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StivenLancheros

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Contracts for marriage.", "Claim to the throne and accession.", "Trial and execution.", "Legacy.", "Family tree." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Lady Jane Grey was the eldest daughter of Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, and his wife, Frances. The traditional view is that she was born at Bradgate Park in Leicestershire in October 1537, while more recent research indicates that she was born somewhat earlier, possibly in London, in late 1536 or in the spring of 1537. Frances was the elder daughter of King Henry VIII's younger sister, Mary. Jane had two younger sisters: Lady Katherine and Lady Mary. Through their mother, the three sisters were great-granddaughters of Henry VII; grandnieces of Henry VIII; and first cousins once removed of Edward VI, Mary I and Elizabeth I. Jane received a humanist education, studying Latin, Greek and Hebrew with John Aylmer, and Italian with Michelangelo Florio. Through the influence of her father and her tutors, she became a committed Protestant and also corresponded with the Zürich reformer Heinrich Bullinger. Jane preferred book studies to hunting parties and regarded her strict upbringing, which was typical of the time, as harsh. To the visiting scholar Roger Ascham, who found her reading Plato, she is said to have complained: For when I am in the presence either of father or mother, whether I speak, keep silence, sit, stand or go, eat, drink, be merry or sad, be sewing, playing, dancing, or doing anything else, I must do it as it were in such weight, measure and number, even so perfectly as God made the world; or else I am so sharply taunted, so cruelly threatened, yea presently sometimes with pinches, nips and bobs and other ways (which I will not name for the honour I bear them)... that I think myself in hell. In early February 1547, Jane was sent to live in the household of Edward VI's uncle, Thomas Seymour, who soon married Henry VIII's widow, Catherine Parr. Jane lived with the couple at Sudeley Castle in Gloucestershire until Catherine's death in childbirth in September 1548.", "Lady Jane acted as chief mourner at Catherine Parr's funeral; Thomas Seymour showed continued interest to keep her in his household, and she returned there for about two months before he was arrested at the end of 1548. Seymour's brother, the Lord Protector, Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, felt threatened by Thomas' popularity with the young King Edward. Among other things, Thomas Seymour was charged with proposing Jane as a bride for the king. In the course of Thomas Seymour's following attainder and execution, Jane's father was lucky to stay largely out of trouble. After his fourth interrogation by the King's Council, he proposed his daughter Jane as a bride for the Protector's eldest son, Lord Hertford. Nothing came of this, however, and Jane was not engaged until the spring of 1553, her bridegroom being Lord Guildford Dudley, a younger son of John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland. The Duke, Lord President of the King's Council from late 1549, was then the most powerful man in the country. On 25 May 1553, the couple were married at Durham House in a triple wedding, in which Jane's sister Catherine was matched with the heir of the Earl of Pembroke, Lord Herbert, and another Katherine, Lord Guildford's sister, with Henry Hastings, the Earl of Huntingdon's heir.", "The Third Succession Act of 1544 restored Henry VIII's daughters, Mary and Elizabeth, to the line of succession, although they were still regarded as illegitimate. Furthermore, this Act authorised Henry VIII to alter the succession by his will. Henry's will reinforced the succession of his three children, and then declared that, should none of them leave descendants, the throne would pass to heirs of his younger sister, Mary, which included Jane. For unknown reasons, Henry excluded Jane's mother, Frances Grey, from the succession, and also bypassed the claims of the descendants of his elder sister, Margaret, who had married into the Scottish royal house and nobility. Both Mary and Elizabeth had been named illegitimate by statute during the reign of Henry VIII after his marriages to Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn had been declared void. When the 15-year-old Edward VI lay dying in the early summer of 1553, his Catholic half-sister Mary was still his heir presumptive. However, Edward, in a draft will (\"My devise for the Succession\") composed earlier in 1553, had first restricted the succession to (non-existent) male descendants of Frances Brandon and her daughters, before he named his Protestant cousin \"Lady Jane and her heirs male\" as his successors, probably in June 1553; the intent was to ensure his Protestant legacy, thereby bypassing Mary, who was a Roman Catholic. Edward's decision to name Jane Grey herself was possibly instigated by Northumberland. Edward VI personally supervised the copying of his will which was finally issued as letters patent on 21 June and signed by 102 notables, among them the whole Privy Council, peers, bishops, judges, and London aldermen. Edward also announced to have his \"declaration\" passed in parliament in September, and the necessary writs were prepared. The King died on 6 July 1553, but his death was not announced until four days later. On 9 July Jane was informed that she was now queen, and according to her own later claims, accepted the crown only with reluctance. On 10 July, she was officially proclaimed Queen of England, France and Ireland after she had taken up secure residence in the Tower of London, where English monarchs customarily resided from the time of accession until coronation. Jane refused to name her husband Dudley as king, because that would require an Act of Parliament. She would agree only to make him Duke of Clarence. Northumberland faced a number of key tasks to consolidate his power after Edward's death. Most importantly, he had to isolate and, ideally, capture Mary Tudor to prevent her from gathering support. As soon as Mary was sure of King Edward's demise, she left her residence at Hunsdon and set out to East Anglia, where she began to rally her supporters. Northumberland set out from London with troops on 14 July to capture Mary. The Privy Council switched their allegiance and proclaimed Mary queen in London, on 19 July. The historical consensus assumes that this was in recognition of overwhelming support of the population for Mary. However, there is no clear evidence for that outside Norfolk and Suffolk, where Northumberland had put down Kett's Rebellion; hence, where princess Mary sought refuge. Rather, it seems that Henry FitzAlan, 19th Earl of Arundel—whom Northumberland had arrested and detained twice as an ally of Somerset, before rehabilitating—engineered a coup d'état in the Privy Council in Northumberland's absence. Jane is often called the Nine-Day Queen, although if her reign is dated from the moment of Edward's death on 6 July 1553, her reign could have been a few days longer. On 19 July 1553, Jane was imprisoned in the Tower's Gentleman Gaoler's (Jailer's) apartments, her husband in the Beauchamp Tower. The Duke of Northumberland was executed on 22 August 1553. In September, Parliament declared Mary the rightful successor and denounced and revoked Jane's proclamation as that of a usurper.", "Referred to by the court as Jane Dudley, wife of Guildford, Jane was charged with high treason, as were her husband, two of his brothers, and the former Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer. Their trial, by a special commission, took place on 13 November 1553, at Guildhall in the City of London. The commission was chaired by Sir Thomas White, Lord Mayor of London, and Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk. Other members included Edward Stanley, 3rd Earl of Derby and John Bourchier, 2nd Earl of Bath. As was to be expected, all defendants were found guilty and sentenced to death. Jane's guilt, of having treacherously assumed the title and the power of the monarch, was evidenced by a number of documents she had signed as \"Jane the Quene\". Her sentence was to \"be burned alive on Tower Hill or beheaded as the Queen pleases\" (burning was the traditional English punishment for treason committed by women). The imperial ambassador reported to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, that her life was to be spared. The rebellion of Thomas Wyatt the Younger in January 1554 against Queen Mary's marriage plans with Philip of Spain sealed Jane's fate. Her father, Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, and his two brothers joined the rebellion, and so the government decided to go through with the verdict against Jane and Guildford. Their execution was first scheduled for 9 February 1554, but was then postponed for three days to give Jane a chance to convert to the Catholic faith. Mary sent her chaplain John Feckenham to Jane, who was initially not pleased about this. Though she would not give in to his efforts \"to save her soul\", she became friends with him and allowed him to accompany her to the scaffold. On the morning of 12 February 1554, the authorities took Guildford from his rooms at the Tower of London to the public execution place at Tower Hill, where he was beheaded. A horse and cart brought his remains back to the Tower, past the rooms where Jane was staying. Seeing her husband's corpse return, Jane is reported to have exclaimed: \"Oh, Guildford, Guildford.\" She was then taken out to Tower Green, inside the Tower, to be beheaded. According to the account of her execution given in the anonymous \"Chronicle of Queen Jane and of Two Years of Queen Mary\", which formed the basis for Raphael Holinshed's depiction, Jane gave a speech upon ascending the scaffold: Good people, I am come hither to die, and by a law I am condemned to the same. The fact, indeed, against the Queen's highness was unlawful, and the consenting thereunto by me: but touching the procurement and desire thereof by me or on my behalf, I do wash my hands thereof in innocency, before God, and the face of you, good Christian people, this day. While admitting to action considered unlawful, she declared that \"I do wash my hands thereof in innocence\". Jane then recited Psalm 51 (\"Have mercy upon me, O God\") in English, and handed her gloves and handkerchief to her maid. The executioner asked her forgiveness, which she granted him, pleading: \"I pray you dispatch me quickly.\" Referring to her head, she asked, \"Will you take it off before I lay me down?\", and the axeman answered: \"No, madam.\" She then blindfolded herself. Jane then failed to find the block with her hands, and cried, \"What shall I do? Where is it?\" Probably Sir Thomas Brydges, the Deputy Lieutenant of the Tower, helped her find her way. With her head on the block, Jane spoke the last words of Jesus as recounted by Luke: \"Lord, into thy hands I commend my spirit!\" Jane and Guildford are buried in the Chapel of St Peter ad Vincula on the north side of Tower Green. No memorial stone was erected at their grave. Jane's father, the Duke of Suffolk, was executed 11 days after Jane, on 23 February 1554. Her mother, the Duchess of Suffolk, married her Master of the Horse and chamberlain, Adrian Stokes, in March 1555. She was fully pardoned by Mary and allowed to live at Court with her two surviving daughters. She died in 1559.", "\"The traitor-heroine of the Reformation\", as historian Albert Pollard called her, was only 16 or 17 years old at the time of her execution. During and in the aftermath of the Marian persecutions, Jane became viewed as a Protestant martyr for centuries, featuring prominently in the several editions of the \"Book of Martyrs\" (\"Actes and Monuments of these Latter and Perillous Dayes\") by John Foxe. The tale of Lady Jane grew to legendary proportions in popular culture, producing romantic biographies, novels, plays, operas, paintings, and films. Jane Grey is the only English monarch in the last 500 years (though whether her short reign was legitimate is disputed) of whom no proven contemporary portrait survives. A painting in London's National Portrait Gallery was thought to be Jane for many years, but in 1996 it was confirmed to be of Catherine Parr. A portrait believed by some experts to be of Jane was discovered in a private home in 2005. Painted 40 to 50 years after Jane's death, the \"Streatham portrait\" (so called after the area of London in which it resided for decades) depicts a young woman dressed in a red gown, adorned with jewels and holding a prayer book. Historian and Tudor specialist Dr. David Starkey is sceptical, \"It's an appallingly bad picture and there's absolutely no reason to suppose it's got anything to do with Lady Jane Grey\". Another portrait, a miniature, was shown to the news media in 2007 by Starkey who stated that he was \"90 per cent certain\" that it is of Lady Jane Grey. This painting had been discovered at the Yale Center for British Art in America.", "The following chart illustrates Jane's relationship to the House of Tudor and other claimants to the English throne. Italics indicate people who predeceased Edward VI; Arabic numerals indicate the line of succession to Edward VI at the time of his death according to Henry VIII's will; and Roman numerals indicate the line of succession at the time of Edward VI's death according to Edward's will." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "History.", "Roles.", "Producer.", "Publisher.", "Development team.", "Designer.", "Artist.", "Programmer.", "Level designer.", "Sound engineer.", "Tester.", "Development process.", "Pre-production.", "High concept.", "Pitch.", "Concept.", "Game design document.", "Prototype.", "Production.", "Design.", "Programming.", "Level creation.", "Audio production.", "Testing.", "Milestones.", "First playable.", "Alpha.", "Code freeze.", "Beta.", "Code release.", "Gold master.", "Release schedules and \"crunch time\".", "Post-production.", "Maintenance.", "Outsourcing.", "Marketing.", "Trade show demo.", "Localization.", "Indie development.", "Game industry.", "Culture.", "Locales.", "United States.", "Education.", "Stability." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Games are produced through the software development process. Games are developed as a creative outlet and to generate profit. Game making is considered both art and science. Development is normally funded by a publisher. Well-made games bring profit more readily. However, it is important to estimate a game's financial requirements, such as development costs of individual features. Failing to provide clear implications of game's expectations may result in exceeding allocated budget. In fact, the majority of commercial games do not produce profit. Most developers cannot afford changing their development schedule mid-way, and require estimating their capabilities with available resources before production. The game industry requires innovations, as publishers cannot profit from constant release of repetitive sequels and imitations. Every year new independent development companies open and some manage to develop hit titles. Similarly, many developers close down because they cannot find a publishing contract or their production is not profitable. It is difficult to start a new company due to high initial investment required. Nevertheless, growth of casual and mobile game market has allowed developers with smaller teams to enter the market. Once the companies become financially stable, they may expand to develop larger games. Most developers start small and gradually expand their business. A developer receiving profit from a successful title may store up capital to expand and re-factor their company, as well as tolerate more failed deadlines. An average development budget for a multiplatform game is US$18-28M, with high-profile games often exceeding $40M. In the early era of home computers and video game consoles in the early 1980s, a single programmer could handle almost all the tasks of developing a game — programming, graphical design, sound effects, etc. It could take as little as six weeks to develop a game. However, the high user expectations and requirements of modern commercial games far exceed the capabilities of a single developer and require the splitting of responsibilities. A team of over a hundred people can be employed full-time for a single project. Game development, production, or design is a process that starts from an idea or concept. Often the idea is based on a modification of", "The history of game making begins with the development of the first video games, although which video game is the first depends on the definition of \"video game\". The first games created had little entertainment value, and their development focus was separate from user experience—in fact, these games required mainframe computers to play them. \"OXO\", written by Alexander S. Douglas in 1952, was the first computer game to use a digital display. In 1958, a game called \"Tennis for Two\", which displayed its output on an oscilloscope, was made by Willy Higinbotham, a physicist working at the Brookhaven National Laboratory. In 1961, a mainframe computer game called \"Spacewar!\" was developed by a group of Massachusetts Institute of Technology students led by Steve Russell. True commercial design and development of games began in the 1970s, when arcade video games and first-generation consoles were marketed. In 1971, \"Computer Space\" was the first commercially sold, coin-operated video game. It used a black-and-white television for its display, and the computer system was made of 74 series TTL chips. In 1972, the first home console system was released called Magnavox Odyssey, developed by Ralph H. Baer. That same year, Atari released \"Pong\", an arcade game that increased video game popularity. The commercial success of \"Pong\" led other companies to develop \"Pong\" clones, spawning the video game industry. Programmers worked within the big companies to produce games for these devices. The industry did not see huge innovation in game design and a large number of consoles had very similar games. Many of these early games were often \"Pong\" clones. Some games were different, however, such as \"Gun Fight\", which was significant for several reasons: an early 1975 on-foot, multi-directional shooter, which depicted game characters, game violence, and human-to-human combat. Tomohiro Nishikado's original version was based on discrete logic, which Dave Nutting adapted using the Intel 8080, making it the first video game to use a microprocessor. Console manufacturers soon started to produce consoles that were able to play independently developed games, and ran on microprocessors, marking the beginning of second-generation consoles, beginning with the release of the Fairchild Channel F in 1976. The flood of \"Pong\" clones led to the video game crash of 1977, which eventually came to an end with the mainstream success of Taito's 1978 arcade shooter game \"Space Invaders\", marking the beginning of the golden age of arcade video games and inspiring dozens of manufacturers to enter the market. Its creator Nishikado not only designed and programmed the game, but also did the artwork, engineered the arcade hardware, and put together a microcomputer from scratch. It was soon ported to the Atari 2600, becoming the first \"killer app\" and quadrupling the console's sales. At the same time, home computers appeared on the market, allowing individual programmers and hobbyists to develop games. This allowed hardware manufacturer and software manufacturers to act separately. A very large number of games could be produced by an individual, as games were easy to make because graphical and memory limitation did not allow", "", "Development is overseen by internal and external producers. The producer working for the developer is known as the \"internal producer\" and manages the development team, schedules, reports progress, hires and assigns staff, and so on. The", "A video game publisher is a company that publishes video games that they have either developed internally or have had developed by an external video game developer. As with book publishers or publishers of DVD movies, video game publishers are responsible for their product's manufacturing and marketing, including market research and all aspects of advertising. They usually finance the development, sometimes by paying a video game developer (the publisher calls this external development) and sometimes by paying an internal staff of developers called a studio. Consequently, they also typically own the IP of the game. Large video game publishers also distribute the games they publish, while some smaller publishers instead hire distribution companies (or", "Developers can range in size from small groups making casual games to housing hundreds of employees and producing several large titles. Companies divide their subtasks of game's development. Individual job titles may vary; however, roles are the same within the industry. The development team consists of several members. Some members of the team may handle more than one role; similarly more than one task may be handled by the same member. Team size can vary from 20 to 100 or more members, depending on the game's scope. The most represented are artists, followed by programmers, then designers, and finally, audio specialists, with two to three producers in management. These positions are employed full-time. Other positions, such as testers, may be employed only part-time. Salaries for these positions vary depending on both the experience and the location of the employee. An entry-level programmer can make, on average, around $70,000 annually and an experienced programmer can make, on average, around $125,000 annually. A development team includes these roles or disciplines:", "A game designer is a person who designs gameplay, conceiving and designing the rules and structure of a game. Development teams usually have a lead designer who coordinates the work of other designers. They are the main visionary", "A game artist is a visual artist who creates video game art. The art production is usually overseen by an \"art director\" or \"art lead\", making sure their vision is followed. The art director manages the", "A game programmer is a software engineer who primarily develops video games or related software (such as game development tools). The game's codebase", "A level designer is a person who creates levels, challenges or missions for computer and/or video games using a specific set of programs. These programs may be commonly available commercial 3D or 2D design programs, or specially designed and tailored level editors made for a specific game. Level designers work with", "Sound engineers are technical professionals responsible for sound effects and sound positioning. They sometimes oversee voice", "The quality assurance is carried out by game testers. A game tester analyzes video games to document software defects as part of a quality control. Testing is a highly technical field requiring computing expertise, and analytic competence. The testers ensure that the game falls within the proposed design: it both works and is entertaining.This involves testing of all features, compatibility, localization, etc. Although, necessary throughout the whole development process, testing is expensive and is often actively utilized only towards the completion of the project.", "Game development is a software development process, as a video game is software with art, audio, and gameplay. Formal software development methods are often overlooked. Games with poor development methodology are likely to run over budget and time estimates, as well as contain a large number of bugs. Planning is important for individual and group projects alike. Overall game development is not suited for typical software life cycle methods, such as the waterfall model. One method employed for game development is agile development. It is based on iterative prototyping, a subset of software prototyping. Agile development depends on feedback and refinement of game's iterations with gradually increasing feature set. This method is effective because most projects do not start with a clear requirement outline. A popular method of agile software development is Scrum. Another successful method is Personal Software Process (PSP) requiring additional training for staff to increase awareness of project's planning. This method is more expensive and requires commitment of team members. PSP can be extended to Team Software Process, where the whole team is self-directing. Game development usually involves an overlap of these methods. For example, asset creation may be done via waterfall model, because requirements and specification are clear, but gameplay design might be done using iterative prototyping. Development of a commercial game usually includes the following stages:", "\"Pre-production\" or \"design phase\" is a planning phase of the project focused on idea and concept development and production of initial design documents. The goal of concept development is to produce clear and easy to understand documentation, which describes all the tasks, schedules and estimates for the development team. The suite of documents produced in this phase is called production plan. This phase is usually not funded by a publisher, however good publishers may require developers to produce plans during pre-production. The concept documentation can be separated into three stages or documents—high concept, pitch and concept; however, there is no industry standard naming convention, for example, both Bethke (2003) and Bates (2004) refer to \"pitch document\" as \"game proposal\", yet Moore, Novak (2010) refers to \"concept document\" as \"game proposal\". The late stage of pre-production may also be referred to as \"proof of concept\", or \"technical review\" when more detailed game documents are produced. Publishers have started to expect broader game proposals even featuring playable prototypes.", "\"High concept\" is a brief description of a game. The", "A \"pitch\", \"concept document\", proposal document, or \"game proposal\" is a short summary document intended to present the game's selling points and detail why the game would be profitable to develop. Verbal pitches may be made to management within the developer company, and then presented to publishers. A written document may need to be shown", "\"Concept document\", \"game proposal\", or \"game plan\" is a more detailed document than the pitch document. This includes all the information produced about the game. This includes the high concept, game's genre, gameplay description, features, setting, story, target audience, hardware platforms, estimated schedule, marketing analysis, team requirements, and risk analysis. Before an approved design is completed, a skeleton crew of programmers and artists", "Before a full-scale production can begin, the development team produces the first version of a game design document incorporating all or most of the material from the initial pitch. The design document describes the game's concept and major", "Writing prototypes of gameplay ideas and features is an important activity that allows programmers and game designers to experiment with different algorithms and usability scenarios for a game. A great deal of prototyping may take place during pre-production before the design document is complete and may, in fact, help determine what features the design specifies. Prototyping at this stage is often done manually, (paper prototyping), not digitally, as this is often easier and faster to test and make changes before wasting time and resources into what could be a canceled idea or project. Prototyping may also take place during active development to test new ideas", "Production is the main stage of development, when assets and source code for the game are produced. Mainstream production is usually defined as the period of time when the project is fully staffed. Programmers write new source code, artists develop game assets, such as, sprites or 3D models. Sound engineers develop sound effects and composers develop music for the game. Level designers create levels, and writers write dialogue for cutscenes and NPCs. Game designers continue to develop the game's design throughout production.", "Game design is an essential and collaborative process of designing the content and rules of a game, requiring artistic and technical competence as well as writing skills. Creativity and an open mind is vital for the completion of a successful video game. During development, the", "The programming of the game is handled by one or more game programmers. They develop prototypes to test ideas, many of which may never make it into the", "From a time standpoint, the game's first level takes the longest to develop. As level designers and artists use the tools for level building, they request features and changes to the in-house tools that allow for quicker and higher quality development. Newly introduced features may cause old levels to become obsolete,", "Game audio may be separated into three categories—sound effects, music, and voice-over. Sound effect production is the production of sounds by either tweaking a sample to a desired effect or replicating it with real objects. Sound effects are", "At the end of the project, quality assurance plays a significant role. Testers start work once anything is playable. This may be one level or subset of the game software that can be used to any reasonable extent. Early on, testing a game occupies a relatively small amount of time. Testers may work on several games at once. As development draws to a close, a single game usually employs many testers full-time (and often with overtime). They strive to test new features and regression test existing ones. Testing is vital for modern, complex games as single changes may lead to catastrophic consequences. At this time features and levels are being finished at the highest rate and there is more new material to be tested than during any other", "Commercial game development projects may be required to meet milestones set by publisher. Milestones mark major events during game development and are used to track game's progress. Such milestones may be, for example, \"first playable\", \"alpha\", or \"beta\" game versions. Project milestones depend on the developer schedules. Milestones are usually based on multiple short descriptions for functionality; examples may be \"Player roaming around in game environment\" or \"Physics working, collisions, vehicle\" etc. (numerous descriptions are possible). These milestones are usually how the developer gets paid; sometimes as \"an advance against royalty\". These milestones are listed, anywhere from three to twenty depending on developer and publisher. The milestone list is usually a collaborative agreement between the publisher and developer. The developer usually advocates for making the milestone descriptions as simple as possible; depending on the specific", "The \"first playable\" is the game version containing representative gameplay and assets, this is the first version with functional major gameplay elements. It is often based on the prototype created", "\"Alpha\" is the stage when key gameplay functionality is implemented, and assets are partially finished. A game in alpha is \"feature complete\", that is, game is playable and contains all the major features. These features may be further", "\"Code freeze\" is the stage when new code is no longer added", "\"Beta\" is feature and asset complete version of the game, when only bugs are being fixed. This version contains", "\"Code release\" is the stage when many bugs are fixed and game is ready to be shipped or", "\"Gold master\" is the final game's build", "In most AAA game development, games are announced a year or more and given a planned release date or approximate window so that they can promote and market the game, establish orders with retailers, and entice consumers to pre-order the game. Delaying the release of a video game can have negative financial impact for publishers and developers, and extensive delays may lead to project cancellation and employee layoffs. To assure a game makes a set release date, publishers and developers may require their employees to work overtime to complete the game, which is considered common in the industry. This overtime is often referred to it as \"crunch time\" or \"crunch mode\". In 2004 and afterwards, the culture of crunch time in the industry came under scrutiny, leading to many publishers and developers to reduce the expectation on developers for overtime work and better schedule management, though crunch time still can occur.", "After the game goes gold and ships, some developers will give team members \"comp time\" (perhaps up to a week or two) to compensate for the overtime put in to complete the game, though this compensation is not standard.", "Once a game ships, the maintenance phase for the video game begins. Games developed for video game consoles have had almost no maintenance period in the past. The shipped game would forever house as many bugs and features as when released. This was common for consoles since all consoles had identical or nearly identical hardware; making incompatibility, the cause of many bugs, a non-issue. In this case, maintenance would only occur in the case of a port, sequel, or enhanced remake that reuses a large portion of the engine and assets. In recent times popularity of online console games has grown, and online capable video game consoles and online services such as Xbox Live for the Xbox have developed. Developers can maintain their software through downloadable patches. These changes would not have been", "Several development disciplines, such as audio, dialogue, or motion capture, occur for relatively short periods of time. Efficient employment of these roles requires either large development house with multiple simultaneous", "The game production has similar distribution methods to those of music and film industries. The publisher's marketing team targets the game for a specific market and then advertises it. The team advises the developer on target demographics and market trends, as well as suggests specific features. The game is then advertised and the game's high concept is incorporated into the promotional material, ranging from magazine ads to TV spots. Communication between developer and marketing is important. The length and purpose of a game demo depends on the purpose of the demo and target audience. A game's demo may range between a few seconds (such as clips or screenshots) to hours of gameplay. The demo is usually intended for journalists, buyers, trade shows, general public, or internal employees (who, for example, may need to familiarize with the game to promote it). Demos are produced with public relations, marketing and sales in mind, maximizing the presentation effectiveness.", "As a game nears completion, the publisher will want to showcase a demo of the title at trade shows. Many games have a \"Trade Show demo\" scheduled. The major annual trade shows are, for example, Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3) or Penny Arcade Expo (PAX). E3 is the largest show in", "A game created in one language may also be published in other countries which speak a different language. For that region, the developers may want to translate the game to make it more accessible. For example, some games created for PlayStation Vita were initially published in Japanese language, like \"Soul Sacrifice\". Non-native speakers of the game's original language may have to wait for the translation of the game to their language. But most modern big-budget games take localization into account during the development process and the games are released in several different languages simultaneously. Localization is the process of translating the language assets in a game into other languages. By localizing games, they increase their level of accessibility where games could help to expend the international markets effectively. Game localization is generally known as language translations yet a", "Independent games or \"indie games\" are produced by individuals and small teams with no large-scale developer or publisher affiliations. Indie developers generally rely on Internet distribution schemes. Many hobbyist indie developers create mods of existing games. Indie developers are credited for creative game ideas (for example, \"Darwinia\", \"\", \"World of Goo\"). Current economic viability of indie development is questionable, however in recent years internet", "The video game industry (formally referred to as interactive entertainment) is the economic sector involved with the development, marketing and sale of video games. The industry sports several unique approaches.", "Game development culture always has been and continues to be very casual by normal business standards. Many game developers are strongly individualistic", "", "In the United States, in the early history of video game development, the prominent locale for game development was the corridor from San Francisco to Silicon Valley in California. Most new developers in the US open near such \"hot beds\". At present, many large publishers still operate there, such as: Activision Blizzard, Capcom Entertainment, Disney Interactive, Eidos Interactive, Electronic Arts, Foundation 9, LucasArts Entertainment, Namco Bandai Games, Sega of America, Sony Computer Entertainment America, THQ. However, due to the nature of game development, many publishers are present in other regions, such as Big Fish Games (Washington), GarageGames (Oregon), Majesco Entertainment (New Jersey), Microsoft Corporation (Washington), Nintendo of America (Washington), Take-Two Interactive (New York), SouthPeak Games (Virginia).", "Many universities and design schools are offering classes specifically focused on game development. Some have built strategic alliances with major game development companies. These alliances ensure that students have access to the latest technologies and are provided the opportunity to find jobs within the", "Video game industry employment is fairly volatile, similar to other artistic industries including television, music, etc. Scores of game development studios crop up, work on one game, and then quickly go under. This may be one reason why game developers tend to congregate geographically; if their current" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Singles." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the United States, \"Movement in Still Life\" was entirely revamped for an American audience. This version edits every track by a few minutes and appears in an unmixed format with pauses between songs. The track listing was also re-arranged: original closer \"Satellite\" was moved to the middle of the record and was replaced by hip hop track \"Love on Haight Street\", while the album's opening was also moved to the centre of the record, and was replaced by \"Madskills Mic-Chekka\" and the US single \"Never Gonna Come Back Down\", which featured Mike Doughty of Soul Coughing on vocals. \"Ride\", \"The Hip Hop Phenomenon\", \"Giving Up the Ghost\" and \"Namistai\" were replaced with \"Shame\" and \"Smartbomb\"; the latter of which would be sampled for *NSYNC's international hit \"Pop\", which was also produced by BT. The Australian version of \"Movement in Still Life\" uses the UK track listing, but replaces \"The Hip Hop Phenomenon\" with \"Never Gonna Come Back Down\", mixing it into its surrounding tracks with transitions. There exists two versions on vinyl: a double-LP version containing a variant of the UK track listing, and a quadruple-LP version featuring eight tracks, with one song per side; this second version wholly features extended mixes. Several of these extended mixes were later added to a Special Edition double-CD set from Hong Kong, which also included other extended mixes.", "\"Movement in Still Life\" ties \"These Hopeful Machines\" with the most singles BT ever released from one album, largely due to the differences between the UK and US versions. Tracks like \"Godspeed\" and \"Mercury and Solace\" did well in the UK, but would not fare well on US radio, where \"Never Gonna Come Back Down\" and \"Shame\" performed well on American alternative rock stations. \"Smartbomb\" was used in several films, most notably in \"3000 Miles to Graceland\", and was used in the video game \"FreQuency\". The Plump DJs remix of \"Smartbomb\" and \"Hip Hop Phenomenon\" were featured in the video game \"SSX Tricky\". The Plump DJs remix also appears in \"Wipeout Fusion\". A remix of \"Never Gonna Come Back Down\" was featured in \"FIFA Football 2002\". \"Ride\" was originally released in 1998 as a single by 2 Phat Cunts, a group comprising BT and Sasha. The track \"Satellite\" contains excerpts from the crew of NASA space shuttle mission STS-51-A during their post-mission press conference." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The peloton travels as an integrated unit (similar in some respects to birds flying in formation) with each rider making slight adjustments in response to their adjacent riders (particularly the rider in front of them). Riders at the front are fully exposed to wind resistance, hence experience much higher fatigue loads. After a period of time at the front, they will manoeuvre farther back in the peloton to recover. With sufficient room to manoeuvre, the peloton appears in time lapse as a fluid cloud, with an endless stream of riders pushing from the back through to the leading edge, then falling away. The shape or formation of the peloton changes according to many factors. When two or more groups of riders have reason to contest control of the peloton, several lines may form, each seeking to impose debilitating fatigue on the other teams. Fatigue is a decisive factor in the outcome of every race. A strong headwind or a hard effort tends to spread out or string out the riders into a long narrow formation, sometimes single file. A slow pace or brisk tailwind greatly relieves the fatigue penalty for riding in a formation that fills the road from one side to the other, and in these situations riders ride side by side. While the riders at the very front encounter the greatest air resistance (and also those on the windward side when there is a significant crosswind), those behind the first few riders near the front enjoy critical advantages. Being close to the front means that the rider can see and react to attacks from competitors, and changes in position, with far less effort. Gaps sometimes form in the peloton, and being close to the front reduces the risk of getting caught in the rear group if a break occurs in the peloton, for example, after a crash. Riders near the front are much less likely to have delays due to involvement in crashes. There is increasing risk of delays or injury from involvement in crashes as one falls farther back in the peloton. In addition, riders are increasingly affected by the accordion effect (aka elastic band/concertina/slinky effect) in which a change in speed becomes amplified as it propagates to the back of the peloton. The riders following must anticipate and brake early to avoid collisions when the peloton slows. Touching wheels for even a moment normally results in a crash, which spreads across the field in chain reaction as the densely packed riders cannot avoid hitting downed riders and bikes. The entire peloton behind the crash may be stopped. Being close to the front is also critical in strong crosswind conditions. Cross winds create a significant fatigue penalty for everyone, unless riders form moving groups called echelons in which riders collaborate to form a 'paceline' in a racetrack pattern angled across the road, with the leading rider on the upwind side of the road. Riders for a paceline, such as an echelon, sequentially change positions at short intervals so that no one rider must long accumulate excessive fatigue from facing maximum wind resistance at the leading edge. Echelons are necessarily limited in size by the roadway's width. When a large peloton is exposed to a significant crosswind on a narrow road, the peloton cannot avoid breaking into a number of small echelons. Teams aware of wind conditions ahead, strong enough to move to the front, well experienced in echelon riding, can gain an important time advantage in these circumstances. It is critical for riders in contention to win a race to remain near (but not at) the front of the peloton, especially when approaching sharp turns that require braking. Resuming pace after a sharp turn (especially into wind) routinely causes division in a peloton. Once a division occurs, if the will and collective strength of those wisely placed at the front is greater than those behind, the gap between the groups will remain (or increase) to the end of the race, because the extra air resistance for a single rider attempting to move forward to reach the front group imposes an extravagant fatigue penalty, as compared to those who remained aerodynamically protected in the peloton. This is particularly true at high speed on flat roads. When a team maneuvers to the front of the peloton, it has placed itself in position to dictate the tempo of the race. Teams of riders may prefer a faster or slower tempo depending on the team's tactics. Being near or at the front of the peloton is critical when initiating a breakaway. A few strong riders will always attempt to break away from the main peloton, attempting to build such a commanding lead early in the race that the peloton cannot catch up before the finish. Breakaways may succeed when break riders are strong, especially if none of the riders in the break is a danger man (in contention for a win in the overall contest), and if they all pull together as a team. The rider (or riders) who are in the lead and have also successfully broken away from the peloton are referred to as Tête de la Course (a French expression meaning “head of the race”). The peloton will not allow a break with a danger man to get far ahead. Strong teams who want to bring their sprinter into contention for the win come to the front of the peloton and dictate a harsh pace, imposing fatigue on rivals, meanwhile breakaway riders (who individually must spend much more time exposed to the wind than peloton members) sequentially succumb to fatigue and are normally caught. Otherwise successful breaks often fall into disarray just before the finish, where rider calculations regarding personal chances for victory destroy the uneasy break alliance, meanwhile the peloton is catching up quickly. Tactical factors also apply. Team tactics generally involve clustering their members within the peloton in order to maximize their ability to affect the peloton. For example, if a team member is currently in a breakaway group out in front of the main peloton, the remaining team members will normally make no attempt to accelerate the peloton, to maximize the chances of success for their breakaway group rider. Rarely, they may move to the front of the peloton, and actively seek to check the progress of the peloton at a critical moment. This tactic has the best chance of success on narrow roads, with tight turns, where a single team can fill the road from one side to the other. Mountainous courses routinely create significant gaps in the peloton, as the aerodynamic factors are much less important at slower climbing speeds, and effort expended is the key determinant of progress. Under these circumstances strong riders routinely attempt to charge away from the main peloton. There are routinely 2 or 3 subgroups ahead of the main peloton, and 2 or 3 subgroups behind, as riders come to grips with individual limits to endurance at maximum energy output on a particular day. A group of riders behind the main peloton is often called a 'grupetto,' Italian for 'a small group.' While technically every subgroup on the road could bear this appellation, in common usage it refers only to those at the rear of the main peloton, typically fatigued domestiques, along with sprinters striving to survive mountainous stages within the time cutoff, so to race again tomorrow. When a break group's members have all been caught by the peloton, announcers say 'groupo compacto.' Team members make every effort to shield their principal rider from fatigue due to wind, until the last possible moment, so to give their principal rider the best opportunity to win the race. In single stage races, the principal rider is normally the best sprinter. In races involving multiple stages, the principal rider is called the GC (General Classification) candidate. Those hired to usher the GC candidate (or sprinter) to the finish are called 'domestiques' (after the French word for servants). In races where the finish is on flat roads, within a few kilometers from the finish, strong teams form into lines, with their principal sprint contender at the rear. The leading rider of each contending team drives forward at the highest pace he can achieve, until he reaches the limit of his endurance, when he then pulls off to the side, allowing the succeeding team member in line to drive forward to his limit. The team sprinter slipstreams at the rear to minimize fatigue due to air resistance until the last hundred meters or so, when the sprinter will choose the moment to dash out from behind his leadout rider to charge to the finish at the highest possible speed. In mountainous races, the winner routinely arrives at the finish alone, because only the winner was willing and able to endure that degree of effort and suffering." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Route.", "Rolling stock.", "EuroCity." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The service began on 13 January 1957 using diesel multiple units classified as \"Fernschnellzug\" (FDt 50/51) running from Friedrichstraße station in East Berlin via Berlin Ostbahnhof, Elsterwerda, Dresden Hauptbahnhof, Prague hlavní nádraží and České Velenice/Gmünd to Wien Franz-Josefs-Bahnhof. The FDt trains had already begun running between Berlin and Prague in December 1950, including a through coach connection to Vienna. In 1959 the connection was upgraded as \"Expresszug\" (Ext 54/55). From December 1957 the railcars had first and second class sections. The participating companies \"Deutsche Reichsbahn\" (DR), \"Československé státní dráhy\" (ČSD) and \"Österreichische Bundesbahnen\" (ÖBB) operated one train pair daily, meeting in Czechoslovakia. The service was used primarily by West Berliners, diplomats and Scandinavians in transit through East Germany, connecting from the night trains from Copenhagen (\"Ostsee-Express\") and Stockholm (\"Saßnitz-Express\") via train ferry from Warnemünde and Sassnitz resp., and shuttle trains from Zoologischer Garten station in West Berlin. In the dining car, passengers could pay using Deutschark, East German mark, Czechoslovak koruna, and Austrian schilling. In Czechoslovakia trains originally ran on the historic Emperor Franz Joseph Railway line via Tábor to the border with Austria at České Velenice, later rerouted via the first Czech railway corridor to Brno and Břeclav. In the period of \"Normalization\" from 1969 onwards, domestic travel within Czechoslovakia was for some years completely forbidden, occasionally restricted to journeys between Děčín and Tábor. The original journey via Tábor took over 12 hours to complete from Berlin to Vienna. Later, the mainline via Brno became faster, and the train was rerouted, initially via Havlíčkův Brod and later via Pardubice and Česká Třebová along the Czech international corridor, shortening the journey to 9 hours. In 1975, Wien Mitte station became the terminus due to construction at the Franz-Josefs-Bahnhof.", "Rolling stock was alternately supplied by the railway companies for a period of two years: The DR used a refurbished pre-war DRG Class SVT 137 unit until 1960, succeeded by MÁVAG 495.0 and 498.0 railcars operated by ČSD, and ÖBB 5145 (\"Blue Lightning\") DMUs from 1962 to 1964. In 1966 DR introduced its newly engineered VT 18.16 diesel-hydraulic express railcars, apparently rivalling with the West German DB Class VT 11.5. Renamed Class 175 in 1970, these prestigious trainsets became a flagship in the range of DR services. From 1969 to 1972, ČSD operated its recently developed M 296.1 railcars with a top speed of. The \"Vindobona\" trains continued to be operated by DMUs until it became evident that they were no longer able to cope in terms of capacity. In 1979 they were replaced by a composition comprising an electric locomotive coupled with individual carriages. The trains then ran as \"Durchgangszug\" (D 275/276) and from 1986 to 1988 services were united with the \"Hungaria\" Interexpress train to Bratislava and Budapest, including Hungarian State Railways (MÁV) railcars and Yugoslav Railways (JŽ) through coaches to Belgrade. In later years trains were hauled by DB Class 101, ČD Class 371 and Class 380, and ÖBB 1216 (EuroSprinter) locomotives.", "After the Revolutions of 1989 and the fall of the Iron Curtain, the railway connection gained new significance. A EuroCity (EC) service from Hamburg to Prague was already inaugurated in 1992 and in the following year, the \"Vindobona\" train also became categorised as EC 172/173. The DR operations were taken over by Deutsche Bahn AG by 1994. With the opening of Berlin Hauptbahnhof on 28 May 2006, trains passed through Berlin via the new North–South mainline. As of 2010, trains ran from Villach Hauptbahnhof to Hamburg-Altona via Klagenfurt, Vienna, Brno, Prague, Dresden and Berlin in about 16 hours. As of 14 December 2014, the EC 172/173 \"Vindobona\" was replaced by the EC 172/173 \"Porta Bohemica\" from Hamburg-Altona to Budapest Keleti, connecting in Prague hlavní nádraží to a Railjet train service via the newly built Wien Hauptbahnhof to Graz Hauptbahnhof and vice versa. Since December 2018 there is a daily direct DB Intercity Express high-speed train (ICE 92/93 \"Berolina\") from Berlin to Vienna via Erfurt, Nuremberg and Linz, as well as a ÖBB Nightjet train with sleeping car (NJ 456/457) via Wrocław, Bohumín and Břeclav. The name \"Vindobona\" has then been reused for the Railjet line connecting Prague, Vienna and Graz (RJ 256/257). After delays due to the COVID-19 pandemic, this route shall be extended to Berlin from 14 june 2020; thus, the historic train connection is reestablished." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Criminal career.", "Western Europe.", "Return to Yugoslavia.", "Yugoslav Wars.", "Early.", "War.", "Post-war fame.", "Kosovo War and NATO bombing.", "ICTY indictment.", "Assassination.", "Trials.", "Theories.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Željko Ražnatović was born in Brežice, a small border town in Lower Styria, PR Slovenia, FPR Yugoslavia. His father Veljko, a descendant of the Ražnatović brotherhood, was born in Rijeka Crnojevića near Cetinje and had taken part in the Partisan liberation of Priština (Kosovo) during World War II. Later on, Veljko served as a decorated officer in the SFR Yugoslav Air Force, earning high rank for his notable World War II involvement. The officer was stationed in Slovenian Styria at the time when his fourth child Željko was born. Infant Željko spent part of his childhood in Zagreb (SR Croatia) and Pančevo (SR Serbia), before his father's job eventually took the family to the Yugoslav capital of Belgrade (SR Serbia), which Ražnatović considered his hometown. Ražnatović grew up in Belgrade with three older sisters in a strict, militaristic household with regular beatings administered by his father. In a 1991 interview he recalled: \"He didn't really hit me in a classical sense, he'd basically grab me and slam me against the floor.\" In his youth, Ražnatović aspired to become a pilot, as his father had been. Due to the highly demanding and significant positions of his parents, there appeared to be very little time in which a bond was able to be established between parents and children. His parents eventually divorced during his teenage years. Teenage Ražnatović was arrested for the first time in 1966 for snatching women's purses around Tašmajdan Park, spending a year at a juvenile detention center not far from Belgrade. His father then sent him to the seaside town of Kotor (SR Montenegro) in order to join the Yugoslav Navy, but Ražnatović had other plans, ending up in Paris at the age of fifteen. In 1969 he was arrested by French police and shipped home, where he was sentenced to three years at the detention center in Valjevo for several burglaries. During this time he organized his own gang in the prison. In his youth, Ražnatović was a ward of his father's friend, the Slovenian politician and Federal Minister of the Interior, Stane Dolanc. Dolanc was chief of the secret police and a close associate of the Yugoslav president, Tito. Whenever Ražnatović was in trouble, Dolanc helped him, allegedly as a reward for his services to the Yugoslav secret state police (UDBA), as seen in the escape from the Lugano prison in 1981. Dolanc is quoted as having said: \"One Arkan is worth more than the whole UDBA.\"", "", "In 1972, aged 20, he migrated to Western Europe. Abroad, he was introduced to and kept contact with many well-known criminals from Yugoslavia such as Ljuba Zemunac, Ranko Rubežić, Đorđe \"Giška\" Božović, Goran Vuković, et al., all of whom were also occasionally contracted by the Yugoslav secret service, and all of whom were since assassinated or otherwise killed. He took the nickname \"Arkan\" from one of his forged passports. On 28 December 1973, he was arrested in Belgium following a bank robbery, and was sentenced to ten years in prison. He managed to escape from the Verviers prison on 4 July 1979. Although Ražnatović was apprehended in the Netherlands on 24 October 1979, the few months he was free were enough for at least two more armed robberies in Sweden and three more in the Netherlands. Serving a seven-year sentence at a prison in Amsterdam, he pulled off another escape on 8 May 1981 after someone slipped him a gun. Wasting no time, more robberies followed, this time in West Germany, where after less than a month of freedom he was arrested in Frankfurt on 5 June 1981 following a jewellery store stickup. In the ensuing shootout with police he was lightly wounded, resulting in his placement in the prison hospital ward, where looser security allowed him to escape again only four days later, on 9 June, supposedly by jumping from the window, beating up the first passerby and stealing his clothing before disappearing. His final European arrest occurred in Basel, Switzerland during a routine traffic check on 15 February 1983. However he managed to escape again within months, this time from Thorberg prison on 27 April. It is widely speculated that Ražnatović was closely affiliated with the Yugoslav security service UDBA throughout his criminal career abroad. He had convictions or warrants in Belgium (bank robberies, prison escape), the Netherlands (armed robberies, prison escape), Sweden (20 burglaries, 7 bank robberies, prison escape, attempted murder), West Germany (armed robberies, prison escape), Austria, Switzerland (armed robberies, prison escape), and Italy.", "Thirty-one-year-old Ražnatović returned to Belgrade in May 1983, continuing his criminal career by opening a number of illegal businesses. In November 1983, six months after his return, a bank in Zagreb was robbed with the robbers leaving a rose on the counter – allegedly Ražnatović's signature from his Western European robberies. Looking to question Ražnatović about his whereabouts during the robbery, two policemen, members of the Secretariat of Internal Affairs' (SUP) Tenth department from the Belgrade municipality of Palilula, showed up in civilian clothing at his mother's apartment on 27 March Street in Belgrade. Ražnatović happened not to be home at the moment, so the policemen introduced themselves to his mother as \"friends of her son looking to return a cash debt they owed him\" and asked the women if they can stick around in the apartment to wait for him to return. His mother phoned him to say that two unknown males waited for him, which was enough for him to clue in that something's amiss. He showed up with a revolver and proceeded to shoot and wound both policemen – shooting the first one on the spot and the other in front of the apartment building as he tried to flee the scene. Ražnatović was detained immediately; however, barely 48 hours later, he was released. The occurrence made it clear to all observers, especially his criminal rivals, that he enjoyed protection from the highest echelons of the political leadership in SFR Yugoslavia. He spent the mid-1980s running a disco club, \"Amadeus\", together with Žika Živac and Tapi Malešević. Located in the Tašmajdan neighbourhood, the club was reportedly another perk of their contractual work for the security service. Furthermore, Ražnatović could be seen riding around Belgrade in his pink Cadillac and gambling on roulette in casinos all over the country, from Belgrade and nearby Pančevo to Sveti Stefan and Portorož. Following a game of poker in a private apartment at Ive Lole Ribara Street in Belgrade, an elevator altercation started with a tenant from the apartment building. Ražnatović reportedly broke the man's arm after beating him with a gun. He could not avoid being charged this time and the trial saw an interesting exchange between him and the judge – during the pre-session identification, Ražnatović stated he was employed by the Secretariat of Internal Affairs. When this was challenged by the prosecutor, Ražnatović produced a document summarizing a mortgage loan he obtained from the Federal State Security for his house at Ljutice Bogdana Street. He ended up receiving a six-month sentence, which he served at the Belgrade Central Prison.", "", "Only days after the Croatian elections in 1990, Ražnatović, who was the leader of the \"Delije\" (football club Red Star Belgrade's Ultras), was present at the away game against Croatian side Dinamo Zagreb at Stadion Maksimir on 13 May 1990, a match that ended in the infamous Dinamo–Red Star riot. Ražnatović and the Delije, consisting of 1,500 people, were involved in a huge fight with the home team's football hooligans. On 11 October 1990, as the political situation in Yugoslavia became tense (see Log Revolution), Ražnatović created a paramilitary group named the Serb Volunteer Guard. Ražnatović was the supreme commander of the unit, which was primarily made up of members of the \"Delije\" and his friends. In late October 1990, Ražnatović traveled to Knin (in Croatia) to meet representatives of the Republic of Serbian Krajina, a Serb break-away region that sought to remain in FR Yugoslavia, as opposed to the Croatian government that seceded. On 29 November 1990, Croatian police arrested him at the Croatian-Bosnian border crossing Dvor na Uni, along with local Dušan Carić, and Belgraders Dušan Bandić and Zoran Stevanović. His entourage was sent to Sisak, and was charged with conspiracy to overthrow the newly formed Croatian state. Ražnatović was sentenced to 20 months in jail. He was released from Zagreb's Remetinec prison on 14 June 1991. It has been claimed that the Croatian and Serbian governments agreed on a 1,000,000 Deutsche Mark settlement for his release. In July 1991, Ražnatović stayed for some time at the Cetinje monastery, with Metropolitan Amfilohije Radović. His group of men, fully armed, were allowed to enter the monastery, where they served as security. His group traveled from Cetinje to the Siege of Dubrovnik. On his return from Dubrovnik, he was again a guest at Cetinje.", "The Serb Volunteer Guard, commonly known as \"Arkan's Tigers\", was organized as a paramilitary force supporting the Serb armies, set up in a former military facility in Erdut. The force, led by Ražnatović and Legija, consisted of a core of 200 men and perhaps totaled no more than 500 to 1,000, but was much feared. It saw action from mid-1991 until late 1995, and was supplied and equipped privately, by the reserves of the Serbian police force, and through capturing enemy arms. When war in Croatia broke out, the unit was active in the Vukovar region. After the Bosnian War broke out in April 1992 the unit moved between the Croatian and Bosnian fronts, engaging in multiple instances of ethnic cleansing by killing and forcefully deporting mostly Bosniak civilians. In Croatia, it fought in various areas in SAO Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Syrmia (Serbian Krajina). Ražnatović reportedly had a dispute over military operations with Krajina leader Milan Martić. In Bosnia, the unit notably fought in battles in and around Zvornik, Bijeljina and Brčko, mostly against Bosniak and Bosnian Croat paramilitary groups. In late 1995 his troops fought in the area of Banja Luka, Sanski Most and Prijedor. In October 1995 he left Sanski Most, as the Bosnian Army reclaimed the city. Ražnatović personally led most of the operations, and rewarded his most efficient officers and soldiers with ranks, medals and eventually products of lootings. Several younger soldiers were rewarded for their actions in and around Kopački Rit and Bijelo Brdo. Ražnatović reportedly sent one of his most trusted men, Radovan Stanišić, to Italy to start a relationship with Camorra boss Francesco Schiavone. According to Roberto Saviano, Schiavone eased arms smuggling to Serbia by stopping the Albanian mobsters' blocking of weapons routes, and helped money transfer into Serbia in the form of humanitarian aid amid the international sanctions. In exchange the Camorra acquired companies, enterprises, shops and farms in Serbia at optimal prices.", "Ražnatović came to serve as a popular icon for both Serbs and their enemies. For some Serbs he was a patriot and folk hero, while serving as a target of hatred and fear to their enemies. Arkan became an untouchable criminal figure in Belgrade and all of the former Yugoslavia. He was really so powerful, so strong financially that no one could do anything about him... In 1993, I learned that Željko Ražnatović, Arkan, had in Belgrade kidnapped and taken to Erdut and there killed Isa Lero... also a man from the criminal underground who had come into conflict with Arkan. I even found a witness to the murder. I publicly accused Arkan. I submitted a report to the police. The police inspectors came to see me. We talked about it. I gave them all the information I had, but then the police inspector told me that they were aware of it but that they were unable to prove it because of the fear among the potential witnesses. So the police were quite well-informed about his criminal activities, but it was very hard to prove anything or to bring charges because his support network was so widespread, and this can be shown through various newspaper articles and so on. In one television statement, I told him when we were debating on TV, that he had pulled a sock over his head more often than I had pulled one on my feet. In the postwar period after the Dayton agreement was signed, Ražnatović returned to his interests in sport and private business. The Serb Volunteer Guard was officially disbanded in April 1996, with the threat of being reactivated in case of war. In June of that year he took over a second division soccer team, FK Obilić, which he soon turned into a top caliber club, even winning the 1997/98 Yugoslav league championship. According to a book by Franklin Foer, \"How Football Explains the World: An Unlikely Theory of Globalization\", Ražnatović threatened players on opposing teams if they scored against Obilić. This threat was underlined by the thousands of veterans from his army that filled their home field, chanting threats, and on occasion pointing pistols at opposition players during matches. One player told the British football magazine \"FourFourTwo\" that he was locked in a garage when his team played Obilić. Europe's football governing body, UEFA, considered prohibiting Obilić from participation in continental competitions because of its connections to Ražnatović. In response to this, Ražnatović stepped away from the position of president and gave his seat to his wife Ceca. In a 2006 interview, Dragoslav Šekularac (who was coach of Obilić while Ražnatović was with the club) said claims that Ražnatović verbally and physically assaulted Obilić players were false. Ražnatović was a chairman of the Yugoslav Kickboxing Association.", "According to chief judge Richard May from the United Kingdom, the ICTY issued an indictment against Ražnatović on 30 September 1997 for war crimes of genocide against the Muslim population, crimes against humanity and grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions. The warrant was not made public until 31 March 1999, a week after the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia had begun, as intervention in the Kosovo War (1998–99). Ražnatović's indictment was made public by the UN court's chief prosecutor Louise Arbour. In the week before the start of NATO bombing – as the Rambouillet talks collapsed – Ražnatović appeared at the Hyatt hotel in Belgrade, where most Western journalists were staying, and ordered all of them to leave Serbia. During the NATO bombing, Ražnatović denied the war crime charges against him in interviews he gave to foreign reporters. Ražnatović accused NATO of bombing civilians and creating refugees of all ethnicities, and stated that he would deploy his troops only in the case of a direct NATO ground invasion. After the U.S. bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade, which killed three journalists and led to a diplomatic row between the United States and the People’s Republic of China, the British \"Observer\" and Danish \"Politiken\" newspapers claimed the building might have been targeted because the office of the Chinese military attaché was being used by Ražnatović to communicate and transmit messages to his paramilitary group, the Tigers, in Kosovo. As neither paper offered any proof for this claim it was largely ignored by the media. Ražnatović showed a small rubber part of the downed F-117A, which he had as \"a souvenir\", to Western journalists during the NATO bombing.", "In March 1999, the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) announced that Ražnatović had been indicted by the Tribunal, although the indictment was only made public after his assassination. According to the indictment Ražnatović was to have been prosecuted on 24 charges of crimes against humanity (Art. 5 ICTY Statute), grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions (Art. 2 ICTY Statute) and violations of the laws of war (Art. 3 ICTY Statute), for the following acts:", "Ražnatović was assassinated, on Saturday, 15 January 2000, 17:05 GMT, in the lobby of Belgrade's elite Crowne Plaza Hotel (at that time InterContinental), a location where he was surrounded by other hotel guests. The killer, Dobrosav Gavrić, a 23-year-old junior police mobile brigade member, had ties to the underworld and was on sick leave at the time. He walked up alone toward his target from behind. Ražnatović was sitting and chatting with two friends and, according to BBC Radio, was filling out a betting slip. Gavrić waited for a few minutes, calmly walked up behind the party, and rapidly fired a succession of bullets from his CZ-99 pistol. Ražnatović was shot in his left eye and lapsed into a coma on the spot. His bodyguard Zvonko Mateović put him into a car, and rushed him to a hospital, but he died on the way. According to his widow, Svetlana, Ražnatović died in her arms as they were driving to the hospital. His companions Milenko Mandić, a business manager, and Dragan Garić, a police inspector, were also shot to death by Gavrić, who in turn was shot and wounded by Mateović. A female bystander was seriously wounded in the shootout as well. After complicated surgery, Gavrić survived, but was disabled and confined to a wheelchair as the result of a spinal wound. A memorial ceremony in Ražnatović's honour was held on 19 January 2000 with writer Branislav Crnčević, Yugoslav Left (JUL) official Aleksandar Vulin, singers Oliver Mandić, Toni Montano, and Zoran Kalezić, along with the entire first team of FK Obilić with club director Dragoslav Šekularac in attendance. Željko Ražnatović was buried at the Belgrade New Cemetery with military honours by his volunteers and with funeral rites on 20 January 2000. Around 10,000 people attended the funeral.", "Dobrosav Gavrić pleaded innocent but was convicted and sentenced to 19 years in prison. His accomplices received from 3 to 15 years each, after a year-long trial in 2002. However the district court verdict was overturned by the Supreme Court because of \"lack of evidence and vagueness of the first trial process\". A new trial was conducted in 2006, ending on 9 October 2006 with guilty verdicts upheld for Gavrić as well as his accomplices, Milan Đuričić and Dragan Nikolić. Each man was sentenced to 30 years in prison.", "NPR reported that Ražnatović simply knew too much when war crimes trials were becoming a reality for the Milošević regime. Former French Intelligence Officer Pierre-Henri Bunel suggested that \"the executors of the political dirty work for the White House\", who may have used Ražnatović as a puppet, were fearful of the disclosure of revelations. Bunel corroborates his claim by indicating that \"... c'est justement parce qu'on ne le cherche pas où il faudrait qu'on ne trouve pas l'ennemi public numéro 1 du moment\". Ražnatović was, as stated above, on Interpol's Most Wanted list for nearly two decades.", "Željko Ražnatović fathered nine children by five different women. His eldest son Mihajlo was born in Gothenburg, in 1975, from a relationship with a Swedish woman. In 1992, 17-year-old Mihajlo decided to move to Serbia to live with his father. During this time the teenager was photographed wearing the uniform of his father's paramilitary unit during the Yugoslav Wars and according to a Swedish tabloid report the youngster participated in combat operations in Srebrenica. Mihajlo has since lived in Belgrade where he played for the Red Star Belgrade ice-hockey club off and on between 2000 and 2009, also representing Serbia-Montenegro on the national team level between 2002 and 2004. During this time he also ran a sushi restaurant in Belgrade called Iki Bar and dated Macedonian pop singer Karolina Gočeva. He left Serbia after that. In 2013 he was in the news in Serbia again following the conclusion of a court case that had dragged on since 2005 over Ražnatović's failure to meet the repayment terms on a RSD1.1 million car loan he took out in 2002 from Komercijalna Banka. After continually failing to meet his monthly payments, the bank wanted the loan paid off in full in August 2005, and two years later took him to court. In June 2010 he was ordered to pay RSD3.3 million based upon the interest on the original loan. In the end, the verdict stated he owed the bank RSD2.9 million. Ražnatović also fathered two other children out of wedlock. Ražnatović's first wife was Natalija Martinović, a Spanish language professor, with whom he had four children. Their divorce became official in December 1994. All four children decided to carry their mother's surname. Since 1993, Ražnatović had been involved with folk singer \"Ceca\", 21 years his junior. Their lavish wedding ceremony on 19 February 1995 occurred as a day-long media production carried live on TV Pink with different locations and changes of clothing (at different points of the ceremony Ražnatović alternated between World War I Serb military uniform and traditional Montenegrin attire). Ceca bore him two more children. In June 1994, sometime after her separation from Ražnatović, Natalija Martinović and their four children left Yugoslavia and moved to Athens, Greece, where Ražnatović bought them an apartment in the suburb of Glyfada. After Ražnatović's death, Martinović disputed his will, claiming that Ceca, his second wife, doctored it. In May 2000, she sued Ceca over Ražnatović's assets, including the villa at Ljutice Bogdana Street in which he and Ceca lived (and where Ceca continues to reside), claiming it was built with funds from a bank loan Martinović and Ražnatović took out in 1985. The court eventually ruled against Martinović. The court agreed with her assertions that the villa was built with money from a 1985 bank loan taken out by her and Ražnatović, but ruled she had forfeited any rights in future division of that asset when she signed the property over to Ražnatović in 1994 before moving to Greece. In 2012, Ražnatović's son by his first wife, Vojin Martinović, again accused Ceca of falsifying Ražnatović's will. In response, Ražnatović's former associate Borislav Pelević said that the villa at Ljutice Bogdana Street was not mentioned in Ražnatović's will as he had already signed it over to his second wife." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life (1958–1969).", "With Uriah Heep 1969–1976.", "Later career (1975–1984).", "Death and legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "David Byron was educated at Forest School, Walthamstow from 1958-1964, where he excelled at sports and was in the school 1st XI football team. From the mid-1960s to early 1970s, he did session work for a company called Avenue Recordings, singing lead and backing vocals (occasionally along with Mick Box on guitar and Paul Newton on bass). These were cover versions of Top 20 hits and were released on EPs and LPs. His first venture into professional music was with an Epping-based semi-pro band called The Stalkers, which also featured Box. Byron and Box then teamed up to form the band Spice (1967–1969), which also featured Newton on bass and Alex Napier on drums. The band gigged extensively locally under the management of Paul Newton's father and they secured a recording deal with United Artists, which issued the band's only single \"What About The Music/In Love\"; copies of which now fetch around $50 to $100 on the collectors' market. Deciding that the Spice sound would require keyboards, they recruited keyboardist/guitarist/singer/songwriter Ken Hensley, who was Newton's bandmate in The Gods. During this time, Byron renamed the band Uriah Heep from the Charles Dickens novel \"David Copperfield\".", "Byron sang on ten Uriah Heep albums: \"Very 'eavy Very 'Umble\", \"Salisbury\", \"Look at Yourself\", \"Demons and Wizards\", \"The Magician's Birthday\", \"Live\", \"Sweet Freedom\", \"Wonderworld\", \"Return To Fantasy\", and \"High and Mighty\". In 1975, Byron released his first solo album, \"Take No Prisoners\", which also featured fellow Heep members Box, Hensley and Lee Kerslake. Byron also gained a reputation for hard drinking, which eventually led to him being sacked from Uriah Heep at the end of a Spanish tour in July 1976. Hensley reportedly gave the ultimatum \"it's him or me\" to band manager Gerry Bron, citing Byron's increasingly erratic behaviour due to alcohol abuse. Hensley said at the time, \"David was one of those classic people who couldn't face up to the fact that things were wrong and he looked for solace in a bottle.\" Ahead of his dismissal, Uriah Heep had secured John Lawton as replacement singer. Their manager at the time, Gerry Bron, said Byron had been released in \"the best interest of the group\". Bron explained that Byron and the other Uriah Heep members had been in disagreement for some time over fundamental issues of group policy, and that the differences had been finally brought to a head following the band's recent tour of Britain and Europe. \"It was felt by the rest of the group that they could no longer reconcile David's attitude with their own,\" commented Bron.", "Byron recorded three solo albums: \"Take No Prisoners\" in 1975, \"Baby Faced Killer\" in 1978, and \"That Was Only Yesterday\", which was recorded in 1984, one year before his death. During this period, Byron teamed up with former Colosseum / Humble Pie guitarist Clem Clempson and former Wings drummer Geoff Britton to form Rough Diamond. They recorded one self-titled LP for Island Records in March 1977. The album sold poorly and Byron quit. Next, Byron got together with guitarist Robin George to form The Byron Band, which was signed to Creole Records and debuted with the single \"Every Inch of the Way/Routine\" (CR 8). This was followed by the single \"Never Say Die/ Tired Eyes\", before the release of the 1981 album \"On the Rocks\" (CRX 2). However, as with his previous band Rough Diamond, neither critical nor commercial acclaim was forthcoming. Box and Trevor Bolder invited Byron to re-join Uriah Heep in 1981, after Ken Hensley had left, but Byron refused. \"Lost and Found\" is a double album that included demos and live recordings by the Byron Band, which spanned from 1980 to 1982. It also includes a Robin George solo track.", "Byron died of alcohol-related complications, including liver disease and seizures, at his home in Berkshire on 28 February 1985. He was 38 years old. On BBC Radio's The \"Friday Rock Show\" Tommy Vance played \"July Morning\" in tribute. On the \"\"Equator\"\" tour, around the time of Byron's death, Uriah Heep dedicated \"The Wizard\" to him. There were also tributes to him and deceased bassist Gary Thain on the 1998 album Sonic Origami." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life and career.", "Uriah Heep.", "Ozzy Osbourne.", "Later career.", "Health concerns.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Kerslake was born in Winton, Bournemouth, Dorset, England. At age 11, he began playing drums and got his first professional gig with the Gods in 1969, going on to record three albums with the band. He later played with Toe Fat and National Head Band before linking up with Uriah Heep in November 1971.", "Kerslake first appeared with Uriah Heep on their 1972 album \"Demons and Wizards\" and went on to record nine studio records, as well as a live album, with the band before departing in 1978 after the Fallen Angels tour. He also played on David Byron's and Ken Hensley's solo albums, among other efforts during this period. On the \"Firefly\" album he was credited as Lee \"The Bear\" Kerslake, the nickname being a reference to his beard growth and overall solid physical build. After achieving extreme commercial success with Ozzy Osbourne in the early 1980s, Kerslake rejoined Uriah Heep in time for their \"Abominog\" album, regarded as a comeback album for the band by many critics. He would remain with the band until January 2007, appearing on an additional six studio albums, bringing his total contribution to Uriah Heep's output to 17 studio albums, along with several live albums.", "In 1980, Kerslake met ex-Black Sabbath vocalist Ozzy Osbourne by chance in an elevator at the Kings Cross Hotel in Australia. \"He was in one corner with his bodyguard and his manager, and I was in the other corner with mine. Rather funny\". They would soon form the band Blizzard of Ozz with bassist Bob Daisley and guitarist Randy Rhoads, though the band would soon become an Ozzy Osbourne solo project due to a management decision. Kerslake's work can be heard on Osbourne's first two solo albums, \"Blizzard of Ozz\" and \"Diary of a Madman\", as well as the 1980 \"Live EP\" and parts of the 1987 \"Tribute\" live album. Kerslake left Osbourne's band in early 1981 to care for his mother, who had fallen ill. On the \"Diary of a Madman\" notes, Kerslake and bassist Bob Daisley were not credited, with drummer Tommy Aldridge and bassist Rudy Sarzo instead receiving credit. Aldridge has stated of the \"Diary of a Madman\" album, \"I think it's pretty obvious that it's not my drumming on that album. I have never taken credit for that recording and have always given Lee Kerslake, whenever asked or interviewed, the credit he rightly deserves.\"", "In 1998, Kerslake and Daisley filed a joint lawsuit against Osbourne and his wife/manager Sharon, seeking royalties and songwriting credits for their contributions to the \"Blizzard of Ozz\" and \"Diary of a Madman\" albums. The Osbourne camp responded by removing Kerslake and Daisley's performances from the 2002 reissues of both albums and having them re-recorded by bassist Robert Trujillo and drummer Mike Bordin. Due to fan objection, the original bass and drum tracks were restored when the albums were again reissued in 2011. Kerslake is unsure why the Osbourne camp has treated him so negatively: \"The only thing I could ever recall was once Ozzy had asked me to speak to her (Sharon) on his behalf regarding the two shows in New York in one night as Ozzy said 'I can't do two shows in one night - not with my voice!' He told me to tell her. I did as he said. I would have died for Ozzy as we were a band and I loved him as such. Because I broke the news to her, she's hated my guts\", he recalled in 2011. Entertainment attorney Steven Machat, who was involved in the deal Osbourne signed with Jet Records, said in his 2011 book \"Gods, Gangsters and Honour: A Rock 'n' Roll Odyssey\" that Sharon was not happy with the level of creative input that Daisley and Kerslake had in the band and wanted Ozzy to have full control. He surmises this led to the split and any ill-will she has since harboured for the drummer. Album producer Max Norman, who produced both albums, concurs that Daisley and Kerslake made considerable songwriting contributions during their time in the band, while also noting that the Osbourne camp \"might want to dispute that now.\" In 2003 Kerslake became involved in'super group' Living Loud, a hard rock project also featuring bassist Bob Daisley, guitarist Steve Morse and singer Jimmy Barnes. Keyboards player Don Airey made a guest appearance. The group released a debut self-titled CD, featuring covers of several Daisley/Kerslake penned Ozzy Osbourne tracks. In 2003, Kerslake and Daisley's lawsuit was dismissed by the United States District Court in Los Angeles. This dismissal was upheld by the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. Kerslake now performs with his own band the \"Lee Kerslake Band\", guests with various bands and regularly joins ex-Heep members Ken Hensley and Paul Newton in \"Uriah Heep Legends\" In early 2007 it was announced on the Heep website that Kerslake left the band 'due to ongoing health problems'. Kerslake is currently semi-retired because of illness. In 2015 Lee started to record his first solo album \"Eleventeen\" which came from when he used to count as a child and couldn't understand why there wasn't an eleventeen. In 2016 Lee teamed top with Tayla Goodman from London Bridge films who he met dog-walking in Crystal Palace park and together with Pyrojunkies’ Shane Cauldwell, they produced a music video for his solo album \"Celia Seanna\". In 2018 Kerslake and Goodman started making a documentary on Lee's life and his bucket list. Lee insisted that he wanted to leave a legacy for his fans and some money for his wife Sue. The documentary will feature Ian Paice from Deep Purple, Joe Elliott from Def Leppard, Mick Box from Uriah Heep, Nicko Mcbrain from Iron Maiden, and Gene Simmons from Kiss. The documentary is due to be completed by September 2019.", "In December 2018, Kerslake revealed that he is battling prostate cancer, saying that \"the doctor gave me about eight months to live\". He further stated that five years previously, he had been given four years to live. Kerslake's further health complications include psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis and two heart murmurs. Kerslake revealed that it was his final wish to receive the platinum album certifications for the \"Blizzard of Ozz\" and \"Diary of a Madman\" albums that he had worked on, and Osbourne granted that wish. Kerslake wrote a letter to Osbourne, informing him of his ill-health and desire to receive the records. Kerslake subsequently received his platinum plaques. On 14 December 2018, Kerslake joined Uriah Heep onstage at the Shepherds Bush Empire, contributing percussion and vocals to \"Lady in Black\".", "Mercury Records artists" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Etymology.", "Ancient history.", "Roman and early Medieval.", "Late Medieval and early Modern.", "Victorian and Modern.", "Governance.", "Climate.", "Geography.", "Areas of Stirling.", "Demography.", "Culture.", "Religion.", "Economy.", "Transport.", "Sports and recreation.", "Marathon.", "Curling.", "Football.", "Men.", "Women.", "Rugby.", "Basketball.", "Athletics.", "Hockey.", "Cricket.", "Education.", "Freedom of the City." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The origin of the name \"Stirling\" is uncertain, but folk etymology suggests that it originates in either a Scots or Gaelic term meaning the place of battle, struggle or strife. One proposal is that \"Stirling\" derives from Gaelic \"srib-linn\", meaning \"stream-pool\" or similar. Other sources suggest that it originates in a Brythonic name meaning \"dwelling place of Melyn\", with the first element being connected to Middle Welsh \"ystre-\", \"a dwelling\". The name may have originally been a hydronym, and connected to Brittonic \"*lïnn\", \"lake, pool\" (Welsh \"llyn\"). It is often argued that Stirling is the fortress of \"Iuddeu\" or \"Urbs Giudi\" where Oswiu of Northumbria was besieged by Penda of Mercia in 655, as recorded in Bede and contemporary annals, however, Blackness Castle may be a more likely candidate.", "A stone cist, found in Coneypark Nursery in 1879, is Stirling's oldest catalogued artefact. Bones from the cist were radiocarbon dated and found to be over four millennia old, originating within the date range 2152 to 2021 BC. Nicknamed Torbrex Tam, the man, whose bones were discovered by workmen, died while still in his twenties. Other Bronze Age finds near the city come from the area around Cambusbarron. It had been thought that the Randolphfield standing stones were more than 3000 years old but recent radiocarbon dating suggests they may date from the time of Bruce. The earliest known structures in Stirling are now destroyed but comprised two Neolithic Cursus in Bannockburn. The earliest known surviving structure is a fort on Gillies Hill were built by Iron Age people over 2000 years ago. Two structures are known: what is currently called Wallstale Dun on the southern end of Touchadam Craig, and Gillies Hill fort on the northwest end of the craig. The Wallstale structure is later than the Gillies Hill fort and is related in form to brochs, these appear to coincide with the Roman period and there are around 40 or so in the wider area. South of the city, the King's Park prehistoric carvings can still be found. The area is likely associated with the Maeatae and their Early Medieval successors the Miathi. The area sits in the middle of the territory known as Manau. Manau survives in four different place names: Clackmannan (The Stone of Manau); Slamannan (The Plain of Manau); Rathmannan (The fort of Manau) and Cromennane in Balfron (The boundary of Manau). All of these names seem to mark the boundaries of Manau meaning it stretched from Balfron to Fife.", "The castle rock has been strategically significant since at least the Roman occupation of Britain, due to its naturally defensible crag and tail hill: the bedrock on which Stirling Castle was built. However, if the Romans were ever on the current castle site then they didn't leave more than a coin or two. Nevertheless, Stirling enjoys a unique position on the border between the Lowlands and Highlands. Its other notable geographic feature is its proximity to the lowest site of subjugation of the River Forth. Control of the bridge brought military advantage in times of unrest and; excise duty, or pontage dues in peacetime. Unsurprisingly excise men were installed in a covered booth in the centre of the bridge to collect tax from any entering the royal burgh with goods. Stirling remained the river's lowest reliable crossing point (that is, without a weather-dependent ferry or seasonal ford) until the construction of the Alloa Swing Bridge between Throsk and Alloa in 1885. The city has two Latin mottoes, which appeared on the earliest burgh seal of which an impression of 1296 is on record. The first alludes to the story as recorded by Boece who relates that in 855 Scotland was invaded by two Northumbrian princes, Osbrecht and Ella. They united their forces with the Cumbrian Britons in order to defeat the Scots. Having secured Stirling castle, they built the first stone bridge over the ForthOn the top they reportedly raised a crucifix with the inscription: \"Anglos, a Scotis separat, crux ista remotis; Arma hic stant Bruti; stant Scoti hac sub cruce tuti.\" Bellenden translated this loosely as \"I am free marche, as passengers may ken, To Scottis, to Britonis, and to Inglismen.\" It may be the stone cross was a tripoint for the three kingdom's borders or marches; the cross functioning both as a dividing territorial marker, and as a uniting witness stone like in the Bible story in Joshua 22. \"Angles and Scots here demarked, By this cross kept apart. Brits and Scots armed stand near, By this cross stand safe here.\" This would make the cross on the centre of the first stone bridge the Heart of Scotland. The Stirling seal only has the second part and it's slightly different. Apparently the Latin is not first rate having four syllables in \"cruce tuti\" but the meaning seems to be that the Lowland Strathclyde Britons on the southern shore and the Highland Pictish Scots on the northern shore stand protected from each other by their common Christianity. A more modern translation suggests that rather than Briton, bruit might be better read as brute, ie brute Scots, implying a non-Scots identity was retained in Stirling for some time after inclusion into the land controlled by the King of Scots. This more likely happened around 1000 AD. The second motto is: It has been claimed that the \"Bridge\" seal was regarded as the Burgh seal proper, the \"Castle\" seal being simply a reverse, used when the seal was affixed by a lace to a charter. This agrees with a description in an official publication (which spells Bruti with only one letter t). Clearer images are available with different lettering. Sibbald conflated the two mottos into a single rhyme; he gave no indication that he was aware of Boece's work. Stirling was first declared a royal burgh by King David in the 12th century, with later charters reaffirmed by subsequent monarchs. A ferry, and later bridge, on the River Forth at Stirling brought wealth and strategic influence, as did its tidal port at Riverside. Major battles during the Wars of Scottish Independence took place at the Stirling Bridge in 1297 and at the nearby village of Bannockburn in 1314 involving William Wallace and Robert the Bruce respectively. After the Battle of Stirling Bridge, Wallace wrote to the Hanseatic leaders of Lübeck and Hamburg to encourage trade between Scottish ports (like Stirling) and these German cities. There were also several Sieges of Stirling Castle in the conflict, notably in 1304.", "Another important historical site in the area is the ruins of Cambuskenneth Abbey, the resting place of King James III of Scotland and his queen, Margaret of Denmark. The king died at the Battle of Sauchieburn by forces nominally led by his son and successor James IV. During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, the Battle of Stirling also took place in the centre of Stirling on 12 September 1648. The fortifications continued to play a strategic military role during the 18th-century Jacobite risings. In 1715, the Earl of Mar failed to take control of the castle. In January 1746, the army of Bonnie Prince Charlie seized control of the town but failed to take the Castle. On their consequent retreat northwards, they blew up the church of St. Ninians where they had been storing munitions; only the tower survived and can be seen to this day. The castle and the church are shown on Blaeu's map of 1654 which was derived from Pont's earlier map. Standing near the castle, the Church of the Holy Rude is one of the town's most historically important buildings. Founded in 1129 it is the second oldest building in the city after Stirling castle. It was rebuilt in the 15th-century after Stirling suffered a catastrophic fire in 1405, and is reputed to be the only surviving church in the United Kingdom apart from Westminster Abbey to have held a coronation. On 29 July 1567 the infant son of Mary, Queen of Scots, was anointed James VI of Scotland in the church. James' bride, Anne of Denmark was crowned in the church at Holyrood Palace in Edinburgh. The Holy Rude congregation still meet and some 19th century parish records survive. Musket shot marks that may come from Cromwell's troops during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms are clearly visible on the tower and apse of the church. Economically, the city's port supported foreign trade, historically doing significant trade in the Low Countries, particularly with Bruges in Belgium and Veere in the Netherlands. In the 16th century there were so many Scots in Danzig in Prussia that they had their own church congregation and trade is mentioned with that city in Stirling Council's minutes of 1560. Around John Cowane's time there is an account which states there were about 30,000 Scots families living in Poland although that was possibly an exaggeration. Trade with the Baltic also took place such as a timber trade with Norway. After the Jacobite threat had faded but before the railways were established, the Highland cattle drovers would use the Auld Brig on their way to market at Falkirk or Stenhousemuir. Three times a year, tens of thousands of cattle, sheep and ponies were moved together to the trysts in the south with some drovers going as far as Carlisle or even London's Smithfield. There is a record of a four-mile long tailback (of livestock) developing from St. Ninians to Bridge of Allan after a St. Ninians tollman had a dispute.", "In the early 19th century an \"exceedingly low\" cost steamboat service used to run between Stirling and Newhaven or Granton. The coming of the railways in 1848 started the decline of the river traffic, not least because the Alloa Swing Bridge downstream restricted access for shipping. The railways did provide opportunity too with one Riverside company selling their reaping machines as far afield as Syria and Australia. Similarly, in 1861, a company making baby carriages was set up. These prams were exported to Canada, South America, India and South Africa. The Princes Street drill hall was completed in 1908. After the blockades of the World Wars there was some increase in the use of the port including a tea trade with India. However, with normal shipping lanes open, the growth of the railways including The Forth Rail Bridge, left the harbour uneconomical and by the mid 20th century the port had ceased to operate.", "In terms of local government, the city of Stirling is a part of the wider Stirling Council area, which governs on matters of local administration as set out by the Local Government etc (Scotland) Act 1994. The current members of the Council were voted in 2017 for a term of office of 5 years. The May 2017 local government election resulted in the Scottish Conservative party and Scottish National Party each winning nine councillors, while the Labour Party won four seats and the Scottish Green Party won one. However, subsequently one Conservative councillor left the party to sit as an Independent. The Provost of Stirling is Cllr Christine Simpson. For the purposes of the Scottish Parliament, the city of Stirling forms part of the Stirling constituency of the Scottish Parliament constituency. The Stirling Scottish Parliament (or \"Holyrood\") constituency created in 1999 is one of nine within the Mid Scotland and Fife electoral region. Each constituency elects one Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) by the first past the post system of election, and the region elects seven additional members to produce a form of proportional representation. The constituency is represented by Bruce Crawford, MSP of the Scottish National Party. In terms of national government, the city of Stirling forms part of county constituency of Stirling constituency of the House of Commons, electing one Member of Parliament (MP) to the House of Commons of the parliament of the United Kingdom by first past the post system. Stephen Kerr of the Scottish Conservative Party is the MP for Stirling constituency of the House of Commons since defeating Steven Paterson by 148 votes at the General Election in June 2017. Historical voting records can be found in online databases.", "Like most of the United Kingdom, Stirling has an oceanic climate (Köppen \"Cfb\") with mild summers and cool, wet winters. Stirling has some of the warmest summers in all of Scotland, being relatively far away from the cooling effects of the North Sea and the Firth of Clyde.", "Stirling is renowned as the \"Gateway to the Highlands\" and is generally regarded as occupying a strategic position at the point where the flatter, largely undulating Scottish Lowlands meet the rugged slopes of the Highlands along the Highland Boundary Fault. The starkness of this contrast is evidenced by the many hills and mountains of the lower Highlands such as Ben Vorlich and Ben Ledi which can be seen to the northwest of the city. On the other hand, the Carse of Stirling, stretching to the west and east of the city, is one of the flattest and most agriculturally productive expanses of land in the whole of Scotland. The land surrounding Stirling has been most affected by glacial erosion and deposition. The city itself has grown up around its castle which stands atop an ancient quartz-dolerite sill, known as the Stirling Sill, a major defensive position which was at the lowest crossing point on the River Forth. Stirling stands on the Forth at the point where the river widens and becomes tidal. To the east of the city the Ochil Hills dominate the skyline with the highest peak in the range being Ben Cleuch, although Dumyat is more noticeable from Stirling. The Ochils meet the flat carse (floodplain) of the River Forth to the east of the distinctive geographical feature of Abbey Craig, a crag and tail hill upon which stands the 220 ft (67 m) high National Wallace Monument.", "Top of the Town consists of Broad Street, Castle Wynd, Ballengeich Pass, Lower Castle Hill Road, Darnley Street, Baker Street ( formerly Baxters St), St John Street and St Mary's Wynd. These streets all lead up to Stirling Castle and are the favourite haunt of tourists who stop off at the Old Town Jail, Mar's Wark, Argyll's Lodging and the castle. Ballengeich Pass leads to the graveyard at Ballengeich and the Castle Wynd winds past the old graveyard. The Top of the Town from Broad Street upwards is renowned for its cobblestoned roads, and cars can be heard rattling over the cobblestones on the way down. Craft shops and tourist-focused shops are evident on the way up and once at the top, panoramic views are available across Stirling and beyond. All areas Historical place names for Stirling town in 1858-61 were compiled by O.S. map makers.", "The settlement of Stirling had a population of 48,440 in 2012. According to the 2001 census, 52.7% of the population was female compared to 47.2% male. Stirling had both a smaller proportion of under 16s, at 16.7% compared to the Scottish average of 19.2%, and a smaller proportion of those of pensionable age: 17.8% – compared to the Scottish average of 18.6%. The highest proportion of the population, at 24.3%, was concentrated in the 16–29 age group. Stirling also had a higher proportion of non-Scottish born residents at 16.5%, compared to the Scottish average of 12.8%. The population was also slightly younger than the Scottish average of 37 – the median age for males was 34; and the median age for females was 36, to the national average of 39. The population peaks and troughs significantly when the students come and go from the city. Historical records also exist both in book form and in online databases.", "Walking the Marches is a custom probably started in the 12th century. The only way the town's boundaries could be protected was to walk round inspecting them annually. The walk was followed by a dinner. This was traditionally done by the Birlaw men made up from members of the Seven Trades, the Guildry and Council. In 2014 the tradition was revived after an official abeyance of several years. There are about sixteen libraries and two mobile libraries in Stirling. The Smith Art Gallery and Museum is now free to tourists and residents alike. Shearer's 1895 Penny Guide to Stirling and Neighbourhood used to list it under \"How to spend a few hours on a wet day\". The Macrobert Arts Centre has a variety of exhibitions and performances. There are many events at the Tolbooth and The Albert Halls. Stirling has hosted the National Mòd several times: in 1909, 1961, 1971,1987 and 2008.", "There are currently about 20 churches in the city. These include: Church of Scotland Roman Catholic Other churches Islam", "At the centre of a large rural agricultural hinterland that encompasses some of the flattest and most productive land in Scotland, Stirling principally functioned as a market town, symbolised by its Mercat cross, with farmers coming to sell their products and wares in the large agricultural market that was held in the town. Today, agriculture still plays a part in the economic life of Stirling, given its focus at the heart of a large rural area, but to a much lesser extent than previously. With Stirling's development as a market town and its location as the focus of transport and communications in the region, it has developed a substantial retail sector serving a wide range of surrounding communities as well as the city itself. Primarily centred on the city centre, there are a large number of chain stores, as well as the Thistles shopping centre. However this has been augmented by out-of-town developments such as the Springkerse Retail Park on the city bypass to the east of Stirling, and the development of a large Sainsbury's in the Raploch. A major new regeneration project on the site of the former port area and the former Ministry of Defence site, adjacent to Stirling Railway Station, is currently underway. Known as Forthside, it has the aim of developing a new waterfront district linked to the railway station via a new pedestrian bridge. The development comprises retail, residential and commercial elements, including a conference centre, hotel and Vue multiplex cinema, that will ultimately expand the city centre area, linking it to the River Forth, which has been cut off from the city centre area since the construction of the A9 bypass under the railway station in the 1960s. For the first time in 100 years, local people will have access to the banks of the River Forth in the city centre with landscaped public areas, footpaths, cycleways and an improved public transport network. In the service sector, financial services as well as tourism are the biggest employers. The financial services and insurance company Prudential have a large and well-established base at Craigforth on the outskirts of Stirling. In terms of tourism, the presence of such historical monuments as Stirling Castle, the National Wallace Monument and other nearby attractions like Blair Drummond Safari Park, the key role which Stirling has played in Scottish history, as well as the scenery of the area, has bolstered Stirling's position as an important tourist destination in Scotland. The University of Stirling and Stirling Council are two of the biggest employers in the area. Knowledge related industries, research and development as well as life sciences have clustered around the university in the Stirling University Innovation Park, close to its main campus. Other public sector agencies that are major employers in the city include Police Scotland, Scottish Prison Service, NHS Forth Valley and the Scottish Environment Protection Agency. Mauchline ware started producing wooden snuff-boxes in 1790 in Mauchline, Ayrshire. They were produced of the wood from the trees from the Castle craig. Today they are highly collectible. Stirling is home to national construction companies Ogilvie Group, chaired by Duncan Ogilvie, who is listed in the Times Rich List as being worth £35 million. A Bank of Scotland survey in 2009 found that workers in Stirling had the highest average earnings of £716 a week.", "The City of Stirling is home to a large number of commuters but has fewer commuting to work in other areas, than travel into the city. About half of Scotland's population live within an hour's travel time of Stirling. Local bus services to districts within the city are almost completely provided by buses operated by First Scotland East. The surrounding towns, like Bridge of Allan, Alloa, Falkirk and Glasgow via Cumbernauld have services from the bus station. Coaches to many Scottish towns and cities also run regularly. There are also railway links from Stirling railway station, including inter-city rail services to Aberdeen, Dundee, Edinburgh Waverley, Inverness, Glasgow Queen Street, and London King's Cross. Services to Alloa, Bridge of Allan, Falkirk and Dunblane also run. Stirling Council provides some approximate journey times. Working lines include the Highland Main Line, the Edinburgh–Dunblane line and the Croy Line. The station formerly provided direct railway services to Callander and Oban, and to Loch Lomond, over very scenic lines, and a fast service to Dunfermline. Cities with motorways links close to Stirling include Glasgow, via the M80 motorway past Cumbernauld, and Edinburgh, via the M9 motorway past Falkirk. To the north, the M9 provides access to Dunblane with easy links to Perth and further beyond the Central Belt. Stirling has no airport, but there are international airports at Glasgow and Edinburgh which can be reached within an hour. Light aircraft can be chartered at Cumbernauld Airport. Stirling used to have steamboats which carried hundreds of passengers a day. There is currently no working port at Stirling but there are plans to develop the river and the harbour which might include links with towns on the Firth of Forth. Since the Forth is tidal at Stirling, development of pontoon style landing stages could potentially allow river taxis and tourist boats to operate during the summer.", "Stirling is home to professional league teams in football, rugby and cricket.", "The first Stirling Scottish Marathon was held on 21 May 2017.", "The National Curling Academy is located in Stirling Sports Village. It was opened in 2017 by Eve Muirhead. They use facilities linked to The Peak. It was hoped this would increase the chances of British medals at events like the Winter Olympics and Paralympics.", "", "The senior football team, Stirling Albion, play in the Scottish League Two at their home ground at Forthbank Stadium. In July 2010, the Stirling Albion Supporters' Trust successfully took over the running of the club buying out the long-serving chairman, Peter McKenzie, after 14 months of campaigning. This made Stirling Albion the first fully owned community club in the history of British football, after previous attempts made by Manchester United, Liverpool and Rangers.", "Stirling University L.F.C. are the premier women's football team. They play in the Scottish Women's Premier League. Their home ground is The Gannochy Sports Centre at Stirling University.", "Stirling County currently play in rugby's Scottish Premiership Division One.", "Stirling Knights Basketball Team are based at the Peak at Forthbank beside Forthbank Stadium.", "The athletics team Central Athletic Club are based at the University of Stirling.", "The University Stirling Wanderers Hockey Club have also moved to a brand new (international standard) pitch at Forthbank for season 2008–09.", "Next to this pitch there is also the ground of Stirling County Cricket Club, whose pavilion captured an architectural award in June 2009, three years after its opening. Scotland international footballers Billy Bremner, John Colquhoun, Duncan Ferguson, female footballer Frankie Brown and brothers Gary and Steven Caldwell were born in Stirling. So were rugby internationals Kenny Logan, Allister Hogg and Alison McGrandles, jockey Willie Carson, and cricketer Dougie Brown. The University of Stirling is a major centre of sports training and education in Scotland. It was designated as Scotland's University for Sporting Excellence by the Scottish Government in 2008. The headquarters of the Scottish Institute of Sport is a purpose-built facility on the campus which opened in 2002. Also at the university is the Scottish National Swimming Academy, where Rio 2016, Olympic silver medalists and students at the university, Duncan Scott and Robbie Renwick trained. Commonwealth gold medalist Ross Murdoch, who also competed at Rio 2106, is a student at the university. The Gannochy National Tennis centre, which is seen as a tennis centre of excellence, was where Andy Murray and his brother Jamie Murray honed their skills as juniors. Gordon Reid, wheel chair Olympic gold medalist in 2016, was a tennis scholar at the university. The university men's and women's golf teams are consistently ranked among the best in Europe. The university has a dedicated sports studies department, which is within the Faculty of Health Science and Sport, and is ranked amongst the best in the United Kingdom for its provision of sports facilities, with the maximum 5-star award, shared by 16 other universities in the UK. The University of Stirling also currently hosts the Scottish men's lacrosse champions. Stirling and its surrounding area has a number of 9- and 18-hole golf courses, the largest of which is the Stirling Golf Course, located in the Kings Park area of the city. The Peak, a new Sports Village, was opened in April 2009 to cater for a range of sporting activities. In June 2014, Stirling will become the home of Scottish cricket after an agreement between Stirling County Cricket Club, Cricket Scotland and Stirling Council. It is hoped that the redevelopment of the ground will start at end 2014 with the intention being to upgrade it to international match standards. Scotland will play the majority of their home international games at the ground, starting with the World T20 qualifiers in the summer of 2015. The development will see a new pavilion and indoor training facility built at New Williamfield, the home of Stirling County Cricket Club, with Cricket Scotland relocating its headquarters from the National Cricket Academy at Ravelston, Edinburgh.", "The University of Stirling opened in 1967 on a greenfield site outside the town. Currently there are 11,100 students studying at the university, of which 7,995 are undergraduates and 3,105 are postgraduates. There are 120 nationalities represented on the university campus, with 19% of students coming from overseas. It has grown into a major research centre, with a large Innovation Park located immediately adjacent to the main university campus. Innovation Park has grown since its initiation in 1993, and is now home to 40 companies engaging in various forms of research and development. In January 2008 it was announced that students from Singapore would be able to gain degrees in retail from the University of Stirling in a tie-up with the country's Nanyang Polytechnic (NYP). Stirling is also home to part of the wider Forth Valley College which was formed on 1 August 2005 from the merger of Falkirk, Stirling and Clackmannan colleges. There are four main high schools in Stirling itself – Stirling High School, with a school roll of 964 pupils, Wallace High School with 958 pupils, St Modan's High School with 912 pupils, and Bannockburn High School in Broomridge with 752 pupils. All the city's secondary school premises have been redeveloped as a result of a Public-private partnership scheme. Stirling also has a Gaelic-medium unit situated in the city's Riverside Primary School which teaches pupils from across Stirling and Clackmannanshire through the medium of Scottish Gaelic.", "The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the City of Stirling." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Modern offset printing.", "Process variations.", "Plates.", "Materials.", "Computer-to-plate.", "Sheet-fed offset.", "Perfecting press.", "Offset duplicators.", "Feeder system.", "Printing–inking system.", "Delivery system.", "Slur.", "Web-fed offset.", "Heatset web offset.", "Coldset web offset.", "Sheet-fed vs. web-fed.", "Inks.", "Ink–water balance.", "Fountain solution.", "In industry." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Lithography was initially created to be an inexpensive method of reproducing artwork. This printing process was limited to use on flat, porous surfaces because the printing plates were produced from limestone. In fact, the word \"lithograph\" historically means \"an image from stone\" or \"printed from stone\". The first rotary offset lithographic printing press was created in England and patented in 1875 by Robert Barclay. This development combined mid-19th century transfer printing technologies and Richard March Hoe's 1843 rotary printing press—a press that used a metal cylinder instead of a flat stone. The offset cylinder was covered with specially treated cardboard that transferred the printed image from the stone to the surface of the metal. Later, the cardboard covering of the offset cylinder was changed to rubber, which is still the most commonly used material. As the 19th century closed and photography became popular, many lithographic firms went out of business. Photoengraving, a process that used halftone technology instead of illustration, became the primary aesthetic of the era. Many printers, including Ira Washington Rubel of New Jersey, were using the low-cost lithograph process to produce copies of photographs and books. Rubel discovered in 1901—by forgetting to load a sheet—that printing from the rubber roller, instead of the metal, made the printed page clearer and sharper. After further refinement, the Potter Press printing Company in New York produced a press in 1903. By 1907 the Rubel offset press was in use in San Francisco. The Harris Automatic Press Company also created a similar press around the same time. Charles and Albert Harris modeled their press \"on a rotary letter press machine\". Newspaper publisher Staley T. McBrayer invented the Vanguard web offset press for newspaper printing, which he unveiled in 1954 in Fort Worth, Texas.", "One of the important functions in the printing process is prepress production. This stage makes sure that all files are correctly processed in preparation for printing. This includes converting to the proper CMYK color model, finalizing the files, and creating plates for each color of the job to be run on the press. Offset lithography is one of the most common ways of creating printed materials. A few of its common applications include: newspapers, magazines, brochures, stationery, and books. Compared to other printing methods, offset printing is best suited for economically producing large volumes of high quality prints in a manner that requires little maintenance. Many modern offset presses use computer-to-plate systems as opposed to the older computer-to-film work flows, which further increases their quality. There are two types of offset printing: wet offset and waterless offset. Wet offset lithography uses a mix of wetting fluids (dampening solutions) to manage ink adhesion and to protect non-image areas. Waterless offset lithography employs a different method where a plate's non-image areas are protected via a layer of ink-repellent silicon. Waterless offset lithography is relatively new. Advantages of offset printing compared to other printing methods include: Disadvantages of offset printing compared to other printing methods include: Every printing technology has its own identifying marks, and offset printing is no exception. In text reproduction, the type edges are sharp and have clear outlines. The paper surrounding the ink dots is usually unprinted. The halftone dots can be hexagonal though there are different screening methods.", "Several variations of the printing process exist:", "", "The plates used in offset printing are thin, flexible, and usually larger than the paper size to be printed. Two main materials are used:", "Computer-to-plate (CTP) is a newer technology which replaced computer-to-film (CTF) technology, and that allows the imaging of metal or polyester plates without the use of film. By eliminating the stripping, compositing, and traditional plate making processes, CTP altered the printing industry, which led to reduced prepress times, lower costs of labor, and improved print quality. Most CTP systems use thermal CTP or violet technologies. Both technologies have the same characteristics in term of quality and plate durability (for longer runs). However, the violet CTP systems are often cheaper than thermal ones, and thermal CTP systems do not need to be operated under yellow light. Thermal CTP involves the use of thermal lasers to expose or remove areas of coating while the plate is being imaged. This depends on whether the plate is negative, or positive working. These lasers are generally at a wavelength of 830 nm, but vary in their energy usage depending on whether they are used to expose or ablate material. Violet CTP lasers have a much shorter wavelength, 405 nm–410 nm. Violet CTP is \"based on emulsion tuned to visible light exposure\". Another process is computer-to-conventional plate (CTCP) system in which conventional offset plates can be exposed, making it an economical option.", "Sheet-fed refers to individual sheets of paper or rolls being fed into a press via a suction bar that lifts and drops each sheet onto place. A lithographic (\"litho\" for short) press uses principles of lithography to apply ink to a printing plate, as explained previously. Sheet-fed litho is commonly used for printing of short-run magazines, brochures, letter headings, and general commercial (jobbing) printing. In sheet-fed offset, \"the printing is carried out on single sheets of paper as they are fed to the press one at a time\". Sheet-fed presses use mechanical registration to relate each sheet to one another to ensure that they are reproduced with the same imagery in the same position on every sheet running through the press.", "A perfecting press, also known as a duplex press, is one that can print on both sides of the paper at the same time. Web and sheet-fed offset presses are similar in that many of them can also print on both sides of the paper in one pass, making it easier and faster to print duplex.", "Offset duplicators are small offset lithographic presses that are used for fast, good quality reproduction of one-color and two-color copies in sizes up to 12′′ by 18′′. Popular models were made by A. B. Dick Company, Multilith, and the Chief and Davidson lines made by A.T.F.-Davidson. Offset duplicators are made for fast and quick printing jobs; printing up to 12,000 impressions per hour. They are able to print business forms, letterheads, labels, bulletins, postcards, envelopes, folders, reports, and sales literature.", "The feeder system is responsible for making sure paper runs through the press correctly. This is where the substrate is loaded and then the system is correctly set up to the certain specifications of the substrate to the press.", "The Printing Unit consists of many different systems. The dampening system is used to apply dampening solution to the plates with water rollers. The inking system uses rollers to deliver ink to the plate and blanket cylinders to be transferred to the substrate. The plate cylinder is where the plates containing all of the imaging are mounted. Finally, the blanket and impression cylinders are used to transfer the image to the substrate running through the press.", "The delivery system is the final destination in the printing process while the paper runs through the press. Once the paper reaches delivery, it is stacked for the ink to cure in a proper manner. This is the step in which sheets are inspected to make sure they have proper ink density and registration.", "Production or impact of double image in printing is known as slur.", "Web-fed refers to the use of rolls (or \"webs\") of paper supplied to the printing press. Offset web printing is generally used for runs in excess of five or ten thousand impressions. Typical examples of web printing include newspapers, newspaper inserts or ads, magazines, direct mail, catalogs, and books. Web-fed presses are divided into two general classes: \"coldset\" (or \"non-heatset\") and \"heatset\" offset web presses, the difference being how the inks dry. Cold web offset printing dries through absorption into the paper, while heatset utilizes drying lamps or heaters to cure or \"set\" the inks. Heatset presses can print on both coated (slick) and uncoated papers, while coldset presses are restricted to uncoated paper stock, such as newsprint. Some coldset web presses can be fitted with heat dryers, or ultraviolet lamps (for use with UV-curing inks), thus enabling a newspaper press to print color pages heatset and black & white pages coldset. Web offset presses are beneficial in long run printing jobs, typically press runs that exceed 10,000 or 20,000 impressions. Speed is a determining factor when considering the completion time for press production; some web presses print at speeds of 3,000 feet (915 meters) per minute or faster. In addition to the benefits of speed and quick completion, some web presses have the inline ability to cut, perforate, and fold.", "This subset of web offset printing uses inks which dry by evaporation in a dryer typically positioned just after the printing units; it is typically done on coated papers, where the ink stays largely on the surface, and gives a glossy high contrast print image after the drying. As the paper leaves the dryer too hot for the folding and cutting that are typically downstream procedures, a set of \"chill rolls\" positioned after the dryer lowers the paper temperature and sets the ink. The speed at which the ink dries is a function of dryer temperature and length of time the paper is exposed to this temperature. This type of printing is typically used for magazines, catalogs, inserts, and other medium-to-high volume, medium-to-high quality production runs.", "This is also a subset of web offset printing, typically used for lower quality print output. It is typical of newspaper production. In this process, the ink dries by absorption into the underlying paper. A typical coldset configuration is often a series of vertically arranged print units and peripherals. As newspapers seek new markets, which often imply higher quality (more gloss, more contrast), they may add a heatset tower (with a dryer) or use UV (ultraviolet) based inks which \"cure\" on the surface by polymerisation rather than by evaporation or absorption.", "Sheet-fed presses offer several advantages. Because individual sheets are fed through, a large number of sheet sizes and format sizes can be run through the same press. In addition, waste sheets can be used for make-ready (which is the testing process to ensure a quality print run). This allows for lower cost preparation so that good paper is not wasted while setting up the press, for plates and inks. Waste sheets do bring some disadvantages as often there are dust and offset powder particles that transfer on to the blankets and plate cylinders, creating imperfections on the printed sheet. This method produces the highest quality images. Web-fed presses, on the other hand, are much faster than sheet-fed presses, with speeds up to 80,000 cut-offs per hour (a cut-off is the paper that has been cut off a reel or web on the press; the length of each sheet is equal to the cylinder's circumference). The speed of web-fed presses makes them ideal for large runs such as newspapers, magazines, and comic books. However, web-fed presses have a fixed cut-off, unlike rotogravure or flexographic presses, which are variable.", "Offset printing uses inks that, compared to other printing methods, are highly viscous. Typical inks have a dynamic viscosity of 40–100 Pa·s. There are many types of paste inks available for utilization in offset lithographic printing and each have their own advantages and disadvantages. These include heat-set, cold-set, and energy-curable (or EC), such as ultraviolet- (or UV-) curable, and electron beam- (or EB-) curable. Heat-set inks are the most common variety and are \"set\" by applying heat and then rapid cooling to catalyze the curing process. They are used in magazines, catalogs, and inserts. Cold-set inks are set simply by absorption into non-coated stocks and are generally used for newspapers and books but are also found in insert printing and are the most economical option. Energy-curable inks are the highest-quality offset litho inks and are set by application of light energy. They require specialized equipment such as inter-station curing lamps, and are usually the most expensive type of offset litho ink.", "Ink and water balance is an extremely important part of offset printing. If ink and water are not properly balanced, the press operator may end up with many different problems affecting the quality of the finished product, such as emulsification (the water overpowering and mixing with the ink). This leads to scumming, catchup, trapping problems, ink density issues and in extreme cases the ink not properly drying on the paper; resulting in the job being unfit for delivery to the client. With the proper balance, the job will have the correct ink density and should need little further adjustment except for minor ones. An example would be when the press heats up during normal operation, thus evaporating water at a faster rate. In this case the machinist will gradually increase the water as the press heats up to compensate for the increased evaporation of water. Printing machinists generally try to use as little water as possible to avoid these problems.", "Fountain solution is the water-based (or \"aqueous\") component in the lithographic process that moistens the non image area of the plate in order to keep ink from depositing (and thus printing). Historically, fountain solutions were acid-based and made with gum arabic, chromates or phosphates, and magnesium nitrate. Alcohol is added to the water to lower the surface tension and help cool the press a bit so the ink stays stable so it can set and dry fast. While the acid fountain solution has improved in the last several decades, neutral and alkaline fountain solutions have also been developed. Both of these chemistries rely heavily on surfactants–emulsifiers and phosphates and/or silicates to provide adequate cleaning and desensitizing, respectively. Since about 2000, alkaline-based fountain solutions have become less common due to the inherent health hazards of high pH and the objectionable odor of the necessary microbiological additives. Acid-based fountain solutions are still the most common variety and yield the best quality results by means of superior protection of the printing plate, lower dot gains, and longer plate life. Acids are also the most versatile; capable of running with all types of offset litho inks. However, because these products require more active ingredients to run well than do neutrals and alkalines, they are also the most expensive to produce. However, neutrals and, to a lesser degree, alkalines are still an industry staple and will continue to be used for most newspapers and many lower-quality inserts. In recent years alternatives have been developed which do not use fountain solutions at all (waterless printing) these inks are also used in offset printing press", "Offset lithography became the most popular form of commercial printing from the 1950s (\"offset printing\"). Substantial investment in the larger presses required for offset lithography was needed, and had an effect on the shape of the printing industry, leading to fewer, larger, printers. The change made a greatly increased use of colour printing possible, as this had previously been much more expensive. Subsequent improvements in plates, inks, and paper have further refined the technology of its superior production speed and plate durability. Today, lithography is the primary printing technology used in the U.S. and most often as offset lithography, which is \"responsible for over half of all printing using printing plates\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Personal life.", "Public Recognition." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Barkla was born in Widnes, England, to John Martin Barkla, a secretary for the Atlas Chemical Company, and Sarah Glover, daughter of a watchmaker. Barkla studied at the Liverpool Institute and proceeded to Liverpool University with a County Council Scholarship and a Bibby Scholarship. Barkla initially studied Mathematics but later specialised in Physics under Sir Oliver Lodge. During the absence of Oliver Lodge due to ill health, Barkla would replace him in lectures. In 1899 Barkla was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge, with an 1851 Research Fellowship from the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851, to work in the Cavendish Laboratory under the physicist J. J. Thomson (discoverer of the electron). During his first two years at Cambridge, Barkla would, under the directions of Thomson, study the velocity of electromagnetic waves along wires of different widths and materials. After a year and a half at Trinity College, Cambridge, his love of music led him to transfer to King's College, Cambridge, in order to sing in their chapel choir. Barkla's voice was of remarkable beauty and his solo performances would always be fully attended. He completed his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1903, and then his Master of Arts degree in 1907. He married Mary Esther Cowell in the same year, with whom he would have two sons and one daughter. In 1913, after having worked at the Universities of Cambridge, Liverpool, and King's College London, Barkla was appointed as a Professor of Natural Philosophy at the University of Edinburgh in 1913, a position that he held until his death. Barkla made significant progress in developing and refining the laws of X-ray scattering, X-ray spectroscopy, the principles governing the transmission of X-rays through matter, and especially the principles of the excitation of secondary X-rays. For his discovery of the characteristic X-rays of elements, Barkla was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1917. He was also awarded the Hughes Medal of the British Royal Society that same year. Barkla proposed the J-phenomenon as a hypothetical form of X-ray behaviour similar to X-ray fluorescence but other scientists were not persuaded that this was a different mechanism from other known effects such as Compton scattering and so the theory was not successful. From 1922 to 1938 he lived at Hermitage of Braid in south-wesr Edinburgh. He died in Edinburgh on 23 October 1944.", "A religious man, Barkla was a Methodist and considered his work to be \"\"part of the quest for God, the Creator\".\"", "The lunar crater Barkla was named in the honour of Charles Barkla. A plaque exists on Barkla's house at Hermitage of Braid in Edinburgh. A commemorative plaque has been installed in the vicinity of the Canongate, near the Faculty of Education Buildings, at the University of Edinburgh. Additionally, a lecture theatre at the University of Liverpool's Physics department, as well as a Biophysics laboratory in the Biological science department, are named after him. In 2012 a gritter in Barkla's home town of Widnes was named in his honour, following a competition run by the local newspaper." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The play.", "Roles.", "Sources.", "Theatrical adaptations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The play was first produced when Molière's company was under the protection of Louis XIV. It was loosely based on the Latin comedy \"Aulularia\" by Plautus, from which many incidents and scraps of dialogue are borrowed, as well as from contemporary Italian farces. The miser of the title is called Harpagon, a name adapted from the Latin \"harpago\", meaning a hook or grappling iron. He is obsessed with the wealth he has amassed and always ready to save expenses. Now a widower, he has a son, Cléante, and a daughter, Élise. Although he is over sixty, he is attempting to arrange a marriage between himself and an attractive young woman, Mariane. She and Cléante are already devoted to each other, however, and the son attempts to procure a loan to help her and her sick mother, who are impoverished. Élise, Harpagon's daughter, is the beloved of Valère, but her father hopes to marry her to a wealthy man of his choosing, Seigneur Anselme. Meanwhile, Valère has taken a job as steward in Harpagon's household so as to be close to Élise. The complications are only resolved at the end by the rather conventional discovery that some of the principal characters are long lost relatives. Satire and farce blend in the fast-moving plot, as when the miser's hoard is stolen. Asked by the police magistrate whom he suspects, Harpagon replies, “Everybody! I wish you to take into custody the whole town and suburbs” (5.1) and indicates the theatre audience while doing so. The play also makes fun of certain theatrical conventions, such as the spoken aside addressed to the audience, hitherto ignored by the characters onstage. The characters of \"L'Avare\", however, generally demand to know who exactly is being spoken to.", "Harpagon's servants with minor roles include Brindavoine, La Merluche, and Mistress Claude, a cleaning woman with no lines. In the last act appears a Magistrate who investigates the theft of the cash-box with his Clerk, who has no spoken part.", "Aside from the example of contemporary misers, Molière drew from a number of ancient and contemporary sources for elements in his \"The Miser\". The character of Harpagon draws from the Latin play \"Aulularia\" by Plautus in which the miser Euclio incessantly changes the hiding place of his pot of gold out of fear of having it stolen, and the miser's fourth-act monologue exaggerating the loss of his pot was the basis for Harpagon's. Also from \"Aulularia\" Molière appropriated the love affair between Élise and Valère, Harpagon's inspection of the hands of La Flèche, and Valère's avowals of love for Élise that Harpagon takes as his confession to theft. \"La Belle Plaideuse\" (1655) of François le Métel de Boisrobert furnished Molière with the father-as-usurer, and the scene in which a lender lends the borrower 15,000 francs, of which 3,000 is in goods; several of these items appear in the list in \"The Miser\". Jean Donneau de Visé's \"la Mère coquette\" (1665) gave Molière a father and son in love with the same young woman.", "Very soon after the play's first production in 1668, versions began to appear elsewhere in Europe. A German translation, \"\", appeared in Frankfurt in 1670. In England Thomas Shadwell adapted Molière's work under the title \"The Miser\" in 1672 and added eight new characters. An even more popular version based on both Plautus and Molière was produced by Henry Fielding in 1732. In Italian \"commedia dell'arte\" there was already a tradition of depicting misers as the Pantaleone figure, who was represented as a rich and avaricious Venetian merchant. However, Molière's play was eventually adapted to opera. Giovanni Bertati's libretto based on the play was set by Pasquale Anfossi as \"L'avaro\" in 1775 and in 1776 it was set again by Gennaro Astarita. Giuseppe Palomba also wrote a libretto based on the work which was set by Giacomo Cordella in 1814. In Russia, too, Vasily Pashkevich based his 18th century comic opera \"The Miser\" on Molière's play. Another musical adaptation in Arabic was pioneered by the Lebanese Marun al-Naqqash (1817–55) as \"al-Bakhil\". This was performed in Beirut in 1847. Jovan Sterija Popović, the founding father of Serbian theatre, based his \"Tvrdica\" (The Miser, 1837) on Molière's play. In this work, the Harpagon figure is represented as a small town Greek merchant. One reason for so many versions must be the acknowledged fact that Molière's humour does not translate well and requires more or less free adaptation to succeed. The history of \"De Vrek\", Taco de Beer's 1863 translation into Dutch provides another notable example. In 1878 he adapted this to Dutch contemporary life and an edition of that version found its way to Indonesia. There it was further adapted into Malay as \"Si Bachil\" and given a contemporary Indonesian background. In 1941 this production in turn served as basis for Tamar Djaja's novel of the same title, by which time the story had become all but unrecognisable. The earliest American production of a play titled \"The Miser\" was of Fielding's version in the years following 1766. A Broadway production of a translation of Molière's play ran for only three nights at the Experimental Theatre in 1936 and there have been several revivals since in one version or another. An audio recording of the 1969 Lincoln Center production was released by Caedmon Records (TRS 338. To date this is the only known English recording of the play and there is no translator listed in the album liner notes. An Australian musical theatre adaptation with the name \"Mistress Money\" premiered in Sydney in 1960. It had book and lyrics by Eleanor Witcombe and John McKellar and music by Dot Mendoza. More recently in Britain, John Coutts' English-Scots version of \"The Miser\" was performed in 2009 under the title \"The Auld Skinflint\". In 2012 the play was made into a Bollywood musical titled \"Kanjoos The Miser\" by Hardeep Singh Kohli and Jatinder Verma and toured the UK." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "SID Karl Ferdinand Braun Prize." