, Ancient Art, Ancient Coins, Ancient Sculptures - are open to the public in the Museum Alte Kulturen and in the permanent exhibition WeltKulturen in Hohentübingen Castle. In addition, there are other, partially accessible scientific teaching collections on Hohentübingen: Cradle of Biochemistry (Schlosslabor), BildBestand, Everyday Culture, AntikenBilder, Professor Gallery (partial), Castle Church and TonSteineScherben. The MUT - and thus the Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen - is the only university institution in the world to house artefacts with world heritage status, such as the oldest surviving figurative works of art and musical instruments of humanity, mammoth ivory figures and fragments of bone flutes. These come from the Vogelherdhöhle (Swabian Alb), which has been part of the UNESCO World Heritage \"Caves and Ice Age Art in the Swabian Jura\" since 2017.", "The University Library of Tübingen is not just available to those affiliated with the university, but also to the general public. The library provides more than three million individual volumes and more than 7,600 journals. Apart from the main library, more than 80 departmental libraries containing an additional three million volumes are also associated with the university. The main lending library is located on Wilhelmstraße and consists of several different parts which are connected through corridors and walkways:", "", "The university is made up of 7 faculties, some of which are subdivided into further departments.", "The university is governed by three separate bodies sharing different functions and duties. However, some persons serve in more than one body. The Rectorate is the executive component of the university's governing body. The current rector, Professor Bernd Engler, is supported by four deputies consisting of three prorectors and one provost. All are also permanent members of the university senate. The Senate forms the legislative section of governance. Apart from the members of the rectorate, it includes the equal opportunities commissioner, the deans and 20 elected members representing the professors, lecturers, students and non-academic staff. Two advisors represent the university's teaching hospitals. The University Council (\"Hochschulrat\" or \"Universitätsrat\") has 13 members, including its president and vice-president as well as five further internal and six external members.", "Measured by the number of top managers in the German economy, University of Tübingen ranked 25th in 2019. In 2012, the University of Tübingen was awarded for its future concept \"Research – Relevance – Responsibility\" in the course of the German Universities Excellence Initiative. The award brings additional research funds for five years. In 2019, the University of Tübingen was again awarded as one of eleven German Excellence Universities. According to The Times Higher Education Supplement (2019), Tübingen ranked 89th and 48th in the subject Arts and Humanities. US News Best Global Universities and QS World University Rankings ranked Tübingen amongst the top ten universities in Germany overall in 2017. In 2016, Wirtschaftswoche ranked the Tübingen Law School amongst the top ten law schools nationwide. In 2018, Wirtschaftswoche ranked Tübingen Law School 4th in Germany. Judges of the German Federal Constitutional Court, the highest court in Germany, are affiliated with the University of Tübingen such as Evelyn Haas, Ferdinand Kirchhof, Michael Eichberger, Gebhard Müller and the former President of Germany, Roman Herzog. In accounting and finance, the Faculty of Economics and Social Sciences at Tübingen University was ranked 4th in Germany by the \"QS Rankings\" 2014. Notable alumni of the Faculty include Jürgen Stark, Helmut Haussmann, the former director of the IMF Horst Köhler as well as Ralf Dahrendorf, who also founded the Department of Sociology at the University of Tübingen before he became director at the London School of Economics. In 2019, Tübingen was ranked 6th worldwide in theology and religious studies by \"QS Rankings\". The Eberhard Karls University is the only university in the German-speaking world that teaches rhetoric as an independent subject of study.", "Tübingen's self-conception has sometimes been controversially discussed as being elitist. Since almost all German universities are public (most private universities do not have the official German \"Universitätsstatus\"), and therefore mainly paid by taxes and generally egalitarian, there is no German Ivy League of institutions of higher education. Moreover, the German Universities Excellence Initiative is a publicity-laden fund for specific research projects only. It aims to promote cutting-edge research, to create outstanding conditions for young scientists at universities, and to strengthen some selected universities more than others in order to raise their international visibility. This self-conception is also of historical interest: from 1900 to 1929 members of the \"Studentenverbindungen\" in Tübingen already understood themselves as the German national elite (\"Führer der Nation\"). Every May until 2008, fraternities of the \"Tübinger Waffenring\" organized a big torchlight procession and sang traditional German songs in the old town (\"Maieinsingen\"), accompanied by a counter-demonstrations of extreme left-wing student groups. This event has since been replaced by a public fest organized by all student fraternities and sororities that is open to everyone and which is publicly endorsed by the mayor Boris Palmer, though criticism from radical left students still emerges. In 1969, the progressive political and theological climate alienated Joseph Ratzinger (who later became Pope Benedict XVI) and led to his short-lived tenure at the university. According to the Swabian daily newspaper, the \"Schwäbisches Tagblatt\", Ratzinger was theologically \"traumatized\" at the University of Tübingen. In \"Aus meinem Leben: Erinnerungen\" he describes the liberalism of Tübingen's student activism as \"the cruel countenance of this atheistic devoutness\" (\"das grausame Antlitz dieser atheistischen Frömmigkeit\"). Since 2018, the University has been part of a wider artificial intelligence research initiative named Cyber Valley. Cyber Valley has seen investments from multinational companies poured into establishing research centers, research groups, and professorships in the city. The investing organisations and corporations include Google, Amazon, BMW, IAV, Daimler, Porsche, and Bosch. The Cyber Valley initiative has attracted criticism from student groups and activist groups alike, with many protest actions, including building occupations and demonstations, having taken place decrying both the commercialisation of University research and the involvement of the University with organisations that are engaged in military research.", "As the university's students make up roughly a third of the total population of Tübingen, the town's culture is to a large extent dominated by them. Consequently, there is a slump of activity during university holidays, particularly over the summer, when a large number of otherwise regular events do not take place. Around 30 \"Studentenverbindungen\", the German type of fraternities, are associated with the university. While famous for their parties, public academic lectures and the yearly \"Stocherkahn-Rennen\" punting-boat race on the Neckar river, some of them are the subject of ongoing controversy surrounding alleged rightwing policial views, leading to strong criticism from leftist groups. The university itself takes a neutral stance on this issue. However, all of Tübingen's fraternities distance themselves from the fraternities of the Deutsche Burschenschaft, which have been widely criticized as adhering to far-right principles. Also closely linked to the university are a number of student societies representing mainly the arts and political parties. Most notable are a number of choirs as well as student theatre groups affiliated with the faculty of Modern Languages, some of which perform in foreign languages. \"Radio Uniwelle Tübingen\" is the university's radio station, airing seven hours of programmes a week produced by students under the supervision of staff employed by the university. The university also offers gym and sports classes called \"Hochschulsport\". Since Tübingen has a department of sports science with a broad range of facilities, students of other subjects have the possibility to participate in various kinds of sports courses in teams or as individuals. Furthermore, even exotic sports, such as parachuting or martial arts, are offered. Students may attend courses either for free or at reduced rates. The sports department is located close to the \"Wilhelmstraße\" area of university buildings and is served by a number of frequent bus routes. Unlike in some major cities, student discounts are not widely available in Tübingen. Cinemas and the town council's public library in particular do not offer discounts for students, and there are only a handful of restaurants which have reduced lunch deals. However, students may benefit from the \"Semesterticket\", a heavily discounted public transport season pass offering six months of unlimited travel on trains and buses in the naldo \"Verkehrsverbund\" transport association for approximately €62.50. The Landestheater Tübingen theatre and all public swimming pools also have discounts for students. Nightlife in Tübingen is centered on the numerous pubs in the old town along with a number of clubs, most of which dedicate themselves to non-mainstream music. During the semester, the Studentenwerk-owned \"Clubhaus\" at the centre of the Wilhelmstraße university area hosts the weekly \"Clubhausfest\" on Thursday nights. This popular, free-entry club night is organized and promoted by student societies and \"Fachschaft\" student representative bodies and all proceeds go towards their activities in support of students.", "Faculty members and alumni who have been awarded with the Nobel Prize:", "This list also includes alumni of the Tübinger Stift, which is not a part of the University, but has a close relationship with it. Gunther Heinrich Freiherr von Berg 1765-1843, Professor of Law, Politician, Legislator, Privy Counselor" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Names.", "History.", "Geology.", "Main sights.", "Natural areas.", "Archaeological sites.", "Monuments and other buildings.", "Wine.", "Transport." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Carthaginians knew the island as () or (). The Greek geographers recorded it as \"Kossyra\" () and \"Kossyros\" (), which became the Latin. This appears in Arabic as \"Qawṣirah\" () and Maltese as the former name. The original Arab name for the island was \"Bint al-Riyāh\" (), meaning \"Daughter of the Winds\" after the strong gales that can arise off the north coast of Africa. Its Sicilian name is, which gave rise to the present Maltese name.", "Archaeological exploration has unearthed dwellings and artifacts 35,000 years old. The original population of Pantelleria did not come from Sicily, but were of Iberian or Ibero-Ligurian stock. After a considerable interval, during which the island probably remained uninhabited, the Carthaginians took possession of it, no doubt owing to its importance as a station on the way to Sicily. This probably occurred around the beginning of the 7th centuryBC. Their acropolis was the twin hill of San Marco and Santa Teresa, south of the present town of Pantelleria. The town has considerable remains of walls made of rectangular blocks of masonry and also of a number of cisterns. Punic tombs have been discovered, and the votive terra-cottas of a small sanctuary of the Punic period were found near the north coast. The Romans occupied the island as the \"Fasti Triumphales\" record in 255BC, lost it again the next year, and recovered it in 217BC. It struck bronze coins, originally with a Punic inscription but changing to Latin by the 1st centuryBC. Under the empire, it served as a place of banishment for prominent persons and members of the imperial family. The town enjoyed municipal rights. In AD700, Arabs conquered the island. In 1123, Roger II of Sicily took the island, and in 1311 an Aragonese fleet under the command of Lluís de Requesens won a considerable victory here. Requesens's family became princes of Pantelleria until 1553, when the Turks captured the island. A naval battle took place near the island in July 1586 when an armed English merchant fleet of five ships managed to repel an attack by eleven Spanish and Maltese galleys. A Siculo-Arabic dialect similar to Maltese was the vernacular of the island until the late 18th century, when the Romance Sicilian superseded it. The modern Sicilian language in Pantelleria contains many Arabic loanwords, and most of the island's place names are of Semitic origin. During the Napoleonic Wars, the British considered the possibility of taking over Pantelleria (together with Lampedusa and Linosa) so as to be able to supply Malta, but a Royal Commission stated in an 1812 report that there would be considerable difficulties in this venture. Pantelleria's capture was regarded as crucial to Operation Husky, the Allied invasion of Sicily in 1943 as planes based on Pantelleria could readily reach Sicily. In Operation Corkscrew the Allies bombarded Pantelleria heavily from air and sea in the days before the invasion. The garrison surrendered as the landing troops approached. Pantelleria then became a vital base for Allied aircraft during the assault on Sicily.", "The island of Pantelleria is located above a drowned continental rift in the Strait of Sicily and has been the focus of intensive volcano-tectonic activity. The 15 kilometre-long () island is the emergent summit of a largely submarine edifice. Two large Pleistocene calderas dominate the island, the older of the two formed about 114,000 years ago and the younger Cinque Denti caldera formed about 45,000 years ago. The eruption that formed the Cinque Denti caldera produced the distinctive Green Tuff deposit that covers much of the island, and is found across the Mediterranean, as far away as the island of Lesbos in the Aegean. Holocene eruptions have constructed pumice cones, lava domes, and short, blocky lava flows. Post Green Tuff activity constructed the cone of Monte Gibele, part of which was subsequently uplifted to form Montagna Grande. Several vents are located on three sides of the uplifted Montagna Grande block on the southeast side of the island. A submarine eruption in 1891 from a vent off the northwest coast is the only confirmed historical activity. Currently the island is subsiding, and Montagna Grande is slowly sinking. This is thought to be caused by the magma beneath the volcano cooling and degassing. There are numerous hot springs and fumaroles on the island due to an active hydrothermal system. Favara Grande, in the south east of the island, is one of the best examples. The island is releasing a small amount of CO through passive degassing. Total carbon stock in the first of soil of Pantelleria is about 230,000 Mg. The island is the type locality for peralkaline rhyolitic rocks, pantellerites.", "", "A large nature reserve is on the island, and a natural lake, called \"Specchio di Venere\" (Venus' mirror). It formed in an extinct volcanic crater, and is fed by rain and hot springs. The lake is deep and is popular for swimming, hot springs, and mud bathing. Other natural attractions are paths to the sea, a large network of trekking paths, hot springs, and a popular natural sauna fed by vapours filtering through rocks in a small cave. Also situated on the Island is \"Laghetto delle Ondine\" (English: pond of the ripples or pond of the wavelets) a seawater lake which has developed into a very desired swimming hole.", "A Middle Bronze Age village was on the west coast, southeast of the harbour, with a rampart of small blocks of lava, about high, wide at the base and at the top, upon the undefended eastern side. Remains of huts were found there, with pottery, tools of obsidian, and other artifacts. These objects are in the museum at Syracuse. To the southeast, in the district known as the Cunelie, are many tombs, known as \"sesi\". They are similar in character to the nuraghe of Sardinia, though of smaller size, and consist of round or elliptical towers with sepulchral chambers in them, built of rough blocks of lava. Fifty-seven of them can still be traced. The largest is an ellipse of about, but most of the \"sesi\" have a diameter of only. The identical character of the pottery found in the \"sesi\" with that found in the prehistoric village proves that the former are the tombs of the inhabitants of the latter.", "The island has scattered typical one-level buildings called \"dammuso\" of unknown but probably remote origins. A \"dammuso\" is a dry stone building with thick walls that usually appear black due to the extensive use of volcanic rock. They have characteristic domes on top painted white to avoid overheating. The domes collect rainwater that is directed to a large tank (usually below the building) or to the nearby soil for use in the dry season. Most of the other constructions were destroyed during the Second World War. One notable exception is the castle \"Barbacane\", a renaissance building formed by an irregularly quadrangular plan with internal court joined to a squared base tower.", "Pantelleria is noted for its sweet wines, Moscato di Pantelleria and Moscato Passito di Pantelleria, both made from the local Zibibbo grape. In 2014, the traditional agricultural practice of cultivating the 'vite ad alberello' (head-trained bush vines) of the community of Pantelleria was inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity of Unesco (see UNESCO - Traditional agricultural practice of cultivating the ‘vite ad alberello’ (head-trained bush vines) of the community of Pantelleria).", "The island is served by Pantelleria Airport, which is served by Alitalia, connecting Trapani and Palermo and other companies in summer, connecting the island with Italian cities such as Milan, Rome, Venice and others. Ferries reach the island from Trapani, and it is near the main east-west route through the Mediterranean Sea." ] }

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{ "title": [ "World Cup career.", "Retirement.", "Cross-country skiing results." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Hetland began his career in 1990, but only started competing in the World Cup in 1996/97, where he finished 11th in the long distance standings and 46th in the sprint, finishing 30th in the overall standings.The year after he did much worse, coming 42nd in the long distance, and 78th in the sprint, finishing 62nd overall. For the next three seasons he improved his overall standing and became a main contender in the sprint. In 1998/99 he came second in the sprints, and 23rd in the overall, in 1999/2000 he came fourth in the sprints but had a better long distance season than the one before, and in 2000/01 he came third in the sprints and 12th overall. In 2001/02 he came 13th in the overall standing, whilst finishing the sprint in sixth, and in 2003/04 he came fourth in the sprint, and claimed his first distance points, coming in 37th, and 14th in the overall. The following season, 2004/05, was Hetland's most successful year to date, winning the sprint title, and coming third in the overall standings. Hetland finished the 2005/06 FIS World Cup season in third place, 259 points behind Tobias Angerer, and 7 points behind fellow countryman Jens Arne Svartedal. He finished third in the sprints, 163 points behind Björn Lind, and 20 points behind Thobias Fredriksson. He was 20th in the distance standings, 632 points behind Angerer. Hetland has had 23 podium finishes in his World Cup career, 10 in first place, 10 in second place and three in third place. He has podiumed at least once every season since 1996/97, except for 1997/98 and 1999/2000. The most podium finishes he has had in one season was in 2004/05 when he had five. He had four in 2005/06 and three for three consecutive seasons from 2000/01. Of his 23 podium finishes all but three have come in sprints. His first non sprint podium was in 1996/97, when he came second in a 50 km race. In 2000/01 he came third in a 15 km race and on 19 November 2005 he won his first distance race (15 km) in Beitostølen, Norway. The victory on this particular course was no great shock as the Beitostølen track is very flat as the tracks on the cross country circuit goes, and when taken into consideration that the Norwegian athletes, much like the larger teams like the Germans and Russians, are expected to be in near top condition at the beginning of the season so as to secure team selection. His victory in the sprint event in Vernon, Canada on 12 December 2005, was his 100th career race.", "Hetland announced his retirement the week of 27 April 2009 to a lingering knee injury and asthma. He stated that he \"...[felt]... like I am quitting like I am top\".", "All results are sourced from the International Ski Federation (FIS)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Geography.", "River course.", "Sources.", "Tributaries.", "Tributaries with 20 km length and more.", "Cities and municipalities.", "River history.", "River landscape.", "Natural landscape.", "Cultural landscape.", "Renaturation.", "Climate.", "Navigation.", "Historical Development.", "Timber floating from 1100.", "Navigation from the 16th century onward.", "Continuous navigability with the Wilhelmskanal in 1821.", "Upgrading to a heavy shipping waterway between 1921 and 1968.", "Today.", "Harbour.", "Plochingen harbour.", "Stuttgart harbour.", "Cannstatt harbour.", "Heilbronn harbour.", "Mannheim harbour.", "Barrages.", "Stream gauge and flood.", "Structures.", "Mills.", "Power Stations.", "Bridges.", "Castles and palaces." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The name \"Neckar\" may be derived from \"Nicarus\" and \"Neccarus\" from Celtic", "", "Drainage area", "The headwater region of the Neckar lies in the Schwenninger Moos between Schwenningen and Bad Dürrheim. The traditionally marked spring of the river lies in the city park Möglingshöhe in Schwenningen. Prior to the Landesgartenschau Villingen-Schwenningen 2010 the Neckar flowed in the city center of Schwenningen mostly underground. In order to protect the city better from the more frequent flooding through overflow of the duct, the river received more space through a new, mostly open riverbed. This riverbed runs largely on the newly constructed horticultural show ground, which was used as the occasion for the remodeling. Headwaters Up to shortly before Rottweil the Neckar is only a small streamlet on the Baar plateau. In Deißlingen-Lauffen it has is only, 4 meters high waterfall, which is drained today. Afterwards the Neckar joins with the Eschach coming from the eastern slopes of the black forest which is much more water bearing. Its main tributary Glasbach, which originates at the Brogen, is hydrographically seen, the main river of the Neckar river system. With this junction above Rottweil the Neckar enters a narrow, wooded valley and for the next 80 km it bores its way towards north between the ranges of the black forest and the Swabian Jura. It has created two cut-off meander spurs at the Neckarburg which is spanned by the Neckarburgbrücke. Further down the river lies high above the river the old town of Oberndorf on a Calcareous sinter terrace, which fills one of the bowl-like side valleys. At Horb it turns from the Gäu Plateau towards north east and then follows the western side of the Swabian Jura (Albtrauf). Near Weitingen the valley is traversed by the 127 m high Neckar Viaduct of the A", "The largest tributaries of the Neckar are the Enz with the larges drainage area, the Kocher with the highest average water drainage and the longest one, the Jagst. The Kocher tributary Lein is at its end not only longer than the Kocher, but also more water-abundant. Therefore, according to hydrographic convention the Lein would have to be regarded as the main river of the Kocher water system, making it with then 201 kilometers the longest tributary of the Neckar.", "Named from source to mouth. According to LUBW-BRSWEB, LUBW-FG10, LUBW-GEZG and TK25. Drainage area mostly according to LUBW-GEZG, else measured on the background map. Distances preferably according to the data sets of the LUBW-FG10, rarely measured on the background map. Namen preverably according to TK25.", "The Neckar touches, from the source", "The primal Neckar started off as an escarpment riverlet due to the slow rise of the Black Forest and the connected slow erosive retraction of the South German Scarplands. For a long time it flowed on the high plains of the different Gäu created through the hard chalks of the Muschelkalk. At Horb the river was redirected to the northeast due to the rift structure of the so-called \"Swabian Lineament\", which lies roughly parallel to the escarpment of the Swabian Jura. Following that the Neckar cut into the Muschelkalk plateau between Rottweil and Rottenburg as well as the younger Keuper and Jura layers in the northeast, and created narrow water gaps in the area of the morphologially hard chalks and sandstones. The river deepening was also caused by the further rise of the Black Forest as well as the retracting erosion of the attacking younger Neckar route. This younger Neckar route tapped the primal Neckar system at Plochingen (hence the \"Neckarknie\"), which flowed through the primal lone to the primal Danube. Another influence on this river area was the Schurwald, a dissected cuesta of the filder rift, working as a", "", "Narrow and widening valleys alternate along the Neckar's course. The narrows are mostly deepenings into the Muschelkalk plateau and the Buntsandstein below. Widenings developed in the area of morphologically soft clay and marl. Wide valley meadows also developed through the strong backfilling with Aue clay since the start of settlement in the Neolithic and the accompanying deforestation and soil erosion. In the area of the narrows the meander and cut-off meander spurs stand out. The meanders were formed through", "Due to the risk of flooding the valley plains remained unsettled for a long time, but the nutritious and due to its good structure very arable land was intensively used for agriculture, and to a large degree the valley plains are still used agriculturally today. The fertile soil allows the cultivation of lucrative specialty crops like vegetables or hops, for example, between Rottenburg and Tübingen. Gravel pit quarrying in the valley plains takes away agricultural land, but created large lakes, nowadays used for recreational purposes. These borrow pits also became habitat for birds, amphibians and aquatic creatures. Such large borrow pits can", "The diverse usage of raw water and waterway, as well for the production of hydropower brought with it substantial interventions into the ecological structure of the river. Multiple initiatives are advocate for the land restoration the Neckar, the ecological enhancement of the river network, the improvement of the water quality, improved flood control and the creation of attractive local recreational areas alongside the river. Only recently within the", "The Neckar valley functions as a cold air basin, which means that under cloudless skies the heavier, cold night ir, which develops on the sparsely vegetated plateaus and hills, flows into the basin and concentrates there. Especially during the cold season, such “cold lakes” can contribute to the creation of fog while all around on the plateaus", "Various excavations of harbor installations and findings lead to the conclusion that the Neckar navigation already existed already during the Roman Age in the first century. Especially on the lower Neckar. Main purpose was probably the transportation of construction material for the Limes and provisions. Later the Neckar navigation was probably restarted by the Franks.", "", "Starting from 1100 the usage of the Neckar as a waterway with line boats and rafts has been attested. The river was already blocked by weirs in the surroundings of several cities during the High Middle Ages. In Heilbronn a harbour was mentioned for the first time in 1146. The Neckar privilege granted by Holy Roman Emperor Louis IV in 1333 allowed the free imperial city the construction of a weir. After its construction the continuous traffic on the river was for several centuries", "The Neckar gained importance as a waterway in the middle of the 16th century due to the beginning upper German trade. Despite many interventions in the river course in order to improve navigation, the river which had a towpath, was because of dangerous rapids and shallows only navigable for smaller barges and this mostly only up to Heilbronn. Making the upper Neckar navigable was then pushed ahead by Christoph, Duke of Württemberg who got the necessary permission from Emperor Karl V. in 1553. The city of Heilbronn still insisted", "The 550 meter long Wilhelmskanal („Wilhelms canal“) was constructed in Heilbronn from 1819–1821. Reason was the bypassing of the entire weir area and many mills. After further river construction measures the Neckar became navigable all the way between the Rhine and Cannstatt. A lock gate at the upper end of the canal could turn it during floods into a port of refuge which was, already in 1829, expanded into a port of transshipment. In 1827 the Mannheimer Stapel was lifted through which the Neckar navigators gained back free access to the Rhine river. The Rheinschiffahrtsakte („Mannheim Act“)", "In order to provide the rising industrial area around Stuttgart a waterway connection for fully rigged ships, first plannings for channelling oft he Neckar between Mannheim and Plochingen began already in 1904. The goal was to be mostly independent from natural impacts as for example low waters or floating ice. With the württembergian side Otto Konz (1875–1965) was assigned who remained connected to the Neckar upgrading the rest of his life. A memorandum from 1910 allowed for ships up to a 1000 tons, according to plans from 1919 the transportation was planned for the 1200-t-ship. Because the Neckar was earmarked as a Reichswasserstraße (literally:“realm waterway“) in the Weimar Constitution in 1919 (officially from 1. April 1921), Neckarbaudirektion (literally: „Neckar construction department“) was introduced in 1920 whose head Otto Konz became. The department was directly subordinated to the German Reich (often called “Weimar Republic”). In 1921 the German Reich, the Neckar adjoining states Würtemberg, Baden and Hesse agreed in a state treaty the upgrading of the Neckar to a heavy shipping waterway. In order to finance the construction project they founded the Neckar AG with a construction loan from the German Reich, the three States and several municipalities in the same year. As compensation the AG received the right to use the simultaneously expanded hydropower until 2034 and to redeem the construction loan with the profits; this right transferred to the Federal Republic of Germany. As chairman of the Neckar AG were elected Otto Hirsch from the Württembergian ministry of internal affairs and Otto Konz. In consideration of the world famous cityscape of Heidelberg and in order to bring the further barrages in unison with nature and landscape, the architect Paul Bonatz worked for the project (1877–1956). Construction began immediately along the entire distance in 1921. Along a stretch of 113 km length the first eleven barrages between Mannheim and the new canal harbour in Heilbronn were finished in 1935.", "Neckar at Stuttgart-Untertürkheim through heavily industrialized area The Neckar (Ne) is being administered after taking over step-by-step from the Neckar AG since 1970 from Mannheim to Plochingen as a Bundeswasserstraße (literally „federal waterway“) by the water- and navigation offices Stuttgart and Heidelberg. The Federal Republic is owner of the waterway. Sport boats including paddle and rowing boats are subject to the Binnenschifffahrtsstraßen-Ordnung, valid on the Neckar which for example defines the need of identification and the", "", "On December 8, 1954 the \"Neckarhafen Plochingen GmbH\" was founded. From 1960 until 1963 the last barrage was constructed near Deizisau. The construction of the \"Neckarhafen Plochingen\" started on April", "The Neckarhafen Stuttgart was constructed in two steps, from 1954 until 1958 and from 1966 until", "The first Cannstatter „Hafen am Mühlgrün“ was", "The Heilbronn harbour with a total factory area of 78 ha and a quay length of 7,2 km based on the turnover the 7th largest inland harbour in Germany (2010) and the largest", "The Mannheim harbour is one oft he most important inland harbours in Europe and the second largest in Germany. The harbour has a total water surface of 267,9 ha, additionally there is 863,5 ha land area. About 500 companies with 20.000 employees have settled in the harbour area. In 1968 the first Container-Terminal in an inland harbour was opened here. Furthermore, a RoRo-facility and since 1991 a combined transport terminal. On the water side 7.64 million tons of goods were turned over in 2010. The largest stakes have bituminous coal 2.2 million t, food- and fodder with 0.92 million t and chemical goods with 1.59 million t. At the container terminal on the water side 120.568 units were turned over. The harbour basin spreads out around the mouth of the Neckar along the Rhine and Neckar. The overall complex includes the Ludwigshafener Rheinhafen, which is situated directly on the opposite side of the Rhine river.", "The maximum size of the river boats driving on the Neckar is limited by the locks oft he 27 barrages. Those are in general 110 m long and 12 m wide; the allowed dimensions are therefore 105 m x 11.45 m. Since 1952 almost every Barrage got a second lock. 23 of those locks use almost 50% of the water of one chamber to fill the other empty chamber in order to save water (so called twin locks). In order to prevent jams at the mouth of the Neckar, the first barrage Feudenheim received a further lock in 1973 (190 m × 12 m). The barrages have an average distance of 7 km between each other (between 0.9 and 13.7 km, see table) and are used to cover the difference in altidute of 160.70 m to the Rhine at low ater. The waterway depth is since 2000 continuously 2.80 m. This means that the Stuttgart harbour can be reached by the large motor ships of the", "Crucial for the professional and recreational navigation on the Neckar are its stream gauges. According to the Hochwassermeldeordnung (HMO, flood report regulation) of the State Baden-Württemberg the following Hochwassermeldehöhen are valid at the stream gauge: Gauge Plochingen The gauge in Plochingen (since 1905) was the only gauge at the waterway that lay in free descent. In 1962 the moveable barrage in Deizisau was constructed.", "", "The hydropower of the Neckar drove numerous mills, of", "At least since the early 20th century power stations replaced the historical mills. Since then the Neckar has been used for commercial electricity production through hydroelectric power. Several transregionally known hydro plants can be found at the Neckar: Additionally the Neckar is and has been a cooling water supply for coal and nuclear power plants. Near Esslingen-Zell the Neckar cools the Altbach", "Famous bridges include the Neckar Valley Bridge Weitingen, near the town Horb am Neckar and the Old Bridge, in Heidelberg. The ladder is amongst the best known historic bridges. It already existed in the High Middle Ages and was erected in today's form in 1788. Further historic Neckar bridges are the Neckarbrücke in Lauffen am Neckar, in the core dating back to 1532, the Neckar bridge in Sulz constructed in 1742, the Pliensaubrücke, the Alte Agnesbrücke (old Agnes bridge) and the Ulrichsbrücke in Köngen. The oldest still remaining Neckar bridge is the Innere Brücke in Esslingen. The 230 meter long construction was built in the", "From Mannheim over Heidelberg, Eberbach, Mosbach up to Heilbronn the Castle Road runs almost parallel to the Neckar and passes on this about 100 km long section of the lower Neckar numerous castles and palaces. Most notably the Heidelberg Castle zu nennen. Unter den Neckarburgen sind aber auch die vier Burgen in Neckarsteinach, Dilsberg Castle, Burg Eberbach, Burg Hirschhorn," ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Predecessors.", "North America.", "1970s to 1990s.", "2000 to present.", "Europe.", "Asia.", "Related vehicle categories.", "Compact MPV.", "Mini MPV.", "Leisure activity vehicle." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The term \"minivan\" originated in North America in order to differentiate the smaller passenger vehicles from full-size vans (such as the Ford E-Series, Dodge Ram Van and Chevrolet Van), which were then simply called 'vans'. The first known use of the term minivan was in 1959, however it was not until the 1980s that the term became commonly used.", "The 1936 Stout Scarab is often regarded as the first minivan. The passenger seats in the Scarab were moveable and could be configured for the passengers to sit around a table in the rear of the cabin. Passengers entered and exited the Scarab via a centrally-mounted door. The DKW Schnellaster— manufactured from 1949 to 1962— featured front-wheel drive, a transverse engine, flat floor and multi-configurable seating, all of which would later become characteristics of minivans. In 1950, the Volkswagen Type 2 adapted a bus-shaped body to chassis of a small passenger car (the Volkswagen Beetle). When Volkswagen introduced a sliding side door to the Type 2 in 1968, it then had the prominent features that would later come to define a minivan: compact length, three rows of forward-facing seats, station wagon-style top-hinged tailgate/liftgate, sliding side door, passenger car base. The 1956-1969 Fiat Multipla also had many features in common with modern minivans. The Multipla was based on the chassis of the Fiat 600 and had a rear engine and cab forward layout.", "", "In the late 1970s, Chrysler began a development program to design \"a small affordable van that looked and handled more like a car.\" The result of this program was the first American minivan, the 1984 Plymouth Voyager. The Voyager debuted the minivan design features of front-wheel drive, a flat floor and a sliding door for rear passengers. The badge-engineered Dodge Caravan was also released in for the 1984 model year, and was sold alongside the Voyager. The term minivan came into use largely in comparison to size to full-size vans; at six feet tall or lower, 1980s minivans were intended to fit inside a typical garage door opening. In 1984, \"The New York Times\" described minivans \"the hot cars coming out of Detroit,\" noting that \"analysts say the mini-van has created an entirely new market, one that may well overshadow the... station wagon.\" In response to the popularity of the Voyager/Caravan, General Motors released the 1985 Chevrolet Astro and GMC Safari badge-engineered twins, and Ford released the 1986 Ford Aerostar. These vehicles used a traditional rear-wheel drive layout, unlike the Voyager/Caravan. By the end of the 1980s, demand for minivans as family vehicles had largely superseded full-size station wagons in the United States. During the 1990s, the minivan segment underwent several major changes. Many models switched to the front-wheel drive layout used by the Voyager/Caravan minivans, for example Ford replaced the Aerostar with the front-wheel drive Mercury Villager (a rebadged Nissan Quest) for 1993 and the Ford Windstar for 1995. The models also increased in size, as a result of the extended-wheelbase (\"Grand\") versions of the Voyager and Caravan which were in 1987. An increase in luxury features and interior equipment was seen in the Eddie Bauer version of the 1988 Ford Aerostar, the 1990 Chrysler Town & Country and the 1990 Oldsmobile Silhouette. The third-generation Plymouth Voyager, Dodge Caravan and Chrysler Town & Country — released for the 1996 model year — were available with an additional sliding door on the drivers side.", "The highest selling year for minivans was in 2000, when 1.4 million units were sold. However, in the following years, the increasing popularity of sport utility vehicles (SUVs) began to erode sales of minivans. North American sales of the Volkswagen Transporter (sold as the 'Volkswagen Eurovan') ceased in 2003. Ford exited the segment in 2006, when the Ford Freestar was cancelled, Chrysler discontinued its short-wheelbase minivans in 2007 (although long-wheelbase minivans remained in production in the form of the Chrysler RT-platform minivans) and General Motors exited the segment in 2009 with the cancellation of the Chevrolet Uplander. It has been suggested that the lesser popularity of minivans is due to the minivan's image as a vehicle for older, domestically-oriented drivers. In 2013, sales of the segment reached approximately 500,000 (one-third of its 2000 peak). Despite the declining sales for the segment in the late 2000s, several European brands launched minivans in the North American market. The Volkswagen Routan (a rebadged Dodge Grand Caravan) was sold from 2009-2013. In 2010, Ford began North American sales of the European-built Ford Transit Connect Wagon. North American sales of the Mercedes-Benz Vito (sold as the 'Mercedes-Benz Metris') began in 2016. However, the Nissan Quest and Mazda MPV were both discontinued in 2016. The five highest selling models in the United States in 2018 were the Dodge Grand Caravan, Chrysler Pacifica, Honda Odyssey, Toyota Sienna and Kia Sedona.", "Introduced several months after the Chrysler minivans, the 1984 Renault Espace was the first European-developed minivan developed primarily for passenger use (as the Volkswagen Caravelle/Vanagon was a derivative of a commercial van). Beginning development in the 1970s under the European subsidiaries of Chrysler, the Espace was intended as a successor for the Matra Rancho (a primitive CUV), leading to its use of front-hinged doors. While slow-selling at the time of its release, the Espace would go on to become the most successful European-brand minivans. Initially intending to sell the Espace in the United States, the 1987 sale of AMC to Chrysler cancelled plans of Renault doing so. At the end of the 1980s, Chrysler and Ford commenced sales of American-brand minivans in Europe, selling the Chrysler Voyager and Ford Aerostar (with varying degrees of success). Deriving its minivans from American designs, General Motors imported the Oldsmobile Silhouette (branded as the Pontiac Trans Sport), later marketing the American-produced Opel/Vauxhall Sintra. In the 1990s, several joint ventures produced long-running minivan designs. In 1994, the Sevel Nord-produced Eurovans were introduced, marketed by Citroën, Fiat, Lancia, and Peugeot; two generations were produced through 2014. In contrast to the Espace, the Eurovans were produced with two sliding doors; to increase interior space, the gearshift was relocated to the dashboard and the handbrake was moved. In 1995, Ford of Europe and Volkswagen entered a joint venture, producing the Ford Galaxy, SEAT Alhambra, and Volkswagen Sharan. Adopting a similar configuration as the Espace, the three model lines were launched with front-hinged doors; for 2010, SEAT and Volkswagen introduced a second generation, adopting sliding doors. Despite high expectations during the 1990s, the full-size MPV market fell short, and some consumers thought of MPVs as being large like vans. Other MPVs on the market at the time include Mitsubishi Space Wagon and Honda Shuttle. Renault set a new \"compact MPV\" standard with the Renault Scenic in 1996 which became a hit. The five highest selling minivans in Europe in 2018 were the Ford S-Max, SEAT Alhambra, Volkswagen Sharan, Renault Espace and Ford Galaxy.", "Contrasting with compact passenger vans developed from commercial vehicles, Japanese manufacturers commenced development of minivans starting from compact MPVs in the 1980s. In 1982, the Nissan Prairie became one of the first compact minivans. Derived closely from a compact sedan, the Prairie was configured with sliding doors, folding rear seats, and a lifting rear hatch. The Mitsubishi Chariot (exported to North America as the Colt Vista) adopted nearly the same form factor, using wagon-style front-hinged doors. In 1989, the Mazda MPV was introduced as the first full-size minivan (derived from the Mazda 929 sedan). Developed primarily for American sales, the MPV exceeded Japanese compact size regulations; it was also sold in Japan and other markets. In line with American minivans, a passenger-side door was used; a hinged door was used (a driver-side door was introduced for 1996). For 1990, the Toyota Previa mid-engine minivan was introduced (sold as the \"Estima\" in Japan). While largely retaining the configuration of its TownAce predecessor, the Previa was designed solely as a passenger vehicle, with nearly panoramic window glass (excluding the B and D-pillars). Replaced in North America by the locally produced Sienna, the Previa remains in production for Japanese and Australian markets; the larger Alphard is produced as a luxury vehicle. Following the introduction of the Nissan Quest (co-developed with Ford for North America), Nissan introduced the Nissan Elgrand in 1997 for worldwide markets; the Nissan Serena has grown into the large MPV segment as well. Honda has produced its Honda Odyssey line of minivans since 1994; since 1999, a separate (larger) version has been produced for the United States and Canada. Until 2013, the Japan-produced version of the Odyssey was designed with front-hinged doors. In a design feature that was adopted by other manufacturers, the first generation of the Odyssey featured a rear seat that folded flat into the floor. Expanding beyond compact MPVs, Mitsubishi entered the minivan segment in 2003 with the Mitsubishi Grandis, using front-hinged doors. Sold outside of North America, the Grandis was marketed through 2011. Adapting a similar layout to the Chrysler minivans, the Kia Carnival (also sold the Kia Sedona) was introduced in 1998 with dual sliding doors. Sharing its configuration with the Honda Odyssey, the Hyundai Trajet was sold from 1999 to 2008 in markets outside of North America; the Hyundai Entourage was a rebadged Kia Sedona. Introduced in 2004, the SsangYong Rodius is the highest-capacity minivan, seating up to 11 passengers. In 1999, Shanghai GM commenced production of the Buick GL8 minivan, derived from a minivan platform designed by GM in the United States. After two generations of production, the GL8 is the final minivan produced by General Motors or its joint ventures today.", "", "Compact MPV— an abbreviation for Compact Multi-Purpose Vehicle— is a vehicle size class for the middle size of MPVs/minivans. The Compact MPV size class sits between the mini MPV and minivan size classes. Compact MPVs remain predominantly a European phenomenon, although they are also built and sold in many Latin American and Asian markets. As of 2016, the only compact MPV sold widely in the United States is the Ford C-Max.", "Mini MPV — an abbreviation for Mini Multi-Purpose Vehicle — is a vehicle size class for the smallest size of minivans (MPVs). The Mini MPV size class sits below the compact MPV size class and the vehicles are often built on the platforms of B-segment hatchback models. Several PSA Peugeot Citroën minivans based on B-segment platforms have been marketed as 'leisure activity vehicles' in Europe. These include the Citroën Berlingo (1996–present).", "A leisure activity vehicle (abbreviated LAV) is a small van or minivan; the segment is popularized primarily in Europe. One of the first LAVs was the 1977 Matra Rancho (among the first crossover SUVs and a precursor to the Renault Espace), with European manufacturers expanding the segment in the late 1990s, following the introduction of the Citroen Berlingo and Renault Kangoo. Leisure activity vehicles are typically derived from supermini or subcompact car platforms, differing from mini MPVs in body design. To maximize interior space, LAVs are taller in height with a vertically-oriented liftgate (or the side-hinged doors of a cargo van); the body typically features a more vertically-oriented windshield and longer hood/bonnet. Marketed as an alternative to sedan-derived small family cars, LAVs have seating with a lower H-point than MPVs or minivans, offering two (or three) rows of seating. Though sharing underpinnings with superminis, subcompacts, and mini MPVs, the use of an extended wheelbase can make leisure activity vehicles longer than the vehicles they are derived from. For example, the Fiat Doblò is one of the longest LAVs with a total length of, versus the of the Opel Meriva (a mini MPV) and the of the Peugeot 206 SW (a supermini). List of leisure activity vehicles (similar vehicles are grouped together):" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Socialization.", "Docking and declawing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Born after an average of 63 days of gestation, puppies emerge in an amnion that is bitten off and eaten by the mother dog. Puppies begin to nurse almost immediately. If the litter exceeds six puppies, particularly if one or more are obvious runts, human intervention in hand-feeding the stronger puppies is necessary to ensure that the runts get proper nourishment and attention from the mother. As they reach one month of age, puppies are gradually weaned and begin to eat solid food. The mother may regurgitate partially digested food for the puppies or might let them eat some of her solid food. The mother usually refuses to nurse at this stage, though she might let them occasionally nurse for comfort. At first, puppies spend the large majority of their time sleeping and the rest feeding. They instinctively pile together into a heap, and become distressed if separated from physical contact with their littermates, by even a short distance. Puppies are born with a fully functional sense of smell. They are unable to open their eyes. During their first two weeks, a puppy's senses all develop rapidly. During this stage the nose is the primary sense organ used by puppies to find their mother's teats, and to locate their littermates, if they become separated by a short distance. Puppies open their eyes about nine to eleven days following birth. At first, their retinas are poorly developed and their vision is poor. Puppies are not able to see as well as adult dogs. In addition, puppies' ears remain sealed until about thirteen to seventeen days after birth, after which they respond more actively to sounds. Between two and four weeks old, puppies usually begin to growl, bite, wag their tails, and bark. Puppies develop very quickly during their first three months, particularly after their eyes and ears open and they are no longer completely dependent on their mother. Their coordination and strength improve, they spar with their littermates, and begin to explore the world outside the nest. They play wrestling, chase, dominance, and tug-of-war games.", "Puppies are highly social animals and spend most of their waking hours interacting with either their mother or littermates. When puppies are socialized with humans, particularly between the ages of eight and twelve weeks, they develop social skills around people. Those that do not receive adequate socialization during this period may display fearful behavior around humans or other dogs as adults. The optimum period for socialisation is between eight and twelve weeks; professional animal trainers and the American Kennel Club advise puppies should be introduced to \"100 People by 12 Weeks\" and have encountered a wide and varied selection of people and environments.", "The practice of docking began primarily as a preventive measure for injury among working dogs. Docking is now primarily performed for purely cosmetic reasons, and some breeds traditionally have their tails cropped anywhere from slightly to almost entirely. Many countries now ban cropping and docking for cosmetic purposes, including Australia, parts of Canada, the majority of the European countries (Austria, Greece, Finland, Netherlands, Italy, the Czech Republic, Turkey, Poland, Slovakia, England, Scotland, Slovenia, Ireland, Norway and Sweden), while others, such as the United States, permit it. As of 2008, the practice is opposed by the American Veterinary Medical Association. Some breeders also prefer to declaw the dogs to prevent future injuries caused by scratching, or in the case of dewclaws, ingrown and ripped-off nails. Docking and declawing procedures are usually performed within the first few days after birth, by a veterinarian, or by an experienced breeder." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Location.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The islands are named for the Greek Saint Diomedes; Danish-Russian navigator Vitus Bering sighted the Diomede Islands on August 16 (O.S., August 27 N.S.), 1728, the day on which the Russian Orthodox Church celebrates the memory of the saint.", "The islands are separated by an international border, which defines the International Date Line in that area, about from each island, at 168°58'37\"W. At their closest points, the two islands are about apart. The small habitation on Little Diomede Island is centered on the west side of the island at the village of Diomede. Big Diomede Island is the easternmost point of Russia. The Diomede Islands are often mentioned as likely intermediate stops for the hypothetical bridge or tunnel (Bering Strait crossing) spanning the Bering Strait. During winter, an ice bridge usually spans the distance between these two islands; therefore during such times it is theoretically possible (although not legal, since travel between the two islands is forbidden) to walk between the United States and Russia.", "The first European to reach the Bering Strait was the Russian explorer Semyon Dezhnev in 1648. He reported two islands whose natives had bone lip ornaments, but it is not certain that these were the Diomedes. Danish navigator Vitus Bering re-discovered the Diomede Islands while leading a Russian expedition on 16 August (O.S., 26 August N.S.) 1728, the day when the Russian Orthodox Church celebrates the memory of the martyr St. Diomede (hence, the name of the islands). In 1732, a Russian geodesist, Mikhail Gvozdev, determined longitude and latitude for the two islands. The text of the 1867 treaty between the United States and Russia which finalized the Alaska purchase uses the islands to designate the boundary between the two nations: The border separates \"equidistantly Krusenstern Island, or Ignaluk, from Ratmanov Island, or Nunarbuk, and heads northward infinitely until it disappears completely in the Arctic Ocean.\" During the Cold War, that gap constituted the border between the United States and the Soviet Union, and became known as the \"Ice Curtain\". In 1987, however, Lynne Cox swam from one island to the other, and was congratulated by both Mikhail Gorbachev and Ronald Reagan for her feat. In summer 1995, British television actor and documentary presenter Michael Palin started his counterclockwise circumnavigation of the Pacific Rim, encompassing 18 different countries, on Little Diomede Island, as part of the BBC series \"Full Circle\". He intended to set foot on it again at the end of his eight-month trek, but was unable to do so because of rough seas. Big Diomede Island was traditionally the easternmost landmass before the International Date Line, and the first landmass to ring in a new year, if using local solar time. When using official time, however, a large area in eastern Russia and New Zealand also share the same time zone. New Zealand also has Daylight Saving time in effect during late December, but Russia does not (see time in New Zealand and time in Russia). This became moot in 1995, however, when the International Date Line was moved to the east of Kiribati and that country's easternmost time zone (GMT+14) is now the world's earliest. The Soviet government relocated the indigenous population of Big Diomede Island to mainland Russia, and the island is now inhabited only by military units. Little Diomede had an Inupiat Inuit population of 170, which has declined to 115 at the 2010 Census, entirely in the village site on the west side of the island, though the island as a whole comprises the City of Diomede. This village has a school, a post office and a store. Some Inuit residents are famous for their ivory carving. When weather permits, commercial air contact is maintained with the island as part of the US Government Essential Air Service Program." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The Mosque.", "Controversies.", "Imams." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Mosque was built in 1983. Retired businessman Muhammed Tufail Shaheen MBE, an active community leader and President of the Glasgow Central Mosque, was instrumental in its building. The central Mosque was formally opened in 1984 by H E. Abdullah Omar Nasseef, the Secretary General of the Muslim World League. Built on a site, the present Mosque has a new Islamic Centre adjacent to the main building. The new Islamic Centre serves as a general purpose hall for public events and also provides sports and changing facilities, meeting rooms, library, cafeteria and facilities to offer education and welfare support to the community. The mosque was built at a cost of three million pounds. The land was acquired and the preferred architectural design meant that the architect had to travel to Turkey and Jeddah. The courtyard of the mosque is in keeping with the traditional Arabesque style. It is enclosed on one of its sides by gardens and on the other by a long façade of arched windows. The main entrance is arched with etched glass doors of a floral design. In the courtyard one of the most noticeable features is the Minaret (tower) where traditionally the Muezzin recites the call to prayer stands. The other more noticeable feature is the dome above the main prayer hall allowing natural light into the building. Inside the mosque is a recess which is called the Mihrab where the Imam stands. The Mihrab points in the direction of Mecca. Enclosed in a walled garden and with a separate minaret, the mosque combines Islamic architecture with the characteristic Old Red Sandstone material used to build many of Glasgow's buildings. The building can accommodate 2500 worshipers. The Islamic Centre is now the Central Institution for the Muslim community and this is the largest community centre in Strathclyde. The mosque itself is Scotland's largest mosque. This centre provides services not only for Muslim elderly people, adults, youths and children, but also serves the non-Muslim community groups of various ages, and educationalists from various institutions. Its services support the whole of the Strathclyde region", "In February 2016, Habib ur Rehman Rauf, religious head of the mosque, was quoted in the media supporting the actions of Mumtaz Qadri who assassinated Pakistani politician Salman Taseer whilst acting as his security guard. Imam Habib confirmed this was incorrectly reported. Qadri disagreed with Taseer's opposition to Pakistan's blasphemy law. In April 2016 International Business Times revealed that the mosque held annual Khatme Nabuwwat conferences. The mosque president, Dr Mohammed Shafi Kausar refuted the existence of any secular group at the mosque.", "There are currently two Imams at Glasgow Central Mosque." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Economy.", "Climate." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The city was founded around 1755 by Karamoko Alpha mo Labé, a Muslim religious leader who introduced Islam in the region in the 18th century and who also founded a theocratic state in Fouta Djallon. The city was the capital of the Diwal/province of Labe prior to French colonisation. It was home to Muslim leaders and scholars who resisted colonisation, such as Alpha Yaya Diallo. Labe is the most important city in the Moyenne (Middle)Guinea region also known as Fouta Djallon. Labe is considered as a major cultural and religious center in West Africa, especially among the Fulani people. Many Muslim scholars made Labe a famous learning place in Islamic studies. The most prominent of the erudites being Alfa Oumarou Rafiou (Dara Labe), Thierno Doura Sombili, Thierno Diawo Pellel, Thierno Aliou Bhouba Dian.", "Labé is an important commercial centre in the region, arising out of its strategic geographical position between several other countries. Traders from nearby regions such as Pita, Tougué, Koubia, Lélouma, Mali Yemberin and other countries including Mali, Senegal, the Gambia and Sierra Leone gather in Labé. Its central market is the second largest in the country after the Madina market in Conakry. Trade or commerce has become the main activity in the city, but Labe also has a small manufacturing industry consisting mainly of shoe making, textile, carpentry, blacksmithing... It is known for weaving and honey. The city also benefits from a considerable diaspora whose repatriated income contributes significantly to infrastructural development in Labé and helps to overcome the region's relatively poorer revenue stream. Merchants from the city dominate the informal economy in most Guinean cities and are also economically active in cities further afield, such as Dakar, Bamako, Abidjan, Bissau and Freetown. The city also has a museum, while the Saala Falls and Mount Kolima lie nearby. The town is served by Tata Airport. A jet-capable airport near Labé was built by Cuban engineers in 1973. Currently the airport remains unused due to the lack of airline traffic connecting the different regions and major cities in Guinea. The city has a sizable stadium (stade Saifoulaye Diallo) which hosts soccer/football games played by the local club Fello Star. However the sport facility is poorly maintained and kept.", "Labé has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen climate classification \"Aw\") with extreme differences between day and night. It is hot all year round (yet cold to warm at night). About 1500 mm of rain fall annually, mostly on summer." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Crystal habit.", "Synthetic anatase.", "Alternate and obsolete names." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Two growth habits of anatase crystals may be distinguished. The more common occurs as simple acute double pyramids with an indigo-blue to black color and steely luster. Crystals of this kind are abundant at Le Bourg-d'Oisans in Dauphiné, where they are associated with rock-crystal, feldspar, and axinite in crevices in granite and mica-schist. Similar crystals, but of microscopic size, are widely distributed in sedimentary rocks, such as sandstones, clays, and slates, from which they may be separated by washing away the lighter constituents of the powdered rock. The (101) plane of anatase is the most thermodynamically stable surface and is thus the most widely exposed facet in natural and synthetic anatase. Crystals of the second type have numerous pyramidal faces developed, and they are usually flatter or sometimes prismatic in habit; the color is honey-yellow to brown. Such crystals closely resemble xenotime in appearance and, indeed, were for a long time supposed to belong to this species, the special name \"wiserine\" being applied to them. They occur attached to the walls of crevices in the gneisses of the Alps, the Binnenthal near Brig in canton Valais, Switzerland, being a well-known locality. Naturally occurring pseudomorphs of rutile after anatase are also known. While anatase is not an equilibrium phase of TiO, it is stable near room temperature. At temperatures between 550 and about 1000 °C, anatase converts to rutile. The temperature of this transformation strongly depends on the impurities or dopants as well as on the morphology of the sample.", "Due to its potential application as a semiconductor, anatase is often prepared synthetically. Crystalline anatase can be prepared in laboratories by chemical methods such as sol-gel method. Examples include controlled hydrolysis of titanium tetrachloride (TiCl) or titanium ethoxide. Often dopants are included in such synthesis processes to control the morphology, electronic structure, and surface chemistry of anatase.", "Another name commonly in use for this mineral is \"octahedrite\", a name which, indeed, is earlier than anatase, and given because of the common (acute) octahedral habit of the crystals. Other names, now obsolete, are oisanite and dauphinite, from the well-known French locality." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Establishment.", "Art Nouveau period.", "Czechoslovak Socialist Republic.", "Occupation and the postwar period.", "After February 1948.", "After 1968.", "Today.", "The school building.", "Elevation of the school from 1882.", "Name." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The Academy was founded in 1885 as the School of Applied Arts in Prague (UPŠ). At the time of its establishment it was the first and only state art school in Bohemia. Its mission, according to the founding charter, was “to nurture manpower skillful in the arts for the artistic industry and to train educational staff for applied arts teaching and for teaching drawing at secondary schools.” It was divided into a three-year general education school and follow-up three- to five-year vocational and special schools with the disciplines of architecture, sculpture, drawing, painting, film & TV graphics, metal working, wood carving, floral painting and textiles. The faculty staff was chosen from among the leading personalities of Czech culture. The first director of the school was the architect František Schmoranz Jr. and the teaching staff included František Ženíšek (1885–1896), Josef Václav Myslbek (1885–1896), Jakub Schikaneder (1885–1923), Celda Klouček (1887–1917), Felix Jenewein (1890–1902), Otakar Hostinsky (1847–1910), and Friedrich Ohmann (1888–1898). Among the first graduates were Jan Preisler, Stanislav Sucharda, Josef Mařatka, Vojtěch Preissig, František Kobliha, Bohumil Kafka, Miloš Slovák and Julius Mařák. In 1896, the position of the Academy of Fine Arts (AVU) was reinforced by its nationalization. Some of the teaching staff left UPŠ and the school focused primarily on applied arts. The architect Jiří Stibral (1886–1920) became the new director. The faculty staff comprised Stanislav Sucharda, Jan Preisler, Karel Vítězslav Mašek, Alois Dryák, Ladislav Šaloun and Jan Kotěra. They were later joined by Karel Boromejský Mádl, who worked as art professor and library administrator. Kotěra advocated \"unity of visual culture and the creation of a modern style.\"", "At the turn of the century, UPŠ became one of the centres of the Art Nouveau movement, inspired by its achievements in the late 19th century. And so the school represented Czech art at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900, where it won the prestigious Grand Prix. The new generation of students in the early 20th century included future representatives of Czech Cubism and the interwar avant-garde - Josef Čapek, Václav Beneš, Josef Gočár, František Kysela, Bohumil Kubišta, Otakar Novotný, Linka Procházková, Jan Zrzavý, Václav Špála, Josef Šíma, Emilie Paličková, Jaroslav Rössler and Pravoslav Kotík.", "In 1918, after the creation of Czechoslovakia, UPŠ failed to obtain the “High School of Decorative Arts” status it was aiming for, but nevertheless it strengthened its autonomy. From 1920 it was led by an elected rector and new artistic personalities joined the faculty staff - Pavel Janák, František Kysela, Jaroslav Horejc, Vratislav Hugo Brunner and Helena Johnová and the art historians Antonín Matějček, Václav Vilém Štech and Jaromír Pečírka. In its early years of independent status, the school sought to create a “new national style”, though one still based on ornament in the tradition of Art Deco (the successor of Art Nouveau with theoretical manifestos from the beginning of the century). In 1925, the school represented Czechoslovakia at the International Exhibition of Decorative Arts in Paris, where it received both official recognition and criticism from the perspective of the European avant-garde. Under the growing international influence in the late 1920s, the school began to focus on Constructivism and Functionalism. The architect Otakar Novotný was strongly influenced by the German Bauhaus. Among the graduates of the interwar period were Jan Bauch, Cyril Bouda, Karel Černý, Toyen, František Foltýn, Ľudovít Fulla, Mikuláš Galanda, František Gross, František Hudeček, Josef Kaplický, Antonín Kybal, Zdeněk Sklenář, Karel Souček, Ladislav Sutnar, Karel Svolinský, Jiří Trnka and Ladislav Zívr.", "Following the closure of the universities in 1939, the school replaced AVU until the end of WWII. It thus strengthened its position and by a 1946 Act acquired a new status and the name Vysoká škola uměleckoprůmyslová (The Academy of Applied Arts). A year later, in 1947, study was extended to five years, with studios across the departments of applied architecture, applied painting, applied graphic arts, textiles and clothing, applied sculpture, glassmaking, pottery and ceramics.", "After the communist putsch in February 1948, the school was also subjected to the influence of ideological and political dogmatism. The new teachers were subordinated to socialist realism. Nevertheless, the handicraft disciplines – textiles, glass, metal and ceramics – maintained their quality, and in the fifties celebrated figures joined the faculty – such as Adolf Hoffmeister, Arsén Pohribný and Josef Wagner. The graduates of the period included Vladimír Janoušek, Věra Janoušková, Hermína Melicharová, Čestmír Kafka, Milan Grygar, Stanislav Kolíbal, Stanislav Libenský, Zdeněk Palcr, Adriena Šimotová, Jiří John, Eva Kmentová, Květa Pacovská, Olbram Zoubek, Jan Hladík, Jenny Hladíková, Vladimír Kopecký, Jiří Balcar and René Roubíček. One of the school’s successes was the awarding of the Czech pavilion at Expo 58 in Brussels. In the 1860s, the study period was extended to six years and intensive development took place especially in the art and craft disciplines. The Department of Industrial Design was also established at the former Zlín School of Art, which was merged with the Academy in 1959.", "The so-called “consolidation” influenced by the political “normalization” in the early 1970s also affected the school. A number of the personalities who had maintained its quality were obliged to leave. They included František Muzika, Adolf Hoffmeister, Antonín Kybal, Karel Svolinský and Jiří Trnka. The school was led by conformist Communist Party officials under the Rector Jan Simota (1973-1985) and his successor Jan Mikula.", "The school was reorganized after the Velvet Revolution of November 1989. At present (2014) it comprises five practical departments: architecture, design, fine arts, applied arts and graphics and a sixth, theoretical department teaching art history and aesthetics. In total there are 23 studios at the academy. The individual studios are led by respected experts. The Glass Studio is led by Rony Plesl, Ceramics by Maxim Velčovský, K.O.V. (Concept – Object – Meaning) by Eva Eisler, Fashion Design by Pavel Ivančic, Fashion and Footwear Design by Liběna Rochová, Textile Design by Jitka Škopová, Illustration and Graphics by Juraj Horváth, Typography by Karel Haloun, Graphic Design and Visual Communication by Rostislav Vaněk, Film and TV Graphics by Jakub Zich, Graphic Design and New Media by Petr Babák, Sculpture by Dominik Lang, Painting by Jiří Černický, Intermedial Confrontation by Jiří David, Supermedia by Federico Díaz, Photography by Alexandra Vajd, Industrial Design by Ivan Dlabač, Furniture and Interior Design by Jiří Pelc, Product Design by Michal Froněk and Jan Němeček, Architecture I by Jindřich Smetana, Architecture II by Ivan Kroupa, Architecture III by Imrich Vaško and Architecture IV by Roman Brychta. The architect Jindřich Smetana has been rector of the Academy since 2011. Contemporary alumni and tutors include the architects Eva Jiřičná, Jan Kaplický and Tomáš Pilař, the designers Bořek Šípek and Dominika Nell Applová, the fine artists Adriena Šimotová, Jan Kubíček, David Černý, Kurt Gebauer, Jiří Černický, Martin Mainer, Karel Gott, Václav Cigler and Jaroslav Róna, the graphic designers Zdeněk Ziegler and Klára Kvízová, the sculptor Karen LaMonte, the typographer František Štorm, the film animators Jiří Barta, Pavel Koutský and Michaela Pavlátová and the theorists Josef Hlaváček and Jan Tomeš.", "", "The school building was erected in 1882-1885 according to plans by František Schmoranz Jr. and Jan Machytka inspired directly by the art academies in Paris and Vienna. Originally, the school occupied only the wing on the Alšově nábřeží embankment, while the wing facing Jan Palach Square (Czech: Náměstí Jana Palacha) housed the Academy of Painting.", "The Academy of Arts, Architecture and Design is called Vysoká škola uměleckoprůmyslová (VŠUP) in Czech (literally the “College of Industrial Arts”), popularly abbreviated to “UMPRUM”, though the same abbreviation is also commonly used for the Museum of Decorative Arts (Uměleckoprůmyslové muzeum - UPM). In neither case, however, is the abbreviation official, nor has it ever been." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Differences between world cup and world championships.", "Season-long format." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Some sports governing bodies prefer the title \"world championship\" or a related term; some even organize both a world cup and a world championship with different rules. Usually, such competitions take one of two forms, a short periodic competition or a year-long series of meetings, but more frequently many sports have both World Cup (usually competed with more races of a season), and world championship (usually a single event). Some examples in the following table. A periodic world cup or world championship usually takes the form of a knockout tournament (possibly with an initial group stage). This is held over a number of days or weeks, with the entrants eventually being whittled down to two, and the tournament culminating in a world cup final. The winner(s) take the title of World Champion(s) and hold it until the next time the event is held (usually one, two, or four years later). This format is most common in team sports, as with the FIFA World Cup or the ICC Cricket World Cup.", "A contrasting concept, popular in individual sports, is a year-long competition with several meetings over its course. In this format, victory at an individual meeting earns a number of points, and, usually, a number of positions below also score points inversely related to their position. Contestants accumulate a number of points over the course of the year (often \"season\") and their cumulative total after all meetings have been concluded determines the World Champion or, simply, World Cup winner. The winner is then considered the champion until the next World Cup." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History and prehistory.", "Projectiles.", "Projectile launchers.", "Throwing.", "Sling.", "Bow.", "Catapult.", "Gun.", "Rocket.", "Subfields.", "Internal ballistics.", "Transitional ballistics.", "External ballistics.", "Terminal ballistics.", "Applications.", "Forensic ballistics.", "Astrodynamics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The earliest known ballistic projectiles were stones and spears, and the throwing stick. The oldest evidence of stone-tipped projectiles, which may or may not have been propelled by a bow (c.f. atlatl), dating to c. 64,000 years ago, were found in Sibudu Cave, present day-South Africa. The oldest evidence of the use of bows to shoot arrows dates to about 10,000 years ago; it is based on pinewood arrows found in the Ahrensburg valley north of Hamburg. They had shallow grooves on the base, indicating that they were shot from a bow. The oldest bow so far recovered is about 8,000 years old, found in the Holmegård swamp in Denmark. Archery seems to have arrived in the Americas with the Arctic small tool tradition, about 4,500 years ago. The first devices identified as guns appeared in China around 1000 AD, and by the 12th century the technology was spreading through the rest of Asia, and into Europe by the 13th century. After millennia of empirical development, the discipline of ballistics was initially studied and developed by Italian mathematician Niccolò Tartaglia in 1531, although he continued to use segments of straight-line motion, conventions established by Avicenna and Albert of Saxony, but with the innovation that he connected the straight lines by a circular arc. Galileo established the principle of compound motion in 1638, using the principle to derive the parabolic form of the ballistic trajectory. Ballistics was put on a solid scientific and mathematical basis by Isaac Newton, with the publication of Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687. This gave mathematical laws of motion and gravity which for the first time made it possible to successfully predict trajectories. The word \"ballistics\" comes from the Greek, meaning \"to throw\".", "A projectile is any object projected into space (empty or not) by the exertion of a force. Although any object in motion through space (for example a thrown baseball) is a projectile, the term most commonly refers to a ranged weapon. Mathematical equations of motion are used to analyze projectile trajectory. Examples of projectiles include balls, arrows, bullets, artillery shells, rockets, etc.", "", "Throwing is the launching of a projectile by hand. Although some other animals can throw, humans are unusually good throwers due to their high dexterity and good timing capabilities, and it is believed that this is an evolved trait. Evidence of human throwing dates back 2 million years. The 90 mph throwing speed found in many athletes far exceeds the speed at which chimpanzees can throw things, which is about 20 mph. This ability reflects the ability of the human shoulder muscles and tendons to store elasticity until it is needed to propel an object.", "A sling is a projectile weapon typically used to throw a blunt projectile such as a stone, clay or lead \"sling-bullet\". A sling has a small cradle or \"pouch\" in the middle of two lengths of cord. The \"sling stone\" is placed in the pouch. The middle finger or thumb is placed through a loop on the end of one cord, and a tab at the end of the other cord is placed between the thumb and forefinger. The sling is swung in an arc, and the tab released at a precise moment. This frees the projectile to fly to the target.", "A bow is a flexible piece of material which shoots aerodynamic projectiles called arrows. A string joins the two ends and when the string is drawn back, the ends of the stick are flexed. When the string is released, the potential energy of the flexed stick is transformed into the velocity of the arrow. Archery is the art or sport of shooting arrows from bows.", "A catapult is a device used to launch a projectile a great distance without the aid of explosive devices — particularly various types of ancient and medieval siege engines. The catapult has been used since ancient times, because it was proven to be one of the most effective mechanisms during warfare. The word \"catapult\" comes from the Latin, which in turn comes from the Greek (), itself from (), \"against” and (), \"to toss, to hurl\". Catapults were invented by the ancient Greeks.", "A gun is a normally tubular weapon or other device designed to discharge projectiles or other material. The projectile may be solid, liquid, gas, or energy and may be free, as with bullets and artillery shells, or captive as with Taser probes and whaling harpoons. The means of projection varies according to design but is usually effected by the action of gas pressure, either produced through the rapid combustion of a propellant or compressed and stored by mechanical means, operating on the projectile inside an open-ended tube in the fashion of a piston. The confined gas accelerates the movable projectile down the length of the tube imparting sufficient velocity to sustain the projectile's travel once the action of the gas ceases at the end of the tube or muzzle. Alternatively, acceleration via electromagnetic field generation may be employed in which case the tube may be dispensed with and a guide rail substituted.", "A rocket is a missile, spacecraft, aircraft or other vehicle that obtains thrust from a rocket engine. Rocket engine exhaust is formed entirely from propellants carried within the rocket before use. Rocket engines work by action and reaction. Rocket engines push rockets forward simply by throwing their exhaust backwards extremely fast. While comparatively inefficient for low speed use, rockets are relatively lightweight and powerful, capable of generating large accelerations and of attaining extremely high speeds with reasonable efficiency. Rockets are not reliant on the atmosphere and work very well in space. Rockets for military and recreational uses date back to at least 13th century China. Significant scientific, interplanetary and industrial use did not occur until the 20th century, when rocketry was the enabling technology for the Space Age, including setting foot on the Moon. Rockets are now used for fireworks, weaponry, ejection seats, launch vehicles for artificial satellites, human spaceflight, and space exploration. Chemical rockets are the most common type of high performance rocket and they typically create their exhaust by the combustion of rocket propellant. Chemical rockets store a large amount of energy in an easily released form, and can be very dangerous. However, careful design, testing, construction and use minimizes risks.", "Ballistics is often broken down into the following four categories:", "Internal ballistics (also interior ballistics), a sub-field of ballistics, is the study of the propulsion of a projectile. In guns internal ballistics covers the time from the propellant's ignition until the projectile exits the gun barrel. The study of internal ballistics is important to designers and users of firearms of all types, from small-bore rifles and pistols, to high-tech artillery. For rocket propelled projectiles, internal ballistics covers the period during which a rocket engine is providing thrust.", "Transitional ballistics, also known as intermediate ballistics, is the study of a projectile's behavior from the time it leaves the muzzle until the pressure behind the projectile is equalized, so it lies between internal ballistics and external ballistics.", "External ballistics is the part of the science of ballistics that deals with the behaviour of a non-powered projectile in flight. External ballistics is frequently associated with firearms, and deals with the unpowered free-flight phase of the bullet after it exits the gun barrel and before it hits the target, so it lies between transitional ballistics and terminal ballistics. However, external ballistics is also concerned with the free-flight of rockets and other projectiles, such as balls, arrows etc.", "Terminal ballistics is the study of the behavior and effects of a projectile when it hits its target. Terminal ballistics is relevant both for small caliber projectiles as well as for large caliber projectiles (fired from artillery). The study of extremely high velocity impacts is still very new and is as yet mostly applied to spacecraft design.", "", "Forensic ballistics involves analysis of bullets and bullet impacts to determine information of use to a court or other part of a legal system. Separately from ballistics information, firearm and tool mark examinations (\"ballistic fingerprinting\") involve analyzing firearm, ammunition, and tool mark evidence in order to establish whether a certain firearm or tool was used in the commission of a crime.", "Astrodynamics is the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft. The motion of these objects is usually calculated from Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation. It is a core discipline within space mission design and control." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Causes.", "Japan an example of disinflated economy.", "Disinflation distinguished from deflation.", "Disinflation, the Phillips curve and sacrifice ratio.", "Disinflation strategies.", "Credibility and cost of inflation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "There is widespread consensus among economists that inflation is caused by increases in the supply of money available for use in a nation's economy. Inflation can also occur when the economy 'overheats' because of excess aggregate demand (this is called demand-pull inflation). The causes of disinflation are the opposite, either a decrease in the growth rate of the money supply, or a business cycle contraction (recession). If the central bank of a country enacts tighter monetary policy, that is to say, the government starts selling its securities, the supply of money in an economy is reduced. This contraction of the money supply is known as quantitative tightening. During a recession, competition among businesses for customers becomes more intense, and so retailers are no longer able to pass on higher prices along to their customers. The main reason is that when the central bank adopts tight monetary policy, it becomes expensive to access money, which reduces demand for goods and services in the economy. Even though demand for commodities falls, supply of commodities remains unaltered. Thus, prices fall over time, which leads to disinflation. In contrast, deflation occurs when prices are actually dropping. A growth rate of unemployment below the natural rate of growth leads to an increase in the rate of inflation. But a growth rate of unemployment above the natural rate of growth leads to a decrease in the rate of inflation, also known as disinflation. This happens because when people are jobless they have less money to spend, which indirectly implies a money supply reduction in an economy.", "The best example for a disinflated economy is Japan. In 1990 Japan's output growth rate was 5.2%, unemployment rate was 2.1% and inflation rate was 2.4%. But in 1992 the output growth rate fell to 1.0%, unemployment rate rose to 2.2% and inflation rate decreased to 1.7%. In the year 2000 the output growth rate was 2.8%, unemployment rate was 4.7% and inflation rate was –1.6%.", "If disinflation continues until the inflation rate is zero, the economy enters a deflationary period, with decreasing general prices on all goods and services produced. An example of this happened during the month of October 2008, when U.S. consumer prices fell (deflation) by 1.01% but the overall annual inflation rate simply decreased (disinflation) from an annual rate of 4.94% to 3.66%. So the distinction between deflation and disinflation at that point was simply one of which time period was referred to—the monthly basis or the annual basis. Over the year, prices were up 3.66% while over the month prices were down 1.01%. Disinflation is reduction in the inflation rate. Prices are still rising during disinflation, but at a lower rate. The general price level still rises, but at a slower rate resulting in a lower rate of real value destruction in money and other monetary items. Deflation is a sustained decrease in the general price level (negative inflation rate) resulting in a sustained increase in the real value of money and other monetary items. Money and other monetary items are worth more all the time during deflation as opposed to being worth less all the time during inflation. Deflation causes an increase in the real value of money and other monetary items.", "The Phillips Curve shows that there is a negative relationship between inflation and unemployment. The relationship between the Phillips curve and disinflation can be written as Ө-Ө=-ἀ(u-u). Here Ө is the present year's rate of inflation, Ө is the previous year's rate of inflation, u is the actual rate of unemployment and u is the natural rate of unemployment. ἀ is the parameter that captures the effect of unemployment on the wage. The L.H.S (left hand side) of the equation is the change in the inflation rate. The above equation explains that the change in the rate of inflation depends upon the difference between the actual rate of unemployment and the natural rate of unemployment i.e., (u-u). The rate of inflation would decrease when the actual rate of unemployment is higher than the natural rate of unemployment leading to Disinflation. The inflation rate would increase when natural unemployment rate is higher than the actual unemployment rate. To decrease the rate of inflation, the left side of the equation must be negative and the term (u-u) must be positive. Mathematically: Though a decrease in the rate of inflation and the unemployment growth rate are related to each other, the relationship does not depend on the speed of disinflation. Simply speaking, the rate of inflation can be slowed by increasing the rate of unemployment at a smaller rate spread over many years—or disinflation can be achieved quickly by increasing the rate of unemployment at a higher rate spread over a few years. When we sum the rate of unemployment over the years, it is same. This phenomenon can be explained with the help of point-year of excess unemployment. It is the difference between the actual and the natural rate of unemployment of one percentage point for one year. For example, suppose the natural rate of unemployment is 9%; an unemployment rate of 15% for 5 years in a row corresponds to five times (15-9 = 6; 5*6 = 30) point years of excess unemployment. Suppose the central bank wants to reduce inflation from 15% to 10% so that inflation rate equals to 5% and that too within a period of 1 year. The equation Ө-Ө=-ἀ(u-u). states that to reduce the inflation rate to 5% requires one year of unemployment at 10% above the natural rate. The R.H.S equals to –5% and the inflation rate decreases by 10% within a year. Following this phenomenon to reduce inflation over 5 years requires 5 years of unemployment at 1%i.e.(10/5) above the natural rate, and so on. We can note that in the above phenomenon the number of point-years of excess unemployment required to decrease inflation is the same i.e. 5%. A cost is always involved in reducing inflation. This is explained with the help of a \"sacrifice ratio\". The sacrifice ratio is the amount of cost required to reduce the rate of inflation over time. It is the ratio of the aggregate percentage loss of GDP to the decrease in inflation. For example, suppose the central bank wants to reduce the inflation rate from 20% to 12% over a period of 4 years. To achieve this rate, suppose the economy must bear the cost of an output level 12% below plausible in the first year, 9% below the plausible in the second year, 6% below plausible in the third year, and 5% below plausible in the fourth year. Thus the total loss of GDP is 32% (12%+9%+6%+5%) and the decrease in inflation rate is 8%. Thus the sacrifice ratio is 4 (32/8).", "To reduce inflation, policymakers must choose between \"cold-turkey\" and \"gradualist\" policies. Cold-Turkey policies try to reduce the inflation rate as quickly as possible towards a target. Gradualist policies reduce the rate of inflation at a slow pace, which is to say that these policies move the economy slowly towards a target. Cold-turkey policies create a \"shock-effect\", which might not be good for the economy if the shock is great, but can be good for the economy if it builds policymaker trustworthiness. Gradualist policies allow policymakers to incorporate new information when playing out the policies.", "The Lucas critique states that it is improbable to assume that wage setters would not consider changes in policy when forming their expectation. If wage setters believe that policymakers are committed to decreasing the inflation rate, they lower their expectations of inflation, and this leads to a decline in the rate of actual inflation without the need for prolonged recession. This can be explained with the help of the above-mentioned equation, in which expected inflation is taken on the right: Ө=Ө-ἀ(u-u). If the wage-setters look at the previous year's inflation rate and form their expectations accordingly, then inflation rate can be reduced only by accepting a higher rate of unemployment for some period. If Ө=Ө, from Ө-Ө=-ἀ(u-u. Thus, to achieve: Ө < Ө, it must be that u > u) If, however, wage-setters expect the rate of inflation to fall from 9% to 5%—i.e., it will indeed be lower than the past—then inflation would fall to 5% even if unemployment remains at the natural rate of unemployment. One of the most important constituents of successful disinflation is the credibility of monetary policy according to Thomas J. Sargent. It states that the beliefs of wage setters are affected if they feel that the central bank are religiously committed in reducing the rate of inflation. The way the wage-setters formed their expectations can only be changed with the help of credibility. The credibility view is that fast disinflation is likely to be more credible than slow disinflation. Credibility decreases the unemployment cost of disinflation. Therefore, the central bank should go for fast disinflation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Controversy.", "The list." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "At the time when the competition was announced, in June 2004, the SABC gave the assurance that the South African show would not ban certain political figures, as was the case in the German version which banned Nazis from the list. They soon came to regret their decision when the SABC became embroiled in a national controversy over the high rankings accorded to some South Africans who were less widely regarded as \"great\". For example, Hendrik Verwoerd, the \"Architect of Apartheid\", ranked higher on the list than Albert Luthuli, South Africa's first Nobel Peace laureate, or Chris Hani, a famous anti-apartheid activist. Also present on the list was Eugène Terre'Blanche, the head of the Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging. Other controversial choices included an 11th placing for Hansie Cronje, the disgraced former captain of the South African cricket team, who admitted to taking bribes to influence the outcome of test matches. On 14 October, the SABC announced that the show was being cancelled, leaving positions 2 to 10 still formally undecided. Letter columns in some newspapers called the show a farce and used the term \"whites with cellphones\" to explain the presence of Hendrik Verwoerd and Eugène Terre'Blanche high on the rankings. This view was rebutted by Afrikaans singer-songwriter Steve Hofmeyr who pointed out that Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, an anti-apartheid activist who was convicted of fraud post-apartheid, scored high on the list as well. According to Peter Matlare, CEO of the SABC, the show was stopped because \"wider participation in the voting process\" was necessary. When the competition was announced, the SABC defined a Great South African as someone who contributed to the \"country's life and development\". When the show was stopped, the SABC claimed that their definition of a Great South African was actually someone who contributed to South Africa's development \"and the promotion of humanity\" and the fact that quite a few people on the list did not fit this description contributed to the decision to stop the show.", "This is the original list of \"100 Greatest South Africans\", with positions 2 to 10 still to be confirmed by public vote, before the show was taken off the air:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Fursuit construction.", "Types of fursuits.", "In culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The concept of a fursuit can be traced decades prior to the term \"fursuit\" ever being coined, to at least as early as 1947, with a German Shepherd dog suit being a core plot element of Edwin Corle's \"Three Ways to Mecca\". However, although an early, genderbending fursuit appeared at the first ever furry convention in 1989, fursuits did not become widely known until the mid-1990s and the rise of the Internet. Most early fursuit making was done on a hobby basis using guides released by members of the community. However, by the mid-2000s, fursuits were in such high demand that fursuit making became a viable business. Including used suits, the industry now sells millions of dollars worth of suits each year, and organizations such as sports teams are increasingly commissioning mascots as custom-made fursuits.", "Fursuits originated due to the dissatisfaction with the quality of mass-produced mascot costumes. Fursuit making is a growing industry, with new costume makers who handcraft custom suits entering the market every week. A few dozen of these makers are highly respected and command prices up to $4,500 or more for a full suit, while there are several hundred more who charge less, usually between $1,000 and $3,000. Some of these, however, are \"fly-by-night\" operations or make suits of sub-par quality, leading to the proliferation of fursuit review sites to weed them out. There is heavy turnover of these smaller makers, with only a third of them able to stay afloat, due to suit-making being labor-intensive, and requiring a unique style and a following. People also sometimes make fursuits from scratch as a hobby without opening a business themselves. In order to make them fit correctly, many fursuit makers utilize \"duct tape dummies\" that are made of the wearer's body. They are made with faux fur that is sometimes sourced from places like the Los Angeles Fashion District. A single suit can take more than 200 hours of work and sell for thousands of dollars. Fursuits can be expensive to clean, although many modern-day suits are machine-washable.", "Besides the typical full-body suit, the partial suit, where the suit's body is substituted by normal clothing, is a popular variation. Three-quarter suits only include part of the body, like the torso or legs, appearing similarly to a funny animal character. Quadsuits are one of the most challenging and expensive types of costumes to make, and involve the wearer walking on all fours with arm extensions to create the illusion of a real animal. A plush suit is a suit that is made to look like a stuffed animal/plushie. There are also fursuits made of other materials, such as spandex or latex. Fursuits can range from cartoon-styled to hyper-realistic. The most popular animals for fursuits to be based on are dogs and big cats. They may also be based on fictional animal hybrids. Some suits may include integrated technology, such as LED lights and programmed expressive eyes.", "Fursuits are heavily associated with the furry fandom by the general public, despite the fact that only 15 percent of its members own a fursuit, mainly due to their cost being prohibitively high. They may also be seen as overtly sexualized due to negative coverage from shows like \"\", though this is typically not the case. Furries who own a fursuit often base them on a \"fursona\", an anthropomorphic character that represents themselves. Dedicated fursuiters may own as many as a dozen suits based on different characters. Despite being stigmatized as \"bizarre\", many members of the furry fandom aspire to be society's highest earners, in part to afford expensive fursuits and associated furry art. Fursuits are usually worn to furry conventions such as Midwest FurFest and Anthrocon. Some fursuits of existing characters are made for the purposes of cosplay and are worn to anime or gaming conventions. They are also worn in public, though this often requires a spotter or handler to ensure the safety of the performer from things like rowdy people, exhaustion or accidents due to limited vision." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Appointment as emperor.", "Revolt of Procopius.", "War against the Goths.", "Conflict with the Sassanids.", "Gothic War.", "Battle of Adrianople and death of Valens.", "Legacy.", "Struggles with the religious nature of the Empire." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Valens and his brother Valentinian were both born in Cibalae in southern Pannonia (now Vinkovci in Croatia) into an Illyrian family in 328 and 321 respectively. They had grown up on estates purchased by their father Gratian the Elder in Africa and Britain. While Valentinian had been distinguished in an active military career prior to his election, Valens, though already 35 years old, had not participated in either the civil or military affairs of the empire previous to his selection as Augustus by his brother. In February 364, the reigning Emperor Jovian, while hastening to Constantinople to secure his claim to the throne, died in his sleep during a stop at Dadastana, 100 miles east of Ankara. Valentinian, a \"tribunus scutariorum\", who owed his advancement to the deceased, was elected by the legions to succeed Jovian. He was proclaimed Augustus on 26 February, 364. It was the general opinion that Valentinian needed help to handle the cumbersome administration, civil and military, of the large and unwieldy empire, and, on 28 March of the same year, at the express demand of the soldiers for a second Augustus, he selected his brother Valens as co-emperor in the palace of Hebdomon. Both emperors were briefly ill, delaying them in Constantinople, but as soon as they recovered, the two \"Augusti\" travelled together through Adrianople and Naissus to Mediana, where they divided their territories. Valentinian then went on to the West, where the Alemannic wars required his immediate attention. Valens obtained the eastern half of the Empire: Greece, The Balkans, Egypt, Anatolia and as far east as The Levant that bordered the Sassanid Persian Empire. Valens was back in his capital of Constantinople by December 364.", "Valens inherited the eastern portion of an empire that had recently retreated from most of its holdings in Mesopotamia and Armenia because of a treaty that his predecessor Jovian had made with Shapur II of the Sassanid Empire. Valens's first priority after the winter of 365 was to move east in hopes of shoring up the situation. By the autumn of 365 he had reached Cappadocian Caesarea when he learned that a usurper, Julian's maternal cousin, named Procopius, had proclaimed himself in Constantinople. Procopius had commanded an auxiliary northern contingent of his relative's army during the Persian expedition and had not been present when Jovian was named his successor in the camp beyond the Tigris. Though Jovian, aside from depriving him of his command, took no further measures against this potential rival, Procopius fell immediately under the suspicion of Valentinian upon the latter's election. After narrowly escaping arrest, he went into hiding but reemerged some time later at Constantinople where he was able to convince two Gallic legions passing through the capital to proclaim him emperor on 28 September 365. Though his early reception in the city seems to have been lukewarm, Procopius won favor quickly by using propaganda to his advantage: he sealed off the city to outside reports and began spreading rumors that Valentinian had died; he began minting coinage flaunting his connections to the Constantinian dynasty; and he further exploited dynastic claims by using the widow and daughter of Constantius II to act as showpieces for his regime. This program met with some success, particularly among soldiers loyal to the Constantinians and eastern intellectuals who had already begun to feel persecuted by the Valentinians. Valens' dismissal shortly before of Julian's popular minister Sallustius contributed to the general disaffection and to the acceptability of a revolution. Valens, meanwhile, faltered. When news arrived that Procopius had revolted, Valens considered abdication and perhaps even suicide. Even after he steadied his resolve to fight, Valens's efforts to forestall Procopius were hampered by the fact that most of his troops had already crossed the Cilician gates into Syria when he learned of the revolt. Procopius quickly gained control of the provinces of Asia and Bithynia, winning increasing support for the insurrection. However, Valens recovered, reappointed Sallustius, and dispatched the available legions under veteran generals, Arinthaeus and Arbetio, to march on Procopius. In the spring of 366 Valens' lieutenants encountered and routed Procopius at the battle of Thyatira, and again shortly after at Nacoleia. On both occasions, Procopius was deserted by his own following in fear of their Imperial adversaries' formidable commanders. Procopius was delivered to justice by members of his own escort, and executed on 27 May. His head was sent to Valentinian in Trier for inspection.", "During Procopius's insurrection, the Gothic king Ermanaric, who ruled a powerful kingdom north of the Danube from the Euxine to the Baltic Sea, had engaged to supply him with troops for the struggle against Valens. The Gothic army, reportedly numbering 30,000 men, arrived too late to help Procopius, but nevertheless invaded Thrace and began plundering the farms and vineyards of the province. Valens, marching north after defeating Procopius, surrounded them with a superior force and forced them to surrender. Ermanaric protested, and when Valens, encouraged by Valentinian, refused to make atonement to the Goths for his conduct, war was declared. In the spring of 367, Valens crossed the Danube and attacked the Visigoths under Athanaric, Ermanaric's tributary. The Goths fled into the Carpathian Mountains, and the campaign ended with no decisive conclusion. The following spring, a Danube flood prevented Valens from crossing; instead the Emperor occupied his troops with the construction of fortifications. In 369, Valens crossed again, from Noviodunum, and by devastating the country forced Athanaric to attack him. Valens was victorious, and Athanaric received Ermanaric's permission to conclude a truce. Athanaric pleaded for treaty terms and Valens gladly obliged. The treaty seems to have largely cut off relations between Goths and Romans, confining trade and the exchange of troops for tribute.", "Among Valens' reasons for contracting a hasty and not entirely favorable peace in 369 was the deteriorating state of affairs in the East. Jovian had surrendered Rome's much disputed claim to control over Armenia in 363, and Shapur II was eager to make good on this new opportunity. The Sassanid ruler began enticing Armenian lords over to his camp and eventually forced the defection of the Arsacid Armenian king, Arsaces II (Arshak II), whom he quickly arrested and incarcerated. Shapur then sent an invasion force to seize Caucasian Iberia and a second to besiege Arsaces II's son, Papas (Pap), in the fortress of Artogerassa, probably in 367. By the following spring, Papas had engineered his escape from the fortress and flight to Valens, whom he seems to have met at Marcianople while campaigning against the Goths. Already in the summer following his Gothic settlement, Valens sent his general Arinthaeus to re-impose Papas on the Armenian throne. This provoked Shapur himself to invade and lay waste to Armenia. Papas, however, once again escaped and was restored a second time under escort of a much larger force in 370. The following spring, larger forces were sent under Terentius to regain Iberia and to garrison Armenia near Mount Npat. When Shapur counterattacked into Armenia in 371, his forces were bested by Valens' generals Trajanus and Vadomarius at Bagavan. Valens had overstepped the 363 treaty and then successfully defended his transgression. A truce settled after the 371 victory held as a quasi-peace for the next five years while Shapur was forced to deal with a Kushan invasion on his eastern frontier. Meanwhile, troubles broke out with the boy-king Papas, who began acting in high-handed fashion, even executing the Armenian bishop Narses and demanding control of a number of Roman cities, including Edessa. Pressed by his generals and fearing that Papas would defect to the Persians, Valens made an unsuccessful attempt to capture the prince and later had him executed inside Armenia. In his stead, Valens imposed another Arsacid, Varasdates (Varazdat), who ruled under the regency of the \"sparapet\" Mushegh I Mamikonian, a friend of Rome. None of this sat well with the Persians, who began agitating again for compliance with the 363 treaty. As the eastern frontier heated up in 375, Valens began preparations for a major expedition. Meanwhile, trouble was brewing elsewhere. In Isauria, the mountainous region of western Cilicia, a major revolt had broken out in 375 which diverted troops formerly stationed in the East. Furthermore, by 377, the Saracens under Queen Mavia had broken into revolt and devastated a swath of territory stretching from Phoenicia and Palestine as far as the Sinai. Though Valens successfully brought both uprisings under control, the opportunities for action on the eastern frontier were limited by these skirmishes closer to home. On 17 November 375, Valens' older brother Valentinian died of a burst blood vessel in his skull in Pannonia. Gratian, Valentinian's son and Valens' nephew, had already been associated with his father in the imperial dignity and was joined by his half-brother Valentinian II who was elevated, on their father's death, to Augustus by the imperial troops in Pannonia.", "Valens' plans for an eastern campaign were never realized. A transfer of troops to the Western Empire in 374 had left gaps in Valens' mobile forces. In preparation for an eastern war, Valens initiated an ambitious recruitment program designed to fill those gaps. It was thus not entirely unwelcome news when Valens heard of Ermanaric's death and the disintegration of his kingdom before an invasion of hordes of barbaric Huns from the far east. After failing to hold the Dniester or the Pruth against the Huns, the Goths retreated southward in a massive emigration, seeking new settlements and shelter south of the Danube, which they thought could be held against the enemy. In 376, the Visigoths under their leader Fritigern advanced to the far shores of the lower Danube and sent an ambassador to Valens who had set up his capital in Antioch, and requested asylum. As Valens' advisers were quick to point out, these Goths could supply troops who would at once swell Valens' ranks and decrease his dependence on provincial troop levies—thereby increasing revenues from the recruitment tax. However, it would mean hiring them and paying in gold or silver for their services. Fritigern had enjoyed contact with Valens in the 370s when Valens supported him in a struggle against Athanaric stemming from Athanaric's persecution of Gothic Christians. Though a number of Gothic groups apparently requested entry, Valens granted admission only to Fritigern and his followers. Others would soon follow, however. When Fritigern and his Goths, to the number of 200,000 warriors and almost a million all told, crossed the Danube, Valens's mobile forces were tied down in the east, on the Persian frontier (Valens was attempting to withdraw from the harsh terms imposed by Shapur and was meeting some resistance on the latter's part). This meant that only limitanei units were present to oversee the Goths' settlement. The small number of imperial troops present prevented the Romans from stopping a Danube crossing by a group of Ostrogoths and yet later on by Huns and Alans. What started out as a controlled resettlement might any moment turn into a major invasion. But the situation was worsened by corruption in the Roman administration, as Valens' generals accepted bribes rather than depriving the Goths of their weapons as Valens had stipulated and then proceeded to enrage them by such exorbitant prices for food that they were soon driven to the last extremity. Meanwhile the Romans failed to prevent the crossing of other barbarians who were not included in the treaty. In early 377 the Goths revolted after a commotion with the people of Marcianople, and defeated the corrupt Roman governor Lupicinus near the city. After joining forces with the Ostrogoths under Alatheus and Saphrax who had crossed without Valens' consent, the combined barbarian group spread out to devastate the country before combining to meet Roman advance forces under Traianus and Richomer. In a sanguinary battle at \"Ad Salices\", the Goths were momentarily checked, and Saturninus, now Valens' lieutenant in the province, undertook a strategy of hemming them in between the lower Danube and the Euxine, hoping to starve them into surrender. However, Fritigern forced him to retreat by inviting some of the Huns to cross the river in the rear of Saturninus's ranged defenses. The Romans then fell back, incapable of containing the irruption, though with an elite force of his best soldiers the general Sebastian was able to fall upon and destroy several of the smaller predatory bands. By 378, Valens himself was ready to march west from his eastern base in Antioch. He withdrew all but a skeletal force—some of them Goths—from the east and moved west, reaching Constantinople by 30 May, 378. Valens' councilors, Comes Richomeres, and his generals Frigerid, and Victor cautioned Valens to wait for the arrival of Gratian with his troops from Gaul, fresh from defeating the Alemanni, and Gratian himself strenuously urged this prudent course in his letters. But meanwhile the citizens of Constantinople were clamoring for the emperor to march against the enemy whom he had himself introduced into the Empire, and jeering the contrast between himself and his co-Augustus. Valens decided to advance at once and win a victory on his own.", "After a brief stay aimed at building his troop strength and gaining a toehold in Thrace, Valens moved out to Adrianople. From there, he marched against the confederated barbarian army on 9 August 378 in what would become known as the Battle of Adrianople. Although negotiations were attempted, these broke down when a Roman unit sallied forth and carried both sides into battle. The Romans held their own early on but were crushed by the surprise arrival of Visigoth cavalry which split their ranks. The primary source for the battle is Ammianus Marcellinus. Valens had left a sizeable guard with his baggage and treasures depleting his force. His right cavalry wing arrived at the Gothic camp sometime before the left wing arrived. It was a very hot day and the Roman cavalry was engaged without strategic support, wasting its efforts while they suffered in the heat. Meanwhile, Fritigern once again sent an emissary of peace in his continued manipulation of the situation. The resultant delay meant that the Romans present on the field began to succumb to the heat. The army's resources were further diminished when an ill-timed attack by the Roman archers made it necessary to recall Valens' emissary, Comes Richomeres. The archers were beaten and retreated in humiliation. Returning from foraging to find the battle in full swing, Gothic cavalry under the command of Althaeus and Saphrax now struck and, in what was probably the most decisive event of the battle, the Roman cavalry fled. From here, Ammianus gives two accounts of Valens' demise. In the first account, Ammianus states that Valens was \"mortally wounded by an arrow, and presently breathed his last breath\" (XXXI.12). His body was never found or given a proper burial. In the second account, Ammianus states the Roman infantry was abandoned, surrounded and cut to pieces. Valens was wounded and carried to a small wooden hut. The hut was surrounded by the Goths who put it to the torch, evidently unaware of the prize within. According to Ammianus, this is how Valens perished (XXXI.13.14–6). A third, apocryphal, account states that Valens was struck in the face by a Gothic dart and then perished while leading a charge. He wore no helmet, in order to encourage his men. This action turned the tide of the battle which resulted in a tactical victory but a strategic loss. The church historian Socrates likewise gives two accounts for the death of Valens. Some have asserted that he was burnt to death in a village whither he had retired, which the barbarians assaulted and set on fire. But others affirm that having put off his imperial robe he ran into the midst of the main body of infantry; and that when the cavalry revolted and refused to engage, the infantry were surrounded by the barbarians, and completely destroyed in a body. Among these it is said the Emperor fell, but could not be distinguished, in consequence of his not having on his imperial habit. When the battle was over, two-thirds of the eastern army lay dead. Many of their best officers had also perished. What was left of the army of Valens was led from the field under the cover of night by Comes Richomer and General Victor. J.B. Bury, a noted historian of the period, provides a specific interpretation on the significance of the battle: it was \"a disaster and disgrace that need not have occurred.\" For Rome, the battle incapacitated the government. Emperor Gratian, nineteen years old, was overcome by the debacle, and, until he appointed Theodosius I, unable to deal with the catastrophe, which spread out of control.", "\"Valens was utterly undistinguished, still only a \"protector\", and possessed no military ability: he betrayed his consciousness of inferiority by his nervous suspicion of plots and savage punishment of alleged traitors,\" writes A.H.M. Jones. But Jones admits that \"he was a conscientious administrator, careful of the interests of the humble. Like his brother, he was an earnest Christian.\" He diminished the oppressive burden of the taxes which had been instituted by Constantine and his sons, and was humbly deferential to his brother in the latter's edicts of reform, as the institution of \"Defensors\" (a sort of substitute for the ancient Tribunes, guardians of the lower classes). His moderation and chastity in his private life were everywhere celebrated. At the same time, continuous proscriptions and executions, originating in his weak and fearful disposition, disgraced the dozen years of his reign. \"An anxious regard to his personal safety was the ruling principle of the administration of Valens\", writes Gibbon. To have died in so inglorious a battle has thus come to be regarded as the nadir of an unfortunate career. This is especially true because of the profound consequences of Valens' defeat. Adrianople spelled the beginning of the end for Roman territorial integrity in the late Empire and this fact was recognized even by contemporaries. Ammianus understood that it was the worst defeat in Roman history since the Battle of Edessa, and Rufinus called it \"the beginning of evils for the Roman empire then and thereafter.\" Valens is also credited with the commission of a short history of the Roman State. This work, produced by Valens' secretary Eutropius, and known by the name \"Breviarium ab Urbe condita\", tells the story of Rome from its founding. According to some historians, Valens was motivated by the necessity of learning Roman history, that he, the royal family, and their appointees might better mix with the Roman senatorial class.", "During his reign, Valens had to confront the theological diversity that was beginning to create division in the Empire. Julian (361–363), had tried to revive the pagan religions. His reactionary attempt took advantage of the dissensions among the different Christian factions, and a largely Pagan rank and file military. However, in spite of broad support, his actions were often viewed as excessive, and before he died in a campaign against the Persians, he was often treated with disdain. His death was considered a sign from God. Valens was baptised by the Arian bishop of Constantinople before he set out on his first war against the Goths. While the Nicene Christian writers of his time identified Valens with the Arian faction and accused him of persecuting Nicene Christians, modern historians have described both Valens and Valentinian I as primarily interested in maintaining social order and have minimized their theological concerns. Although Athanasius was impelled, under his reign, to briefly go into hiding, Valens maintained a close dependency on his brother Valentinian and treated St. Basil mildly, both of whom supported the Nicene position. Not long after Valens died the cause of Arianism in the Roman East was to come to an end. His successor Theodosius I would favor the Nicene Creed and suppress the Arians." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History of bicameral legislatures.", "Rationale for bicameralism and criticism.", "Communication between houses.", "Types.", "Federal.", "Canada.", "Australia.", "Others.", "Aristocratic and post-aristocratic.", "House of Lords of the United Kingdom.", "Japan's Former House of Peers.", "Unitary states.", "Italian Parliament.", "Indirectly Elected Upper Houses (France, Ireland, Netherlands).", "Semi-bicameral (Hong Kong, Formerly Norway).", "Subnational entities.", "Argentina.", "Australia.", "Bosnia and Herzegovina.", "Germany.", "India.", "Russia.", "United States.", "Reform.", "Arab political reform.", "Romania.", "Ivory Coast." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The Founding Fathers of the United States favoured a bicameral legislature. The idea was to have the Senate be wealthier and wiser. Benjamin Rush saw this though, and noted that \"this type of dominion is almost always connected with opulence\". The Senate was created to be a stabilising force, elected not by mass electors, but selected by the State legislators. Senators would be more knowledgeable and more deliberate—a sort of republican nobility—and a counter to what James Madison saw as the \"fickleness and passion\" that could absorb the House. He noted further that \"The use of the Senate is to consist in its proceeding with more coolness, with more system and with more wisdom, than the popular branch.\" Madison's argument led the Framers to grant the Senate prerogatives in foreign policy, an area where steadiness, discretion, and caution were deemed especially important. State legislators chose the Senate, and senators had to possess significant property to be deemed worthy and sensible enough for the position. In 1913, the 17th Amendment passed, which mandated choosing Senators by popular vote rather than State legislatures. As part of the Great Compromise, the Founding Fathers invented a new rationale for bicameralism in which the Senate had an equal number of delegates per state, and the House had representatives by relative populations. The British Parliament is often referred to as the \"Mother of Parliaments\" (in fact a misquotation of John Bright, who remarked in 1865 that \"England is the Mother of Parliaments\") because the British Parliament has been the model for most other parliamentary systems, and its Acts have created many other parliaments. Many nations with parliaments have to some degree emulated the British \"three-tier\" model. Most countries in Europe and the Commonwealth have similarly organised parliaments with a largely ceremonial head of state who formally opens and closes parliament, a large elected lower house, and (unlike Britain) a smaller upper house.", "There have been a number of rationales put forward in favour of bicameralism. Federal states have often adopted it, and the solution remains popular when regional differences or sensitivities require more explicit representation, with the second chamber representing the constituent states. Nevertheless, the older justification for second chambers—providing opportunities for second thoughts about legislation—has survived. For states considering a different constitutional arrangement that may shift power to new groupings, bicameralism could be demanded by currently hegemonic groups who would otherwise prevent any structural shift (e.g. military dictatorships, aristocracies). The growing awareness of the complexity of the notion of representation and the multi-functional nature of modern legislatures may be affording incipient new rationales for second chambers, though these do generally remain contested institutions in ways that first chambers are not. An example of political controversy regarding a second chamber has been the debate over the powers of the Senate of Canada or the election of the Senate of France. The relationship between the two chambers varies; in some cases, they have equal power, while in others, one chamber is clearly superior in its powers. The first tends to be the case in federal systems and those with presidential governments. The latter tends to be the case in unitary states with parliamentary systems. There are two streams of thought: Critics believe bicameralism makes meaningful political reforms more difficult to achieve and increases the risk of gridlock—particularly in cases where both chambers have similar powers—while proponents argue the merits of the \"checks and balances\" provided by the bicameral model, which they believe help prevent the passage into law of ill-considered legislation.", "Formal communication between houses is by various methods, including:", "", "Some countries, such as Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Canada, Germany, India, Malaysia, Mexico, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Switzerland, Nigeria, and the United States, link their bicameral systems to their federal political structure. In the United States, Australia, Brazil, Mexico and Nepal for example, each state or province is given the same number of seats in one of the houses of the legislature, despite variance in the population of each state or province — it is designed to ensure that smaller states are not overshadowed by larger states, which may have more representation in the other house of the legislature.", "Canada's elected lower house, the House of Commons, comprises Members of Parliament (MPs) from single-member \"ridings\" based mainly on population (updated every 10 years using Census data). The Commons is democratically elected every four years (constitutionally up to five years). In contrast, in Canada's upper house, Senators are appointed to serve until age 75 by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Government (i.e. executive) is responsible to and must maintain the confidence of the elected House of Commons. Although the two chambers formally have many of the same powers, this accountability clearly makes the Commons dominant—determining which party is in power, approving its proposed budget and (largely) the laws enacted. The Senate primarily acts as a chamber of revision: it almost never rejects bills passed by the Commons but does regularly amend them, respecting each bill's purpose so usually acceptable to the Commons. Occasionally, the two houses cannot come to agreement on an amendment, which results in rare instances of key Government bill failing. The Senate's power to investigate issues of concern to Canada can raise their profile (sometimes sharply) on voters′ political agendas.", "The bicameral Parliament of Australia consists of two Houses, the lower house is called the House of Representatives and the upper house is named the Senate. The lower house currently consists of 151 members, each elected from single member constituencies, known as electoral divisions (commonly referred to as \"electorates\" or \"seats\") using full-preference Instant-runoff voting. This tends to lead to the chamber being dominated by two major parties, the Liberal/National Coalition and the Labor Party. The government of the day must achieve the confidence of this House to gain and hold power. The upper house, the Senate, is also popularly elected under the single transferable vote system of proportional representation. There are a total of 76 senators: 12 senators are elected from each of the six Australian states (regardless of population) and two from each of the two autonomous internal territories (the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory). Unlike upper houses in most Westminster parliamentary systems, the Australian Senate is vested with significant power, including the capacity to block legislation initiated by the government in the House of Representatives, making it a distinctive hybrid of British Westminster bicameralism and US-style bicameralism. As a result of proportional representation, the chamber features a multitude of parties vying for power. The governing party or coalition, which must maintain the confidence of the lower house, rarely has a majority in the Senate and usually needs to negotiate with other parties and Independents to get legislation passed.", "In German, Indian, and Pakistani systems, the upper houses (the Bundesrat, the Rajya Sabha, and the Senate respectively) are even more closely linked with the federal system, being appointed or elected directly by the governments or legislatures of each German or Indian state, or Pakistani province. This was also the case in the United States before the Seventeenth Amendment was adopted. Because of this coupling to the executive branch, German legal doctrine does not treat the \"Bundesrat\" as the second chamber of a bicameral system formally. Rather, it sees the \"Bundesrat\" and the \"Bundestag\" as independent constitutional bodies. Only the directly elected \"Bundestag\" is considered the parliament. In the German \"Bundesrat\", the various \"Länder\" have between three and six votes; thus, while the less populated states have a lower weight, they still have a stronger voting power than would be the case in a system based \"purely\" on population, as the most populous \"Land\" currently has about 27 times the population of the least populous. The Indian upper house does not have the states represented equally, but on the basis of their population. There is also bicameralism in countries that are not federations, but have upper houses with representation on a territorial basis. For example, in South Africa, the National Council of Provinces (and before 1997, the Senate) has its members chosen by each Province's legislature. In Spain the Senate functions as a \"de facto\" territorial-based upper house, and there has been some pressure from the Autonomous Communities to reform it into a strictly territorial chamber. The European Union maintains a bicameral legislative system consisting of the European Parliament, which is elected in elections on the basis of universal suffrage, and the Council of the European Union, which consists of one representative for each Government of member countries, who are competent for a relevant field of legislation. The European Union is not considered a country nor a state, but it enjoys the power to address national Governments in many areas.", "In a few countries, bicameralism involves the juxtaposition of democratic and aristocratic elements.", "The best known example is the British House of Lords, which includes a number of hereditary peers. The House of Lords is a vestige of the aristocratic system that once predominated in British politics, while the other house, the House of Commons, is entirely elected. Over the years, some have proposed reforms to the House of Lords, some of which have been at least partly successful. The House of Lords Act 1999 limited the number of hereditary peers (as opposed to life peers, appointed by the Monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister) to 92, down from around 700. Of these 92, one is the Earl Marshal, a hereditary office always held by the Duke of Norfolk, one is the Lord Great Chamberlain, a hereditary office held by turns, currently by the Marquess of Cholmondeley, and the other 90 are elected by all sitting peers. Hereditary peers elected by the House to sit as representative peers sit for life; when a representative peer dies, byelections occur to fill the vacancy. The ability of the House of Lords to block legislation is curtailed by the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949. Peers can introduce bills except Money Bills, and all legislation must be passed by both Houses of Parliament. If not passed within two sessions, the House of Commons can override the Lords′ delay by invoking the \"Parliament Act\". Certain legislation, however, must be approved by both Houses without being forced by the Commons under the \"Parliament Act\". These include any bill that would extend the time length of a Parliament, private bills, bills sent to the House of Lords less than one month before the end of a session, and bills that originated in the House of Lords. Life Peers are appointed either by recommendation of the Appointment Commission (the independent body that vets non-partisan peers, typically from academia, business or culture) or by Dissolution Honour, which takes place at the end of every Parliamentary term when leaving MPs may be offered a seat to keep their institutional memory. It is traditional to offer a peerage to every outgoing Speaker of the House of Commons. Further reform of the Lords has been proposed; however, reform is not supported by many. Members of the House of Lords all have an aristocratic title, or are from the Clergy. 26 Archbishops and Bishops of the Church of England sit as Lords Spiritual (the Archbishop of Canterbury, Archbishop of York, the Bishop of London, the Bishop of Durham, the Bishop of Winchester and the next 21 longest-serving Bishops). It is usual that retiring Archbishops, and certain other Bishops, are appointed to the Crossbenches and given a life peerage. Until 2009, 12 Lords of Appeal in Ordinary sat in the House as the highest court in the land; they subsequently became justices of the newly created Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. At present, 786 people sit in the House of Lords, with 92 Hereditary Peers, 26 Lords Spiritual and 668 Life Peers. Membership is not fixed and decreases only on the death, retirement or resignation of a life peer.", "Another example of aristocratic bicameralism was the Japanese House of Peers, abolished after World War II and replaced with the present House of Councillors.", "Many bicameral countries like the Netherlands, the Philippines, the Czech Republic, the Republic of Ireland and Romania are examples of bicameral systems existing in unitary states. In countries such as these, the upper house generally focuses on scrutinizing and possibly vetoing the decisions of the lower house.", "On the other hand, in Italy the Parliament consists of two chambers that have the same role and power: the Senate (Senate of the Republic, commonly considered the \"upper house\") and the Chamber of Deputies (considered the \"lower house\"). The main difference among the two chambers is the way the two chambers are composed: the deputies, in fact, are elected on a nation-wide basis, whilst the members of the Senate are elected on a regional basis: this may lead to different majorities among the two chambers because, for example, a party may be the first nationally but second or third in some regions. Considering that in the Italian Republic the Government needs to win confidence votes in both the chambers, it may happen that a Government has a strong majority (usually) in the Chamber of Deputies and a weak one (or no majority at all) in the Senate. This has led to frequent legislative deadlocks, which has caused instability in the Italian Government.", "In some of these countries, the upper house is indirectly elected. Members of France's Senate and Ireland's Seanad Éireann are chosen by electoral colleges, the latter's consisting of members of the lower house, local councillors, the Taoiseach, and graduates of selected universities, while the Netherlands' Senate is chosen by members of provincial assemblies (which, in turn, are directly elected).", "In Hong Kong, members of the unicameral Legislative Council returned from the democratically elected geographical constituencies and partially-democratic functional constituencies are required to vote separately since 1997 on motions, bills or amendments to government bills not introduced by the government. The passage of these motions, bills or amendments to government bills requires double majority in both groups simultaneously. (Before 2004, when elections to the Legislative Council from the Election Committee was abolished, members returned through the Election Committee vote with members returned from geographical constituencies.) The double majority requirement does not apply to motions, bills and amendments introduced by the government. Norway had a kind of semi-bicameral legislature with two chambers, or departments, within the same elected body, the Storting. These were called the Odelsting and were abolished after the general election of 2009. According to Morten Søberg, there was a related system in the 1798 constitution of the Batavian Republic.", "In some countries with federal systems, individual states (like those of the United States, Argentina, Australia and India) may also have bicameral legislatures. A few such states as Nebraska in the U.S., Queensland in Australia, Bavaria in Germany, and Tucumán and Córdoba in Argentina have later adopted unicameral systems. (Brazilian states and Canadian provinces all abolished upper houses.)", "In the Argentine Republic, eight provinces have bicameral legislatures, with a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies: Buenos Aires, Catamarca, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Mendoza, Salta, San Luis (since 1987) and Santa Fe. Tucumán and Córdoba changed to unicameral systems in 1990 and 2001 respectively. Santiago del Estero changed to a bicameral legislature in 1884, but changed back to an unicameral system in 1903.", "In Australian states, the lower house was traditionally elected based on the one-vote-one-value principle, whereas the upper house was partially appointed and elected, with a bias towards country voters and landowners. In Queensland, the appointed upper house was abolished in 1922, while in New South Wales there were similar attempts at abolition, before the upper house was reformed in the 1970s to provide for direct election. Nowadays, the upper house both federally and in most states is elected using the Single transferable vote form of proportional representation while the lower house uses Instant-runoff voting in single member electorates. This is reversed in the state of Tasmania, where proportional representation is used for the lower house and single member electorates for the upper house.", "The Legislature of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, one of the two entities of Bosnia and Herzegovina, is a bicameral legislative body. It consists of two chambers. The House of Representatives has 98 delegates, elected for four-year terms by proportional representation. The House of Peoples has 58 members, 17 delegates from among each of the constituent peoples of the Federation, and 7 delegates from among the other peoples. Republika Srpska, the other entity, has a unicameral parliament, known as the National Assembly, but there is also a Council of Peoples who is \"de facto\" other house of legislative.", "The German federal state of Bavaria had a bicameral legislature from 1946 to 1999, when the Senate was abolished by a referendum amending the state's constitution. The other 15 states have used a unicameral system since their founding.", "Six Indian states, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana and Uttar Pradesh, have bicameral Legislatures, in these states the upper house is called State Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad), one third of whose members are elected every two years. Among the members of state legislative councils: From 1956 to 1958 the Andhra Pradesh Legislature was unicameral. In 1958, when the State Legislative Council was formed, it became bicameral until 1 June 1985 when it was abolished. This continued until March 2007 when the State Legislative Council was reestablished and elections were held for its seats. Since then the Andhra Pradesh Legislature has become once again bicameral. In Tamil Nadu, a resolution was passed on 14 May 1986 and the State Legislative Council was dissolved on 1 November 1986. Again on 12 April 2010, a resolution was passed to bring it back bicameral, but became unsuccessful in 2011. Similarly the states of Assam, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab and West Bengal have also dissolved the upper house of their state legislature.", "Under Soviet regime regional and local Soviets were unicameral. After the adoption of 1993 Russian Constitution bicameralism was introduced in some regions. Bicameral regional legislatures are still technically allowed by federal law but this clause is dormant now. The last region to switch from bicameralism to unicameralism was Sverdlovsk Oblast in 2012.", "During the 1930s, the Legislature of the State of Nebraska was reduced from bicameral to unicameral with the 43 members that once comprised that state's Senate. One of the arguments used to sell the idea at the time to Nebraska voters was that by adopting a unicameral system, the perceived evils of the \"conference committee\" process would be eliminated. A conference committee is appointed when the two chambers cannot agree on the same wording of a proposal, and consists of a small number of legislators from each chamber. This tends to place much power in the hands of only a small number of legislators. Whatever legislation, if any, the conference committee finalizes is presented in an unamendable \"take-it-or-leave-it\" manner by both chambers. During his term as governor of the State of Minnesota, Jesse Ventura proposed converting the Minnesotan legislature to a single chamber with proportional representation, as a reform that he felt would solve many legislative difficulties and impinge upon legislative corruption. In his book on political issues, \"Do I Stand Alone?\", Ventura argued that bicameral legislatures for provincial and local areas were excessive and unnecessary, and discussed unicameralism as a reform that could address many legislative and budgetary problems for states.", "", "A 2005 report on democratic reform in the Arab world by the U.S. Council on Foreign Relations co-sponsored by former Secretary of State Madeleine Albright urged Arab states to adopt bicameralism, with upper chambers appointed on a'specialized basis'. The Council claimed that this would protect against the 'Tyranny of the majority', expressing concerns that without a system of checks and balances extremists would use the single chamber parliaments to restrict the rights of minority groups. In 2002, Bahrain adopted a bicameral system with an elected lower chamber and an appointed upper house. This led to a boycott of parliamentary elections that year by the Al Wefaq party, who said that the government would use the upper house to veto their plans. Many secular critics of bicameralism were won around to its benefits in 2005, after many MPs in the lower house voted for the introduction of so-called morality police.", "A referendum on introducing a unicameral Parliament instead of the current bicameral Parliament was held in Romania on 22 November 2009. The turnout rate was 50.95%, with 77.78% of \"Yes\" votes for a unicameral Parliament. This referendum had a consultative role, thus requiring a parliamentary initiative and another referendum to ratify the new proposed changes.", "A referendum on a new constitution was held on 30 October 2016. The constitution draft would create a bicameral Parliament instead of the current unicameral. The Senate is expected to represent the interests of territorial collectivities and Ivoirians living abroad. Two thirds of the Senate is to be elected at the same time as the general election. The remaining one third is appointed by the president elect." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "First Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, 13 November.", "Prelude.", "Action.", "Aftermath.", "Other actions, 13–14 November.", "Second Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, 14–15 November.", "Prelude.", "Action.", "Aftermath.", "Significance." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The six-month Guadalcanal campaign began on 7 August 1942, when Allied (primarily U.S.) forces landed on Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and the Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands, a pre-war colonial possession of Great Britain. The landings were meant to prevent the Japanese using the islands as bases from which to threaten the supply routes between the U.S. and Australia, and to secure them as starting points for a campaign to neutralize the major Imperial Japanese military base at Rabaul and support of the Allied New Guinea campaign. The Japanese had occupied Tulagi in May 1942 and began constructing an airfield on Guadalcanal in June 1942. By nightfall on 8 August, the 11,000 Allied troops secured Tulagi, the nearby small islands, and a Japanese airfield under construction at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal (later renamed Henderson Field). Allied aircraft operating out of Henderson were called the \"Cactus Air Force\" (CAF) after the Allied code name for Guadalcanal. To protect the airfield, the U.S. Marines established a perimeter defense around Lunga Point. Additional reinforcements over the next two months increased the number of U.S. troops at Lunga Point to more than 20,000 men. In response, the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters assigned the Imperial Japanese Army's 17th Army, a corps-sized command based at Rabaul and under the command of Lieutenant-General Harukichi Hyakutake, with the task of retaking Guadalcanal. Units of the 17th Army began to arrive on Guadalcanal on 19 August, to drive Allied forces from the island. Because of the threat posed by CAF aircraft based at Henderson Field, the Japanese were unable to use large, slow transport ships to deliver troops and supplies to the island. Instead, they used warships based at Rabaul and the Shortland Islands. The Japanese warships—mainly light cruisers or destroyers from the Eighth Fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa—were usually able to make the round trip down \"The Slot\" to Guadalcanal and back in a single night, thereby minimizing their exposure to air attack. Delivering the troops in this manner, however, prevented most of the soldiers' heavy equipment and supplies—such as heavy artillery, vehicles, and much food and ammunition—from being carried to Guadalcanal with them. These high-speed warship runs to Guadalcanal occurred throughout the campaign and came to be known as the \"Tokyo Express\" by Allied forces and \"Rat Transportation\" by the Japanese. The first Japanese attempt to recapture Henderson Field failed when a 917-man force was", "", "Abe's warship force assembled north of Indispensable Strait and proceeded towards Guadalcanal on 12 November with an estimated arrival time for the warships of early morning of 13 November. The convoy of slower transport ships and 12 escorting destroyers, under the command of Raizō Tanaka, began its run down \"The Slot\" (New Georgia Sound) from the Shortlands with an estimated arrival time at Guadalcanal during the night of 13 November. In addition to the battleships \"Hiei\" (Abe's flagship) and \"Kirishima\", Abe's force included the light cruiser and 11 destroyers (,,,,,,,,,, and ). Three more destroyers (,, and ) would provide a rear guard in the Russell Islands during Abe's foray into the waters of\" \"Savo Sound\" \"around and near Savo Island off the north coast of Guadalcanal that would soon be nicknamed \"Ironbottom Sound\" as a result of the numerous ships sunk in this", "At about 01:25 on 13 November, in near-complete darkness due to the bad weather and dark moon, the ships of the Imperial Japanese force entered the sound between Savo Island and Guadalcanal and prepared to bombard Henderson Field with the special ammunition loaded for the purpose. The ships arrived from an unexpected direction, coming not down the slot but from the west side of Savo Island, thus entering the sound from the northwest rather than the north. Unlike their American counterparts, the Japanese sailors had drilled and practiced night fighting extensively, conducting frequent live-fire night gunnery drills and exercises. This experience would be telling in not only the pending encounter, but in several other fleet actions off Guadalcanal in the months to come. Several of the U.S. ships detected the approaching Japanese on radar, beginning at about 01:24, but had trouble communicating the information to Callaghan due to problems with radio equipment, lack of discipline regarding communications procedures, and general inexperience in operating as a cohesive naval unit. Messages were sent and received but did not reach the commander in time to be processed and used. With his limited understanding of the new technology, Callaghan wasted further time trying to reconcile the range and bearing information reported by radar with his limited sight picture, to no avail. Lacking a modern combat information center (CIC), where incoming information could be quickly processed and co-ordinated, the radar operator was reporting on vessels that were not in sight, while Callaghan was trying to coordinate the battle visually, from the bridge. (Post battle analysis of this and other early surface actions would lead directly to the introduction of modern CICs early in 1943.) Several minutes after initial radar contact the two forces sighted each other, at about the same time, but both Abe and Callaghan hesitated ordering their ships into action. Abe was apparently surprised by the proximity of the U.S. ships, and", "At 03:00 on 13 November, Admiral Yamamoto postponed the planned landings of the transports, which returned to the Shortlands to await further orders. Dawn revealed three crippled Japanese (\"Hiei\", \"Yūdachi\", and \"Amatsukaze\"), and three crippled U.S. ships (\"Portland\", \"Atlanta\", and \"Aaron Ward\") in the general vicinity of Savo Island. \"Amatsukaze\" was attacked by U.S. dive bombers but escaped further damage as she headed to Truk, and eventually returned to action several months later. The abandoned hulk of \"Yūdachi\" was sunk by \"Portland\", whose guns were still functioning despite other damage to the ship. The tugboat motored around Ironbottom Sound throughout the day of 13 November, assisting the damaged U.S. ships and", "Although the reinforcement effort to Guadalcanal was delayed, the Japanese did not give up trying to complete the original mission, albeit a day later than originally planned. On the afternoon of 13 November, Tanaka and the 11 transports resumed their journey toward Guadalcanal. A Japanese force of cruisers and destroyers from the 8th Fleet (based primarily at Rabaul and originally assigned to cover the unloading of the transports on the evening of 13 November) was given the mission that Abe's force had failed to carry out—the bombardment of Henderson Field. The battleship \"Kirishima\", after abandoning its rescue effort of \"Hiei\" on the morning of 13 November, steamed north between Santa Isabel and Malaita Islands with her accompanying warships to rendezvous with Kondo's Second Fleet, inbound from Truk, to form the new bombardment unit. The 8th Fleet cruiser force, under the command of Mikawa, included the heavy cruisers,,, and, the light cruisers and, and six destroyers. Mikawa's force was able to slip into the Guadalcanal area uncontested, the battered U.S. naval force having withdrawn. \"Suzuya\" and \"Maya\", under the command of Shōji Nishimura, bombarded Henderson Field while the rest of Mikawa's force cruised around Savo", "", "Kondo's force approached Guadalcanal via Indispensable Strait around midnight on 14 November, and a quarter moon provided moderate visibility of about. The force included {\"Kirishima\", heavy cruisers and, light cruisers and \"Sendai\", and nine destroyers, some of the destroyers being survivors (along with \"Kirishima\" and \"Nagara\") of the first night engagement two days prior. Kondo flew his flag in the cruiser \"Atago\". Low on undamaged ships, Admiral William Halsey, Jr., detached the new battleships and, of \"Enterprise\"s support", "Kondo split his force into several groups, with one group—commanded by Shintaro Hashimoto and consisting of \"Sendai\" and destroyers and (\"C\" on the maps)—sweeping along the east side of Savo Island, and destroyer (\"B\" on the maps) sweeping counterclockwise around the southwest side of Savo Island to check for the presence of Allied ships. The Japanese ships spotted Lee's force around 23:00, though Kondo misidentified the battleships as cruisers. Kondo ordered the \"Sendai\" group of ships—plus \"Nagara\" and four destroyers (\"D\" on the maps)—to engage and destroy the U.S. force before he brought the bombardment force of \"Kirishima\" and heavy cruisers (\"E\" on the maps) into Ironbottom Sound. The U.S. ships (\"A\" on the maps) detected the \"Sendai\" force on radar but did not detect the other groups of Japanese ships. Using radar targeting, the two U.S. battleships opened fire on the \"Sendai\" group at 23:17. Admiral Lee ordered a", "\"Ayanami\" was scuttled by \"Uranami\" at 2:00, while \"Kirishima\" capsized and sank by 03:25 on 15 November. \"Uranami\" rescued survivors from \"Ayanami\" and destroyers \"Asagumo\", \"Teruzuki\", and \"Samidare\" rescued the remaining crew from \"Kirishima\". In the engagement, 242 U.S. and 249 Japanese sailors died. The engagement was one of only two battleship-against-battleship surface battles in the entire Pacific campaign of World War II, the other being at the Surigao Strait during the Battle of Leyte Gulf. The four Japanese transports beached themselves at Tassafaronga on Guadalcanal by 04:00 on 15 November, and Tanaka and the escort destroyers departed and raced back up the Slot toward safer waters. The transports were attacked, beginning at 05:55,", "The failure to deliver to Guadalcanal most of the troops and especially supplies in the convoy prevented the Japanese from launching another offensive to retake Henderson Field. Thereafter, the Imperial Navy was only able to deliver subsistence supplies and a few replacement troops to Japanese Army forces on Guadalcanal. Because of the continuing threat from Allied aircraft based at Henderson Field, plus nearby U.S. aircraft carriers, the Japanese had to continue to rely on Tokyo Express warship deliveries to their forces on Guadalcanal. However, these supplies and replacements were not enough to sustain Japanese troops on the island, who – by 7 December 1942 – were losing about 50 men each day from malnutrition, disease, and Allied ground and air attacks. On 12 December, the Japanese Navy proposed that Guadalcanal be abandoned. Despite opposition from Japanese Army leaders, who still hoped that Guadalcanal could be retaken from the Allies, Japan's Imperial General Headquarters—with approval from the Emperor—agreed on 31 December to the evacuation of all Japanese forces from the island and establishment of a new line of defense for the Solomons on New Georgia. Thus, the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal was the last major attempt by the Japanese to seize control of the seas around Guadalcanal or to retake the island. In contrast, the U.S. Navy was thereafter able to resupply the U.S. forces at Guadalcanal at will, including the delivery of two fresh divisions by late December 1942. The inability to neutralize Henderson Field doomed the Japanese effort to successfully combat the Allied conquest of Guadalcanal. The last Japanese resistance in the Guadalcanal campaign ended on 9 February 1943, with the successful evacuation of most of the surviving Japanese troops from the island by the Japanese Navy in Operation Ke. Building on their success at Guadalcanal and elsewhere, the Allies continued their campaign against Japan, which culminated in Japan's defeat and the end of World War II. U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt, upon learning of the results of the battle, commented, \"It would seem that the turning point in this war has at last been reached.\" Historian Eric Hammel sums up the significance of the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal this way: On November 12, 1942, the (Japanese) Imperial Navy had the better ships and the better tactics. After November 15, 1942, its leaders lost heart and it lacked the strategic depth to face the burgeoning U.S. Navy and its vastly improving weapons and tactics. The Japanese never got better while, after November 1942, the U.S. Navy never stopped getting better. General Alexander Vandegrift, the commander of the troops on Guadalcanal, paid tribute to the sailors who fought the battle: We believe the enemy has undoubtedly suffered a crushing defeat. We thank Admiral Kinkaid for his intervention yesterday. We thank Lee for his sturdy effort last night. Our own aircraft has been grand in its relentless hammering of the foe. All those efforts are appreciated but our greatest homage goes to Callaghan, Scott and their men who with magnificent courage against seemingly hopeless odds drove back the first hostile attack and paved the way for the success to follow. To them the men of Cactus lift their battered helmets in deepest admiration." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Rotation.", "Radial pull.", "Ergosphere size." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "As a black hole rotates, it twists spacetime in the direction of the rotation at a speed that decreases with distance from the event horizon. This process is known as the Lense–Thirring effect or frame-dragging. Because of this dragging effect, an object within the ergosphere cannot appear stationary with respect to an outside observer at a great distance unless that object were to move at faster than the speed of light (an impossibility) with respect to the local spacetime. The speed necessary for such an object to appear stationary decreases at points further out from the event horizon, until at some distance the required speed is that of the speed of light. The set of all such points defines the ergosphere surface, called ergosurface. The outer surface of the ergosphere is called the \"static surface\" or \"static limit\". This is because world lines change from being time-like outside the static limit to being space-like inside it. It is the speed of light that arbitrarily defines the ergosphere surface. Such a surface would appear as an oblate that is coincident with the event horizon at the pole of rotation, but at a greater distance from the event horizon at the equator. Outside this surface, space is still dragged, but at a lesser rate.", "A suspended plumb, held stationary outside the ergosphere, will experience an infinite/diverging radial pull as it approaches the static limit. At some point it will start to fall, resulting in a gravitomagnetically induced spinward motion. An implication of this dragging of space is the existence of negative energies within the ergosphere. Since the ergosphere is outside the event horizon, it is still possible for objects that enter that region with sufficient velocity to escape from the gravitational pull of the black hole. An object can gain energy by entering the black hole's rotation and then escaping from it, thus taking some of the black hole's energy with it (making the maneuver similar to the exploitation of the Oberth effect around \"normal\" space objects). This process of removing energy from a rotating black hole was proposed by the mathematician Roger Penrose in 1969 and is called the Penrose process. The maximal amount of energy gain possible for a single particle via this process is 20.7% in terms of its mass equivalence, and if this process is repeated by the same mass, the theoretical maximal energy gain approaches 29% of its original mass-energy equivalent. As this energy is removed, the black hole loses angular momentum, the limit of zero rotation is approached as spacetime dragging is reduced. In the limit, the ergosphere no longer exists. This process is considered a possible explanation for a source of energy of such energetic phenomena as gamma ray bursts. Results from computer models show that the Penrose process is capable of producing the high-energy particles that are observed being emitted from quasars and other active galactic nuclei.", "The size of the ergosphere, the distance between the ergosurface and the event horizon, is not necessarily proportional to the radius of the event horizon, but rather to the black hole's gravity and its angular momentum. A point at the poles does not move, and thus has no angular momentum, while at the equator a point would have its greatest angular momentum. This variation of angular momentum that extends from the poles to the equator is what gives the ergosphere its oblate shape. As the mass of the black hole or its rotation speed increases, the size of the ergosphere increases as well." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Properties.", "Static coordinates.", "Flat slicing.", "Open slicing.", "Closed slicing.", "dS slicing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "De Sitter space can be defined as a submanifold of a generalized Minkowski space of one higher dimension. Take Minkowski space R with the standard metric: De Sitter space is the submanifold described by the hyperboloid of one sheet where formula_4 is some nonzero constant with dimensions of length. The metric on de Sitter space is the metric induced from the ambient Minkowski metric. The induced metric is nondegenerate and has Lorentzian signature. (Note that if one replaces formula_5 with formula_6 in the above definition, one obtains a hyperboloid of two sheets. The induced metric in this case is positive-definite, and each sheet is a copy of hyperbolic \"n\"-space. For a detailed proof, see geometry of Minkowski space.) De Sitter space can also be defined as the quotient of two indefinite orthogonal groups, which shows that it is a non-Riemannian symmetric space. Topologically, de Sitter space is (so that if then de Sitter space is simply connected).", "The isometry group of de Sitter space is the Lorentz group. The metric therefore then has independent Killing vector fields and is maximally symmetric. Every maximally symmetric space has constant curvature. The Riemann curvature tensor of de Sitter is given by De Sitter space is an Einstein manifold since the Ricci tensor is proportional to the metric: This means de Sitter space is a vacuum solution of Einstein's equation with cosmological constant given by The scalar curvature of de Sitter space is given by For the case, we have and.", "We can introduce static coordinates formula_11 for de Sitter as follows: where formula_15 gives the standard embedding the -sphere in R. In these coordinates the de Sitter metric takes the form: Note that there is a cosmological horizon at formula_17.", "Let where formula_21. Then in the formula_22 coordinates metric reads: where formula_24 is the flat metric on formula_25's. Setting formula_26, we obtain the conformally flat metric:", "Let where formula_31 forming a formula_32 with the standard metric formula_33. Then the metric of the de Sitter space reads where is the standard hyperbolic metric.", "Let where formula_15s describe a formula_39. Then the metric reads: Changing the time variable to the conformal time via formula_41 we obtain a metric conformally equivalent to Einstein static universe: This serves to find the Penrose diagram of de Sitter space.", "Let where formula_15s describe a formula_48. Then the metric reads: where is the metric of an formula_51 dimensional de Sitter space with radius of curvature formula_4 in open slicing coordinates. The hyperbolic metric is given by: This is the analytic continuation of the open slicing coordinates under formula_54 and also switching formula_55 and formula_56 because they change their timelike/spacelike nature." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and career.", "Beginning of espionage career.", "Scotland.", "Journey to Ireland and capture.", "Legal complications.", "Trial.", "Execution.", "Reaction.", "From spy to national hero.", "Burial." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Carl Hans Lody was born in Berlin on 20 January 1877. His father was a lawyer in government service who served as mayor of Oderberg in 1881. The Lody family subsequently moved to Nordhausen, where they lived at 8 Sedanstrasse (today Rudolf-Breitscheid-Strasse). Lody's father served as deputy mayor there in 1882 but died in June 1883 after a short illness and his mother died in 1885. He was fostered for a time by a couple in Leipzig before entering the orphanage of the Francke Foundations in nearby Halle. Lody began an apprenticeship at a grocery store in Halle in 1891, before moving to Hamburg two years later to join the crew of the sailing ship \"Sirius\" as a cabin boy. He studied at the maritime academy in Geestemünde, qualifying as a helmsman, and immediately afterwards served with the Imperial German Navy for a year between 1900 and 1901. Subsequently joining the First Naval Reserve, he enlisted as an officer on German merchant ships. In 1904 he returned to Geestemünde, where he successfully obtained a captain's licence. He fell seriously ill with what he later said was a stomach abscess, \"caused from a very badly cured typhoid attack of fever from which I suffered in Italy on account of the bad water at Genoa.\" An operation was required, which weakened his left arm and his eyesight. As Lody put it, \"Consequently, my career as a seaman was closed as soon as I discovered that, and my doctor told me that", "On his return to Germany, Lody settled in Berlin, living in what he described as \"well to do circumstances\". He stayed in the Adlon, the city's most fashionable luxury hotel, while his sister Hanna lived with her doctor husband in the prosperous suburb of Westend in Charlottenburg. As tensions grew across Europe in the first half of 1914, German naval intelligence – the Nachrichten-Abteilung, or \"N\" – set out to recruit potential agents. Lody already had links with the service. During his time with the Imperial German Navy, Lody had served under Arthur Tapken, who later became N's first director. The German Imperial Admiralty Staff, or \"Admiralstab\", listed Lody as a possible recruitment target before the outbreak of war. The naval authorities regarded Hamburg America Line (HAL) employees such as Lody as ideal recruits because of their expertise in naval matters and presence in ports worldwide. The HAL had collaborated with the Admiralstab since the 1890s. The relationship became so close that in July 1914, just before the outbreak of the war, the HAL's director Albert Ballin told the Admiralstab that he would \"place myself and the organisation subordinate to me at your Excellency's disposal as best as possible.\" On 8 May 1914, Fritz Prieger, the director of N, contacted Lody to ask whether he was willing to serve as a naval agent. Lody replied that he was \"honoured\" by Prieger's trust and would serve at Prieger's disposal. Within three weeks Lody had signed a formal agreement to operate as a \"tension traveller\" in southern France – an agent who would report back to Berlin in times of heightened international tensions. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June and the subsequent July Crisis precipitated the outbreak of World War I on 28 July. With the United Kingdom declaring war in support of France and Belgium, Prieger sent Lody to Britain as a war agent. Lody was ordered to base himself in the Edinburgh–Leith area and monitor British naval movements. He was to travel along the Scottish coast and report on the warships stationed there; \"If or when Mr. Lody comes to know that a naval battle has taken place, he will enquire as much and unobtrusively as possible regarding losses, damage etc.\" His orders reflected the Admiralstab's belief that the war would be decided by a single major naval battle.", "Lody embarked on his mission \"so hastily that he did not even have time to learn a code that might have assisted him to get his messages through\", according to Steinhauer Posing as an American tourist, Lody left Berlin on 14 August, travelling via Denmark to the Norwegian port of Bergen. There he boarded a ship that took him to Newcastle, arriving on the evening of 27 August. He took a train to the North British Hotel (now the Balmoral Hotel) adjacent to Edinburgh Waverley railway station. On 30 August, he sent a telegram from Edinburgh's main post office to an Adolf Burchard at 4 Drottninggatan, Stockholm – a cover address for a German agent in Sweden. The message said: \"Must cancel Johnson very ill last four days shall leave shortly\" and was signed \"Charles\". As it was an overseas telegram, he had to sign for it with his full (alias) name. The Secret Service Bureau's counter-espionage section had by now become part of the War Office's Directorate of Military Operations and was known as. At the outbreak of war it instituted widespread censorship of letters and telegrams sent abroad. From 4 August all mails from the UK to Norway and Sweden had been brought to London for examination to identify any being sent to suspect addresses. Fatally for Lody, was already aware that the Stockholm address was that of a German agent, and was watching for correspondence using the \"Johnson\" formula employed in Lody's telegram. \"Burchard\" was later identified as a German agent by the name of K. Leipziger. After Lody sent his telegram to \"Burchard\", exposing his \"Charles Inglis\" alias on the telegram form, Letter Interception Unit conducted a back-tracking exercise to find any other messages sent to the same place. One of censors later described the scene at Salisbury House in London, where the Letter Interception Unit was based: The \"Johnson\" telegram reached its destination and was only identified retrospectively by the British authorities. It was said to have indicated the presence of four British battleships, though the censors took its meaning to be that \"he was being watched and in danger & would have to leave Edinburgh which he did later on.\" Having inadvertently exposed his assumed identity, Lody's subsequent communications came under close scrutiny by. He left his Edinburgh hotel on 1 September, and moved to a boarding-house in Drumsheugh Gardens, where he gave his name as Charles A. Inglis of New York City and paid as a weekly boarder. Three days later he sent a letter in English to the same Stockholm address, enclosing an envelope with a second letter, in German and addressed to Berlin. This was intercepted by the British authorities, opened, photographed, sealed again and sent on to Sweden. A post-war report by MI5, the successor organisation to, explains that it was treated this way \"in the hope of learning more.\" In this instance was happy to let Lody's letters go through as they contained information that was wildly misleading and caused serious (and needless) worry to the German High Command. Lody had heard the widespread rumour that thousands of Russian troops with \"snow on their boots\" had passed through Scotland en route to the Western Front, and relayed it to his controllers in Berlin: Lody's information was entirely inaccurate and had been gleaned, as he was to admit at his trial, purely from rumours: \"I heard it in the boarding-house and I heard it in the barber's shop.\" His second letter, in German, was addressed to \"Herr Stammer\" at German naval intelligence in Courbierestrasse, Berlin, and contained details of British naval losses and vessels stationed at Leith and Grangemouth. He had obtained details of the naval vessels simply by climbing Calton Hill in Edinburgh and observing the panorama from the summit, and by taking a promenade along the seafront at Grangemouth, used by thousands of citizens as a popular excursion. He was worried about the risks that he was taking and stated in", "Lody left his boarding-house hastily on the morning of 27 September and stayed overnight at the Roxburgh Hotel in Edinburgh. He left some of his luggage there, telling the manageress that he would be away for about eight days, and travelled the next day to Liverpool, where he took a room at the London and North Western Hotel on Lime Street. He bought a ticket to Ireland and took the SS \"Munster\" to Dublin via Kingstown (now Dún Laoghaire). It stopped at Holyhead in Anglesey, where an immigration official challenged Lody. His American travel documents proved sufficient to demonstrate his \"bona fides\", and he proceeded on his way. Lody's controllers realised that his mission was not going according to plan and attempted to get in touch with him to provide assistance. A letter dated 8 September was sent to Charles A. Inglis c/o Thomas Cook, Edinburgh, but he never collected it, and may never have been aware of it. Another German agent, Paul Daelen, was ordered to go to Britain and provide Lody with a new cover address. Daelen reached England too late. Lody had already travelled to Ireland without giving his controllers a means of contacting him. During his journey to Ireland, Lody met a Minneapolis doctor, John William Lee, who had been studying eye, ear, nose and throat diseases in Vienna before the outbreak of war had compelled him to leave. Lee was planning to travel back to New York aboard the RMS \"Baltic\", leaving Queenstown (now Cobh) on 7 October, and intended to spend a few days exploring Ireland before his departure. Lody asked where Lee was planning to stay in Dublin; Lee told him that it would probably be the Gresham Hotel on Sackville Street, to which Lody replied, \"All right, let's go there.\" They travelled together to the hotel, booked into separate rooms, had dinner together and went to the Empire Theatre. Lody told Lee that he had been based in Germany working for an American adding-machine company. When the conversation turned to the war, Lody opined that the German army was a very well-trained body of strong-bodied and enduring men, and that it would be hard to beat them. The following day they had breakfast together and went for a walk in Phoenix Park. While Lee was exchanging some money at Thomas Cook on 30 September, Lody wrote a further letter in German to \"Burchard\", clarifying his reasons for coming to Ireland and describing what he had seen on his journey. He explained: Lody described anti-Zeppelin precautions he had heard about in London and provided details of the conversions of the Cunard Line steamships RMS \"Aquitania\" and \"Lusitania\" for their wartime service, which he had seen while in Liverpool. Once again the letter was intercepted by the British and not allowed to go forward to Stockholm. Lody and Lee spent another evening in Dublin before going on a day-trip by coach to Glendalough to see the lough and the", "Lody was taken back to London where he was detained in Wellington Barracks under the watch of the 3rd Battalion, the Grenadier Guards. A meeting of the Cabinet on 8 October decided to try him for \"war treason\", a decision that has been described as \"legally, very curious\" by the legal historian A. W. B. Simpson. He was not charged with espionage under either of the two relevant statutes, the Official Secrets Act 1911 or DORA. The principal reason lay in the wording of the Hague Convention of 1907, which states: \"A person can only be considered a spy when, acting clandestinely or on false pretences, he obtains or endeavours to obtain information in the zone of operations of a belligerent, with the intention of communicating it to the hostile party.\" Lody was operating in the British Isles, outside the zone of operations, and was therefore not covered by this definition. Such circumstances had been anticipated by the most recent edition of the British \"Manual of Military Law\", published in February 1914, which recommended that individuals in such cases should be tried for war treason: \"Indeed in every case where it is doubtful whether the act consists of espionage, once the fact is established that an individual has furnished or attempted to furnish information to the enemy, no time need be wasted in examining whether the case corresponds exactly to the definition of espionage.\" War treason as defined by the \"Manual\" covered a very wide range of offences, including \"obtaining, supplying and carrying of information to the enemy\" or attempting to do so. Its application in Lody's case, rather than the government relying on DORA, was the result of a misunderstanding by the War Office. It had been misinformed in August 1914 that an unidentified German had been captured with a radio transmitter and interned in Bodmin Prison. In fact, no such person existed, but the story led Lord Kitchener, the Secretary of State for War, to ask the Lord Chancellor, Lord Haldane, for advice on how the supposed spy should be dealt with. Haldane stated that the individual should be put before a court martial", "The court martial was held over three days between Friday 30 October and Monday 2 November. Lody was charged with two offences of war treason concerning the two letters he had sent from Edinburgh on 27 September and Dublin on 30 September. In both letters, the charge sheet stated that Lody had sought \"to convey to a belligerent enemy of Great Britain, namely Germany\" information relating to the UK's defences and preparations for war. He pleaded not guilty to both charges. He made an immediate impression on observers when he first appeared in court. The \"Daily Express\" reporter described him as: Sir Archibald Bodkin, the Director of Public Prosecutions, set out the case for the prosecution. The evidence was overwhelming; the prosecution case highlighted the contents of Lody's notebook and the luggage that he had left at the Roxburgh Hotel, and called a series of witnesses, including the elderly Scottish woman who ran the boarding-house in which he had stayed in Edinburgh and the fashionably dressed Ida McClyment, who caused a stir when she described her meeting with Lody aboard the London to Edinburgh train. Bodkin did not read the incriminating letters aloud, due to the sensitivity of their content, but described them in general terms. The witnesses testified about their interactions with Lody and identified him as the man who had posed as \"Charles A. Inglis\", though the proprietress of the Edinburgh boarding-house experienced some difficulty. When she \"was asked if she could see 'Charles A. Inglis' in court, [she] looked everywhere except at the dock. Lody, who was sitting, stood up and gently waved his hands to attract her attention, while he smiled broadly and almost broke into laughter at the absurdity of the situation.\" Late on 30 October, Lody wrote to a friend in Omaha to tell him about his feelings before he began his defence. He told his friend: The second day of the trial was interrupted when a young man whom \"The Times\" described as being \"of foreign appearance\" was arrested and removed from the court on the orders of Captain Reginald \"Blinker\" Hall, the Director of Naval Intelligence. The interloper was one Charles Stuart Nairne, an Irishman and former Royal Navy lieutenant whom Hall spotted in the", "No public announcement was made of the court martial's verdict. Instead, the following day, the General Officer Commanding London District, Sir Francis Lloyd, was sent instructions ordering the sentence to be promulgated on 5 November, with Lody being told, and for the sentence to be carried out at least 18 hours later. Great secrecy surrounded the proceedings which, when combined with the short timeframe, caused problems for the GOC in finding a suitable place of execution. He contacted Major-General Henry Pipon, the Major of the Tower of London, to tell him: While the Tower may have been \"the only possible place\", in some respects it was a strange choice. It had not been used as a state prison for many years and the last execution there – that of Lord Lovat, the Jacobite rebel – had taken place in 1747. It was one of London's most popular tourist attractions, recording over 400,000 visitors a year by the end of the 19th century, and remained open to tourists even on the day of Lody's execution. During the Tower's heyday, executions had been carried out in the open air on Tower Hill or Tower Green, but Lody's execution was to take place at the Tower's rifle range located in the eastern part of the Outer Ward between Martin and Constable Towers, behind the Outer Curtain wall and out of public sight. The Tower's custodians, the Yeomen Warders (\"Beefeaters\"), had long since become tourist guides rather than active-duty soldiers, so eight men were selected from the 3rd Battalion,", "Lody's courageous demeanour in court produced widespread sympathy and admiration, a development that neither side had anticipated. Even his captors were captivated; although had recommended his execution as early as 3 October, by the time the trial was over, Kell was said by his wife to have considered Lody a \"really fine man\" of whom Kell \"felt it deeply that so brave a man should have to pay the death penalty for carrying out what he considered to be his duty to his country.\" Sir Basil Thomson of Scotland Yard commented that \"there was some difference of opinion as to whether it was sound policy to execute spies and to begin with a patriotic spy like Lody.\" According to Robert Jackson, the biographer of Lody's prosecutor Sir Archibald Bodkin, Lody's \"bearing and frankness when caught so impressed Britain's spy-catchers and prosecutors that they talked about trying to get the Government to waive the internationally recognised rule that spies caught in wartime automatically are put to death. Only the certainty that Germany would not be as merciful to our own spies made them refrain.\" Thomson also paid tribute to Lody in his 1937 book \"The Scene Changes\": Lody's conduct was contrasted favourably with the German spies captured after him, many of whom were nationals of neutral countries, who followed him to the execution chair. Lady Constance Kell commented that \"most of the agents employed by the Germans worked only for the money they gained and were regarded with utter contempt\". Similarly, Thomson described \"the scum of neutral spies\", of whom he said, \"we came to wish that a distinction could have been made between patriotic spies like Lody and the hirelings who pestered us through the ensuing years\". Shortly after Lody's death he was described in the House of Commons as \"a patriot who had died for his country as much as any soldier who fell in the field.\" The British and German publics also took a positive view of Lody. His trial became something of a celebrity occasion; as \"The New York Times\" observed, on the first day, \"many fashionably dressed women thronged the galleries of the courtroom\" and the final day was attended by \"many leaders of London society as well as by prominent jurists, politicians, and military and naval men.\" The \"Daily Express\" opined that \"one cannot withhold a tribute to his daring resourcefulness and inflexible courage\" and called Lody \"one of the cleverest spies in Steinhauer's service\", though it advised its readers to bear in mind that he was \"a most dangerous spy.\" Louise Storz, Lody's former wife, received his ring in", "During the Nazi era, Lody's memory was appropriated by the new regime to promote a more muscular image of German patriotism. An elaborate commemoration of his death was held in Lübeck on 6 November 1934, when flags across the city flew at half-mast and bells tolled between 6.45 and 7 am, the time of his execution. Later that day a memorial was unveiled at the Burgtor gateway near the harbour, depicting a knight in armour with a closed visor (representing Lody), with his hands fettered (representing captivity) and a serpent entwining his feet (representing betrayal). Below it an inscription was set into the gate's brickwork, reading \"CARL HANS LODY starb für uns 6.11.1914 im Tower zu London\" (\"Carl Hans Lody died for us 6.11.1914 in the Tower of London\"). During the unveiling ceremony, which was attended by Lody's sister and representatives of the present Reichsmarine and old Imperial German Navy, the road leading from the gateway to the harbour was also renamed \"Karl-Hans-Lody-Weg\". On the same day, officers from the Hamburg-America Line presented city officials with a ship's bell bearing the inscription \"In Memory of Karl Hans Lody\", to be rung each 6 November at the time of his death. After World War II, when Lübeck was part of the British Zone of Occupation, the statue", "The 17-year-old Bertolt Brecht wrote a eulogy to Lody in 1915 in which he imagined the purpose behind the spy's death: The reality was very different. Lody's body was buried in an unmarked common grave in the East London Cemetery in Plaistow along with seventeen other men – ten executed spies and seven prisoners who died of ill-health or accidents. It was not until 1924 that the grave received a marker, at the instigation of the German Embassy. Lody's relatives were visiting it once a year and enquired whether his body could be exhumed and buried in a private grave. The War Office agreed, providing that the body could be identified, but the Foreign Office was more reluctant and pointed out that a licence for exhumation would have to be authorised by the Home Office. The Lody family placed a white headstone and kerb on the grave some time around 1934. In September 1937 the German government again requested that Lody's body be exhumed and moved to a separate grave. This proved impractical for several reasons; he had been buried with seven other men, each coffin had been cemented down and the lapse of time would make identification very difficult. Instead, the British Imperial War Graves Commission suggested that a memorial should be constructed in another part of the cemetery to bear the names of all the German civilians who were buried there. The proposal met with German agreement and the memorial was duly installed. During the Second World War, Lody's original headstone was destroyed by misaimed Luftwaffe bombs. It was replaced in 1974. One further proposal was made to rebury Lody in the 1960s. In 1959 the British and German governments agreed to move German war dead who had been buried in various locations around the UK to a new central cemetery at Cannock Chase in Staffordshire. The German War Graves Commission (VDK) asked if it would be possible to disinter Lody's body and move it to Cannock Chase. By that time, the plot had been reused for further common graves, buried above Lody's body. The VDK was told that it would not be possible to disinter the other bodies without the permission of the relatives, which would have been an almost impossible task where common graves were concerned. The proposal was abandoned and Lody's body remains at Plaistow." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Childhood and education.", "Early spiritual experiences.", "Writer and philosopher.", "Theosophical Society.", "Anthroposophical Society and its cultural activities.", "Political engagement and social agenda.", "Attacks, illness, and death.", "Spiritual research.", "Esoteric schools.", "Breadth of activity.", "Education.", "Biodynamic agriculture.", "Anthroposophical medicine.", "Social reform.", "Architecture and visual arts.", "Performing arts.", "Philosophical ideas.", "Goethean science.", "Knowledge and freedom.", "Spiritual science.", "Steiner and Christianity.", "Christ and human evolution.", "Divergence from conventional Christian thought.", "The Christian Community.", "Reception.", "Scientism.", "Race and ethnicity.", "Judaism.", "Writings (selection)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Steiner's father, Johann(es) Steiner (1829–1910), left a position as a gamekeeper in the service of Count Hoyos in Geras, northeast Lower Austria to marry one of the Hoyos family's housemaids, Franziska Blie (1834 Horn – 1918, Horn), a marriage for which the Count had refused his permission. Johann became a telegraph operator on the Southern Austrian Railway, and at the time of Rudolf's birth was stationed in Murakirály (Kraljevec) in the \"Muraköz\" region of the Kingdom of Hungary, Austrian Empire (present-day Donji Kraljevec in the Međimurje region of northernmost Croatia). In the first two years of Rudolf's life, the family moved twice, first to Mödling, near Vienna, and then, through the promotion of his father to stationmaster, to, located in the foothills of", "When he was nine years old, Steiner believed that he saw the spirit of an aunt who had died in a far-off town asking him to help her at a time when neither he nor his family knew of the woman's death. Steiner later related that as a child he felt \"that one must carry the knowledge of the spiritual world within oneself after the fashion of geometry... [for here] one is permitted to know something which the", "In 1888, as a result of his work for the Kürschner edition of Goethe's works, Steiner was invited to work as an editor at the Goethe archives in Weimar. Steiner remained with the archive until 1896. As well as the introductions for and commentaries to four volumes of Goethe's scientific writings, Steiner wrote two books about Goethe's philosophy: \"The Theory of Knowledge Implicit in Goethe's World-Conception\" (1886), which Steiner regarded as the epistemological foundation and justification for his later work, and \"Goethe's Conception", "In 1899, Steiner published an article, \"Goethe's Secret Revelation\", discussing the esoteric nature of Goethe's fairy tale \"The Green Snake and the Beautiful Lily\". This article led to an invitation by the Count and Countess Brockdorff to speak to a gathering of Theosophists on the subject of Nietzsche. Steiner continued speaking regularly to the members of the Theosophical Society, becoming the head of its newly constituted German section in 1902 without ever formally joining the society. It was also in connection with this society that Steiner met and worked with Marie von Sivers, who became his second wife in 1914. By 1904, Steiner was appointed by Annie Besant to be leader of the Theosophical \"Esoteric Society\" for Germany and Austria. In 1904, Eliza, the wife of Helmuth von Moltke the Younger, became", "The Anthroposophical Society grew rapidly. Fueled by a need to find an artistic home for their yearly conferences, which included performances of plays written by Edouard Schuré and Steiner, the decision was made to build a theater and organizational center. In 1913, construction began on the first Goetheanum building, in Dornach, Switzerland. The building, designed by Steiner, was built to a significant part by volunteers who offered craftsmanship or simply a will to learn new skills. Once World War I started in 1914, the Goetheanum volunteers could hear the sound of cannon fire beyond the Swiss border, but despite the war, people from all over Europe worked peaceably side by side on the building's construction. Steiner moved from Berlin to Dornach in 1913 and lived there to the end of his life. Steiner's lecture activity expanded enormously with the end of the war. Most importantly, from", "Steiner became a well-known and controversial public figure during and after World War I. In response to the catastrophic situation in post-war Germany, he proposed extensive social reforms through the establishment of a Threefold Social Order in which the cultural, political and economic realms would be largely independent. Steiner argued that a fusion of the three realms had created the inflexibility that had led to catastrophes such as World War", "The National Socialist German Workers Party gained strength in Germany after the First World War. In 1919, a political theorist of this movement, Dietrich Eckart, attacked Steiner and suggested that he was a Jew. In 1921, Adolf Hitler attacked Steiner on many fronts, including accusations that he was a tool of the Jews, while other nationalist extremists in Germany called for a \"war against Steiner\". That same year, Steiner warned against the disastrous effects it would have for Central Europe if the National Socialists came to power. In 1922 a lecture Steiner was giving in Munich was disrupted when stink bombs were let off and the lights switched", "Steiner first began speaking publicly about spiritual experiences and phenomena in his 1899 lectures to the Theosophical Society. By 1901 he had begun to write about spiritual topics, initially in the form of discussions of historical figures such as the mystics of the Middle Ages. By 1904 he was expressing his own understanding of these themes in his essays and books, while continuing to refer to a wide variety of historical sources. \"A world of spiritual perception is discussed in a number of writings which I have published since this book appeared. \"The Philosophy of Freedom\" forms the philosophical basis for these later writings. For it tries to show that the experience of thinking, rightly understood, is in fact an experience of spirit.