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Braun was born in Fulda, Germany, and educated at the University of Marburg and received a Ph.D. from the University of Berlin in 1872. In 1874, he discovered that a point-contact semiconductor rectifies alternating current. He became director of the Physical Institute and professor of physics at the University of Strassburg in 1895. In 1897, he built the first cathode-ray tube (CRT) and cathode ray tube oscilloscope. CRT became the cornerstone in developing fully electronic television. In early 21st century, the flat screen technologies (such as liquid crystal display (LCD), light emitting diode (LED) and plasma displays) began to replace the CRT technology on both television sets and computer monitors. The CRT is still called the \"Braun tube\" in German-speaking countries (\"Braunsche Röhre\") and other countries such as Korea (브라운관: \"Buraun-kwan\") and Japan (ブラウン管: \"Buraun-kan\"). During the development of radio, he also worked on wireless telegraphy. In 1897, Braun joined the line of wireless pioneers. His major contributions were the introduction of a closed tuned circuit in the generating part of the transmitter, its separation from the radiating part (the antenna) by means of inductive coupling, and later on the usage of crystals for receiving purposes. Around 1898, he invented a crystal detector. Wireless telegraphy claimed Dr. Braun's full attention in 1898, and for many years after that he applied himself almost exclusively to the task of solving its problems. Dr. Braun had written extensively on wireless subjects and was well known through his many contributions to the Electrician and other scientific journals. In 1899, he would apply for the patent \"Wireless electro transmission of signals over surfaces\".. Also in 1899, he is said to have applied for a patent on \"Electro telegraphy by means of condensers and induction coils\". Pioneers working on wireless devices eventually came to a limit of distance they could cover. Connecting the antenna directly to the spark gap produced only a heavily damped pulse train. There were only a few cycles before oscillations ceased. Braun's circuit afforded a much longer sustained oscillation because the energy encountered less losses swinging between coil and Leyden Jars. And by means of inductive antenna coupling the radiator was better matched to the generator. The resultant stronger and less bandwidth consuming signals bridged a much longer distance. Braun invented the phased array antenna in 1905. He described in his Nobel Prize lecture how he carefully arranged three antennas to transmit a directional signal. This invention led to the development of radar, smart antennas, and MIMO. Braun's British patent on tuning was used by Marconi in many of his tuning patents. Guglielmo Marconi used Braun's patents (among others). Marconi would later admit to Braun himself that he had \"\"borrowed\"\" portions of Braun's work. In 1909, Braun shared the Nobel Prize for physics with Marconi for \"contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy.\" The prize awarded to Braun in 1909 depicts this design. Braun experimented at first at the University of Strasbourg. Not before long he bridged a distance of 42 km to the city of Mutzig. In spring 1899, Braun, accompanied by his colleagues Cantor and Zenneck, went to Cuxhaven to continue their experiments at the North Sea. On 24 September 1900 radio telegraphy signals were exchanged regularly with the island of Heligoland over a distance of 62 km. Light vessels in the river Elbe and a coast station at Cuxhaven commenced a regular radio telegraph service. Braun went to the United States at the beginning of World War I (before the U.S. had entered the war) to help defend the German wireless station at Sayville, New York, against attacks by the British-controlled Marconi Corporation. After the US entered the war, Braun was detained, but could move freely within Brooklyn, New York. Braun died in his house in Brooklyn, before the war ended in 1918.", "In 1987 the Society for Information Display created the Karl Ferdinand Braun Prize, awarded for an outstanding technical achievement in display technology." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Operational history.", "Variants.", "Licensed versions.", "Conversions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Early models varied in appearance, with open cockpits or sheet metal cabins, fabric covered or open structures, some with four-wheel landing gear. Later model D and Korean War H-13D and E types settled on a more utilitarian style. The most common model, the 47G introduced in 1953, can be recognized by the full \"soap bubble\" canopy, exposed welded-tube tail boom, saddle fuel tanks and skid landing gear. The later three-seat 47H had an enclosed cabin with full cowling and monocoque tail boom. It was an attempt to market a \"luxury\" version of the basic 47G. Relatively few were produced. Engines were Franklin or Lycoming vertically mounted piston engines of 178 to 305 HP (150 to 230 kW). Seating varied from two (early 47s and the later G-5A) to four (the J and KH-4). In April 2011 there were 1068 registered with the Federal Aviation Administration in the United States and 15 in the United Kingdom. Bell 47s were produced in Japan by a Bell and Kawasaki venture; this led to the Kawasaki KH-4 variant, a four-seat version of the Model 47 with a cabin similar to the Bell 47J. It differed from the \"J\" in having a standard uncovered tail boom and fuel tanks like the G series. It was sold throughout Asia, and some were used in Australia. In February 2010, the Bell 47 type certificates were transferred to \"Scott's Helicopter Services\". The sister company that was formed, Scott's - Bell 47, is in the process of starting production of a turboshaft powered version of the Bell 47, the 47GT-6, using a Rolls-Royce RR300 engine and with composite rotor blades, with deliveries planned from 2016.", "The Bell 47 entered US military service in late 1946, and operated in a variety of versions and under different designations for three decades. It was designated H-13 Sioux by the US Army, and during the Korean War, it served a variety of roles, including reconnaissance and scouting, search and rescue, and medevac. The \"Telecopter\" was a Bell Model 47 rented by television station KTLA in Los Angeles, California. It was outfitted with a television camera and it made the worlds first flight by a television news helicopter on July 3, 1958, with its inventor, John D. Silva, aboard. When the television station reported it was receiving no video, Silva exited the helicopters cockpit to climb onto its landing skid while it hovered at 1,500 feet (457 m) so he could investigate the microwave transmitter bolted to its side, where he discovered a vacuum tube had failed due to vibration and hot weather. After Silva fixed the problem overnight, the Telecopter made the world's first successful television news flight on July 4, 1958. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) had a number of Bell 47s during the Apollo program, used by astronauts as trainers for the lunar lander. Apollo 17 commander Eugene Cernan had a nearly disastrous crash into the Indian River in Florida in 1972, shortly before his flight to the moon. The 47 has also served as the helicopter of choice for basic helicopter flight instruction in many countries.", "", "Agusta A.115 1971 Italian prototype of a Bell 47J with an unclad, tubular tail boom, and powered by a Turbomeca Astazou II turboshaft engine Meridionali/Agusta EMA 124 Italian prototype with redesigned forward fuselage. Not produced. Kawasaki KH-4 Japanese production version with redesigned, lengthened cabin, and redesigned control system", "Carson Super C-4 El Tomcat Mk.II Bell 47G-2 modified extensively for agricultural spraying by Continental Copters Inc. First flew in April 1959. Followed by further improved versions." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Currency trading.", "Commodity money." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Freely convertible currencies have immediate value on the foreign exchange market, and few restrictions on the manner and amount that can be traded for another currency. Free convertibility is a major feature of a hard currency. Some countries pass laws restricting the legal exchange rates of their currencies or requiring permits to exchange more than a certain amount. Some currencies, such as the North Korean won, the Transnistrian ruble, and the Cuban national peso, are officially nonconvertible and can only be exchanged on the black market. If an official exchange rate is set, its value on the black market is often lower. Convertibility controls may be introduced as part of an overall monetary policy. For example, restrictions on the Argentine peso were introduced during an economic crisis in the 1990s and scrapped in 2002 during a subsequent crisis.", "Convertibility first became an issue of significance during the time banknotes began to replace commodity money in the money supply. Under the gold and silver standards, notes were redeemable for coin at face value, though often failing banks and governments would overextend their reserves. Historically, the banknote has followed a common or very similar pattern in the western nations. Originally decentralized and issued from various independent banks, it was gradually brought under state control and became a monopoly privilege of the central banks. In the process, the principle that the banknote was merely a substitute for the real commodity money (gold and silver) was gradually abandoned. Under the gold exchange standard, for example the Bretton Woods Institutions, banks of issue were obliged to redeem their currencies in gold bullion, or in United States dollars, which in turn were redeemable in gold bullion at an official rate of $35 per troy ounce. Due to limited growth in the supply of gold reserves, during a time of great inflation of the dollar supply, the United States eventually abandoned the gold exchange standard and thus bullion convertibility in 1974. Under the contemporary international currency regimes, all currencies' inherent value derives from fiat, thus there is no longer any \"thing\" (gold or other tangible store of value) for which paper notes can be redeemed." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Attributes.", "Type of recession or shape.", "Psychological aspects.", "Balance sheet recession.", "Liquidity trap.", "Paradoxes of thrift and deleveraging.", "Predictors.", "Government responses.", "Keynes on Government Response.", "Stock market.", "Politics.", "Consequences.", "Unemployment.", "Business.", "Social effects.", "History.", "Global.", "Australia.", "United Kingdom.", "United States.", "Late 2000s.", "United States." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3" ], "content": [ "In a 1974 \"The New York Times\" article, Commissioner of the Bureau of Labor Statistics Julius Shiskin suggested several rules of thumb for defining a recession, one of which was two consecutive quarters of negative GDP growth. In time, the other rules of thumb were forgotten. Some economists prefer a definition of a 1.5-2 percentage points rise in unemployment within 12 months. In the United States, the Business Cycle Dating Committee of the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) is generally seen as the authority for dating US recessions. The NBER, a private economic research organization, defines an economic recession as: \"a significant decline in economic activity spread across the economy, lasting more than a few months, normally visible in real GDP, real income, employment, industrial production, and wholesale-retail sales\". Almost universally, academics, economists, policy makers, and businesses refer to the determination by the NBER for the precise dating of a recession's onset and end. In the United Kingdom, recessions are generally defined as two consecutive quarters of negative economic growth, as measured by the seasonal adjusted quarter-on-quarter figures for real GDP. The same definition is used by member states of the European Union.", "A recession has many attributes that can occur simultaneously and includes declines in component measures of economic activity (GDP) such as consumption, investment, government spending, and net export activity. These summary measures reflect underlying drivers such as employment levels and skills, household savings rates, corporate investment decisions, interest rates, demographics, and government policies. Economist Richard C. Koo wrote that under ideal conditions, a country's economy should have the household sector as net savers and the corporate sector as net borrowers, with the government budget nearly balanced and net exports near zero. When these relationships become imbalanced, recession can develop within the country or create pressure for recession in another country. Policy responses are often designed to drive the economy back towards this ideal state of balance. A severe (GDP down by 10%) or prolonged (three or four years) recession is referred to as an economic depression, although some argue that their causes and cures can be different. As an informal shorthand, economists sometimes refer to different recession shapes, such as V-shaped, U-shaped, L-shaped and W-shaped recessions.", "The type and shape of recessions are distinctive. In the US, v-shaped, or short-and-sharp contractions followed by rapid and sustained recovery, occurred in 1954 and 1990–91; U-shaped (prolonged slump) in 1974–75, and W-shaped, or double-dip recessions in 1949 and 1980–82. Japan's 1993–94 recession was U-shaped and its 8-out-of-9 quarters of contraction in 1997–99 can be described as L-shaped. Korea, Hong Kong and South-east Asia experienced U-shaped recessions in 1997–98, although Thailand’s eight consecutive quarters of decline should be termed L-shaped.", "Recessions have psychological and confidence aspects. For example, if companies expect economic activity to slow, they may reduce employment levels and save money rather than invest. Such expectations can create a self-reinforcing downward cycle, bringing about or worsening a recession. Consumer confidence is one measure used to evaluate economic sentiment. The term animal spirits has been used to describe the psychological factors underlying economic activity. Economist Robert J. Shiller wrote that the term \"...refers also to the sense of trust we have in each other, our sense of fairness in economic dealings, and our sense of the extent of corruption and bad faith. When animal spirits are on ebb, consumers do not want to spend and businesses do not want to make capital expenditures or hire people.\" Behavioral economics, has also explained some psychological biases that may trigger a recession including availability heuristic, money illusion, and non-regressive prediction.", "High levels of indebtedness or the bursting of a real estate or financial asset price bubble can cause what is called a \"balance sheet recession\". This is when large numbers of consumers or corporations pay down debt (i.e., save) rather than spend or invest, which slows the economy. The term balance sheet derives from an accounting identity that holds that assets must always equal the sum of liabilities plus equity. If asset prices fall below the value of the debt incurred to purchase them, then the equity must be negative, meaning the consumer or corporation is insolvent. Economist Paul Krugman wrote in 2014 that \"the best working hypothesis seems to be that the financial crisis was only one manifestation of a broader problem of excessive debt—that it was a so-called \"balance sheet recession\". In Krugman's view, such crises require debt reduction strategies combined with higher government spending to offset declines from the private sector as it pays down its debt. For example, economist Richard Koo wrote that Japan's \"Great Recession\" that began in 1990 was a \"balance sheet recession\". It was triggered by a collapse in land and stock prices, which caused Japanese firms to have negative equity, meaning their assets were worth less than their liabilities. Despite zero interest rates and expansion of the money supply to encourage borrowing, Japanese corporations in aggregate opted to pay down their debts from their own business earnings rather than borrow to invest as firms typically do. Corporate investment, a key demand component of GDP, fell enormously (22% of GDP) between 1990 and its peak decline in 2003. Japanese firms overall became net savers after 1998, as opposed to borrowers. Koo argues that it was massive fiscal stimulus (borrowing and spending by the government) that offset this decline and enabled Japan to maintain its level of GDP. In his view, this avoided a U.S. type Great Depression, in which U.S. GDP fell by 46%. He argued that monetary policy was ineffective because there was limited demand for funds while firms paid down their liabilities. In a balance sheet recession, GDP declines by the amount of debt repayment and un-borrowed individual savings, leaving government stimulus spending as the primary remedy. Krugman discussed the balance sheet recession concept during 2010, agreeing with Koo's situation assessment and view that sustained deficit spending when faced with a balance sheet recession would be appropriate. However, Krugman argued that monetary policy could also affect savings behavior, as inflation or credible promises of future inflation (generating negative real interest rates) would encourage less savings. In other words, people would tend to spend more rather than save if they believe inflation is on the horizon. In more technical terms, Krugman argues that the private sector savings curve is elastic even during a balance sheet recession (responsive to changes in real interest rates) disagreeing with Koo's view that it is inelastic (non-responsive to changes in real interest rates). A July 2012 survey of balance sheet recession research reported that consumer demand and employment are affected by household leverage levels. Both durable and non-durable goods consumption declined as households moved from low to high leverage with the decline in property values experienced during the subprime mortgage crisis. Further, reduced consumption due to higher household leverage can account for a significant decline in employment levels. Policies that help reduce mortgage debt or household leverage could therefore have stimulative effects.", "A liquidity trap is a Keynesian theory that a situation can develop in which interest rates reach near zero (zero interest-rate policy) yet do not effectively stimulate the economy. In theory, near-zero interest rates should encourage firms and consumers to borrow and spend. However, if too many individuals or corporations focus on saving or paying down debt rather than spending, lower interest rates have less effect on investment and consumption behavior; the lower interest rates are like \"pushing on a string\". Economist Paul Krugman described the U.S. 2009 recession and Japan's lost decade as liquidity traps. One remedy to a liquidity trap is expanding the money supply via quantitative easing or other techniques in which money is effectively printed to purchase assets, thereby creating inflationary expectations that cause savers to begin spending again. Government stimulus spending and mercantilist policies to stimulate exports and reduce imports are other techniques to stimulate demand. He estimated in March 2010 that developed countries representing 70% of the world's GDP were caught in a liquidity trap.", "Behavior that may be optimal for an individual (e.g., saving more during adverse economic conditions) can be detrimental if too many individuals pursue the same behavior, as ultimately one person's consumption is another person's income. Too many consumers attempting to save (or pay down debt) simultaneously is called the paradox of thrift and can cause or deepen a recession. Economist Hyman Minsky also described a \"paradox of deleveraging\" as financial institutions that have too much leverage (debt relative to equity) cannot all de-leverage simultaneously without significant declines in the value of their assets. During April 2009, U.S. Federal Reserve Vice Chair Janet Yellen discussed these paradoxes: \"Once this massive credit crunch hit, it didn’t take long before we were in a recession. The recession, in turn, deepened the credit crunch as demand and employment fell, and credit losses of financial institutions surged. Indeed, we have been in the grips of precisely this adverse feedback loop for more than a year. A process of balance sheet deleveraging has spread to nearly every corner of the economy. Consumers are pulling back on purchases, especially on durable goods, to build their savings. Businesses are cancelling planned investments and laying off workers to preserve cash. And, financial institutions are shrinking assets to bolster capital and improve their chances of weathering the current storm. Once again, Minsky understood this dynamic. He spoke of the paradox of deleveraging, in which precautions that may be smart for individuals and firms—and indeed essential to return the economy to a normal state—nevertheless magnify the distress of the economy as a whole.\"", "The U.S. Conference Board's Present Situation Index year-over-year change turns negative by more than 15 points before a recession. The U.S. Conference Board Leading Economic Indicator year-over-year change turns negative before a recession. When the CFNAI Diffusion Index drops below the value of -0.35, then there is an increased probability of the beginning a recession. Usually the signal happens in the three months of the recession. The CFNAI Diffusion Index signal tends to happen about one month before a related signal by the CFNAI-MA3 (3-month moving average) drops below the -0.7 level. The CFNAI-MA3 correctly identified the 7 recessions between March 1967–August 2019, while triggering only 2 false alarms. Except for the above, there are no known completely reliable predictors, but the following are considered possible predictors. Analysis by Prakash Loungani of the International Monetary Fund found that only two of the sixty recessions around the world during the 1990s had been predicted by a consensus of economists one year earlier, while there were zero consensus predictions one year earlier for the 49 recessions during 2009.", "Most mainstream economists believe that recessions are caused by inadequate aggregate demand in the economy, and favor the use of expansionary macroeconomic policy during recessions. Strategies favored for moving an economy out of a recession vary depending on which economic school the policymakers follow. Monetarists would favor the use of expansionary monetary policy, while Keynesian economists may advocate increased government spending to spark economic growth. Supply-side economists may suggest tax cuts to promote business capital investment. When interest rates reach the boundary of an interest rate of zero percent (zero interest-rate policy) conventional monetary policy can no longer be used and government must use other measures to stimulate recovery. Keynesians argue that fiscal policy—tax cuts or increased government spending—works when monetary policy fails. Spending is more effective because of its larger multiplier but tax cuts take effect faster. For example, Paul Krugman wrote in December 2010 that significant, sustained government spending was necessary because indebted households were paying down debts and unable to carry the U.S. economy as they had previously: \"The root of our current troubles lies in the debt American families ran up during the Bush-era housing bubble...highly indebted Americans not only can’t spend the way they used to, they’re having to pay down the debts they ran up in the bubble years. This would be fine if someone else were taking up the slack. But what’s actually happening is that some people are spending much less while nobody is spending more — and this translates into a depressed economy and high unemployment. What the government should be doing in this situation is spending more while the private sector is spending less, supporting employment while those debts are paid down. And this government spending needs to be sustained...\"", "John Maynard Keynes believed that government institutions could stimulate aggregate demand in a crisis. “Keynes showed that if somehow the level of aggregate demand could be triggered, possibly by the government printing currency notes to employ people to dig holes and fill them up, the wages that would be paid out would resuscitate the economy by generating successive rounds of demand through the multiplier process”", "Some recessions have been anticipated by the stock market declines. In \"Stocks for the Long Run\", Siegel mentions that since 1948, ten recessions were preceded by a stock market decline, by a lead time of 0 to 13 months (average 5.7 months), while ten stock market declines of greater than 10% in the Dow Jones Industrial Average were not followed by a recession. The real-estate market also usually weakens before a recession. However real-estate declines can last much longer than recessions. Since the business cycle is very hard to predict, Siegel argues that it is not possible to take advantage of economic cycles for timing investments. Even the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) takes a few months to determine if a peak or trough has occurred in the US. During an economic decline, high-yield stocks such as fast-moving consumer goods, pharmaceuticals, and tobacco tend to hold up better. However, when the economy starts to recover and the bottom of the market has passed, growth stocks tend to recover faster. There is significant disagreement about how health care and utilities tend to recover. Diversifying one's portfolio into international stocks may provide some safety; however, economies that are closely correlated with that of the U.S. may also be affected by a recession in the U.S. There is a view termed the \"halfway rule\" according to which investors start discounting an economic recovery about halfway through a recession. In the 16 U.S. recessions since 1919, the average length has been 13 months, although the recent recessions have been shorter. Thus, if the 2008 recession had followed the average, the downturn in the stock market would have bottomed around November 2008. The actual US stock market bottom of the 2008 recession was in March 2009.", "Generally an administration gets credit or blame for the state of economy during its time. This has caused disagreements about on how it actually started. In an economic cycle, a downturn can be considered a consequence of an expansion reaching an unsustainable state, and is corrected by a brief decline. Thus it is not easy to isolate the causes of specific phases of the cycle. The 1981 recession is thought to have been caused by the tight-money policy adopted by Paul Volcker, chairman of the Federal Reserve Board, before Ronald Reagan took office. Reagan supported that policy. Economist Walter Heller, chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers in the 1960s, said that \"I call it a Reagan-Volcker-Carter recession.\" The resulting taming of inflation did, however, set the stage for a robust growth period during Reagan's presidency.. Economists usually teach that to some degree recession is unavoidable, and its causes are not well understood.", "", "Unemployment is particularly high during a recession. Many economists working within the neoclassical paradigm argue that there is a natural rate of unemployment which, when subtracted from the actual rate of unemployment, can be used to calculate the negative GDP gap during a recession. In other words, unemployment never reaches 0 percent, and thus is not a negative indicator of the health of an economy unless above the \"natural rate,\" in which case it corresponds directly to a loss in the gross domestic product, or GDP. The full impact of a recession on employment may not be felt for several quarters. Research in Britain shows that low-skilled, low-educated workers and the young are most vulnerable to unemployment in a downturn. After recessions in Britain in the 1980s and 1990s, it took five years for unemployment to fall back to its original levels. Many companies often expect employment discrimination claims to rise during a recession.", "Productivity tends to fall in the early stages of a recession, then rises again as weaker firms close. The variation in profitability between firms rises sharply. The fall in productivity could also be attributed to several macro-economic factors, such as the loss in productivity observed across UK due to Brexit, which may create a mini-recession in the region. Global epidemics, such as COVID-19, could be another example, since they disrupt the global supply chain or prevent movement of goods, services and people. Recessions have also provided opportunities for anti-competitive mergers, with a negative impact on the wider economy: the suspension of competition policy in the United States in the 1930s may have extended the Great Depression.", "The living standards of people dependent on wages and salaries are not more affected by recessions than those who rely on fixed incomes or welfare benefits. The loss of a job is known to have a negative impact on the stability of families, and individuals' health and well-being. Fixed income benefits receive small cuts which make it tougher to survive.", "", "According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), \"Global recessions seem to occur over a cycle lasting between eight and 10 years.\" The IMF takes many factors into account when defining a global recession. Until April 2009, IMF several times communicated to the press, that a global annual real GDP growth of 3.0 percent or less in their view was \"...equivalent to a global recession\". By this measure, six periods since 1970 qualify: 1974–1975, 1980–1983, 1990–1993, 1998, 2001–2002, and 2008–2009. During what IMF in April 2002 termed the past three global recessions of the last three decades, global per capita output growth was zero or negative, and IMF argued—at that time—that because of the opposite being found for 2001, the economic state in this year by itself did not qualify as a \"global recession\". In April 2009, IMF had changed their Global recession definition to: By this new definition, a total of four global recessions took place since World War II: 1975, 1982, 1991 and 2009. All of them only lasted one year, although the third would have lasted three years (1991–93) if IMF as criteria had used the normal exchange rate weighted percapita real World GDP rather than the purchase power parity weighted percapita real World GDP.", "The worst recession Australia has ever suffered happened in the beginning of the 1930s. As a result of late 1920s profit issues in agriculture and cutbacks, 1931-1932 saw Australia's biggest recession in its entire history. It fared better than other nations, that underwent depressions, but their poor economic states influenced Australia's as well, that depended on them for export, as well as foreign investments. The nation also benefited from bigger productivity in manufacturing, facilitated by trade protection, which also helped with feeling the effects less. Due to a credit squeeze, the economy had gone into a brief recession in 1961 Australia was facing a rising level of inflation in 1973, caused partially by the oil crisis happening in that same year, which brought inflation at a 13% increase. Economic recession hit by the middle of the year 1974, with no change in policy enacted by the government as a measure to counter the economic situation of the country. Consequently, the unemployment level rose and the trade deficit increased significantly. Another recession – the most recent one to date – came in the 1990s, at the beginning of the decade. It was the result of a major stock collapse in 1987, in October, referred to now as Black Monday. Although the collapse was larger than the one in 1929, the global economy recovered quickly, but North America still suffered a decline in lumbering savings and loans, which led to a crisis. The recession wasn't limited to only America, but it also affected partnering nations, such as Australia. The unemployment level increased to 10.8%, employment declined by 3.4% and the GDP also decreased as much as 1.7%. Inflation, however, was successfully reduced. Australia is facing recession in 2020 due to the impact of the bush fires and Covid-19 impacting tourism and other important aspects of the economy.", "The most recent recession to affect the United Kingdom was the late-2000s recession.", "According to economists, since 1854, the U.S. has encountered 32 cycles of expansions and contractions, with an average of 17 months of contraction and 38 months of expansion. However, since 1980 there have been only eight periods of negative economic growth over one fiscal quarter or more, and four periods considered recessions: For the past three recessions, the NBER decision has approximately conformed with the definition involving two consecutive quarters of decline. While the 2001 recession did not involve two consecutive quarters of decline, it was preceded by two quarters of alternating decline and weak growth.", "Official economic data shows that a substantial number of nations were in recession as of early 2009. The US entered a recession at the end of 2007, and 2008 saw many other nations follow suit. The US recession of 2007 ended in June 2009 as the nation entered the current economic recovery. The timeline of the Great Recession details the many elements of this period.", "The United States housing market correction (a consequence of the United States housing bubble) and subprime mortgage crisis significantly contributed to a recession. The 2007–2009 recession saw private consumption fall for the first time in nearly 20 years. This indicated the depth and severity of the recession. With consumer confidence so low, economic recovery took a long time. Consumers in the U.S. were hit hard by the Great Recession, with the value of their houses dropping and their pension savings decimated on the stock market. U.S. employers shed 63,000 jobs in February 2008, the most in five years. Former Federal Reserve chairman Alan Greenspan said on 6 April 2008 that \"There is more than a 50 percent chance the United States could go into recession.\" On 1 October, the Bureau of Economic Analysis reported that an additional 156,000 jobs had been lost in September. On 29 April 2008, Moody's declared that nine US states were in a recession. In November 2008, employers eliminated 533,000 jobs, the largest single-month loss in 34 years. In 2008, an estimated 2.6 million U.S. jobs were eliminated. The unemployment rate in the U.S. grew to 8.5 percent in March 2009, and there were 5.1 million job losses by March 2009 since the recession began in December 2007. That was about five million more people unemployed compared to just a year prior, which was the largest annual jump in the number of unemployed persons since the 1940s. Although the US Economy grew in the first quarter by 1%, by June 2008 some analysts stated that due to a protracted credit crisis and \"...rampant inflation in commodities such as oil, food, and steel,\" the country was nonetheless in a recession. The third quarter of 2008 brought on a GDP retraction of 0.5% the biggest decline since 2001. The 6.4% decline in spending during Q3 on non-durable goods, like clothing and food, was the largest since 1950. A 17 November 2008 report from the Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia based on the survey of 51 forecasters, suggested that the recession started in April 2008 and would last 14 months. They project real GDP declining at an annual rate of 2.9% in the fourth quarter and 1.1% in the first quarter of 2009. These forecasts represent significant downward revisions from the forecasts of three months ago. A 1 December 2008 report from the National Bureau of Economic Research stated that the U.S. had been in a recession since December 2007 (when economic activity peaked), based on a number of measures including job losses, declines in personal income, and declines in real GDP. By July 2009 a growing number of economists believed that the recession may have ended. The National Bureau of Economic Research announced on 20 September 2010 that the 2008/2009 recession ended in June 2009, making it the longest recession since World War II. Prior to the start of the recession, it appears that no known formal theoretical or empirical model was able to accurately predict the advance of this recession, except for minor signals in the sudden rise of forecasted probabilities, which were still well under 50%." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin.", "Development." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "There is some discussion as to the real beginnings of this Order. Some authorities, among others the Bollandists, tracing it back to Palestine, where the first members were supposed to have borne arms against the Saracens. On the other hand, however, is the contemporary custom of establishing a religious community at the time of the foundation of a hospital, as well as the fact that in no document is there any trace of the Palestinian Crusaders having gone to Bohemia. Moreover, in a parchment Breviary of the Order, dated 1356, the account of foundation contains no allusion to such a lineage. The Order, as a distinct entity, can trace its origin to 1233 in a fraternity of Franciscan tertiaries attached to a hospital at Prague under a community of Poor Clares, established by St. Agnes of Bohemia, making it the only male religious Order founded by a woman and the only Bohemian-founded Order. It was inspired by the nursing military Orders, such as the Knights Hospitaller. In 1235 the hospital was richly endowed by the Queen of Bohemia, Agnes's mother, with property formerly belonging to the Teutonic Knights, a gift confirmed by Pope Gregory IX (18 May 1236), who stipulated that the revenues should be divided with the Poor Clare monastery. After three years, during which the head of the Order had gone to Rome as the accredited representative of Agnes, now abbess of the monastery, and the Knights had been formally constituted as an Order under the Rule of St. Augustine by Pope Gregory in 1238, Agnes resigned all jurisdiction over the hospital and its possessions into the hands of the Holy See the next year. Twelve days later the pope formally assigned these to the recently confirmed Knights of the Cross with the Red Star, who were to hold them forever in fief to the Holy See, on condition of the yearly payment of a nominal sum.", "Another hospital was built for the Order at the Charles Bridge by Agnes, which was taken as the motherhouse, and to the title of the Order was added \"in latere (pede) pontis (Pragenis)\" (\"at the foot of the Prague Bridge\"). She also petitioned the Holy See for some mark to distinguish these knights from other military Orders, with whom they bore in common the red Crusader Cross. To this was added by Bishop Nicholas of Prague, on the authorization of the pope, a red six-pointed star (10 October 1250), probably from the arms of the first Master General, Albrecht von Sternberg. The Order, which by 1253 had extensive possessions in Bohemia, soon spread to neighbouring lands. The Wrocław house in particular was the centre of many other foundations. It is Bohemia, in an especial manner, to which the knights have rendered incalculable services. Their success in hospital work is evidenced by the rapidity with which their houses multiplied, and the frequent testimony borne to it in documents of kings and emperors. Within two decades after their foundation the care of souls had become as important as their hospital work, so quickly had the majority of lay brothers been replaced by priests. Numerous churches were entrusted to them in all parts of Bohemia, particularly in the western parts, where they formed a bulwark for Roman Catholic dogma against the spread of the teachings of Jan Hus in that region. In the Hussite Wars, the Taborites killed the pastor of St. Stephen's at Prague, and the Hussites destroyed the motherhouse. This brought the Order almost to the point of dissolution, but it recovered sufficiently to offer strenuous resistance to the advance of the teachings of the Protestant Reformation. In the war with Sweden the members of the Order justified their claim to the title of knights during the siege of Cheb, fighting side by side with the townspeople, and sharing with them their last crust. Their hospital at Prague was also the first refuge of other Orders who came to work for souls in Bohemia, among them the Jesuits (1555) and Capuchins (1599). For almost a hundred and fifty years the Archbishop of Prague held the post of Grand Master and were supported almost entirely by the revenues of the Order. Only on the restoration of the possessions of the archdiocese at the end of the 17th century was the Grand Master again elected from among the members, and a general reform instituted. George Ignatius Paspichal (1694–99), the first Grand Master under the new regime, showed great zeal for the restoration of the primitive ideals, especially that of charity. Even to the present day the Prague monastery supports twelve pensioners and distributes the so-called \"hospital portion\" to forty poor people. Many knights have won enviable reputations in the world of learning, among others Mikuláš Kozař of Kozařov (died 1592), a celebrated mathematician and astronomer; Jan František Beckovský (1658–1725), who established at Prague an herbarium which is still in existence. In the 1910s, besides the motherhouse at Prague, there were about 26 incorporated parishes, and 85 professed members, several of whom are engaged in gymnasia and the University of Prague. There were benefices at Hradiště (now part of Znojmo), Vienna (where the Order has been established since the 13th century and still remains in possession of the Kreuzherren Palais), Cheb, Most and other towns, especially in western Bohemia. The Castle of Dobřichovice, near Prague, served as the summer residence of the Grand Master. After the Czechoslovak coup d'état of 1948, the suppression of all Catholic religious orders (including the Knights) began. During the secret police-backed \"Akce K\" (Action K), all men ́s monasteries were closed, property was confiscated and members of the religious Orders were confined. They were tried in kangaroo courts, and, in 1950, 5 of 53 Knights were sentenced to multiple years in prison (36 years altogether). In 1990, after the Velvet Revolution, the Order's headquarters moved back into the monastery next to Prague's Charles Bridge." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Usage.", "Vague noun.", "Surprise.", "Trouble.", "Displeasure.", "Dominance.", "Positive attitude.", "Shortening of \"bullshit\".", "Emphasis.", "The verb \"to shit\".", "\"to shitcan\".", "Backronyms.", "Usage in classical poetry.", "Usage on television.", "Canada.", "United Kingdom.", "United States.", "Usage in radio.", "United States.", "Usage in campaigns.", "Sanitation promotion." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The word is likely derived from Old English, having the nouns \"scite\" (dung, attested only in place names) and \"scitte\" (diarrhoea) and the verb \"scītan\" (to defecate, attested only in \"bescītan\", to cover with excrement); eventually it morphed into Middle English \"schītte\" (excrement), \"schyt\" (diarrhoea) and \"shiten\" (to defecate), and it is virtually certain that it was used in some form by preliterate Germanic tribes at the time of the Roman Empire. The word may be further traced to Proto-Germanic *\"skit\"-, and ultimately to Proto-Indo-European *\"skheid\"- \"cut, separate\", the same root believed to have become the word \"shed\". The word has several cognates in modern Germanic languages, such as German \"Scheiße\", Dutch \"schijt\", Swedish \"skit\", Icelandic \"skítur\", Norwegian \"skitt\" etc. Ancient Greek had'skōr' (gen.'skatos' hence'scato-'), from Proto-Indo-European *\"sker\"-, which is likely unrelated.", "The word \"shit\" (also \"shite\" in British and Hiberno-English) is usually avoided in formal speech. Minced oath substitutes for the word \"shit\" in English include \"shoot\", \"shucks\", \"sugar\", and the euphemistic backronym, \"Sugar, Honey, Ice(d) Tea\". In the word's literal sense, it has a rather small range of common usages. An unspecified or collective occurrence of feces is generally \"shit\" or \"some shit\"; a single deposit of feces is sometimes \"a shit\" or \"a piece of shit\"; and to defecate is \"to shit\" or \"to take a shit\". While it is common to speak of shit as existing in \"a pile\", \"a load\", \"a hunk\", and other quantities and configurations, such expressions flourish most strongly in the figurative. For practical purposes, when actual defecation and excreta are spoken of, it is either through creative euphemism or with a vague and fairly rigid literalism. When uttered as an exclamation or interjection, \"shit\" may convey astonishment or a feeling of being favorably impressed or disgusted. Similar utterances might be \"damn!\", \"wow!\" or \"yuck!\". \"Piece of shit\" may also be used figuratively to describe a particularly loathsome individual, or an object that is of poor quality (\"this car is a \"piece of shit\"\", often abbreviated to \"P.O.S.\"). One recent study argued that \"shit studies\" is a cross-disciplinary meta-field of rhetorical inquiry about human communication and reasoning. The authors explained, \"rhetorical studies has theorized'shit' in terms of the communication of transformation, style, and textual relations,\" particularly in relation to claims of expertise to topics such as \"anti-semitism\" and \"wine-tasting.\" They conclude that bullshit speech is one-sided discourse that is difficult to penetrate because it contains \"ideological barriers to the expectation of mutuality,\" working to deflect critical responses.", "\"Shit\" can be used as a generic mass noun similar to \"stuff\"; for instance, \"This show is funny (as) shit\" or \"This test is hard (as) shit\", or \"That was stupid shit\". These three usages (with \"funny\", \"hard\", and \"stupid\" or another synonym of \"stupid\") are heard most commonly in the United States. Using \"as\" denotes a subtle change in the meaning of the expression; however, the overall intent is basically the same. In the expression \"Get your shit together!\" the word \"shit\" can refer either to one's wits or composure or to one's things, gear, etc. \"He doesn't have his shit together\" means that his affairs are disordered, reflecting not bad luck or forces beyond his control, but his personal shortcomings. To \"shoot the shit\" is to have a friendly but pointless conversation, as in \"Come by my place some time and we'll shoot the shit.\" A \"shithole\" is any unpleasant place to be, much like a hellhole. This usage originates from a reference to a pit toilet. A \"crock of shit\" is something (a situation, explanation, argument, etc.) that is nonsense or fabricated as a deception or evasion; i.e. bullshit. Often abbreviated simply as \"crock\". Example: \"You expect me to believe that?? What a crock!\" The phrase \"built like a brick shithouse\" is used in the United States to compliment a curvaceous woman, but in other English-speaking countries to compliment men with athletic physiques. This meaning originates from the observation that most shithouses are rather ramshackle affairs constructed of plywood or scrap sheets of steel. \"The shitter\" is a slang term for a toilet, and can be used like the phrase \"...down the toilet\" to suggest that something has been wasted. Example: \"This CD player quit working one friggin' week after I bought it, and I lost the receipt! Twenty bucks right down the shitter!\" \"Shit on a shingle\" is U.S. military slang for creamed chipped beef on toast. In polite company this can be abbreviated as \"SOS\".", "\"To shit oneself\" or \"to be scared shitless\" can be used to refer to surprise or fear, figuratively.", "\"Shit\" can be used to denote trouble, by saying one is in \"a lot of shit\" or \"deep shit\" (a common euphemism is \"deep doo-doo\"). It's common for someone to refer to an unpleasant thing as \"hard shit\" (\"You got a speeding ticket? Man, that's some hard shit\"), but the phrase \"tough shit\" is used as an unsympathetic way of saying \"too bad\" to whoever is having problems (\"You got arrested? Tough shit, man!\") or as a way of expressing to someone that they need to stop complaining about something and cope with it instead (Billy: \"I got arrested because of you!\" Tommy: \"Tough shit, dude, you knew you might get arrested when you chose to come with me.\") Note that in this case, as in many cases with the term, \"tough shit\" is often said as a way of pointing out someone's fault in his/her own current problem. It's also common to express annoyance by simply saying \"Shit\". A \"shitload\" of something is a large quantity, especially something unpleasant or disgusting. \"The boss dumped a shitload of extra work for me this week.\" \"Up shit creek\" or especially \"Up shit creek without a paddle\" describes a situation in which one is in severe difficulties with no apparent means of solution (this is simply a profane version of the older saying \"up the creek without a paddle\", profanity added for emphasis or humor). \"Shit happens\" means that bad happenings in life are inevitable. This is usually spoken with a sigh or a shrug, but can be spoken derisively to someone who complains too often about his ill fortunes, or in an irritating manner. \"When the shit hits the fan\" is usually used to refer to a specific time of confrontation or trouble, which requires decisive action. This is often used in reference to combat situations and the action scenes in movies, but can also be used for everyday instances that one might be apprehensive about. \"I don't want to be here when the shit hits the fan!\" indicates that the speaker is dreading this moment (which can be anything from an enemy attack to confronting an angry parent or friend). In polite society, it is often reduced to \"when it hits the fan\". \"He's the one to turn to when the shit hits the fan\" is an indication that the person being talked about is dependable and will not run from trouble or abandon their allies in tough situations. The concept of this phrase is simple enough, as the actual substance striking the rotating blades of a fan would cause a messy and unpleasant situation (much like being in the presence of a manure spreader). Whether or not this has actually happened, or if the concept is simply feasible enough for most people to imagine the result without needing it to be demonstrated, is unknown. Another example might be the saying \"shit rolls downhill\", a metaphor suggesting that trouble for a manager may be transferred to the subordinates. There are a number of anecdotes and jokes about such situations, as the imagery of these situations is considered to be funny. This is generally tied-in with the concept that disgusting and messy substances spilled onto someone else are humorous. For someone to be described as \"shitfaced\" means that person is essentially incapacitated by alcoholic intoxication (i.e. in a thoroughly drunken state).", "\"Shit\" can comfortably stand in for the terms \"bad\" and \"anything\" in many instances (\"Dinner was good, but the movie was shit.\" \"You're all mad at me, but I didn't do shit!\"). A comparison can also be used, as in \"Those pants look like shit\", or \"This stuff tastes like shit\". Many usages are idiomatic. \"I'm shit out of luck\" usually refers to someone who is at the end of their wits or who has no remaining viable options. In polite company the acronym \"SOL\" is commonly substituted for this. \"That little shit shot me in the ass\", suggests a mischievous or contemptuous person. Euphemisms such as \"crap\" are not usually used in this context. The exclamations \"oh shit!\" and \"aw shit!\" are used to express displeasure or embarrassment (sometimes facetiously) with oneself when one makes a mistake, especially a stupid or avoidable mistake. When used to comment on the actions of someone else, they can take on a more humorous quality if the mistake does not result in serious consequences. The term \"piece of shit\" is generally used to classify a product or service as being sufficiently below the writer's understanding of generally accepted quality standards to be of negligible and perhaps even negative value. The term \"piece of shit\" has greater precision than \"shit\" or \"shitty\" in that \"piece of shit\" identifies the low quality of a specific component or output of a process without applying a derogatory slant to the entire process. For example, if one said \"The youth orchestra has been a remarkably successful initiative. The fact that the orchestra's recent rendition of Tchaikovsky's Manfred Symphony in B minor was pretty much a piece of shit should not in any way detract from this.\" The substitution of \"shit\" or \"shitty\" for \"pretty much a piece of shit\" would imply irony and would therefore undermine the strength of the statement. The phrase \"(I don't) give a shit\" can be used when one does not care about something, or has a passive attitude toward said thing, as it denotes indifference. In context, one can say: \"You're offended? Well, I don't give a shit!\" or \"You're telling me? Go find somebody who gives a shit.\" Famously, president Richard Nixon said to aide H. R. Haldeman while being tape recorded in the Oval Office, \"I don't give a shit about the lira.\" He meant he was too busy managing the Watergate affair to consider a crisis in the Italian monetary system. The phrase \"take shit\" means to receive bad or frivolous treatment from someone. Such an abused person might say \"I'm not taking any more of your shit!\" to indicate that they will no longer tolerate such treatment. \"Whale shit\" is sometimes used to describe a person who inspires displeasure or disgust, as in: \"You're lower than whale shit at the bottom of the ocean!\" “You can’t polish shit” is a popular aphorism roughly equivalent to \"putting Lipstick on a pig\" (although \"a turd\" is more commonly used). However, the TV show \"Mythbusters\" showed you can, in fact, polish a turd.", "\"Shit\" can also be used to establish social superiority over someone else. The most common gibe is \"eat shit!\" expressing contempt. Some other personal word may be added such as \"eat my shit\" implying truly personal connotations. As an aside, the above is actually a contraction of the phrase \"eat shit and die!\". It is often said without commas as a curse; they command the other party to perform exactly those actions in that order. However, the term was originally \"Eat, Shit, and Die\" naming the three most basic things humans have to do, and it is common among soldiers. The phrase \"You ain't shit\", expresses an air of intimidation over the addressee, expressing that they mean nothing or are worthless. \"Hot shit\" can be a reference to a matter or thing of supreme importance or urgency (\"This report is really hot shit!\"). It can be used in adjectival form: \"This memo's shit-hot!\". \"Hot shit\" can also refer to a person who either overestimates his own worth or ability, or is highly estimated by others (\"He thinks he's some hot shit!\" or \"He's one hot shit!\"). In polite company the euphemism \"hotshot\" may be substituted when referring to a person. A speaker may show dominance through arrogance using the phrase \"His shit don't stink\". Its grammatical incorrectness highlights the self-importance of the referent relative to the speaker; though \"His shit does not stink\" may come across as being more emphatic due to the mixed diction between its grammatical correctness and the vulgarity of \"shit\". This phrase conveys the haughtiness of the referent and that he considers himself beyond reproach. For example: \"Those pompous assholes in Finance are the ones who ruined the company – their shit don't even stink!\" A variation on this theme might be: \"Everything he shits smells just like roses!\" The expression \"shitkicker\" can be used as a pejorative for a menial worker or other low class person. The word \"shithead\" is a commonly heard insult. Shithead is also the name of a card game. A shithead may also be referred to as a \"shit-for-brains\".", "In North American slang, prefixing the article \"the\" to \"shit\" gives it a completely opposite definition, meaning \"the best\", as in \"Altered Beast is the shit\". Other slang words of the same meaning, such as \"crap\", are not used in such locutions. To wear a \"shit-eating grin\" means the person wearing it may be displaying self-satisfaction, smugness, embarrassment, or mischief. It may also be a playful evasion, as a response to the query \"I'll bet you drank the whole bottle of booze yourself, didn't you?\"", "The expression \"no shit?\" (a contraction of \"no bullshit?\") is used in response to a statement that is extraordinary or hard to believe. Alternatively the maker of the hard-to-believe statement may add \"no shit\" to reinforce the sincerity or truthfulness of their statement, particularly in response to someone expressing disbelief at their statement. \"No shit\" is also used sarcastically in response to a statement of the obvious, as in \"no shit, Sherlock\". In this form the word can also be used in phrases such as \"don't give me that shit\" or \"you're full of shit\". The term \"full of shit\" is often used as an exclamation to charge someone who is believed to be prone to dishonesty, exaggeration or is thought to be \"phoney\" with an accusation. For example: The word \"bullshit\" also denotes false or insincere discourse. (\"Horseshit\" is roughly equivalent, while \"chickenshit\" means \"cowardly\", \"batshit\" indicates a person is crazy, and \"going apeshit\" indicates a person is entering a state of high excitement or unbridled rage.) \"Are you shitting me?!\" is a question sometimes given in response to an incredible assertion. An answer that reasserts the veracity of the claim is, \"I shit you not\".", "Perhaps the only constant connotation that \"shit\" reliably carries is that its referent holds some degree of emotional intensity for the speaker. Whether offense is taken at hearing the word varies greatly according to listener and situation, and is related to age and social class: elderly speakers and those of (or aspiring to) higher socioeconomic strata tend to use it more privately and selectively than younger and more blue-collar speakers. Like the word \"fuck\", \"shit\" is often used to add emphasis more than to add meaning, for example, \"shit! I was so shit-scared of that shithead that I shit-talked him into dropping out of the karate match!\" The term \"to shit-talk\" connotes bragging or exaggeration (whereas \"to talk shit\" primarily means \"to gossip [about someone in a damaging way]\" or to talk in a boastful way about things which are erroneous in nature), but in such constructions as the above, the word \"shit\" often functions as an interjection. The exclamation \"holy shit\" derives its force from the juxtaposition of the sacred with the profane. Unlike the word \"fuck\", \"shit\" is not used emphatically with \"-ing\" or as an infix. For example; \"I lost the shitting karate match\" would be replaced with \"...thefucking karate match\". Similarly, while \"in-fucking-credible\" is generally acceptable, \"in-shitting-credible\" is not.", "The preterite and past participle of \"shit\" are attested as \"shat\", \"shit\", or \"shitted\", depending on dialect and, sometimes, the rhythm of the sentence. In the prologue of \"The Canterbury Tales\", \"shitten\" is used as the past participle; however this form is not used in modern English. In American English \"shit\" as a past participle is often correct, while \"shat\" is generally acceptable and \"shitted\" is uncommon and missing from the \"Random House\" and \"American Heritage\" dictionaries.", "To shitcan someone or something is to dismiss or dispose of casually or unceremoniously, as into a waste basket. Shitcan can also be used as a noun: \"Don't bother; a report like this is gonna go directly into the shitcan.\" It can also refer to being fired from a job: \"The boss is gonna shitcan you if you keep showing up late.\"", "The backronym form \"S.H.I.T.\" often figures into jokes, like \"Special High Intensity Training\" (a well-known joke used in job applications), \"Special Hot Interdiction Team\" (a mockery on SWAT), \"Super Hackers Invitational Tournament,\" and any college name that begins with an S-H (like \"Sam Houston Institute of Technology\" or \"South Harmon Institute of Technology\" in the film \"Accepted\" (2006) or \"Store High In Transit\" in the film \"Kenny\" (2006)). \"South Hudson Institute of Technology\" has sometimes been used to describe the United States Military Academy at West Point. \"The Simpsons\"' Apu was a graduate student at \"Springfield Heights Institute of Technology\". In polite company, sometimes backronyms such as \"Sugar Honey in Tea\" or \"Sugar Honey Ice(d) Tea\" are used.", "Satirist Jonathan Swift wrote a controversial poem The Lady's Dressing Room containing the following lines (115 through 118): \"Thus finishing his grand survey//\" \"Disgusted Strephon stole away//\" \"Repeating in his amorous fits//\" \"Oh! Celia, Celia, Celia shits!\"", "", "In Canada, \"shit\" is one of the words considered by the Canadian Broadcast Standards Council to be \"coarse, offensive language intended for adults\", acceptable for broadcast only after 9:00pm. On the Canadian Showcase television show \"Trailer Park Boys\", characters frequently use the term \"shit\". For example, the fictional trailer park supervisor James \"Jim\" Lahey employs many metaphors with the negative slang \"shit\" bizarrely worked in; in one episode, Mr. Lahey likens Ricky's growing ignorance to that of a \"shit tsunami\", while in another episode, Mr. Lahey tells Bubbles the \"shit hawks are swooping in low\" due to his deplorable behavior and company. The term \"shit\" is also used in the titles of that show's episodes, themselves, e.g., \"The Winds of Shit\", \"A Shit Leopard Can't Change Its Spots\", and \"Never Cry Shitwolf\".", "The first person to say \"shit\" on British TV was John Cleese of the \"Monty Python\" comedy troupe, in the late 1960s, according to his own eulogy for Graham Chapman. However, this is not independently verified. The phrase \"thick as pigshit\" is used in the 1969 BBC play \"The Big Flame\". The word \"shit\" also appears in the British film \"Cul-de-sac\" (1966), which might pre-date John Cleese's use.", "The word has become increasingly acceptable on American cable television and satellite radio, which are not subject to FCC regulation. In other English-speaking countries, such as Canada, the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, Australia, and New Zealand, the word is allowed to be used in broadcast television by the regulative councils of each area, as long as it is used in late hours when young people are not expected to be watching. It has appeared on ABC News' \"20/20.\" \"Shit\" was one of the original \"Seven Words You Can Never Say On TV\", a comedy routine by the American comedian George Carlin. In the United States, although the use of the word is censored on broadcast network television (while its synonym \"crap\" is not usually subject to censorship), the FCC permitted some exceptions. For example: Since that episode, the word (as well as many on-screen depictions of feces, as well as defecation) has become a mainstay of \"South Park\". Various episodes also feature a character, Mr. Hankey, who is a sentient turd. Other Comedy Central series, along with programming on other cable networks including FX, TBS, and as of March 2014, Adult Swim, also regularly employ the word shit. Episodes of \"Graceland\", on the USA Network, do also.", "", "Unlike satellite radio, American terrestrial radio stations must abide by FCC guidelines on obscenity to avoid punitive fines. These guidelines do not define exactly what constitutes obscenity, but it has been interpreted by some commissioners as including any form of words like \"shit\" and \"fuck\", for whatever use. Despite this, the word has been featured in popular songs that have appeared on broadcast radio in cases where the usage of the word is not audibly clear to the casual listener, or on live television. For example: Some notable instances of censorship of the word from broadcast television and radio include:", "", "Using the term \"shit\" (or other locally used crude words) – rather than feces or excreta – during campaigns and triggering events is a deliberate aspect of the community-led total sanitation approach which aims to stop open defecation, a massive public health problem in developing countries." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Population.", "Racial and ethnic makeup.", "American Community Survey.", "Households.", "LGBT population.", "Religion." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 2,695,598 people and 1,194,337 households residing within the city limits of Chicago. More than half the population of the state of Illinois lives in the Chicago metropolitan area. The 2000 United States Census had shown the population density of the city itself was 12,750.3 people per square mile (4,923.0/km2), making it one of the nation's most densely populated cities. There were 1,152,868 housing units at an average density of 5,075.8 per square mile (1,959.8/km2). Of the 1,061,928 households in the 2000 census, 28.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.1% were married couples living together, 18.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.4% were non-families. The median income for a household in the city was $38,625 in 2000, and the median income for a family was $46,748. Males had a median income of $35,907 versus $30,536 for females. Below the poverty line were 19.6% of the population and 16.6% of the families.", "While most of Chicago and its surrounding residential areas are generally regarded as being somewhat racially segregated, the city's unique culture arises from its being a melting pot, with nearly even percentages of European Americans, African Americans, and Latinos as well as sizable populations of Asians. The White, Black and Hispanic communities extend radially outward from the center of the city. The racial makeup of the city in 2010 was 45.3% white (31.7% non-Hispanic white), 32% black, 5% Asian, and 3% from two or more races. The ethnic makeup of the population is 28% Hispanic and 72% belong to non Hispanic background. In 2000, 21.7% of the population was foreign born; of this, 56.3% came from Latin America, 23.1% from Europe, 18.0% from Asia and 2.6% from other parts of the world. Chicago has the fifth highest foreign-born population in the United States. In 2016, the population of Hispanics exceeded that of Blacks to become Chicago's second largest minority group with non-Hispanic Whites representing 32.6% of the population, Hispanics at 29.7% of the population, and Blacks at 29.3% of the population. The large Hispanic population is rather recent, with the segregation between Hispanics and non-Hispanic Whites being low when compared to Blacks and non-Hispanic Whites. Over the years neighborhoods have seen gradual ethnic change with White ethnic neighborhoods like Brighton Park transitioning to Hispanic, while former Latino neighborhoods like West Town transition to majority non-Hispanic White. The vast majority of Chicago Hispanics are of Mexican descent. As of the 2010 Census, 578,100 residents of the City of Chicago, had full or partial Mexican origins. The Chicago metropolitan area has the third largest African American population, behind only New York City and Atlanta. The main ethnic groups in Chicago include Irish, German, Italian, Mexican, Assyrian, Arab, Bangladeshi, Jews, English, Bosnian, Croatian, Bulgarian, Czech, Greek, Black, Korean, Chinese, Indian, Filipino, Lithuanian, Macedonian, Montenegrin, Albanian, Pakistani, Polish, Hungarian, Romanian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Swedish, Ukrainian, Dutch, Belgian, Cuban, Vietnamese, and Puerto Rican. Chicago is also home to 30,000 natives of Iran (mostly Azeri). Chicago has a large Irish American population, with many still residing on the South Side. The early years of Chicago coincided with the significant rise in Irish immigration in the 1830s and 1840s. Some Irish already lived in Chicago when it was incorporated as a city in 1837. In the next few years Irish numbers grew rapidly, particularly after the arrival of refugees from the Great Famine. By 1850 Irish immigrants accounted for about one-fifth of the city's population. Many of the city’s politicians are descendants of this group, including previous mayor Richard M. Daley. The Irish were able to assert themselves in politics due to their large population but also the fact that they knew English and that – thanks to the geographic position of Ireland on the periphery of Europe – they did not have ancestral ethnic rivalries. As the old saying went, \"\"A Lithuanian won’t vote for a Pole, and a Pole won’t vote for a Lithuanian. A German won’t vote for either of them. But all three will vote for a turkey. – an Irishman.\" Only the WASPs hated the Irish, and the WASPs all lived on the North Shore.\"\" The Irish gained entry to Chicago's Fire and Police Departments and have kept family traditions of participation in these units. The Irish laid the foundations for many of the city's Roman Catholic churches, schools and hospitals. The Irish are still very active in the city's politics. Germans have constituted a major portion of ethnic whites in Chicago since the beginning of the city's history. When the Great Plains opened up for settlement in the 1830s and 1840s, many German immigrants stopped in Chicago to earn additional money before moving West to claim a homestead. Those with skills in demand could—and often did—stay. From 1850, when Germans constituted one-sixth of Chicago's population, until the turn of the 20th century, people of German descent constituted the largest ethnic group in the city, followed by Irish, Poles, and Swedes. In 1900, 470,000 Chicagoans—one out of every four residents—had either been born in Germany or had a parent born there. Although their numbers dropped because of reduced emigration from Germany and because World War I had made it unpopular to acknowledge one's German heritage, 22 percent of Chicago's population still did so in 1920. One of the most distinct of these German groups were the Volga Germans, or ethnic Germans having lived along the Volga River in Russia. They largely clustered in Jefferson Park on the city's Northwest Side, coming to the area mostly between the years 1907–1920. By 1930 450 families of Volga German heritage were living in the Jefferson Park area, most of whom originated from \"Wiesenseite\". Chicago also hosts the headquarters of the largest Lutheran body in the United States, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. Poles in Chicago constituted the largest ethnically Polish population outside Warsaw before 1918 when Poland reemerged as an independent state. The city is one of the most important Polish diaspora centers in the 21st century, and every Labor Day weekend the city celebrates at the Taste of Polonia Festival in Jefferson Park. The Southwest Side is home to the largest concentration of Górals (Carpathian highlanders) outside Europe; it is the location of the Polish Highlanders Alliance of North America. The city has one of the largest Assyrian Diaspora populations, with the Assyrian community of Metropolitan Chicago numbering as many as 80,000. Additionally, The Patriarchal see of the Assyrian Church of the East was based in Chicago for several decades up until 2015 when it was moved to Erbil. The city is the home to a large Romanian American community with more than 100,000. Polish people have been prevalent from the city's early history, but the largest waves of immigration were in the late 19th and early 20th centuries; they have been influential in the economic and social development of Chicago. This is one of the most important centers of Polonia. The Taste of Polonia Festival in Jefferson Park celebrates Polish culture annually on Labor Day weekend. The Southwest Side is home to the largest concentration of Gorals (Carpathian highlanders) outside Europe. The southwest side is also the location of the Polish Highlanders Alliance of North America. Many Polish churches are found in Chicago, built in the Polish Cathedral style of architecture. Some can be seen from the Kennedy Expressway, other roadways, and public transportation routes, as well as from the neighborhood streets. Chicago has one of the largest concentrations of Italian Americans in the US, with more than 500,000 living in the metropolitan area. Chicago has the third largest Italian American population in the United States, behind only New York City and Philadelphia. Chicago's Italian community has historically been based along the Taylor Street and Grand Avenue corridors on the West Side of the city. There are also significant Italian populations scattered throughout the city and surrounding suburbs. The first Bosnians settled in Chicago in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, joining other immigrants seeking better opportunities and better lives. As the former Yugoslavia continued to find its identity as a nation over the last century, the people of Bosnia and Herzegovina sought stability and new beginnings in the city of Chicago many intending to return to their homeland. Bosnian Muslims were early leaders in the establishment of Chicago’s Muslim community. In 1906, they established Dzemijetul Hajrije (The Benevolent Society) of Illinois to preserve the community’s religious and national traditions as well as to provide mutual assistance for funerals and illness. The organization established chapters in Gary, Indiana, in 1913, and Butte, Montana, in 1916, and is the oldest existing Muslim organization in the United States. The Bosnians were the first Muslims in the United States to incorporate an Islamic Association in 1906 in Chicago, Illinois. There are approximately 70,000 Bosnian Americans in Chicago. 40,000 of them came as refugees during the 1990s and early 2000s. Other prevalent European ethnic groups include the Czechs, and Ukrainians. At the turn of the 20th century, Chicago was the third-largest Czech city in the world, after Prague and Vienna. There are approximately 14,000 Ukrainians living within the Chicago city limits. Chicago has a small community of Swedish Americans. Swedish Americans make up 0.9% of Chicago's population, and they number at 23,990. After the Great Chicago Fire, many Swedish carpenters helped to rebuild the city, which led to the saying \"the Swedes built Chicago.\" Swedish influence is evident in Andersonville on the far north side. The city has a large population of Bulgarians, Lithuanians, Croats, Jews, Greeks and Serbs. Chicago has a sizeable Romanian American community,, the Lithuanian population is over 100,000 and was formerly over 300,000; the world's oldest continuously published Lithuanian-language newspaper \"Draugus\" is based in Chicago. The city is the seat of the Evangelical Covenant Church and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. Chicago has the third-largest South Asian population in the United States, especially many Indians, Bangladeshi and Pakistanis. The Devon Avenue corridor on the far north side is one of the largest South Asian neighborhoods/markets in North America. As of the 2010 Census, Chicago has the third-largest Puerto Rican population in the continental United States, after New York City and Philadelphia, and the fourth largest Mexican population in the United States after Los Angeles, San Antonio, and Houston. There are about 185,000 Arabs in Cook County with another 75,000 in the five surrounding counties. Chicago is the center of the Palestinian and Jordanian immigrant communities in the United States, and additionally has a large Assyrian population.", "The city saw an increase of 20,606 people from July 1, 2007 to July 1, 2008, according to census data. This marked the second consecutive year of population increase, while still not yet returning to the official Census 2000 population level. As of the 2007 US Census American Community Survey the largest European ancestries were:", "There were more than 1,061,928 households, of which 28.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.1% were married couples living together, 18.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.4% were non-families. Of all households, 32.6% were made up of individuals and 8.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.50. Of the city population, 26.2% were under the age of 18, 11.2% were from 18 to 24, 33.4% were from 25 to 44, 18.9% from 45 to 64, and 10.3% 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females there were 94.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.1 males. The median income for a household in the city was $38,625, and the median income for a family was $42,724. Males had a median income of $35,907 versus $30,536 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,175. Below the poverty line were 19.6% of the population and 16.6% of the families. Of the total population, 28.1% of those under the age of 18 and 15.5% of those 75 and older were living below the poverty line. Population estimates in 2008 put the number of people in the city proper at 2,853,114, while suburban populations continue to grow, with estimates at 9,785,747 for the combined city and suburbs.", "Chicago has one of the largest LGBTQ+ populations in the United States. In 2015, roughly 4% of the population identified as LGBTQ+.", "Christianity is predominant among the city's population who worship (71%). The Chicago metropolitan area also includes adherents of Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism, and the Bahá'í, among others." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Synthesis.", "Structure.", "Uses.", "Health issues." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1774, Joseph Priestley discovered that oxygen was released by heating mercuric oxide, although he did not identify the gas as oxygen (rather, Priestley called it \"dephlogisticated air,\" as that was the paradigm that he was working under at the time).", "The red form of HgO can be made by heating Hg in oxygen at roughly 350 °C, or by pyrolysis of Hg(NO). The yellow form can be obtained by precipitation of aqueous Hg with alkali. The difference in color is due to particle size, both forms have the same structure consisting of near linear O-Hg-O units linked in zigzag chains with an Hg-O-Hg angle of 108°.", "Under atmospheric pressure mercuric oxide has two crystalline forms: one is called montroydite (orthorhombic, 2/m 2/m 2/m, Pnma), and the second is analogous to the sulfide mineral cinnabar (hexagonal, hP6, P3221); both are characterized by Hg-O chains. At pressures above 10 GPa both structures convert to a tetragonal form.", "HgO is sometimes used in the production of mercury as it decomposes quite easily. When it decomposes, oxygen gas is generated. It is also used as a material for cathodes for mercury batteries.", "Mercury oxide is a highly toxic substance which can be absorbed into the body by inhalation of its aerosol, through the skin and by ingestion. The substance is irritating to the eyes, the skin and the respiratory tract and may have effects on the kidneys, resulting in kidney impairment. In the food chain important to humans, bioaccumulation takes place, specifically in aquatic organisms. The substance is banned as a pesticide in the EU. Evaporation at 20 °C is negligible. HgO decomposes on exposure to light or on heating above 500 °C. Heating produces highly toxic mercury fumes and oxygen, which increases the fire hazard. Mercury(II) oxide reacts violently with reducing agents, chlorine, hydrogen peroxide, magnesium (when heated), disulfur dichloride and hydrogen trisulfide. Shock-sensitive compounds are formed with metals and elements such as sulfur and phosphorus." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Productions.", "Political contexts.", "Notable later productions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The play deals with Larry Doyle, originally from Ireland, but who has turned his back on his heritage to fit in with the English and Tom Broadbent, his English (and very Machiavellian) business partner. They are civil engineers who run a firm in London. They go to Roscullen, where Doyle was born, to develop some land. Doyle has no illusions about Ireland while Broadbent is taken with the romance of the place. Broadbent, a lively man who is seemingly not always aware of the impression he makes, becomes a favourite of the people. Before the play is over, it is clear he will marry Nora Reilly, the woman waiting for Doyle (who is more than happy to let her go) and become the area's candidate for Parliament after Doyle refuses to stand. Doyle has also 'called in' all his loans given \"so easily\" to the locals against their homes and intends (as he had planned all along) to make the village into an amusement park. Another major character is the defrocked priest Peter (Father) Keegan, the political and temperamental opposite of Broadbent, who sees through him from the beginning and warns the locals against him.", "The play was commissioned by W. B. Yeats for the opening of Dublin's Abbey Theatre, but Yeats rejected it as too long and too difficult to produce. He claimed that no actors were available who could do justice to the part of Broadbent. Peter Kavanagh suggests that Yeats' real reason was dislike of Shaw's style of playwrighting: \"at this time Yeats and Synge did not feel that Shaw belonged to the real Irish tradition. His plays would thus have no place in the Irish theatre movement. \"John Bull's Other Island\" was a play about Ireland but not of it. Furthermore, Shaw's plays were mostly argument, and Yeats particularly detested this quality in dramatic writing.\" Shaw himself commented the play was written at the request of \"Mr William Butler Yeats as a patriotic contribution to the Repertory of the Irish Literary Theatre. Like most people who have asked me to write plays Mr Yeats got rather more than he bargained for... It was uncongenial to the whole spirit of the neo-Gaelic movement, which is bent on creating a new Ireland after its own ideal, whereas my play is a very uncompromising presentment of the real old Ireland.\" The play premiered in London at the Royal Court Theatre on November 1, 1904, under the Vedrenne-Barker management. Due to its length, Barker, with Shaw's consent but not approval, cut the play somewhat. The role of Tom Broadbent was created by Louis Calvert. Dealing with the Irish question of the time, the play was seen by many major British political figures. A command performance was given for King Edward VII. He laughed so hard he broke his chair. This incident was widely reported and—after more than a decade of playwriting—Shaw's name was made in London. It was a great success and the Court would go on to produce many other Shaw plays, both old and new. In the words of T. F. Evans, \"the age of Bernard Shaw may be said to have begun\".", "As popular as the play was originally, it is not one of Shaw's more revived pieces. Liz Kennedy reviewing a revival in 2004, during the New Labour government of Tony Blair, argued that the play was still relevant: \"Shaw's vision from one hundred years ago was a far-seeing one...The drama has especial contemporary resonance in this continued period of political vacuum on our own shores\" She particularly praised \"Alan Cox, giving an appropriately mannered Blairite performance as Broadbent the Englishman...he might historically be a Liberal, but he sounded very New Labour.\"", "Gaiety Theatre, Dublin 1987: Cyril Cusack as Keegan, Marc Sinden as Broadbent, Ian McElhinney as Doyle and Kate O'Toole as Nora. Directed by Joe Dowling. Produced by Noel Pearson. Sinden took over the role five days before the first night, after the original actor broke his wrist in a fall in rehearsal." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Characters.", "Plot.", "Early productions and Candidamania.", "Criticism and interpretation.", "Later productions.", "Musical adaptation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"In order of appearance\"", "The play is set in the northeast suburbs of London in the month of October. It tells the story of Candida, the wife of a famous clergyman, the Reverend James Mavor Morell. Morell is a Christian Socialist, popular in the Church of England, but Candida is responsible for much of his success. Candida returns home briefly from a trip to London with Eugene Marchbanks, a young poet who wants to rescue her from what he presumes to be her dull family life. Marchbanks is in love with Candida and believes she deserves something more than just complacency from her husband. He considers her divine, and his love eternal. In his view, it is quite improper and humiliating for Candida to have to attend to petty household chores. Morell believes Candida needs his care and protection, but the truth is quite the contrary. Ultimately, Candida must choose between the two gentlemen. She reasserts her preference for the \"weaker of the two\" who, after a momentary uncertainty, turns out to be her husband Morell.", "The play was first performed at the Theatre Royal, South Shields on 30 March 1895. It was revived by the Independent Theatre Company, at Her Majesty's Theatre, Aberdeen on 30 July 1897. It was first performed in London at the Stage Society, The Strand, on 1 July 1900. However, it was not until late 1903, when Arnold Daly mounted a production in New York that the play became a success. Daly's production was quickly followed by one in London. The first public performance in London was on 26 April 1904, at the Royal Court. The play was so popular in 1904 that the phenomenon was referred to as \"Candidamania\". In the words of \"The New York Sun\", Shaw himself adopted the term, as have later writers. Shaw felt that the play was misinterpreted by some of its public. He wrote his short 1904 comedy \"How He Lied to Her Husband\", in part as a kind of reply to \"Candida\". The play depicts a farcical version of the same situation. Shaw's friend Archibald Henderson described it as \"the reductio ad absurdum of the Candidamaniacs\".", "In \"Bernard Shaw and the Aesthetes\", Elsie Bonita Adams has given this assessment of Marchbanks, comparing him to two real-life artists: Shaw himself describes Eugene's story-arc as a realization that Candida is not at all what he wants from life, that the kind of domestic love she could provide \"is essentially the creature of limitations which are far transcended in his own nature\". When Eugene departs into the night, it is not \"the night of despair and darkness but the free air and holy starlight which is so much more natural an atmosphere to him than this stuffy fireside warmth of mothers and sisters and wives and so on\". Eugene, according to Shaw, \"is really a god going back to his heaven, proud, unspeakably contemptuous of the 'happiness' he envied in the days of his blindness, clearly seeing that he has higher business on hand than Candida\". For her part, Candida is \"very immoral\" and completely misreads Eugene's transformation over the course of the play. Andy Propst of \"Time Out\" listed \"Candida\" as the 25th greatest play of all time, arguing that it \"bristles with Shavian wit and pointed political and social debate, ultimately shimmering as a shrewd consideration of love and marriage in Victorian England – or really any period.\"", "Katharine Cornell played the lead role on Broadway in five different productions, the last four of which were for her own production company. She was the actress most closely associated with this role, and Shaw stated that because of her success, she had created \"an ideal British Candida in my imagination\" as she essentially re-envisioned the role of Candida, making her the central character in the play. Previously, Candida herself was not conceived by directors or actresses as important as the issues and themes that Shaw was trying to convey. The first time she played the role in 1924, she was so acclaimed that The Actors' Guild, which controlled the production rights to the play in the United States, forbade any other actress from playing the role while Cornell was still alive. In her final production of 1946, a young Marlon Brando played the role of Marchbanks. A version for Australian television aired in 1962. Reviewing the adaptation, the \"Sydney Morning Herald\" was critical of the production style but praised the cast. A Court Theatre Company production starring JoBeth Williams and Tom Amandes was recorded by the L.A. Theatre Works. In 2003 the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation broadcast a production of the play. An Oxford Stage Company production of Candida toured the UK in 2004, with Andrew Havill as Morell, Serena Evans as Candida, and Richard Glaves as Marchbanks. In February 2009 BBC Radio 7 repeated a broadcast of a radio production of the play starring Hannah Gordon as Candida, Edward Petherbridge as Morell, and Christopher Guard as Eugene. It was first broadcast on BBC Radio 4 on 15 August 1977.", "In 2009, Writers Theatre presented a musical adaptation of the play under the title \"A Minister's Wife\", with music by Josh Schmidt; lyrics by Jan Tranen; book by Austin Pendleton; conceived and directed by Artistic Director Michael Halberstam. The production was critically acclaimed and in 2011, the Lincoln Center mounted a new production of the piece (also directed by Halberstam). The production featured Kate Fry as Candida; Bobby Steggert as Marchbanks; Marc Kudisch as Morell; Liz Baltes as Prossy; and Drew Gehling as Lexy. The production received outstanding notices in \"The New York Times\" and \"The Wall Street Journal\". Charles Isherwood, writing in \"The New York Times\", called it a \"lovingly composed chamber musical\" which \"moves with a gentle step, keeping an intimate focus on its central characters.\" An original cast recording from PS Classics was released on 30 August. The West Coast Premiere of the musical adaptation opened in June 2013 at The San Jose Repertory Theater directed by Michael Halberstam." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Production.", "Writing and themes.", "Casting.", "Filming.", "Golden Gun prop.", "Car stunts.", "Music.", "Release and reception.", "Contemporary reviews.", "Reflective reviews." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "In London, a golden bullet with James Bond's code \"007\" etched into its surface is received by MI6. It is believed that it was sent by the famed assassin Francisco Scaramanga, who uses a golden gun, to intimidate the agent. Because of the perceived threat to the agent's life, since Scaramanga has never been photographed and no one knows where he lives, M relieves Bond of a mission revolving around the work of the solar energy scientist named Gibson, thought to be in possession of information crucial to solving the energy crisis with solar power. At a hint from M, Bond sets out unofficially to locate Scaramanga. After retrieving a spent golden bullet from a belly dancer in Beirut and tracking its manufacturer to Macau, Bond forces the gun maker to show him how he delivers the bullets. Seeing Andrea Anders, Scaramanga's mistress, collecting the shipment of golden bullets at a casino, Bond follows her to Hong Kong and, in her Peninsula Hotel room, pressures Anders to expose information about Scaramanga, his appearance and his plans; she directs him to the Bottoms Up Club. The club proves to be the location of Scaramanga's next hit, Gibson, from whom Scaramanga's dwarf henchman Nick Nack steals the \"Solex agitator\", a key component of a solar power station. Before Bond can assert his innocence in Gibson's death, he is taken away by Lieutenant Hip and transported to meet M and Q in a hidden headquarters in the wreck of the in the harbour. M assigns Bond to retrieve the Solex. Bond then travels to Bangkok to meet Hai Fat, a wealthy Thai entrepreneur suspected of arranging Gibson's murder. Bond poses as Scaramanga, meets with Fat and is invited to dinner, but his plan backfires because unbeknown to him, Scaramanga himself is operating at Hai Fat's estate. Bond is captured by Nick Nack and a couple henchmen when he returns for dinner and placed in Fat's martial arts academy, where the students are instructed to kill him. After escaping with the aid of Hip and his nieces, Bond speeds away on a motorized sampan along the river and reunites with his assistant, Mary Goodnight. Scaramanga subsequently kills Hai Fat with his golden gun and assumes control of his empire, taking the Solex with him. Anders visits Bond, revealing that she sent the bullet to London and wants Bond to kill Scaramanga. In payment, she promises to hand the Solex over to him at a Muay Thai venue the next day. At the match, Bond discovers Anders sitting up straight in the audience, but dead from a bullet to the heart. Scaramanga himself then arrives at the match and introduces himself to Bond. Bond observes the Solex on the floor and is able to smuggle it away to Hip, who passes it to Goodnight. When Goodnight attempts to place a homing device on Scaramanga's car, Scaramanga traps her in the trunk. Bond discovers Scaramanga driving off and steals an AMC Hornet from a showroom to give chase, coincidentally with vacationing Sheriff J.W. Pepper (the lawman Bond encountered in \"Live and Let Die\") sitting inside. Bond and Pepper follow Scaramanga in a car chase across Bangkok, which concludes when Scaramanga's AMC Matador transforms into a plane, which flies himself, Nick Nack and Goodnight away from Bond. Picking up Goodnight's tracking signal, Bond flies a seaplane into Red Chinese waters and lands at Scaramanga's island. Scaramanga welcomes and shows Bond the solar power plant operation that he has taken over, the technology for which he intends to sell to the highest bidder. While demonstrating the equipment, Scaramanga uses a powerful energy beam to destroy Bond's plane. After they dine together, Scaramanga proposes a pistol duel with Bond on the beach; Bond with his Walther and him with his single-shot golden gun. As he says, he only needs one shot. The two men stand back to back and are officiated by Nick Nack to take twenty paces, but when Bond turns and fires, Scaramanga has vanished. Nick Nack leads Bond into Scaramanga's Funhouse where Bond stands in the place of the mannequin of himself; when Scaramanga walks by, Bond outwits and kills him. Goodnight kills Scaramanga's security chief Kra, accidentally sending his body into one of the temperature control vats. His body heat raises the temperature of the helium cooling the solar plant, which begins to spiral out of control. Bond retrieves the Solex unit just before the island is destroyed, and they escape unharmed in Scaramanga's Chinese junk. Bond then fends off a final attack by Nick Nack, who smuggled himself aboard, placing Nick Nack in a wicker basket on the mainmast of the ship. Bond and Goodnight celebrate their mission by romancing each other.", "Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman intended to follow \"You Only Live Twice\" with \"The Man with the Golden Gun\", inviting Roger Moore to the Bond role. However, filming was planned in Cambodia, and the Samlaut Uprising made filming impractical, leading to the production being canceled. \"On Her Majesty's Secret Service\" was produced instead with George Lazenby as Bond. Lazenby's next Bond film, Saltzman told a reporter, would be either \"The Man with the Golden Gun\" or \"Diamonds Are Forever\". The producers chose the latter title, with Sean Connery returning as Bond. Broccoli and Saltzman then decided to start production on \"The Man with the Golden Gun\" after \"Live and Let Die\". This was the final Bond film to be co-produced by Saltzman as his partnership with Broccoli was dissolved after the film's release. Saltzman sold his 50% stake in Eon Productions's parent company, Danjaq, LLC, to United Artists to alleviate his financial problems. The resulting legalities over the Bond property delayed production of the next Bond film, \"The Spy Who Loved Me\", for three years. The novel is mostly set in Jamaica, a location which had been already used in the earlier films, \"Dr. No\" and \"Live and Let Die\"; \"The Man with the Golden Gun\" saw a change in location to put Bond in the Far East for the second time. After considering Beirut, where part of the film is set, Iran, where the location scouting was done but eventually discarded because of the Yom Kippur War, and the Hạ Long Bay in Vietnam, the production team chose Thailand as a primary location, following a suggestion of production designer Peter Murton after he saw pictures of the Phuket bay in a magazine. Saltzman was happy with the choice of the Far East for the setting as he had always wanted to go on location in Thailand and Hong Kong. During the reconnaissance of locations in Hong Kong, Broccoli saw the wreckage of the former and came up with the idea of using it as the base for MI6's Far East operations.", "Tom Mankiewicz wrote the first draft for the script in 1973, delivering a script that was a battle of wills between Bond and Scaramanga, who he saw as Bond's alter ego, \"a super-villain of the stature of Bond himself.\" Tensions between Mankiewicz and Guy Hamilton and Mankiewicz's growing sense that he was \"feeling really tapped out on Bond\" led to the re-introduction of Richard Maibaum as the Bond screenwriter. Maibaum, who had worked on six Bond films previously, delivered his own draft based on Mankiewicz's work. Much of the plot involving Scaramanga being Bond's equal was sidelined in later drafts. For one of the two main aspects of the plot, the screenwriters used the 1973 energy crisis as a backdrop to the film, allowing the MacGuffin of the \"Solex agitator\" to be introduced; Broccoli's stepson Michael G. Wilson researched solar power to create the Solex. While \"Live and Let Die\" had borrowed heavily from the blaxploitation genre, \"The Man with the Golden Gun\" borrowed from the martial arts genre that was popular in the 1970s through films such as \"Fist of Fury\" (1972) and \"Enter the Dragon\" (1973). However, the use of the martial arts for a fight scene in the film \"lapses into incredibility\" when Lt Hip and his two nieces defeat an entire \"dojo\".", "Originally, the role of Scaramanga was offered to Jack Palance, but he turned the opportunity down. Christopher Lee, who was eventually chosen to portray Scaramanga, was Ian Fleming's step-cousin and Fleming had suggested Lee for the role of Dr. Julius No in the 1962 series opener \"Dr. No\". Lee noted that Fleming was a forgetful man and by the time he mentioned this to Broccoli and Saltzman they had cast Joseph Wiseman in the part. Due to filming on location in Bangkok, his role in the film affected Lee's work the following year, as director Ken Russell was unable to sign Lee to play The Specialist in the 1975 film \"Tommy\", a part eventually given to Jack Nicholson. Two Swedish models were cast as the Bond girls, Britt Ekland and Maud Adams. Ekland had been interested in playing a Bond girl since she had seen \"Dr. No\", and contacted the producers about the main role of Mary Goodnight. Hamilton met Adams in New York, and cast her because \"she was elegant and beautiful that it seemed to me she was the perfect Bond girl\". When Ekland read the news that Adams had been cast for \"The Man with the Golden Gun\", she became upset, thinking Adams had been selected to play Goodnight. Broccoli then called Ekland to invite her for the main role, as after seeing her in a film, Broccoli thought Ekland's \"generous looks\" made her a good contrast to Adams. Hamilton decided to put Marc Lawrence, whom he had worked with on \"Diamonds Are Forever\", to play a gangster shot dead by Scaramanga at the start of the film because he found it an interesting idea to \"put sort of a Chicago gangster in the middle of Thailand\".", "Filming commenced on 6 November 1973 at the partly submerged wreck of the RMS \"Queen Elizabeth\", which acted as a top-secret MI6 base grounded in Victoria Harbour in Hong Kong. The crew was small, and a stunt double was used for James Bond. Other Hong Kong locations included the Hong Kong Dragon Garden as the estate of Hai Fat, which portrayed a location in Bangkok. The major part of principal photography started on 18 April 1974 in Thailand. Thai locations included Bangkok, Thon Buri, Phuket and the nearby Phang Nga Province, on the islands of Ko Khao Phing Kan () and Ko Tapu (). Scaramanga's hideout is on Ko Khao Phing Kan, and Ko Tapu is often now referred to as \"James Bond Island\" both by locals and in tourist guidebooks. The scene during the boxing match used an actual Muay Thai fixture at the Lumpinee Boxing Stadium. \"[A] car chase [in Bangkok occurred] near a [canal or] khlong on Krung Kasem Road\". Production returned in late April to Hong Kong, and also to Macau, for that island is famous for its casinos, which Hong Kong lacks. Some scenes in Thailand had to be finished, and production had to move to studio work in Pinewood Studios; this included sets such as Scaramanga's solar energy plant and island interior. Academy Award winner Oswald Morris was hired to finish the job after cinematographer Ted Moore became ill. Morris was initially reluctant, as he did not like his previous experiences taking over other cinematographers' work, but accepted after dining with Broccoli. Production wrapped in Pinewood in August 1974. One of the main stunts in the film consisted of stunt driver Loren “Bumps” Willert (as James Bond) driving an AMC Hornet leaping a broken bridge and spinning around 360 degrees in mid-air about the longitudinal axis, doing an \"aerial twist\"; Willert successfully completed the jump on the first take. The stunt was shown in slow motion, for the scene was otherwise too fast. Composer John Barry added a slide whistle sound effect over the stunt, which Broccoli kept in despite thinking that it \"undercouped the stunt\". Barry later regretted his decision, thinking the whistle \"broke the golden rule\" as the stunt was \"for what it was all worth, a truly dangerous moment,... true James Bond style\". The sound effect was described as \"simply crass\". The writer Jim Smith suggested that the stunt \"brings into focus the lack of excitement in the rest of the film and is spoilt by the use of 'comedy' sound effects.\" Eon Productions had licensed the stunt, which had been designed by Raymond McHenry. It was initially conceived at Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory (CAL) in Buffalo, New York as a test for their vehicle simulation software. After development in simulation, ramps were built and the stunt was tested at CAL's proving ground. It toured as part of the All American Thrill Show as the Astro Spiral before it was picked up for the film. The television programme \"Top Gear\" attempted to repeat the stunt in June 2008, but failed. The scene where Scaramanga's Matador flies was shot at Bovington Camp, with a model inspired by an actual car plane prototype. Bond's duel with Scaramanga, which Mankewicz said was inspired by the climactic faceoff in \"Shane\", was shortened as the producers felt it was causing pacing problems. The trailers featured some of the cut scenes. Hamilton adapted an idea of his involving Bond in Disneyland for Scaramanga's funhouse. The funhouse was designed to be a place where Scaramanga could get the upper hand by distracting the adversary with obstacles, and was described by Murton as a \"melting pot of ideas\" which made it \"both a funhouse and a horror house\". While an actual wax figure of Roger Moore was used, Moore's stunt double Les Crawford was the cowboy figure, and Ray Marione played the Al Capone figure. The canted sets such as the funhouse and the \"Queen Elizabeth\" had inspiration from German Expressionist films such as \"The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari\". For Scaramanga's solar power plant, Hamilton used both the Pinewood set and a miniature projected by Derek Meddings, often cutting between each other to show there was no discernible difference. The destruction of the facility was a combination of practical effects on the set and destroying the miniature. Meddings based the island blowing up on footage of the Battle of Monte Cassino.", "Three Golden Gun props were made; a solid piece, one that could be fired with a cap and one that could be assembled and disassembled, although Christopher Lee said that the process \"was extremely difficult.\" The gun was \"one of the more memorable props in the Bond series\" and consisted of an interlocking fountain pen (the barrel), cigarette lighter (the bullet chamber), cigarette case (the handle) and cufflink (the trigger) with the bullet secured in Scaramanga's belt buckle. In the film, the gun was designed to accept a single 4.2-millimetre, 23-carat gold bullet produced by Lazar, a gunsmith in Macau who specialized in custom weapons and ammunition. The Golden Gun ranked sixth in a 2008 20th Century Fox poll of the most popular film weapons, which surveyed approximately 2,000 film fans. On 10 October 2008, it was discovered that one of the golden guns used in the film, which is estimated to be worth around £80,000, was missing (suspected stolen) from Elstree Props, a company based at Hertfordshire studios.", "The film became famous for two vehicle stunts, one which made the Guinness Book of Records. As part of a significant product placement strategy, a number of vehicles from American Motors Corporation were featured in the movie. The flying car was the newly introduced AMC Matador Brougham Coupe in the Oleg Cassini edition, used by Francisco Scaramanga, along with Nick Nack, to kidnap Mary Goodnight. With the wings, the stunt car was long, wide, and high. A stuntman drove the \"car plane\" to a runway. It was not airworthy, so a -long remote controlled model, built by John Stears, was used for the aerial sequences. A 1974 AMC Hornet X was used for the \"corkscrew\" stunt which was first tested as a computer-simulation (the first of its kind) by Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory. It was then performed as a live-action stunt, successfully filmed in one take. The stunt was performed by Loren “Bumps” Willert. The car was modified for the jump by having a full roll cage installed, strengthened suspension, and the front seats replaced with a single seat positioned in the center. The stunt went exactly according to plan with only a cracked windscreen occurring on landing. The corkscrew stunt made the Guinness Book of Records as the first \"astro spiral\" jump on film.", "The theme tune to \"The Man with the Golden Gun\", released in 1974, was performed by Scottish singer Lulu and composed by John Barry. Tony Bramwell, who worked for Harry Saltzman's music publishing company Hilary Music, wanted Elton John or Cat Stevens to sing the title song. However, by this time the producers were taking turns producing the films; Albert Broccoli—whose turn it was to produce—rejected Bramwell's suggestions. The lyrics to the Lulu song were written by Don Black and have been described variously as \"ludicrous\", \"inane\" and \"one long stream of smut\", because of their sexual innuendo. Bramwell subsequently dismissed the Barry-Lulu tune as \"mundane\". Alice Cooper wrote a song titled \"Man with the Golden Gun\" to be used by the producers of the film, but they opted for Lulu's song instead. Cooper released his song in his album \"Muscle of Love\". Barry had only three weeks to score \"The Man with the Golden Gun\" and the theme tune and score are generally considered by critics to be among the weakest of Barry's contributions to the series, an opinion shared by Barry himself: \"It's the one I hate most... it just never happened for me.\" \"The Man with the Golden Gun\" was also the first to drop the distinctive plucked guitar from the theme heard over the gun barrel opening. A sample from one of the songs, \"Hip's Trip\", was used by The Prodigy in the \"Mindfields\" track on the album \"The Fat of the Land\".", "\"The Man with the Golden Gun\" was premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on, with general release in the United Kingdom the same day. The film was made with an estimated budget of $7 million; despite initial good returns from the box office, \"The Man with the Golden Gun\" grossed a total of $97.6 million at the worldwide box office, with $21 million earned in the US, making it the fourth lowest-grossing Bond film in the series. The promotion of the film had \"one of the more anaemic advertising campaigns of the series\" and there were few products available, apart from the soundtrack and paperback book, although Lone Star Toys produced a \"James Bond 007 pistol\" in gold; this differed from the weapon used by Scaramanga in the film as it was little more than a Walther P38 with a silencer fitted.", "\"The Man with the Golden Gun\" met with mixed reviews upon its release. Derek Malcolm in \"The Guardian\" savaged the film, saying that \"the script is the limpest of the lot and... Roger Moore as 007 is the last man on earth to make it sound better than it is.\" There was some praise from Malcolm, although it was muted, saying that \"Christopher Lee... makes a goodish villain and Britt Ekland a passable Mary Goodnight... Up to scratch in production values... the film is otherwise merely a potboiler. Maybe enough's enough.\" Tom Milne, writing in \"The Observer\", was even more caustic, writing that \"This series, which has been scraping the bottom of the barrel for some time, is now through the bottom... with depressing borrowings from Hong Kong kung fu movies, not to mention even more depressing echoes of the 'Carry On' smut.\" He summed up the film by saying it was \"sadly lacking in wit or imagination.\" David Robinson, the film critic at \"The Times\", dismissed the film and Moore's performance, saying that Moore was \"substituting non-acting for Connery's throwaway\", while Britt Ekland was \"his beautiful, idiot side-kick... the least appealing of the Bond heroines.\" Robinson was equally damning of the changes in the production crew, observing that Ken Adam, an \"attraction of the early Bond films,\" had been \"replaced by decorators of competence but little of his flair.\" The writers \"get progressively more naive in their creation of a suburban dream of epicureanism and adventure.\" Writing for \"The New York Times\", Nora Sayre considered the film to suffer from \"poverty of invention and excitement\", criticising the writing and Moore's performance and finding Villechaize and Lee as the only positive points for their \"sinister vitality that cuts through the narrative dough.\" The \"Sunday Mirror\" critic observed that \"The Man with the Golden Gun\" \"isn't the best Bond ever\" but found it \"remarkable that Messrs. Saltzman and Broccoli can still produce such slick and inventive entertainment\". Arthur Thirkwell, writing in the \"Sunday Mirror\"s sister paper, the \"Daily Mirror\", concentrated more on lead actor Roger Moore than the film itself: \"What Sean Connery used to achieve with a touch of sardonic sadism, Roger Moore conveys with roguish schoolboy charm and the odd, dry quip.\" Thirkwell also said that Moore \"manages to make even this reduced-voltage Bond a character with plenty of sparkle.\" Judith Crist of \"New York Magazine\" gave a positive review, saying \"the scenery's grand, the lines nice and the gadgetry entertaining\", also describing the production as a film that \"capture[s] the free-wheeling, whooshing non-sense of early Fleming's fairy tale for grown-ups orientation\". Jay Cocks, writing in \"Time\", focused on gadgets such as Scaramanga's flying car, as what was wrong with both \"The Man with the Golden Gun\" and the more recent films in the Bond series, calling them \"Overtricky, uninspired, these exercises show the strain of stretching fantasy well past wit.\" Cocks also criticised the actors, saying that Moore \"lacks all Connery's strengths and has several deep deficiencies\", while Lee was \"an unusually unimpressive villain\".", "Opinion on \"The Man with the Golden Gun\" has for the most part remained the same as it was in 1974 and as of May 2020, film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 44% out of 48 critical reviews about the film were positive, with an average score of 5.35/10. The website's critical consensus states, \"A middling Bond film, \"The Man With the Golden Gun\" suffers from double entendre-laden dialogue, a noteworthy lack of gadgets, and a villain that overshadows 007.\" Metacritic, another review aggregator, assigned the film a weighted average score of 43 out of 100 based on 11 reviews from mainstream critics, which indicates \"mixed or average reviews\". Some critics saw the film as uninspired, tired and boring. Roger Moore was also criticised for playing Bond against type, in a style more reminiscent of Sean Connery, although Lee's performance received acclaim. Danny Peary wrote that \"The Man with the Golden Gun\" \"lacks invention... is one of the least interesting Bond films\" and \"a very laboured movie, with Bond a stiff bore, Adams and Britt Ekland uninspired leading ladies\". Peary believes that the shootout between Bond and Scaramanga in the funhouse \"is the one good scene in the movie, and even it has an unsatisfying finish\" and also bemoaned the presence of Clifton James, \"unfortunately reprising his unfunny redneck sheriff from \"Live and Let Die.\"\" Chris Nashawaty of \"Entertainment Weekly\" argues that Scaramanga is the best villain of the Roger Moore James Bond films, while listing Mary Goodnight among the worst Bond girls, saying that \"Ekland may have had one of the series' best bikinis, but her dopey, doltish portrayal was a turnoff as much to filmgoers as to fans of Ian Fleming's novels\". \"The Times\" put Scaramanga as the fifth best Bond villain in their list, and Ekland was the third in their list of the top 10 most fashionable Bond girls. \"Maxim\" listed Goodnight at fourth in their Top Bond Babes list, saying that \"Agent Goodnight is the clumsiest spy alive. But who cares as long as she's using her perfect bikini bottom to muck things up?\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Born in London, England, in his youth, Cole was classically trained on the oboe and piano, and won scholarships to both the Royal College of Music Junior Department and City of London School. Having graduated from City University, Cole began working at the drum and bass label SOUR, as a tape operator and sound engineer to the likes of Freq Nasty and Ed Rush. It was working on Ramsey & Fen's 2-step remixes for Kym Mazelle, however, that gave him the garage bug. He was the trusted engineer and lead producer of tracks on the UK Garage label V.I.P. (Very Important Plastic) between 1997-1999 and a pirate radio DJ on London Underground FM, alongside the likes of the Dreem Teem. From there, Cole penned and produced \"Sincere\" in 1998 using a sampler and Atari, which was eventually picked up by Pete Tong and AM:PM and became one of the earliest garage records to break into the top 40 on the UK Singles Chart. He signed with Gilles Peterson's Talkin' Loud label where in 2000 he produced his first album, also called \"Sincere\", which earned him two top 15 singles on the UK Singles Chart, a prestigious Mercury Music Prize nomination, Brit Award nomination and beat Dr. Dre to win MOBO's Best Producer award in 2001. He received a BPI certification for UK sales in excess of 60,000 copies. Cole formed a live band to accompany his \"Sincere\" album performing on Jools Holland's \"Later Show\" as well as on \"Top of the Pops\", \"\", \"The Chart Show\" and at the Mercury Music Prize and MOBO Awards. In 2003, Cole followed \"Sincere\" with his \"Cut to the Chase\" album, also released via Talkin' Loud. After leaving Talkin' Loud in 2004, Cole released several singles and EPs via his own Prolific Recordings label. Cole's output on the label has included many notable collaborations including grime artist Wiley and long-time collaborator Elisabeth Troy. In 2014, he co-wrote and produced \"Nobody But You\" for Mary J. Blige with Sam Smith and Jimmy Napes, and again in early 2015 on Napes' own \"Making of Me\" EP. He collaborated with T Williams on \"Privilege\", released in 2015 on Today Records and Tomorrow Records and released \"Bouldaz\" on Disclosure's Method White label the same year. Cole continued to produce for artists across the musical spectrum. Dizzee Rascal's \"Bassline Junkie\", Example's \"Something in the Water\" and Katy B's \"Blue Eyes\" were all produced by Cole. He has also remixed tracks for Amy Winehouse, Mariah Carey, De La Soul, Alicia Keys and many more. He released remixes of Jess Glynne's \"Hold My Hand\" on Atlantic and DJ Fresh and Adam F's \"Believer\" on Ministry of Sound. He released \"Alcatraz\" on Redlight's Lobster Boy Records in early 2016. This was followed by \"The Rumble\" in August 2016. A hard hitting, genre crossing record featuring hotly tipped UK MC AJ Tracey. Cole said of the record that it was \"a slice of London, the energy of now, a fusion of all that is exciting in the U.K. for us.\" Through 2017 to 2018, Cole has been releasing a steady selection of singles under the 892 label, including \"Pictures in My Head\" and \"Soak It Up\". Some singles would also be accompanied by VIP mixes, also created by Cole. In 2018, he released a new EP entitled \"Foundations\", stating that the project \"takes a step away from my more traditional form of writing\".. Alongside his producing, writing and remixing work, Cole continues to tour as a DJ at festivals and clubs around the world. Cole has also written and produced scores for several major TV advertising campaigns including the Schwartz \"The Sound of Taste\" campaign and wrote a piece called \"Lava\" for O2. Cole was also responsible for the construction and design of a new recording studio complex in Clerkenwell called The Gin Factory." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Functions.", "Types of crimes and offences.", "Tasks.", "Caseload.", "Administration.", "Future developments." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Eurojust was established as a result of a decision that the European Council of Tampere (15–16 October 1999) made to set up a permanent judicial co-operation unit in order to improve the fight against serious crime. The Treaty of Nice amended the Treaty on the European Union to include a reference to Eurojust. On 14 December 2000, a precursor organization called Pro-Eurojust was created by the Council of the European Union to permit prosecutors to test the Eurojust processes. It began operating in Brussels on 1 March 2001. The terrorist attacks in the U.S. in September of that year demonstrated strongly the need for international cooperation, speeding the development of Eurojust, which was then established in February 2002 by Council Decision 2002/187/JHA. The new organization settled in The Hague on 29 April 2003. Since its establishment, Eurojust has focused heavily on forging international co-operation agreements and building out international contact points, including the basing at Eurojust of several liaison prosecutors (Norway, Switzerland, Montenegro and the United States). In addition to these four nations, it has co-operation agreements with Europol, OLAF, CEPOL, the European Judicial Training Network, UNODC, Iber-RED, Croatia (before it entered the European Union on 1 July 2013, thus joining EUROJUST), Iceland, and North Macedonia. The New Council Decision on the Strengthening of Eurojust was signed in July 2008 to enhance Eurojust's cooperation with partners and third States and to generally strengthen its operational capabilities.", "", "According to the Eurojust Decision, Eurojust may act when two or more Member states are affected crimes in which Europol is entitled to act, including organised crime, terrorism and other forms of serious crime (unlawful drug trafficking, illegal moneylaundering activities, crime connected with nuclear and radioactive substances, illegal immigrant smuggling, trafficking in human beings, motor vehicle crime, murder, grievous bodily injury, illicit trade in human organs and tissue, kidnapping, illegal restraint and hostage taking, racism and xenophobia, organised robbery, illicit trafficking in cultural goods, including antiquities and works of art, swindling and fraud, racketeering and extortion, counterfeiting and product piracy, forgery of administrative documents and trafficking therein, forgery of money and means of payment, computer crime, corruption, illicit trafficking in arms, ammunition and explosives, illicit trafficking in endangered animal species, illicit trafficking in endangered plant species and varieties, environmental crime, illicit trafficking in hormonal substances and other growth promoters). It may also act on other types of crime if they are committed together with one of the above or if it is requested by a member state. In 2010, about 10% of the cases handled by Eurojust fell into this category. Eurojust's primary focus are on crimes that represent an \"especial threat\" to citizens, such as terrorism, drug trafficking, trafficking in human beings, cybercrime, fraud, corruption, money laundering and other economic crime.", "Eurojust is not empowered to investigate or prosecute crimes, but instead works to coordinate investigations and prosecutions between the EU Member States when dealing with cross-border crime. They may also assist investigations and prosecutions between a requesting Member State and a non-Member State where a co-operation agreement exists or where there is special need. Eurojust's tasks may vary depending on whether it is acting a college or through national members. Among other tasks, Eurojust may: As Eurojust is tasked with facilitating the execution of letters rogatory and extradition requests, it also may act on European Arrest Warrants (EAW). When more than one EAW exists for one individual, Eurojust may advise the judicial authority that executes the EAW which should take priority and may also facilitate communication between the judicial authorities involved. It is also the body to which member states may report delays in execution of EAWs of the reason for such delay. In 2010, a total of 280 cases concerning the execution of EAWs were registered at Eurojust, amounting to almost 20 per cent of all cases. Eurojust may also take part in a joint investigation team (JIT) or, on request of a member state, help establish one and/or assist in managing one administratively or by securing funding. Such teams are created on the agreement of two or more involved parties for a specific purpose and limited time to carry out criminal investigations in one or more of the member states involved. JITs were established on the belief that cross-state teams of investigators and judicial authorities with clear legal authority and defined roles would improve the fight against organised crime.", "Eurojust has handled an increasingly heavy caseload since its creation. In 2002, it was contacted in 202 cases. In 2016, member states sought assistance with 2,306 new cases. The majority cases involve two member states; in 2010, one-fifth of the cases involved three or more countries. Eurojust also organised 249 co-ordination meetings between representatives of national authorities and EU bodies in 2016.", "The College of Eurojust is supported by the administration. As head of the Eurojust administration, the Administrative Director is responsible for the day-to-day management of Eurojust, including budget and staff management. The administrative organisation is composed of units, services and secretariats: the Accounting Office, Budget, Finance and Procurement Unit, College Secretariat, Corporate Communications Office, Data Protection Service, Events and Logistics Office, Human Resources Unit, Information Management Unit, Institutional Affairs Office, Legal Affairs Office, Operations Unit, Planning, Programming & Reporting Office and Security, Facility & General Services.", "The Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union addresses several changes to Eurojust. Article 85 extends its scope to including serious crime not only affecting two or more member states, but also requiring prosecution on a common basis. The new wording of the Treaty mentions that by means of regulations adopted in accordance with the ordinary legislative procedure, the European Parliament and the Council shall determine Eurojust's structure, operation, field of action and tasks, which may include initiating criminal investigations or proposing the initiation of prosecutions, coordinating such investigations and prosecutions and strengthening judicial co-operation. Article 86 provides for the possibility of establishing a European Public Prosecutor’s Office (EPPO) from Eurojust in order to combat crimes affecting the financial interests of the Union. The EPPO may be established by the Council, according to a special legislative procedure, acting unanimously and after obtaining the consent of the European Parliament. The Treaty provides also for the possibility to create it by enhanced co-operation established by at least nine Member States. The Stockholm Programme refers several times to the role of Eurojust. In particular, it states that “in the field of judicial co-operation, the European Council emphasises the need for Member States and Eurojust to implement thoroughly Council Decision 2009/426/JHA of 16 December 2008 on the strengthening of Eurojust, which, together with the Lisbon Treaty, offers an opportunity for the further development of Eurojust in the coming years, including in relation to initiation of investigations and resolving conflicts of competence. On the basis of an assessment of the implementation of this instrument, new possibilities could be considered in accordance with the relevant provisions of the Treaty, including giving further powers to the Eurojust national members, reinforcement of the powers of the College of Eurojust or the setting-up of a European Public Prosecutor”." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Club career.", "Early career.", "Juventus.", "Milan.", "European competition records.", "International career.", "Style of play.", "Coaching career.", "Milan.", "Venezia.", "Bologna.", "Benevento.", "Media.", "Career statistics.", "Club.", "Honours.", "Player.", "Club.", "International.", "Manager." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Inzaghi's favourite footballers as a child were Paolo Rossi and Marco van Basten. The elder brother of fellow footballer Simone Inzaghi, he got his start playing for hometown club Piacenza as a teenager in 1991, but made only two league appearances before being loaned to Serie C1 side AlbinoLeffe, with whom he scored an impressive 13 goals in 21 matches. In 1993, Inzaghi moved to Serie B club Hellas Verona and scored 13 goals in 36 league appearances. Upon his return to Piacenza, he scored 15 times in 37 games helping his team win Serie B and proving himself to be an exciting young prospect. Inzaghi made his Serie A debut when he transferred to Parma in 1995, but scored only twice in 15 league matches. One of these two goals came against one of his former clubs, Piacenza, literally \"making him cry\". He added another two goals in European competitions that season. The following season, he moved on to Atalanta, finishing as the \"Capocannoniere\" (Serie A's top scorer) with 24 goals, and scored against every team in the league. He was awarded Serie A Young Footballer of the Year and served as team captain in the last game of the season.", "Inzaghi, however, was soon on the move once again to his sixth team in seven seasons, this time to Juventus for a reported 23 billion lire. He formed a formidable attacking partnership along with Alessandro Del Piero and Zinedine Zidane, a tandem which would last for four seasons, under managers Marcello Lippi, and subsequently Carlo Ancelotti, marking Inzaghi's longest stint with one team at the time. During his time with the \"Bianconeri\", he scored two Champions League hat-tricks – against Dynamo Kyiv and Hamburger SV – becoming the first player to do so. During his first season with the club, Inzaghi scored two goals as Juventus beat Vicenza 3–0 in the 1997 Supercoppa Italiana. Juventus won the \"Scudetto\" during the 1997–98 season, in which Inzaghi scored 18 goals, including a decisive, \"Scudetto\"-winning hat-trick against Bologna. He also scored six goals to help Juventus reach the Champions League final, although they were defeated 1–0 by Real Madrid. The 1998–99 season was less successful for Juventus, as they suffered a defeat in the 1998 Supercoppa Italiana to Lazio, and finished the season with a disappointing seventh place in Serie A. Inzaghi still managed 20 goals in all competitions, finishing the season as the club's top-scorer; Six of his goals came in the Champions League, as Juventus were eliminated in the semi-finals by eventual champions Manchester United. During the second leg of the semi-finals in Turin, Inzaghi scored two goals in the first ten minutes, but Manchester United eventually managed to come back and win the match 3–2. Inzaghi helped Juventus win the 1999 UEFA Intertoto Cup, scoring five goals in the semi-finals against Rostov, and two in the finals against Rennes, qualifying Juventus for the UEFA Cup that season. Inzaghi scored 15 goals in Serie A as Juventus narrowly missed out on the title to Lazio, suffering a defeat on the final matchday. The following season, Inzaghi managed 11 goals in Serie A as Juventus finished second in the league for the second consecutive season; he also scored five goals in the UEFA Champions League, including a hat-trick in a 4–4 draw against Hamburger SV, although Juventus were eliminated in the first round. With 16 goals in all competitions, he was Juventus's top goalscorer for the third consecutive season. However, his once excellent partnership with Del Piero had become less effective in recent seasons, due to their lack of understanding, individualism, and their strained relationship both on and off the pitch.", "Despite a very good tally of 89 goals in 165 games for the \"Bianconeri\", Inzaghi was soon benched in favour of David Trezeguet and on 2 July 2001 signed for Milan for a reported 70 billion lire, or 45 billion lire cash plus Cristian Zenoni. (Sky Sports reported a smaller total figure, £17 million) for the 2001–02 campaign by coach Fatih Terim. Juventus announced that the sale of Inzaghi produced a capital gain of €31.1 million to the club, making the actual transfer fee much exceed that figure. Inzaghi, however, suffered a knee injury and missed the first half of the season. Upon his return, he was able to forge a strong goalscoring partnership with Andriy Shevchenko, and he soon racked up an impressive trophy count with the \"Rossoneri\" under new manager Carlo Ancelotti, among them the 2002–03 Champions League (in which Milan defeated his previous team, Juventus, in the final on penalties), along with the 2002–03 Coppa Italia (scoring in a 2–2 draw in the second leg), the 2003 UEFA Super Cup, the 2004 Supercoppa Italiana, and the 2003–04 \"Scudetto\". In the 2002–03 Champions League campaign, he scored his record third Champions League hat-trick against Deportivo de La Coruña in the Group Stage and a decisive goal in quarter-finals against Ajax, totalling 12 European goals in that season. In November 2004, he signed a contract extension with the club. Inzaghi was able to fully recover from persistent knee injuries that had dogged him for two years to the extent that he regained his predatory goalscoring form by scoring 12 goals in 22 Serie A matches in 2005–06, along with four goals in five Champions' League appearances; two against Olympique Lyonnais in the quarter-finals and another two against Bayern Munich in the first knockout stage. He scored the decisive goal against the Bavarians in the 2007 quarter-finals, helping Milan to reach the semi-finals of the competition. On 23 May 2007, in the 2007 Champions League final in Athens, he scored both of Milan's goals in their 2–1 victory over Liverpool in a rematch of the 2005 final. He declared after the match: At the start of the 2007–08 season, he picked up where he left off in Athens, scoring the equalizer in the Super Cup in Milan's 3–1 victory over Sevilla. Inzaghi capped off the year by scoring two goals in the final of the 2007 Club World Cup, helping Milan win 4–2 against Boca Juniors to take revenge for the defeat on penalties in 2003. On 24 February 2008, Inzaghi scored the match-winning goal in Milan's 2–1 win over Palermo with a diving header after coming into the game from the bench; it marked his first Serie A goal in over a year. This was followed by ten more goals in the league, the last against Udinese. This strike against Udinese was his 100th goal for the club in official games. But despite incredible form, Italy national team manager Roberto Donadoni declined to call him for Euro 2008. In November 2008, Inzaghi agreed to a contract extension with Milan until June 2010. On 8 March 2009, Inzaghi scored his first hat-trick of the season for Milan against Atalanta, leading his team to a 3–0 victory at the San Siro. His 300th career goal came in the 5–1 thrashing of Siena away from home. He then went on to score three goals against Torino, his second professional hat-trick in that season. Scoring this hat-trick enabled \"Super Pippo\" — his nickname in the media – to set a record for the player with the most hat-tricks in Serie A over the last 25 years. With ten hat-tricks in Serie A, Inzaghi is ahead of Giuseppe Signori (9), Hernán Crespo (8), Roberto Baggio, Marco van Basten, Gabriel Batistuta, Abel Balbo, Vincenzo Montella (7), Antonio Di Natale and David Trezeguet (6). Inzaghi scored one hat-trick for Atalanta, four for Juventus, and five for Milan. In the 2009–10 season, under manager Leonardo, Inzaghi was relegated to the role of backup player with his contract set to expire in June 2010. On 21 May 2010, he was offered a new one-year contract which would last until 30 June 2011. On 3 November 2010, in the UEFA Champions League 2010–11 Group Stage campaign, with Milan trailing by 1–0 to Real Madrid, Inzaghi came off the bench in the second half and scored a brace to give Milan a 2–1 lead. Pedro León, however, equalized in the 94th minute, with the final score ending 2–2. On that occasion, he became the new all-time top scorer of all European club competitions with 70 goals. He also became the second-oldest player to score in the Champions League, aged 37 years and 85 days, behind only Manchester United's Ryan Giggs, now surpassed by Inzaghi's compatriot Francesco Totti. With these two goals, Inzaghi went ahead of his idol Marco van Basten on the club list of the all-time top goalscorers with 125 goals. On 10 November 2010, Inzaghi suffered a serious injury while playing for Milan against Palermo. A statement on the official Milan club website confirmed that Inzaghi had suffered a lesion of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and associated lesion to the external meniscus of the left knee. It was thought he would be out for the rest of the season. Due to his age, this injury could have ended his career; nonetheless, Inzaghi was very optimistic. On 7 May 2011, with Inzaghi still out recovering from his injury, Milan won the 2010–11 Serie A title. After being sidelined by injury for six months, he came off the bench for the first time since his injury on 14 May, with Milan defeating Cagliari 4–1. He extended his contract till June 2012 during the 2011–12 pre-season. Just like with Andrea Pirlo in 2011, Milan decided not to renew the contracts of several veteran players at the end of the season and Inzaghi was one of those, along with Gennaro Gattuso, Clarence Seedorf, Alessandro Nesta, and Gianluca Zambrotta. He played his final game for Milan against Novara on 13 May 2012 and marked his performance by scoring the winning goal, much to the joy of the fans. On 24 July 2012, Inzaghi announced his retirement from professional football to start a coaching career.", "With 70 goals, Inzaghi is the fourth-highest scorer in European club competitions, behind only Raúl, Cristiano Ronaldo and Lionel Messi. He became the first player to score two Champions League hat-tricks – both with Juventus — when he netted a treble during a 4–4 group stage draw with Hamburger SV on 13 September 2000; his first was in a 4–1 victory over Dynamo Kyiv during the 1997–98 quarter–finals. Inzaghi scored a record third Champions League hat-trick in a 4–0 win against Deportivo de La Coruña in the 2002–03 season, while playing for Milan. This record would later be tied by Michael Owen, who has scored two hat-tricks for Liverpool and a third for Manchester United.", "Between 1993 and 1996, Inzaghi made 14 appearances for the Italy under-21 team, scoring three goals; he was also a member of the Italy under-21 squad that won the 1994 UEFA European Under-21 Football Championship. Inzaghi earned his first senior cap for Italy in the Tournoi de France, against Brazil on 8 June 1997, under his former under-21 manager Cesare Maldini, and provided an assist to goalscorer Alessandro Del Piero. Italy went on to draw 3–3. He scored his first goal for Italy on 18 November 1998, in a 2–2 friendly draw against Spain; he has since scored 25 goals in 57 appearances. He was called up for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, Euro 2000, the 2002 World Cup and the 2006 World Cup. Although Inzaghi went scoreless throughout the 1998 World Cup, as he was mainly deployed as a substitute, he came off the bench to set up a goal for Roberto Baggio in Italy's final group match against Austria, which ended in a 2–1 win, and allowed Italy to top their group; Italy were knocked out in the quarter finals on penalties to hosts and eventual champions France. At Euro 2000, he was one of Italy's starting strikers under the new Italy manager Dino Zoff. He scored two goals throughout the tournament; his first came from a penalty, in Italy's 2–1 opening group win over Turkey, in which he was named man of the match, while his second came in a 2–0 win over Romania in the quarter-finals of the competition; he also set up Stefano Fiore's goal in a 2–0 win over co-hosts Belgium in his nation's second group match of the tournament. His performances helped Italy reach the final, where they were defeated by France once again, on a golden goal. Along with Francesco Totti, he was Italy's top-scorer throughout the tournament. Under Zoff's replacement, Giovanni Trapattoni, Inzaghi was Italy's top goalscorer during the qualifying rounds of the 2002 World Cup and Euro 2004, scoring his first and only international hat-trick in a 4–0 home win over Wales on 6 September 2003, although he missed the latter tournament due to injury. He went scoreless throughout the 2002 World Cup, making two appearances, as Italy were controversially eliminated in the round of 16 to co-hosts South Korea; in Italy's 2–1 loss to Croatia in their second group match, Materazzi played a floating ball over the top from just over half way to Inzaghi in the 90th minute, but everyone missed the ball and it rolled into the back of the net, although the goal was disallowed after referee Graham Poll claimed that Inzaghi had grabbed an opponent's shirt. Inzaghi also had a goal wrongly disallowed in Italy's final group match against Mexico, which ended in a 1–1 draw. Inzaghi's persistent knee and ankle injuries put a halt to his international play for almost two years before his resurgence at club level, which resulted in being called up by Italy coach Marcello Lippi for the 2006 World Cup final tournament. Due to the abundance of other top strikers such as Alessandro Del Piero, Francesco Totti and Luca Toni, Inzaghi made his only appearance – subbing on for Alberto Gilardino — in Italy's final group stage match against the Czech Republic on 22 June 2006, scoring his only goal in the tournament, rounding Petr Čech in a one-on-one encounter to net in Italy's second goal, which made him the oldest player to have scored for Italy in a World Cup, after Daniele Massaro. Italy went on to win the tournament, defeating France on penalties in the final. Following Italy's fourth World Cup victory, Inzaghi made six appearances under new manager Roberto Donadoni in Italy's UEFA Euro 2008 qualification campaign, scoring three goals, two of which came in a 2–1 away win against the Faroe Islands on 2 June 2007. He was not called up for the final tournament, however, where Italy were eliminated by eventual champions Spain in the quarter-finals on penalties, and he made his last appearance for Italy on 8 September 2007, in a 0–0 draw against France in Milan. Inzaghi is currently the sixth-highest goalscorer in the Italian national team's history, with 25 goals, alongside Adolfo Baloncieri and Alessandro Altobelli.", "Inzaghi was an intelligent, extremely fast, and opportunistic player, with excellent reactions and a lanky, slender physique; although not very technically gifted, he was known for his great skill in taking advantage of the carelessness of his opponents, his excellent positional sense in the area, and his eye for goal, making a name for himself as a \"goal poacher\", due to his style of play and tendency to operate mainly in the penalty box. These qualities, along with his finishing ability with both his head and feet, made him one of the most prolific strikers of the past decades. Inzaghi was described as a player who lived on the offside line. When he was first called up to the national team, the other Italian players were surprised at his lack of technical accomplishment, but came to accept him because he scored so frequently. Johan Cruyff grudgingly described this contrast—\"Look, actually he can't play football at all. He's just always in the right position.