\" (Steiner, Philosophy of Freedom, Consequences of Monism) Steiner aimed to apply his training in mathematics, science, and philosophy to produce rigorous, verifiable presentations of those experiences. He believed that through freely chosen ethical disciplines and meditative training, anyone could develop the ability to experience the spiritual world, including the higher nature of oneself and others. Steiner believed that such discipline and training would help a person to", "Steiner was founder", "After the First World War, Steiner became active in a wide variety of cultural contexts. He founded a number of schools, the first of which was known as the Waldorf school, which later evolved into a worldwide school network. He also founded a system of organic agriculture, now known as biodynamic agriculture, which was one of the very first forms of, and has contributed significantly to the development of, modern organic farming. His work in medicine led to the development of a broad range of complementary medications and supportive artistic and biographic therapies. Numerous homes for children and adults with developmental disabilities based on his work (including those of the Camphill movement) are found in Africa, Europe, and North America. His paintings and drawings influenced Joseph Beuys and other modern artists. His two Goetheanum buildings have been widely cited as masterpieces of modern architecture, and other anthroposophical architects have contributed thousands of buildings to the modern scene. One of the first institutions to practice ethical banking was an anthroposophical bank working out of Steiner's ideas; other anthroposophical social finance institutions have since been founded. Steiner's literary estate is correspondingly broad. Steiner's writings, published in about forty volumes, include books, essays, four plays ('mystery dramas'), mantric verse, and an autobiography. His collected lectures, making up another approximately 300 volumes, discuss an extremely wide range of themes. Steiner's drawings, chiefly illustrations done on blackboards during his lectures, are collected in a separate series of 28 volumes. Many publications have covered his architectural legacy and sculptural work.", "As a young man, Steiner was a private tutor and a lecturer on history for the Berlin \"Arbeiterbildungsschule\", an educational initiative for working class adults. Soon thereafter, he began to articulate his ideas on education in public lectures, culminating in a 1907 essay on \"The Education of the Child\" in which he described the major phases of child development which formed the foundation of his approach to education. His conception of education was influenced by the Herbartian pedagogy prominent in Europe during the late nineteenth century, though Steiner criticized", "In 1924, a group of farmers concerned about the future of agriculture requested Steiner's help. Steiner responded with a lecture series on an ecological and sustainable approach to agriculture that increased soil fertility without the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Steiner's agricultural ideas promptly spread and were put into practice internationally and biodynamic agriculture is now practiced in Europe, North America, South America, Africa, Asia and Australasia. A central aspect of biodynamics is that the farm as a whole is", "From the late 1910s, Steiner was working with doctors to create a new approach to medicine. In 1921, pharmacists and physicians gathered under Steiner's guidance", "For a period after World War I, Steiner was active as a lecturer on social reform. A petition expressing his basic social ideas was widely circulated and signed by many cultural figures of the day, including Hermann Hesse. In Steiner's chief book on social reform, \"Toward Social Renewal\", he suggested that the cultural, political and economic spheres of society need to work together as consciously cooperating yet independent entities, each with", "Steiner designed 17 buildings, including the First and Second Goetheanums. These two buildings, built in Dornach, Switzerland, were intended to house significant theater spaces as well as a \"school for spiritual science\". Three of Steiner's buildings have been listed amongst the most significant works of modern architecture. His primary sculptural work is \"The Representative of Humanity\" (1922), a nine-meter high wood sculpture executed as a joint project with the sculptor Edith", "Steiner wrote four mystery plays between 1909 and 1913: \"The Portal of Initiation\", \"The Souls' Probation\", \"The Guardian of the Threshold\" and \"The Soul's Awakening\", modeled on the esoteric dramas of Edouard Schuré, Maurice Maeterlinck, and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Steiner's plays continue to be performed by anthroposophical groups in various countries, most notably (in the original German) in Dornach, Switzerland and (in English translation) in Spring Valley, New York and in Stroud and Stourbridge in the U.K. In collaboration with Marie", "", "In his commentaries on Goethe's scientific works, written between 1884 and 1897, Steiner presented Goethe's approach to science as essentially phenomenological in nature, rather than theory- or model-based. He developed this conception further in several books, \"The Theory of Knowledge Implicit in Goethe's World-Conception\" (1886) and \"Goethe's Conception of the World\" (1897), particularly emphasizing the transformation in Goethe's approach from the physical sciences, where experiment played the", "Steiner approached the philosophical questions of knowledge and freedom in two stages. In his dissertation, published in expanded form in 1892 as \"Truth and Knowledge\", Steiner suggests that there is an inconsistency between Kant's philosophy, which posits that all knowledge is a representation of an essential verity inaccessible to human consciousness, and modern science, which assumes that all influences can be found in the sensory and mental world to which we have access. Steiner considered Kant's philosophy of an inaccessible beyond (\"Jenseits-Philosophy\") a", "In his earliest works, Steiner already spoke of the \"natural and spiritual worlds\" as a unity. From 1900 on, he began lecturing about concrete details of the spiritual world(s), culminating in the publication in 1904 of the first of several systematic presentations, his \"Theosophy: An Introduction to the Spiritual Processes in Human Life and in the Cosmos\". As a starting point for the book Steiner took a quotation from Goethe, describing the method of natural scientific observation, while in the Preface he made clear that the line of thought taken in this book led to the same goal as that in his earlier work, \"The Philosophy of Freedom\". In the years 1903–1908 Steiner maintained the magazine \"Lucifer-Gnosis\" and published in it essays on topics such as initiation, reincarnation and karma, and knowledge of the supernatural world. Some of these were later collected and published as books, such as \"How to Know Higher Worlds\" (1904/5) and \"Cosmic Memory\". The book \"An Outline of Esoteric Science\" was published in 1910. Important themes include: Steiner emphasized that there is an objective natural", "In 1899 Steiner experienced what he described as a life-transforming inner encounter with the being of Christ; previously he had little or no relation to Christianity in any form. Then and thereafter, his relationship to Christianity remained entirely founded upon personal experience, and thus both non-denominational and strikingly different from conventional religious forms. Steiner was then 38, and the experience of meeting the Christ occurred after a tremendous inner struggle. To use Steiner's own words, the \"experience culminated in my standing in the spiritual presence of the Mystery of Golgotha in a most profound and solemn festival of knowledge.\"", "Steiner describes Christ as the unique pivot and meaning of earth's evolutionary processes and human history, redeeming the Fall from Paradise. He understood the Christ as a being that unifies and inspires all religions, not belonging to a particular religious faith. To be \"Christian\" is, for Steiner, a search for", "Steiner's views of Christianity diverge from conventional Christian thought in key places, and include gnostic elements. However, unlike many gnostics, Steiner affirms the unique and actual physical Incarnation of Christ in Jesus at the beginning of the Christian era. One of the central points of divergence with conventional Christian thought is found in Steiner's views on reincarnation and karma. Steiner also posited two different Jesus children involved in the Incarnation of the Christ: one child descended from Solomon, as described in the Gospel of Matthew; the other child from Nathan, as described", "In the 1920s, Steiner was approached by Friedrich Rittelmeyer, a Lutheran pastor with a congregation in Berlin, who asked if it was possible to create a more modern form of Christianity. Soon others joined Rittelmeyer – mostly Protestant pastors and theology students, but including several Roman Catholic priests. Steiner offered counsel on renewing the spiritual potency of the sacraments while emphasizing freedom of thought and a personal relationship to religious life. He envisioned a new synthesis of Catholic and Protestant approaches to religious life, terming this", "Steiner's work has influenced a broad range of notable personalities. These include philosophers Albert Schweitzer, Owen Barfield and Richard Tarnas; writers Saul Bellow, Andrej Belyj, Michael Ende, Selma Lagerlöf, Edouard Schuré, David Spangler, and William Irwin Thompson; child psychiatrist Eva Frommer; economist Leonard Read; artists Josef Beuys, Wassily Kandinsky, and Murray Griffin; esotericist and educationalist George Trevelyan; actor and acting teacher Michael Chekhov; cinema director Andrei Tarkovsky; composers Jonathan Harvey and Viktor Ullmann; and conductor Bruno Walter. Olav Hammer, though sharply critical of esoteric movements generally, terms Steiner \"arguably the most historically and philosophically sophisticated spokesperson of the Esoteric Tradition.\" Albert Schweitzer wrote that he and Steiner had in common that they had \"taken on the life mission of working for the emergence of a true culture enlivened by the ideal of humanity and to encourage people to become truly thinking beings\". Anthony Storr stated about Rudolf Steiner's Anthroposophy: \"His belief system is so eccentric, so unsupported by evidence, so manifestly bizarre, that rational skeptics are bound to consider it delusional.\" Robert Todd Carroll has said of Steiner that \"Some of his ideas on education – such as educating the handicapped in the mainstream – are worth considering, although his overall plan for developing the spirit and the soul rather than the intellect cannot be admired\". Steiner's translators have pointed out that his use of \"Geist\" includes both mind and spirit, however, as the German term \"Geist\" can be translated equally properly in either way. The 150th anniversary of Rudolf Steiner's birth was marked by the first major retrospective exhibition of his art and work, 'Kosmos - Alchemy of the everyday'. Organized by Vitra Design Museum, the traveling exhibition presented many facets of Steiner's life and achievements, including his influence on architecture, furniture design, dance (Eurythmy), education, and agriculture (Biodynamic agriculture). The exhibition opened in 2011 at the Kunstmuseum in Stuttgart, Germany,", "Olav Hammer has criticized as scientism Steiner's claim to use scientific methodology to investigate spiritual phenomena that were based upon his claims of clairvoyant experience. Steiner regarded the observations", "Steiner's work includes both universalist, humanist elements and historically influenced racial assumptions. Due to the contrast and even contradictions between these elements, \"whether a given reader interprets Anthroposophy as racist or not depends upon that reader's concerns\". Steiner considered that by dint of its shared language and culture, each people has a unique essence, which he called its soul or spirit. He saw race as a physical manifestation of humanity's spiritual evolution, and at times discussed race in terms of complex hierarchies that were largely derived from 19th century biology, anthropology, philosophy and theosophy. However, he consistently and explicitly subordinated race, ethnicity, gender, and indeed all hereditary factors, to individual factors in development. For Steiner, human individuality is centered in a person's unique biography, and he believed that an individual's experiences and development are not bound by a single lifetime or the qualities of the physical body. More specifically: In the context of his ethical individualism, Steiner considered \"race, folk, ethnicity and gender\" to be general, describable categories into which individuals may choose to fit, but from which free human beings can and will liberate themselves.", "During the years when Steiner was best known as a literary critic, he published a series of articles attacking various manifestations of antisemitism and criticizing some of the most prominent anti-Semites of the time as \"barbaric\" and \"enemies of culture\". On a number of occasions, however, Steiner suggested that Jewish cultural and social life had lost all contemporary relevance and promoted full assimilation of the Jewish people into the nations in which they lived. This stance has come under severe criticism in recent years. Steiner was a critic of his contemporary Theodor Herzl's goal of a Zionist state, and indeed of any ethnically determined state, as he considered ethnicity to be an outmoded basis for social life and civic identity. Towards the end of Steiner's life and after his death, there were massive defamatory press attacks mounted on him by early National Socialist leaders (including Adolf Hitler) and other right-wing nationalists. These criticized Steiner's thought and anthroposophy as being incompatible with National Socialist racial ideology, and charged him with being influenced by his close connections with Jews and even (falsely) that he himself was Jewish.", "The standard edition of Steiner's Collected Works constitutes about 400 volumes. This includes 43 volumes of his writings (books, essays, plays, and correspondence), over 6000 lectures, and 16 volumes of his artistic work (drawings, paintings, graphic design, other design work, and choreography). His architectural work has been documented extensively outside of the Collected Works." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Childhood and education.", "Early Polish career.", "Work with Thomas.", "Founding Polish sociology.", "Late U.S. career.", "Family.", "Importance.", "Themes.", "Empirical sociology.", "Sociology: theory and definition.", "Four social systems.", "Sociology of culture.", "Other themes.", "Works.", "List of works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Florian Znaniecki was born on 15 January 1882 at Świątniki, Congress Poland, a state controlled by the Russian Empire to Leon Znaniecki and Amelia, née Holtz He received early schooling from tutors, then attended secondary schools at Warsaw and Częstochowa. While in secondary school, he was a member of an underground study group, specializing in history, literature and philosophy. His secondary-school grades were average at best, and he had to repeat a year of school; this was largely due to his extracurricular interest in Polish-language study, which was banned under the Russified school program. As a youth, he wrote some poetry, including a drama, \"Cheops\" (1903). A poem of his, \"\"Do Prometeusza\"\" (\"To Prometheus\"), was included in a 1900 anthology; however, neither he in later life, nor literary critics, judged his poetry outstanding. He entered the Imperial University of Warsaw in 1902, but was soon expelled after taking part in protests against the Russian administration's curtailment of student rights. Threatened with conscription into the Imperial Russian Army, he chose to emigrate and in early 1904 left Warsaw for Switzerland. During that period, he was briefly an editor at a French-language literary magazine, \"Nice Illustrée\" (late 1904 – early 1905); faked his own death; briefly served in the French Foreign Legion in Algeria; and worked at a flea market, on a farm, in a traveling circus, and as a librarian at the Polish Museum in Rapperswil, Switzerland. In Switzerland he soon resumed his university studies, first at the University of Geneva (1905–1907), then at the University of Zurich (1907–1908), eventually transferring to the Sorbonne in Paris, France (1908–1909), where he attended lectures by sociologist Émile Durkheim. In 1909, after the death of his supervisor Frédéric Rauh, he returned to Poland, where in 1910 he obtained his Ph.D. degree at Jagiellonian University, in Kraków, under a new supervisor, Maurycy Straszewski.", "That year he also joined the Polish Psychological Society (\"Polskie Towarzystwo Psychologiczne\"), in which he would be highly active over the next few years, becoming its vice president in 1913–1914. Much of his early academic work at that time could be classified as philosophy. In 1909, aged 27, he published his first academic paper, \"Etyka filozoficzna i nauka o wartościach moralnych\" (\"Philosophical Ethics and the Science of Moral Values\"); a year later he published \"Zagadnienie wartości w filozofii\" (\"The Question of Values in Philosophy\"), based on his doctoral dissertation, and a paper, \"Myśl i rzeczywistosc\" (\"Mind and Reality\"). In 1912 he published a new book, \"Humanizm i Poznanie\" (\"Humanism and Knowledge\"), and a paper, \"Elementy rzeczywistości praktycznej\" (\"Elements of Practical Reality\"). A year later, he published an annotated translation of Henri Bergson's \"Creative Evolution\" and a paper, \"Znaczenie rozwoju świata i człowieka\" (\"The Meaning of World and Human Development\"). The year 1914 saw the publication of his papers, \"Formy i zasady twórczości moralnej\" (\"Forms and Principles of Moral Creativity\") and \"Zasada względności jako podstawa filozofii\" (\"The Principle of Relativity as a Foundation of Philosophy\"). His works, published in Polish, were well received by the Polish scholarly community and intelligentsia. Due to his past political activism, he was unable to secure a post at a major university. From 1912 to 1914 he lectured at a novel women's institution of higher education, the Advanced Pedagogical Courses for Women (\"Wyższe Kursy Pedagogiczne dla Kobiet\"). During his studies, he had worked at several European institutions dealing with Polish immigrants; he would build on his experiences by becoming involved with the Warsaw-based Society for the Welfare of Émigrés (\"Towarzystwo Opieki nad Wychodźcami\"), where he worked in 1910–1914. By 1911 he was the Society's director and (1911–1912) editor of its journal, \"Wychodźca Polski\" (\"The Polish Émigré\"). Znaniecki became an expert on Polish migration, in 1914 authoring for the government a 500-page report, \"Wychodźtwo Sezonowe\" (\"Seasonal Migration\").", "A year earlier, in 1913, Znaniecki had met William I. Thomas, an American sociologist who had come to Poland in connection with his research on Polish immigrants in the United States. Thomas and Znaniecki had begun to collaborate, and soon Thomas invited Znaniecki to come to Chicago to continue work with him in the United States. In July 1914, just on the eve of World War I, Znaniecki left Poland to work with Thomas as a research assistant. From 1917 to 1919 Znaniecki also lectured in sociology at the University of Chicago. Their work culminated in co-authoring of \"The Polish Peasant in Europe and America\" (1918–1920), considered a sociology classic. It was his collaboration with Thomas that marked the transition in Znaniecki's career from philosopher to sociologist. Znaniecki stayed with Thomas in Chicago until mid-1919, when he moved to New York, following Thomas, who had lost his job at Chicago due to a spurious scandal. That year Znaniecki published a new book, still mostly philosophical rather than sociological, \"Cultural Reality\". Published in English, it was a synthesis of his philosophical thought. In New York, Thomas and Znaniecki carried on research for the Carnegie Corporation on the process of immigrant Americanization. Znaniecki contributed to Thomas' book, \"Old World Traits Transplanted\", and published an anonymous solicited article on that topic to the February 1920 \"Atlantic Monthly\".", "Poland had regained independence following World War I, in 1918. In 1919 Znaniecki contacted the newly founded Ministry of Religion and Education, offering to return to Poland if the Ministry could help him secure a chair at a Polish university. He proposed creating a novel Institute of Sociology, but bureaucracy and communication delays resulted in that idea being shelved, and he was offered a philosophy professorship at the newly organized Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań. In 1920 Znaniecki returned to the newly established Second Polish Republic, where at Poznań University he soon became Poland's first chair in sociology. He accomplished this by renaming the department, originally \"Third Philosophical Department\", to \"Department of Sociology and Cultural Philosophy\", doing the same for his chair, and establishing a Sociological Seminary. That same year he also founded the Polish Institute of Sociology (\"Polski Instutut Socjologiczny\"), the fifth-oldest sociological institute in Europe. In 1927 his department was officially renamed to \"department of sociology\", and in 1930 the department gained authorization to issue degrees in sociology. In 1930 the Polish Institute of Sociology began publishing the first Polish sociological journal, \"Przegląd Socjologiczny\" (The Sociological Review), with Znaniecki its chief editor from 1930 to 1939. That year the Institute organized Poland's first academic sociologists' conference. Due to his role as founder of so many of its building blocks, Znaniecki is considered as one of the fathers of sociology in Poland.", "Keeping in touch with American sociologists, Znaniecki lectured as a visiting professor at Columbia University in New York in 1932–34 and during the summer of 1939. That summer ended the Polish stage of his career, as the German invasion of Poland and the start of World War II prevented his return to Poland. He was already aboard a ship bound for Poland when his travel was cut short in the United Kingdom. He still briefly considered returning to Poland, where his wife and daughter remained; however, faced with the occupation of Poland, he returned to the United States, where his family eventually joined him in 1940. With help from American colleagues, Znaniecki obtained an extension of his appointment at Columbia University through mid-1940. He then moved to the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and in 1942 obtained American citizenship, allowing him to transition from a visiting to a regular professorship. He taught at the University of Illinois until his retirement, deciding not to return to the communist People's Republic of Poland, established in the aftermath of World War II (despite the offer of a chair at Poznań University). In 1950 he retired, becoming a professor emeritus. He was 44th President of the American Sociological Association (for 1954). His presidential address, \"Basic Problems of Contemporary Sociology,\" was delivered on 8 September 1954 at the Association's annual meeting and was later published in the American Sociological Review. He died on 23 March 1958 in Champaign, Illinois. The cause of death was arteriosclerosis. His funeral took place on 26 March, and he was buried at Roselawn Champaign Cemetery.", "In 1906 Znaniecki married a fellow Polish student at the University of Geneva, Emilia Szwejkowska. They had a son, poet and writer Juliusz Znaniecki, born 1908. Znaniecki's wife Emilia died in 1915. Next year Znaniecki married Eileen Markley (1886–1976). They had one daughter, sociologist Helena Znaniecki Lopata, born 1925.", "Polish sociologist and historian of ideas Jerzy Szacki writes that Znaniecki's major contributions include: the founding of sociology in Poland; his work in empirical sociology; and his work in sociological theory. Szacki notes that Znaniecki sought to bridge a number of gaps: between empirical sociology and more theoretical approaches; between objectivity and subjectivity; between humanistic and naturalistic methodologies and viewpoints; and between American and European intellectual traditions. Szacki writes that, while Znaniecki's theoretical contributions were subsequently pushed into the background by Talcott Parsons' \"functionalism\", Znaniecki offered the most ambitious sociological theory known to America before Parsons. Znaniecki's most famous work remains \"The Polish Peasant in Europe and America\" (1918–1920), co-authored with William I. Thomas. His other major works include \"Wstęp do socjologii\" (An Introduction to Sociology, 1922), \"The Method of Sociology\" (1934), \"Social Actions\" (1936), \"The Social Role of the Man of Knowledge\" (1940) and \"Cultural Sciences\" (1952).", "", "Znaniecki's contributions to empirical sociology began after, and were influenced by, his collaboration with William I. Thomas. \"The Polish Peasant in Europe and America\" (1918–1920), a five-volume work which he wrote with Thomas, is considered a classic of empirical sociology. It is a study of Polish immigrants to America, based on personal documents. The work became a landmark study of Americanization — of how new immigrants to the United States \"become Americans\". This work represents Znaniecki's most valued contribution to empirical sociology. Most of his other works focused on theory, the only other notable exception being \"Miasto w świadomości jego obywateli\" (The City in the Consciousness of its Citizens, 1931).", "A key element of Znaniecki's sociological theory is his view of sociology in particular, and of the social sciences in general, as a scientific field uniquely different from the natural sciences. Znaniecki defines sociology as a study of social actions. His recommended methodology was analytic induction: analysis of typical case studies, and generalization from them. Znaniecki's theories form a major part of sociology's action theory, and his work is a major part of the foundation of humanistic sociology. Another term connected with Znaniecki's theories is \"systematic sociology\" (\"\"socjologia systematyczna\"\"). He sought to create a grand sociological theory, one that would bridge the gap between empirical sociology and more theoretical approaches. Znaniecki criticized the widespread definition of sociology as the study of society. In Znaniecki's culturalist perspective, sociology is a study of culture (though it is not \"the\" study of culture, as Znaniecki recognized that other social sciences also study culture). His definition of sociology has been described as that of \"a cultural science whose function is to study systems of social interaction based upon patterns of values and norms of behaviour, through the use of the humanistic coefficient\", or more simply, \"the investigation of organized, interdependent interaction among human beings.\" The part of the culture that sociology focused on was that of social relation or interaction. Znaniecki saw culture as a field separate from nature, but also from individuals' perceptions. The essence of culture is socially constructed objects. He was one of the first sociologists to begin analyzing personal documents such as letters, autobiographies, diaries, and the like. He considered the analysis of such documents an important part of the humanistic-coefficient method. Znaniecki saw sociology as an objective, inductive and generalizing science. According to Szacki, Znaniecki viewed sociology as a nomothetic science that should be able to use a methodology similar to that of the natural sciences (however, Znaniecki's daughter Helena Znaniecki Lopata, in her introduction to \"Social Relations and Social Roles\", contradicts Szacki, writing that, for Znaniecki, sociology was a science \"whose subject matter calls for a method different from that of the natural sciences.\"). In 1934 he formulated the principle of analytic induction, designed to identify universal propositions and causal laws. He contrasted it with enumerative research, which provided mere correlations and could not account for exceptions in statistical relationships. He was also critical of the statistical method, which he did not see as very useful. In addition to the science of sociology, Znaniecki was also deeply interested in the larger field of the sociology of science. He analyzed the social roles of scientists, and the concept of a school of thought.", "According to Znaniecki, sociology can be divided into the study of four dynamic social systems: social action theory, social relation theory, social actors theory, and social groups theory. Znaniecki saw social actions as the foundation of a society, as they give rise to more complex social relations, and he saw this theory as the foundation of all the others. Unlike Max Weber, he did not believe that everything can be reduced to social actions; he was also quite skeptical of any insights coming from the science of psychology, which he held in low esteem. The four major forms of cooperative interaction, or four social systems, in growing complexity, were: The four-category division described above appeared in his 1934 book, \"The Method of Sociology\". By 1958 he had reformulated the division, and was speaking instead of social relations, social roles, social groups, and societies.", "Znaniecki coined the term \"humanistic coefficient\" for a method of social research by way of data analysis that emphasizes participants' perceptions of the experience being analyzed. The humanistic coefficient sees all social facts as being created by social actors and as being understandable only from their perspective. Thus the sociologist ought to study reality by trying to understand how others see the world, not (objectively) as an independent observer; in other words, the scientist needs to understand the subject's world. While some have criticized this approach as being too close to subjectivism, Znaniecki himself saw it as anti-subjectivist; he observed that social facts such as cultural systems can exist even if no one perceives their existence. He was also skeptical of any value coming from personal, subjective observations, arguing that such observations have value only if they can be objectively described. He argued that the difference between the natural and social sciences lies not in the difference between objective and subjective experiences, but in the subject being studied: for Znaniecki, the natural sciences studied things, and the social sciences studied cultural values. Znaniecki characterized the world as being caught within two contrary modes of reflection; idealism and realism. He proposed a third way, which he called \"culturalism\". His culturalism was one of the founding ideas of modern antipositivist and antinaturalist sociology. The term \"culturalism\" was introduced into English in his book, \"Cultural Reality\" (1919), and was translated into Polish as \"\"kulturalizm\"\"; previously Znaniecki had discussed the concept in Polish as \"humanism\" (\"\"humanizm\"\"). Elżbieta Hałas has insisted on a gradual evolution of Znaniecki’s sociology of culture from \"Cultural Reality\" to \"Cultural Sciences\", his most reviewed book, which was published more than thirty years later, in 1952. By that time, Znaniecki saw the cultural order as “axionormative,” an universal concept encompassing “relationships among all kind of human actions” and the corresponding values. Hałas noted that this approach put him at odds with what was the dominant approach of the sociology of culture in the 1950s, whose most authoritative exponents were Americans who regarded Znaniecki’s approach as typically European and hardly applicable to the analysis of culture in the United States.", "Znaniecki's work also touched on many other areas of sociology, such as intergroup conflict, urban sociology, and rural sociology.", "Znaniecki's first academic works, of the 1910s, were more philosophical than sociological in nature; beginning in the 1920s, his works were primarily sociological. His \"Cultural Reality\" (1919) was a synthesis of his philosophical thought, but the simultaneous publication of his much more popular \"The Polish Peasant in Europe and America\" (1918–1920) associated his name in academic circles primarily with sociology rather than with philosophy. His early works focused on analysis of culture and strongly criticized the principles of sociological naturalism. Szacki notes a puzzling gap in Znaniecki's research: while he was well-read in, and engaged with, most previous and current theories, he largely ignored the works of some notable sociologists of his time such as Max Weber, Vilfredo Pareto and Talcott Parsons. On the other hand, his works engaged closely with those of William I. Thomas, Georg Simmel, Robert E. Park, and Émile Durkheim. His \"The Method of Sociology\" first introduced his concept of divisions within subfields of sociology. His most notable works included two books published in the same year (1952): \"Modern Nationalities\", and \"Cultural Sciences\". The former is an analysis of the evolution of national-culture societies, and the latter presents a theoretical study of the relation between sociology and other sciences. Znaniecki never finished his \"magnum opus\", \"Systematic Sociology\", which would eventually be collected and published posthumously in its unfinished but final form as \"Social Relations and Social Roles: The Unfinished Systematic Sociology\" (1965).", "Roughly half of Znaniecki's published works are in English; the rest, in Polish. In English: In Polish:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Official use.", "Design.", "Engine.", "Gearbox.", "Suspension.", "T603 in competition.", "Beginnings.", "Rally Monte Carlo 1960.", "Liège-Sofia-Liège 1963.", "Spa-Sofia-Liège 1964.", "Marathon de la Route 1965.", "Marathon de la Route 1966.", "Marathon de la Route 1967.", "Races in Czechoslovakia." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Tatra was the manufacturer of luxurious automobiles in the Czech lands. Austro-Hungarian emperor Charles I used a NW type T; the Czechoslovak president Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk drove the twelve-cylinder Tatra 80 while his successor Edvard Beneš drove the streamlined Tatra 87. While the T87 was manufactured from 1936 to 1950, the post-war T600 may be considered the first car of the new political order. The T600 was much smaller and used an engine of only four cylinders, making it the descendant of the T97, the small pre-war Tatra. Production of the T97 had been stopped by the Nazis in order to cover its resemblance to their KdF-Wagen (which later became known as the VW Beetle). Czechoslovakia had a Socialist government from 1948, and its economy was later subject to some regulation by the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON), consisting of eastern European socialist nations. After production of the T600 ended in 1952, COMECON decided that Tatra would manufacture only trucks, while luxury cars would be imported into Czechoslovakia from the USSR. The Tatra designers, however, continued their work on a new car in secret. In 1952 a group of designers led by František Kardaus and Vladimír Popelář began the secret development of a new car called Valuta, while officially devoting their time to development of a new three-axle bus T400. In 1953 the socialist government became frustrated with delays in delivery of Soviet cars as well as with their poor quality and they ordered development of a new luxury Tatra, thus giving legitimacy to the team's previous work. The new car was to have a 3.5-litre air-cooled eight-cylinder engine, and it was to be ready for production by the end of 1954. While the chassis was almost ready due to the work on Valuta, the engine remained an issue. Even in their secret designs nobody had anticipated such a large engine. Engineer Julius Mackerle proposed a \"temporary\" solution of using the already developed 2.5-litre T603 engine in the new car (it was already successfully used in Tatra racecars and Tatra 87-603), while the larger one was supposed to be ready in the next 4–5 years. The first driveable T603 was completed in 1955. A number of body designs were tested in wind-tunnels. In the end the one proposed by František Kardas and fine-tuned by Vladimír Popelář and Josef Chalupa was chosen for production. Three versions of the model T603 were manufactured successively between 1956 and 1975. These cars are designated T603, T 2-603 and T 3-603, though the 3- was not an official designation used by Tatra. The T603-1 is easily distinguished by its three headlamps enclosed beneath a clear glass cover. In 1962 the 2-603 was launched. Four headlamps were mounted within a long oval grille and the dashboard was changed. The rear track was increased by 55 mm and the engine was modernized. In 1966 the car gained power brakes, while in 1967 other changes were added: for example the windshield's height was enlarged by 66 mm. The unofficial -3 (or Tatra 2-603 II) omits the grille and places the headlamps flush with the car's front fascia. The car got disk brakes on all four wheels and was officially changed to a five-seater for legal reasons (from 1968 the safety belts became obligatory for passengers on front seats). In 1973 the T603 became the first Czechoslovak car with contactless thyristor ignition. To complicate matters, as model T603s were returned to the factory to be exchanged for \"new\" model T603s, the older cars would be disassembled and rebuilt to the current styling. These cars were then returned to use as \"new\" T603's. As a result, most T603s are of the later -3 styling, regardless of their original production date.", "The Model T603 was allocated only to senior members of the political and industrial establishments. About a third of T603 production was exported to most of the central and eastern European countries allied to Czechoslovakia at the time, as well as to Cuba and China. Sales to private individuals were not normally possible, although a few T603s appear to have been privately owned in East Germany. During the car's twenty-year production run, 20,422 cars were built, mostly by hand. To the west of the Iron Curtain the car was mostly unknown, though some were used by Czechoslovak embassies in western capitals, and for a brief period some were exported to Canada and the USA, following on the success of the rear-engined VW Beetle. The model T603 was replaced by the T613 in 1974. Former Cuban President Fidel Castro is believed still to have owned a white T603 featuring air conditioning. Originally the Comecon issued a provision limiting Czechoslovakia to production of no more than 300 luxurious cars per year. Tatra was making more of them, though. This became an issue in 1957 and 1958, especially considering that East Germany produced its own luxurious car, the Sachsenring P240. The Comecon decided that the two countries must reach a deal to choose which country would continue production to supply the other. In 1958 the Ministries of Interior of both countries took part in trials, which East Germany's Minister of Machinery personally attended. The 603 won, and subsequently East Germany's higher communist officials were able to drive the T603, while the lower ones had to drive imports from USSR.", "The first model of 603 was characterized by three headlamps. Originally the three headlights were under a single piece of glass, but later three-piece glass was used. There was a large luggage compartment under the front bonnet, under which was the spare wheel. The spare wheel was in a separate drop-down bin opened from inside the front boot, thus making it possible to reach it without taking out luggage. At least one prototype had a two-piece windscreen but production cars had single-sheet'screens of two different heights and three curvatures during the long production run. The interior featured enough space to seat six occupants. To gain enough space for the middle occupant in the front seats the shift lever was on the steering column, rather than on the floor. The front seats could be folded down to make a large bed. Behind the rear seats there was a deep storage area, initially covered. The rear was characterized by a large two piece window making it the first rear-engined Tatra with good rear visibility. An independent petrol-burning heater is fitted under the front seat. Low volume production levels and the resulting lack of production automation meant that \"one off\" adaptations were relatively easy to accomplish.", "The V8 overhead valve hemi engine weighed only, allowing the car to have 47/53 front/rear interaxle weight distribution when fully loaded. The engine was already used in the late Tatra 87 and its extreme reliability was confirmed by previous use in the Tatra 607 race car or military light truck T805. The air-cooling system was designed to cool the most heated parts of the engine more effectively. Further modifications led to introduction of the T603H engine, from which the T603HB (export model) and T603HT (tropical climate model) were derived.", "The synchronized gearbox had four speeds (+ reverse). Customers could order \"mountain\" gearing in place of the standard ratios. The gear stick was placed under the steering wheel in order to make room for the middle occupant of the front seats. The gearbox made a monoblock with the shaft of the rear axle.", "Suspension was by swing axles in the rear and MacPherson suspension in the front. Coil springs were used with hydraulic telescopic shock absorbers. Initially a double-circuit hydraulic brake system was used, but later a single-circuit was used. All wheels had drum brakes until 1968, when they were replaced by disc brakes.", "The T603s took part in 79 races (24 international) in years 1957 to 1967, resulting in a total 60 first, 56 second and 49 third positions. In most cases production cars with minimum modifications participated in races, but more modified versions also emerged later, notably one with ejector cooled engine.", "In 1959 three cars took part in Austrian Alpine Cup. All of them finished and were decorated; Alois Mark won first position in his class. One month later the same crews drove the 31st Rallye Wiesbaden (1231 km); Alois Mark was the best foreign driver and got 3rd position overall, behind two Mercedes cars. During the closing beauty and elegance competition T603s were decorated with golden ribbon.", "Tatra aimed to take part in Rally Monte Carlo of 1960, but already from the beginning they faced opposition from the official Czechoslovak institutions. First the sport association wanted to place its own drivers into T603s instead of the company ones, while later it officially banned participation of both Tatras and Škodas. This of course made the people from the Moravian company furious - they saw in the decision typical Bohemian Pragocentrism, especially after the participation of Škoda was allowed (with explanation, that Škoda had already been exported to western markets, and therefore its participation in the rally was justified.", "Only one 603 took a part in the competition; it was damaged when it crashed after a tire blew out.", "Three 603s entered the 6,100 km long race. One of them finished first in its class (overall fifteenth), one crew gave up and another dropped out with a mechanical failure. Altogether 97 cars took part, but only 21 came to the finish line.", "Three crews with Tatra 2-603GTs took part in the race. The competition began in Spa, however the main part was at Nürburgring. After 82 hours (most of it in heavy rain) Tatras took second and third position in its class, being third and fourth overall. The third car didn't see the end due to malfunction. Tatra team was the only one in the GT category which using serial production tires in the race.", "Again three crews took part in the competition, however this time they entered the B5 category, allowing them to modify the cars. Tatra gained 1-2-3 victory in its class (3-4-5 overall) and also gained first position for the team as a whole. After one of the cars hit a deer its headlights were damaged, which led into penalization. Later the same crew had problems with fuelling and with a tire, which (together with penalization) dropped them to 22nd position. By the end this very crew took 5th overall.", "Three crews with the modernized 1968 model took part in the marathon. Due to very bad weather during the last two nights only 13 of 43 cars made in to the finish line: two of them were 603s taking 3rd and 4th position in class (4th and 5th overall). One of the Czech drivers subsequently commented on the race: \"I feel lucky to be still alive.", "Tatras took part also in a number of national competitions, usually taking pole positions." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Explanation.", "Reflection.", "Refraction.", "Underlying mathematics.", "Sommerfeld–Runge method.", "General equation using four-vector notation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "A light ray is a line or curve that is perpendicular to the light's wavefronts (and is therefore collinear with the wave vector). A slightly more rigorous definition of a light ray follows from Fermat's principle, which states that the path taken between two points by a ray of light is the path that can be traversed in the least time. Geometrical optics is often simplified by making the paraxial approximation, or \"small angle approximation.