\" Fans nicknamed him \"Super Pippo,\" the Italian name for the superhero alter–ego of Walt Disney's cartoon character Goofy. Tactically, Inzaghi was noted for his vision and ability to read the game, as well as his outstanding offensive movement off the ball, ability to play off the shoulders of the last defender, and to time his attacking runs to beat the offside trap, leading long-time Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson to quip, \"That lad must have been born offside.\" Although in the past, due to his poor defensive work-rate, and lack of notable technical skills, strength in the air, or long range striking ability, he was initially accused by some in the sport for being a limited striker or a \"lucky\" player, and also drew criticism at times for being selfish, for not participating in the build-up of plays, and for going to ground too easily, he has been praised by several of his former managers and teammates for his prolific goalscoring; Despite his lack of significant talent, Inzaghi and others attribute his success, aside from technical prowess, to personal drive, intelligence, and determination. Due to his opportunistic playing style, Inzaghi was frequently compared to Paolo Rossi throughout his career. Despite his prolific goalscoring, Inzaghi was often considered injury prone throughout his career.", "", "Inzaghi started his coaching career at the beginning of the 2012–13 season, signing a two-year deal as the head coach of Milan's \"Primavera\" (under-19) team. On 9 June 2014, Inzaghi was named manager of Milan's first team after the dismissal of his former \"Rossoneri\" teammate Clarence Seedorf. In Inzaghi's first match as a manager in Serie A on 31 August, Milan defeated Lazio 3–1 at the San Siro. Inzaghi then led Milan to a second consecutive win in an exciting match that ended with a 5–4 Milan win against Parma. On 4 June 2015 Adriano Galliani, the CEO of Milan, announced that Inzaghi would not be the coach for next season. He was officially dismissed on 16 June 2015.", "On 7 June 2016, Inzaghi was appointed as the new coach of ambitious Lega Pro club Venezia. On 19 April 2017, after beating Parma to top spot, he won promotion to Serie B as champions. He also won the Coppa Italia Lega Pro in the same season. During the 2017–18 season, Inzaghi guided the Venetians to a fifth-place finish in Serie B, finishing in the playoffs positions to earn promotion to Serie A. After eliminating Perugia (coached by his former teammate Alessandro Nesta) in the preliminary round, his team was defeated by Palermo in the semi-finals.", "On 13 June 2018, Inzaghi was announced as the new head coach of top-flight Bologna, taking over from Roberto Donadoni. He faced a Lazio side coached by his younger brother Simone in an eventual 0–2 defeat on 26 December. Following a record of two wins in 21 games, he was dismissed on 28 January 2019 and replaced by Siniša Mihajlović.", "On 22 June 2019, Inzaghi was appointed manager of Benevento in Serie B.", "Inzaghi features in EA Sports' \"FIFA\" video game series; he was on the cover for the Italian edition of \"FIFA 2001\", and was named in the Ultimate Team Legends in \"FIFA 14\". In 2015, the arcade game company Konami announced that Inzaghi would feature in their football video game \"Pro Evolution Soccer 2016\" as one of the new myClub Legends.", "", "<br> <br>", "", "", "Piacenza Juventus Milan", "Italy Youth Italy", "Venezia" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Social psychology research.", "Variables affecting bystanders.", "Emergency versus non-emergency situations.", "Ambiguity and consequences.", "Understanding of environment.", "Priming the bystander effect.", "Cohesiveness and group membership.", "Cultural differences.", "Diffusion of responsibility.", "Organizational ombuds practitioners' research.", "\"What Would You Do?\".", "Non-computer versus computers: computer mediated intervention.", "Children as bystanders.", "Implications of research.", "South African murder trials.", "Laws.", "Notable examples.", "Kitty Genovese.", "Larry Froistad.", "Jane Doe of Richmond High.", "Raymond Zack.", "Khaseen Morris.", "Reversal of bystander effect.", "Role of public self-awareness.", "Experiments." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The bystander effect was first demonstrated and popularized in the laboratory by social psychologists John M. Darley and Bibb Latané in 1968 after they became interested in the topic following the murder of Kitty Genovese in 1964. These researchers launched a series of experiments that resulted in one of the strongest and most replicable effects in social psychology. In a typical experiment, the participant is either alone or among a group of other participants or confederates. An emergency situation is staged and researchers measure how long it takes the participants to intervene, if they intervene. These experiments have found that the presence of others inhibits helping, often by a large margin. For example, Bibb Latané and Judith Rodin (1969) staged an experiment around a woman in distress, where subjects were either alone, with a friend, or with a stranger. 70 percent of the people alone called out or went to help the woman after they believed she had fallen and was hurt, but when paired with a stranger only 40 percent offered help. Philpot et al (2019) examined over 200 sets of real-life surveillance video recordings from the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and South Africa to answer \"the most pressing question for actual public victims\": whether help would be forthcoming at all. They found that intervention was the norm, and in over 90% of conflicts one or more bystanders intervened to provide help. Increased bystander presence can \"increase\" the likelihood that someone would intervene, even if the chance of each individual bystander responding is reduced.", "", "Latané and Darley performed three experiments to test bystander behavior in non-emergency situations. Their results indicated that the way in which the subjects were asked for help mattered. In one condition, subjects asked a bystander for his or her name. More people provided an answer when the students gave their name first. In another condition, the students asked bystanders for a dime. When the student gave an explanation, such as saying that their wallet had been stolen, the percentage of people giving assistance was higher (72%) than when the student just asked for a dime (34%). Additional research by Faul, Mark, et al., using data collected by EMS officials when responding to an emergency, indicated that the response of bystanders was correlated with the health severity of the situation. According to Latané and Darley, there are five characteristics of emergencies that affect bystanders: Due to these five characteristics, bystanders go through cognitive and behavioural processes: \"Notice\": To test the concept of \"noticing,\" Latane and Darley (1968) staged an emergency using Columbia University students. The students were placed in a room—either alone,", "Ambiguity is one factor that affects whether or not a person assists another in need. In some cases of high ambiguity, it can take a person or group up to five times as long before taking action than in cases of low ambiguity. In these cases,", "Whether or not a bystander intervenes may have to do with their familiarity of the environment where the emergency occurs. If the bystander is familiar with the", "Research done by Garcia et al. (2002) indicate that priming a social context may inhibit", "Group cohesiveness is another variable that can affect the helping behaviour of a bystander. As defined by Rutkowski et al., cohesiveness refers to an established relationship (friends, acquaintances) between two or more people. Experiments have been done to test the performance of bystanders when they are in groups with people they have been acquainted with. According to Rutkowski et al., the social responsibility norm affects helping behavior. The norm of social responsibility states that \"people should help others who are in need of help and who are dependent on them", "In discussing the case of Wang Yue and a later incident in China, in which CCTV footage from a Shanghai subway showed passengers fleeing from a foreigner who fainted, UCLA anthropologist Yunxiang Yan said that the reactions can be explained not only by previous reports of scamming from older people for helping, but also by historical cultural differences in Chinese agrarian society, in which there was a stark contrast between how individuals associated with ingroup and outgroup members, saying, \"How to treat strangers nicely is one of the biggest challenges in contemporary Chinese society...The prevailing ethical system in traditional China is based on close-knit community ties, kinship", "Darley and Latané (1968) conducted research on diffusion of responsibility. The findings suggest that in the case of an emergency, when people believe that there are other people around, they are less likely or slower to help a victim because they believe someone else will take responsibility. People may also fail to take responsibility for a situation depending on the context. They may assume that other bystanders are more qualified to help, such as doctors or police officers, and that their intervention would be unneeded. They may also be afraid of being superseded by a superior helper, offering unwanted assistance, or facing the legal consequences of offering inferior and possibly dangerous assistance. For this reason, some legislations, such as \"Good Samaritan Laws\" limit liability for those attempting to provide medical services and non-medical services in an emergency.", "A 2009 study published by International Ombudsman Association in the Journal of the International Ombudsman Association suggests that—in reality—there are dozens of reasons why people do not act on the spot or come forward in the workplace when they see behavior they consider unacceptable. The most important reasons cited for not acting were: the fear of loss of important relationships in and out of the workplace, and a fear of \"bad consequences.\" There also were many reasons given by people who did act on the spot or come forward to authorities. This practitioners' study suggests that the \"bystander effect\" can be studied and analyzed in a much broader fashion. The broader view includes not just a) what bystanders do in singular", "John Quiñones' primetime show, \"\" on ABC, tests the bystander effect. Actors are used to act out (typically", "Research suggests that the bystander effect may be present in computer-mediated communication situations. Evidence demonstrates that people can be bystanders even when they cannot see the person in distress. In the experiment, 400 online chat groups were observed. One of two confederates were used as victims in each chat room: either a male victim whose screen name was Jake Harmen or a female victim whose screen name was Suzy Harmen. The purpose of the experiment was to determine whether or not the gender of the victim mattered, if the size of each chat group had any effect and if asking for a person's help by directly using their screen name would have any effect.", "Although most research has been conducted on adults, children can be bystanders too. A study conducted by Robert Thornberg in 2007 came up with seven reasons why children do not help when another classmate is in distress. These include: trivialisation, dissociation, embarrassment association, busy working priority, compliance with a competitive norm, audience modelling, and responsibility transfer. In a further study, Thornberg concluded that there are seven stages of moral deliberation as a bystander in bystander situations among the Swedish schoolchildren he observed and interviewed: (a) \"noticing that something is wrong\", i.e., children pay selective attention to their environment, and sometimes they do not tune in on a distressed peer if they are in a hurry or their view is obstructed, (b) \"interpreting a need for help\"—sometimes children", "", "In an effort to make South African courts more just in their convictions, the concept of \"extenuating circumstances\" came into being. However, no concrete definition of extenuating circumstances was ever made. The South African courts began using the testimony of expert social psychologists to define what extenuating circumstances would mean in the justice system. Examples include: deindividuation, bystander apathy, and conformity. In the case of \"S. vs. Sibisi and Others (1989)\" eight members of the South African Railways and Harbours Union were involved in the murder of four workers who chose not to join in the SARHWU strike. Psychologists", "Some parts of the world have included laws that hold bystanders responsible when they witness an emergency. In the US, Good Samaritan laws have been implemented to protect bystanders who acted in good faith. Many organizations are including bystander training. For example, the United States Department of the Army is doing bystander training with respect to sexual assault. Some organizations routinely do bystander training with respect to safety issues. Others have been doing", "", "The murder of Kitty Genovese is the case that originally stimulated social psychological research into the \"bystander effect\". On March 13, 1964 Genovese was stabbed, sexually assaulted, and murdered while walking home from work at 3 am in Queens, New York. According to a sensationalized article in \"The New York Times\", 38 witnesses watched the stabbings but did not intervene or even call the police until after the attacker fled and Genovese had died. The shocking account drew widespread public attention and many newspaper editorials. Psychology researchers Latané and Darley attributed the lack of help", "In 1998, Larry Froistad posted a confession that he murdered his five-year-old daughter on an official email list for Moderation Management. Froistad claimed that he had intentionally set his Bowman, North Dakota home on fire in October 1995, while his daughter Amanda was asleep inside. Three of the approximately 200 members of the email", "On October 24, 2009, a female student of Richmond High School was gang-raped and beaten by a group of boys and men after a classmate invited her to a dark courtyard outside the school's homecoming dance. It was reported that she was treated politely and drank brandy with the", "On Memorial Day, 2011, 53-year-old Raymond Zack, of Alameda, California, walked into the waters off Robert Crown Memorial Beach and stood neck deep in water roughly 150 yards offshore for almost an hour. His foster mother, Dolores Berry, called 9-1-1 and said that he was trying to drown himself. (There are conflicting reports about Zack's intentions.) Firefighters and police responded but did not enter the water. The firefighters called for a", "On September 16, 2019, 16-year-old Khaseen Morris was stabbed in the chest during an after-school fight with a fellow student in the parking lot of a shopping center near Oceanside High School in Nassau County, New York. Watching the fight was a group of 50 to 70 other students. News reports indicate that none of the people witnessing the fight came to Khaseen's aid.", "", "In many cases, it is believed that individuals like to view themselves as noble by offering help. This concept is related to the notion of self-awareness. If it is true that people focus on the impression they make on others, then public-awareness through the use of accountability", "To investigate if people would help others in the presence of bystanders alone or when introducing an accountability cue, van Bommel set out to perform two experiments. For the first experiment, participants were invited to join an online forum. A sample of 86 students was used and in the forum participants saw their own name and the names of the other people that were online in the left upper half of the screen. To operationalize the accountability cue, participants' names were displayed in either red or black. Red (salient condition), utilized to attract attention and stand out, was used to raise public self-awareness while black (non-salient) was used for participants to have the same color as other bystanders. In random order, five different messages were presented to the participants. Each of these messages was a personal story of a person in distress. The number of responses a participant typed measured the helping behavior from participants and as expected, the results showed that names in black (non-salient condition) were linked to the bystander effect with the amount of help being" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins.", "History.", "Relationship with jungle.", "Role of MCs.", "Speed garage.", "Two-step (1997–1999).", "American influences.", "1999–2000: Role of pirate radio, UK chart success.", "2001 hits.", "2002: 2-step and grime.", "2007: Garage revival.", "2010s resurgence.", "Genres evolved from garage.", "Dubstep.", "UK funky.", "Future garage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The evolution of house music in the United Kingdom in the mid-1990s led to the term, as previously coined by the Paradise Garage DJs, being applied to a new form of music also known speed garage. Its originator is widely recognised to be Todd Edwards, the American house and garage producer, also known as Todd \"The God\" Edwards. In the early nineties, Edwards began to start remixing more soulful house records and incorporating more time-shifts and vocal samples than normal house records, whilst still living in the US. However, it was not until DJ EZ, the North London DJ, acquired one of Edwards' tracks and played it at a faster tempo in a nightclub in Greenwich, that the music genre really took off. In the late nineties, the term \"UK garage\" was settled upon by the scene. This style is now frequently combined with other forms of music like soul, rap, reggae, ragga and R&B, all broadly filed under the description of urban music. The pronunciation of UK garage uses, rather than. Artists such as Craig David, Grant Nelson, MJ Cole, Artful Dodger, Jaimeson, So Solid Crew, Heartless Crew, The Streets, Shanks & Bigfoot, DJ Luck & MC Neat, Sunship (Ceri Evans), Oxide and Neutrino and numerous others have made garage music mainstream in the UK, whilst Dizzee Rascal, Wiley and Kano's arrival raised the profile of grime, an offshoot of garage. Cole once stated, \"London is a multicultural city... it's like a melting pot of young people, and that's reflected in the music of UK garage\". Notable female singers who have had the genre incorporated into their songs include Lisa Maffia, Ms. Dynamite, Kele Le Roc, Shola Ama, Sweet Female Attitude and Mis-Teeq.", "", "In the United Kingdom, where jungle was very popular at the time, garage was played in a second room at jungle events. After jungle's peak in cultural significance, it had turned towards a harsher, more techstep influenced sound, driving away dancers, predominantly women. Escaping the 170bpm jungle basslines, the garage rooms had a much more sensual and soulful sound at 130bpm. DJs started to speed up garage tracks to make them more suitable for the jungle audience in the UK. The media started to call this tempo-altered type of garage music \"speed garage\", 4x4 and 2-step's predecessor. DJs would usually play dub versions (arrangements without vocals) of garage tracks, because pitch-shifting vocals could sometimes render the music unrecognizable (although sped up and time-stretched vocals were an important part of the early jungle sound, and later played a key role in speed garage). The absence of vocals left space in the music for MCs, who started rhyming to the records.", "Since then, MCs have become one of the vital aspects of speed and UK garage parties and records. Early promoters of speed garage included the Dreem Teem and Tuff Jam, and pirate radio stations such as London Underground, Magic FM, Upfront FM, and Freek FM. During its initial phase, the speed garage scene was also known as \"the Sunday Scene\", as initially speed garage promoters could only hire venues on Sunday evenings (venue owners preferred to save Friday and Saturday nights for more popular musical styles). Labels whose outputs would become synonymous with the emerging speed garage sound included Confetti, Public Demand, 500 Rekords, Spread Love and VIP.", "Speed garage already incorporated many aspects of today's UK garage sound like sub-bass lines, ragga vocals, spin backs and reversed drums. What changed over time, until the so-called 2-step sound emerged, was the addition of further funky elements like contemporary R&B styled vocals, more shuffled beats and a different drum pattern. The most radical change from speed garage to 2-step was the removal of the 2nd and 4th bass kick from each bar. Although tracks with only two kick drum beats to a bar are perceived as being slower than the traditional four-to-the-floor beat, the listener's interest is maintained by the introduction of syncopating bass lines and the percussive use of other instruments such as pads and strings. Speed garage tracks were characterised by a sped-up house-style beat, complemented by the rolling snares and reverse-warped basslines that were popular with drum and bass producers of the time. Among those credited with honing the speed garage sound, Todd Edwards is often cited as a seminal influence on the UK garage sound. The producer from New Jersey introduced a new way of working with vocals. Instead of having full verses and choruses, he picked out vocal phrases and played them like an instrument, using sampling technology. Often, individual syllables were reversed or pitch-shifted. This type of vocal treatment is still a key characteristic of the UK garage style. Armand Van Helden's speed garage remix of Sneaker Pimps' \"Spin Spin Sugar\" in 1997 further popularized the genre which is sometimes credited with breaking speed garage into the mainstream. Huge club hits in 1997 came from speed garage duos Double 99, 187 Lockdown and Industry Standard. The former two both scored UK Top 20 hits in 1997 and 1998; Double 99's \"RipGroove\" reached #14 in its second release and 187 Lockdown's \"Gunman\" and \"Kung-Fu\" reached #16 and #9, respectively. Industry Standard scored a Top 40 hit with \"Vol. 1 (What You Want What You Need)\" peaking at #34 in January 1998, and the 1997 XL Recordings release of Somore featuring Damon Trueitt's \"I Refuse (What You Want)\" reached #21 also in January 1998, containing mixes by Industry Standard, Ramsey & Fen, R.I.P. Productions and Serious Danger. The UK's counterpart to Todd Edwards was MJ Cole, a classically trained oboe and piano player, who had a string of chart and underground hits in the late 1990s and early 2000s, most notably with \"Sincere\" and \"Crazy Love\". MJ Cole has also won a BBC \"Young Musician of the Year\" award.", "Arguably one of the earliest examples of a 2-step track is the 1997 hit \"Never Gonna Let You Go\" by Tina Moore, which peaked at #7 on the UK chart. Roy Davis Jr. was also influential in the UK garage scene, with the huge club hit \"Gabriel\" featuring Peven Everett, released in 1997 on XL Recordings and reaching #22 on the UK chart. Lovestation released their version of \"Teardrops\" which reached #14 in 1998. Doolally, the former name of Shanks & Bigfoot, scored a #20 hit in 1998 with \"Straight from the Heart\". A re-release of this song the following year fared even better, peaking at #9, due to the success of their #1 single \"Sweet Like Chocolate\". Jess Jackson was responsible for many garage records but one which stood out was \"Hobson's Choice\". The B-side of this record changed the UK garage scene from funky and soulful to dark and bassy. Another example of the evolution in 2-step was the release of \"Troublesome\" in 1999 by Shy Cookie and DJ Luck, in which non-sampled 2-step beats were merged with a full ragga vocal (performed by ragga artist Troublesome).", "Timbaland, a popular contemporary R&B producer in America, was the major innovator behind contemporary R&B at the time, from which UK rave culture borrowed heavily. The use of rhythmic patterns as melodic hooks is shared by both contemporary R&B and jungle, making it very appealing to the significantly ex-junglist UK garage scene. This style of Timbaland's R&B possesses a breakbeat aesthetic: breakup of the flow of four-to-the-floor rhythm, hesitations into the groove, and teasing and tantalizing gaps. As much as these R&B influences can be heard in early UK garage, the genre offered more complex drum beats, with heavy syncopation (swing) and a more energetic feel due to a higher tempo (normally between 130 and 138 BPM). However, in tracks like \"Twentyfourseven\" by Artful Dodger, a slower and simpler R&B infused drum pattern can be heard. This was to allow for these tracks to be aimed at a more commercial scene rather than for the dance floor. Garage producers then proceeded to churn out UK versions of US contemporary R&B hits, notably with Brandy and Monica's \"The Boy Is Mine\". The Architechs sped up the vocals through time-stretching and added sound effects to increase the competitive nature. \"B&M Remix\" eventually sold twenty thousand copies as a bootleg. Also borrowed from US contemporary R&B is the use of \"vocal science\", the technique of digitally altering vocal samples with devices such as the Autotuner. What results is a posthuman mix between person and technology.", "With the continued support of pirate radio stations such as Rinse FM, Ice FM, Deja Vu, and Flex FM, the soaring popularity of UK garage saw 1999 take the genre into the mainstream, breaking into the music charts. Production duos Shanks & Bigfoot and Artful Dodger were very successful with the tracks \"Sweet Like Chocolate\" and \"Re-Rewind\", respectively. After the platinum-selling success of \"Sweet Like Chocolate\", the floodgates had opened. Although \"Re-Rewind\" was denied a #1 position by Cliff Richard and his song \"The Millennium Prayer\", it was also a platinum seller, one of the garage scene's first and last. They became anthems for the 2-step scene, and got onto BBC's \"Top of the Pops\". Other huge hits in 1999 include the #1 house/garage anthem \"You Don't Know Me\" by Armand Van Helden. Although not UK garage, Mr. Oizo's #1 single \"Flat Beat\" received extensive airplay on pirate radio stations upon release, thus leading to numerous UK garage/2-step remixes of the track. Da Click (Pied Piper, MC Creed, PSG, Unknown MC and singer Valerie M) had a #14 hit with \"Good Rhymes\". Garage trio the Dreem Teem had a #15 hit with \"Buddy X 99\", a garage remix of Neneh Cherry's 1992 song \"Buddy X\". DJ Luck & MC Neat also had a chart hit with \"A Little Bit of Luck\" in late 1999 into early 2000. Many more UK garage acts followed into the new millennium by releasing commercially successful singles, thus making UK garage and 2-step a stable fixture on the UK charts for the next couple of years. Debut singles of various UK garage artists were hitting the number one spot on the UK charts. Craig David's debut solo single \"Fill Me In\", a mix of R&B and 2-step, with single formats containing various garage remixes of the track, hit #1 in April 2000. A month later, Oxide & Neutrino's \"Bound 4 Da Reload (Casualty)\" reached the top of the charts. Other hits in 2000 include Artful Dodger's \"Movin' Too Fast\" (#2), \"Woman Trouble\" (#6) and \"Please Don't Turn Me On\" (#4), Sweet Female Attitude's \"Flowers\" (#2), True Steppers' \"Buggin\" (#6) and \"Out of Your Mind\" (#2), N'n'G featuring Kallaghan and MC Neat's \"Right Before My Eyes\" (#12), DJ Dee Kline's \"I Don't Smoke\" (#11), B-15 Project's \"Girls Like Us\" (#7), DJ Luck & MC Neat's \"Masterblaster 2000\" (#5) and \"Ain't No Stoppin' Us\" (#8), Shanks & Bigfoot's \"Sing-A-Long\" (#12), MJ Cole's \"Crazy Love\" (#10) and \"Sincere\" (#13), the latter a re-release, having been originally released in 1998; Scott & Leon's \"You Used to Hold Me\" (#19), Wookie's \"Battle\" (#10), Lonyo's \"Summer of Love\" (#8), Tru Faith & Dub Conspiracy's \"Freak Like Me\" (#12), Architechs' \"Body Groove\" (#3), Oxide & Neutrino's \"No Good 4 Me\" (#6) and Baby D's \"Let Me Be Your Fantasy\" (#16), a garage remix by Trick or Treat featuring MC Tails. Another huge hit in 2000 was the Timo Maas remix of the song \"Dooms Night\" (#8) by German producer Azzido Da Bass, which was heavily associated with UK garage at the time, having become a major club hit and appearing on several UK garage compilations. It was also remixed by garage duo Stanton Warriors.", "2001 gave DJ Pied Piper and the Masters of Ceremonies their one and only number one hit record with \"Do You Really Like It?\". Two months later in August 2001, South London collective So Solid Crew hit the top spot with their second single \"21 Seconds\". The end of 2001 saw yet another 2-step anthem reach the top of the UK charts for Daniel Bedingfield, with his debut single \"Gotta Get Thru This\". Other chart hits in 2001 include the Sunship mixes of Mis-Teeq's \"Why\" (#8), \"All I Want\" (#2) and \"One Night Stand\" (#5), Artful Dodger's \"Think About Me\" (#11), \"TwentyFourSeven\" (#6) and \"It Ain't Enough\" with the Dreem Teem (#20), Genius Cru's \"Boom Selection\" (#12), Liberty's \"Thinking It Over\" (#5), Sticky featuring Ms. Dynamite's \"Booo!\" (#12), Oxide & Neutrino's \"Up Middle Finger\" (#7), \"Devil's Nightmare\" (#16) and \"Rap Dis\"/\"Only Wanna Know U Cos Ure Famous\" (#12), DJ Luck & MC Neat's \"Piano Loco\" (#12) and \"I'm All About You\" (#18), The Streets' \"Has It Come to This?\" (#18), Wideboys' \"Sambuca\" (#15), and So Solid Crew's \"They Don't Know\" (#3).", "2002 saw an evolution as 2-step moved away from its funky and soul-oriented sound into a darker direction called \"grime\", now a genre in its own right. During this period, traditional UK garage was pushed back underground amongst the bad publicity emanating from the tougher side of the genre, and publicised violence surrounding members of the So Solid Crew. Nonetheless, several UK garage songs did appear on the charts from 2002 to 2004, including Distant Soundz' version of \"Time After Time\" (#20), So Solid Crew's \"Haters\" (#8) and \"Ride wid Us\" (#19), Mis-Teeq's \"B with Me\" (#5), Heartless Crew's \"The Heartless Theme\" (#21), Pay As U Go's \"Champagne Dance\" (#13), Jaimeson's \"True\" (#4), Mr Reds vs DJ Skribble's \"Everybody Come On (Can U Feel It)\" (#13), and 3 of a Kind's \"Baby Cakes\" which was a number one hit in August 2004. Notable early grime artists around 2001–03 include Ruff Sqwad, More Fire Crew, Dizzee Rascal (who released his debut album \"Boy in da Corner\" in 2003), Roll Deep and Wiley. During this time, there was also a strong division of class in UK garage. In the heyday of garage, the late 1990s, it was a highly aspirational genre. When people went to the club to hear garage, they dressed very nice. Clubs like Twice as Nice enforced a dress code. Having a formal dress code took the importance placed on nice clothes from a style to exclusionary. The dress code in clubs like Twice as Nice were meant to \"encourage people to make an effort\" and \"keep trouble out.\" But when the dress code of no tennis shoes, jeans, or baseball caps only kept white college students out, the club installed a metal detector, because \"gangstas like to dress expensive,\" but theoretically could still carry a gun. Eventually, when groups like So Solid Crew attracted more urban, lower-class audiences to raves because of their lyrics over the garage tracks, garage began to transition to grime because previous audiences were less likely to listen, so radios and clubs stopped giving garage opportunities.", "In 2007, several DJs helped promote and revive UK garage's popularity, with producers creating new UK garage, also known as \"new skool\" UK garage or \"bassline\". The end of 2007 saw \"new skool\" UK garage push to the mainstream again with notable tracks such as T2's \"Heartbroken\" and H \"Two\" O's \"What's It Gonna Be\" both reaching the mainstream charts. The revival was galvanised by DJ EZ releasing \"Pure Garage Rewind: Back to the Old Skool\", which contained three CDs of \"old skool\" UK garage and a fourth CD with fresh \"new skool\" UK garage.", "Early 2011 saw the start of a gradual resurgence of 2-step garage. Producers such as Wookie, MJ Cole, Zed Bias and Mark Hill (formerly one half of Artful Dodger) made a return to the scene, by producing tracks with more of a 2-step feel. Electronic music duos Disclosure and AlunaGeorge, both successful throughout 2012 and 2013, often use elements of UK garage in their music, and arguably, some of their biggest hits including \"You & Me\" and \"We Are Chosen\" respectively, are entirely 2-step with an updated cleaner sound. Shortly following this, \"original\" style garage had made a return in a big way, with producers such as Moony, DJD and Tuff Culture paving the way. One of the genre's pioneering labels, Ice Cream Records, responsible for anthems such as \"RipGroove\", True Steppers' \"Out of Your Mind\", Kele Le Roc's \"My Love\" and more, opened up their permanent roster for the first time to include DJs outside of the legendary trio that launched the label. AJ Tracey's song \"Ladbroke Grove\" initially debuted at number 48 on the UK Singles Chart in February 2019, then eventually peaked at number three in October 2019 following its release as a single. In September 2019, the British Phonographic Industry certified the song as Platinum for exceeding chart sales of 600,000. It was one of the best-selling songs of 2019. Other hits in the 2010s include Toddla T's \"Take It Back\", All About She's \"Higher (Free)\", Naughty Boy's \"La La La\", Shift K3Y's \"Touch\", Chase & Status' \"Blk & Blu\", M.O's \"Dance On My Own\", Disclosure's \"Omen\" and Craig David's \"When the Bassline Drops\" and \"One More Time\".", "", "The dark garage sound that was being produced by the likes of Wookie, Zed Bias, Shy Cookie, El-B and Artwork (of DND) in the late 1990s would set the groundwork for both grime and a genre called dubstep. Developing in parallel to grime, dubstep would take a mostly instrumental stripped down form of dark garage and with it bring in production values and influences from dub reggae.", "Some UK garage/dubstep/grime/bassline producers have moved to a different sound called UK funky, which takes production values from many different shades of soulful house music with elements of UK garage and blends them at a standard house music tempo, and soca with tribal style percussion from afrobeat.", "A contemporary offshoot of dubstep heavily influenced by UK garage is future garage." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Etymology.", "Comparison with drive mechanisms.", "Types.", "External vs internal gears.", "Spur.", "Helical.", "Skew gears.", "Double helical.", "Bevel.", "Spiral bevels.", "Hypoid.", "Crown.", "Worm.", "Non-circular.", "Rack and pinion.", "Epicyclic.", "Sun and planet.", "Harmonic gear.", "Cage gear.", "Magnetic gear.", "Nomenclature.", "Pitch.", "Backlash.", "Shifting of gears.", "Tooth profile.", "Gear materials.", "Standard pitches and the module system.", "Manufacture.", "Gear model in modern physics.", "Gear mechanism in natural world.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Early examples of gears date from the 4th century BC in China (Zhan Guo times – Late East Zhou dynasty), which have been preserved at the Luoyang Museum of Henan Province, China. The earliest preserved gears in Europe were found in the Antikythera mechanism, an example of a very early and intricate geared device, designed to calculate astronomical positions. Its time of construction is now estimated between 150 and 100 BC. Gears appear in works connected to Hero of Alexandria, in Roman", "The word gear is probably from Old Norse \"gørvi\" (plural \"gørvar\") 'apparel, gear,' related to \"gøra\", \"gørva\" 'to make, construct, build; set in order, prepare,' a common verb in Old Norse, \"used in a wide range of situations from writing a book to dressing meat\". In this context, the meaning of 'toothed wheel in machinery' first attested 1520s; specific mechanical sense of 'parts by which a motor communicates motion' is from 1814; specifically of a vehicle (bicycle, automobile, etc.) by 1888. A cog is a tooth on a wheel. From Middle English cogge, from Old Norse (compare Norwegian \"kugg\" ('cog'), Swedish \"kugg\", \"kugge\" ('cog, tooth')), from Proto-Germanic *\"kuggō\" (compare Dutch \"kogge\" ('cogboat'), German \"Kock\"), from Proto-Indo-European *\"gugā\" ('hump, ball') (compare Lithuanian \"gugà\" ('pommel, hump, hill'), from PIE *\"gēw-\" ('to", "The definite ratio that teeth give gears provides an advantage over other drives (such as traction drives and V-belts) in precision machines such as watches that depend upon an exact velocity", "", "An \"external gear\" is one with the teeth formed on the outer surface of a cylinder or cone. Conversely, an \"internal gear\" is one", "\"Spur gears\" or \"straight-cut gears\" are the simplest type of gear. They consist of a cylinder or disk with teeth projecting radially. Though the teeth are not straight-sided (but usually of special form to achieve a constant drive", "\"Helical\" or \"dry fixed\" gears offer a refinement over spur gears. The leading edges of the teeth are not parallel to the axis of rotation, but are set at an angle. Since the gear is curved, this angling makes the tooth shape a segment of a helix. Helical gears can be meshed in \"parallel\" or \"crossed\" orientations. The former refers to when the shafts are parallel to each other; this is the most common orientation. In the latter, the shafts are non-parallel, and in this configuration the gears are sometimes known as \"skew gears\". The angled teeth engage more gradually than do spur gear teeth, causing them to run more smoothly and quietly.", "For a \"crossed\" or \"skew\" configuration, the gears must have the same pressure angle and normal pitch; however, the helix angle and handedness can be different. The relationship between the two shafts is actually defined by the helix angle(s) of the two shafts and the handedness, as defined: where formula_3 is the helix angle for the gear. The crossed configuration is less mechanically sound because there is only a point contact between the gears, whereas in the parallel configuration there is a line contact. Quite commonly, helical gears are", "Double helical gears overcome the problem of axial thrust presented by single helical gears by using a double set of teeth, slanted in opposite directions. A double helical gear can be thought of as two mirrored helical gears mounted closely together on a common axle. This arrangement cancels out the net axial thrust, since each half of the gear thrusts in the opposite direction, resulting in a net axial force of zero. This arrangement can also remove the need for thrust bearings. However, double helical gears are more difficult to manufacture due to their more complicated shape. Herringbone gears are a special type of helical gears. They do not have a groove in the middle like some other double helical gears do; the two mirrored helical gears", "A bevel gear is shaped like a right circular cone with most of its tip cut off. When two bevel gears mesh, their imaginary vertices must occupy the same point. Their shaft", "Spiral bevel gears can be manufactured as Gleason types (circular arc with non-constant tooth depth), Oerlikon and Curvex types (circular arc with constant tooth depth), Klingelnberg Cyclo-Palloid (Epicycloid with constant tooth depth) or Klingelnberg Palloid. Spiral bevel gears have the same advantages and disadvantages relative to their straight-cut cousins as helical gears do to spur gears. Straight bevel gears are generally used only at speeds below 5 m/s (1000 ft/min), or, for small gears, 1000 r.p.m.", "Hypoid gears resemble spiral bevel gears except the shaft axes do not intersect. The pitch surfaces appear conical but, to compensate for the offset shaft, are in fact hyperboloids of revolution. Hypoid gears are almost always designed to operate with shafts at 90 degrees. Depending on which side the shaft is offset to, relative to the angling of the teeth, contact between hypoid gear teeth may be even smoother and more gradual than with spiral bevel gear teeth, but also have a sliding action along the meshing teeth as it", "\"Crown gears\" or \"contrate gears\" are a particular form of bevel gear whose teeth project at right angles to the plane of the wheel; in their orientation the teeth", "\"Worms\" resemble screws. A worm is meshed with a \"worm wheel\", which looks similar to a spur gear. Worm-and-gear sets are a simple and compact way to achieve a high torque, low speed gear ratio. For example, helical gears are normally limited to gear ratios of less than 10:1 while worm-and-gear sets vary from 10:1 to 500:1. A disadvantage is the potential for considerable sliding action, leading to low efficiency. A worm gear is a species of helical gear, but its helix angle is usually somewhat large (close to 90 degrees) and its body is usually fairly long in the axial direction. These attributes give it screw like qualities. The distinction between a worm and a helical gear is that at least one tooth persists for a full rotation around the helix. If this occurs, it is a 'worm'; if not, it is a 'helical gear'. A worm may have as few as one tooth. If that tooth persists for several turns around the helix, the worm appears, superficially, to have more than one tooth, but what one in fact sees is the same tooth reappearing at intervals along", "Non-circular gears are designed for special purposes. While a regular gear is optimized to transmit torque to another engaged member with", "A rack is a toothed bar or rod that can be thought of as a sector gear with an infinitely large radius of curvature. Torque can be converted to linear force by meshing a rack with a pinion: the pinion turns; the rack moves in a straight line. Such a mechanism", "In epicyclic gearing one or more of the gear axes moves. Examples are sun and planet gearing (see below), cycloidal drive, and mechanical differentials.", "Sun and planet gearing is a method of converting reciprocating motion into rotary motion that was used in steam engines. James Watt used it on his early steam engines to get around the patent on the crank, but it also provided the advantage of increasing the flywheel speed so Watt could use a lighter flywheel. In the illustration, the sun is yellow, the planet red, the reciprocating arm is blue, the flywheel is green and the driveshaft is gray.", "A \"harmonic gear\" or \"strain wave gear\" is a specialized gearing mechanism often used in industrial motion control, robotics and aerospace for its advantages over traditional gearing", "A \"cage gear\", also called a \"lantern gear\" or \"lantern pinion\", has cylindrical rods for teeth, parallel to the axle and arranged in a circle around it, much as the bars on a round bird cage or lantern. The assembly is held together by disks at each end, into which the tooth rods and axle are set. Cage gears are more efficient", "All cogs of each gear component of magnetic gears act as a constant magnet with periodic alternation of opposite magnetic poles on mating surfaces. Gear components are mounted with a backlash capability similar to other mechanical gearings. Although they cannot exert as much force as a traditional gear, such gears work without touching and so are immune to wear, have very low noise", "", "Pitch is the distance between a point on one tooth and the corresponding point on an adjacent tooth. It is a dimension measured along a line or", "Backlash is the error in motion that occurs when gears change direction. It exists because there is always some gap between the trailing face of the driving tooth and the leading face of the tooth behind it on the driven gear, and that gap must be closed before force can be transferred in the new direction. The term \"backlash\" can also be used to refer to the size of the gap, not just the phenomenon it causes; thus, one could speak of a pair of gears as having, for example, \"0.1 mm of backlash.\" A pair of gears could be designed to have zero backlash, but this would presuppose perfection in manufacturing, uniform thermal expansion characteristics throughout the system, and no lubricant. Therefore, gear pairs are designed", "In some machines (e.g., automobiles) it is necessary to alter the gear ratio to suit the task, a process known as gear shifting or changing gear. There are several ways of shifting gears, for example: There are several outcomes of gear shifting in motor vehicles. In the case of vehicle noise emissions, there are higher sound", "A profile is one side of a tooth in a cross section between the outside circle and the root circle. Usually a profile is the curve of intersection of a tooth surface and a plane or surface normal to the pitch surface, such as the transverse, normal, or axial plane. The fillet curve (root fillet) is the concave portion of the tooth profile where it joins the bottom of the tooth space. As mentioned near the beginning of the article, the attainment of a nonfluctuating velocity ratio is dependent on the profile of the teeth. Friction and wear between two gears is also dependent on the tooth profile. There are a great many tooth profiles that provide constant velocity ratios. In many cases, given an arbitrary", "Numerous nonferrous alloys, cast irons, powder-metallurgy and plastics are used in the manufacture of gears. However, steels are most commonly used because of their high strength-to-weight ratio and low cost. Plastic is commonly used where cost or weight is a concern. A properly designed plastic gear can replace steel in many cases because it has many desirable properties, including dirt tolerance, low speed meshing, the ability to \"skip\" quite well and the ability to be made with materials that don't need additional lubrication.", "Although gears can be made with any pitch, for convenience and interchangeability standard pitches are frequently used. Pitch is a property associated with linear dimensions and so differs whether the standard values are in the imperial (inch) or metric systems. Using \"inch\" measurements, standard diametral pitch values with units of \"per inch\" are chosen; the \"diametral pitch\" is the number of teeth on a gear of one inch pitch diameter. Common standard values for spur gears are 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 24, 32, 48, 64, 72, 80, 96, 100, 120, and 200. Certain standard pitches such as \"1/10\" and \"1/20\" in inch measurements, which mesh", "As of 2014, an estimated 80% of all gearing produced worldwide is produced by net shape molding. Molded gearing is usually either powder metallurgy or plastic. Many gears are done when they leave the mold (including injection molded plastic and die cast metal gears), but powdered metal gears require sintering and sand castings or", "Modern physics adopted the gear model in different ways. In the nineteenth century, James Clerk Maxwell developed a model of electromagnetism in which magnetic field lines were rotating tubes of incompressible fluid. Maxwell used a gear wheel and called it an \"idle wheel\" to explain", "The gear mechanism was previously considered exclusively artificial, but in 2013, scientists from the University of Cambridge announced their discovery that the juvenile form of a common insect \"Issus\" (species Issus coleoptratus), found in many European gardens, has a", "Bibliography" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Administrative overheads.", "Examples.", "Employee salaries.", "Office equipment and supplies.", "External legal and audit fees.", "Company cars.", "Travel and entertainment costs.", "Manufacturing overheads.", "Examples.", "Employee salaries.", "Depreciation of assets and equipment.", "Property taxes on production facilities.", "Rent of factory building.", "Utilities for factory.", "Application of business overheads.", "Break-even analysis.", "Shut-down graph.", "Activity-based costing.", "Balance sheet." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Administrative overheads include items such as utilities, strategic planning, and various supporting functions. These costs are treated as overheads due to the fact that they aren't directly related to any particular function of the organization nor does it directly result in generating any profits. Instead, these costs simply take on the role of supporting all of the business' other functions. Universities regularly charge administrative overhead rates on research. In the U.S. the average overhead rate is 52%, which is spent on building operation, administrative salaries and other areas not directly tied to research. Academics have argued against these charges. For example, Benjamin Ginsberg showed how overhead rates are primarily used to subsidize ballooning administrative salaries and building depreciation, neither of which directly benefit research; although it does benefit the administrators that determine university policy in his book The Fall of Faculty. An article written by Joshua Pearce in Science argued that overhead accounting practices hurt science by removing funds from research and discouraging the use of less-expensive open source hardware. He went into detail on the accounting showing how millions were wasted each year on overhead cash grabs by university administrators in ZME Science.", "", "This includes mainly monthly and annual salaries that are agreed upon. They are considered overheads as these costs must be paid regardless of sales and profits of the company. In addition, salary differs from wage as salary is not affected by working hours and time, therefore will remain constant. In particular, this would more commonly apply to more senior staff members as they are typically signed to longer tenure contracts, meaning that their salaries are more commonly predetermined.", "This includes office equipment such as printer, fax machine, computers, refrigerator, etc. They are equipment that do not directly result in sales and profits as they are only used for supporting functions that they can provide to business operations. However, equipment can vary between administrative overheads and manufacturing overheads based on the purpose of which they are using the equipment. For example, for a printing company a printer would be considered a manufacturing overhead.", "This includes the cost of hiring external law and audit firms on behalf of the company. This would not apply if company has own internal lawyers and audit plans. Due to regulations and necessary annual audits to ensure a satisfactory work place environment, these costs often cannot be avoided. Also, since these costs do not necessarily contribute directly to sales, they are considered as indirect overheads. Although in most cases necessary, these costs can sometimes be avoided and reduced.", "Many companies provide usage of company cars as a perk for their employees. Since these cars do not contribute directly to sales and profits, they are considered an overhead. Similar company perks that are a one-off or constant payment such as partner contract fees with a gym will also fall under administrative overheads.", "This will include company-paid business travels and arrangements. As well as refreshments, meals, and entertainment fees during company gatherings. Although one might argue that these costs motivate workers to become more productive and efficient, the majority of economists agree that these costs do not directly contribute to sales and profits, therefore shall be categorized as an administrative overhead. Despite these costs occurring periodically and sometimes without prior preparation, they are usually one-off payments and are expected to be within the company's budget for travel and entertainment.", "Manufacturing overheads are all costs endured by a business that is within the physical platform in which the product or service is created. Difference between manufacturing overheads and administrative overheads is that manufacturing overheads are categorized within a factory or office in which the sale takes place. Whilst administrative overheads is typically categorized within some sort of back-office or supporting office. Although there are cases when the two physical buildings may overlap, it is the usage of the overheads that separates them.", "", "Although the general concept is identical to the example under administrative overheads, the key difference is the role of the employee. In the case of manufacturing overheads, employees would have roles such as maintenance personnel, manufacturing managers, materials management staff, and quality control staff. It would also include the set wages for janitorial staff members. Once again, the key difference lies in the nature of their respective jobs and the physical location in which their jobs are carried out.", "This refers to the reduction in value of equipments as it becomes older and more obsolete. For example, if a printer has a potential useful life span of 5 years, the amount that it can be sold for will decrease each year. Therefore, this value in depreciation is calculated as a manufacturing overhead. Moreover, this also applies to vehicles as they tend to depreciate in value significantly after the first year. When calculating manufacturing overheads, accountants mainly use two methods: straight-line method and declining balance method.", "Every single property unless government owned is subject to some form of property tax. Therefore, the taxes on production factories are categorized as manufacturing overheads as they are costs which cannot be avoided nor cancelled. In addition, property taxes do not change in relation to the business's profits or sales and will likely remain the same unless a change by the government administration.", "Unless the business decides to purchase land and build its own factory, it will be subject to some sort of rent due to the amount of capital required to build a privately owned factory. Therefore, this rent must be paid to the landlord on a regular basis regardless of the performance of the business. Although the rent for the building provides the physical platform for the company to produce its products and services, it is not a direct contributor.", "This would vary depending on how the utility bill is structured. In the case of it being an overhead, the utility bill is pre-negotiated meaning that the monthly utility bill will be the same regardless of the amount in which the factory actually consumes. This will only be relevant in various countries where there is an option for standardized utility bills. However, due to the vast consumption of electricity, gas, and water in most factories, most companies tend to not have standardized utility bills as it tends to be more expensive. Standardized utility bills are also oftentimes discouraged by governments as it leads to wastage of resources and negative externalities of production.", "For most businesses, business overheads are calculated by accountants for budgeting purposes but also often so the business has an idea of how much they must charge consumers in order to make a profit. The following are common accounting tools which take account of business overheads.", "The break-even analysis determines the point which the business's revenue is equivalent to the costs required to receive that revenue. It first calculates a margin of safety (the point which the revenue exceeds the break-even point) as that is the \"safe\" amount which the revenue can fall whilst still remaining to be above the break-even point. The graph on the right shows a typical break-even chart. Contribution refers to sales of the product or service, it can also be interpreted as the business's revenue stream. Fixed costs in this case serves the same purpose as business overheads, it will simply be shown as a straight horizontal line on the graph as shown.", "In economics, revenue curves are often illustrated to show whether or not a business should stay in business, or shut down. In theory, if a business is able cover variable operational costs but unable to cover business overheads in the short run, the business should remain in business. On the other hand, if the business is not even able to cover operational costs, it should shut down. Although this rule largely differs depending on the size of the business, the business's cash-flow, and the competitive nature of the business, it serves as a model rule for most small competitive businesses to operate on.", "Activity-based costing (ABC) aims to reduce the proportion of costs treated as overheads by allocating costs to each activity involved in the production of a product or delivery of a service.", "Balance sheet is a financial statement which outlines a company's financial assets, liabilities, and shareholder's equity at a specific time. Both assets and liabilities are separated into two categories depending on their time frame; current and long-term. Business overheads in particular fall under current liabilities as they are costs for which the company must pay on a relatively short-term/immediate basis. Although the balance sheet by itself does not offer much information, it is a useful piece of financial information when combined with other documents such as the income statement or ratio analysis as it offers a diverse and well-rounded description of the company's financial position." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Reception.", "Remix contest.", "Singles.", "Track listing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The album's intro consists of a backwards sample of \"Satellite\", the closing track of \"Movement\", followed by reversed samples of \"Somnambulist\" and \"Dark Heart Dawning\" from \"Emotional Technology\". Shortly after \"Somnambulist\", the album moves from its pop-oriented sound into a more experimental direction, containing introspective lyrics and song structures and samples not normally found in trance music at the time (the extended breakdown section of \"P A R I S\" features a galloping horse and a choir, while \"Communicate\"'s chorus drops the beat entirely). \"Emotional Technology\" also found Transeau writing several epic rock songs in the vein of \"Satellite\". Several of these songs would later be replaced on the Special Collector's Edition release.", "\"Emotional Technology\" received mixed reviews from critics. At Metacritic, the album received an average score of 61 out of 100, based on 7 reviews. The album charted at 138 on the Billboard 200, making it BT's highest charting album to date.", "Prior to the album's release, BT and BPM Magazine held a remix contest for the album. Inside an issue of \"BPM Magazine\" would be an EP containing the individual parts for \"Somnambulist\", \"Communicate\", \"The Great Escape\" and \"Superfabulous\", as well as a new, unreleased track titled \"Kimosabe\" (which become soundtrack for EA racing video game \"\"). The four winners were announced in early 2004 and they won signed copies of \"Emotional Technology\" among other prizes. Two notable winners were Toksin for his remix of \"Communicate\" and Burufunk for their remix of \"The Great Escape\". Burufunk had previously remixed \"Somnambulist\" for when the song was released as a single in May 2003. They later worked with BT on his remix of The Doors' classic, \"Break on Through (To the Other Side)\". Toksin has since released remixes of \"Superfabulous\" and \"The Great Escape\" on his website. He has also remixed \"Shame\" in his live shows.", "The album had only one official single, which was \"Somnambulist (Simply Being Loved)\". However, the \"Technology EP\" serves as a non-formal single release for \"Superfabulous\", \"The Force of Gravity\" and \"The Great Escape\".", "All songs were written by BT, unless noted." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Genesis.", "Plot.", "Associated publications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first part was published in 1969 by the publishing house Vysočina (Havlíčkův Brod). The novel has 17 chapters and ends with a chapter in which the main character, Kefalin, desperate for extending his service for another year, gets drunk with cider. Švandrlík continued writing the second part, although it was clear that an uncompromising political normalization was under way and that the book could not be published in Czechoslovakia. It was published in exile, though, in 1975 in Zurich, under Švandrlík's pseudonym Rudolf Kefalin, and in London in 1988 by the Alexander Tomský's exile publishing house Rozmluvy At the same time the work spread in samizdat in Czechoslovakia. Both parts consisting of 29 chapters were published as a whole in the 1990 edition (300,000 copies) after the Velvet Revolution. In 1981 the third part was published in Zurich, again under the alias Rudolf Kefalín, however, Švandrlík vigorously rejected the authorship of this sequel. It is attributed to Miloš Miltner instead.", "It pictures an ironic and satiric form of absurdity in the socialist army not long after the end of WW2. Without taking in consideration the cold war at the time and the fact that former Czechoslovakia was on the front line of potential armed conflict, Švandrlík focuses on day to day joys and sorrows of soldiers at Auxiliary Technical Unit (In Czech called Pomocný technický prapor) at which he allegedly served his time. The story takes place on Zelená Hora Castle in town of Nepomuk.", "After the year 1990 Švandrlík wrote a number of books which followed on from Black Barons:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Evolution.", "Sampled breakbeats.", "The \"Amen break\".", "Legal issues.", "Subgenres.", "Acid breaks.", "Big beat.", "Progressive breaks." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The most likely origin of the word \"breakbeat\" is the fact that the drum loops that were sampled occurred during a \"break\" in the music, as in the Amen break, which is a drum solo from \"Amen, Brother\" by The Winstons. However, it is a common thought that the name derives from the beat being \"broken\" and unpredictable compared to other percussive styles, something which is also reflected in the name of the related genre broken beat. Whether this was part of the original meaning of the word or is purely a folk etymology remains unclear, but it is safe to say that the term has evolved to encompass both sentiments.", "Beginning in 1973 and continuing through the late 1970s and early 1980s, hip hop turntablists, such as DJ Kool Herc began using several funk breaks in a row, using irregular drum patterns from songs such as James Brown's \"Funky Drummer\" and The Winstons' \"Amen Brother\", to form the rhythmic base for hip hop songs. DJ Kool Herc's breakbeat style involved playing the same record on two turntables and playing the break repeatedly, alternating between the two records. Grandmaster Flash perfected this idea with what he called the \"quick-mix theory\": he would mark the points on the record where the break began and ended with a crayon, so that he could easily replay the break by spinning the record and not touching the tone arm. This style was copied and improved upon by early hip hop DJs Afrika Bambaataa and Grand Wizard Theodore. This style was extremely popular in clubs and dancehalls because the extended breakbeat provided breakers with more opportunities to showcase their skills. In the 1970s, hip-hop was all about the break. Then, in the 1980s, the evolution of technology began to make sampling breaks easier and more affordable for DJs and producers, which helped nurture the commercialization of hip-hop. Through crude techniques such as pausing tapes and then recording the break, by the 1980s, technology allowed anybody with a tape recorder to find the breakbeat. In the early 1990s, acid house artists and producers started using breakbeat samples in their music to create breakbeat hardcore. The hardcore scene then diverged into subgenres like jungle and drum and bass, which generally had a darker sound and focused more on complex sampled drum patterns. An example of this is Goldie's album \"Timeless\". Josh Lawford of Ravescene prophesied that breakbeat was \"the death-knell of rave\" because the ever-changing drumbeat patterns of breakbeat music didn't allow for the same zoned out, trance-like state that the standard, steady 4/4 beats of house enabled. In 1994, the influential techno act Autechre released the \"Anti EP\" in response to the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994, deliberately using advanced algorithmic programming to generate non-repetitive breakbeats for the full duration of the tracks, in order to subvert the legal definitions within that legislation which specified in the section creating police powers to remove ravers from raves that \"'music' includes sounds wholly or predominantly characterised by the emission of a succession of repetitive beats\".", "In the late-1980s, breakbeat became an essential feature of many genres of breaks music which became popular within the global dance music scene, including big beat, nu skool breaks, acid breaks, electro-funk, and Miami bass. Incorporating many components of those genres, the Florida breaks subgenre followed during the early-to-mid 1990s and had a unique sound that was soon internationally popular among producers, DJs, and club-goers. DJs from a variety of genres work breaks tracks into their sets. This may occur because the tempo of breaks tracks (ranging from 110 to 150 beats per minute) means they can be readily mixed with these genres. Breakbeats are used in many hip hop, jungle/drum & bass and hardcore songs, and can also be heard in other music, from popular music to background music in car and clothing commercials on radio or TV.", "With the advent of digital sampling and music editing on the computer, breakbeats have become much easier to create and use. Now, instead of cutting and splicing tape sections or constantly backspinning two records at the same time, a computer program can be used to cut, paste, and loop breakbeats endlessly. Digital effects such as filters, reverb, reversing, time stretching and pitch shifting can be added to the beat, and even to individual sounds by themselves. Individual instruments from within a breakbeat can be sampled and combined with others, thereby creating wholly new breakbeat patterns.", "The Amen break, a drum break from The Winstons' song \"Amen, Brother\" is widely regarded as one of the most widely used and sampled breaks among music using breakbeats. This break was first used on \"King of the Beats\" by Mantronix, and has since been used in thousands of songs. Other popular breaks are from James Brown's \"Funky Drummer\" (1970) and \"Give it Up or Turnit a Loose\", The Incredible Bongo Band's 1973 cover of The Shadows' \"Apache\", and Lyn Collins' 1972 song \"Think (About It)\". The Winstons have not received royalties for third-party use of samples of the break recorded on their original music release.", "With the rise in popularity of breakbeat music and the advent of digital audio samplers, companies started selling \"breakbeat packages\" for the express purpose of helping artists create breakbeats. A breakbeat kit CD would contain many breakbeat samples from different songs and artists, often without the artist's permission or even knowledge.", "", "In electronic music, \"acid breaks\" is a fusion between breakbeat, acid house and other forms of dance music. Its drum line usually mimics most breakbeat music, lacking the distinctive kick drum of other forms of dance music. One of the earliest synthesizers to be employed in acid music was the Roland TB-303, which makes use of a resonant low-pass filter to emphasize the harmonics of the sound.", "Big beat is a term employed since the mid-1990s by the British music press to describe much of the music by artists such as The Prodigy, Cut La Roc, Fatboy Slim, The Chemical Brothers, The Crystal Method and Propellerheads typically driven by heavy breakbeats and synthesizer-generated loops and patterns in common with established forms of electronic dance music such as techno and acid house.", "Also sometimes known as atmospheric breaks, progressive breaks (or \"prog breaks\") is a subgenre of breaks that is essentially a fusion of breakbeat and progressive house. Much like progressive house, this subgenre is characterized by its \"trancey\" sound. Its defining traits include extended synthesizer pads and washes, melodic synth leads, heavy reverberation, and electronic breakbeats. However, unlike progressive house, very few progressive breaks tracks have vocals, with most tracks being entirely instrumental or using only electronically-altered snippets of vocal samples for sonic effect. Typical progressive breaks tracks will often have a long build-up section that leads to a breakdown and a climax, often having numerous sonic elements being added or subtracted from the track at various intervals in order to increase its intensity. Progressive breaks artists include Hybrid, BT, Way Out West, Digital Witchcraft, Momu, Wrecked Angle, Burufunk, Under This and Fretwell." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Toponymy.", "History.", "Governance.", "Geography.", "Culture.", "Education.", "Media.", "Notable people.", "Sport.", "Churches.", "Twin Town." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Kirkintilloch\" comes from the Gaelic \"Cair Cheann Tulaich\" or \"Cathair Cheann Tulaich\", meaning \"fort at the end of the hill\". This, in turn, may come from a Cumbric name, \"Caer-pen-taloch\", which has the same meaning. A possible reference to the site is made in the 9th century Welsh text Historia Brittonum, in which the Antonine Wall is said to end at 'Caerpentaloch'. The fort referred to is the former Roman settlement on the wall and the hillock is the volcanic drumlin which would have offered a strategic viewpoint for miles to the West, North and East. The etymology is sometimes taken literally as \"\"Kirk in tilloch\"\" (\"church in the field\"). Its long name is often shortened by locals to the colloquial \"Kirkie\" or \"Kirky\", as reflected in a number of business names in the town.", "The first known settlement on the site of what is now Kirkintilloch was a Roman fort established in what is now the Peel Park area of the town. Dating from the mid-2nd century, the Antonine Wall, one of the northernmost frontiers in Roman Britannia was routed through Kirkintilloch; its course continues through the centre of the town to this day, although little trace can now be seen above ground. A digital reconstruction of the fort has been created. There are many archeological artifacts found in Kirkintilloch on display at the Hunterian Museum in Glasgow. There is no strong evidence of habitation on the site for the following thousand years until Clan Cumming established a castle (Motte and Bailey) and church there in the 12th century. A small settlement grew and was granted burgh status in 1211, becoming an important staging post for west–east journeys from Glasgow to eastern and north-eastern Scotland. From this time, a weekly market was held in the town, probably at the foot of Peel Brae (along with High Street and Cowgate, one of the three medieval thoroughfares in the town). The castle was of some importance during the wars of independence when an English garrison was stationed there, commanded by Sir Philip de Moubray, who was later to command Stirling Castle at the time of the Battle of Bannockburn. Soldiers from the castle were dispatched to arrest William Wallace at Robroyston in 1305 and escorted him to Dumbarton Castle. Later the same year, the garrison is recorded as having sent a petition to King Edward of England complaining of non-payment of wages. The castle was attacked by Scottish forces in 1306 under Bishop Wishart of Glasgow (using timber given to Glasgow diocese by the English for cathedral repairs), but the siege was unsuccessful. The castle is thought to have been destroyed on the orders of Robert Bruce later in the conflict, although the traces of a mot surrounded by a ditch can still be seen in the Peel Park. The original Cumming parish church, St Ninian's, was constructed around 1140 some distance to the east of the town (where some of the stones remain in the form of an 18th-century watchtower at the entrance to the Auld Aisle Cemetery) as Kirkintilloch was originally in the parish of Lenzie which stretched from Cumbernauld in the East to Kirkintilloch in the West. The establishment was part of the endowment of Cambuskenneth Abbey, and was accompanied by a grant of one oxgang of land (approximately 15 acres), the measurement that lent its name to the area near the church. A chapel to the Virgin Mary was established in the town itself, sometime before 1379, and was endowed with land at Duntiblae by Sir David Fleming. The move of the parish church to the site of the chapel at Kirkintilloch Cross (now the Auld Kirk Museum) in 1644 resulted in a split of the Parish into Easter and Wester Lenzie (later Cumbernauld and Kirkintilloch Parishes) The name Lenzie was later reused for Kirkintilloch's railway station on the main Glasgow to Edinburgh line, around which the later village of that name developed. Following the Scottish victory in the wars of independence and the subsequent decline of Clan Cumming, the baronies of Kirkintilloch, Lenzie, and Cumbernauld were granted by Robert Bruce to Sir Malcolm Fleming, Sheriff of Dumbarton and a supporter of the Bruce faction in the war. Hitherto part of Stirlingshire, the area subsequently became a detached part of the county of Dumbarton, in which it remains today. On 3 January 1746, the retreating Jacobite army of Charles Stuart made its way through Kirkintilloch, on its way back from Derby, and on the march to Falkirk and ultimately Culloden. One of the Highland army's stragglers was shot dead at the town cross by a man hidden in a barn at the Kiln Close (where the library now stands). On hearing of the murder, Charles halted his army on the Kilsyth road and threatened to turn back and burn the town. The town magistrates persuaded him to continue marching, in return for an unspecified payment, and the town was spared. The town was one of the hotbeds of the Industrial Revolution in Scotland, beginning with the emergence of a booming textile industry in the area. There were 185 weavers in Kirkintilloch by 1790, and in 1867 James Slimon's cotton mill at Kelvinside employed 200 women. With the construction of the Forth and Clyde Canal through the town in 1773, and the establishment of the Monkland and Kirkintilloch Railway in 1826, Kirkintilloch developed further as an important transportation hub, inland port and production centre for iron, coal, nickel and even small ships. This industrial heritage lives on in the town's designation as the \"Canal Capital of Scotland\", and in the redevelopment of the canal and surrounding former industrial sites in the early 21st century. By the 20th century, the principal employers in the town were the shipbuilders J & J Hay and Peter McGregor, and the Lion (1880–1984) and Star foundries, all of which produced goods for the domestic market and for export around the world. Kirkintilloch's most famous exports were the distinctive red British postboxes and phoneboxes K2 to K6, produced in the town until 1984 and still to be found as far afield as Taiwan and Mississippi. Listed versions of these boxes still stand at the foot of Alexandra Street in the centre of Kirkintilloch. Kirkintilloch was a \"dry town\" for much of its recent history, with the sale of alcohol on public premises banned from 1923 until 1967. The prohibition on the sale of alcohol had long been demanded by the Liberal Party and the temperance movement, both of which had a strong influence in the town in the early part of the 20th century, largely due to the perceived negative effects of alcohol on the town's inhabitants. The 1960s development plan to redevelop inner city areas of Glasgow saw Kirkintilloch used as an overspill settlement for relocated Glaswegians in combination with the new towns of Livingston and Cumbernauld, offering employment in housebuilding and an increase to the local population to its current levels. Large numbers of new houses for owner occupation have been built since that time.", "Kirkintilloch and Lenzie had their own burgh council until the 1975 abolition of the counties of Scotland when it became part of the Strathkelvin local government district within the region of Strathclyde. A second reorganisation in 1996 established East Dunbartonshire council from Strathkelvin and the adjacent district of Bearsden and Milngavie; with Kirkintilloch is its administrative centre and the council's headquarters at Tom Johnston House in the town, named after prominent early 20th century politician and Kirkintilloch native, Thomas Johnston. The council's headquarters moved to the William Patrick Library in August 2012, forming the local authority's first community hub. Tom Johnstone House was demolished in 2015, a mere 30 years after it was built.", "<br> As well as the Forth and Clyde Canal the Luggie Water passes through Kirkintilloch, the canal crossing the Luggie on an aqueduct. The Luggie flows into the River Kelvin which in turn flows into the River Clyde in Glasgow. Communities in and around Kirkintilloch include: Cleddans; Harestanes; Hayston; Hillhead; Oxgang; Rosebank; Langmuir; Greens; Fauldhead; Waterside; Westermains; Lenzie: Gallowhill: Whitegates; Back O' Loch; Woodilee; Broomhill etc.", "Kirkintilloch Town Hall was opened in 1906, paid for by public subscription. Listed as a building of special architectural or historic interest, it was closed by East Dunbartonshire Council in June 2004, largely due to the anticipated expense of restoring a building constructed of notoriously crumbling soft sandstone. In response the Kirkintilloch Town Hall Preservation Trust was established as a registered charity to preserve the hall and restore it for community use. Work began on the redevelopment of the hall in early summer 2016, with major works completed in October 2017. Kirkintilloch Town Hall officially reopened in November 2018. The town is served by the William Patrick Library, which moved from a converted private villa near Peel Park to a new building on West High Street in the 1990s. The titular William Patrick was a local minister whose brother donated funds to the local people to have a library founded in William's name. The neglected old library was sold by the council back into private ownership and returned to residential use after restoration works. William Patrick Library is the main library for East Dunbartonshire Council and also houses the reference department and other council offices including social services, planning and a new community hub. Kirkintilloch underwent significant population growth in the post-Second World War period, with several new amenities erected to cater for the growing population of the town and its surrounding villages. New shopping facilities were built in the Cowgate and Townhead areas, culminating in the opening, by Diana, Princess of Wales, of the Regent Centre shopping mall in the 1990s. The local swimming pool and Community Education Centre, built in the 1960s and '70s in Woodhead Park to the south of the town, were demolished in 1999 and 2005 respectively. Woodhead Park was once home to a petting zoo, bandstand, greenhouses, putting green and public toilets. All are now closed, although a new leisure centre was opened on the same spot as the old pool in July 2007, providing facilities for tennis, badminton, swimming, football and a gymnasium. A large new children's play area has been created near the site of the former putting green in the park. The construction of the new leisure centre came in combination with a wider-ranging artistic, cultural and social regeneration project called \"Kirkintilloch's Initiative\". This includes the new link road largely funded by housebuilders developing on the site of the former Woodilee Hospital. Kirkintilloch Learning Centre is located on Southbank Road, overlooking the Forth and Clyde Canal, an offshoot of Cumbernauld College. Locally, a G66+ Live! Cultural festival offers a wide range of events from talks on history in local churches to musical events in the town's local bars, such as Bar Bliss, dramas and also entries from the schools in the G66 postcode area. G66+ Live! is annual festival taking place in June. Kirkintilloch's most successful musical ensemble is its brass band, the Kirkintilloch Band, who were crowned Scottish Brass Band Champions in 2007 and who have had success in competitions both in Scotland and further afield. Each August the local Canal Festival takes place. An amateur theatre group, the Kirkintilloch Players, is based at the Turret Theatre in the Eastside area of Kirkintilloch, the former home of the town's Liberal Club. The town has a pipe band of the same name, Kirkintilloch Pipe Band. Established on 12 November 1888 it is one of, if not the oldest civilian pipe band in the world. The band takes part in civic and private events in the local and surrounding areas and also takes part in competition. Its pipers and drummers are mostly from the local area and the band still practises weekly in the Hillhead Community Centre.", "There are six primary schools in Kirkintilloch, which are Hillhead, Harestanes, Oxgang, Gartconner, Lairdsland and Holy Family. There are also two schools in the area for children with special needs, these being Merkland School in Hillhead and Campsie View School in Lenzie. The two secondary schools in the area are Kirkintilloch High School (Non-denominational) and St Ninian's High School (Roman Catholic) Both schools recently constructed new-build campuses, which were completed in August 2009. In the Lenzie area primary schools include Lenzie Meadow Primary, Millersneuk and Holy Family Primary. Holy Family is a Catholic school on the edge of Lenzie on the border with Kirkintilloch, and is a feeder to St Ninian's High School. The other two non-denomination schools in the area feed onto Lenzie Academy, along with Lairdsland Primary in Kirkintilloch and the nearby Auchinloch Primary.", "The Kirkintilloch Herald is the local newspaper of record, established by town businessman Donald MacLeod in premises on the Cowgate in 1883.", "", "The town has a small junior football club, Kirkintilloch Rob Roy F.C., thrice winners of the Scottish Junior Cup, who formerly played at Adamslie Park in the west of the town, and is also home to the amateur Harestanes A.F.C., twice winners of the Scottish Amateur Cup. Lenzie rugby club is based in the town, playing their home games at Viewfield Avenue. They are in West regional league 1, the 4th tier of Scottish club rugby. After the town had been without such facilities for the better part of a decade a replacement swimming pool and gym finally opened in July 2007 at Woodhead Park. The town is also home to the \"Kirkintilloch Olympians\", a local athletics club. Kirkintilloch is also the home of Aberdeen and former Rangers player Gregg Wylde and Celtic and Scotland player, Charlie Mulgrew. Lenzie Youth Club is a local football club founded in 1980 by Ian Stevenson which has sections from age 5 upwards. Famous ex Lenzie Youth Club players include Barry Bannan and Stephen Crainey.", "There are a number of churches in Kirkintilloch. The four Church of Scotland congregations are: St Mary's, St David's Memorial Park, St Columba's and Hillhead. The Baptist Union of Scotland has churches at Townhead and Harestanes. There are two Roman Catholic Churches - St Flannan's in Hillhead, and Holy Family and St Ninian's in the town centre. Jehovah's Witnesses have a congregation in Kirkintilloch which shares a Kingdom Hall with its sister congregation in Bishopbriggs. The Edinburgh Gazette of 17 November 1896 announces \"INTIMATION is hereby given that the Reverend THOMAS ANGUS MORRISON, Minister of the Parish of Kirkintilloch, in the Presbytery of Glasgow and County of Dumbarton, has, under and by virtue of \"The Glebe Lands (Scotland) Act, 1866,\" presented a ; Petition to the Lords of Council and Session, Commissioners for the Plantation of Kirks and Valuation of Teinds, for authority to Feu the GLEBE OF KIRKINTILLOCH ; and that an Interlocutor has been pronounced therein in the following terms...\" After depositing £400 with the \"Lord of the Manor\" or \"Patron\" T Angus Morrison becomes Minister of St Mary's. The original church was old and damp, T Angus Morrison built up his congregation and it was soon to outgrow the old church or kirk. Travelling throughout the UK T Angus Morrison worked with the Architect, George Bell of Glasgow. Thomas Angus Morrison was born in Motherwell, but for much of his youth he lived in Glasgow and attended school in Dennistoun. Commencing his ministerail career as an Assistant at the Plantation Church in Govan he was soon to move to St Mary's Church as assistant to the Reverened Mr Craven in 1890. T Angus Morrison was to marry a local girl, Mary Stewart Galloway Smillie, sole surviving child of James Smillie of Fearndean, a local Kirkintilloch family, tracing their family back to the town of the 1790s. T Angus Morrison and Mary were to have seven children, one of the sons, William Angus Galloway Morrison dying on the Siam Burmese Railway in World War Two. The Reverened T Angus Morrison was born in Shotts, near Motherwell in 1862, died suddenly in 1941 at the age of 79 having served St Mary's for 51 years. In addition to a long career as Presbyterian minister, the Reverened T Angus Morrison was a Freemason and had become Provincial Grand Master to the Province of Dunbartonshire from 1921 until his death.", "Yoichi, Hokkaido, Japan" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Birds.", "Fish.", "Mammals.", "Monotremes.", "Marsupials.", "Placentals.", "Reptiles.", "Cloacal respiration in animals." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The word is from the Latin verb \"cluo\", \"to cleanse\", thus the noun \"cloaca\", \"sewer, drain\".", "Birds reproduce using their cloaca; this occurs during a cloacal kiss in most birds. Birds that mate using this method touch their cloacae together, in some species for only a few seconds, sufficient time for sperm to be transferred from the male to the female. For some birds, such as ostriches, cassowaries, kiwi, geese, and some species of swans and ducks, the males do not use the cloaca for reproduction, but have a phallus. One study has looked into birds that use their cloaca for cooling.", "Among fish, a true cloaca is present only in elasmobranchs (sharks and rays) and lobe-finned fishes. In lampreys and in some ray-finned fishes, part of the cloaca remains in the adult to receive the urinary and reproductive ducts, although the anus always opens separately. In chimaeras and most teleosts, however, all three openings are entirely separated.", "With a few exceptions noted below, mammals have no cloaca. Even in those that have one, the cloaca is partially subdivided into separate regions for the anus and urethra.", "The monotremes (egg-laying mammals) possess a true cloaca.", "In marsupials (and a few birds), the genital tract is separate from the anus, but a trace of the original cloaca does remain externally. This is one of the features of marsupials (and monotremes) that suggest their basal nature, as the amniotes from which mammals evolved possessed a cloaca, and the earliest animals to diverge into the mammalian class would most likely have had this feature, too. Unlike other marsupials, marsupial moles have a true cloaca, a fact that has been used to argue against a marsupial identity for these mammals.", "Most adult placental mammals have no remaining trace of the cloaca. In the embryo, the embryonic cloaca divides into a posterior region that becomes part of the anus, and an anterior region that has different fates depending on the sex of the individual: in females, it develops into the vestibule that receives the urethra and vagina, while in males it forms the entirety of the penile urethra. However, the tenrecs and golden moles, small placental mammals native to Africa, as well as some shrews retain a cloaca as adults. Being placental animals, humans only have an embryonic cloaca, which is split up into separate tracts during the development of the urinary and reproductive organs. However, a few human congenital disorders result in persons being born with a cloaca, including persistent cloaca and sirenomelia (mermaid syndrome).", "In reptiles, the cloaca consists of the \"urodeum\", \"proctodeum\", and \"coprodeum\". Some species have modified cloacae for increased gas exchange (see Reptile respiration and Reptile reproduction). This is where reproductive activity occurs.", "Some turtles, especially those specialized in diving, are highly reliant on cloacal respiration during dives. They accomplish this by having a pair of accessory air bladders connected to the cloaca which can absorb oxygen from the water. Various fish, as well as polychaete worms and even crabs, are specialized to take advantage of the constant flow of water through the cloacal respiratory tree of sea cucumbers while simultaneously gaining the protection of living within the sea cucumber itself. At night, many of these species emerge from the anus of the sea cucumber in search of food." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Assessment.", "Stages.", "Severity.", "Management.", "Current pandemics.", "HIV/AIDS.", "COVID-19.", "Notable outbreaks.", "Cholera.", "Typhus.", "Smallpox.", "Measles.", "Tuberculosis.", "Leprosy.", "Malaria.", "Yellow fever.", "Concerns about future pandemics.", "Antibiotic resistance.", "Concerning diseases.", "Viral hemorrhagic fevers.", "Coronaviruses.", "Severe acute respiratory syndrome.", "Influenza.", "H5N1 (Avian flu).", "Zika virus.", "Economic consequences." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "4", "3", "4", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "A pandemic is an epidemic occurring on a scale that crosses international boundaries, usually affecting people on a worldwide scale. A disease or condition is not a pandemic merely because it is widespread or kills many people; it must also be infectious. For instance, cancer is responsible for many deaths but is not considered a pandemic because the disease is neither infectious nor contagious.", "", "The World Health Organization (WHO) previously applied a six-stage classification to describe the process by which a novel influenza virus moves from the first few infections in humans through to a pandemic. It starts when mostly animals are infected with a virus and a few cases where animals infect people, then moves to the stage where the virus begins to be transmitted directly between people and ends with the stage when infections in humans from the virus have spread worldwide. In February 2020, a WHO spokesperson clarified that \"there is no official category [for a pandemic]\". In a virtual press conference in May 2009 on the influenza pandemic, Dr. Keiji Fukuda, Assistant Director-General \"ad interim\" for Health Security and Environment, WHO said \"An easy way to think about pandemic... is to say: a pandemic is a global outbreak. Then you might ask yourself: 'What is a global outbreak?' Global outbreak means that we see both spread of the agent... and then we see disease activities in addition to the spread of the virus.\" In planning for a possible influenza pandemic, the WHO published a document on pandemic preparedness guidance in 1999, revised in 2005 and 2009, defining phases and appropriate actions for each phase in an \"aide-mémoire\" titled \"WHO pandemic phase descriptions and main actions by phase\". The 2009 revision, including definitions of a pandemic and the phases leading to its declaration, were finalized in February 2009. The 2009 H1N1 virus pandemic was neither on the horizon at that time nor mentioned in the document. All versions of this document refer to influenza. The phases are defined by the spread of the disease; virulence and mortality are not mentioned in the current WHO definition, although these factors have previously been included. In 2014, The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention introduced an analogous framework to the WHO's pandemic stages titled the Pandemic Intervals Framework. It includes two pre-pandemic intervals, and four pandemic intervals, It also includes a table defining the intervals and mapping them to the WHO pandemic stages.", "In 2014 the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention adopted the Pandemic Severity Assessment Framework (PSAF) to assess the severity of pandemics. The PSAF superseded the 2007 linear Pandemic Severity Index, which assumed 30% spread and measured case fatality rate (CFR) to assess the severity and evolution of the pandemic. Historically, measures of pandemic severity were based on the case fatality rate. However, the case fatality rate might not be an adequate measure of pandemic severity during a pandemic response because: To account for the limitations of measuring the case fatality rate alone, the PSAF rates severity of a disease outbreak on two dimensions: clinical severity of illness in infected persons; and the transmissibility of the infection in the population. Each dimension can be measured using more than one metric, which are scaled to allow comparison of the different metrics. Clinical severity can instead be measured, for example, as the ratio of deaths to hospitalizations or using genetic markers of virulence. Transmissibility can be measured, for example, as the basic reproduction number R and serial interval or via underlying population immunity. The framework gives guidelines for scaling the various measures and examples of assessing past pandemics using the framework.", "The basic strategies in the control of an outbreak are containment and mitigation. Containment may be undertaken in the early stages of the outbreak, including contact tracing and isolating infected individuals to stop the disease from spreading to the rest of the population, other public health interventions on infection control, and therapeutic countermeasures such as vaccinations which may be effective if available. When it becomes apparent that it is no longer possible to contain the spread of the disease, management will then move on to the mitigation stage, in which measures are taken to slow the spread of the disease and mitigate its effects on society and the healthcare system. In reality, containment and mitigation measures may be undertaken simultaneously. A key part of managing an infectious disease outbreak is trying to decrease the epidemic peak, known as \"flattening the epidemic curve\". This helps decrease the risk of health services being overwhelmed, and provides more time for a vaccine and treatment to be developed. A broad group of the so-called non-pharmaceutical interventions may be taken to manage the outbreak. In a flu pandemic, these actions may include: personal preventive measures such as hand hygiene, wearing face-masks, and self-quarantine; community measures aimed at social distancing such as closing schools and cancelling mass gatherings; community engagement to encourage acceptance and participation in such interventions; and environmental measures such as cleaning of surfaces. Another strategy, suppression, requires more extreme long-term non-pharmaceutical interventions so as to reverse the pandemic by reducing the basic reproduction number to less than1. The suppression strategy, which includes stringent population-wide social distancing, home isolation of cases, and household quarantine, was undertaken by China during the COVID-19 pandemic where entire cities were placed under lockdown, but such strategy carries with it considerable social and economic costs.", "", "Although the WHO uses the term \"global epidemic\" to describe HIV (), some authors use the term \"pandemic\". HIV is believed to have originated in Africa. AIDS is currently a pandemic, with infection rates as high as 25% in southern and eastern Africa. In 2006, the HIV prevalence rate among pregnant women in South Africa was 29%. Effective education about safer sexual practices and bloodborne infection precautions training have helped to slow down infection rates in several African countries sponsoring national education programs.", "A new strain of coronavirus which was first identified in Wuhan, Hubei province, China, in late December 2019, has caused a cluster of cases of an acute respiratory disease, which is referred to as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). According to media reports, more than 200 countries and territories have been affected by COVID-19, with major outbreaks occurring in central China, Iran, Western Europe and the United States. On 11 March 2020, the World Health Organization characterized the spread of COVID-19 as a pandemic., the number of people infected with COVID-19 has reached over 4.89 million worldwide, of whom 1,908,111 have recovered. The death toll is 320,189. It is believed that these figures are understated as testing did not commence in the initial stages of the outbreak and many people infected by the virus have no or only mild symptoms and may not have been tested. Similarly, the number of recoveries may also be understated as tests are required before cases are officially recognised as recovered, and fatalities are sometimes attributed to other conditions. This was especially the case in large urban areas where a non-trivial number of patients died while in their private residences. It was later discovered that asymptomatic hypoxia due to COVID-19 pulmonary disease may be responsible for many such cases.", "In human history, it is generally zoonoses such as influenza and tuberculosis which constitute most of the widespread outbreaks, resulting from the domestication of animals. There have been a number of particularly significant epidemics that deserve mention above the \"mere\" destruction of cities: Encounters between European explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced epidemics of extraordinary virulence. Disease killed part of the native population of the Canary Islands in the 16th century (Guanches). Half the native population of Hispaniola in 1518 was killed by smallpox. Smallpox also ravaged Mexico in the 1520s, killing 150,000 in Tenochtitlán alone, including the emperor, and Peru in the 1530s, aiding the European conquerors. Measles killed a further two million Mexican natives in the 17th century. In 1618–1619, smallpox wiped out 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans. During the 1770s, smallpox killed at least 30% of the Pacific Northwest Native Americans. Smallpox epidemics in 1780–1782 and 1837–1838 brought devastation and drastic depopulation among the Plains Indians. Some believe the death of up to 95% of the Native American population of the New World was caused by Europeans introducing Old World diseases such as smallpox, measles and influenza. Over the centuries, Europeans had developed high degrees of herd immunity to these diseases, while the indigenous peoples had no such immunity. Smallpox devastated the native population of Australia, killing around 50% of Indigenous Australians in the early years of British colonisation. It also killed many New Zealand Māori. In 1848–49, as many as 40,000 out of 150,000 Hawaiians are estimated to have died of measles, whooping cough and influenza. Introduced diseases, notably smallpox, nearly wiped out the native population of Easter Island. Measles killed more than 40,000 Fijians, approximately one-third of the population, in 1875, and in the early 19th century devastated the Andamanese population. The Ainu population decreased drastically in the 19th century, due in large part to infectious diseases brought by Japanese settlers pouring into Hokkaido. Researchers concluded that syphilis was carried from the New World to Europe after Columbus's voyages. The findings suggested Europeans could have carried the nonvenereal tropical bacteria home, where the organisms may have mutated into a more deadly form in the different conditions of Europe. The disease was more frequently fatal than it is today. Syphilis was a major killer in Europe during the Renaissance. Between 1602 and 1796, the Dutch East India Company sent almost a million Europeans to work in Asia. Ultimately, fewer than a third made their way back to Europe. The majority died of diseases. Disease killed more British soldiers in India and South Africa than war. As early as 1803, the Spanish Crown organized a mission (the Balmis expedition) to transport the smallpox vaccine to the Spanish colonies, and establish mass vaccination programs there. By 1832, the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans. From the beginning of the 20th century onwards, the elimination or control of disease in tropical countries became a driving force for all colonial powers. The sleeping sickness epidemic in Africa was arrested due to mobile teams systematically screening millions of people at risk. In the 20th century, the world saw the biggest increase in its population in human history due to a drop in the mortality rate in many countries as a result of medical advances. The world population has grown from 1.6 billion in 1900 to an estimated 6.8 billion in 2011.", "Since it became widespread in the 19th century, cholera has killed tens of millions of people.", "Typhus is sometimes called \"camp fever\" because of its pattern of flaring up in times of strife. (It is also known as \"gaol fever\" and \"ship fever\", for its habits of spreading wildly in cramped quarters, such as jails and ships.) Emerging during the Crusades, it had its first impact in Europe in 1489, in Spain. During fighting between the Christian Spaniards and the Muslims in Granada, the Spanish lost 3,000 to war casualties, and 20,000 to typhus. In 1528, the French lost 18,000 troops in Italy, and lost supremacy in Italy to the Spanish. In 1542, 30,000 soldiers died of typhus while fighting the Ottomans in the Balkans. During the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), about eight million Germans were killed by bubonic plague and typhus. The disease also played a major role in the destruction of Napoleon's \"Grande Armée\" in Russia in 1812. During the retreat from Moscow, more French military personnel died of typhus than were killed by the Russians. Of the 450,000 soldiers who crossed the Neman on 25 June 1812, fewer than 40,000 returned. More military personnel were killed from 1500–1914 by typhus than from military action. In early 1813, Napoleon raised a new army of 500,000 to replace his Russian losses. In the campaign of that year, more than 219,000 of Napoleon's soldiers died of typhus. Typhus played a major factor in the Irish Potato Famine. During World War I, typhus epidemics killed more than 150,000 in Serbia. There were about 25 million infections and 3million deaths from epidemic typhus in Russia from 1918 to 1922. Typhus also killed numerous prisoners in the Nazi concentration camps and Soviet prisoner of war camps during World WarII. More than 3.5 million Soviet POWs died out of the 5.7 million in Nazi custody.", "Smallpox was a contagious disease caused by the variola virus. The disease killed an estimated 400,000 Europeans per year during the closing years of the 18th century. During the 20th century, it is estimated that smallpox was responsible for 300–500 million deaths. As recently as the early 1950s, an estimated 50 million cases of smallpox occurred in the world each year. After successful vaccination campaigns throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, the WHO certified the eradication of smallpox in December 1979. To this day, smallpox is the only human infectious disease to have been completely eradicated, and one of two infectious viruses ever to be eradicated, along with rinderpest.", "Historically, measles was prevalent throughout the world, as it is highly contagious. According to the U.S. National Immunization Program, 90% of people were infected with measles by age 15. Before the vaccine was introduced in 1963, there were an estimated three to four million cases in the U.S. each year. Measles killed around 200 million people worldwide over the last 150 years. In 2000 alone, measles killed some 777,000 worldwide out of 40 million cases globally. Measles is an endemic disease, meaning it has been continually present in a community, and many people develop resistance. In populations that have not been exposed to measles, exposure to a new disease can be devastating. In 1529, a measles outbreak in Cuba killed two-thirds of the natives who had previously survived smallpox. The disease had ravaged Mexico, Central America, and the Inca civilization.", "One-quarter of the world's current population has been infected with \"Mycobacterium tuberculosis\", and new infections occur at a rate of one per second. About 5–10% of these latent infections will eventually progress to active disease, which, if left untreated, kills more than half its victims. Annually, eight million people become ill with tuberculosis, and two million die from the disease worldwide. In the 19th century, tuberculosis killed an estimated one-quarter of the adult population of Europe; by 1918, one in six deaths in France were still caused by tuberculosis. During the 20th century, tuberculosis killed approximately 100 million people. TB is still one of the most important health problems in the developing world.", "Leprosy, also known as Hansen's disease, is caused by a bacillus, \"Mycobacterium leprae\". It is a chronic disease with an incubation period of up to five years. Since 1985, 15 million people worldwide have been cured of leprosy. Historically, leprosy has affected people since at least 600 BC. Leprosy outbreaks began to occur in Western Europe around 1000 AD. Numerous \"leprosoria\", or leper hospitals, sprang up in the Middle Ages; Matthew Paris estimated that in the early 13th century, there were 19,000 of them across Europe.", "Malaria is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions, including parts of the Americas, Asia, and Africa. Each year, there are approximately 350–500 million cases of malaria. Drug resistance poses a growing problem in the treatment of malaria in the 21st century, since resistance is now common against all classes of antimalarial drugs, except for the artemisinins. Malaria was once common in most of Europe and North America, where it is now for all purposes non-existent. Malaria may have contributed to the decline of the Roman Empire. The disease became known as \"Roman fever\". \"Plasmodium falciparum\" became a real threat to colonists and indigenous people alike when it was introduced into the Americas along with the slave trade. Malaria devastated the Jamestown colony and regularly ravaged the South and Midwest of the United States. By 1830, it had reached the Pacific Northwest. During the American Civil War, there were more than 1.2 million cases of malaria among soldiers of both sides. The southern U.S. continued to be afflicted with millions of cases of malaria into the 1930s.", "Yellow fever has been a source of several devastating epidemics. Cities as far north as New York, Philadelphia, and Boston were hit with epidemics. In 1793, one of the largest yellow fever epidemics in U.S. history killed as many as 5,000 people in Philadelphia—roughly 10% of the population. About half of the residents had fled the city, including President George Washington. Another major outbreak of the disease struck the Mississippi River Valley in 1878, with deaths estimated at around 20,000. Among the hardest hit places was Memphis, Tennessee, where 5,000 people were killed and over 20,000 fled, then representing over half the city’s population, many of whom never returned. In colonial times, West Africa became known as \"the white man's grave\" because of malaria and yellow fever.", "", "Antibiotic-resistant microorganisms, sometimes referred to as \"superbugs\", may contribute to the re-emergence of diseases which are currently well controlled. For example, cases of tuberculosis that are resistant to traditionally effective treatments remain a cause of great concern to health professionals. Every year, nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide. China and India have the highest rate of multidrug-resistant TB. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that approximately 50 million people worldwide are infected with MDR TB, with 79 percent of those cases resistant to three or more antibiotics. In 2005, 124 cases of MDR TB were reported in the United States. Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR TB) was identified in Africa in 2006, and subsequently discovered to exist in 49 countries, including the United States. There are about 40,000 new cases of XDR-TB per year, the WHO estimates. In the past 20 years, common bacteria including \"Staphylococcus aureus\", \"Serratia marcescens\" and Enterococcus, have developed resistance to various antibiotics such as vancomycin, as well as whole classes of antibiotics, such as the aminoglycosides and cephalosporins. Antibiotic-resistant organisms have become an important cause of healthcare-associated (nosocomial) infections (HAI). In addition, infections caused by community-acquired strains of methicillin-resistant \"Staphylococcus aureus\" (MRSA) in otherwise healthy individuals have become more frequent in recent years.", "", "Viral hemorrhagic fevers such as Ebola virus disease, Lassa fever, Rift Valley fever, Marburg virus disease, Bolivian hemorrhagic fever and Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever are highly contagious and deadly diseases, with the theoretical potential to become pandemics. Their ability to spread efficiently enough to cause a pandemic is limited, however, as transmission of these viruses requires close contact with the infected vector, and the vector has only a short time before death or serious illness. Furthermore, the short time between a vector becoming infectious and the onset of symptoms allows medical professionals to quickly quarantine vectors, and prevent them from carrying the pathogen elsewhere. Genetic mutations could occur, which could elevate their potential for causing widespread harm; thus close observation by contagious disease specialists is merited.", "Coronaviruses (CoV) are a large family of viruses that cause illness ranging from the common cold to more severe diseases such as Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS-CoV) and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS-CoV). A new strain of coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) causes Coronavirus disease 2019, or COVID-19, which was declared a pandemic by the WHO on 11 March 2020. Some coronaviruses are zoonotic, meaning they are transmitted between animals and people. Detailed investigations found that SARS-CoV was transmitted from civet cats to humans, and MERS-CoV from dromedary camels to humans. Several known coronaviruses are circulating in animals that have not yet infected humans. Common signs of infection include respiratory symptoms, fever, cough, shortness of breath, and breathing difficulties. In more severe cases, infection can cause pneumonia, severe acute respiratory syndrome, kidney failure and even death. Standard recommendations to prevent the spread of infection include regular hand washing, covering mouth and nose when coughing and sneezing, thoroughly cooking meat and eggs, wearing a face mask, and avoiding close contact with anyone showing symptoms of respiratory illness such as coughing and sneezing. The recommended distance from other people is six feet, a practice more commonly called social distancing.", "In 2003 the Italian physician Carlo Urbani (1956–2003) was the first to identify severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) as a new and dangerously contagious disease, although he became infected and died. It is caused by a coronavirus dubbed SARS-CoV. Rapid action by national and international health authorities such as the World Health Organization helped to slow transmission and eventually broke the chain of transmission, which ended the localized epidemics before they could become a pandemic. However, the disease has not been eradicated and could re-emerge. This warrants monitoring and reporting of suspicious cases of atypical pneumonia.", "Wild aquatic birds are the natural hosts for a range of influenza A viruses. Occasionally, viruses are transmitted from these species to other species, and may then cause outbreaks in domestic poultry or, rarely, in humans.", "In February 2004, avian influenza virus was detected in birds in Vietnam, increasing fears of the emergence of new variant strains. It is feared that if the avian influenza virus combines with a human influenza virus (in a bird or a human), the new subtype created could be both highly contagious and highly lethal in humans. Such a subtype could cause a global influenza pandemic, similar to the Spanish flu or the lower mortality pandemics such as the Asian Flu and the Hong Kong Flu. From October 2004 to February 2005, some 3,700 test kits of the 1957 Asian Flu virus were accidentally spread around the world from a lab in the U.S. In May 2005, scientists urgently called upon nations to prepare for a global influenza pandemic that could strike as much as 20% of the world's population. In October 2005, cases of the avian flu (the deadly strain H5N1) were identified in Turkey. EU Health Commissioner Markos Kyprianou said: \"We have received now confirmation that the virus found in Turkey is an avian flu H5N1 virus. There is a direct relationship with viruses found in Russia, Mongolia and China.\" Cases of bird flu were also identified shortly thereafter in Romania, and then Greece. Possible cases of the virus have also been found in Croatia, Bulgaria and the United Kingdom. By November 2007, numerous confirmed cases of the H5N1 strain had been identified across Europe. However, by the end of October, only 59 people had died as a result of H5N1, which was atypical of previous influenza pandemics. Avian flu cannot be categorized as a \"pandemic\" because the virus cannot yet cause sustained and efficient human-to-human transmission. Cases so far are recognized to have been transmitted from bird to human, but as of December 2006 there had been few (if any) cases of proven human-to-human transmission. Regular influenza viruses establish infection by attaching to receptors in the throat and lungs, but the avian influenza virus can attach only to receptors located deep in the lungs of humans, requiring close, prolonged contact with infected patients, and thus limiting person-to-person transmission.", "An outbreak of Zika virus began in 2015 and strongly intensified throughout the start of 2016, with more than 1.5 million cases across more than a dozen countries in the Americas. The World Health Organization warned that Zika had the potential to become an explosive global pandemic if the outbreak was not controlled.", "In 2016, the Commission on a Global Health Risk Framework for the Future estimated that pandemic disease events would cost the global economy over $6 trillion in the 21st century—over $60 billion per year. The same report recommended spending $4.5 billion annually on global prevention and response capabilities to reduce the threat posed by pandemic events. The 2019-2020 COVID-19 pandemic is expected to have a profound negative effect on the global economy, potentially for years to come, with substantial drops in GDP accompanied by increases in unemployment noted around the world." ] }

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{ "title": [ "House of Trastámara (1479–1555).", "House of Habsburg (1516–1700).", "House of Bonaparte (1808–1813).", "House of Bourbon (1813–1868).", "House of Savoy (1870–1873).", "Kingdom of Spain (1874–1931).", "House of Bourbon (1874–1931).", "Spanish State (1936–1975).", "Kingdom of Spain (1975–present).", "House of Bourbon (1975–present)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Under Isabella and Ferdinand, the royal dynasties of Castile and Aragon, their respective kingdoms, were united into a single line. Historiography of Spain generally treats this as the formation of the Kingdom of Spain, but in actuality, the two kingdoms continued for many centuries with their own separate institutions. It wasn't until the Nueva Planta decrees of 1707-1716 that the two lands were formally merged into a single state.", "Following the deaths of Isabella (1504) and Ferdinand (1516), their daughter Joanna inherited the Spanish kingdoms. However, she was kept prisoner at Tordesillas due to her mental disorder. As Joanna's son, Charles I (the future Holy Roman Emperor Charles V), did not want to be merely a regent, he proclaimed himself king of Castile and Aragon jointly with his mother. Subsequently, Castilian and Aragonese \"Cortes\" alleged oath to him as co-monarch with his mother. Upon her death, he became sole King of Castile and Aragon, and the thrones were left permanently united to Philip II of Spain and successors. Traditional numbering of monarchs follows the Castillian crown; i.e. after King Ferdinand (II of Aragon and V of Castile \"jure uxoris\" as husband of Queen of Castille Isabella I), the next Ferdinand was numbered VI. Likewise, Alfonso XII takes his number following that of Alfonso XI of Castile rather than that of Alfonso V of Aragon, the prior Spanish monarchs with that name. In the year 1700 Charles II died. His will named the 16-year-old Philip, the grandson of Charles's sister Maria Theresa of Spain, as his successor to the whole Spanish Empire. Upon any possible refusal of the undivided Spanish possessions, the Crown of Spain would be offered next to Philip's younger brother Charles, Duke of Berry, or, next, to Archduke Charles of Austria. Both claimants, both Charles of Austria and Philip, had a legal right to the Spanish throne because Philip's grandfather, King Louis XIV of France and Charles's father, Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor, were sons of Charles II's aunts, Anne and Maria Anna. Philip claimed primogeniture because Anne was older than Maria Anna. However, Philip IV had stipulated in his will the succession should pass to the Austrian Habsburg line, and the Austrian branch also claimed that Maria Theresa, Philip's grandmother, had renounced the Spanish throne for herself and her descendants as part of her marriage contract. This was countered by the French claim that it was on the basis of a dowry that had never been paid. After a long council meeting where the Dauphin spoke up in favour of his son's rights, it was agreed that Philip would ascend the throne. Following this, the War of the Spanish Succession broke out and Archduke Charles was also proclaimed king of Spain, as Charles III, in opposition to Philip V. He was proclaimed in Vienna, and also in Madrid in the years 1706 and 1710. Charles renounced his claims to the Spanish throne in the Treaty of Rastatt of 1714, but was allowed the continued use of the styles of a Spanish monarch for his lifetime. Philip ascended the Spanish throne but had to renounce his claim to the throne of France for himself and his descendants.", "The only monarch from this dynasty was Joseph I, imposed by his brother Napoleon I of France after Charles IV and Ferdinand VII had abdicated. The title used by Joseph I was \"King of the Spains and the Indias, by the Grace of God and the Constitution of the State\". He was also later given all of the titles of the previous kings. A government in opposition to the French was formed in Cádiz on 25 September 1808, which continued to recognize the imprisoned Ferdinand VII as king. This government was diplomatically recognized as the legitimate Spanish government by Britain and other countries at war with France.", "Charles IV's eldest son was restored to the throne. Again, the title used was \"king of Castile, Leon, Aragon,... by the Grace of God\".", "After the Spanish Revolution of 1868 deposed Isabella II, while a new monarch was sought, a provisional government and a regency headed by Francisco Serrano y Domínguez from 8 October 1868 until 2 January 1871 was established. Amadeo was elected as king and the new title used was \"King of Spain, by the Grace of God and will of the nation\".", "", "Isabella II's eldest son was restored to the throne as she had abdicated in his favour in 1870. \"Constitutional King of Spain\".", "On 1 October 1936 General Francisco Franco was proclaimed Leader of Spain (Spanish: \"Caudillo de España\") in the parts of Spain controlled by the Nationalists (\"nacionales\") after the Spanish Civil War broke out. At the end of the war on 1 April 1939 General Franco took control of the whole of Spain. In 1947, Franco proclaimed the restoration of the monarchy but did not allow the pretender, Juan, Count of Barcelona, to take the throne. In 1969, Franco declared that Juan Carlos, Prince of Spain, the Count of Barcelona's son, would be his successor. After Franco's death in 1975, Juan Carlos succeeded him as the King of Spain.", "", "Alfonso XIII's claim descended (due to his two eldest sons' renunciations) to his third son, Juan of Bourbon, Count of Barcelona, who was passed over in favour of his eldest son, whose title is King of Spain. The Count of Barcelona formally renounced his claims in favour of his son in 1977, two years after Franco's death and Juan Carlos's accession. Juan Carlos abdicated in favor of his son Felipe VI, who became king on 19 June 2014, with Felipe's older daughter, Leonor, next in succession." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Sections.", "Significance.", "Exit list.", "Environmental concerns and criticism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Length of the Corridor Vc highway, from the North to the South divided by sections: On 20 June 2013, the 5 km section between Bijača and Kravice was opened. A new border crossing with Croatia opened on June 28. In Bosnia and Herzegovina the E73/A1 passes near the following cities:", "In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Corridor Vc highway is the most important road project. Its construction is expected to enhance economic and social activities, and will enable Bosnia and Herzegovina to be connected to main European traffic network, as well as the European economic and social structure.", "!scope=\"col\"|km!scope=\"col\"|Exit!scope=\"col\"|Name!scope=\"col\"|Destination!scope=\"col\"|Notes", "Since the beginning proposed route for the A1 highway on corridor Vc was under heavy criticism from environmentalists, groups and concerned citizens, as well as some factions in academic community and media, for its encroachment<ref name=\"jpautoceste.ba-environment-protection-monitoring/\"></ref> on many already highly endangered natural phenomenons, habitats and to significant extent on specific way of human life in traditional communities in relationship with characteristic Dinaric karst milieu and its characteristic biotope, hydrogeology and topography. This is especially emphasized in region of Herzegovina where most of Bosnia and Herzegovina's karstic topography and biodiversity is distributed. Several particular sections are of most concern: section in vicinity of Počitelj, section passing through Blagaj, and section through massif of Prenj. For that reason another variant of the route is proposed for every of three particular problematic sections." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Early career.", "Nuclear weapons.", "Manhattan Project.", "Hydrogen bomb.", "Later career in academia.", "Geometrodynamics.", "General relativity.", "Quantum information.", "Teaching.", "Participatory Anthropic Principle.", "Opposition to parapsychology.", "Personal life.", "Death and legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Wheeler was born in Jacksonville, Florida on July 9, 1911, to librarians Joseph Lewis Wheeler and Mabel Archibald (Archie) Wheeler. He was the oldest of four children, having two younger brothers, Joseph and Robert, and a younger sister, Mary. Joseph earned a Ph.D. from Brown University and a Master of Library Science from Columbia University. Robert earned a Ph.D. in geology from Harvard University and worked as a geologist for oil companies and several colleges. Mary studied library science at the University of Denver and became a librarian. They grew up in Youngstown, Ohio, but spent a year in 1921 to 1922 on a farm in Benson, Vermont, where Wheeler attended a one-room school. After they returned to Youngstown he attended Rayen High School. After graduating from the Baltimore City College high school in 1926, Wheeler entered Johns Hopkins University with a scholarship from the state of Maryland. He published his first scientific paper in 1930, as part of a summer job at the National Bureau of Standards. He earned his doctorate in 1933. His dissertation research work, carried out under the supervision of Karl Herzfeld, was on the \"Theory of the Dispersion and Absorption of Helium\". He received a National Research Council fellowship, which he used to study under Gregory Breit at New York University in 1933 and 1934, and then in Copenhagen under Niels Bohr in 1934 and 1935. In a 1934 paper, Breit and Wheeler introduced the Breit–Wheeler process, a mechanism by which photons can be potentially transformed into matter in the form of electron-positron pairs.", "The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill made Wheeler an associate professor in 1937, but he wanted to be able work more closely with the experts in particle physics. He turned down an offer in 1938 of an associate professorship at Johns Hopkins University in favor of an assistant professorship at Princeton University. Although it was a lesser position, he felt that Princeton, which was building up its physics department, was a better career choice. He remained a member of the faculty there until 1976. In a 1937 paper \"On the Mathematical Description of Light Nuclei by the Method of Resonating Group Structure\", Wheeler introduced the S-matrix – short for scattering matrix – \"a unitary matrix of coefficients connecting the asymptotic behavior of an arbitrary particular solution [of the integral equations] with that of solutions of a standard form.\" Werner Heisenberg subsequently developed the idea of the S-matrix in the 1940s. Due to the problematic divergences present in quantum field theory at that time, Heisenberg was motivated to isolate the essential features of the theory that would not be affected by future changes as the theory developed. In doing so he was led to introduce a unitary \"characteristic\" S-matrix, which became an important tool in particle physics. Wheeler did not develop the S-matrix, but joined Edward Teller in examining Bohr's liquid drop model of the atomic nucleus. They presented their results at a meeting of the American Physical Society in New York in 1938. Wheeler's Chapel Hill graduate student Katharine Way also presented a paper, which she followed up in a subsequent article, detailing how the liquid drop model was unstable under certain conditions. Due to a limitation of the liquid drop model, they all missed the opportunity to predict nuclear fission. The news of Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch's discovery of fission was brought to America by Bohr in 1939. Bohr told Leon Rosenfeld, who informed Wheeler. Bohr and Wheeler set to work applying the liquid drop model to explain the mechanism of nuclear fission. As the experimental physicists studied fission, they uncovered puzzling results. George Placzek asked Bohr why uranium seemed to fission with both very fast and very slow neutrons. Walking to a meeting with Wheeler, Bohr had an insight that the fission at low energies was due to the uranium-235 isotope, while at high energies it was mainly due to the far more abundant uranium-238 isotope. They co-wrote two more papers on fission. Their first paper appeared in \"Physical Review\" on September 1, 1939, the day Germany invaded Poland, starting World War II in Europe. Considering the notion that positrons were electrons that were traveling backwards in time, he came up in 1940 with his one-electron universe postulate: that there was in fact only one electron, bouncing back and forth in time. Richard Feynman, his graduate student, found this hard to believe, but the idea that positrons were electrons traveling backwards in time intrigued him and Feynman incorporated the notion of the reversibility of time into his Feynman diagrams.", "", "Soon after the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor brought the United States into World War II, Wheeler accepted a request from Arthur Compton to join the Manhattan Project's Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago. He moved there in January 1942, joining Eugene Wigner's group, which was studying nuclear reactor design. He co-wrote a paper with Robert F. Christy on \"Chain Reaction of Pure Fissionable Materials in Solution\", which was important in the plutonium purification process. It would not be declassified until December 1955. He gave the neutron moderator its name, replacing the term \"slower downer\" used by Enrico Fermi. After the United States Army Corps of Engineers took over the Manhattan Project, it gave responsibility for the detailed design and construction of the reactors to DuPont. Wheeler became part of the DuPont design staff. He worked closely with its engineers, commuting between Chicago and Wilmington, Delaware, where DuPont had its headquarters. He moved his family to Wilmington in March 1943. DuPont's task was not just to build nuclear reactors, but an entire plutonium production complex at the Hanford Site in Washington. As work progressed, Wheeler relocated his family again in July 1944, this time to Richland, Washington, where he worked in the scientific buildings known as the 300 area. Even before the Hanford Site started up the B Reactor, the first of its three reactors, on September 15, 1944, Wheeler had been concerned that some nuclear fission products might turn out to be nuclear poisons, the accumulation of which would impede the ongoing nuclear chain reaction by absorbing many of the thermal neutrons that were needed to continue a chain reaction. In an April 1942 report, he predicted that this would reduce the reactivity by less than one percent so long as no fission product had a neutron capture cross section of more than 100,000 barns. After the reactor unexpectedly shut down, and then just as unexpectedly restarted about fifteen hours later, he suspected iodine-135, with a half life of 6.6 hours, and its daughter product, xenon-135, which has a half life of 9.2 hours. Xenon-135 turned out to have a neutron capture cross-section of well over 2 million barns. The problem was corrected by adding additional fuel rods to burn out the poison. Wheeler had a personal reason for working on the Manhattan Project. His brother Joe, fighting in Italy, sent him a postcard with a simple message: \"Hurry up\". It was already too late: Joe was killed in October 1944. \"Here we were,\" Wheeler later wrote, \"so close to creating a nuclear weapon to end the war. I couldn't stop thinking then, and haven't stopped thinking since, that the war could have been over in October 1944.\" Joe left a widow and baby daughter, Mary Jo, who later married physicist James Hartle.", "In August 1945 Wheeler and his family returned to Princeton, where he resumed his academic career. Working with Feynman, he explored the possibility of physics with particles, but not fields, and carried out theoretical studies of the muon with Jayme Tiomno, resulting in a series of papers on the topic, including a 1949 paper in which Tiomno and Wheeler introduced the \"Tiomno Triangle\", which related different forms of radioactive decay. He also suggested the use of muons as a nuclear probe. This paper, written and privately circulated in 1949 but not published until 1953, resulted in a series of measurements of the Chang radiation emitted by muons. Muons are a component of cosmic rays, and Wheeler became the founder and first director of Princeton's Cosmic Rays Laboratory, which received a substantial grant of $375,000 from the Office of Naval Research in 1948. He received a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1946, which allowed him to spend the 1949–50 academic year in Paris. The 1949 detonation of Joe-1 by the Soviet Union prompted an all-out effort by the United States, led by Teller, to develop the more powerful hydrogen bomb in response. Henry D. Smyth, Wheeler's department head at Princeton, asked him to join the effort. Most physicists were, like Wheeler, trying to re-establish careers interrupted by the war and were reluctant to face more disruption. Others had moral objections. Those who agreed to participate included Emil Konopinski, Marshall Rosenbluth, Lothar Nordheim and Charles Critchfield, but there was also now a body of experienced weapons physicists at the Los Alamos Laboratory, led by Norris Bradbury. Wheeler agreed to go to Los Alamos after a conversation with Bohr. Two of his graduate students from Princeton, Ken Ford and John Toll, joined him there. At Los Alamos, Wheeler and his family moved into the house on \"Bathtub Row\" that had been occupied by Robert Oppenheimer and his family during the war. In 1950 there was no practical design for a hydrogen bomb. Calculations by Stanisław Ulam and others showed that Teller's \"Classical Super\" would not work. Teller and Wheeler created a new design known as \"Alarm Clock\", but it was not a true thermonuclear weapon. Not until January 1951 did Ulam come up with a workable design. In 1951 Wheeler obtained permission from Bradbury to set up a branch office of the Los Alamos laboratory at Princeton, known as Project Matterhorn, which had two parts. Matterhorn S (for stellarator, another name coined by Wheeler), under Lyman Spitzer, investigated nuclear fusion as a power source. Matterhorn B (for bomb), under Wheeler, engaged in nuclear weapons research. Senior scientists remained uninterested and aloof from the project, so he staffed it with young graduate and post-doctoral students. In January 1953 he was involved in a security breach when he lost a highly classified paper on lithium-6 and the hydrogen bomb design during an overnight train trip. This resulted in Wheeler being given an official reprimand. Matterhorn B's efforts were crowned by the success of the Ivy Mike nuclear test at Enewetak Atoll in the Pacific, on November 1, 1953, which Wheeler witnessed. The yield of the Ivy Mike \"Sausage\" device was reckoned at, about 30 percent higher than Matterhorn B had estimated. Matterhorn B was discontinued, but Matterhorn S endures as the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory.", "After concluding his Matterhorn Project work, Wheeler resumed his academic career. In a 1955 paper, he theoretically investigated the geon, an electromagnetic or gravitational wave that is held together in a confined region by the attraction of its own field. He coined the name as a contraction of \"gravitational electromagnetic entity.\" He found that the smallest geon was a toroid the size of the Sun, but millions of times heavier.", "During the 1950s, Wheeler formulated geometrodynamics, a program of physical and ontological reduction of every physical phenomenon, such as gravitation and electromagnetism, to the geometrical properties of a curved space-time. His research on the subject was published in 1957 and 1961. Wheeler envisaged the fabric of the universe as a chaotic sub-atomic realm of quantum fluctuations, which he called \"quantum foam\".", "General relativity had been considered a less respectable field of physics, being detached from experiment. Wheeler was a key figure in the revival of the subject, leading the school at Princeton University, while Dennis William Sciama and Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich developed the subject at Cambridge University and the University of Moscow, respectively. Wheeler and his students made substantial contributions to the field during the Golden Age of General Relativity. While working on mathematical extensions to Einstein's general relativity in 1957, Wheeler introduced the concept and word \"wormhole\" to describe hypothetical \"tunnels\" in space-time. Bohr asked if they were stable and further research by Wheeler determined that they are not. His work in general relativity included the theory of gravitational collapse. He used the term \"black hole\" in 1967 during a talk he gave at the NASA Goddard Institute of Space Studies (GISS). Wheeler said the term was suggested to him during a lecture when a member of the audience was tired of hearing Wheeler say \"gravitationally completely collapsed object.\" However, the term Black Hole had been used four years earlier at an astrophysics conference in Dallas, Texas as science writer Marcia Bartusiak reported in a talk at the 50th anniversary of the Texas Symposium on Relativistic Astrophysics. American astrophysicist and publisher Hong-Yee Chiu, said he remembered a seminar in Princeton University, perhaps as early as 1960, when the physicist Robert H. Dicke spoke about gravitationally collapsed objects as \"like the Black Hole of Calcutta.\" Wheeler was also a pioneer in the field of quantum gravity due to his development, with Bryce DeWitt, of the Wheeler–DeWitt equation in 1967. Stephen Hawking later described Wheeler and DeWitt's work as the equation governing the \"wave function of the Universe\".", "Wheeler left Princeton University in 1976 at the age of 65. He was appointed as the director of the Center for Theoretical Physics at the University of Texas at Austin in 1976 and remained in the position until 1986, when he retired and became a professor emeritus. Misner, Thorne and Wojciech Zurek, all former students of Wheeler, wrote that: Wheeler's delayed choice experiment is actually several thought experiments in quantum physics that he proposed, with the most prominent among them appearing in 1978 and 1984. These experiments are attempts to decide whether light somehow \"senses\" the experimental apparatus in the double-slit experiment that it will travel through, and adjusts its behavior to fit by assuming the appropriate determinate state, or whether light remains in an indeterminate state, neither wave nor particle, and responds to the \"questions\" asked of it in either a wave-consistent manner or a particle-consistent manner, depending on the experimental arrangements that ask these \"questions\". Wheeler's graduate students included Katharine Way, Richard Feynman, David Hill, Bei-Lok Hu, Kip Thorne, Jacob Bekenstein, John R. Klauder, William Unruh, Robert M. Wald, Arthur Wightman, Charles Misner and Hugh Everett. Wheeler gave a high priority to teaching, and continued to teach freshman and sophomore physics, saying that the young minds were the most important. With Kent Harrison, Kip Thorne and Masami Wakano, Wheeler wrote \"Gravitation Theory and Gravitational Collapse\" (1965). This led to the voluminous general relativity textbook \"Gravitation\" (1973), co-written with Misner and Thorne. Its timely appearance during the golden age of general relativity and its comprehensiveness made it an influential relativity textbook for a generation. Wheeler teamed up with Edwin F. Taylor to write \"Spacetime Physics\" (1966) and \"Scouting Black Holes\" (1996). At Princeton he supervised 46 PhDs, more than any other professor in the Princeton physics department.", "Alluding to Wheeler's \"mass without mass\", the festschrift honoring his 60th birthday was titled \"Magic Without Magic: John Archibald Wheeler: A Collection of Essays in Honor of his Sixtieth Birthday\" (1972). His writing style could also attract parodies, including one by \"John Archibald Wyler\" that was affectionately published by a relativity journal.", "Wheeler speculated that reality is created by observers in the universe. \"How does something arise from nothing?\", he asked about the existence of space and time. He also coined the term \"Participatory Anthropic Principle\" (PAP), a version of a Strong Anthropic Principle. In 1990, Wheeler suggested that information is fundamental to the physics of the universe. According to this \"it from bit\" doctrine, all things physical are information-theoretic in origin: In developing the Participatory Anthropic Principle (PAP), an, Wheeler used a variant on Twenty Questions, called Negative Twenty Questions, to show how the questions we choose to ask about the universe may dictate the answers we get. In this variant, the respondent does not choose or decide upon any particular or definite object beforehand, but only on a pattern of \"Yes\" or \"No\" answers. This variant requires the respondent to provide a consistent set of answers to successive questions, so that each answer can be viewed as logically compatible with all the previous answers. In this way, successive questions narrow the options until the questioner settles upon a definite object. Wheeler's theory was that, in an analogous manner, consciousness may play some role in bringing the universe into existence. From a transcript of a radio interview on \"The Anthropic Universe\":", "In 1979, Wheeler spoke to the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), asking it to expel parapsychology, which had been admitted ten years earlier at the request of Margaret Mead. He called it a pseudoscience, saying he did not oppose earnest research into the questions, but he thought the \"air of legitimacy\" of being an AAAS-Affiliate should be reserved until convincing tests of at least a few so-called psi effects could be demonstrated. In the question and answer period following his presentation \"Not consciousness, but the distinction between the probe and the probed, as central to the elemental quantum act of observation\", Wheeler incorrectly stated that J. B. Rhine had committed fraud as a student, for which he apologized in a subsequent letter to the journal \"Science\". His request was turned down and the Parapsychological Association remained a member of the AAAS.", "For 72 years, Wheeler was married to Janette Hegner, a teacher and social worker. They became engaged on their third date, but agreed to defer marriage until after he returned from Europe. They were married on June 10, 1935, five days after his return. Employment was difficult to obtain during the Great Depression. Arthur Ruark offered Wheeler a position as an assistant professor at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, at an annual salary of $2,300, which was less than the $2,400 Janette was offered to teach at the Rye Country Day School. They had three children: Letitia, James English and Alison Wheeler. Wheeler and Hegner were founding members of the Unitarian Church of Princeton, and she initiated the Friends of the Princeton Public Library. In their later years, Hegner accompanied him on sabbaticals in France, Los Alamos, New Mexico, the Netherlands, and Japan. Hegner died in October 2007 at the age of 99.", "Wheeler won numerous prizes and awards, including the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1966, the Enrico Fermi Award in 1968, the Franklin Medal in 1969, the Einstein Prize in 1969, the National Medal of Science in 1971, the Niels Bohr International Gold Medal in 1982, the Oersted Medal in 1983, the J. Robert Oppenheimer Memorial Prize in 1984 and the Wolf Foundation Prize in 1997. He was a member of the American Philosophical Society, the Royal Academy, the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, and the Century Association. He received honorary degrees from 18 different institutions. In 2001, Princeton used a $3 million gift to establish the John Archibald Wheeler/Battelle Professorship in Physics. After his death, the University of Texas named the John A. Wheeler Lecture Hall in his honor. On April 13, 2008, Wheeler died of pneumonia at the age of 96 in Hightstown, New Jersey." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Report.", "Pre-race.", "Race.", "Start.", "Safety car and restart.", "Finish and post-race.", "Friday drivers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Following Michael Schumacher's engine failure and Fernando Alonso's victory in the previous race in Japan, Alonso was now 10 points ahead of Schumacher in the Drivers' Championship, and would therefore clinch the championship unless Schumacher won the race and Alonso failed to score a point. Felipe Massa went into the race holding third place in the championship, one point ahead of fourth place Giancarlo Fisichella, who in turn could have his fourth place taken off him as Kimi Räikkönen was 9 points behind him. The final place in the top six of the Drivers' Championship was secure, as the current occupant, Jenson Button, was 11 points behind Räikkönen and 22 points ahead of his Honda teammate, Rubens Barrichello, with a maximum of 10 points available. In the Constructors' Championship, Renault were leading Ferrari by nine points, meaning that Renault had to score 10 points to secure the title. McLaren were safe in third place with 105 points, 81 points behind Ferrari and 27 points ahead of fourth place Honda. Meanwhile, BMW Sauber and Toyota were still competing for fifth place, with only one point between the two, but their top 6 position was secure as seventh place Red Bull Racing were 19 points behind Toyota. Räikkönen set the fastest time during the first practice session with 1:13.764. Anthony Davidson managed to take second in his Honda, but none of the Renaults or Ferraris set a competitive time, with Renault opting just to do one installation lap apiece. Alexander Wurz and Sebastian Vettel completed the top four. Before the race began, Michael Schumacher was given a lifetime achievement award by footballer Pelé.", "", "At the start Felipe Massa retained his lead going into the first bend, ahead of Kimi Räikkönen and Jarno Trulli. Championship elect Fernando Alonso kept his fourth position despite a challenge around the outside of the first corner by Rubens Barrichello's Honda. Michael Schumacher had a decent start from his 10th position on the grid and was on the inside of the two BMW Saubers going into the first corner, but had to back off to avoid a collision. His apparently much quicker Ferrari allowed him to pass both BMWs three corners later as they were slowed by Robert Kubica overtaking teammate Nick Heidfeld on the back straight. A little further behind, the two Williams-Cosworths collided as Nico Rosberg hit the back of Mark Webber's car going into turn 4. Both cars were severely damaged with Webber retiring at the end of the lap with a missing rear wing. Rosberg in turn had another high-speed crash on the uphill main straight: he lost grip and spun heavily into the wall, due to the damage sustained in the earlier contact with his teammate. Rosberg was unhurt but the scattered debris on the track led to the safety car being deployed to allow for the track to be cleaned. Before the safety car came out, Barrichello's Honda was overtaken on the outside into turn 1 by Giancarlo Fisichella.", "As the safety car picked up the field at the end of lap 2, Massa led Räikkönen, Trulli and Alonso with Fisichella and Michael Schumacher moving up to 5th and 6th respectively. Barrichello, Ralf Schumacher, Kubica and Button completed the top ten, Button having taken advantage of the two Williams retiring and having passed Heidfeld and Pedro de la Rosa. The restart took place on lap six and saw Button move past Kubica on the inside as the two crossed the line only 0.038secs apart. Michael Schumacher was also soon to attack Fisichella's Renault, forcing the Italian to protect the inside line in turns 4 and 5. On the next lap Button went past Ralf Schumacher up to 8th while Massa was pulling away comfortably from his pursuers at the front. His teammate Schumacher tried to move past Fisichella around the outside on the main straight. But Fisichella put up a fight, staying on the inside on the entry into the 1st corner. Schumacher aggressively cut across to the inside into the first corner, trying to force Fisichella to back off. Fisichella tried to avoid contact by moving onto the kerb, but his front wing appeared to make very light contact with the Ferrari's left rear tyre. Indeed, Schumacher's car began to slide violently in the next corner as his tyre deflated forcing the German to drive the entire lap at significantly reduced speed, and to see the entire field move past him in the process. The Ferrari team took eleven seconds to change all four tyres - taking the opportunity to add fuel as well. When Schumacher rejoined, he was only a few seconds in front of his teammate Massa thus being almost a lap down on the race leader. The two Ferraris proceeded to post the quickest lap times with Massa comfortably increasing his gap to Räikkönen in second, while the Toyotas hit trouble with first Ralf Schumacher and then Jarno Trulli retiring in the pits on lap 10. This meant that the order on lap 11 was: 1st Massa, 2nd Räikkönen, 3rd Alonso, 4th Fisichella, 5th Barrichello, 6th Button, 7th Kubica, 8th de la Rosa, 9th Heidfeld, 10th Scott Speed, 11th Vitantonio Liuzzi, 12th David Coulthard, 13th Takuma Sato, 14th Christijan Albers, 15th Sakon Yamamoto, 16th Robert Doornbos, 17th Tiago Monteiro and 18th and last Michael Schumacher's Ferrari. The race now settled into a steady pattern with the Ferraris still quickest and Alonso closing to within two seconds of Räikkönen's McLaren. Coulthard retired his Red Bull-Ferrari with mechanical problems on lap 14. The first planned pitstops took place on lap 21 with Räikkönen, Fisichella and Barrichello all coming in for fuel and tires. Fisichella's stop was slightly slower than Barrichello's, which nearly resulted in a collision as the two exited the pitlane - the Renault driver only just maintaining his position. They reemerged on the track 7th, 8th and 9th respectively, just behind de la Rosa and Heidfeld who had hitherto been contesting 8th place with Heidfeld quicker in the corners but unable to match the McLaren's straight-line speed. Massa closed to within a couple of seconds of lapping his teammate, setting a fastest lap of 1:12.8 before pitting on lap 23 at which point he had a 15-second gap to Alonso in second. Massa was stationary for just over 8 seconds and rejoined in third behind Button who was now in second despite having started 14th. Button pitted on the next lap, his 7.9 second stop allowing him to rejoin in 7th comfortably ahead of Fisichella and Barrichello. Alonso made his stop on the following lap and was able to rejoin just in front of Räikkönen but still behind de la Rosa and Heidfeld. Kubica then pitted from second position on lap 26 and dropped to 9th. His teammate followed suit on lap 27 falling behind the two Toro Rosso in the process just as Button was able to slipstream Räikkönen and outbrake him into turn one. Massa now led by 17 seconds in front of de la Rosa, who would not stop until 8 laps later. Alonso, Button and Räikkönen followed with a small gap back to Fisichella and Barrichello. Michael Schumacher had moved up to 13th courtesy of pitstops by the Aguris and on lap 31 he moved past Doornbos and closed on Liuzzi who had just been involved in an incident with Heidfeld, whom he had steered into just as Heidfeld was overtaking the Italian into turn 1. The BMW driver's front wing suffered some damage from the contact but he was able to carry on. Liuzzi then pitted leaving Schumacher 11th and just 3 seconds behind Heidfeld. They both advanced one position on lap 33 as Scott Speed also pitted in his Toro Rosso. Up front, Massa was still pulling away, now 23 seconds in front of de la Rosa, Alonso, Button and Räikkönen, who were all still very close together. De la Rosa pitted on lap 35 for his one and only pitstop (10.8s) dropping to 10th. Schumacher easily passed Heidfeld for ninth on the following lap when Heidfeld was forced into the pits again on lap 38 to have the damaged front wing replaced, dropping him out of any contention for the points. Barrichello was first into the pits when the second and last round of regular pitstops began on lap 46. His stop lasted 8.3 seconds. Schumacher followed on lap 47 having driven 36 laps since his first unscheduled stop. He rejoined in 8th just between Barrichello and the one-stopping de la Rosa. Fisichella did his stop (7.2s) on lap 49. Button was into the pits (7.3s) on the following lap while Schumacher effortlessly passed Barrichello on the inside on the main straight. Räikkönen was next man to pit, rejoining in fourth - only just behind Button, who was busy lapping Yamamoto and the Spykers. Leader Massa made his stop on lap 52 and rejoined still in front of second placed Alonso, who also kept his position after he came in two laps later (6.8s). Schumacher was now beginning to look threatening to the second Renault of Fisichella and this was significant for the Constructors' Championship—if the Ferraris could finish 1st and 2nd and the Renaults only 3rd and 6th, the two teams would finish equal on points but with Ferrari in front on race victories. With 15 laps to go, Schumacher was under half a second behind Fisichella as they came across the line with Räikkönen only a few seconds further in front. The Renault seemed able to match the Ferrari's impressive straight-line speed and Schumacher was unable to overtake as easily as he had done with other cars. A thrilling battle ensued as Fisichella defended valiantly, but on lap 62 he braked too late into Turn 1 and his Renault took to the grass, allowing Schumacher to gain in position. Fisichella was only just able to rejoin in front of Barrichello. Schumacher then closed on 4th placed Räikkönen who had been dropping back slightly from Button and Alonso. On lap 64, Nick Heidfeld's race was over as his BMW's rear suspension failed at the end of the main straight. Waved yellow flags in Turn 1 prevented Schumacher from overtaking Räikkönen on the usual overtaking spot, but Räikkönen made a slight mistake in the hairpin turn 10 and Schumacher pulled even with the Finn in the inferior McLaren. Schumacher was on the outside for the next turn, however, and had to back off, losing some ground in the process. With four laps to go, Schumacher was ready to attack again, but Räikkönen defended brilliantly against superior machinery by taking the inside line for the first turn. The following lap, Schumacher was even closer, drafting behind the McLaren on the main straight. Räikkönen tried to fend off the charging Ferrari and again took to the inside, but this time Schumacher was so much quicker he managed to pull alongside, finding just enough space between the McLaren and the pit wall. The two cars went through turn one side by side, but Räikkönen finally had to give way into turn 2 as Schumacher forced him onto the dirty line of the circuit.", "Schumacher continued to chase down Alonso and Button, setting a new fastest lap (1:12.1) on the penultimate lap, but he was unable to catch them in time and Alonso made himself and Renault champions by finishing second behind the elated Felipe Massa, who became the first Brazilian winner in São Paulo since the late Ayrton Senna in 1993. After finishing the race, winner Felipe Massa stopped just after the \"\"S do Senna\"\" to receive a Brazilian flag from a fan, this action had broken Article 154 of the FIA Sporting Regulations, stating that \"After receiving the end-of-race signal all cars must proceed on the circuit directly to the post race parc fermé without stopping, without overtaking (unless clearly necessary), without receiving any object whatsoever and without any assistance (except that of the marshals if necessary).\" In practice, this should have meant Massa being punished, although the rule itself was never put in place. At the end-of-season FIA Gala in December 2006 the promoters of the 2006 Brazilian Grand Prix received the Race Promoters' Trophy for their work in publicising the event.", "The bottom six teams in the 2005 Constructors' Championship, plus the Super Aguri team, were entitled to run a third car in free practice on Friday. These drivers did not compete in qualifying or the race." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Architecture.", "Exterior design.", "Interior design.", "Garden.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The mosque has several modern architectural features whilst at the same time it preserves the traditional principles of Mughal architecture which has for some time been dominant in the Indian sub-continent. Baitul Mukarram's large cube shape was modeled after that of the Ka'abah at Mecca making it a noticeable structure being unlike any other mosque in Bangladesh.", "The mosque is on a very high platform. The Baitul Mukarram National Mosque's building is eight storied and 99 feet high from the ground level. According to the original plan, the main entrance of the mosque was to be on the eastern side. The'shaan' on the east is 29,000 square feet with ablution space on its south and north sides. Ablution or Wu’du Place cached an important part when the Baitul Mukarram was begun. The absence of a dome on the main building is compensated by the two superficial domed entrance porticoes, one on the south, and the other on the north. The height of these porticoes consists of three rabbit's foot shaped arches, the middle of which is bigger than the rest.", "Two patios (roofless inner courtyard) ensure that enough light and air enter the prayer hall of Baitul Mukarram National Mosque. The prayer niché of the hall is rectangular instead of semi-circular. Excessive ornamentation is avoided throughout the mosque, since minimizing ornamentation is typical of modern architecture.", "The garden is laid out in a style borrowed heavily from Mughal gardens, however unlike the traditional Mughal gardens which represent the Islamic Heaven, the garden does not have the Char-Bagh system most likely due to not having enough room for such a garden. The future of this garden is unknown, if the Bangladeshi government extends the mosque, it will most likely have to remove the garden.", "The mosque complex was designed by architect, Abdulhusein M. Thariani. In 1959, owner of then Bawany Jute Mills, Haji Abdul Latif Bawany proposed to Major General Omrao Khan, then military administrator of East Pakistan, of building a grande mosque in Dhaka. Omrao Khan agreed to help on building such mosque. Same year, 'Baitul Mukarram mosque committee' had been established and 8.30 acre of land between new Dhaka and old Dhaka had been chosen. At that time, there was a large pond in present mosque's location. It was known as 'Paltan pond. The pond was filled up and on 27 January 1960 then president of Pakistan Ayub Khan commenced the work. Pray for first time took place on Friday, 25 January 1963. The plan included shops, offices, libraries and parking areas within the complex. Though there has been a tradition of dome mosque for Muslim, this building did not maintain the rule of traditional mosque in that time. A Mosque without a dome over the roof of its main prayer hall must have been a unique experiment. The mosque was built when the country was the Part of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. in 2008 the mosque was extended, financed by a donation from the Saudi government." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The principle of lithography.", "Lithography on limestone.", "Modern lithographic process.", "Microlithography and nanolithography.", "Lithography as an artistic medium." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Lithography uses simple chemical processes to create an image. For instance, the positive part of an image is a water-repelling (\"hydrophobic\") substance, while the negative image would be water-retaining (\"hydrophilic\"). Thus, when the plate is introduced to a compatible printing ink and water mixture, the ink will adhere to the positive image and the water will clean the negative image. This allows a flat print plate to be used, enabling much longer and more detailed print runs than the older physical methods of printing (e.g., intaglio printing, letterpress printing). Lithography was invented by Alois Senefelder in the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1796. In the early days of lithography, a smooth piece of limestone was used (hence the name \"lithography\": \"lithos\" () is the ancient Greek word for stone). After the oil-based image was put on the surface, a solution of gum arabic in water was applied, the gum sticking only to the non-oily surface. During printing, water adhered to the gum arabic surfaces and was repelled by the oily parts, while the oily ink used for printing did the opposite.", "Lithography works because of the mutual repulsion of oil and water. The image is drawn on the surface of the print plate with a fat or oil-based medium (hydrophobic) such as a wax crayon, which may be pigmented to make the drawing visible. A wide range of oil-based media is available, but the durability of the image on the stone depends on the lipid content of the material being used, and its ability to withstand water and acid. After the drawing of the image, an aqueous solution of gum arabic, weakly acidified with nitric acid is applied to the stone. The function of this solution is to create a hydrophilic layer of calcium nitrate salt,, and gum arabic on all non-image surfaces. The gum solution penetrates into the pores of the stone, completely surrounding the original image with a hydrophilic layer that will not accept the printing ink. Using lithographic turpentine, the printer then removes any excess of the greasy drawing material, but a hydrophobic molecular film of it remains tightly bonded to the surface of the stone, rejecting the gum arabic and water, but ready to accept the oily ink. Senefelder had experimented during the early 19th century with multicolor lithography; in his 1819 book, he predicted that the process would eventually be perfected and used to reproduce paintings. Multi-color printing was introduced by a new process developed by Godefroy Engelmann (France) in 1837 known as chromolithography. A separate stone was used for each color, and a print went through the press separately for each stone. The main challenge was to keep the images aligned (\"in register\"). This method lent itself to images consisting of large areas of flat color, and resulted in the characteristic poster designs of this period. \"Lithography, or printing from soft stone, largely took the place of engraving in the production of English commercial maps after about 1852. It was a quick, cheap process and had been used to print British army maps during the Peninsula War. Most of the commercial maps of the second half of the 19th century were lithographed and unattractive, though accurate enough.\"", "High-volume lithography is used presently to produce posters, maps, books, newspapers, and packaging—just about any smooth, mass-produced item with print and graphics on it. Most books, indeed all types of high-volume text, are now printed using offset lithography. For offset lithography, which depends on photographic processes, flexible aluminum, polyester, mylar or paper printing plates are used instead of stone tablets. Modern printing plates have a brushed or roughened texture and are covered with a photosensitive emulsion. A photographic negative of the desired image is placed in contact with the emulsion and the plate is exposed to ultraviolet light. After development, the emulsion shows a reverse of the negative image, which is thus a duplicate of the original (positive) image. The image on the plate emulsion can also be created by direct laser imaging in a CTP (Computer-To-Plate) device known as a platesetter. The positive image is the emulsion that remains after imaging. Non-image portions of the emulsion have traditionally been removed by a chemical process, though in recent times plates have come available that do not require such processing. The plate is affixed to a cylinder on a printing press. Dampening rollers apply water, which covers the blank portions of the plate but is repelled by the emulsion of the image area. Hydrophobic ink, which is repelled by the water and only adheres to the emulsion of the image area, is then applied by the inking rollers. If this image were transferred directly to paper, it would create a mirror-type image and the paper would become too wet. Instead, the plate rolls against a cylinder covered with a rubber \"blanket\", which squeezes away the water, picks up the ink and transfers it to the paper with uniform pressure. The paper passes between the blanket cylinder and a counter-pressure or impression cylinder and the image is transferred to the paper. Because the image is first transferred, or \"offset\" to the rubber blanket cylinder, this reproduction method is known as \"offset lithography\" or \"offset printing\". Many innovations and technical refinements have been made in printing processes and presses over the years, including the development of presses with multiple units (each containing one printing plate) that can print multi-color images in one pass on both sides of the sheet, and presses that accommodate continuous rolls (\"webs\") of paper, known as web presses. Another innovation was the continuous dampening system first introduced by Dahlgren, instead of the old method (conventional dampening) which is still used on older presses, using rollers covered with molleton (cloth) that absorbs the water. This increased control of the water flow to the plate and allowed for better ink and water balance. Current dampening systems include a \"delta effect or vario\", which slows the roller in contact with the plate, thus creating a sweeping movement over the ink image to clean impurities known as \"hickies\". This press is also called an ink pyramid because the ink is transferred through several layers of rollers with different purposes. Fast lithographic 'web' printing presses are commonly used in newspaper production. The advent of desktop publishing made it possible for type and images to be modified easily on personal computers for eventual printing by desktop or commercial presses. The development of digital imagesetters enabled print shops to produce negatives for platemaking directly from digital input, skipping the intermediate step of photographing an actual page layout. The development of the digital platesetter during the late 20th century eliminated film negatives altogether by exposing printing plates directly from digital input, a process known as computer to plate printing.", "Microlithography and nanolithography refer specifically to lithographic patterning methods capable of structuring material on a fine scale. Typically, features smaller than 10 micrometers are considered microlithographic, and features smaller than 100 nanometers are considered nanolithographic. Photolithography is one of these methods, often applied to semiconductor device fabrication. Photolithography is also commonly used for fabricating microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) devices. Photolithography generally uses a pre-fabricated photomask or reticle as a master from which the final pattern is derived. Although photolithographic technology is the most commercially advanced form of nanolithography, other techniques are also used. Some, for example electron beam lithography, are capable of much greater patterning resolution (sometimes as small as a few nanometers). Electron beam lithography is also important commercially, primarily for its use in the manufacture of photomasks. Electron beam lithography as it is usually practiced is a form of maskless lithography, in that a mask is not required to generate the final pattern. Instead, the final pattern is created directly from a digital representation on a computer, by controlling an electron beam as it scans across a resist-coated substrate. Electron beam lithography has the disadvantage of being much slower than photolithography. In addition to these commercially well-established techniques, a large number of promising microlithographic and nanolithographic technologies exist or are being developed, including nanoimprint lithography, interference lithography, X-ray lithography, extreme ultraviolet lithography, magnetolithography and scanning probe lithography. Some of these new techniques have been used successfully for small-scale commercial and important research applications. Surface-charge lithography, in fact Plasma desorption mass spectrometry can be directly patterned on polar dielectric crystals via pyroelectric effect, Diffraction lithography.", "During the first years of the 19th century, lithography had only a limited effect on printmaking, mainly because technical difficulties remained to be overcome. Germany was the main center of production in this period. Godefroy Engelmann, who moved his press from Mulhouse to Paris in 1816, largely succeeded in resolving the technical problems, and during the 1820s lithography was adopted by artists such as Delacroix and Géricault. After early experiments such as \"Specimens of Polyautography\" (1803), which had experimental works by a number of British artists including Benjamin West, Henry Fuseli, James Barry, Thomas Barker of Bath, Thomas Stothard, Henry Richard Greville, Richard Cooper, Henry Singleton, and William Henry Pyne, London also became a center, and some of Géricault's prints were in fact produced there. Goya in Bordeaux produced his last series of prints by lithography—\"The Bulls of Bordeaux\" of 1828. By the mid-century the initial enthusiasm had somewhat diminished in both countries, although the use of lithography was increasingly favored for commercial applications, which included the prints of Daumier, published in newspapers. Rodolphe Bresdin and Jean-François Millet also continued to practice the medium in France, and Adolf Menzel in Germany. In 1862 the publisher Cadart tried to initiate a portfolio of lithographs by various artists, which was not successful but included several prints by Manet. The revival began during the 1870s, especially in France with artists such as Odilon Redon, Henri Fantin-Latour and Degas producing much of their work in this manner. The need for strictly limited editions to maintain the price had now been realized, and the medium became more accepted. In the 1890s, color lithography gained success in part by the emergence of Jules Chéret, known as the \"father of the modern poster\", whose work went on to inspire a new generation of poster designers and painters, most notably Toulouse-Lautrec, and former student of Chéret, Georges de Feure. By 1900 the medium in both color and monotone was an accepted part of printmaking. During the 20th century, a group of artists, including Braque, Calder, Chagall, Dufy, Léger, Matisse, Miró, and Picasso, rediscovered the largely undeveloped artform of lithography thanks to the Mourlot Studios, also known as \"Atelier Mourlot\", a Parisian printshop founded in 1852 by the Mourlot family. The Atelier Mourlot originally specialized in the printing of wallpaper; but it was transformed when the founder's grandson, Fernand Mourlot, invited a number of 20th-century artists to explore the complexities of fine art printing. Mourlot encouraged the painters to work directly on lithographic stones in order to create original artworks that could then be executed under the direction of master printers in small editions. The combination of modern artist and master printer resulted in lithographs that were used as posters to promote the artists' work. Grant Wood, George Bellows, Alphonse Mucha, Max Kahn, Pablo Picasso, Eleanor Coen, Jasper Johns, David Hockney, Susan Dorothea White, and Robert Rauschenberg are a few of the artists who have produced most of their prints in the medium. M. C. Escher is considered a master of lithography, and many of his prints were created using this process. More than other printmaking techniques, printmakers in lithography still largely depend on access to good printers, and the development of the medium has been greatly influenced by when and where these have been established. As a special form of lithography, the serilith process is sometimes used. Seriliths are mixed media original prints created in a process in which an artist uses the lithograph and serigraph processes. The separations for both processes are hand-drawn by the artist. The serilith technique is used primarily to create fine art limited print editions." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "International relations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The settlement became a marketplace and a seaport as early as the 7th century. The name, as was common during the Middle Ages, was spelled differently: in a 1277 document Putzc, 1277 Pusecz, 1288 Puczse and Putsk, 1289 Pucz. In 1309 it came under the rule of the Teutonic Order as part of Pomerelia. Puck achieved town status in 1348. Together with the rest of Royal Prussia, it joined Poland in 1454 (1466) and was the place of the local County Administration (\"Starostwo\"). The Polish kings tried to create a fleet at Danzig, but autonomous Hanseatic Danzig would not allow them in their territory. Ships chartered by Poland had to land at Pautzke (Puck) in 1567. Poland tried to establish a Polish Navy, gaining the use some harbors in Livonia and Finland, but a standing navy never materialized. Swedish-Lithuanian Vasa King of Poland-Lithuania Sigismund III Vasa also tried to establish a fleet in his attempts to wrest the crown of Sweden from King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, but Sigismund's attempts were destroyed in 1628. In 1772, through the Partitions of Poland, the town was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia and in 1773 became part of the newly established province of West Prussia. In 1913 Putzig became the garrison of the first planes of German Naval aviation. After the First World War, Puck was assigned to the Second Polish Republic by the Treaty of Versailles. In 1920 Poland celebrated Poland's Wedding to the Sea in Puck. The first actual Polish Navy was founded at the end of World War I in 1918 with some French and British involvement. Puck was the only Polish harbour until Gdynia was built in the 1920s and served as the main harbour of the Polish Navy until the Second World War. Puck was bombed by Nazi Germany at 5.20am Polish time on Friday September 1, known thereafter as Grey Friday. Luftwaffe bombers dropped a projectile on the town, which also had an airbase for the Naval Air Squadron; dealing significant damage to the Polish air force units stationed there. After Poland was occupied by Nazi Germany in 1939, a branch of the Stutthof concentration camp existed in Puck in the years 1941 to 1944. After 1945 Puck was part of the Republic of Poland.", "Puck, Poland is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Production.", "Cultural references.", "Reception.", "Remastering." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Dave Lister (Craig Charles) decides to wait out the journey to Earth in stasis with Cat (Danny John-Jules), much to the annoyance of Arnold Rimmer (Chris Barrie). As Lister prepares for it, the ship is jolted severely, to which the ship's computer Holly (Norman Lovett) explains that the ship's constant acceleration has caused it to break the light barrier. Shortly after being assured the ship will be alright, Lister notices odd things, including his mirror's reflection acting on its own, a second Rimmer having a conversation in the Drive Room that makes no sense, and a second Cat running out of his quarters after breaking a tooth. Conveying his observations to Rimmer and Holly, the computer reveals that breaking the light barrier has caused them to experience temporal anomalies known as \"Future Echoes\"; events that will occur in the future that can be seen in the present. The pair soon believe this when they find a photograph showing Lister holding two babies in his arms and question how it will happen. When an explosion rocks through the corridors, Rimmer explains to Lister that he just saw a \"future echo\" of him dying in the drive room when working on the navicomp. Lister suspects that this will happen when Cat breaks a tooth on one of the robotic goldfish in his quarters and attempts to prevent this. However, Lister inadvertently knocks the tooth out while trying to change the future, whereupon he opts to face his destiny and fix the drive room's navicomp when it starts malfunctioning. When he manages to repair it without incident, Rimmer question what he had actually seen. Returning to their quarters, they soon encounter another \"future echo\" consisting of an elderly Lister who explains that Rimmer had actually seen the death of one of his twin sons. Before he disappears, he tells the pair to head to the medical unit with a camera. As they do so, Lister questions Holly about the range of \"future echoes\", to which the computer replies that the faster they go beyond the light barrier, the further into the future they can see. However, as the ship is now slowing down, the \"future echoes\" will begin to be closer to the present until the ship resumes normal speed. Before the pair reach the medical unit, Rimmer questions how Lister would get twin sons with no women on board, to which Lister insists he doesn't know but believes it will be a laugh to find out. The pair soon see a future Lister of similar age walk out of the unit with two crying babies, and poses for the camera.", "It was the fourth episode recorded and they felt it worked well, but it proved very difficult to write and the script confused a lot of people. Director Ed Bye was even said to have been skeptical and baffled by it. The writers were convinced viewers would be swayed by the unusual premise of the show, and an introduction was written to be read by Holly at the beginning of each episode to remind audiences of the premise of the show and what events had preceded that particular episode. Co-creator and writer, Doug Naylor, frequently had to remind the cast of these things too, as it took them a while to get their heads around the plot. Despite this, it was eventually decided by the producers that it actually introduced the fact this was a sit-com which used real scientific principles better than previously recorded episodes and aired it as the second episode. Split-screen techniques were used as Lister talked to Rimmer's echo—just as the original Rimmer walked out the door. While Craig Charles interacted with Chris Barrie the first time, he had to then act with thin air. Where in fact, the finished shot would have Rimmer's echo walking in from the other direction and Lister trying to talk to him. This was achieved by shooting the scene with Charles and Barrie and then a separate shot of Barrie was added to the scene to follow on with the conversation with Charles. The skutters, the tiny, motorised, three-clawed service droids, were actual working models. They were made up of parts including old shoe boxes and the engines of radio-controlled cars. Interference originating from the radios of a nearby taxi company, which was particularly busy during filming of \"Future Echoes\", caused havoc with the skutter models on set. One reportedly poked Craig Charles in the eye, and another launched an unsuspecting attack on Chris Barrie's groin. Coincidentally the skutters were in the script very inept towards their maintenance work and mischievous towards humans. John Lenahan voiced the Toaster and Tony Hawks provided his voice for the Dispensing Machine. After the episode aired Rob Grant and Doug Naylor became uncomfortable with how casually Lister takes the news of his future son's violent death. When this episode was adapted for \"\", this was altered so it's actually Lister's grandson who dies in the navicomp explosion.", "This was the first episode of the series to deal with a science fiction plot based on real scientific theory, which was to become a common occurrence in later \"Red Dwarf\" episodes. For this particular episode, time dilation and various assorted time anomalies caused by travelling close to the speed of light (or indeed even at the speed of light) are referenced in Albert Einstein's theory of relativity.", "\"Future Echoes\" was originally broadcast on the British television channel BBC2 on 21 February 1988 in the 9:00 p.m. evening time slot. Although the pilot episode \"The End\" gained over five million viewers, this was now tailing off slightly as the series progressed. The episode was considered to be one of the better ones from the first series. Co-creator and writer, Rob Grant, stated that if it weren't for \"Future Echoes\" then the show would have been nonexistent. It was the fourth episode recorded and they felt it worked so well they brought it forward in the schedule to second.", "The remastering of series one to three was carried out during the late 1990s. Changes carried out included replacement of the opening credits (re-instating the original idea of the one shot of pulling away from the ship), colour grading and filmising of the picture, new computer-generated special effects of \"Red Dwarf\" flying through space, and many more visual, audio and scene adjustments. Changes specific to \"Future Echoes\" include new bike shots of Lister inserted at the beginning, and computer-generated special effects of \"Red Dwarf\" breaking the light barrier. Also post-production video effects of white flashes were added to scenes when the ship breaks the light barrier. An additional dramatic score was added to the scene of Lister's impending death." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Founding and \"Lunar Strain\".", "\"Subterranean\".", "\"The Jester Race\".", "\"Whoracle\".", "\"Colony\".", "\"Clayman\" and \"The Tokyo Showdown\".", "\"Reroute to Remain\".", "\"Soundtrack to Your Escape\".", "\"Come Clarity\".", "\"A Sense of Purpose\".", "\"Sounds of a Playground Fading\".", "\"Siren Charms\" and \"Sounds from the Heart of Gothenburg\".", "\"Battles\".", "\"I, the Mask\".", "Musical style and lyrical content.", "Legacy.", "Miscellaneous.", "Awards.", "Jester Head mascot.", "Members.", "Discography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In Flames was founded in 1990 by Jesper Strömblad as a side project from his then-current death metal band, Ceremonial Oath. His purpose was to write songs with a more melodic musical direction, something which he was not allowed to do in Ceremonial Oath. In 1993, Strömblad decided to quit Ceremonial Oath due to musical differences and began focusing more on In Flames. That same year, Strömblad recruited Glenn Ljungström on guitar and Johan Larsson on bass guitar to form the first official In Flames line-up. The trio recorded a demo in August 1993 and sent it to Wrong Again Records. In order to increase their chances of getting signed to the label, the group lied and said they had thirteen songs already recorded, when in fact they only had three. The owner of the label enjoyed the music, and immediately signed them to the label. After being signed, work on the band's debut album began. The album, titled \"Lunar Strain\", was recorded in Studio Fredman and released in August 1994. Since the band did not have a vocalist yet, Strömblad asked Mikael Stanne of Dark Tranquillity to provide session vocals. Many other session musicians participated in the recording as well, including guitarists Anders Iwers, Carl Näslund, and Oscar Dronjak (the latter of which provided backing vocals), vocalist Jennica Johansson, and violinist Ylva Wåhlstedt.", "During 1994, In Flames recorded and self-produced their first EP, \"Subterranean\", in Studio Fredman. In Flames still did not have a vocalist yet, so session vocals were provided this time by Henke Forss. In 1994, the band covered the song \"Eye of the Beholder\" for the Metallica tribute album Metal Militia - A Tribute to Metallica. In 1995, \"Subterranean\" was released. \"Subterranean\" garnered much attention and led the band to acquire a record deal with Nuclear Blast.", "In 1995, In Flames became tired of using session musicians to record an album or to do live shows, so the trio asked Björn Gelotte to join the band as the full-time drummer, and 6 months later asked Anders Fridén to join the band as the full-time vocalist. That same year, the new line up recorded the band's second studio album, \"The Jester Race\" (Released in 1996). This album was recorded once again in Studio Fredman, but unlike previous albums, it was co-produced by the studio's owner, Fredrik Nordström. Gelotte also provided some lead and acoustic guitars for the album. Afterwards, In Flames toured with Samael, Grip Inc., and Kreator.", "In 1997, In Flames recorded and released their third studio album, \"Whoracle\". This album was recorded once again in Studio Fredman and co-produced by Nordström. Once again Gelotte provided lead and acoustic guitars for the album. Ljungström and Larsson unexpectedly announced that they were leaving In Flames after the album was recorded. Niklas Engelin and Peter Iwers were recruited to fill in the vacant spots on guitar and bass respectively, during a tour with Dimmu Borgir. After the tour both Engelin and Iwers were asked to join the band as permanent members, to which they agreed. With the new line-up, In Flames then proceeded with a European tour and played their first two shows in Japan. However, by the end of that tour in 1998, Engelin quit In Flames, so the band decided to switch Gelotte from his position as drummer to guitarist, and they recruited Daniel Svensson to take over as drummer.", "In 1999, the new line-up recorded and released the band's fourth studio album, \"Colony\". This album was recorded once again in Studio Fredman and co-produced by Nordström. The second solo on \"Coerced Coexistence\" was recorded by Kee Marcello. Afterwards, In Flames toured Europe, Japan, and played their first show in the United States during the Milwaukee Metal Fest.", "In 2000, In Flames recorded and released their fifth studio album, \"Clayman\". It was recorded in the same studio as their previous releases and again co-produced by Nordström. Afterwards, In Flames toured with Dream Theater, Slipknot, and Testament. In August 2001, In Flames released \"The Tokyo Showdown\", a live album recorded during the Japanese tour in November 2000.", "In 2002, In Flames recorded and released their sixth studio album, \"Reroute to Remain\". Unlike all of In Flames' previous albums, \"Reroute to Remain\" was not recorded in Studio Fredman or produced by Nordström. The album was produced by Daniel Bergstrand and recorded in a house the band rented in Denmark, except for the drums which were recorded at Dug-Out studio. \"Reroute to Remain\" represented a major stylistic shift for In Flames music, in the addition of clean vocals, catchier choruses and less growling. It was also their first album to have official singles released from it. That year the band toured with Slayer, Soulfly, and Mudvayne.", "In 2003, In Flames recorded their seventh studio album, \"Soundtrack to Your Escape\", and released it in 2004. Like with \"Reroute to Remain\", the majority of the album was recorded in a house that the band rented in Denmark, with the drums recorded in Dug-Out Studio. This album was also produced by Bergstrand. \"Soundtrack to Your Escape\" increased the band's popularity considerably, selling 100,000 copies in the United States and yielding a No. 2 single on the Swedish charts with \"The Quiet Place\". Four music videos were filmed: \"The Quiet Place\", \"My Sweet Shadow\", \"F(r)iend\" and \"A Touch of Red\", all of which were directed by Patric Ullaeus. The ensuing world tour saw the band make their first trip to Australia, where they played to mostly sold out crowds. Afterward, In Flames toured with Judas Priest, Mötley Crüe, and Motörhead. In Flames was also featured on the main stage at Ozzfest 2005.", "In 2005, In Flames recorded and self-produced their eighth studio album, \"Come Clarity\", in Dug-Out studio. That same year, In Flames released \"\", a box set consisting of material filmed and recorded throughout various live performances during 2004. The DVD was filmed, edited and directed by Ullaeus. Also in 2005, In Flames decided to sign with an additional record label, Ferret Music, so future releases could have better distribution in North America. In 2006, \"Come Clarity\" was released in North America through Ferret Music and elsewhere through Nuclear Blast. It became the band's first No. 1 album on the Swedish charts. A bonus DVD of In Flames playing all the songs in a rehearsal studio was also released. Ullaeus directed their music video for \"Take This Life\". That same year, In Flames toured with Sepultura, co-headlined a U.S. tour with Lacuna Coil, joined The Unholy Alliance Tour, was one of the headliners on the Sounds of the Underground tour, and played on the main stage at Download Festival. In 2007, the band played in Dubai for the annual Dubai Desert Rock Festival. In Flames also played at Bloodstock Open Air festival in August 2007.", "In October 2007, In Flames finished recording their ninth studio album in IF Studios, their own studio located in Gothenburg, Sweden (formerly Studio Fredman). During the recording sessions, the band released studio diaries documenting the recording process. On 23 January 2008, the band confirmed that they had recorded a video for the single \"The Mirror's Truth\", and posted photos from the video on their official Myspace profile. In Flames were featured on the Gigantour 3 North American tour with Megadeth, Children of Bodom, Job for a Cowboy, and High on Fire. On 4 April 2008, In Flames released their ninth studio album, \"A Sense of Purpose\". The first single from the new album was titled \"The Mirror's Truth\" and was released in Europe on 7 March 2008. In June 2008, In Flames performed at Metaltown Festival, Metalcamp, Graspop Metal Meeting, Nova Rock Festival, Rock am Ring and Rock im Park, Gigantour and Download Festival. In late August 2008, In Flames filmed a video for the second single, \"Alias\", once again directed by Ullaeus. From January 2008 to December 2009 In Flames toured on the A Sense of Purpose Tour. On 3 February 2009, the band announced that Strömblad would not be participating in the Australia/South America/Japan tour in order to get treatment for his alcohol abuse problems. Engelin was announced as his replacement for the tour. On 18 February, the band announced their United Kingdom and Ireland tour would not go ahead as planned due to Strömblad's alcohol rehabilitation and the birth of Iwers's child. On 4 March, the band announced that the third single from \"A Sense of Purpose\" is the track \"Delight and Angers\". The video premiered on the band's Myspace on 25 March. It was once again directed and produced by Ullaeus. Alex Pardee did the artwork for the song like he did with all of \"A Sense of Purpose\". The band joined with Killswitch Engage, Dead by April, Every Time I Die and Maylene and the Sons of Disaster for the UK leg of the Taste of Chaos 2009 tour in November 2009.", "The departure of guitarist and founding member Jesper Strömblad was announced on the band's MySpace on 12 February 2010. The parting was on good terms with Strömblad, stating that \"I'm determined to fight and defeat my demons once and for all...\", with the remaining band members backing his decision, though in a more recent declaration Fridén stated that their relationship with Strömblad was not going well. On 28 February 2011, it was announced that Engelin had re-joined the band to take the vacant spot left by Strömblad's departure. In early 2010, In Flames collaborated with Pendulum on their third studio album \"Immersion\". The song \"Self Versus Self\" is one of three collaborations on the album. On 11 October 2010, In Flames entered IF Studios in Gothenburg to start recording their new album, tentatively titled \"Sounds of a Playground Fading\". On 25 January 2011, the band announced that the recording of their new album was finished and that the album was being mixed. The album was recorded with producer Roberto Laghi. To support the album, In Flames performed at the Sonisphere Festival in Knebworth, and alongside Megadeth, Trivium, Machine Head, Godsmack, and Disturbed at the Mayhem Festival 2011. They also played at Hellfest Festival 2011, headlining the second main stage, and Nova Rock Festival in Austria. In March 2011, In Flames signed with Century Media Records. On 6 April 2011, In Flames announced their newest single, \"Deliver Us\", was slated for a May release. For part of the European tour, Jonas Ekdahl of DeathDestruction filled in for Svensson on drums, after Svensson's decision to remain in Sweden for a time following the birth of his child. \"Sounds of a Playground Fading\" was released in Sweden on 15 June 2011, on 17 June 2011 in Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Norway, on 20 June 2011 in the UK, Benelux, France, Greece, Denmark and Portugal, on 21 June 2011 in North America, Spain and Italy, on 22 June 2011 in Finland, Hungary and Japan, and on 24 June 2011 in Australia and New Zealand. A video was made for \"Deliver Us\". It was filmed in Gothenburg, and was again directed by Ullaeus, who also directed the second video from \"Sounds of a Playground Fading\", \"Where the Dead Ships Dwell\". In an interview at Canada's Heavy MTL festival on 12 August 2012, frontman Anders Fridén revealed that In Flames will \"start thinking about\" recording their next studio album in 2013.", "In Flames began recording their eleventh studio album in August 2013. On 10 April 2014, the In Flames website appeared to have been hacked. The alleged hacker threatened to leak information the next day. The band posted on its Facebook, saying, \"We have encountered some issues regarding our online platforms. We want to assure you that no Jesterhead member information has been compromised, and our team is working on a solution right now. We apologize for the inconvenience.\" However, the site was not really hacked. The following day, the band's website was updated with a link to the supposed leak. A short video announced that the new album will be titled \"Siren Charms\". The album was released on 9 September 2014, via the band's new label, Epic Records. \"Siren Charms\" includes vocals recorded by fans. Following release of the album they started a World tour, set to last throughout 2015. On 12 October 2014 the band officially announced on their Facebook page that they are to release a brand new Live Blu-ray/DVD and CD set based on their show in Gothenburg, which took place in November 2014 and was officially released on 23 September 2016 titled 'Sounds from the Heart of Gothenburg'. Longtime drummer Daniel Svensson announced his departure from the band to focus on his family life on 7 November 2015.", "In early 2016, In Flames began recording a new album in Los Angeles, and finished the recording in April. On 25 August 2016, In Flames posted a YouTube link to a new song entitled \"The End\" along with a new profile picture with the In Flames logo accompanied by the word \"Battles\". It was later revealed the same day that \"Battles\" will be the title of their twelfth studio album, and was released worldwide on 11 November 2016 through Nuclear Blast. On 17 September 2016 the band announced on their Facebook page that Joe Rickard, formerly of American rock band RED, who performed session drums on Battles is now the new permanent drummer, replacing Daniel Svensson. On 29 November 2016, Peter Iwers announced the tour supporting Battles would be his last with In Flames. This leaves just Anders and Björn as the only members left in the band who have constantly remained in the lineup since the 1990s. Bassist Håkan Skoger, who previously worked with Friden on his side project 'Passenger', played live with the band on their first UK tour date in Scotland. The band then recruited bassist Bryce Paul to play bass on their American tour. In December 2017, In Flames released 'Down, Wicked, and No Good' EP, which included three covers and a live performance. On 5 July 2018, it was announced the band recruited Tanner Wayne as the new drummer, replacing Joe Rickard.", "On 14 December 2018, In Flames announced their 13th album entitled \"I, the Mask\" would be released on 1 March 2019. As part of this announcement they released two singles from the upcoming album entitled \"I Am Above\" and \"(This Is Our) House\". The music video for \"I Am Above\" features Swedish actor Martin Wallström and doesn't show any members of the band. The lyric video released for \"(This Is Our) House\" features live concert footage from \"Borgholm Brinner\" music festival in Sweden. The album was produced by Howard Benson, mixed by Chris Lord-Alge and mastered by Ted Jensen. On 10 January 2019 the lyric video for \"I, the Mask\", the title track off of the album, was released via the Nuclear Blast Records YouTube channel. In Flames will be opening up for Megadeth & Lamb of God this Summer in North America. Trivium will also join up as support.", "In Flames, along with Dark Tranquillity, Soilwork, and At the Gates, pioneered what is now known as melodic death metal. The founding members of all three bands all lived in Gothenburg, Sweden and they were all friends who shared the same musical interests. Eventually, that group of friends branched off into three bands with the same musical direction, In Flames, Dark Tranquillity, and At the Gates. Jesper Strömblad formed In Flames to write music that combined the melodic guitar style of Iron Maiden with the brutality of death metal, something which Jesper stated he had never heard any band do. In writing songs, Jesper also decided to make use of keyboards, something which was (at the time) uncommon in death metal. Ever since In Flames' debut studio album, \"Lunar Strain\", the band has made use of keyboards. Despite their sometimes heavy use of keyboards in their music, they still refuse to recruit a full-time keyboardist. In Flames' musical style is characterized by the constant use of harmonized lead guitar melodies and screaming-style singing along with death growl. In early albums such as \"The Jester Race\", In Flames would often employ two harmonized lead guitars playing over a rhythm guitar. However, since the band only has two guitar players, they found it hard to reproduce those songs during live performances and ever since \"Reroute to Remain\" they have focused on writing songs with the intention of playing them live. On the album \"Soundtrack to Your Escape\", the band focused on less guitar melodies, giving place for more synths. However, this has not been continued on the later albums. In Flames' vocal style is characterized by the use of growled vocals or screamed vocals complemented at times by clean vocals. In more recent albums such as \"Come Clarity\", the band makes more prominent use of clean vocals, especially during choruses. In Flames' lyrics have also varied during their career. In early albums such as \"The Jester Race\" and \"Whoracle\", In Flames' lyrics focused on astrology, mankind, and other global themes. In later albums such as \"Soundtrack to Your Escape\" and \"Come Clarity\", In Flames' lyrics focus more on personal issues, thoughts, and other introspective themes. Since \"Reroute to Remain\" was released in 2002, In Flames' fan-base has been split because of the gradual change in style towards a more alternative metal sound. Still, In Flames have a solid and growing worldwide fanbase. The stylistic changes include screamed and clean vocals, as opposed to the death growl on the early records, more prominent rhythm section and less guitar melodies and solos, more obvious use of synthesizers and electronics and a clear influence from modern American metal in especially the uplifting chorus melodies. This later style has been mostly described as alternative metal. Since \"Siren Charms\", and more recently their latest studio album \"Battles\", they have more extensively used clean vocals as opposed to screams and growls and have played a softer overall sound, putting more emphasis on a melodic alternative metal direction. Very minimal elements of their earlier Melodic death metal sound are utilized at this point. However, some very mild elements of this style can still sometimes be heard in their music. Anders' clean singing style has altered drastically as it is now more prominent and he has taken on a higher-pitched vocal range. In Flames has also been described as metalcore, with AllMusic calling the band one of the pioneers of metalcore along with calling In Flames one of the pioneers of melodic death metal.", "In Flames has influenced many bands. The band has been especially influential to metalcore, with bands such as Darkest Hour, As I Lay Dying, and Still Remains naming them as a source of inspiration. They have also influenced a number of subsequent melodic death metal bands, including Insomnium, Omnium Gatherum, and Blood Stain Child.", "", "In Flames has been awarded four \"Grammis\" awards (the Swedish equivalent of the Grammy Awards) to date. In 2005, In Flames won their first \"Grammis\" award in the category of Best Hard Rock/Metal Album for \"Soundtrack to Your Escape\". In 2006, In Flames won the Swedish Export Award, their second \"Grammis\" award. In Flames was the first metal band to ever win that award and the Swedish economy minister at the time, Thomas Östros, was quoted as saying \"Thanks to In Flames, Sweden now have a metal band in the absolute world elite.\" In 2007, In Flames once again won the category of Best Hard Rock/Metal Album for \"Come Clarity\". They have also won the \"Best international Band\" award from the Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards in 2008.", "When In Flames were recording their second studio album, \"The Jester Race\", Anders Fridén and Niklas Sundin came up with an idea to create a symbol/mascot for In Flames. The result was the Jester Head. This symbol made its first appearance in the cover artwork of \"The Jester Race\" and ever since, the Jester has been featured in various forms somewhere on every studio album that In Flames has released, either as a song title or on the album artwork. The Jester Head is also featured in lots of In Flames' merchandise and has been featured in banners as part of In Flames' live set. Swedish ice hockey goaltender, Robin Lehner, who is also from Gothenburg had the Jester Head painted on several of his protective face masks.", "Initially formed as a side project by Ceremonial Oath bassist Jesper Strömblad in 1990, the group's first full lineup in 1993 also featured guitarist Glenn Ljungström and bassist Johan Larsson. As the band were without an official vocalist, their 1994 debut \"Lunar Strain\" featured contributions from Dark Tranquillity frontman Mikael Stanne, as well as several guest musicians. The 1995 EP \"Subterranean\" featured vocals by Dawn's Henke Forss, as well as drums by Daniel Erlandsson of Eucharist and Anders Jivarp of Dark Tranquillity. Around the time of the EP's release, Björn Gelotte joined In Flames as the band's first official drummer, and a short time later Anders Fridén was brought in from Dark Tranquillity as the group's first official vocalist. The lineup of Fridén, Strömblad, Ljungström, Larsson and Gelotte released \"The Jester Race\" in 1996 and \"Whoracle\" in 1997. By the end of the recording for \"Whoracle\", however, both Ljungström and Larsson had announced that they were leaving the band. They were replaced for a short tour by Niclas Engelin and Peter Iwers, both of whom were ultimately retained as official members. Engelin only remained until the following year, however, and his role was taken over by Gelotte. The vacated position of drummer was soon filled by Daniel Svensson. The band's lineup remained stable for over a decade, releasing several albums. In February 2010, founding member Strömblad announced that he was leaving In Flames, with the band admitting that \"in order to keep a very dear friend this is probably for the best\". He was replaced for tour dates later in the year by a returning Niclas Engelin, who was later announced as a full member of the group in March 2011. In late 2015, long-term drummer Svensson also left In Flames, explaining that he wanted to \"spend more time with... [his] wife and three daughters\". Joe Rickard was brought in as Svensson's replacement the following year. Iwers also departed a year after Svensson, explaining that he felt it was \"the time to move on with other musical and non-musical adventures\". Bryce Paul took over his place for future tour dates. In July 2018, Tanner Wayne replaced Rickard.", "Studio albums" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Geography.", "Valleys.", "Confluence.", "Hydrology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The name \"Isère\" was first recorded under the form \"Isara\", which means \"the impetuous one, the swift one.\" Not originally a Celtic word, it was very likely assimilated by the Celts in ancient times. This word is related to the Indo-European \"*isərós\", meaning \"impetuous, quick, vigorous,\" which is similar to the Sanskrit \"isiráh\" with the same definition. It was probably based on the reconstructed Indo-European root \"*eis(ə)\" (and not \"*is\"), which incidentally has not been found in the Celtic languages of the British Isles. The word \"Isara\" figures in the etymology of many other river names, from ancient Gaul and its neighboring lands. Examples of this are the Ésera in Spain, the Isar in Germany, the small Franco-Belgian Yser, or even the ancient name of the Oise, \"Isara\" (the French adjective \"isarien\" still exists in the language and continues to describe anything related to the Oise). In non-Celtic countries, we find the \"Isarco\", a river in Northern Italy, the \"Éisra\" and \"Istrà\" in Lithuania,\"Jizera\" in the Czech Republic and \"Usora\" in Bosnia and Herzegovina.", "The Isère's course measures and runs through a wide variety of landscapes: from its source near the Italian border in the western Alps, it crosses the Pays de Savoie and the Tarentaise Valley, cuts between the Chartreuse and Belledonne mountain ranges, follows the Vercors Massif, passes through the Dauphiné province, and finally meets with the Rhône at the foot of the Vivarais.", "The upper valley of the Isère is called the Tarentaise, and its middle valley the Grésivaudan. The lower valley constitutes a section of the (also called the \"Valentinois\") and is characterized by the river's deep, winding channel. Instead of widening its banks over time, the Isère has dug deeper into its bed, forming stepped fluvial terraces. The valley has clearly defined borders and is relatively narrow, not exceeding in breadth. The repetition of alluvial deposition (during periods of Quaternary glaciation) and overdeepening (during interglacial periods), known as a fluvioglacial system, led to the formation of several stepped terraces in the lower Isère valley, like the one on which Saint-Marcel-lès-Valence is built. This occurred through the massive accumulation of alluvium from the Isère on top of a bed of Miocene molasse. Today, these terraces still define the geography of the Plain of Valence.", "The Isère initially merges with one of the Rhône's diversion canals, built for navigational purposes, at Pont-de-l'Isère. At the southern tip of La Roche-de-Glun (a commune on an island formed by the canal), the Isère Dam drains part of the water back into the Rhône and permits the Isère to continue its course alone until it passes through the Bourg-lès-Valence Dam and reaches its final junction with the Rhône.", "The length of the Isère is, and its drainage basin covers. The vertical profile of the river is made up of several zones: The flow of the Isère was observed over a period of 58 years (between 1956 and 2015) at Beaumont-Monteux in the Drôme department, situated near the river's confluence with the Rhône. The discharge of the river at Beaumont-Monteux measured. The Isère's large seasonal fluctuations are typical of rivers fed in large part by snowmelt, with springtime flooding raising the average monthly discharge between and from April to July (peaking in May and June), and low water levels in autumn and winter, from August to February, with a minimum average monthly discharge of in September. Generally speaking, this makes the Isère a very plentiful watercourse throughout the year. However, the can drop to during a five-year dry spell, which is very low. On the other hand, severe flooding can result from rapid thaw or torrential autumn rain. In fact, and QIX 5 are and, respectively. QIX 10 is. QIX 20 reaches, while QIX 50 rises to, which is still moderate compared to other rivers in the south of France, like the Tarn. The highest instantaneous discharge on record was on September 16, 1960, while the highest daily value was on October 7 of the same year. The depth of runoff for the Isère's drainage basin is annually, which is quite high above France's average and clearly superior to that of the Rhône's drainage basin ( in Valence for a surface area of ). The specific discharge is 27.9 liters per second per square kilometer of drainage basin." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Summary.", "Plot.", "Origins.", "Performance history.", "Sequel.", "Adaptations.", "Vivie's character and the changing role of women." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The story centres on the relationship between Mrs Kitty Warren and her daughter, Vivie. Mrs. Warren, a former prostitute and current brothel owner, is described as \"on the whole, a genial and fairly presentable old blackguard of a woman.\" Vivie, an intelligent and pragmatic young woman who has just graduated from university, has come home to get acquainted with her mother for the first time in her life. The play focuses on how their relationship changes when Vivie learns what her mother does for a living. It explains why Mrs. Warren became a prostitute, condemns the hypocrisies relating to prostitution, and criticises the limited employment opportunities available for women in Victorian Britain.", "Vivie Warren, a thoroughly modern young woman, has just graduated from the University of Cambridge with honours in Mathematics (equal Third Wrangler), and is available for suitors. Her mother, Mrs. Warren (her name changed to hide her identity and give the impression that she is married), arranges for her to meet her friend Mr. Praed, a middle-aged, handsome architect, at the home where Vivie is staying. Mrs. Warren arrives with her business partner, Sir George Crofts, who is attracted to Vivie despite their 25-year age difference. Vivie is romantically involved with the youthful Frank Gardner, who sees her as his meal ticket. His father, the (married) Reverend Samuel Gardner, has a history with Vivie's mother. As we discover later, he may be Vivie's out-of-wedlock father, which would make Vivie and Frank half-siblings. Mrs. Warren successfully justifies to her daughter how she chose her particular profession in order to support her daughter and give her the opportunities she never had. She saved enough money to buy into the business with her sister, and she now owns (with Sir George) a chain of brothels across Europe. Vivie is, at first, horrified by the revelation, but then lauds her mother as a champion. However, the reconciliation ends when Vivie finds out that her mother continues to run the business even though she no longer needs to. Vivie takes an office job in the city and dumps Frank, vowing she will never marry. She disowns her mother, and Mrs. Warren is left heartbroken, having looked forward to growing old with her daughter.", "Shaw said he wrote the play \"to draw attention to the truth that prostitution is caused, not by female depravity and male licentiousness, but simply by underpaying, undervaluing and overworking women so shamefully that the poorest of them are forced to resort to prostitution to keep body and soul together.