\" The mathematical behavior then becomes linear, allowing optical components and systems to be described by simple matrices. This leads to the techniques of Gaussian optics and \"paraxial ray tracing\", which are used to find basic properties of optical systems, such as approximate image and object positions and magnifications.", "Glossy surfaces such as mirrors reflect light in a simple, predictable way. This allows for production of reflected images that can be associated with an actual (real) or extrapolated (virtual) location in space. With such surfaces, the direction of the reflected ray is determined by the angle the incident ray makes with the surface normal, a line perpendicular to the surface at the point where the ray hits. The incident and reflected rays lie in a single plane, and the angle between the reflected ray and the surface normal is the same as that between the incident ray and the normal. This is known as the Law of Reflection. For flat mirrors, the law of reflection implies that images of objects are upright and the same distance behind the mirror as the objects are in front of the mirror. The image size is the same as the object size. (The magnification of a flat mirror is equal to one.) The law also implies that mirror images are parity inverted, which is perceived as a left-right inversion. Mirrors with curved surfaces can be modeled by ray tracing and using the law of reflection at each point on the surface. For mirrors with parabolic surfaces, parallel rays incident on the mirror produce reflected rays that converge at a common focus. Other curved surfaces may also focus light, but with aberrations due to the diverging shape causing the focus to be smeared out in space. In particular, spherical mirrors exhibit spherical aberration. Curved mirrors can form images with magnification greater than or less than one, and the image can be upright or inverted. An upright image formed by reflection in a mirror is always virtual, while an inverted image is real and can be projected onto a screen.", "Refraction occurs when light travels through an area of space that has a changing index of refraction. The simplest case of refraction occurs when there is an interface between a uniform medium with index of refraction formula_1 and another medium with index of refraction formula_2. In such situations, Snell's Law describes the resulting deflection of the light ray: where formula_4 and formula_5 are the angles between the normal (to the interface) and the incident and refracted waves, respectively. This phenomenon is also associated with a changing speed of light as seen from the definition of index of refraction provided above which implies: where formula_7 and formula_8 are the wave velocities through the respective media. Various consequences of Snell's Law include the fact that for light rays traveling from a material with a high index of refraction to a material with a low index of refraction, it is possible for the interaction with the interface to result in zero transmission. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection and allows for fiber optics technology. As light signals travel down a fiber optic cable, they undergo total internal reflection allowing for essentially no light lost over the length of the cable. It is also possible to produce polarized light rays using a combination of reflection and refraction: When a refracted ray and the reflected ray form a right angle, the reflected ray has the property of \"plane polarization\". The angle of incidence required for such a scenario is known as Brewster's angle. Snell's Law can be used to predict the deflection of light rays as they pass through \"linear media\" as long as the indexes of refraction and the geometry of the media are known. For example, the propagation of light through a prism results in the light ray being deflected depending on the shape and orientation of the prism. Additionally, since different frequencies of light have slightly different indexes of refraction in most materials, refraction can be used to produce dispersion spectra that appear as rainbows. The discovery of this phenomenon when passing light through a prism is famously attributed to Isaac Newton. Some media have an index of refraction which varies gradually with position and, thus, light rays curve through the medium rather than travel in straight lines. This effect is what is responsible for mirages seen on hot days where the changing index of refraction of the air causes the light rays to bend creating the appearance of specular reflections in the distance (as if on the surface of a pool of water). Material that has a varying index of refraction is called a gradient-index (GRIN) material and has many useful properties used in modern optical scanning technologies including photocopiers and scanners. The phenomenon is studied in the field of gradient-index optics. A device which produces converging or diverging light rays due to refraction is known as a lens. Thin lenses produce focal points on either side that can be modeled using the lensmaker's equation. In general, two types of lenses exist: convex lenses, which cause parallel light rays to converge, and concave lenses, which cause parallel light rays to diverge. The detailed prediction of how images are produced by these lenses can be made using ray-tracing similar to curved mirrors. Similarly to curved mirrors, thin lenses follow a simple equation that determines the location of the images given a particular focal length (formula_9) and object distance (formula_10): where formula_12 is the distance associated with the image and is considered by convention to be negative if on the same side of the lens as the object and positive if on the opposite side of the lens. The focal length f is considered negative for concave lenses. Incoming parallel rays are focused by a convex lens into an inverted real image one focal length from the lens, on the far side of the lens. Rays from an object at finite distance are focused further from the lens than the focal distance; the closer the object is to the lens, the further the image is from the lens. With concave lenses, incoming parallel rays diverge after going through the lens, in such a way that they seem to have originated at an upright virtual image one focal length from the lens, on the same side of the lens that the parallel rays are approaching on. Rays from an object at finite distance are associated with a virtual image that is closer to the lens than the focal length, and on the same side of the lens as the object. The closer the object is to the lens, the closer the virtual image is to the lens. Likewise, the magnification of a lens is given by where the negative sign is given, by convention, to indicate an upright object for positive values and an inverted object for negative values. Similar to mirrors, upright images produced by single lenses are virtual while inverted images are real. Lenses suffer from aberrations that distort images and focal points. These are due to both to geometrical imperfections and due to the changing index of refraction for different wavelengths of light (chromatic aberration).", "As a mathematical study, geometrical optics emerges as a short-wavelength limit for solutions to hyperbolic partial differential equations. In this short-wavelength limit, it is possible to approximate the solution locally by where formula_15 satisfy a dispersion relation, and the amplitude formula_16 varies slowly. More precisely, the leading order solution takes the form The phase formula_18 can be linearized to recover large wavenumber formula_19, and frequency formula_20. The amplitude formula_21 satisfies a transport equation. The small parameter formula_22 enters the scene due to highly oscillatory initial conditions. Thus, when initial conditions oscillate much faster than the coefficients of the differential equation, solutions will be highly oscillatory, and transported along rays. Assuming coefficients in the differential equation are smooth, the rays will be too. In other words, refraction does not take place. The motivation for this technique comes from studying the typical scenario of light propagation where short wavelength light travels along rays that minimize (more or less) its travel time. Its full application requires tools from microlocal analysis.", "The method of obtaining equations of geometrical optics by taking the limit of zero wavelength was first described by Arnold Sommerfeld and J. Runge in 1911. Their derivation was based on an oral remark by Peter Debye. Consider a monochromatic scalar field formula_23, where formula_24 could be any of the components of electric or magnetic field and hence the function formula_25 satisfy the wave equation where formula_27 with formula_28 being the speed of light in vacuum. Here, formula_29 is the refractive index of the medium. Without loss of generality, let us introduce formula_30 to convert the equation to Since the underlying principle of geometrical optics lies in the limit formula_32, the following asymptotic series is assumed, For large but finite value of formula_34, the series diverges, and one has to be careful in keeping only appropriate first few terms. For each value of formula_34, one can find an optimum number of terms to be kept and adding more terms than the optimum number might result in a poorer approximation. Substituting the series into the equation and collecting terms of different orders, one finds in general, The first equation is known as the eikonal equation, which determines the eikonal formula_38 is a Hamilton–Jacobi equation, written for example in Cartesian coordinates becomes The remaining equations determine the functions formula_40.", "In four-vector notation used in special relativity, the wave equation can be written as and the substitution formula_42 leads to Therefore the eikonal equation is given by Once eikonal is found by solving the above equation, the wave four-vector can be found from" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Historiography.", "History.", "Practice.", "\"Minkisi\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The term \"fetish\" has evolved from an idiom used to describe a type of objects created in the interaction between European travelers and Africans in the early modern period to an analytical term that played a central role in the perception and study of non-Western art in general and African art in particular. William Pietz, who conducted an extensive ethno-historical study of the fetish, argues that the term originated in the coast of West Africa during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Pietz distinguishes between, on the one hand, actual African objects that may be called fetishes in Europe, together with the indigenous theories of them, and on the other hand, \"fetish\", an idea, and an idea of a kind of object, to which the term above applies. According to Pietz, the post-colonial concept of \"fetish\" emerged from the encounter between Europeans and Africans in a very specific historical context and in response to African material culture. He begins his polemic with an introduction to the complex history of the word: My argument, then, is that the fetish could originate only in conjunction with the emergent articulation of the ideology of the commodity form that defined itself within and against the social values and religious ideologies of two radically different types of noncapitalist society, as they encountered each other in an ongoing cross-cultural situation. This process is indicated in the history of the word itself as it developed from the late medieval Portuguese \"feitiço\", to the sixteenth-century pidgin \"Fetisso\" on the African coast, to various northern European versions of the word via the 1602 text of the Dutchman Pieter de Marees... The fetish, then, not only originated from, but remains specific to, the problem of the social value of material objects as revealed in situations formed by the encounter of radically heterogeneous social systems, and a study of the history of the idea of the fetish may be guided by identifying those themes that persist throughout the various discourses and disciplines that have appropriated the term. Stallybrass concludes that \"Pietz shows that the fetish as a concept was elaborated to demonize the supposedly arbitrary attachment of West Africans to material objects. The European subject was constituted in opposition to a demonized fetishism, through the disavowal of the object.\"", "Initially, the Portuguese developed the concept of the fetish to refer to the objects used in religious practices by West African natives. The contemporary Portuguese \"feitiço\" may refer to more neutral terms such as charm, enchantment, or abracadabra, or more potentially offensive terms such as juju, witchcraft, witchery, conjuration or bewitchment. The concept was popularized in Europe circa 1757, when Charles de Brosses used it in comparing West African religion to the magical aspects of ancient Egyptian religion. Later, Auguste Comte employed the concept in his theory of the evolution of religion, wherein he posited fetishism as the earliest (most primitive) stage, followed by polytheism and monotheism. However, ethnography and anthropology would classify some artifacts of monotheistic religions as fetishes. For example, the Holy Cross and the consecrated host or tokens of communion found in some forms of Christianity (a monotheistic religion), are here regarded as examples of fetishism. The eighteenth-century intellectuals who articulated the theory of fetishism encountered this notion in descriptions of \"Guinea\" contained in such popular voyage collections as Ramusio's \"Viaggio e Navigazioni\" (1550), de Bry's \"India Orientalis\" (1597), Purchas's \"Hakluytus Posthumus\" (1625), Churchill's \"Collection of Voyages and Travels\" (1732), Astley's \"A New General Collection of Voyages and Travels\" (1746), and Prevost's \"Histoire generale des voyages\" (1748). The theory of fetishism was consecrated at the end of the eighteenth century by G.W.F. Hegel in \"Lectures on the Philosophy of History\". According to Hegel, Africans were incapable of abstract thought, their ideas and actions were governed by impulse, and therefore a fetish object could be anything that then was arbitrarily imbued with imaginary powers. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Tylor and McLennan, historians of religion, held that the concept of fetishism fostered a shift of attention away from the relationship between people and God, to focus instead on a relationship between people and material objects, and that this, in turn, allowed for the establishment of false models of causality for natural events. This they saw as a central problem historically and sociologically.", "The use of the concept in the study of religion derives from studies of traditional West African religious beliefs, as well as from Voodoo, which in turn derives from those beliefs. Fetishes were commonly used in Native American religion and practices. The bear represented the shaman, the buffalo was the provider, the mountain lion was the warrior, and the wolf was the pathfinder.", "Made and used by the BaKongo people of western Zaire, a \"nkisi\" (plural \"minkisi\") is a sculptural object that provides a local habitation for a spiritual personality. Though some minkisi have always been anthropomorphic, they were probably much less naturalistic or \"realistic\" before the arrival of the Europeans in the nineteenth century; Kongo figures are more naturalistic in the coastal areas than inland. As Europeans tend to think of spirits as objects of worship, idols become the objects of idolatry when worship was addressed to false gods. In this way, Europeans regarded \"minkisi\" as idols on the basis of false assumptions. Europeans often called nkisi \"fetishes\" and sometimes \"idols\" because they are sometimes rendered in human form. Modern anthropology has generally referred to these objects either as \"power objects\" or as \"charms\". In addressing the question of whether a \"nkisi\" is a fetish, William McGaffey writes that the Kongo ritual system as a whole, bears a relationship similar to that which Marx supposed that \"political economy\" bore to capitalism as its \"religion\", but not for the reasons advanced by Bosman, the Enlightenment thinkers, and Hegel. The irrationally \"animate\" character of the ritual system's symbolic apparatus, including \"minkisi\", divination devices, and witch-testing ordeals, obliquely expressed real relations of power among the participants in ritual. \"Fetishism\" is about relations among people, rather than the objects that mediate and disguise those relations. Therefore, McGaffey concludes, to call a \"minkisi\" a fetish is to translate \"certain Kongo realities into the categories developed in the emergent social sciences of nineteenth century, post-enlightenment Europe.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Nomenclature.", "Star system." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Eta Tauri\" is the star's Bayer designation. The name \"Alcyone\" originates with Greek mythology; she is one of the seven daughters of Atlas and Pleione known as the Pleiades. In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which included \"Alcyone\" for this star. It is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names. In Chinese, (), meaning \"Hairy Head\", refers to an asterism consisting Alcyone, Electra, Taygeta, Asterope, Maia, Merope and Atlas. Consequently, the Chinese name for Alcyone itself is (), \"the Sixth Star of Hairy Head\".", "The Catalog of Components of Double and Multiple Stars lists three companions: B is 24 Tauri, a magnitude 6.28 A0 main sequence star 117\" away; C is V647 Tauri, a δ Sct variable star; and D is a magnitude 9.15 F3 main sequence star. V647 Tau varies from magnitude +8.25 to +8.30 over 1.13 hours. The Washington Double Star Catalog lists a further four companions, all fainter than 11th magnitude, and also describes component D as itself double with two nearly equal components separated by 0.30\". The main star, Alcyone A, consists of three components, the brightest being a blue-white B-type giant similar to many of the other B-type stars in the Pleiades cluster. It has an apparent magnitude of +2.87 (absolute magnitude = −2.39), and a radius almost 10 times that of the Sun. Its temperature is approximately 13,000 K giving it a total luminosity that is 2,400 times solar. The spectral type of B7IIIe indicates that emission lines are present in its spectrum. Like many Be stars, Alcyone A has a high rotational velocity of 149 km/s, which has created a gaseous disk flung into orbit around the star from its equator. The closest companion has a very low mass and is less than 1 milli-arcsecond away, with a likely orbital period just over four days. The other star is about half the mass of the giant and they are separated by 0.031 arcseconds, or about the distance from the Sun to Jupiter, orbiting in about 830 days." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Camara Municipal de Salcete.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Education.", "Transport.", "Air.", "Rail.", "Road.", "Language.", "Tourism.", "Landmarks.", "Municipal Garden.", "The Holy Spirit Church.", "House of Seven Gables.", "Narcinva D. Naik residence and Damodar Sal.", "Damodar Temple.", "Culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Margão\" is the Portuguese spelling, with \"Madgao\" being used in Konkani. It was called \"Madgaon\" in Marathi. It is derived from the Sanskrit (\"Maṭhagrāma\") which means a village of monasteries. In \"Ravanphond\", now a suburb of Margao, there are shrines of Matsyendranath and Gorakhnath. The abode of Nath medicants was called a \"Matha\" (Monastery). \"Madagao\" was called \"Mathagrama\" on account of Vaishnavite Math belonging to Dvaita sect which was founded in the latter 15th century and shifted to Partagali after the establishment of the Portuguese power.", "Margão in pre-Portuguese times was one of the important settlements in Salcete and known as \"Matha Grama\" (the village of Mathas) as it was a temple town with nine Mathas in temple schools. Its replacement in 1579 was destroyed by raiders. The present church was built in 1675. While the western side of the Holy Spirit Church developed as a market place, the settlement grew on the eastern side, that is, the Borda region, with the Holy Spirit Church, Margao at its core and extended outwards.", "The Municipality during the erstwhile Portuguese regime was known as \"Câmara Municipal de Salcete\", catering to all the villages in Salcete Taluka for over 300 years until the Goa Municipalities Act of 1968 came into force. The Câmara Municipal de Salcete is now reconstituted into Margao Municipal Council. The Members of the Câmara Municipal de Salcete were then nominated by the Government, but after the reconstitution of the Municipal Council, the Members to all the 25 wards (13 in Margao & 12 in Fatorda) are elected by the Members of the council. Margão's importance as an administrative and commercial area grew with the increasing dependence of the surrounding towns and villages; leading to the administrative center with the town hall at its center being built in the south. In 1961, Goa was freed from Portuguese occupation and incorporated into India, and Margão was declared as the administrative center of the district of South Goa.", "Margao is located at. It has an average elevation of. By road, Margao is located approximately from the capital Panjim, and from Vasco da Gama. Nestled on the banks of the Sal River, Portuguese style mansions dot its landscape. One of the fastest growing cities in Goa, its fast growing suburbs include Aquem, Fatorda, Gogol, Borda, Comba, Navelim and Davorlim.", "Margao features a tropical monsoon climate. Summers are warm whereas winters are mild. Summers last from March–May when the temperature reaches up to and winters from December–February when it is usually between. Monsoons occur from June–September with heavy rainfall and gusty winds. The annual average rainfall is.", "As of the 2011 census of India, Margao had a population of 87,650. Males constituted 51% of the population and females 49%. It had an average literacy rate of 90%; male literacy was 93%, and female literacy 86.8%. In Margao, 9.8% of the population was under 7 years of age. With a population of 106,484 in the metropolitan area, Margao is second largest Urban agglomeration in Goa.", "Margão is home to many schools and colleges, the alumni of which have made significant contributions to Goa's cultural and scientific landscape. Most schools function in accordance with the curriculum prescribed by the Directorate of Education and the Goa Board of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education.The oldest, the Loyola High School (Goa) near the Old Bus Stand, is a Jesuit-run school. Other prominent schools include Bhatikar Model English High School (established in 1935) named after its founder Late Pandurang Raya Bhatikar and Mahila & Nutan High School which was established as Samaj Seva Sangh's Mahila Vidyalay for girls in 1933 and started co-ed intake in June 1972. Schools affiliated to central boards include Vidya Vikas Academy which is affiliated to the CBSE board and Manovikas High School affiliated to the ICSE board. The other educational institutes in Margão include St. Joseph High School at Aquem, Govt. High School Vidyanagar, Holy Spirit Institute, Presentation Convent High School, Fatima Convent High School, and Perpetual Convent High School located in Navelim. The colleges in Margão include The Parvatibai Chowgule College which was housed in Portuguese Military Barracks opposite Multipurpose High School in Vidyanagar. The college moved to its present location in 1972 under the direction of then principal Prof. P. S. Rege. Shree Damodar College of Commerce and Economics and Govind Ramnath Kare College of Law provide post secondary education in Commerce and Law respectively. Schools such as Shree Damodar Higher Secondary School Of Science and R.M.S Higher Secondary School focus exclusively on higher secondary education. There are also ITIs (Industrial Training Institutes) which impart technical education. Don Bosco College of Engineering located at Fatorda is the sole technical degree granting institute in the town.", "", "The nearest airport to Margão is Goa's international airport ( Dabolim Airport ) which is 23 km away.", "Madgaon railway station is a railway junction positioned at the intersection of the Konkan Railway and the South Western Railway and is Goa's busiest. Due to its location and connectivity, the station is often used as a transit stop by many people who either head off down south to popular tourist destinations such as Palolem (38 km) or to Benaulim and Colva which are about six kilometers away and are popular tourist destinations. Margão hosted the test track for the Skybus Metro project, an elevated rail system patented by the Konkan Railway Corporation, This project was allegedly scrapped due to an accident which occurred during the test drive killing one engineer and seriously injuring three crew members. B Rajaram who had invented the rail system has stated that in his opinion the accident was avoidable.", "Margão is connected by road to other cities like Mangalore, Udupi, Bhatkal, Kumta, Karwar, Ratnagiri, and Mumbai through the National Highway 66 (NH66). Also, there is road which connects Margão to Ponda, São José de Areal, Sanvordem, Chandor, and other towns of Goa state.", "Konkani is the most widely spoken language in Margão, followed closely by English. Portuguese is still spoken and understood by a small number of people. Hindi is also spoken and understood by a majority of the city's population. The dialect of Konkani in South Goa differs notably from that spoken in North Goa. Marathi is also spoken to a significant level. A sizable fraction of the flower and vegetable merchants converse in Kannada.", "The town has many sights and destinations. These include the \"Mercado de Afonso de Albuquerque\" which roughly translates to closed market and colloquially known as \"Pimplapedd\" or \"Pimpalakatta\", the municipal building (\"Câmara Municipal\"), the municipal garden named after benefactor Prince Aga Khan, Anna Fonte (natural springs), Old Market or \"Mercado Velho\", Holy Spirit Church, grand colonial mansions such as the Seven Gables House, the chapel at Monte Hill. Some of the town suburbs include Pajifond, Aquem, Gogol, Borda, Malbhat, Kharebandh, Old Market, Navelim and Comba, the last two being the oldest parts of the town. Pandava Caves Located in Aquem Behind St. Sebestian Church There are a number of churches and temples in Margão, since the population is predominantly Hindu with a significant Roman Catholic and a very small Muslim minority. The famous churches in Margão are the Holy Spirit Church, the Grace Church, The St Sebastian Church in Aquem (The Old St. Sebastian Chapel, popularly known as the Pandava Copel still stands next to the modern St. Sebastian Church) and the Monte Hill Chapel, the famous temples are the 'Damodar Temple' (Saal), the 'Hari Mandir', the 'Maruti Mandir' at Davorlim the 'Saibaba Temple' at Davorlim, the 'Shiv Temple' (Ling) at Fatorda near Nehru Stadium (which is the original Temple of Damudora). There are two mosques in Margão, one in the Malbhat area and one on the Monte hill. There is also a Jain temple and a Jama'at Khana for the Khoja faith in Pajifond. There is also a small Muslim community of Nizaris living in Margão.", "", "In the centre of the town is the Municipal Garden, known as Praça Jorge Barreto, around which most restaurants and office buildings are located. On the park's south side like the colonial style red-washed Municipal building, known as Margão Town Hall which was built in 1905, and the Library. The northern segment of the Municipal garden was developed by the Mavany family and is named after His Highness Prince Shah Karim Al Hussaini, Aga Khan IV/Imam of Nizari Ismaili Muslims who visited Goa just before its liberation. The entire garden is now municipal property and is maintained by the Margão Municipal Council.", "The Largo de Igreja, or the Church of the Holy Spirit, was built by the Portuguese in 1675 and boasts a pristine white façade and an interior dripping with gilt crystal and stucco. The Municipal Garden square is defined on one side by the church with its baroque architecture and the parochial house, and on the other side by the palatial mansions of affluent elite Catholics, positioned in a row. The \"Associação das Communidades\" (Communities Association) building and the school being the odd exceptions which add to its character and sense of scale. They have a maximum height of two stories, and \"balcões\" balconies and \"varandas\" (verandas) facing the square. Parallel to the church square is the commercial street (old market). There is also a landscaped area next to the church called \"Praça da Alegria\" (Joy Square). The church feast is celebrated before the monsoons, it is a time when many residents make pre-monsoon purchases to stock up for a prolonged rainy season.", "Just within walking distance of the Holy Spirit Church, is the famous \"House of Seven Gables\" or \"Sat Burzam Ghor\". This magnificent mansion was built by Inacio Sebastiao da Silva, emissary and private secretary of the Portuguese Viceroy, in 1790. Today, only three of the seven gables remain. The family church with its Baroque and Rococo workmanship, exhibits the loftiness of the Portuguese time.", "The Narcinva D. Naik residence houses Margao's well-known temple-hall known as Damodar Sal or Dambaba Saal. The house played host to Swami Vivekananda during his visit to Goa in October 1892 before proceeding to Chicago to address the Parliament of Religions", "The initial settlement of Margão grew from the site of the ancient Damodar Temple. The original temple was demolished and the temple tank was filled up to be replaced by the Holy Spirit church and church grounds. The deity Damodar (a form of Lord Vishnu) was carried across the Zuari Agranashini river to the Novas Conquistas in which the Sonde rulers resided.", "The town is also claimed as the cultural capital of Goa. A cultural center named 'Ravindra Bhavan' was inaugurated by the then Chief Minister of Goa, Digambar Kamat in July 2008 at Fatorda which is also an Official Venue For International Film Festival of India. It also has Goa's biggest sports stadium, the Nehru Stadium at Fatorda. The Akhil Bharatiya Marathi Sahitya Sammelan was held in 1964. Some of the theatres in Margão include the Gomant Vidya Niketan, OSIA Multiplex, Vishant and Lata; in addition to Goa's biggest theater, the Metropole. Inox has recently launched a multiplex with a capacity of 904 seats. The Gomat Vidya Niketan is a premier centre for arts in the town. People from all over Goa congregate at the special market to buy spices and dried fish to be used during the oncoming rainy season. The usual specialities that are found in the cuisine of Goa are also to be found in Margão. The curry of Margão is a praised local speciality. Cans of curry of Margão are currently exported to Portugal and elsewhere. Margão is also the name of a brand of spices sold in Portugal." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Engagement.", "Empress of Russia.", "Wedding.", "Birth of eldest child.", "Coronation.", "Rejection by the Russian people.", "Relationship with her children.", "Haemophilia and Rasputin.", "World War I.", "Revolution (1917).", "Imprisonment (1917–1918).", "Death.", "Execution.", "Identification of remains.", "Burial.", "Sainthood." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Alexandra was born on 6 June 1872 at the in Darmstadt as Princess \"Alix Viktoria Helene Luise Beatrix\" of Hesse and by Rhine, a Grand Duchy then part of the German Empire. She was the sixth child and fourth daughter among the seven children of Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse, and his first wife, Princess Alice of the United Kingdom, the second daughter of Queen Victoria and her husband Albert, Prince Consort. As an infant, she was noted to be very pretty. Alix was baptized on 1 July 1872 (her parents' tenth wedding anniversary) in the Protestant Lutheran Church and given the names of her mother and each of her mother's four sisters, some of which were transliterated into German. Her godparents were the Prince and Princess of Wales (her maternal uncle and aunt), Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom (her maternal aunt), the Duchess of Cambridge (her great-grandaunt), the Tsesarevich and Tsesarevna of Russia (her future parents-in-law), and Princess Anna of Prussia. Her mother gave", "Alix was married relatively late for her rank in her era, having rejected a proposal in 1890 from her first cousin, Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale and heir apparent to the British throne. After Alix's mother, Princess Alice of the United Kingdom had died of diphtheria, her grandmother, Queen Victoria, became interested in her marriage prospects and attempted to control her choice. Victoria had intended for Alix to be Britain's future queen, but she relented to Alix's objections, accepting them as indicative of her strength of character. Alix had already met and fallen in love with Grand Duke Nicholas, heir-apparent to the throne of Russia. The royal families were closely linked. Nicholas's mother, Empress Maria Feodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark), was Alix's godmother and the younger sister of Alexandra of Denmark, who married Alix’s uncle Edward VII. Her sister Elisabeth had converted into Russian Orthodoxy and married Nicholas's uncle Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich. Alix and Nicholas were related to each other via several different lines of European royalty: they were second cousins through a great-grandmother, Princess Wilhelmina of Baden, and King Frederick William II of Prussia had been both the great-great-grandfather of Alix and the great-great-great-grandfather of Nicholas, making them third cousins-once-removed via him. Nicholas and Alix had first met in 1884 at the wedding of Nicholas's Uncle Sergei and Alix's sister Elisabeth in St. Petersburg. When Alix returned to Russia on a several week visit in 1889, the two young people fell in love. Nicholas wrote in his diary: \"It is my dream to one day marry Alix H. I have loved her for a long time, but more deeply and strongly since 1889 when she spent six weeks in Petersburg. For a long time, I have resisted my feeling that my dearest dream will come true.\" Initially Nicholas's father, Tsar Alexander III, refused the prospect of their marriage. Alexander and his wife were both vehemently anti-German, and did not want the match with Princess Alix. It was generally known that Alexander III hoped for a better match for his son, such as Princess Hélène, the tall, dark-haired daughter of Philippe, Comte de Paris, pretender to the throne of France. Nicholas was not attracted to Hélène, writing in his diary: \"Mama made a few allusions to Hélène, daughter of the Comte de Paris. I myself want", "", "Alexander III died in the early afternoon of 1 November 1894 at the age of forty-nine, leaving Tsesarevich Nicholas the new Emperor of Russia, who was confirmed that evening as Tsar Nicholas II. The following day, Alix was received into the Russian Orthodox Church as \"the truly believing Grand Duchess Alexandra Feodorovna\". Yet as a dispensation, she was not required to repudiate Lutheranism or her former faith. Alix apparently expressed a wish to take the name \"Yekaterina\", but on Nicholas's wish to relive the names of his great-grandfather Nicholas I and his great-grandmother Alexandra Feodorovna as Nicholas and Alexandra, she took the name Alexandra. Alexandra, along with her and Nicholas's mutual aunt and uncle, the Prince and Princess of Wales, and some of Nicholas's relatives from Greece accompanied the coffin of Alexander III first to Moscow, where", "On 15 November 1895, Alexandra gave birth to her eldest child and daughter, Grand Duchess Olga at the Alexander Palace. Olga could not be heir presumptive due to the Pauline Laws implemented by Tsar Paul I: priority in the order of succession to the Russian throne belonged to male members of the Romanov dynasty, however distantly related to the Tsar, so long", "Alexandra Feodorovna became Empress of Russia on her wedding day, but it was not until 14 May 1896 that the coronation of Nicholas and Alexandra took place at the Assumption Cathedral in the Kremlin in Moscow. The following day, the coronation celebrations were halted when the deaths of over one thousand people became known. The victims had been trampled to death at the Khodynka Field in Moscow when rumours spread that there would not be enough of the food being distributed in honour of the coronation for the thousands who had gathered there. The relatively small numbers of police in attendance could not maintain order, and thousands were crushed in the ensuing stampede. In light of these events the tsar declared he could not go to the ball being given that night by the French Ambassador, the Marquis de Montebello. Nonetheless his uncles urged him to attend so as not to offend the French. Nicholas relented,", "Unlike her vivacious and popular mother-in-law, Alexandra was heartily disliked among her subjects. She came off as very cold and curt, although according to her and many other close friends, she was only terribly shy and nervous in front of the Russian people. She felt her feelings were bruised and battered from the Russians' \"hateful\" nature. She was also frowned upon by the wealthy and poor alike for her distaste for Russian culture (her embrace of Orthodoxy notwithstanding), whether it was the food or the manner of dancing. She spoke Russian with a heavy accent. Her perceived inability to produce a son also incensed the people. After the birth of the Grand Duchess Olga, her first-born child, Nicholas was reported to have said, \"We are grateful she was a daughter; if she was a boy she would have belonged to the people, being a girl she belongs", "About a year after her marriage to the tsar, Alexandra gave birth to the couple's first child: a girl named Olga, born on 15 November 1895. The couple was fertile; Alexandra bore three more girls in the next six years: Tatiana on 10 June 1897, Maria on 26 June 1899, and Anastasia on 18 June 1901. Three more years passed before she bore a son, the long-awaited heir to the throne: Alexei Nikolaevich, born in Peterhof on 12 August 1904. To his parents' dismay, Alexei was born with hemophilia, an incurable genetic disease of the blood that increased risk of early death because of failure of the blood to clot. It had caused the deaths of her elder brother Friedrich and her uncle Leopold. Alexandra felt guilt for having passed the disease to Alexei. Historians believe that she had a breakdown due to the worry for her son's health. Determined to care for her children, Alexandra shocked the Russian aristocracy by nursing her own children. She repeated elements of her own upbringing in rearing them. Grand Duchess Olga was reportedly shy and subdued. As she grew older, Olga read widely, both fiction and poetry, often borrowing books from her mother before the Empress had read them. \"You must wait, Mama, until I find out whether this book is a proper one for you to read,\" Olga wrote. She was the most bright of her siblings and possessed a quick mind, according to her tutors. While she adored her father, whom she physically resembled, she had a more distant relationship with Alexandra. Alexandra was close to her second daughter, Tatiana, who gave her unvarying attention but also was favoured by their father. If a favour was needed, the Imperial children agreed that \"Tatiana must ask Papa to grant it.\" During the family's final months, Tatiana helped her mother by pushing her about the house in a wheelchair. She most resembled Alexandra, both in terms of appearance and personality. Tatiana was considered the most", "Tsesarevich Alexei was born during the height of the Russo-Japanese War on 12 August 1904. He was heir apparent to the throne of Russia. At first the infant seemed healthy but in a few weeks' time, it was noticed that when he bumped himself, his bruises did not heal. He would bleed from the navel and his blood was slow to clot. Alexei was diagnosed as suffering from haemophilia, a genetic disease of males and carried by females, found among Alexandra's side of the family. Because of lack of successful treatment, haemophilia was generally fatal in the early 20th century. It had entered the royal houses of Europe via the daughters of Queen Victoria, also a carrier. Alexandra's brother, Friedrich died in 1873, as", "The outbreak of World War I was a pivotal moment for Russia and Alexandra. The war pitted the Russian Empire of the Romanov dynasty against the much stronger German Empire of the Hohenzollern dynasty. When Alexandra learned of the Russian mobilization, she stormed into her husband's study and said: \"War! And I knew nothing of it! This is the end of everything.\" The Grand Duchy of Hesse and by Rhine, ruled by her brother, formed part of the German Empire. This was, of course, the place of Alexandra's birth. This made Alexandra very unpopular with the Russian people, who accused her of collaboration with the Germans. The German Emperor, Wilhelm II,", "World War I put what proved to be unbearable burden on Imperial Russia's government and economy, both of which were dangerously weak. Mass shortages and hunger became the daily situation for tens of millions of Russians due to the disruptions of the war economy. Fifteen million men were diverted from agricultural production to fight in the war, and the transportation infrastructure (primarily railroads) was diverted towards war use, exacerbating food shortages in the cities as available agricultural products could not be brought to urban areas. Inflation was rampant. This, combined with the food shortages and the poor performance by the Russian military in the war, generated a great deal of anger and unrest among the people in Saint Petersburg and other cities. The decision of the tsar to take personal command of the military against advice was disastrous, as he was directly blamed for all losses. His relocation to the front, leaving the Empress in charge of the government, helped undermine the Romanov dynasty. The poor performance of the military led to rumours believed by the people that the German-born Empress was part of a conspiracy to help Germany win the war. Moreover, within several months of taking personal command of the army, the tsar replaced several capable ministers with less able men on the Empress and Rasputin's behest; most notable among these replacements was replacing N. B. Shcherbatov with Khvostov as minister of the interior. The severe winter of 1916–17 essentially doomed Imperial Russia. Food shortages worsened and famine gripped the cities. The mismanagement and failures of the war turned the soldiers against the tsar. By 1917, the tsar realized that Russia could not fight the war much", "The Provisional Government formed after the revolution kept Nicholas, Alexandra, and their children confined under house arrest in their home, the Alexander Palace at Tsarskoye Selo. They were visited by Kerensky from the government, who interviewed Alexandra regarding her involvement in state affairs and Rasputin's involvement in them through his influence over her. She answered that as she and her spouse kept no secrets from each other, they often discussed politics and she naturally gave him advice to support him; as for Rasputin, he had been a true holy man of God, and his advice had been only in the interest of the good of Russia and the imperial family. After the interview, Kerensky told the tsar that he believed that Alexandra had told him the truth and was not lying. The Provisional Government did not wish to keep the family in Russia, particularly as both the family as well as the Provincial Government were under threat from the Bolsheviks; they trusted that the former tsar and his family would be received in Great Britain, and made sure inquiries were being made. Despite the fact he was a first cousin of both Nicholas and Alexandra, George V refused to allow them and their family permission to evacuate to the United Kingdom, as he was alarmed by their unpopularity in his country and the potential repercussions to his own throne. After this, they were suggested to be moved to France; however, although the French government was never asked, British diplomats in France reported that the family was not likely to be welcome there, as anti-German feelings were strong in France during the war and Alexandra was widely unpopular because she was believed to be a sympathizer of Germany. The Provisional Government was reportedly very disappointed that no foreign state seemed to be willing to receive the family, and was forced to act and relocate them within Russia, as the security situation was becoming more and more difficult. In August 1917, the family were moved to Tobolsk in Siberia, a step by the Kerensky government designed to remove them from the capital and possible harm. Nicholas and Alexandra had themselves suggested to be moved to the Livadia Palace in the Crimea, but Kerensky deemed this to be too dangerous, as they would have to travel through Central Russia, an area which was at the time full of riots where the upper classes were attacked by the public and their mansions burned. Tobolsk in Siberia was, in contrast to Central and Southern Russia, a calm and peaceful place with greater security and more sympathy for the former tsar. There were indications that the Provisional Government were actually attempting to transport them out of Russia by the Trans-Siberian Railway, thus fulfilling the government's wish to have them expelled, but now via a different route, after the first attempt to exile them to Europe had failed. However, this plan was not revealed to the family, and if it", "", "Tuesday, 16 July 1918 passed normally for the former imperial family. At four o'clock in the afternoon, Nicholas and his daughters took their usual walk in the small garden. Early in the evening Yurovsky sent away the fifteen-year-old kitchen boy Leonid Sedinev, saying that his uncle wished to see him. At 7 p.m., Yurovsky summoned all the Cheka men into his room and ordered them to collect all the revolvers from the outside guards. With twelve heavy military revolvers lying before him on the table he said, \"Tonight, we shoot the entire family, everybody.\" Upstairs Nicholas and Alexandra passed the evening playing bezique; at ten thirty, they went to bed. The former tsar, tsarina, and all of their family, including the gravely ill Alexei, along with several family servants, were executed by firing squad and bayonets in the basement of the Ipatiev House, where they had been imprisoned, early in the morning of 17 July 1918, by a detachment of Bolsheviks led by Yakov Yurovsky.", "After the execution of the Romanov family in the Ipatiev House, Alexandra's body, along with Nicholas, their children and some faithful retainers who died with them, was stripped and the clothing burnt according to the Yurovsky Note. Initially the bodies were thrown down a disused mine-shaft at Ganina Yama, 12 miles (19 km) north of Yekaterinburg. A short time later, the bodies were retrieved. Their faces were smashed and the bodies, dismembered and disfigured with sulphuric acid, were hurriedly buried under railway sleepers with the exception of two of the children whose bodies were not discovered until 2007. The missing bodies were those of a daughter—Maria or Anastasia—and Alexei. In the early 1990s, following the fall of the Soviet Union, the bodies of the majority of the Romanovs were located along with their loyal servants, exhumed and formally identified. A secret report by Yurovsky, which came to light in the late 1970s, but did", "Alexandra, Nicholas II and three daughters plus the servants who were killed with them were reinterred in the St. Catherine", "In 1981, Alexandra and her immediate family were recognised as martyrs by the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia. In 2000, Alexandra was canonized as a saint and passion bearer by the Russian Orthodox Church, together with her husband Nicholas II, their children and others including her sister Grand Duchess Elisabeth Feodorovna and the Grand Duchess's fellow nun Varvara." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Itzig was born in Berlin. His family was mercantile. Itzig was a banker and a mintmaster in partnership with Veitel-Heine Ephraim. Together they leased all the mints in Saxony and Prussia. During the Seven Years' War they assisted Frederick the Great in debasing the Saxonian currency and spreading the Ephraimiten, not only in Saxony, but also in Silesia, Poland, Bohemia and Courland. Itzig was one of the very few Jews in Prussia to receive full citizenship privileges, as a \"Useful Jew\". He became extraordinarily wealthy as a consequence. Together with his son in law David Friedlander, Itzig was appointed to lead a committee which was to discuss ways to improve the Jewish civil and social standing in Prussia, which led to the removal of many restrictions. He funded early members of the Haskalah secular movement, including Rabbi Israel of Zamosch (Moses Mendelssohn's teacher), Samuel Rominow (an Italian Jewish artist) and Isaac Satanow. In 1761 he began planning a school for poor Jewish boys in Berlin, and in 1778 his son together with Daniel Friedlander opened the first \"free school\" (Freischule) called \"Hinuch Neorim\", Hebrew: 'Teaching the Youth'. The school and adjacent printing house later became one of the main institutions of the Haskalah movement. At the same time he founded and funded a Yeshiva and brought Rabbi Hirschel Levin and Rabbi Joseph ben Meir Teomim to Berlin to teach there. Itzig was the official head ('Oberältester') of the Jewish community in Berlin from 1764 until his death in 1799. He was made the Prussian court banker by Frederick's successor, Frederick William II of Prussia in 1797.", "His wife Miriam Wulff's ancestors included Rabbi Moses Isserles of Cracow and Joseph ben Mordechai Gershon. Many of Itzig's thirteen children (see Itzig family) became influential in German Jewish society. Two of his granddaughters married two of Moses Mendelssohn's sons. One of them was Lea (née Solomon), mother of Felix Mendelssohn and Fanny Hensel, a pianist and composer. By her, Lea was grandmother of mathematician Kurt Hensel." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Field of research and organization of the institute.", "Department of Solar Physics.", "Department of Interplanetary Matter.", "Stellar Physics Department.", "Facilities of the Institute.", "Highlights of the institute." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The institute focuses its research on the Sun, interplanetary matter (comets, meteoroids, asteroids) and on astrophysical research of variable and chemically peculiar stars. It has about 65 permanent employees of which roughly 50 are active researchers. It is divided into 3 departments:", "Interest in solar atmospheric activity led the department to focus on many processes in the solar photosphere, chromosphere and corona based on spectral line analysis using observational data from the Vacuum Tower Telescope (VTT) on Tenerife and utilization of data from Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO), including their own coronal observations. The head of the department is Aleš Kučera.", "Research employs photometry and astrometry of asteroids and comets using the main telescope of Skalnaté Pleso observatory. Furthermore, fish-eye cameras are used to detect bolides on the sky. The head of the department is Ján Svoreň.", "This department is focused on binary and multiple stellar systems. Its research employs spectroscopy and utilization of synthetic spectra and stellar databases from space-based observatories like HST, Hipparcos and the TYCHO catalogues. The head of the department is Drahomír Chochol.", "The institute has mountain observatories at Skalnaté Pleso, Lomnický štít and a theoretical department in Bratislava (founded in 1955), which is a statewide coordinating body for research of interplanetary matter. Moreover, it runs several full-sky photographic chambers (bolide cameras) which are part of European bolide network. The astronomical observatory at Skalnaté Pleso (1783 m) was founded in 1943. It is equipped with a 61 cm astrometrical and photometric reflector with a CCD camera and a 60 cm photometric reflector. The astronomical station on Lomnický štít (2632 m) has been active since 1960. It is equipped with a 20 cm coronograph and a spectrograph. In the headquarters of the astronomical institute at Tatranská Lomnica a 60 cm reflector and a solar horizontal spectrograph are located.", "The astronomical institute participated on discoveries of the following comets: Five astronomers participated in the discoveries: Antonín Mrkos, Ľudmila Pajdušáková, Ľubor Kresák, Antonín Bečvář and Margita Kresáková. From 70 comets discovered worldwide between 1946–1959, 18 were discovered from the observatories at Skalnaté Pleso and Lomnický štít." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Natural occurrence and industrial production.", "Chemical characteristics.", "Biochemistry.", "Citric acid cycle.", "Other biological roles.", "Applications.", "Food and drink.", "Cleaning and chelating agent.", "Cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, dietary supplements, and foods.", "Other uses.", "Synthesize solid materials from small molecules.", "Safety." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Citric acid exists in a variety of fruits and vegetables, most notably citrus fruits. Lemons and limes have particularly high concentrations of the acid; it can constitute as much as 8% of the dry weight of these fruits (about 47 g/l in the juices). The concentrations of citric acid in citrus fruits range from 0.005 mol/L for oranges and grapefruits to 0.30 mol/L in lemons and limes; these values vary within species depending upon the cultivar and the circumstances in which the fruit was grown. Industrial-scale citric acid production first began in 1890 based on the Italian citrus fruit industry, where the juice was treated with hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide) to precipitate calcium citrate, which was isolated and converted back to the acid using diluted sulfuric acid. In 1893, C. Wehmer discovered \"Penicillium\" mold could produce citric acid from sugar. However, microbial production of citric acid did not become industrially important until World War I disrupted Italian citrus exports. In 1917, American food chemist James Currie discovered certain strains of the mold \"Aspergillus niger\" could be efficient citric acid producers, and the pharmaceutical company Pfizer began industrial-level production using this technique two years later, followed by Citrique Belge in 1929. In this production technique, which is still the major industrial route to citric acid used today, cultures of \"A. niger\" are fed on a sucrose or glucose-containing medium to produce citric acid. The source of sugar is corn steep liquor, molasses, hydrolyzed corn starch, or other inexpensive, sugary solution. After the mold is filtered out of the resulting solution, citric acid is isolated by precipitating it with calcium hydroxide to yield calcium citrate salt, from which citric acid is regenerated by treatment with sulfuric acid, as in the direct extraction from citrus fruit juice. In 1977, a patent was granted to Lever Brothers for the chemical synthesis of citric acid starting either from aconitic or isocitrate/alloisocitrate calcium salts under high pressure conditions; this produced citric acid in near quantitative conversion under what appeared to be a reverse, non-enzymatic Krebs cycle reaction. Global production was in excess of 2,000,000 tons in 2018. More than 50% of this volume was produced in China. More than 50% was used as an acidity regulator in beverages, some 20% in other food applications, 20% for detergent applications, and 10% for applications other than food, such as cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and in the chemical industry.", "Citric acid was first isolated in 1784 by the chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele, who crystallized it from lemon juice. It can exist either in an anhydrous (water-free) form or as a monohydrate. The anhydrous form crystallizes from hot water, while the monohydrate forms when citric acid is crystallized from cold water. The monohydrate can be converted to the anhydrous form at about 78 °C. Citric acid also dissolves in absolute (anhydrous) ethanol (76 parts of citric acid per 100 parts of ethanol) at 15 °C. It decomposes with loss of carbon dioxide above about 175 °C. Citric acid is normally considered to be a tribasic acid, with pK values, extrapolated to zero ionic strength, of 2.92, 4.28, and 5.21 at 25 °C. The pK of the hydroxyl group has been found, by means of C NMR spectroscopy, to be 14.4. The speciation diagram shows that solutions of citric acid are buffer solutions between about pH 2 and pH 8. In biological systems around pH 7, the two species present are the citrate ion and mono-hydrogen citrate ion. The SSC 20X hybridization buffer is an example in common use. Tables compiled for biochemical studies are available. On the other hand, the pH of a 1 mM solution of citric acid will be about 3.2. The pH of fruit juices from citrus fruits like oranges and lemons depends on the citric acid concentration, being lower for higher acid concentration and conversely. Acid salts of citric acid can be prepared by careful adjustment of the pH before crystallizing the compound. See, for example, sodium citrate. The citrate ion forms complexes with metallic cations. The stability constants for the formation of these complexes are quite large because of the chelate effect. Consequently, it forms complexes even with alkali metal cations. However, when a chelate complex is formed using all three carboxylate groups, the chelate rings have 7 and 8 members, which are generally less stable thermodynamically than smaller chelate rings. In consequence, the hydroxyl group can be deprotonated, forming part of a more stable 5-membered ring, as in ammonium ferric citrate, ·2. Citric acid can be esterified at one or more of the carboxylic acid functional groups on the molecule (using a variety of alcohols), to form any of a variety of mono-, di-, tri-, and mixed esters.", "", "Citrate is an intermediate in the TCA cycle (\"aka\" TriCarboxylic Acid cycle, or Krebs cycle, Szent-Györgyi), a central metabolic pathway for animals, plants, and bacteria. Citrate synthase catalyzes the condensation of oxaloacetate with acetyl CoA to form citrate. Citrate then acts as the substrate for aconitase and is converted into aconitic acid. The cycle ends with regeneration of oxaloacetate. This series of chemical reactions is the source of two-thirds of the food-derived energy in higher organisms. Hans Adolf Krebs received the 1953 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery. Some bacteria (notably \"E. coli\") can produce and consume citrate internally as part of their TCA cycle, but are unable to use it as food because they lack the enzymes required to import it into the cell. After tens of thousand of evolutions in a minimal glucose medium that also contained citrate during Richard Lenski's Long-Term Evolution Experiment, a variant \"E. coli\" evolved with the ability to grow aerobically on citrate. Zachary Blount, a student of Lenski's, and colleagues studied these \"Cit\" \"E. coli\" as a model for how novel traits evolve. They found evidence that, in this case, the innovation was caused by a rare duplication mutation due to the accumulation of several prior \"potentiating\" mutations, the identity and effects of which are still under study. The evolution of the Cit trait has been considered a notable example of the role of historical contingency in evolution.", "Citrate can be transported out of the mitochondria and into the cytoplasm, then broken down into acetyl-CoA for fatty acid synthesis, and into oxaloacetate. Citrate is a positive modulator of this conversion, and allosterically regulates the enzyme acetyl-CoA carboxylase, which is the regulating enzyme in the conversion of acetyl-CoA into malonyl-CoA (the commitment step in fatty acid synthesis). In short, citrate is transported into the cytoplasm, converted into acetyl CoA, which is then converted into malonyl CoA by acetyl CoA carboxylase, which is allosterically modulated by citrate. High concentrations of cytosolic citrate can inhibit phosphofructokinase, the catalyst of a rate-limiting step of glycolysis. This effect is advantageous: high concentrations of citrate indicate that there is a large supply of biosynthetic precursor molecules, so there is no need for phosphofructokinase to continue to send molecules of its substrate, fructose 6-phosphate, into glycolysis. Citrate acts by augmenting the inhibitory effect of high concentrations of ATP, another sign that there is no need to carry out glycolysis. Citrate is a vital component of bone, helping to regulate the size of apatite crystals.", "", "Because it is one of the stronger edible acids, the dominant use of citric acid is as a flavoring and preservative in food and beverages, especially soft drinks and candies. Within the European Union it is denoted by E number E330. Citrate salts of various metals are used to deliver those minerals in a biologically available form in many dietary supplements. Citric acid has 247 kcal per 100 g. In the United States the purity requirements for citric acid as a food additive are defined by the Food Chemicals Codex, which is published by the United States Pharmacopoeia (USP). Citric acid can be added to ice cream as an emulsifying agent to keep fats from separating, to caramel to prevent sucrose crystallization, or in recipes in place of fresh lemon juice. Citric acid is used with sodium bicarbonate in a wide range of effervescent formulae, both for ingestion (e.g., powders and tablets) and for personal care (\"e.g.\", bath salts, bath bombs, and cleaning of grease). Citric acid sold in a dry powdered form is commonly sold in markets and groceries as \"sour salt\", due to its physical resemblance to table salt. It has use in culinary applications, as an alternative to vinegar or lemon juice, where a pure acid is needed. Citric acid can be used in food coloring to balance the pH level of a normally basic dye.", "Citric acid is an excellent chelating agent, binding metals by making them soluble. It is used to remove and discourage the buildup of limescale from boilers and evaporators. It can be used to treat water, which makes it useful in improving the effectiveness of soaps and laundry detergents. By chelating the metals in hard water, it lets these cleaners produce foam and work better without need for water softening. Citric acid is the active ingredient in some bathroom and kitchen cleaning solutions. A solution with a six percent concentration of citric acid will remove hard water stains from glass without scrubbing. Citric acid can be used in shampoo to wash out wax and coloring from the hair. Illustrative of its chelating abilities, citric acid was the first successful eluant used for total ion-exchange separation of the lanthanides, during the Manhattan Project in the 1940s. In the 1950s, it was replaced by the far more efficient EDTA. In industry, it is used to dissolve rust from steel and passivate stainless steels.", "Citric acid is used as an acidulant in creams, gels, and liquids. Used in foods and dietary supplements, it may be classified as a processing aid if it was added for a technical or functional effect (e.g. acidulent, chelator, viscosifier, etc.). If it is still present in insignificant amounts, and the technical or functional effect is no longer present, it may be exempt from labeling <21 CFR §101.100(c)>. Citric acid is an alpha hydroxy acid and is an active ingredient in chemical skin peels. Citric acid is commonly used as a buffer to increase the solubility of brown heroin. Citric acid is used as one of the active ingredients in the production of facial tissues with antiviral properties.", "The buffering properties of citrates are used to control pH in household cleaners and pharmaceuticals. Citric acid is used as an odorless alternative to white vinegar for home dyeing with acid dyes. Sodium citrate is a component of Benedict's reagent, used for identification both qualitatively and quantitatively of reducing sugars. Citric acid can be used as an alternative to nitric acid in passivation of stainless steel. Citric acid can be used as a lower-odor stop bath as part of the process for developing photographic film. Photographic developers are alkaline, so a mild acid is used to neutralize and stop their action quickly, but commonly used acetic acid leaves a strong vinegar odor in the darkroom. Citric acid/potassium-sodium citrate can be used as a blood acid regulator. Soldering flux. Citric acid is an excellent soldering flux, either dry or as a concentrated solution in water. It should be removed after soldering, especially with fine wires, as it is mildly corrosive. It dissolves and rinses quickly in hot water.", "In materials science, the Citrate-gel method is a process similar to the sol-gel method, which is a method for producing solid materials from small molecules. During the synthetic process, metal salts or alkoxides are introduced into a citric acid solution. The formation of citric complexes is believed to balance the difference in individual behavior of ions in solution, which results in a better distribution of ions and prevents the separation of components at later process stages. The polycondensation of ethylene glycol and citric acid starts above 100 °С, resulting in polymer citrate gel formation.", "Although a weak acid, exposure to pure citric acid can cause adverse effects. Inhalation may cause cough, shortness of breath, or sore throat. Over-ingestion may cause abdominal pain and sore throat. Exposure of concentrated solutions to skin and eyes can cause redness and pain. Long-term or repeated consumption may cause erosion of tooth enamel." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Antiquity.", "Middle Ages to Early Modern Age.", "Late Modern Age to Contemporary Era.", "Genetics.", "Language.", "Surnames.", "Names for Romanians.", "Etymology of the name Romanian (român).", "Daco-Romanian.", "Etymology of the term Vlach.", "Anthroponyms.", "Romanians outside Romania.", "Culture.", "Contributions to contemporary culture.", "Religion.", "Symbols.", "Relationship to other ethnic groups." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Inhabited by the ancient Dacians, part of today's territory of Romania was conquered by the Roman Empire in 106, when Trajan's army defeated the army of Dacia's ruler Decebalus (\"see Dacian Wars\"). The Roman administration withdrew two centuries later, under the pressure of the Goths and Carpi. Two theories account for the origin of the Romanian people. One, known as the Daco-Roman continuity theory, posits that they are descendants of Romans and Romanized indigenous peoples living in the Roman Province of Dacia, while the other posits that the Romanians are descendants of Romans and Romanized indigenous populations of the former Roman provinces of Illyria, Moesia, Thrace, and Macedon, and the ancestors of Romanians later migrated from these Roman provinces south of the Danube into the area which they inhabit today. According to the first theory, the Romanians are descended from indigenous populations that inhabited what is now Romania and its immediate environs: Thracians (Dacians, Getae) and Roman legionnaires and colonists. In the course of the two wars with the Roman legions, between AD 101–102 and AD 105–106 respectively, the emperor Trajan succeeded in defeating the Dacians and the greatest part of Dacia became a Roman province. The colonisation with Roman or Romanized elements, the use of the Latin language and the assimilation of Roman civilisation as well as the intense development of urban centres led to the Romanization of part of the autochthonous population in Dacia. This process was probably concluded by the 10th century when the assimilation of the Slavs by the Daco-Romanians was completed. According to the south-of-the-Danube origin theory, the Romanians' ancestors, a combination of Romans and Romanized peoples of Illyria, Moesia and Thrace, moved northward across the Danube river into modern-day Romania. Small population groups speaking several versions of Romanian (Megleno-Romanian, Istro-Romanian, and Aromanian) still exist south of the Danube in Greece, Albania, Macedonia, Bulgaria and Serbia, but it is not known whether they themselves migrated from more northern parts of the Balkans, including Dacia. The south-of-the Danube theory usually favours northern Albania and/or Moesia (modern day Serbia and Northern Bulgaria) as the more specific places of Romanian ethnogenesis. Small genetic differences were reportedly found among Southeastern European (Greece, Albania) populations and especially those of the Dniester–Carpathian (Romania, Moldova, Ukraine) region. Despite this low level of differentiation between them, tree reconstruction and principal component analyses allowed a distinction between Balkan–Carpathian (Romanians, Moldovans, Ukrainians, Macedonians, and Gagauzes) and Balkan Mediterranean (Greeks, Albanians, Turks) population groups. The genetic affinities among Dniester–Carpathian and southeastern European populations do not reflect their linguistic relationships. According to the report, the results indicate that the ethnic and genetic differentiations occurred in these regions to a considerable extent independently of each other.", "During the Middle Ages Romanians were mostly known as Vlachs, a blanket term ultimately of Germanic origin, from the word Walha, used by ancient Germanic peoples to refer to Romance-speaking and Celtic neighbours. Besides the separation of some groups (Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians, and Istro-Romanians) during the Age of Migration, many Vlachs could be found all over the Balkans, in Transylvania, across Carpathian Mountains as far north as Poland and as far west as the regions of Moravia (part of the modern Czech Republic), some went as far east as Volhynia of western Ukraine, and the present-day Croatia where the Morlachs gradually disappeared, while the Catholic and Orthodox Vlachs took Croat and Serb national identity. Because of the migrations that followed – such as those of Slavs, Bulgars, Hungarians, and Tatars – the Romanians were organised in agricultural communes (obști), developing large centralised states only in the 14th century, when the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia emerged to fight the Ottoman Empire. During the late Middle Ages, prominent medieval Romanian monarchs such as Bogdan of Moldavia, Stephen the Great, Mircea the Elder, Michael the Brave, or Vlad the Impaler took part actively in the history of Central Europe by waging tumultuous wars and leading noteworthy crusades against the then continuously expanding Ottoman Empire, at times allied with either the Kingdom of Poland or the Kingdom of Hungary in these causes. Eventually the entire Balkan peninsula was annexed by the Ottoman Empire. However, Moldavia and Wallachia (extending to Dobruja and Bulgaria) were not entirely subdued by the Ottomans as both principalities became autonomous (which was not the case of other Ottoman territorial possessions in Europe). Transylvania, a third region inhabited by an important majority of Romanian speakers, was a vassal state of the Ottomans until 1687, when the principality became part of the Habsburg possessions. The three principalities were united for several months in 1600 under the authority of Wallachian Prince Michael the Brave. Additionally, in medieval times there were other lands known by the name 'Vlach' (such as Great Vlachia, situated between Thessaly and the western Pindus mountains, originally within the Byzantine Empire, but after the 13th century autonomous or semi-independent; White Wallachia, a Byzantine denomination for the region between the Danube River and the Balkans; Moravian Wallachia, a region in south-eastern Czech Republic). Up until 1541, Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary, later (due to the conquest of Hungary by the Ottoman Empire) was a self-governed Principality governed by the Hungarian nobility. In 1699 it became a part of the Habsburg lands. By the 19th century, the Austrian Empire was awarded by the Ottomans with the region of Bukovina and, in 1812, the Russians occupied the eastern half of Moldavia, known as Bessarabia.", "In the context of the 1848 Romanticist and liberal revolutions across Europe, the events that took place in the Grand Principality of Transylvania were the first of their kind to unfold in the Romanian-speaking territories. On the one hand, the Transylvanian Saxons and the Transylvanian Romanians (with consistent support on behalf of the Austrian Empire) successfully managed to oppose the goals of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, with the two noteworthy historical figures leading the common Romanian-Saxon side at the time being Avram Iancu and Stephan Ludwig Roth. On the other hand, the Wallachian revolutions of 1821 and 1848 as well as the Moldavian Revolution of 1848, which aimed for independence from Ottoman and Russian foreign rulership, represented important impacts in the process of spreading the liberal ideology in the eastern and southern Romanian lands, in spite of the fact that all three eventually failed. Nonetheless, in 1859, Moldavia and Wallachia elected the same ruler, namely Alexander John Cuza (who reigned as \"Domnitor\") and were thus unified \"de facto\", resulting in the United Romanian Principalities for the period between 1859 and 1881. During the 1870s, the United Romanian Principalities (then led by Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen Domnitor Carol I) fought a War of Independence against the Ottomans, with Romania's independence being formally recognised in 1878 at the Treaty of Berlin. Although the newly founded Kingdom of Romania initially allied with Austria-Hungary, Romania refused to enter World War I on the side of the Central Powers, because it was obliged to wage war only if Austria-Hungary was attacked. In 1916, Romania joined the war on the side of the Triple Entente. As a result, at the end of the war, Transylvania, Bessarabia, and Bukovina were awarded to Romania, through a series of international peace treaties, resulting in an enlarged and far more powerful kingdom under King Ferdinand I. As of 1920, the Romanian people was believed to number over 15 million solely in the region of the Romanian kingdom, a figure larger than the populations of Sweden, Denmark, and the Netherlands combined. During the interwar period, two additional monarchs came to the Romanian throne, namely Carol II and Michael I. This short-lived period was marked, at times, by political instabilities and efforts of maintaining a constitutional monarchy in favour of other, totalitarian regimes such as an absolute monarchy or a military dictatorship. During World War II, the Kingdom of Romania lost territory both to the east and west, as Northern Transylvania became part of Hungary through the Second Vienna Award, while Bessarabia and northern Bukovina were taken by the Soviets and included in the Moldavian SSR, respectively Ukrainian SSR. The eastern territory losses were facilitated by the Molotov-Ribbentrop Nazi-Soviet non-aggression pact. After the end of the war, the Romanian Kingdom managed to regain territories lost westward but was nonetheless not given Bessarabia and northern Bukovina, the aforementioned regions being forcefully incorporated into the Soviet Union. Subsequently, the Soviet Union imposed a Communist government and King Michael was forced to abdicate and leave for exile. Nicolae Ceaușescu became the head of the Romanian Communist Party in 1965 and his draconian rule of the 1980s was ended by the Romanian Revolution of 1989. The 1989 revolution brought to power the dissident communist Ion Iliescu. He remained in power as head of state until 1996, when he was defeated by CDR-supported Emil Constantinescu at the 1996 general elections, the first in post-Communist Romania that saw a peaceful transition of power. Following Constantinescu's only term as president from 1996 to 2000, Iliescu was re-elected in late 2000 for another term of four years. In 2004, Traian Băsescu, the PNL-PD candidate, was elected president. Five years later, Băsescu was narrowly re-elected for a second term at the 2009 presidential elections. In 2014, the PNL-PDL candidate Klaus Johannis won a surprise victory over former prime minister and PSD-supported contender Victor Ponta in the second round of the 2014 presidential elections. Thus, Johannis became the first Romanian president stemming from an ethnic minority (as he belongs to the Romanian-German community, being a Transylvanian Saxon). In 2019, the PNL-supported Johannis was re-elected to a second term as president at the 2019 Romanian presidential election. In the meantime, Romania's major foreign policy achievements were the alignment with Western Europe and the United States by joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 2004 and the European Union three years later, in 2007.", "The prevailing element in Wallachia (Ploiești, Dolj), Moldavia (Piatra Neamț, Buhuși), Dobruja (Constanța), and northern Republic of Moldova is recorded to be Haplogroup I, while the gene pool of Transylvania is often untypical and diverse. On the basis of 361 samples, Haplogroup I occurs at 32% in Romanians. The highest frequency of I2a1 (I-P37) in the Balkans today was present before the Slavic expansion and is owed to indigenous tribes, and is particularly suggested to have been common among the ancient Thracians in Romania. According to 335 sampled Romanians, 15% of them belong to R1a. Haplogroup R1a among Romanians is entirely from the Eastern European variety Z282 and may be a result of Baltic, Thracian or Slavic descent. R1a-Z280 outnumbers R1a-M458 among Romanians, the opposite phenomena is typical for Poles, Czechs and Bulgarians. 12% of the Romanians belong to R1b, the Alpino-Italic branch R1b-U152 is at 2% per 330 samples, a lower frequency recorded than other Balkan peoples. The branches R1b-U106, R1b-DF27 and R1b-L21 make up 1% respectively. The eastern branches R1b-M269* and L23* (Z2103) make up 7% and outnumber the Atlantic branches, they prevail in parts of east, central Europe and as a result of Greek colonisation – in parts of Sicily as well. 8% of the Romanians belong to E1b1b1a1 (E-M78) per 265 samples. From a group of 178 males from 9 Romanian counties, mainly from Transylvania, most of them belong to the Paleolithic European lineage I2a (17% I2a1b, 2% I2a2, 3% I2*), to R1a (20%) and to E1b1b1a1b (19%). Haplogroup J2 is represented at 16% among them, unlike the structure in the Apennine Peninsula, among Romanians the J2b clade prevails. About 10% of these belong to Haplogroup R1b in all counties. R1b-U152, the specific Alpino-Italic clade, is represented at 3% among them, the prevailing branches are eastern, except for Brașov where Germanic U106 is most frequent. U106 is also prevalent clade of R1b in Buhuși and Piatra Neamț. In Brașov and Dolj I2 prevails, in Cluj – R1a. Another 6% of these belong to I1 and 2% to G2a. T, N, Q are also represented by frequencies of less than a percent. Despite negligible Roman genetic traits in general, one study of 219 Romanians found strong indications in other parts of Transylvania, in the region corresponding to Roman Dacia. The highest frequency of R1b (31–32%) in Eastern Europe only behind Trebic in the Czech Republic (32.7%) was found in the Romanian counties Arad and Alba, that experienced Celtic settlement, the heaviest and only Roman colonisation with a significant number of colonists from Noricum and West Pannonia, and later German settlement. The subclade of R1b was not revealed in the case, but no similar high or prevailing frequency of Eastern subclades of R1b has ever been found in Europe. Three of the ten towns that were almost exclusively populated by Roman citizens (Apulum, Ampelum and Potaissa) were in present Alba Iulia county, not far from the Roman capital Sarmizegetusa. Genetic isolate due to migration from unattested migration from the Middle East would not be a plausible historic-geographical event as even the eastern branch of R1b in Europe is different than these in the Middle East. The only ethnic groups with higher frequencies of R1b in the East are the Aromanians due to their main ancestry from the Roman West. In some occasions the U106 branch, which is minimal among Romanians, rises to the prevailing clade in some cities, but still at a low frequency. The high frequency of R1b was found in other places in Transylvania – 25% in Maramureș and Harghita, 20% in Mehedinți, 14% in Bihor, 11% in Vrancea, 0% in Neamț. Excluding Arad and Alba Iulia, Haplogroup I+G was found as most frequent in all, except Maramureș, where Haplogroup J was found to be prevalent. According to an autosomal analysis of eastern Europeans and adjacent peoples, the group of Bulgarians and Macedonians is located together with Romanians. Most West Slavs, Hungarians, and Austrians tend to share as many identical by-descent segments with South Slavs as with Romanians, Torbeshi and Gagauzes. Showing the importance of geography, a 2017 paper, concentrating on the mtDNA, signalling how Romania has been \"a major crossroads between Asia and Europe\" and thus \"experienced continuous migration and invasion episodes\", while precising that \"previous studies\" show Romanians \"exhibit genetic similarity with other Europeans\" or that \"another study pointed to possible segregation within the Middle East populations\", also mentions how \"signals of Asian maternal lineages were observed in all Romanian historical provinces, indicating gene flow along the migration routes through East Asia and Europe, during different time periods, namely, the Upper Paleolithic period and/or, with a likely greater preponderance, the Middle Ages\", and concludes that \"our current findings based on the mtDNA analysis of populations in historical provinces of Romania suggest similarity between populations in Transylvania and Central Europe,\" on one hand, as well between Wallachia, Moldavia, and Dobrudja with the Balkans, on the another, \"supported both by the observed clines in haplogroup frequencies for several European and Asian maternal lineages and MDS analyses.\"", "The origins of the Romanian language, a Romance language, can be traced back to the Roman colonisation of the region. The basic vocabulary is of Latin origin, although there are some substratum words that are sometimes assumed to be of Dacian origin. During the Middle Ages, Romanian was isolated from the other Romance languages, and borrowed words from the nearby Slavic languages (see Slavic influence on Romanian). Later on, it borrowed a number of words from German, Hungarian, and Turkish. During the modern era, most neologisms were borrowed from French and Italian, though the language has increasingly begun to adopt English borrowings. The Moldovan language, in its official form, is practically identical to Romanian, although there are some differences in colloquial speech. In the de facto independent (but internationally unrecognised) region of Transnistria, the official script used to write Moldovan is Cyrillic. As of 2017, an Ethnologue estimation puts the (worldwide) number of Romanian speakers at approximately 24.15 million. The 24.15 million, however, represent only speakers of Romanian, not all of whom are necessarily ethnic Romanians. Also, this number does not include ethnic-Romanians who no longer speak the Romanian language.", "Many Romanian surnames have the suffix \"-escu\" or (less commonly) \"-așcu\" or \"-ăscu\" which corresponds to the Latin suffix \"-iscus\" and means \"belonging to the people\". For example, \"Petrescu\" used to be \"Petre's kin\". Similar suffixes such as \"-asco\", \"-asgo\", \"-esque\", \"-ez\", etc. are present in other Latin-derived languages. Many Romanians in France changed this ending of their surnames to \"-esco\", because the way it is pronounced in French better approximates the Romanian pronunciation of \"-escu\". Another widespread suffix of Romanian surnames is \"-eanu\" (or \"-an\", \"-anu\"), which indicates the geographical origin. Here some examples: Moldoveanu/Moldovan/Moldovanu, from the region of Moldavia or from river Moldova, Munteanu \"from mountains\", Jianu \"from Jiu river region\", Prut\"eanu\", meaning from the Prut river, Mureș\"anu\", meaning from the Mureș river, Petr\"eanu\" (meaning the son of Petre) etc.. Other suffixes are \"-aru\" (or \"-oru\", \"-ar\", \"-or\"), which indicates an occupation (like Feraru \"smith\", Morar \"miller\"), and \"-ei\", usually preceded by \"A-\" in front of a female name, which is a Latin inherited female genitive, like in \" Amariei\" \"\"of Maria\"\", \"Aelenei\" \"\"of Elena\"\". These matrilineal-rooted surnames are common in the historical region of Moldavia.", "In English, Romanians are usually called Romanians, Rumanians, or Roumanians except in some historical texts, where they are called Roumans or Vlachs.", "From the Middle Ages, Romanians bore two names, the exonym (one given to them by foreigners) \"Wallachians\" or \"Vlachs\", under its various forms (vlah, valah, valach, voloh, blac, olăh, vlas, ilac, ulah, etc.), and the endonym (the name they used for themselves) \"Romanians\" (Rumâni/Români). The name \"Romanian\" is derived from Latin \"\"Romanus\"\". Under regular phonetical changes that are typical to the Romanian languages, the name \"romanus\" over the centuries transformed into \"rumân\". An older form of \"român\" was still in use in some regions. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 18th century led to a gradual preponderance of the \"român\" spelling form, which was then generalised during the National awakening of Romania of early 19th century. Until the 19th century, the term Romanian denoted the speakers of the Daco-Romanian dialect of the Romanian language, thus being a much more distinct concept than that of Romania, the country of the Romanians. Prior to 1867, the (Daco-)Romanians were part of different state entities: with the Moldavians and the Wallachians being split off and having shaped separate political identities, possessing states of their own, while the rest of the Romanians were part of other states. However, eventually they retained their Romanian cultural and ethnic identity up today.", "To distinguish Romanians from the other Romanic peoples of the Balkans (Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians, and Istro-Romanians), the term Daco-Romanian is sometimes used to refer to those who speak the standard Romanian language and live in the territory of ancient Dacia (today comprising mostly Romania and Moldova), although some Daco-Romanians can be found in the eastern part of Central Serbia (which was part of ancient Moesia).", "The name of \"Vlachs\" is an exonym that was used by Slavs to refer to all Romanized natives of the Balkans. It holds its origin from ancient Germanic—being a cognate to \"Welsh\" and \"Walloon\"—and perhaps even further back in time, from the Roman name Volcae, which was originally a Celtic tribe. From the Slavs, it was passed on to other peoples, such as the Hungarians (\"Oláh\") and Greeks (\"Vlachoi\") (see the Etymology section of Vlachs). Wallachia, the Southern region of Romania, takes its name from the same source. Nowadays, the term Vlach is more often used to refer to the Romanized populations of the Balkans who speak Daco-Romanian, Aromanian, Istro-Romanian, and Megleno-Romanian.", "These are family names that have been derived from either \"Vlach\" or \"Romanian\". Most of these names have been given when a Romanian settled in a non-Romanian region. Examples: Oláh (37,147 Hungarians have this name), Vlach, Vlahuta, Vlasa, Vlasi, Vlašic, Vlasceanu, Vlachopoulos, Voloh, Volyh, Vlack, Flack, and Vlax.", "Most Romanians live in Romania, where they constitute a majority; Romanians also constitute a minority in the countries that neighbour Romania. Romanians can also be found in many countries, notably in the other EU countries, particularly in Italy, Spain, Germany, the United Kingdom and France; in North America in the United States and Canada; in Israel; as well as in Brazil, Australia, Argentina, and New Zealand among many other countries. Italy and Spain have been popular emigration destinations, due to a relatively low language barrier, and both are each now home to about a million Romanians. With respect to geopolitical identity, many individuals of Romanian ethnicity in Moldova prefer to identify themselves as Moldovans. The contemporary total population of ethnic Romanians cannot be stated with any degree of certainty. A disparity can be observed between official sources (such as census counts) where they exist, and estimates which come from non-official sources and interested groups. Several inhibiting factors (not unique to this particular case) contribute towards this uncertainty, which may include: For example, the decennial US Census of 2000 calculated (based on a statistical sampling of household data) that there were 367,310 respondents indicating Romanian ancestry (roughly 0.1% of the total population). The actual total recorded number of foreign-born Romanians was only 136,000 Migration Information Source However, some non-specialist organisations have produced estimates which are considerably higher: a 2002 study by the Romanian-American Network Inc. mentions an estimated figure of 1,200,000 for the number of Romanian-Americans. Which makes the United States home to the largest Romanian community outside Romania. This estimate notes however that \"...other immigrants of Romanian national minority groups have been included such as: Armenians, Germans, Gypsies, Hungarians, Jews, and Ukrainians\". It also includes an unspecified allowance for second- and third-generation Romanians, and an indeterminate number living in Canada. An error range for the estimate is not provided. For the United States 2000 Census figures, almost 20% of the total population did not classify or report an ancestry, and the census is also subject to undercounting, an incomplete (67%) response rate, and sampling error in general.", "", "Romanians have played and contributed a major role in the advancement of the arts, culture, sciences, technology and engineering. In the history of aviation, Traian Vuia and Aurel Vlaicu built and tested some of the earliest aircraft designs, while Henri Coandă discovered the Coandă effect of fluidics. Victor Babeș discovered more than 50 germs and a cure for a disease named after him, babesiosis; biologist Nicolae Paulescu discovered insulin. Another biologist, Emil Palade, received the Nobel Prize for his contributions to cell biology. George Constantinescu created the theory of sonics, while mathematician Ștefan Odobleja is regarded as the ideological father behind cybernetics – his work \"The Consonantist Psychology\" (Paris, 1938) was the main source of inspiration for N. Wiener's \"Cybernetics\" (Paris, 1948). Lazăr Edeleanu was the first chemist to synthesize amphetamine and also invented the modern method of refining crude oil. In the arts and culture, prominent figures were George Enescu (music composer, violinist, professor of Sir Yehudi Menuhin), Constantin Brâncuși (sculptor), Eugène Ionesco (playwright), Mircea Eliade (historian of religion and novelist), Emil Cioran (essayist, Prix de l'Institut Francais for stylism) and Angela Gheorghiu (soprano). More recently, filmmakers such as Cristi Puiu and Cristian Mungiu have attracted international acclaim, as has fashion designer Ioana Ciolacu. In sports, Romanians have excelled in a variety of fields, such as football (Gheorghe Hagi), gymnastics (Nadia Comăneci, Lavinia Miloșovici etc.), tennis (Ilie Năstase, Ion Țiriac, Bianca Vanessa Andreescu, Simona Halep), canoe racing (Ivan Patzaichin) and handball (four times men's World Cup winners). Count Dracula is a worldwide icon of Romania. This character was created by the Irish fiction writer Bram Stoker, based on some stories spread in the late Middle Ages by the frustrated German trademen of Kronstadt (Brașov) and on some vampire folk tales about the historic Romanian figure of Prince Vlad Țepeș.", "Almost 90% of all Romanians consider themselves religious. The vast majority are Eastern Orthodox Christians, belonging to the Romanian Orthodox Church (a branch of Eastern Orthodoxy, or Eastern Orthodox Church, together with the Greek Orthodox, Orthodox Church of Georgia and Russian Orthodox Churches, among others). According to the 2011 census, 93.6% of ethnic Romanians in Romania identified themselves as Romanian Orthodox (in comparison to 86.8% of Romania's total population, including other ethnic groups). However, the actual rate of church attendance is significantly lower and many Romanians are only nominally believers. For example, according to a 2006 Eurobarometer poll, only 23% of Romanians attend church once a week or more. A 2006 poll conducted by the Open Society Foundation found that only 33% of Romanians attended church once a \"month\" or more. Romanian Catholics are present in Transylvania, Banat, Bukovina, Bucharest, and parts of Moldavia, belonging to both the Roman Catholic Church (297,246 members) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Catholic Church (124,563 members). According to the 2011 census, 2.5% of ethnic Romanians in Romania identified themselves as Catholic (in comparison to 4.3% of Romania's total population, including other ethnic groups). Around 1.6% of ethnic Romanians in Romania identify themselves as Pentecostal, with the population numbering 276,678 members. Smaller percentages are Protestant, Jews, Muslims, agnostic, atheist, or practice a traditional religion. There are no official dates for the adoption of religions by the Romanians. Based on linguistic and archaeological findings, historians suggest that the Romanians' ancestors acquired polytheistic religions in the Roman era, later adopting Christianity, certainly by the 4th century CE when decreed by Emperor Constantine as the official religion of the Roman Empire. Like in all other Romance languages, the basic Romanian words related to Christianity are inherited from Latin, such as \"God\" (\"Dumnezeu\" < Domine Deus), \"church\" (\"biserică\" < basilica), \"cross\" (\"cruce\" < crux, -cis), \"angel\" (\"înger\" < angelus), \"saint\" (regional: \"sfân(t)\" < sanctus), \"Christmas\" (\"Crăciun\" < creatio, -onis), \"Christian\" (\"creștin\" < christianus), \"Easter\" (\"paște\" < paschae), \"sin\" (\"păcat\" < peccatum), \"to baptise\" (\"a boteza\" < batizare), \"priest\" (\"preot\" < presbiterum), \"to pray\" (\"a ruga\" < rogare), \"faith\" ( \"credință\" < credentia ), and so on. After the Great Schism, there existed a Catholic Bishopric of Cumania (later, separate bishoprics in both Wallachia and Moldavia). However, this seems to be the exception, rather than the rule, as in both Wallachia and Moldavia the state religion was Eastern Orthodox. Until the 17th century, the official language of the liturgy was Old Church Slavonic. Then, it gradually changed to Romanian. According to a survey that took place in 2011, despite 94% of respondents answered positively for believing in God, 42% support the vision of Christian dogma that there is a God incarnated into a human being. While 34% of respondents said that there is only one true religion, 38% believe that there is one true religion and that other religions contain some basic truths, according to 18% there is one true religion and all major world religions contain some fundamental truths. 88% of Romanians believe in the existence of a soul, 87% believe in sin and the existence of heaven, 60% believe in an \"evil eye\", 25% believe in horoscopes and 23% in aliens. According to a 2004 survey, 80% consider themselves not superstitious and the same amount believe in angels, about 40% believe they have had dreams that became deja vu and 19% believe in ghosts.", "In addition to the colours of the Romanian flag, each historical province of Romania has its own characteristic symbol: The Coat of Arms of Romania combines these together.", "The closest ethnic groups to the Romanians are the other Romanic peoples of Southeastern Europe: the Aromanians (Macedo-Romanians), the Megleno-Romanians, and the Istro-Romanians. The Istro-Romanians are the closest ethnic group to the Romanians, and it is believed they left Maramureș, Transylvania about a thousand years ago and settled in Istria, Croatia. Numbering about 500 people still living in the original villages of Istria while the majority left for other countries after World War II (mainly to Italy, United States, Canada, Germany, France, Sweden, Switzerland, Romania, and Australia), they speak the Istro-Romanian language, the closest living relative of Romanian. The Aromanians and the Megleno-Romanians are Romanic peoples who live south of the Danube, mainly in Greece, Albania and the Republic of Macedonia, although some of them migrated to Romania in the 20th century. It is believed that they diverged from the Romanians in the 7th to 9th century, and currently speak the Aromanian language and Megleno-Romanian language, both of which are Balkan Romance languages, like Romanian, and are sometimes considered by traditional Romanian linguists to be dialects of Romanian." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Origins.", "The first Tour de Ski (2006–07).", "Since 2007.", "Race structure.", "Ranking.", "Bibs.", "Prizes.", "Stages.", "Mass start stages.", "Interval start stages.", "Sprint stages.", "Final Climb.", "Records.", "Overall winners.", "Stage wins.", "Most successful countries.", "Venues." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Cross-country skiing had been through a period of renewal from the early 1980s, when the free technique was first introduced to the World Championships which led to a rush of new events, including pursuit skiing, sprint skiing and eventually long mass start races, to complement the traditional time trial or individual start style of skiing. The Tour de Ski is another such new event, and the idea has been reported to come from a meeting between former Olympic gold medallist Vegard Ulvang and Jürg Capol, the International Ski Federation's (FIS) chief executive officer for cross-country competitions, in Ulvang's sauna in Maridalen, Norway. Their idea was to create a stage competition consisting of different events which they expected would lead to several days of continuous excitement before the most complete skiers would become Tour de Ski champions. Ulvang has also brought up the idea of a tour of the Barents Region, Tour de Barents, with stages in Kirkenes (Sandnes) and Vadsø in Finnmark and Murmansk in Russia.", "Jürg Capol stated that FIS originally wished to start the race in the Alps. However, as neither Austria or Switzerland were interested, the opening two stages were to be held in Nové Město na Moravě in the Czech Republic. A week before the Tour was due to start, FIS announced that snow conditions in Nové Město were not good enough, and cancelled the two races there. The first Tour de Ski therefore opened with a sprint race in Munich on 31 December 2006, and was won by Marit Bjørgen (NOR) and Christoph Eigenmann (SUI). Skiers from France, Germany and Norway, among others, said that the Tour de Ski was among their targets for the 2006–07 season, with Norwegian skier Jens Arne Svartedal claiming that the winner would have \"extreme respect\" for winning such an extreme race. Tobias Angerer (GER) and Virpi Kuitunen (FIN) were the first overall winners of the Tour. After the first Tour de Ski, reactions among athletes were largely positive. Norwegian athletes said \"it was a good concept\", German winner Tobias Angerer claimed that the Tour de Ski \"has a great future\", though many of the athletes expressed concern over the final climb up an alpine skiing hill both before and after the race. The director of FIS' cross-country committee, Vegard Ulvang, said the finish would be in the same place next year, but the way up could be changed. Ulvang also claimed that the Tour had been a success, and a \"breakthrough for FIS\" Ulvang did, however, admit that there would have to be some changes, as up to a third of participants in the Tour de Ski have struggled with illness or injury after the competition. Newspaper comments were divided: in \"Expressen\"'s opinion, the finish was the \"most enjoyable competition seen in years,\" while Roland Wiedemann in \"Der Spiegel\" said this \"should be the future of cross-country skiing\". Critical commentaries appeared in \"Göteborgs-Posten\", criticising the fact that sprinters didn't have a chance in the overall standings, and \"Wiesbaden Kurier\", describing it as a reality show and a skiing circus.", "The second Tour de Ski was held between 28 December 2007 and 6 January 2008, in the Czech Republic and Italy. Oberstdorf in Bavaria was originally scheduled to host two stages, but cancelled as the German Ski Association could only arrange a race on 2 January. At a meeting in Venice, Italy, on 7 May 2009, Tour de Ski officials met with officials from the Giro d'Italia road cycle race to learn from the stage race to further improve Tour de Ski competition for the 2009–2010 event. In the late 2000s and early 2010s, the women's Tour was dominated by Justyna Kowalczyk, who won the Tour de Ski four consecutive times and the sprint standings three consecutive times and a record 14 stages. Dario Cologna dominated the same period of time and won three Tours and two sprint competitions in four years from 2008–09 to 2011–12. In 2017–18, the year Cologna won his record fourth overall Tour, Jessica Diggins of USA and Alex Harvey of Canada became the first non-Europeans to achieve podium spots in the overall standings.", "", "The overall results are based on the aggregate time for all events, as well as bonus seconds awarded on sprint and mass start stages. The sprint races carry bonus seconds for the finish, which are subtracted from the overall time. The current bonus format in sprint competitions, as of 2019–20, hands out bonus seconds to the 30 skiers that qualify for the quarter-finals (60–54–48–46–44–42–32–30–28–26–24–22–10–10–10–8–8–8–8–8–6–6–6–6–6–4–4–4–4–4). In mass start competitions, intermediate points carry bonus seconds; 15 to the winner, 10 to number two, and 5 to number three. The same number of seconds are usually awarded at the finish. In the later editions of the Tour, intermediate points has been handed out to the 10 first skiers (15–12–10–8–6–5–4–3–2–1) past the intermediate point. The final stage of the race includes a steep climb up Alpe Cermis, with a height difference of 425 meters. By the 2018–19 Tour de Ski this last stage was held in a pursuit format, with competitors starting with the gaps they had in the overall classification, so the first skier to reach the top was the overall winner. Since 2019–20 Tour de Ski the Final Climb is held in a mass start format, with stage results added to overall classification.", "The overall leaders wear the leader bib on the following stage. The leader bib is from the 2019–20 edition colored yellow. From the start in 2006 to 2017–18 the leader bib was red and in the 2018–19 the leader wore blue bib. The leaders of the points competitions wear the points bib on the following stage. The bib worn by the leader of the points standings is from the 2019–20 edition colored red. In the previous editions of the Tour, the leader of the sprint standings wore a sprint bib; from the start in 2006 to 2017–18 this bib was black and in the 2018–19 the sprint bib was grey.", "Prizes and bonuses are awarded for daily placings and final placings at the end of the race. In 2020, the winners received CHF 55,000, while each of the stage winners won CHF 3,000. The winners of the points standings won CHF 6,000.", "", "In the mass start stages in the Tour de Ski, time bonuses are awarded to the top ten skiers of intermediate sprints. In 2019–20, no bonus seconds were awarded based on the skiers finishing positions in the mass start stages. Until the 2018–19 edition, time bonuses of 15, 10 and 5 bonus seconds were usually awarded to the first three finishers. Mass-start stages are typically 5 km or 10 km for women and 10 km or 15 km for men, often raced by skiing several laps. Skiers who are overlapped by others will be excluded from the rest of the Tour. There are usually two or three mass start stages.", "In the interval start, or time trial stages in the Tour de Ski, skiers are sent out from the start in 30 second intervals. Interval start stages are typically 5 km or 10 km for women and 10 km or 15 km for men. In 2019–20, no bonus seconds were awarded on the interval start stage. Time bonuses of 15, 10 and 5 bonus seconds were awarded to the three fastest skiers by the edition 2018–19. There are usually one or two interval start stages. Between 2007–08 and 2015, the first stage of the Tour was a short trial, a \"prologue\". The first prologue was in Oberhof, Germany in 2007 and the last in Oberstdorf, Germany, on 3 January 2015.", "The first ever Tour de Ski stage was a sprint stage in Munich, Germany, on 31 December 2006. Sprint stages consists of two rounds; a qualification round and a final round with a knock-out competition format. The 30 fastest skiers in the qualification round qualifies for the final round quarter-finals. In the quarter-, and semi-finals, the skiers compete in heats of six and the two best skiers in each heat are guaranteed progression. 12 skiers advance from the quarter-finals to the semi-finals of which six advance to the final. The winners are rewarded, as of 2019–20, 60 bonus seconds. The amount of bonus seconds are higher in sprint races then other types to encourage sprinter specialists to go for results in the overall standings. There are usually one or two sprint stages.", "The Tour de Ski has every year concluded with the final stage in Val di Fiemme where the skiers race up the alpine skiing course on Alpe Cermis in Cavalese. The stage's length is 9.0 km in total, the climb itself 3.6 km with an average gradient of 11.6% and a maximum gradient of 28.0%. By the edition 2018–19, this stage was raced as a free technique pursuit with starting intervals equal to the skiers accumulative times in the overall standings; which meant that the first skier to cross the finish line on Alpe Cermis was the winner of the Tour de Ski. If the time differences were big, the race jury could decide that the lowest ranked skiers started in a «wave start».. Since 2019–20, the final stage is a mass start on same course. The stage results are added to overall standings.", "Eight men and six women have won both overall and sprint standings in the same Tour, the first being Virpi Kuitunen in the inaugural women's Tour. Sergey Ustiugov and Marit Bjørgen are the only skiers who have led the overall standings from the first stage and held the lead all the way to the top of Alpe Cermis. The most appearances have been by Jean-Marc Gaillard, who skied his 14th Tour in 2019–20, having finished 11 of them. In 2016, Petter Northug became the first skier to complete ten Tours. The smallest margins between the winner and the second placed skiers at the end of the Tour is 7.2 seconds between winner Virpi Kuitunen and Aino-Kaisa Saarinen in 2008–09. The largest margin, by comparison, remains that of the 2016 Tour: 3 min 15.7 s between Martin Johnsrud Sundby and Finn Hågen Krogh. The biggest winning margin in the women's Tour is 2 min 42.0 s between Ingvild Flugstad Østberg and Natalia Nepryaeva in 2018–19. Skiers who won the Tour de Ski and an individual Olympic gold medal in the same year include: Justyna Kowalczyk (2010) and Dario Cologna (2018). Five skiers have won the Tour de Ski and an individual World Championship gold medal in the same year. These are: Virpi Kuitunen (2007), Marit Bjørgen (2015), Petter Northug (2015), Sergey Ustiugov (2017) and Johannes Høsflot Klæbo (2019).", "Two skiers have won four times: Justyna Kowalczyk (POL) and Dario Cologna (SUI); Therese Johaug has won three times and an additional two men and two women have won two times. Kowalczyk achieved the mark with a record four consecutive wins.", "17 men and 15 women have won two or more stages in the Tour de Ski. Justyna Kowalczyk and Therese Johaug have won the most stages with 14, followed by Petter Northug's 13 stage wins. Bjørgen (2015) and Ustiugov (2016–17) have both won five consecutive stages; five stage wins in one Tour is also a record.", "Standings after the 2019–20 Tour de Ski and the disqualifications of Yevgeny Dementyev (Russia) in 2008–09, Alena Sidko (Russia) in 2009–10, Johannes Dürr (Austria) in 2013–14 and Martin Johnsrud Sundby (Norway) in 2015.", "Ten venues have hosted stages of the Tour de Ski. Val di Fiemme is the only venue to host a stage in all 14 Tours." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Before the mosque.", "Design and competition.", "Construction.", "Structure.", "Entrance gates.", "Dome.", "Interior.", "Minaret.", "Capacity.", "Facilities.", "Sound system and multimedia.", "Garden.", "Imams and Muezzins.", "Visitors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The mosque was formerly the location of the Wilhelminapark and a 19th-century Citadel.", "After the Indonesian National Revolution 1945–1949, followed by the recognition of Indonesian independence from The Netherlands in 1949, there was a growing idea to build a national mosque for the new republic, which had the largest Muslim population in the world. The idea of constructing a grand Indonesian national mosque was launched by Wahid Hasyim, Indonesia's first minister for religions affairs, and Anwar Cokroaminoto, later appointed as the chairman of the Masjid Istiqlal Foundation. The committee for the construction of the Istiqlal Mosque, led by Cokroaminoto, was founded in 1953. He proposed the idea of a national mosque to Indonesian President Sukarno, who welcomed the idea and later helped to supervise the mosque's construction. In 1954 the committee appointed Sukarno technical chief supervisor. Several locations were proposed; Mohammad Hatta, Indonesian vice president, suggested that the mosque should be built near residential areas on Thamrin avenue, on a plot where Hotel Indonesia stands today. However, Sukarno insisted that a national mosque should be located near the most important square of the nation, near the Merdeka Palace. This is in accordance with the Javanese tradition that the \"kraton\" (king's palace) and \"masjid agung\" (grand mosque) should be located around the \"alun-alun\" (main Javanese city square), which means it must be near Merdeka Square. Sukarno also insisted that the national mosque should be built near Jakarta Cathedral and Immanuel Church, to symbolize religious harmony and tolerance as promoted in Pancasila (the Indonesian national philosophy and the five principles which constitute the philosophical foundation of Indonesian nationhood). It was later decided that the national mosque was going to be built in Taman Widjaja Kusuma (formerly Wilhelmina park), in front of the Jakarta Cathedral. To make way for the mosque, the Citadel Prins Frederick, built in 1837, was demolished. Sukarno actively followed the planning and construction of the mosque, including acting as the chairman of the jury for the mosque design competition held in 1955. The design submitted by Frederich Silaban, a Christian architect from North Sumatra, with the theme \"Ketuhanan\" (English: \"Divinity\") was chosen as the winner.", "The foundation stone was laid by Sukarno on 24 August 1961; the construction took 17 years. President Suharto inaugurated it as the national mosque on 22 February 1978. it is the largest mosque in the region of Southeast Asia, with a capacity of over 120,000. A tunnel connecting Istiqlal Mosque and St. Mary of the Assumption Cathedral is being constructed by Indonesian authorities. This tunnel, known as the \"Terowongan Silaturahmi\" (Tunnel of Friendship), is expected to finish in April 2020 before Ramadan 2020.", "The mosque has seven entrances, and all seven gates are named after \"Al-Asmaul-Husna\", the names of God in Islam. The number seven represents the Seven Heavens in Islamic cosmology. The wudu (ablution) fountains are on the ground floor, while the main prayer hall and main courtyard are on the first floor. The building consists of two connected rectangular structures: the main structure and the smaller secondary structure. The smaller one serves as main gate as well as stairs and prayer spaces.", "There are seven entrance gates to the Istiqlal Mosque. Each door is named after one of the 99 Names of Allah. Below are lists of entrance gates into the complex of Istiqlal Mosque:", "The rectangular main prayer hall building is covered by a 45-m diameter central spherical dome; the number \"45\" symbolizes the 1945 Proclamation of Indonesian Independence. The main dome is adorned with a stainless steel ornamental pinnacle in the form of a crescent and star, the symbol of Islam. The smaller secondary dome is also adorned with a stainless steel pinnacle with the name of Allah (God) in Islamic calligraphy. The dome is supported by twelve round columns, and the prayer hall is surrounded by rectangular piers carrying four levels of balconies. Twelve columns represent the (mostly accepted) birthday of the Islamic prophet Muhammad in 12th Rabi' al-awwal.", "The main floor and the four levels of balconies make five floors in all; the number \"5\" represents the Five Pillars of Islam and also Pancasila, Staircases at the corners of the building give access to all floors. The main hall is reached through an entrance covered by a dome 8 meters in diameter; the number 8 symbolizes August, the month of Indonesian Independence. The interior design is minimalist, simple and clean-cut, with a minimum of stainless steel geometric ornaments. The 12 columns are covered with stainless steel. On the main wall on qibla there is a mihrab and minbar in the center. On the main wall, there is a large metalwork in Arabic calligraphy, spelling the name of Allah on the right side and Muhammad on the left side, and also calligraphy of Surah Thaha 14th verse in the center. The metalworks, stainless steel covers and ornaments were imported from Germany. Originally, as in the National Monument nearby, the white marbles were planned to be imported from Italy. However to cut costs and support the local marble industry, it was later decided that the marbles would be from Tulungagung marble quarries in East Java instead.", "The main structure is directly connected to the arcades that are spread around the large courtyard. The arcades connect the main building with a single minaret in the southern corner. Unlike many Arabic, Persian, Turkish and Indian mosques with multiple minarets, Istiqlal mosque has a single minaret to symbolize the divine oneness of God. It is 66.66 m tall to symbolize (incorrectly) the 6,666 verses in the Quran. The 30-metre-high stainless steel pinnacle on top of the minaret symbolizes the 30 juz' of the Quran. On the southern side near the minaret there is also a large \"bedug\" (large wooden drum made of cow skin). In common with the entire Islamic world, traditionally Muslims in Indonesia use the drum with the adhan (call to prayer). The mosque offices, function hall, and madrasah are on the ground floor. The mosque provides facilities for social and cultural activities. Some Muslims in Indonesia said Istiqlal's dome and minaret structure was much too modern and Arabic in style. They regarded the architecture as being out of harmony with Islamic culture and architecture in Indonesia. In response, former president Suharto began an initiative to construct more mosques of the Javanese triple-roofed design.", "Istiqlal Mosque can hold pilgrims as many as 200,000 people consisting of:", "In display of religious tolerance, during large Christian celebrations such as Christmas, Istiqlal Mosque helped provide parking space for worshipers of the nearby Jakarta Cathedral.", "For the purpose of worship and information facilities Istiqlal Mosque uses a centrally controlled sound system located on the rear glass room of the second floor, with the number of speakers as many as 200 channels spread on the main floor. The number of speakers contained in the corridor, connecting building and preliminary building are 158 channels. The sound system is controlled by 26 amplifiers and 5 (five) mixers and is supervised by six people who take turns both day and night when in use. To support the smooth communication at the time of worship and activity, on the main floor has also been installed plasma TV system so that access information can be followed evenly by the pilgrims who are throughout the main room of the mosque that cannot see the preacher.", "Istiqlal mosque is located on former Wilhelmina Park, thus prior of mosque construction, there are numbers of decorative plants and trees planted in the garden. Some of garden's old large trees might be hundred years old. The park is also the location of a river branch, the distributary of Ciliwung river, completed with floodgates. The original river branch went westward to Molenvliet and turned northward along canal towards its estuarine in old Batavia. The other branch turned northward to a floodgate which drain eastward along a canal in front of Pasar Baru, the canal turned north along Jalan Gunung Sahari, all the way to Ancol in the north. In the southwestern corner of the garden surrounding the mosque, there is a large pool and a grand fountain that spouts water 45 m high. The fountain only operates on Fridays during congregational salat and during Islamic holidays such as Eid ul-Fitr and Eid ul-Adha. The river Ciliwung flows across the mosque complex along the eastern side of the mosque.", "Istiqlal Mosque has one Grand Imam, one Deputy Grand Imam, and seven imams. the Grand Imam is former Deputy Minister for Religious Affairs (2011–2014), Nasaruddin Umar and the Chairman of Istiqlal Mosque is the former Indonesian Ambassador to Syria (2006–2010), Muhammad Muzammil Basyuni. Previous Grand Imams include Zaini Miftah (1970–1980), Mukhtar Nasir (1980–2004), Nasrullah Djamaluddin (2004–2005) and Ali Mustafa Yaqub (2005–2015). The current Deputy Grand Imam is Al Hajj Syarifuddin Muhammad, former chairman of the Indonesian Hafiz Association. There are seven other imams who lead daily prayers at the mosque: In addition, the Istiqlal Mosque also has seven Muezzins in charge of Calling for Prayer and provides teaching services about the Quran and Islam. They are:", "Following US President Barack Obama and his wife's visit to the Istiqal Mosque in November 2010, about 20 visitors per day have come to tour the mosque. Among foreign dignitaries who have visited Istiqlal mosque are former US president Bill Clinton; President of Iran Mahmoud Ahmadinejad; former Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi; Prince Charles of United Kingdom; Li Yuanchao, Vice President of the Communist Party of China; President of Chile Sebastián Piñera; Heinz Fischer, the President of Austria; Jens Stoltenberg, the Prime Minister of Norway, and German Chancellor Angela Merkel in 2012. King Salman Of Saudi Arabia visited the mosque during his Indonesia tour in March 2017." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The church is possibly the best preserved example of early Romanesque architecture in the city of Kraków and in Poland. The massive building was constructed from stone blocks towards the end of the 11th century, and also fulfilled important defensive functions. The two octagonal looking towers, with the doubled arcade windows are perfect examples and characteristic of Romanesque architecture. They extend high over the body of the church. The apse decorated with a modest arcade freeze and numerous details (including stairs and window frames) maintain the same character. The structure was probably expanded, extended and strengthened up until the mid-12th century. The church successfully withstood the Tatar-Mongol raid of 1241, providing shelter for the majority of residents and inhabitants of the city. At that time, it was – quite rightly – called “the lower castle” to be distinguished from the nearby “upper” standing on top of the Wawel Hill. It was also sometimes referred to as the second church of Kraków after the Wawel Cathedral. In 1320, the church was entrusted to the Order of Poor Clares, whose convent was built south of the church. Also the brick, Gothic oratorio that today plays the role of the sacristy dates back to that period. The baroque decoration of the interior, with rich stucco decoration by Italian painter and architect Baldassare \"Baltazar\" Fontana, comes from the refurbishment that took place after 1700, while the construction of the high altar, attributed to Francesco Placidi was initiated in the upcoming years. Attention is drawn to the pulpit in the shape of a boat, and the musical choir with 18th-century organ in the chancel, decorated in the rococo manner. The baroque steeples added in 1639 contrast with the severity of the Romanesque form of the church." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Invention.", "Design.", "Band-limited coronagraph.", "Phase-mask coronagraph.", "Optical vortex coronagraph.", "Satellite-based coronagraphs.", "Extrasolar planets." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The coronagraph was introduced in 1931 by the French astronomer Bernard Lyot; since then, coronagraphs have been used at many solar observatories. Coronagraphs operating within Earth's atmosphere suffer from scattered light in the sky itself, due primarily to Rayleigh scattering of sunlight in the upper atmosphere. At view angles close to the Sun, the sky is much brighter than the background corona even at high altitude sites on clear, dry days. Ground-based coronagraphs, such as the High Altitude Observatory's Mark IV Coronagraph on top of Mauna Loa, use polarization to distinguish sky brightness from the image of the corona: both coronal light and sky brightness are scattered sunlight and have similar spectral properties, but the coronal light is Thomson-scattered at nearly a right angle and therefore undergoes scattering polarization, while the superimposed light from the sky near the Sun is scattered at only a glancing angle and hence remains nearly unpolarized.", "Coronagraph instruments are extreme examples of stray light rejection and precise photometry because the total brightness from the solar corona is less than one millionth the brightness of the Sun. The apparent surface brightness is even fainter because, in addition to delivering less total light, the corona has a much greater apparent size than the Sun itself. During a total solar eclipse, the Moon acts as an occluding disk and any camera in the eclipse path may be operated as a coronagraph until the eclipse is over. More common is an arrangement where the sky is imaged onto an intermediate focal plane containing an opaque spot; this focal plane is reimaged onto a detector. Another arrangement is to image the sky onto a mirror with a small hole: the desired light is reflected and eventually reimaged, but the unwanted light from the star goes through the hole and does not reach the detector. Either way, the instrument design must take into account scattering and diffraction to make sure that as little unwanted light as possible reaches the final detector. Lyot's key invention was an arrangement of lenses with stops, known as Lyot stops, and baffles such that light scattered by diffraction was focused on the stops and baffles, where it could be absorbed, while light needed for a useful image missed them. As an example, imaging instruments on the Hubble Space Telescope offer coronagraphic capability.", "A \"band-limited coronagraph\" uses a special kind of mask called a \"band-limited mask\". This mask is designed to block light and also manage diffraction effects caused by removal of the light. The band-limited coronagraph has served as the baseline design for the canceled Terrestrial Planet Finder coronagraph. Band-limited masks will also be available on the James Webb Space Telescope. Se", "A phase-mask coronagraph (such as the so-called four-quadrant phase-mask coronagraph) uses a transparent mask to shift the phase of the stellar light in order to create a self-destructive interference, rather than a simple opaque disc to block it.", "An optical vortex coronagraph uses a phase-mask in which the phase-shift varies azimuthally around the center. Several varieties of optical vortex coronagraphs exist: This works with stars other than the sun because they are so far away their light is, for this purpose, a spatially coherent plane wave. The coronagraph using interference masks out the light along the center axis of the telescope, but allows the light from off axis objects through.", "Coronagraphs in outer space are much more effective than the same instruments would be if located on the ground. This is because the complete absence of atmospheric scattering eliminates the largest source of glare present in a terrestrial coronagraph. Several space missions such as NASA-ESA's SOHO, and NASA's SPARTAN, Solar Maximum Mission, and Skylab have used coronagraphs to study the outer reaches of the solar corona. The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) is able to perform coronagraphy using the Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS), and there are plans to have this capability on the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) using its Near Infrared Camera (NIRCam) and Mid Infrared Instrument (MIRI). While space-based coronagraphs such as LASCO avoid the sky brightness problem, they face design challenges in stray light management under the stringent size and weight requirements of space flight. Any sharp edge (such as the edge of an occulting disk or optical aperture) causes Fresnel diffraction of incoming light around the edge, which means that the smaller instruments that one would want on a satellite unavoidably leak more light than larger ones would. The LASCO C-3 coronagraph uses both an external occulter (which casts shadow on the instrument) and an internal occulter (which blocks stray light that is Fresnel-diffracted around the external occulter) to reduce this leakage, and a complicated system of baffles to eliminate stray light scattering off the internal surfaces of the instrument itself.", "The coronagraph has recently been adapted to the challenging task of finding planets around nearby stars. While stellar and solar coronagraphs are similar in concept, they are quite different in practice because the object to be occulted differs by a factor of a million in linear apparent size. (The Sun has an apparent size of about 1900 arcseconds, while a typical nearby star might have an apparent size of 0.0005 and 0.002 arcseconds.) Earth-like exoplanet detection requires contrast. To achieve such contrast requires extreme optothermal stability. A stellar coronagraph concept was studied for flight on the canceled Terrestrial Planet Finder mission. On ground-based telescopes, a stellar coronagraph can be combined with adaptive optics to search for planets around nearby stars. In November 2008, NASA announced that a planet was directly observed orbiting the nearby star Fomalhaut. The planet could be seen clearly on images taken by Hubble's Advanced Camera for Surveys' coronagraph in 2004 and 2006. The dark area hidden by the coronagraph mask can be seen on the images, though a bright dot has been added to show where the star would have been. Up until the year 2010, telescopes could only directly image exoplanets under exceptional circumstances. Specifically, it is easier to obtain images when the planet is especially large (considerably larger than Jupiter), widely separated from its parent star, and hot so that it emits intense infrared radiation. However, in 2010 a team from NASAs Jet Propulsion Laboratory demonstrated that a vector vortex coronagraph could enable small telescopes to directly image planets. They did this by imaging the previously imaged HR 8799 planets using just a portion of the Hale Telescope." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Honors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Born in Pforzheim and raised in Ispringen, Dieter Kosslick studied Communication, Politics and Education at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. After receiving his master's degree, he stayed on at the university in the Bavarian capital as a research assistant before moving to Hamburg in 1979 to work as speechwriter and office administrator for the First Mayor of Hamburg Hans-Ulrich Klose and later as press spokesman for the \"women's equality\" unit. He left this position in 1982 to work as a journalist for the political magazine \"konkret\".", "In 1983 he became involved in film funding, firstly as managing director of Hamburg's cultural film fund (Hamburg Film Office). In 1986 he founded the European Low Budget Forum with the cinema \"Kino auf der Alster\". In 1988 he became managing director of the city's economic film fund (Hamburg Film Fund - Filmförderung Hamburg Schleswig-Holstein). The same year, he was a co-founder of EFDO (European Film Distribution Office) and became the president of this European organisation, a post he held until EFDO's dissolution in 1996. In 1992 the federal state of North Rhine-Westphalia and WDR (West German broadcasting corporation) managed to get Dieter Kosslick to come from Hamburg to the Rhine to head up the barely one-year-old \"Filmstiftung NRW\" as its executive director. During his nine years in office North-Rhine-Westphalia became the leading German film site and established itself internationally as an important film region. In July 2000 the federal state and city of Berlin as well as the Federal Government of Germany appointed him director of Germany's prestigious Berlin International Film Festival. Dieter Kosslick took up his new position in the capital as head of the Berlinale on May 1, 2001. Until today Dieter Kosslick has launched new sections and initiatives within the Berlin Film Festival, among which are the section \"Perspektive Deutsches Kino\" for young German film, the Co-Production Market and the World Cinema Fund as well as the Culinary Cinema which is operating since 2007. The Berlinale has grown to become one of the most important film festivals in Europe.", "Dieter Kosslick has received many honours and awards for the diverse ways in which he has promoted film and culture; the Bundesverdienstkreuz, the Chevalier des Arts et des Lettres among others." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Design." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The plans to raise a new synagogue in Katowice arose around 1890, when the Old Synagogue (Katowice) became too small for the local worshippers. The construction begun in 1896, and the architect in charge was Max Grünfeld, son of Ignatz Grünfeld who designed the old synagogue. The construction was finished in 1900 and the synagogue was opened on 12 October 1900. The synagogue was set on fire by Nazis in early days of September 1939 after they gained control of the city during the invasion of Poland (1939); probably on 8 September. After the war the few Jews who survived the Holocaust were unable to gather enough resources and support to rebuild the synagogue. Today in the place where this building once stood is a square (Synagogue Square). In the 1988 a monument was raised in the square, dedicated to the Jewish inhabitants of the city who perished during the Second World War.", "The brick synagogue was designed on the basis of a modified rectangle in style mixing Neo-Gothic with Neo-Renaissance, eclecticism and the mauritian style; similar to the style of reformed Judaism synagogues in contemporary Germany. The synagogue had a large dome with a cross-ribbed vault over the main prayer chamber which was preceded by a large entrance hall with offices and the chamber of marriage. The main chamber was topped with a lantern. Other characteristics elements included large decorated windows and small towers. The main chamber could hold 1120 people; 670 males and 450 females." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Life.", "Spiritual autobiography.", "Memoirs.", "Fictional autobiography.", "Autobiography through the ages.", "The classical period: Apologia, oration, confession.", "Early autobiographies.", "18th and 19th centuries.", "20th and 21st centuries." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Autobiographical works are by nature subjective. The inability—or unwillingness—of the author to accurately recall memories has in certain cases resulted in misleading or incorrect information. Some sociologists and psychologists have noted that autobiography offers the author the ability to recreate history.", "Spiritual autobiography is an account of an author's struggle or journey towards God, followed by conversion a religious conversion, often interrupted by moments of regression. The author re-frames his or her life as a demonstration of divine intention through encounters with the Divine. The earliest example of a spiritual autobiography is Augustine's \"Confessions\" though the tradition has expanded to include other religious traditions in works such as Zahid Rohari's \"An Autobiography\" and \"Black Elk Speaks\". The spiritual autobiography works as an endorsement of his or her religion.", "A memoir is slightly different in character from an autobiography. While an autobiography typically focuses on the \"life and times\" of the writer, a memoir has a narrower, more intimate focus on his or her own memories, feelings and emotions. Memoirs have often been written by politicians or military leaders as a way to record and publish an account of their public exploits. One early example is that of Julius Caesar's \"Commentarii de Bello Gallico\", also known as \"Commentaries on the Gallic Wars\". In the work, Caesar describes the battles that took place during the nine years that he spent fighting local armies in the Gallic Wars. His second memoir, \"Commentarii de Bello Civili\" (or \"Commentaries on the Civil War\") is an account of the events that took place between 49 and 48 BC in the civil war against Gnaeus Pompeius and the Senate. Leonor López de Córdoba (1362–1420) wrote what is supposed to be the first autobiography in Spanish. The English Civil War (1642–1651) provoked a number of examples of this genre, including works by Sir Edmund Ludlow and Sir John Reresby. French examples from the same period include the memoirs of Cardinal de Retz (1614–1679) and the Duc de Saint-Simon.", "The term \"fictional autobiography\" signifies novels about a fictional character written as though the character were writing their own autobiography, meaning that the character is the first-person narrator and that the novel addresses both internal and external experiences of the character. Daniel Defoe's \"Moll Flanders\" is an early example. Charles Dickens' \"David Copperfield\" is another such classic, and J.D. Salinger's \"The Catcher in the Rye\" is a well-known modern example of fictional autobiography. Charlotte Brontë's \"Jane Eyre\" is yet another example of fictional autobiography, as noted on the front page of the original version. The term may also apply to works of fiction purporting to be autobiographies of real characters, e.g., Robert Nye's \"Memoirs of Lord Byron\".", "", "In antiquity such works were typically entitled \"apologia,\" purporting to be self-justification rather than self-documentation. John Henry Newman's Christian confessional work (first published in 1864) is entitled \"Apologia Pro Vita Sua\" in reference to this tradition. The Jewish historian Flavius Josephus introduces his autobiography (\"Josephi Vita\", c. 99) with self-praise, which is followed by a justification of his actions as a Jewish rebel commander of Galilee. The pagan rhetor Libanius (c. 314–394) framed his life memoir (\"Oration I\" begun in 374) as one of his orations, not of a public kind, but of a literary kind that could not be aloud in privacy. Augustine (354–430) applied the title \"Confessions\" to his autobiographical work, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau used the same title in the 18th century, initiating the chain of confessional and sometimes racy and highly self-critical, autobiographies of the Romantic era and beyond. Augustine's was arguably the first Western autobiography ever written, and became an influential model for Christian writers throughout the Middle Ages. It tells of the hedonistic lifestyle Augustine lived for a time within his youth, associating with young men who boasted of their sexual exploits; his following and leaving of the anti-sex and anti-marriage Manichaeism in attempts to seek sexual morality; and his subsequent return to Christianity due to his embracement of Skepticism and the New Academy movement (developing the view that sex is good, and that virginity is better, comparing the former to silver and the latter to gold; Augustine's views subsequently strongly influenced Western theology). \"Confessions\" will always rank among the great masterpieces of western literature. In the spirit of Augustine's \"Confessions\" is the 12th-century \"Historia Calamitatum\" of Peter Abelard, outstanding as an autobiographical document of its period.", "In the 15th century, Leonor López de Córdoba, a Spanish noblewoman, wrote her \"Memorias\", which may be the first autobiography in Castillian. Zāhir ud-Dīn Mohammad Bābur, who founded the Mughal dynasty of South Asia kept a journal \"Bāburnāma\" (Chagatai/; literally: \"\"Book of Babur\"\" or \"\"Letters of Babur\"\") which was written between 1493 and 1529. One of the first great autobiographies of the Renaissance is that of the sculptor and goldsmith Benvenuto Cellini (1500–1571), written between 1556 and 1558, and entitled by him simply \"Vita\" (Italian: \"Life\"). He declares at the start: \"No matter what sort he is, everyone who has to his credit what are or really seem great achievements, if he cares for truth and goodness, ought to write the story of his own life in his own hand; but no one should venture on such a splendid undertaking before he is over forty.\" These criteria for autobiography generally persisted until recent times, and most serious autobiographies of the next three hundred years conformed to them. Another autobiography of the period is \"De vita propria\", by the Italian mathematician, physician and astrologer Gerolamo Cardano (1574). The earliest known autobiography written in English is the Book of Margery Kempe, written in 1438. Following in the earlier tradition of a life story told as an act of Christian witness, the book describes Margery Kempe's pilgrimages to the Holy Land and Rome, her attempts to negotiate a celibate marriage with her husband, and most of all her religious experiences as a Christian mystic. Extracts from the book were published in the early sixteenth century but the whole text was published for the first time only in 1936. Possibly the first publicly available autobiography written in English was Captain John Smith's autobiography published in 1630 which was regarded by many as not much more than a collection of tall tales told by someone of doubtful veracity. This changed with the publication of Philip Barbour's definitive biography in 1964 which, amongst other things, established independent factual bases for many of Smith's \"tall tales\", many of which could not have been known by Smith at the time of writing unless he was actually present at the events recounted. Other notable English autobiographies of the 17th century include those of Lord Herbert of Cherbury (1643, published 1764) and John Bunyan (\"Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners\", 1666). Jarena Lee (1783–1864) was the first African American woman to have a published biography in the United States.", "Following the trend of Romanticism, which greatly emphasized the role and the nature of the individual, and in the footsteps of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's \"Confessions\", a more intimate form of autobiography, exploring the subject's emotions, came into fashion. Stendhal's autobiographical writings of the 1830s, \"The Life of Henry Brulard\" and \"Memoirs of an Egotist\", are both avowedly influenced by Rousseau. An English example is William Hazlitt's \"Liber Amoris\" (1823), a painful examination of the writer's love-life. With the rise of education, cheap newspapers and cheap printing, modern concepts of fame and celebrity began to develop, and the beneficiaries of this were not slow to cash in on this by producing autobiographies. It became the expectation—rather than the exception—that those in the public eye should write about themselves—not only writers such as Charles Dickens (who also incorporated autobiographical elements in his novels) and Anthony Trollope, but also politicians (e.g. Henry Brooks Adams), philosophers (e.g. John Stuart Mill), churchmen such as Cardinal Newman, and entertainers such as P. T. Barnum. Increasingly, in accordance with romantic taste, these accounts also began to deal, amongst other topics, with aspects of childhood and upbringing—far removed from the principles of \"Cellinian\" autobiography.", "From the 17th century onwards, \"scandalous memoirs\" by supposed libertines, serving a public taste for titillation, have been frequently published. Typically pseudonymous, they were (and are) largely works of fiction written by ghostwriters. So-called \"autobiographies\" of modern professional athletes and media celebrities—and to a lesser extent about politicians—generally written by a ghostwriter, are routinely published. Some celebrities, such as Naomi Campbell, admit to not having read their \"autobiographies\". Some sensationalist autobiographies such as James Frey's \"A Million Little Pieces\" have been publicly exposed as having embellished or fictionalized significant details of the authors' lives. Autobiography has become an increasingly popular and widely accessible form. \"A Fortunate Life\" by Albert Facey (1979) has become an Australian literary classic. With the critical and commercial success in the United States of such memoirs as \"Angela’s Ashes\" and \"The Color of Water\", more and more people have been encouraged to try their hand at this genre. Maggie Nelson's book \"The Argonauts\" is one of the recent autobiographies. Maggie Nelson calls it \"autotheory\"—a combination of autobiography and critical theory. A genre where the \"claim for truth\" overlaps with fictional elements though the work still purports to be autobiographical is autofiction." ] }