\" He explained the source of the play in a letter to the \"Daily Chronicle\" on 28 April 1898: Miss Janet Achurch [an actress and friend of Shaw’s] mentioned to me a novel by some French writer [\"Yvette\" by Guy de Maupassant] as having a dramatisable story in it. It being hopeless to get me to read anything, she told me the story... In the following autumn I was the guest of a lady [Beatrice Webb] of very distinguished ability—one whose knowledge of English social types is as remarkable as her command of industrial and political questions. She suggested that I should put on the stage a real modern lady of the governing class—not the sort of thing that theatrical and critical authorities imagine such a lady to be. I did so; and the result was Miss Vivie Warren... Mrs. Warren herself was my version of the heroine of the romance narrated by Miss Achurch. The tremendously effective scene—which a baby could write if its sight were normal—in which she justifies herself, is only a paraphrase of a scene in a novel of my own, \"Cashel Byron's Profession\" (hence the title, \"Mrs Warren's Profession\"), in which a prize-fighter shows how he was driven into the ring exactly as Mrs. Warren was driven on the streets.", "The play was originally banned by the Lord Chamberlain (Britain's official theatre censor) because of its frank discussion of prostitution, but was finally performed on Sunday, 5 January 1902, at London's New Lyric Club with the distinguished actor-manager Harley Granville-Barker as Frank, Fanny Brough as Mrs. Warren, George Goodhart as Sir George Crofts, Julius Knight as Praed, Madge McIntosh as Vivie and Cosmo Stuart as Rev. Samuel Gardner. Members-only clubs had been a device to avoid the eye of authority, but actors often also used the opportunity to invite their fellow-artists to a private showing of a play, usually on Sundays, when theatres were closed to the public. The first public performance in London took place in 1925. A 1905 performance in New York, this time on a public stage, was interrupted by the police, who arrested the cast and crew for violating New York City's version of the Comstock laws. It was later held not to be in violation of the law, and has been revived on Broadway five times since. In December 1918 the play was produced in Perth, Australia by the actor manager Alan Wilkie and featured a friend and protégé of Shaw, Frediswyde Hunter-Watts, as Vivie Warren. The play has been twice revived by the National Theatre, first in 1970–71 at the Old Vic, directed by Ronald Eyre, with Coral Browne and Sarah Badel, and more recently at the Lyttelton Theatre in 1985–86, directed by Anthony Page, with Joan Plowright and Jessica Turner as Mrs Warren and Vivie. The Shaw Festival at Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario has mounted the play five times since the Festival's inception in 1962: 1976, 1990, 1997, 2008, and 2016 In 2006, it was revived off-broadway by The Irish Repertory Theatre, with Dana Ivey as Mrs. Warren, Laura Odeh as Vivie Warren, and David Staller as Mr. Praed. The play was revived in 2010 in three separate venues: It was performed by the Sydney Theatre Company in 2012, and was so popular that the season was extended. In 2016 the play was performed at the Center Theatre in Seattle. In 2018, Eleanor Bishop's adaptation of the play was performed at the ASB Waterfront Theatre in Auckland, New Zealand by the Auckland Theatre Company.", "Sir Harry Johnston wrote a sequel, a novel entitled \"Mrs. Warren's Daughter\", circa 1920.", "A 1960 German film adaption, \"Mrs. Warren's Profession\", starred Lilli Palmer. BBC Television produced a television version first broadcast on 3 October, 1972 on BBC2 under the 'Stage 2' drama strand. Produced by Cedric Messina and directed by Herbert Wise, it starred Coral Browne in the title role, with Penelope Wilton as Vivie. Also in the cast were James Grout, Robert Powell, Richard Pearson and Derek Godfrey. Under the \"Play of the Month\" strand, the production was repeated on BBC1 on 21 April, 1974. The production was released on DVD in 2006. A radio adaptation was broadcast on the BBC in 2002, and re-broadcast in January 2009 on BBC Radio 7, starring Maggie Steed in the title role. Armen Pandola's \"Mrs.Warren's e-Profession\" transforms the story by bringing it into modern times. Mrs. Warren grows rich from her online porn and dating sites while her sheltered daughter recoils from the knowledge that her privileged life is based on the exploitation of women.", "Men who could afford to get married in the Victorian era could make use of “laws that gave him total control of his wife's person—and her fortune”. Victorian women were expected to maintain a poised and dignified manner, and to obey their husbands. Vivie defies the Victorian expectations of an obedient woman: she is educated and entirely self-sufficient. She rejects two marriage proposals, reflecting her reliance on her work ethic and hard-headed approach to life. Shaw represents Vivie as the product of a type of gender reformation: a character who is asexual and \"permanently unromantic\". Throughout the play, the boundary between sexual desires and proposed marriages is blurred. Frank flirts with both Mrs. Warren and Vivie; Mrs. Warren's companion Sir George Crofts proposes marriage to Vivie despite his relationship with her mother. Critic Petra Dierkes-Thrun argues that these examples illustrate the way in which Shaw \"critiqued the ideological and economic system that produced her [Mrs. Warren], attacking the problematic double standard of male privilege and the deeply entrenched objectification of women, which Shaw saw pervading all levels of Victorian society down to its most basic nuclear element, the family.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Production.", "Development.", "Writing.", "Casting.", "Filming.", "Soundtrack.", "In other media.", "Release.", "Box office.", "Critical reception.", "Sequels and adaptations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A gang of bandits led by Calvera (Eli Wallach) periodically raids a poor Mexican village for food and supplies. After the latest raid, during which Calvera kills a villager, the village leaders decide they have had enough. On the advice of the village elder (Vladimir Sokoloff), they decide to fight back. Taking their few objects of value, three villagers ride to a town just inside the United States border hoping to barter for weapons. They are impressed by Chris Adams (Yul Brynner), a veteran Cajun gunslinger, and approach him for advice. Chris suggests they instead hire gunfighters to defend the village, as \"men are cheaper than guns.\" At first agreeing only to help them recruit men, Chris eventually decides to lead the group. Despite the meager pay offered, he finds five willing gunmen. They are the gunfighter Vin Tanner (Steve McQueen), who has gone broke after a round of gambling and resists local efforts to recruit him as a store clerk; Chris's friend Harry Luck (Brad Dexter), who assumes Chris is hiding a much bigger reward for the work; the Irish Mexican Bernardo O'Reilly (Charles Bronson), who has fallen on hard times; Britt (James Coburn), an expert in both knife and gun who joins purely for the challenge involved; and the dapper, on-the-run gunman Lee (Robert Vaughn), plagued by nightmares of fallen enemies and haunted that he has lost his nerve for battle. On their way to the village they are trailed by the hotheaded Chico (Horst Buchholz), an aspiring gunfighter whose previous attempts to join Chris had been spurned. Impressed by his persistence, Chris invites him into the group. Arriving at the village, they work with the villagers to build fortifications and train them to defend themselves. They note the lack of women in the village, until Chico stumbles upon Petra (Rosenda Monteros) and discovers the women were hidden in fear that the gunmen will rape them. The gunmen begin to bond with the villagers, and Petra pursues Chico. When Bernardo points out that the gunmen are being given the choice food, the gunmen share it with the village children. Three of Calvera's men are dispatched to reconnoiter the village; the seven kill all three. Then Calvera and his bandits arrive in force. The seven and the villagers kill another eight of their cohort in a shootout and run them out of town. The villagers celebrate, believing Calvera will not return. But Chico infiltrates Calvera's camp and learns that Calvera must return, as his men are short of food. Some fearful villagers thereupon call for the gunfighters to leave. Even some of the seven waver, but Chris insists that they stay, even threatening to kill anyone who suggests giving up the fight. The seven ride out to make a surprise raid on Calvera's camp, but find it abandoned. Returning to the village, they are caught by Calvera and his men, who colluded with some of the villagers to sneak in and take control. Calvera spares the seven's lives, believing they have learned the simple farmers are not worth fighting for, and fearing reprisals from the gunfighters' \"friends\" across the border. Preparing to depart, Chris and Vin admit they have become emotionally attached to the village. Bernardo likewise gets angry when the boys he befriended call their parents cowards. Chico declares that he hates the villagers; when Chris points out he grew up as a farmer as well, Chico angrily responds that it is men like Calvera and Chris who made the villagers what they are. The seven gunmen are escorted some distance from the village, where their weapons are returned to them. They debate their next move and all but Harry, who believes the effort will be futile and suicidal, agree to return and fight. The gunmen infiltrate the village and a gunfight breaks out. Harry, who has had a change of heart, returns in time to save Chris's life, but is himself fatally shot. Harry pleads to know what they were fighting for, and Chris lies about a hidden gold mine to let Harry believe he died for a fortune. Lee finds the nerve to burst into a house where several villagers are being held, shooting their captors and releasing the prisoners to join the fight, but is gunned down as he leaves the house. Bernardo, shot protecting the boys he befriended, tells them as he dies to see how bravely their fathers fought. Britt dies after shooting at many bandits but exposing himself from cover. Chris shoots Calvera, who asks him, \"You came back... to a place like this? Why? A man like you? Why?\" He dies without receiving an answer. The remaining bandits take flight. The three surviving gunmen ride out of town. As they stop atop a hill overlooking the village, Chico parts company with them, realizing he wants to stay with Petra. Chris and Vin bid farewell to the village elder, who tells them that only the villagers have really won, whereas the gunslingers are \"like the wind, blowing over the land and passing on.\" As they pass the graves of their fallen comrades, Chris admits, \"The Old Man was right. Only the farmers won. We lost. We'll always lose.\"", "", "Yul Brynner approached producer Walter Mirisch with the idea of remaking Kurosawa's famous samurai film. But once Mirisch had acquired the rights from Japan's Toho Studios, and finalized a distribution deal with United Artists, Brynner was sued for breach of contract by actor Anthony Quinn, who claimed that he and Brynner had developed the concept together and had worked out many of the film's details before the two had a falling-out. Quinn ultimately lost his claim, because there was nothing in writing.", "Script credit was a subject of contention. Associate producer Lou Morheim commissioned Walter Bernstein, a blacklisted scriptwriter, to produce the first draft \"faithfully\" adapted from the original script written by Shinobu Hashimoto, Hideo Oguni and Akira Kurosawa; when executive producer Walter Mirisch and Brynner took over the production, they brought on Walter Newman, whose version \"is largely what's on screen.\" When Newman was unavailable to be on-site during the film's principal photography in Mexico, William Roberts was hired, in part to make changes required by Mexican censors. When Roberts asked the Writers Guild of America for a co-credit, Newman asked that his name be removed from the credits.", "Sturges was eager to cast Steve McQueen in the picture, having just worked with him on the 1959 film \"Never So Few\", but McQueen could not get a release from actor/producer Dick Powell, who controlled McQueen's hit TV series \"Wanted Dead or Alive\". On the advice of his agent, McQueen, an experienced race car driver, staged a car accident and claimed that he could not work on his series because he had suffered a whiplash injury and had to wear a neck brace. During the interval required for his \"recuperation\", he was free to appear in \"The Magnificent Seven\". James Coburn was a great fan of the Japanese film \"Seven Samurai\", having seen it 15 times, and was hired through the help of co-star and former classmate Robert Vaughn, after the role of the expert knifethrower had been rejected by actors Sterling Hayden and John Ireland. Robert Vaughn, who died in November 11, 2016, was the last surviving member of the main cast. Rosenda Monteros was the last surviving cast member until her death on December 29, 2018.", "The film was shot by cinematographer Charles Lang in a 35mm anamorphic format using Panavision lens. Location shooting began on March 1, 1960, in Mexico, where both the village and the U.S. border town were built for the film. The location filming was in Cuernavaca, Durango, and Tepoztlán and at the Churubusco Studios. The first scenes were the first part of the six gunfighters' journey to the Mexican village prior to Chico being brought into the group. During filming there was considerable tension between Brynner and McQueen, who was displeased at his character having only seven lines of dialogue in the original shooting script (Sturges had told McQueen that he would \"give him the camera\"). To compensate, McQueen took numerous opportunities to upstage Brynner and draw attention to himself, including shielding his eyes with his hat, flipping a coin during one of Brynner's speeches, rattling his shotgun shells. Brynner, who was only half an inch taller than McQueen, would often build up a little mound of earth to stand on when the two actors were on camera together, only to have McQueen surreptitiously kick the dirt out of place before retakes. When newspapers started reporting on the altercations on set between the two, Brynner issued a press statement, declaring, \"I never feud with actors. I feud with studios.\"", "The film's score is by Elmer Bernstein. Along with the readily recognized main theme and effective support of the story line, the score also contains allusions to twentieth-century symphonic works, such as the reference to Bartok's Concerto for Orchestra, second movement, in the tense quiet scene just before the shoot out. The original soundtrack was not released at the time until reused and rerecorded by Bernstein for the soundtrack of \"Return of the Seven\". Electric guitar cover versions by Al Caiola in the U.S. and John Barry in the U.K. were successful on the popular charts. A vocal theme not written by Bernstein was used in a trailer. In 1994, James Sedares conducted a re-recording of the score performed by The Phoenix Symphony Orchestra, which also included a suite from Bernstein's score for \"The Hallelujah Trail\", issued by Koch Records; Bernstein himself conducted the Royal Scottish National Orchestra for a performance released by RCA in 1997, but the original film soundtrack was not released until the following year by Rykodisc. (Varèse Sarabande reissued this album in 2004.) At the 33rd Academy Awards, the score was nominated for Best Score of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture, losing to Ernest Gold's score for \"Exodus\". Many decades later, however, the score for \"The Magnificent Seven\" was listed at 8 on the American Film Institute's list of the top 25 American film scores.", "Bernstein's score has frequently been quoted in the media and popular culture. Starting in 1963, the theme was used in commercials in the U.S. for Marlboro cigarettes for many years. A similar-sounding (but different) tune was used for Victoria Bitter beer in Australia. The theme was included in a scene of the James Bond film \"Moonraker\". Other uses include in the 2004 documentary film \"Fahrenheit 9/11\"; in the 2005 film \"The Ringer\"; in the 2015 film \"Hardcore Henry\"; as entrance music for the British band James, as well as episodes of \"The Simpsons\" that had a \"Western\" theme (mainly in the episode titled \"Dude, Where's My Ranch?\"). The opening horn riff in Arthur Conley's 1967 hit \"Sweet Soul Music\" is borrowed from the theme. Canadian band Kon Kan use the opening bars of the theme in their single \"I Beg Your Pardon\". Celtic Football Club (Glasgow, Scotland) used the theme music whenever Henrik Larsson scored a goal. The 2008 J-pop song \"Ōgoe Diamond\" by AKB48 also used part of the main theme. The \"Cheers\" episode \"Diane Chambers Day\" (season 4, episode 22) revolves around the bar denizens being invited to watch \"The Magnificent Seven\", and ends with them singing an a cappella version of the theme. The Mick Jones 1980s band Big Audio Dynamite covered the song as \"Keep off the Grass\" (although this cover was not officially released). In 1995, the KLF also did a drum and bass cover of the main title as \"The Magnificent\"; it was released under the group alias One World Orchestra on the charity compilation \"The Help Album\". In 1992, the main theme of \"The Magnificent Seven\" came into use on a section of the Euro Disneyland Railroad at Disneyland Paris. Portions of the theme play as the train exits the Grand Canyon diorama tunnel behind Phantom Manor, enters Frontierland, and travels along the bank of the Rivers of the Far West. The \"Main Title\" was used as an intro tune on many nights of Bruce Springsteen's 2012 Wrecking Ball Tour. The theme was played as the E Street Band entered the stage, adding to the dramatic atmosphere in the stadium.", "The film opened October 12, 1960 in a thousand theaters across the South and Southwest of the United States.", "In the United States and Canada, the film earned in theatrical rentals and was a box office disappointment, but proved to be such a smash hit in Europe that it ultimately made a profit. In Western Europe, the film sold tickets in Italy, 7,037,826 tickets in France, and 7.7million tickets in the United Kingdom, becoming one of the top 100 highest-grossing films in the United Kingdom and in France. It was also successful in Germany. In the Soviet Union (where Brynner was originally from), the film sold 67million tickets, becoming the highest-grossing Hollywood film ever in the Soviet Union (where it was among only a handful of Hollywood films to become blockbusters there). In South Korea, it sold 80,870 tickets in Seoul City, and it was also successful in Japan. This adds up to a total of at least 89,118,696 tickets sold in overseas territories. The overseas rental was almost three times as much as in the U.S. with a total of $7.5 million, giving it worldwide rentals of $9.75 million.", "Contemporary reviews were mixed to positive. Howard Thompson of \"The New York Times\" called the film a \"pallid, pretentious and overlong reflection of the Japanese original\"; according to Thompson, \"don't expect anything like the ice-cold suspense, the superb juxtaposition of revealing human vignettes and especially the pile-driver tempo of the first \"Seven\".\" According to \"Variety\", \"Until the women and children arrive on the scene about two-thirds of the way through, \"The Magnificent Seven\" is a rip-roaring rootin' tootin' western with lots of bite and tang and old-fashioned abandon. The last third is downhill, a long and cluttered anti-climax in which \"The Magnificent Seven\" grow slightly too magnificent for comfort.\" Richard L. Coe of \"The Washington Post\" called the film \"rough, tough, funny and splashy most of the way. There's a serious dip the final third, but Keith's newcomer offers shrewd, vastly enjoyable performances.\" \"Harrison's Reports\" praised the film as \"A superb Western, well acted and crammed full of action, human interest, pathos, suspense, plus some romance and humor.\" A positive review from Charles Stinson in the \"Los Angeles Times\" praised the dialogue as \"by turns, virile, rowdily funny and then, abruptly, not always predictably, it is pensive, even gentle. John Sturges' direction is superbly staccato; making a knife-sharp use of pauses and silences, it brings out both the humor and melancholy, the humanity as well as the evil inherent in the situation.\" \"The Monthly Film Bulletin\" called the casting of Yul Brynner and Horst Buchholz \"curious\" and thought Chico's decision to stay put was \"the film's most completely unbelievable contrivance,\" but still thought that \"the film manages to be both impressive and likeable.\" Akira Kurosawa, for his part, was reportedly so impressed by the film that he presented John Sturges with a sword. The film has grown greatly in esteem since its release, in no small part due to its cast (several of whom were to go on to become superstars over the decade following its release) and its music score, but also due to the quality of the script. As of September 19, 2018, it has a score of 88% on Rotten Tomatoes based on ratings of 41 critics. It is the second most shown film in U.S. television history, behind only \"The Wizard of Oz\". The film is also ranked 79 on the AFI's list of American cinema's 100 most-thrilling films.", "Three sequels were eventually made: \"Return of the Seven\" (1966), \"Guns of the Magnificent Seven\" (1969), and \"The Magnificent Seven Ride\" (1972). None was as successful as the original film. The film also inspired a television series, \"The Magnificent Seven\", which ran from 1998 to 2000. Robert Vaughn was a recurring guest star, a judge who hires the seven to protect the town in which his widowed daughter-in-law and his grandson live. The science fiction film \"Battle Beyond the Stars\" was a remake of \"The Magnificent Seven\" set in space. A group of mercenaries, including ones played by George Peppard (as a character known only as \"Space Cowboy\") and Robert Vaughn (playing essentially the same character as in \"The Magnificent Seven\") defend farmers from space raiders on the planet Akira (named after \"Seven Samurai\" director Akira Kurosawa). The 1980s action-adventure series \"The A-Team\" was initially devised as a combination of \"The Dirty Dozen\" and \"The Magnificent Seven\". The show's pilot film plays much on the plot of \"The Magnificent Seven\", and there are similar plot echoes in various other episodes. James Coburn was originally approached to play John \"Hannibal\" Smith, the team's leader, a role that ultimately went to George Peppard in the series; and Robert Vaughn was added to the cast in the final season as part of a revamp attempt to boost fading ratings. A remake of the film, with the same title, was released on September 23, 2016, directed by Antoine Fuqua and starring Denzel Washington, Chris Pratt, Ethan Hawke, Vincent D'Onofrio, Lee Byung-hun, Manuel Garcia-Rulfo, Martin Sensmeier and Peter Sarsgaard." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Trades.", "Theory.", "Etymology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In narrow usage, not all expertise is considered a profession. Occupations such as skilled construction and maintenance work are more generally thought of as trades or crafts. The completion of an apprenticeship is generally associated with skilled labour, or trades such as carpenter, electrician, mason, painter, plumber and other similar occupations.", "Although professional training appears to be ideologically neutral, it may be biased towards those with higher class backgrounds and a formal education. In his 2000 book, \"Disciplined Minds: A Critical Look at Salaried Professionals and the Soul-Battering System that Shapes Their Lives\", Jeff Schmidt observes that qualified professionals are less creative and diverse in their opinions and habits than non-professionals, which he attributes to the subtle indoctrination and filtering which accompanies the process of professional training. His evidence is both qualitative and quantitative, including professional examinations, industry statistics and personal accounts of trainees and professionals. A key theoretical dispute arises from the observation that established professions (e.g. lawyers, medical doctors, architects, civil engineers, surveyors) are subject to strict codes of conduct. Some have thus argued that these codes of conduct, agreed upon and maintained through widely recognized professional associations, are a key element of what constitutes any profession. Others have argued that strict codes of conduct and the professional associations that maintain them are merely a consequence of'successful' professionalization, rather than an intrinsic element of the definition of professional(ism); this implies that a profession arises from the alignment between a shared purpose (connected to a 'greater good'), a body of knowledge, actual behavior in terms of actions and decisions, and expectations held by societal stakeholders.", "The etymology and historical meaning of the term professional is from Middle English, from \"profes\", adjective, having professed one's vows, from Anglo-French, from Late Latin \"professus\", from Latin, past participle of \"profitēri\" to profess, confess, from pro- before + \"fatēri\" to acknowledge; in other senses, from Latin \"professus\", past participle. Thus, as people became more and more specialized in their trade, they began to 'profess' their skill to others, and 'vow' to perform their trade to the highest known standard. With a reputation to uphold, trusted workers of a society who have a specific trade are considered professionals. Ironically, the usage of the word 'profess' declined from the late 1800s to the 1950s, just as the term 'professional' was gaining popularity from 1900–2010. Notably, in American English the rise in popularity of the term 'professional' started at the beginning of the 20th century whereas in British English it started in the 1930s and grew fastest in the 1960s and 70s." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Synopsis.", "Analysis.", "Allusions.", "Poetic structure.", "Publication history.", "Illustrators.", "Composition.", "Critical reception.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"The Raven\" follows an unnamed narrator on a dreary night in December who sits reading \"forgotten lore\" by a dying fire as a way to forget the death of his beloved Lenore. A \"tapping at [his] chamber door\" reveals nothing, but excites his soul to \"burning\". The tapping is repeated, slightly louder, and he realizes it is coming from his window. When he goes to investigate, a raven flutters into his chamber. Paying no attention to the man, the raven perches on a bust of Pallas above the door. Amused by the raven's comically serious disposition, the man asks that the bird tell him its name. The raven's only answer is \"Nevermore\". The narrator is surprised that the raven can talk, though at this point it has said nothing further. The narrator remarks to himself that his \"friend\" the raven will soon fly out of his life, just as \"other friends have flown before\" along with his previous hopes. As if answering, the raven responds again with \"Nevermore\". The narrator reasons that the bird learned the word \"Nevermore\" from some \"unhappy master\" and that it is the only word it knows. Even so, the narrator pulls his chair directly in front of the raven, determined to learn more about it. He thinks for a moment in silence, and his mind wanders back to his lost Lenore. He thinks the air grows denser and feels the presence of angels, and wonders if God is sending him a sign that he is to forget Lenore. The bird again replies in the negative, suggesting that he can never be free of his memories. The narrator becomes angry, calling the raven a \"thing of evil\" and a \"prophet\". Finally, he asks the raven whether he will be reunited with Lenore in Heaven. When the raven responds with its typical \"Nevermore\", he is enraged, and, calling it a liar, commands the bird to return to the \"Plutonian shore\"—but it does not move. Presumably at the time of the poem's recitation by the narrator, the raven \"still is sitting\" on the bust of Pallas. The narrator's final admission is that his soul is trapped beneath the raven's shadow and shall be lifted \"Nevermore\".", "Poe wrote the poem as a narrative, without intentional allegory or didacticism. The main theme of the poem is one of undying devotion. The narrator experiences a perverse conflict between desire to forget and desire to remember. He seems to get some pleasure from focusing on loss. The narrator assumes that the word \"Nevermore\" is the raven's \"only stock and store\", and, yet, he continues to ask it questions, knowing what the answer will be. His questions, then, are purposely self-deprecating and further incite his feelings of loss. Poe leaves it unclear if the raven actually knows what it is saying or if it really intends to cause a reaction in the poem's narrator. The narrator begins as \"weak and weary,\" becomes regretful and grief-stricken, before passing into a frenzy and, finally, madness. Christopher F. S. Maligec suggests the poem is a type of elegiac paraclausithyron, an ancient Greek and Roman poetic form consisting of the lament of an excluded, locked-out lover at the sealed door of his beloved.", "Poe says that the narrator is a young scholar. Though this is not explicitly stated in the poem, it is mentioned in \"The Philosophy of Composition\". It is also suggested by the narrator reading books of \"lore\" as well as by the bust of Pallas Athena, Greek goddess of wisdom. He is reading in the late night hours from \"many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore\". Similar to the studies suggested in Poe's short story \"Ligeia\", this lore may be about the occult or black magic. This is also emphasized in the author's choice to set the poem in December, a month which is traditionally associated with the forces of darkness. The use of the raven—the \"devil bird\"—also suggests this. This devil image is emphasized by the narrator's belief that the raven is \"from the Night's Plutonian shore\", or a messenger from the afterlife, referring to Pluto, the Roman god of the underworld (also known as Dis Pater in Roman mythology). A direct allusion to Satan also appears: \"Whether Tempter sent, or whether tempest tossed thee here ashore...\" Poe chose a raven as the central symbol in the story because he wanted a \"non-reasoning\" creature capable of speech. He decided on a raven, which he considered \"equally capable of speech\" as a parrot, because it matched the intended tone of the poem. Poe said the raven is meant to symbolize \"\"Mournful and Never-ending Remembrance\"\". He was also inspired by Grip, the raven in \"Barnaby Rudge: A Tale of the Riots of Eighty\" by Charles Dickens. One scene in particular bears a resemblance to \"The Raven\": at the end of the fifth chapter of Dickens's novel, Grip makes a noise and someone says, \"What was that – him tapping at the door?\" The response is, \"'Tis someone knocking softly at the shutter.\"<ref name=\"Staford Cremains / Ravens\"></ref> Dickens's raven could speak many words and had many comic turns, including the popping of a champagne cork, but Poe emphasized the bird's more dramatic qualities. Poe had written a review of \"Barnaby Rudge\" for \"Graham's Magazine\" saying, among other things, that the raven should have served a more symbolic, prophetic purpose. The similarity did not go unnoticed: James Russell Lowell in his \"A Fable for Critics\" wrote the verse, \"Here comes Poe with his raven, like \"Barnaby Rudge\" / Three-fifths of him genius and two-fifths sheer fudge.\" The Free Library of Philadelphia has on display a taxidermied raven that is reputed to be the very one that Dickens owned and that helped inspire Poe's poem. Poe may also have been drawing upon various references to ravens in mythology and folklore. In Norse mythology, Odin possessed two ravens named Huginn and Muninn, representing thought and memory. According to Hebrew folklore, Noah sends a white raven to check conditions while on the ark. It learns that the floodwaters are beginning to dissipate, but it does not immediately return with the news. It is punished by being turned black and being forced to feed on carrion forever. In Ovid's \"Metamorphoses\", a raven also begins as white before Apollo punishes it by turning it black for delivering a message of a lover's unfaithfulness. The raven's role as a messenger in Poe's poem may draw from those stories. Nepenthe, a drug mentioned in Homer's \"Odyssey\", erases memories; the narrator wonders aloud whether he could receive \"respite\" this way: \"Quaff, oh quaff this kind nepenthe and forget this lost Lenore!\" Poe also mentions the Balm of Gilead, a reference to the Book of Jeremiah (8:22) in the Bible: \"Is there no balm in Gilead; is there no physician there? why then is not the health of the daughter of my people recovered?\" In that context, the Balm of Gilead is a resin used for medicinal purposes (suggesting, perhaps, that the narrator needs to be healed after the loss of Lenore). In 1 Kings 17:1 - 5 Elijah is said be from Gilead, and to have been fed by ravens during a period of drought. Poe also refers to \"Aidenn\", another word for the Garden of Eden, though Poe uses it to ask if Lenore has been accepted into Heaven.", "The poem is made up of 18 stanzas of six lines each. Generally, the meter is trochaic octameter – eight trochaic feet per line, each foot having one stressed syllable followed by one unstressed syllable. The first line, for example (with / representing stressed syllables and x representing unstressed): Poe, however, claimed the poem was a combination of octameter acatalectic, heptameter catalectic, and tetrameter catalectic. The rhyme scheme is ABCBBB, or AA,B,CC,CB,B,B when accounting for internal rhyme. In every stanza, the \"B\" lines rhyme with the word \"nevermore\" and are catalectic, placing extra emphasis on the final syllable. The poem also makes heavy use of alliteration (\"Doubting, dreaming dreams...\"). 20th-century American poet Daniel Hoffman suggested that the poem's structure and meter is so formulaic that it is artificial, though its mesmeric quality overrides that. Poe based the structure of \"The Raven\" on the complicated rhyme and rhythm of Elizabeth Barrett's poem \"Lady Geraldine's Courtship\". Poe had reviewed Barrett's work in the January 1845 issue of the \"Broadway Journal\" and said that \"her poetic inspiration is the highest – we can conceive of nothing more august. Her sense of Art is pure in itself.\" As is typical with Poe, his review also criticizes her lack of originality and what he considers the repetitive nature of some of her poetry. About \"Lady Geraldine's Courtship\", he said \"I have never read a poem combining so much of the fiercest passion with so much of the most delicate imagination.\"", "Poe first brought \"The Raven\" to his friend and former employer George Rex Graham of \"Graham's Magazine\" in Philadelphia. Graham declined the poem, which may not have been in its final version, though he gave Poe $15 as charity. Poe then sold the poem to \"\", which paid him $9 for it, and printed \"The Raven\" in its February 1845 issue under the pseudonym \"Quarles\", a reference to the English poet Francis Quarles. The poem's first publication with Poe's name was in the \"Evening Mirror\" on January 29, 1845, as an \"advance copy\". Nathaniel Parker Willis, editor of the \"Mirror\", introduced it as \"unsurpassed in English poetry for subtle conception, masterly ingenuity of versification, and consistent, sustaining of imaginative lift... It will stick to the memory of everybody who reads it.\" Following this publication the poem appeared in periodicals across the United States, including the \"New York Tribune\" (February 4, 1845), \"Broadway Journal\" (vol. 1, February 8, 1845), \"Southern Literary Messenger\" (vol. 11, March 1845), \"Literary Emporium\" (vol. 2, December 1845), \"Saturday Courier\", 16 (July 25, 1846), and the \"Richmond Examiner\" (September 25, 1849). It has also appeared in numerous anthologies, starting with \"Poets and Poetry of America\" edited by Rufus Wilmot Griswold in 1847. The immediate success of \"The Raven\" prompted Wiley and Putnam to publish a collection of Poe's prose called \"Tales\" in June 1845; it was his first book in five years. They also published a collection of his poetry called \"The Raven and Other Poems\" on November 19 by Wiley and Putnam which included a dedication to Barrett as \"the Noblest of her Sex\". The small volume, his first book of poetry in 14 years, was 100 pages and sold for 31 cents. In addition to the title poem, it included \"The Valley of Unrest\", \"Bridal Ballad\", \"The City in the Sea\", \"Eulalie\", \"The Conqueror Worm\", \"The Haunted Palace\" and eleven others. In the preface, Poe referred to them as \"trifles\" which had been altered without his permission as they made \"the rounds of the press\".", "Later publications of \"The Raven\" included artwork by well-known illustrators. Notably, in 1858 \"The Raven\" appeared in a British Poe anthology with illustrations by John Tenniel, the \"Alice in Wonderland\" illustrator (\"The Poetical Works of Edgar Allan Poe: With Original Memoir\", London: Sampson Low). \"The Raven\" was published independently with lavish woodcuts by Gustave Doré in 1884 (New York: Harper & Brothers). Doré died before its publication. In 1875, a French edition with English and French text, \"Le Corbeau\", was published with lithographs by Édouard Manet and translation by the Symbolist Stéphane Mallarmé. Many 20th-century artists and contemporary illustrators created artworks and illustrations based on \"The Raven\", including Edmund Dulac, István Orosz, and Ryan Price.", "Poe capitalized on the success of \"The Raven\" by following it up with his essay \"The Philosophy of Composition\" (1846), in which he detailed the poem's creation. His description of its writing is probably exaggerated, though the essay serves as an important overview of Poe's literary theory. He explains that every component of the poem is based on logic: the raven enters the chamber to avoid a storm (the \"midnight dreary\" in the \"bleak December\"), and its perch on a pallid white bust was to create visual contrast against the dark black bird. No aspect of the poem was an accident, he claims, but is based on total control by the author. Even the term \"Nevermore\", he says, is used because of the effect created by the long vowel sounds (though Poe may have been inspired to use the word by the works of Lord Byron or Henry Wadsworth Longfellow). Poe had experimented with the long \"o\" sound throughout many other poems: \"no more\" in \"Silence\", \"evermore\" in \"The Conqueror Worm\". The topic itself, Poe says, was chosen because \"the death... of a beautiful woman is unquestionably the most poetical topic in the world.\" Told from \"the lips... of a bereaved lover\" is best suited to achieve the desired effect. Beyond the poetics of it, the lost Lenore may have been inspired by events in Poe's own life as well, either to the early loss of his mother, Eliza Poe, or the long illness endured by his wife, Virginia. Ultimately, Poe considered \"The Raven\" an experiment to \"suit at once the popular and critical taste\", accessible to both the mainstream and high literary worlds. It is unknown how long Poe worked on \"The Raven\"; speculation ranges from a single day to ten years. Poe recited a poem believed to be an early version with an alternate ending of \"The Raven\" in 1843 in Saratoga, New York. An early draft may have featured an owl. In the summer of 1844, when the poem was likely written, Poe, his wife, and mother-in-law were boarding at the farmhouse of Patrick Brennan. The location of the house, which was demolished in 1888, has been a disputed point and, while there are two different plaques marking its supposed location on West 84th Street, it most likely stood where 206 West 84th Street is now.", "In part due to its dual printing, \"The Raven\" made Edgar Allan Poe a household name almost immediately, and turned Poe into a national celebrity. Readers began to identify poem with poet, earning Poe the nickname \"The Raven\". The poem was soon widely reprinted, imitated, and parodied. Though it made Poe popular in his day, it did not bring him significant financial success. As he later lamented, \"I have made no money. I am as poor now as ever I was in my life—except in hope, which is by no means bankable\". The \"New World\" said, \"Everyone reads the Poem and praises it... justly, we think, for it seems to us full of originality and power.\" \"The Pennsylvania Inquirer\" reprinted it with the heading \"A Beautiful Poem\". Elizabeth Barrett wrote to Poe, \"Your 'Raven' has produced a sensation, a fit o' horror, here in England. Some of my friends are taken by the fear of it and some by the music. I hear of persons haunted by 'Nevermore'.\" Poe's popularity resulted in invitations to recite \"The Raven\" and to lecture – in public and at private social gatherings. At one literary salon, a guest noted, \"to hear [Poe] repeat the Raven... is an event in one's life.\" It was recalled by someone who experienced it, \"He would turn down the lamps till the room was almost dark, then standing in the center of the apartment he would recite... in the most melodious of voices... So marvelous was his power as a reader that the auditors would be afraid to draw breath lest the enchanted spell be broken.\" Parodies sprung up especially in Boston, New York, and Philadelphia and included \"The Craven\" by \"Poh!\", \"The Gazelle\", \"The Whippoorwill\", and \"The Turkey\". One parody, \"The Pole-Cat\", caught the attention of Andrew Johnston, a lawyer who sent it on to Abraham Lincoln. Though Lincoln admitted he had \"several hearty laughs\", he had not, at that point read \"The Raven\". However, Lincoln eventually read and memorized the poem. \"The Raven\" was praised by fellow writers William Gilmore Simms and Margaret Fuller, though it was denounced by William Butler Yeats, who called it \"insincere and vulgar... its execution a rhythmical trick\". Transcendentalist Ralph Waldo Emerson said, \"I see nothing in it.\" A critic for the \"Southern Quarterly Review\" wrote in July 1848 that the poem was ruined by \"a wild and unbridled extravagance\" and that minor things like a tapping at the door and a fluttering curtain would only affect \"a child who had been frightened to the verge of idiocy by terrible ghost stories\". An anonymous writer going by the pseudonym \"Outis\" suggested in the \"Evening Mirror\" that \"The Raven\" was plagiarized from a poem called \"The Bird of the Dream\" by an unnamed author. The writer showed 18 similarities between the poems and was made as a response to Poe's accusations of plagiarism against Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. It has been suggested Outis was really Cornelius Conway Felton, if not Poe himself. After Poe's death, his friend Thomas Holley Chivers said \"The Raven\" was plagiarized from one of his poems. In particular, he claimed to have been the inspiration for the meter of the poem as well as the refrain \"nevermore\". \"The Raven\" became one of the most popular targets for literary translators in Hungary; more than a dozen poets rendered it into Hungarian (Mihály Babits, Dezső Kosztolányi, Árpád Tóth, and György Faludy to name the best-known authors, as well as, Károly Szász, Zsolt Harsányi,,,,, Imre Csillag, and Roberto Rossner). Balázs Birtalan wrote its paraphrasis from the raven's point of view, with the motto \"Audiatur et altera pars\" (\"let the other side be heard as well\").", "\"The Raven\" has influenced many modern works, including Vladimir Nabokov's \"Lolita\" in 1955, Bernard Malamud's \"The Jewbird\" in 1963 and Ray Bradbury's \"The Parrot Who Knew Papa\" in 1976. The process by which Poe composed \"The Raven\" influenced a number of French authors and composers, such as Charles Baudelaire and Maurice Ravel, and it has been suggested that Ravel's \"Boléro\" may have been deeply influenced by \"The Philosophy of Composition.\" The poem is additionally referenced throughout popular culture in films, television, music, and video games. The painter Paul Gauguin painted a nude portrait of his teenage wife in Tahiti in 1897 entitled \"Nevermore\", featuring a raven perched within the room. At the time the couple were mourning the loss of their first child together and Gauguin the loss of his favourite daughter back in Europe. The name of the Baltimore Ravens, a professional American football team, was inspired by the poem. Chosen in a fan contest that drew 33,288 voters, the allusion honors Poe, who spent the early part of his career in Baltimore and is buried there." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology and ethnic identity.", "History.", "Prehistory, Ancient era and Early Middle Ages.", "Seljuk era.", "Beyliks era.", "Ottoman Empire.", "Modern era.", "Geographic distribution.", "Traditional areas of Turkish settlement.", "Turkey.", "Cyprus.", "Balkans.", "Modern diaspora.", "Western Europe.", "North America.", "Oceania.", "Former Soviet Union.", "Culture.", "Arts and Architecture.", "Notable individuals.", "Language.", "Religion.", "Genetics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The ethnonym \"Turk\" may have first been discerned in Herodotus' (c. 484–425 BC) reference to Targitas, a king of the Scythians; furthermore, during the first century AD., Pomponius Mela refers to the \"Turcae\" in the forests north of the Sea of Azov, and Pliny the Elder lists the \"Tyrcae\" among the people of the same area. The first definite references to the \"Turks\" mainly come from Chinese sources which date back to the sixth century. In these sources, \"Turk\" appears as \"Tujue\" (), which referred to the Göktürks. In the 19th century, the word \"Türk\" only referred to Anatolian villagers. The Ottoman ruling class identified themselves as Ottomans, not usually as Turks. In the late 19th century, as the Ottoman upper classes adopted European ideas of nationalism the term \"Türk\" took on a much more positive connotation. During Ottoman times, the millet system defined communities on a religious basis, and a residue of this remains in that Turkish villagers commonly consider as Turks only those who profess the Sunni faith. Turkish Jews, Christians, or even Alevis may be considered non-Turks. In the early 20th century the Young Turks abandoned Ottoman nationalism in favor of the Turkish nationalism, while adopting the name \"Turks\", which was finally imposed in the Turkish Republic.", "", "Anatolia was first inhabited by hunter-gatherers during the Paleolithic era, and in antiquity was inhabited by various ancient Anatolian peoples. After Alexander the Great's conquest in 334 BC, the area was Hellenized, and by the first century BC it is generally thought that the native Anatolian languages, themselves earlier newcomers to the area, as a result of the Indo-European migrations, became extinct. The early Turkic peoples lived somewhere between Central Asia and northwestern China, with genetic data pointing to southern Mongolia and northern China, as semi-agricultural group, but later started their expansion with a predominantly nomadic life style. In Central Asia, the earliest surviving Turkic-language texts, the eighth-century Orkhon inscriptions, were erected by the Göktürks in the sixth century CE, and include words not common to Turkic but found in unrelated Inner Asian languages. Although the ancient Turks were nomadic, they traded wool, leather, carpets, and horses for wood, silk, vegetables and grain, as well as having large ironworking stations in the south of the Altai Mountains during the 600s CE. Most of the Turkic peoples were followers of Tengrism, sharing the cult of the sky god Tengri, although there were also adherents of Manichaeism, Nestorian Christianity and Buddhism. However, during the Muslim conquests, the Turks entered the Muslim world proper as slaves, the booty of Arab raids and conquests. The Turks began converting to Islam after Muslim conquest of Transoxiana through the efforts of missionaries, Sufis, and merchants. Although initiated by the Arabs, the conversion of the Turks to Islam was filtered through Persian and Central Asian culture. Under the Umayyads, most were domestic servants, whilst under the Abbasid Caliphate, increasing numbers were trained as soldiers. By the ninth century, Turkish commanders were leading the caliphs’ Turkish troops into battle. As the Abbasid Caliphate declined, Turkish officers assumed more military and political power taking over or establishing provincial dynasties with their own corps of Turkish troops.", "During the 11th century the Seljuk Turks who were admirers of the Persian civilization grew in number and were able to occupy the eastern province of the Abbasid Empire. By 1055, the Seljuk Empire captured Baghdad and began to make their first incursions into the edges of Anatolia. When the Seljuk Turks won the Battle of Manzikert against the Byzantine Empire in 1071, it opened the gates of Anatolia to them. Although ethnically Turkish, the Seljuk Turks appreciated and became the purveyors of the Persian culture rather than the Turkish culture. Nonetheless, the Turkish language and Islam were introduced and gradually spread over the region and the slow transition from a predominantly Christian and Greek-speaking Anatolia to a predominantly Muslim and Turkish-speaking one was underway. In dire straits, the Byzantine Empire turned to the West for help setting in motion the pleas that led to the First Crusade. Once the Crusaders took Iznik, the Seljuk Turks established the Sultanate of Rum from their new capital, Konya, in 1097. By the 12th century the Europeans had begun to call the Anatolian region \"Turchia\" or \"Turkey\", meaning \"the land of the Turks\". The Turkish society of Anatolia was divided into urban, rural and nomadic populations; the other Turkoman (Turkmen) tribes who had also swept into Anatolia at the same time as the Seljuk Turks were those who kept their nomadic ways. These tribes were more numerous than the Seljuk Turks, and rejecting the sedentary lifestyle, adhered to an Islam impregnated with animism and shamanism from their central Asian steppeland origins, which then mixed with new Christian influences. From this popular and syncretist Islam, with its mystical and revolutionary aspects, sects such as the Alevis and Bektashis emerged. Furthermore, the intermarriage between the Turks and local inhabitants, as well as the conversion of many to Islam, also increased the Turkish-speaking Muslim population in Anatolia. By 1243, at the Battle of Köse Dağ, the Mongols defeated the Seljuk Turks and became the new rulers of Anatolia, and in 1256, the second Mongol invasion of Anatolia caused widespread destruction. Particularly after 1277, political stability within the Seljuk territories rapidly disintegrated, leading to the strengthening of Turkoman principalities in the western and southern parts of Anatolia called the \"beyliks\".", "When the Mongols defeated the Seljuk Turks and conquered Anatolia, the Turks became the vassals of the Ilkhans who established their own empire in the vast area which stretched from present-day Afghanistan to present-day Turkey. As the Mongols occupied more lands in Asia Minor, the Turks moved further into western Anatolia and settled in the Seljuk-Byzantine frontier. By the last decades of the 13th century, the Ilkhans and their Seljuk vassals lost control over much of Anatolia to these Turkoman peoples. A number of Turkish lords managed to establish themselves as rulers of various principalities, known as \"Beyliks\" or emirates. Amongst these beyliks, along the Aegean coast, from north to south, stretched the beyliks of Karasi, Saruhan, Aydin, Menteşe and Teke. Inland from Teke was Hamid and east of Karasi was the beylik of Germiyan. To the north-west of Anatolia, around Söğüt, was the small and, at this stage, insignificant, Ottoman beylik. It was hemmed in to the east by other more substantial powers like Karaman on Iconium, which ruled from the Kızılırmak River to the Mediterranean. Although the Ottomans were only a small principality among the numerous Turkish beyliks, and thus posed the smallest threat to the Byzantine authority, their location in north-western Anatolia, in the former Byzantine province of Bithynia, became a fortunate position for their future conquests. The Latins, who had conquered the city of Constantinople in 1204 during the Fourth Crusade, established a Latin Empire (1204–61), divided the former Byzantine territories in the Balkans and the Aegean among themselves, and forced the Byzantine Emperors into exile at Nicaea (present-day Iznik). From 1261 onwards, the Byzantines were largely preoccupied with regaining their control in the Balkans. Toward the end of the 13th century, as Mongol power began to decline, the Turcoman chiefs assumed greater independence.", "Under its founder, Osman I, the nomadic Ottoman beylik expanded along the Sakarya River and westward towards the Sea of Marmara. Thus, the population of western Asia Minor had largely become Turkish-speaking and Muslim in religion. It was under his son, Orhan I, who had attacked and conquered the important urban center of Bursa in 1326, proclaiming it as the Ottoman capital, that the Ottoman Empire developed considerably. In 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe and established a foothold on the Gallipoli Peninsula while at the same time pushing east and taking Ankara. Many Turks from Anatolia began to settle in the region which had been abandoned by the inhabitants who had fled Thrace before the Ottoman invasion. However, the Byzantines were not the only ones to suffer from the Ottoman advance for, in the mid-1330s, Orhan annexed the Turkish beylik of Karasi. This advancement was maintained by Murad I who more than tripled the territories under his direct rule, reaching some, evenly distributed in Europe and Asia Minor. Gains in Anatolia were matched by those in Europe; once the Ottoman forces took Edirne (Adrianople), which became the capital of the Ottoman Empire in 1365, they opened their way into Bulgaria and Macedonia in 1371 at the Battle of Maritsa. With the conquests of Thrace, Macedonia, and Bulgaria, significant numbers of Turkish emigrants settled in these regions. This form of Ottoman-Turkish colonization became a very effective method to consolidate their position and power in the Balkans. The settlers consisted of soldiers, nomads, farmers, artisans and merchants, dervishes, preachers and other religious functionaries, and administrative personnel. In 1453, Ottoman armies, under Sultan Mehmed II, conquered Constantinople. Mehmed reconstructed and repopulated the city, and made it the new Ottoman capital. After the Fall of Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire entered a long period of conquest and expansion with its borders eventually going deep into Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. Selim I dramatically expanded the empire's eastern and southern frontiers in the Battle of Chaldiran and gained recognition as the guardian of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. His successor, Suleiman the Magnificent, further expanded the conquests after capturing Belgrade in 1521 and using its territorial base to conquer Hungary, and other Central European territories, after his victory in the Battle of Mohács as well as also pushing the frontiers of the empire to the east. Following Suleiman's death, Ottoman victories continued, albeit less frequently than before. The island of Cyprus was conquered, in 1571, bolstering Ottoman dominance over the sea routes of the eastern Mediterranean. However, after its defeat at the Battle of Vienna, in 1683, the Ottoman army was met by ambushes and further defeats; the 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz, which granted Austria the provinces of Hungary and Transylvania, marked the first time in history that the Ottoman Empire actually relinquished territory. By the 19th century, the empire began to decline when ethno-nationalist uprisings occurred across the empire. Thus, the last quarter of the 19th and the early part of the 20th century saw some 7–9 million Muslim refugees (Turks and some Circassians, Bosnians, Georgians, etc.) from the lost territories of the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands migrate to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace. By 1913, the government of the Committee of Union and Progress started a program of forcible Turkification of non-Turkish minorities. By 1914, the World War I broke out, and the Turks scored some success in Gallipoli during the Battle of the Dardanelles in 1915. During World War I, the government of the Committee of Union and Progress continued to implement its Turkification policies, which affected non-Turkish minorities, such as the Armenians during the Armenian Genocide and the Greeks during various campaigns of ethnic cleansing and expulsion. In 1918, the Ottoman Government agreed to the Mudros Armistice with the Allies. The Treaty of Sèvres —signed in 1920 by the government of Mehmet VI— dismantled the Ottoman Empire. The Turks, under Mustafa Kemal, rejected the treaty and fought the Turkish War of Independence, resulting in the abortion of that text, never ratified, and the abolition of the Sultanate. Thus, the 623-year-old Ottoman Empire ended.", "Once Mustafa Kemal Atatürk led the Turkish War of Independence against the Allied forces that occupied the former Ottoman Empire, he united the Turkish Muslim majority and successfully led them from 1919 to 1922 in overthrowing the occupying forces out of what the Turkish National Movement considered the Turkish homeland. The Turkish identity became the unifying force when, in 1923, the Treaty of Lausanne was signed and the newly founded Republic of Turkey was formally established. Atatürk's presidency was marked by a series of radical political and social reforms that transformed Turkey into a secular, modern republic with civil and political equality for sectarian minorities and women. Throughout the 1920s and the 1930s, Turks, as well as other Muslims, from the Balkans, the Black Sea, the Aegean islands, the island of Cyprus, the Sanjak of Alexandretta (Hatay), the Middle East, and the Soviet Union continued to arrive in Turkey, most of whom settled in urban north-western Anatolia. The bulk of these immigrants, known as \"Muhacirs\", were the Balkan Turks who faced harassment and discrimination in their homelands. However, there were still remnants of a Turkish population in many of these countries because the Turkish government wanted to preserve these communities so that the Turkish character of these neighbouring territories could be maintained. One of the last stages of ethnic Turks immigrating to Turkey was between 1940 and 1990 when about 700,000 Turks arrived from Bulgaria. Today, between a third and a quarter of Turkey's population are the descendants of these immigrants.", "", "", "In the latter half of the 11th century, the Seljuks began settling in the eastern regions of Anatolia. In 1071, the Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert, beginning the enlargement of their empire and sphere of influence in Anatolia; the Turkish language and Islam were introduced to Anatolia and gradually spread over the region. The slow transition from a predominantly Christian and Greek-speaking Anatolia to a predominantly Muslim and Turkish-speaking one was underway. Ethnic Turks make up between 70% to 75% of Turkey's population.", "The Turkish Cypriots are the ethnic Turks whose Ottoman Turkish forebears colonised the island of Cyprus in 1571. About 30,000 Turkish soldiers were given land once they settled in Cyprus, which bequeathed a significant Turkish community. In 1960, a census by the new Republic's government revealed that the Turkish Cypriots formed 18.2% of the island's population. However, once inter-communal fighting and ethnic tensions between 1963 and 1974 occurred between the Turkish and Greek Cypriots, known as the \"Cyprus conflict\", the Greek Cypriot government conducted a census in 1973, albeit without the Turkish Cypriot populace. A year later, in 1974, the Cypriot government's Department of Statistics and Research estimated the Turkish Cypriot population was 118,000 (or 18.4%). A coup d'état in Cyprus on 15 July 1974 by Greeks and Greek Cypriots favouring union with Greece (also known as \"Enosis\") was followed by military intervention by Turkey whose troops established Turkish Cypriot control over the northern part of the island. Hence, census's conducted by the Republic of Cyprus have excluded the Turkish Cypriot population that had settled in the unrecognised Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Between 1975 and 1981, Turkey encouraged its own citizens to settle in Northern Cyprus; a report by CIA suggests that 200,000 of the residents of Cyprus are Turkish.", "Ethnic Turks continue to inhabit certain regions of Greece, North Macedonia, Kosovo, Romania, and Bulgaria since they first settled there during Ottoman period.", "", "After World War II, West Germany began to experience its greatest economic boom (\"Wirtschaftswunder\") and in 1961 invited the Turks as guest workers (\"Gastarbeiter\") to make up for the shortage of workers. The concept of the Gastarbeiter continued with Turkey bearing agreements with Austria, Belgium, and the Netherlands in 1964, with France in 1965; and with Sweden in 1967. Current estimates suggests that there are approximately 9 million Turks living in Europe, excluding those who live in Turkey. Modern immigration of Turks to Western Europe began with Turkish Cypriots migrating to the United Kingdom in the early 1920s when the British Empire annexed Cyprus in 1914 and the residents of Cyprus became subjects of the Crown. However, Turkish Cypriot migration increased significantly in the 1940s and 1950s due to the Cyprus conflict. Conversely, in 1944, Turks who were forcefully deported from Meskheti in Georgia during the Second World War, known as the Meskhetian Turks, settled in Eastern Europe (especially in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Ukraine). By the early 1960s, migration to Western and Northern Europe increased significantly from Turkey when Turkish \"guest workers\" arrived under a \"Labour Export Agreement\" with Germany in 1961, followed by a similar agreement with the Netherlands, Belgium and Austria in 1964; France in 1965; and Sweden in 1967. More recently, Bulgarian Turks, Romanian Turks, and Western Thrace Turks have also migrated to Western Europe.", "Compared to Turkish immigration to Europe, migration to North America has been relatively small. According to the US Census Bureau 196,222 Americans in 2013 were of Turkish descent. However, the actual number of Turks is considerably larger, as a significant number of ethnic Turks have migrated to North America not just from Turkey but also from the Balkans (such as Bulgaria and North Macedonia), Cyprus, and the former Soviet Union. Hence, the Turkish American community is currently estimated to number about 500,000. Regarding the Turkish Canadian community, Statistics Canada reports that 63,955 Canadians in the 2016 census listed \"Turk\" as an ethnic origin, including those who listed more than one origin. The largest concentration of Turkish Americans are in New York City, and Rochester, New York; Washington, D.C.; and Detroit, Michigan. The majority of Turkish Canadians live in Ontario, mostly in Toronto, and there is also a sizable Turkish community in Montreal, Quebec. With regards to the 2010 United States Census, the U.S government was determined to get an accurate count of the American population by reaching segments, such as the Turkish community, that are considered hard to count, a good portion of which falls under the category of foreign-born immigrants. The Assembly of Turkish American Associations and the US Census Bureau formed a partnership to spearhead a national campaign to count people of Turkish origin with an organisation entitled \"Census 2010 SayTurk\" (which has a double meaning in Turkish, \"Say\" means \"to count\" and \"to respect\") to identify the estimated 500,000 Turks now living in the United States.", "A notable scale of Turkish migration to Australia began in the late 1940s when Turkish Cypriots began to leave the island of Cyprus for economic reasons, and then, during the Cyprus conflict, for political reasons, marking the beginning of a Turkish Cypriot immigration trend to Australia. The Turkish Cypriot community were the only Muslims acceptable under the White Australia Policy; many of these early immigrants found jobs working in factories, out in the fields, or building national infrastructure. In 1967, the governments of Australia and Turkey signed an agreement to allow Turkish citizens to immigrate to Australia. Prior to this recruitment agreement, there were fewer than 3,000 people of Turkish origin in Australia. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, nearly 19,000 Turkish immigrants arrived from 1968 to 1974. They came largely from rural areas of Turkey, approximately 30% were skilled and 70% were unskilled workers. However, this changed in the 1980s when the number of skilled Turks applying to enter Australia had increased considerably. Over the next 35 years the Turkish population rose to almost 100,000. More than half of the Turkish community settled in Victoria, mostly in the north-western suburbs of Melbourne. According to the 2006 Australian Census, 59,402 people claimed Turkish ancestry; however, this does not show a true reflection of the Turkish Australian community as it is estimated that between 40,000 and 120,000 Turkish Cypriots and 150,000 to 200,000 mainland Turks live in Australia. Furthermore, there has also been ethnic Turks who have migrated to Australia from Bulgaria, Greece, Iraq, and North Macedonia.", "The Turkish presence in the Meskheti region of Georgia began with the Turkish military expedition of 1578. However, due to the ordered deportation of over 115,000 Meskhetian Turks from their homeland in 1944, during the Second World War, the majority settled in Central Asia. According to the 1989 Soviet Census, which was the last Soviet Census, 106,000 Meskhetian Turks lived in Uzbekistan, 50,000 in Kazakhstan, and 21,000 in Kyrgyzstan. However, in 1989, the Meshetian Turks who had settled in Uzbekistan became the target of a pogrom in the Fergana valley, which was the principal destination for Meskhetian Turkish deportees, after an uprising of nationalism by the Uzbeks. The riots had left hundreds of Turks dead or injured and nearly 1,000 properties were destroyed; thus, thousands of Meskhetian Turks were forced into renewed exile. The majority of Meskhetian Turks, about 70,000, went to Azerbaijan, whilst the remainder went to various regions of Russia (especially Krasnodar Krai), Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Ukraine. Soviet authorities recorded many Meskhetian Turks as belonging to other nationalities such as \"Azeri\", \"Kazakh\", \"Kyrgyz\", and \"Uzbek\". Hence, official census's have not shown a true reflection of the Turkish population; for example, according to the 2009 Azerbaijani census, there were 38,000 Turks living in the country; yet in 1999, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees stated that there were 100,000 Meskhetian Turks living in the country. Furthermore, in 2001, the Baku Institute of Peace and Democracy suggested that there was between 90,000 and 110,000 Meskhetian Turks living in Azerbaijan.", "", "Turkish architecture reached its peak during the Ottoman period. Ottoman architecture, influenced by Seljuk, Byzantine and Islamic architecture, came to develop a style all of its own. Overall, Ottoman architecture has been described as a synthesis of the architectural traditions of the Mediterranean and the Middle East. As Turkey successfully transformed from the religion-based former Ottoman Empire into a modern nation-state with a very strong separation of state and religion, an increase in the modes of artistic expression followed. During the first years of the republic, the government invested a large amount of resources into fine arts; such as museums, theatres, opera houses and architecture. Diverse historical factors play important roles in defining the modern Turkish identity. Turkish culture is a product of efforts to be a \"modern\" Western state, while maintaining traditional religious and historical values. The mix of cultural influences is dramatized, for example, in the form of the \"new symbols of the clash and interlacing of cultures\" enacted in the works of Orhan Pamuk, recipient of the 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature. Traditional Turkish music include Turkish folk music (Halk müziği), Fasıl and Ottoman classical music (Sanat müziği) that originates from the Ottoman court. Contemporary Turkish music include Turkish pop music, rock, and Turkish hip hop genres.", "Notable individuals include Nureddin, Yunus Emre, Takiyüddin, Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu, Bâkî, Hayâlî, Haji Bektash Veli, Ali Kuşçu, Hezârfen Ahmed Çelebi, Lagâri Hasan Çelebi, Piri Reis, Namık Kemal, İbrahim Şinasi, Hüseyin Avni Lifij, Faik Ali Ozansoy, Mimar Kemaleddin, İştirakçi Hilmi, Mustafa Suphi, Ethem Nejat, Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil, Rıza Tevfik Bölükbaşı, Latife Uşşaki, Feriha Tevfik, Fatma Aliye Topuz, Keriman Halis Ece, Zeki Rıza Sporel, Cahide Sonku, Süleyman Seyyid, Abdülhak Hâmid Tarhan, Besim Ömer Akalın, Orhan Veli Kanık, Abidin Dino, Ahmet Ziya Akbulut, Nazmi Ziya Güran, Tanburi Büyük Osman Bey, Vecihi Hürkuş, Bedriye Tahir, Halide Edib Adıvar, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, Mehmet Emin Yurdakul, Tevfik Fikret, Nâzım Hikmet, Hulusi Behçet, Nuri Demirağ, Fahrelnissa Zeid, Leyla Gencer, Ahmet Ertegün, Metin Oktay, Fikri Alican, Feza Gürsey, Ismail Akbay, Oktay Sinanoğlu, Gazi Yaşargil, Behram Kurşunoğlu, Fethullah Gülen, Mehmet Öz, Tansu Çiller, Cahit Arf, Muhtar Kent, Efe Aydan, Neslihan Demir, Orhan Pamuk and Aziz Sancar.", "The Turkish language also known as Istanbul Turkish is a southern Oghuz branch of the Turkic languages. It is natively spoken by the Turkish people in Turkey, Balkans, the island of Cyprus, Meskhetia, and other areas of traditional settlement that formerly, in whole or part, belonged to the Ottoman Empire. Turkish is the official language of Turkey. In the Balkans, Turkish is still spoken by Turkish minorities who still live there, especially in Bulgaria, Greece (mainly in Western Thrace), Kosovo, North Macedonia, Romania (mainly in Dobruja) and the Republic of Moldova (mainly in Gagauzia). The Turkish language was introduced to Cyprus with the Ottoman conquest in 1571 and became the politically dominant, prestigious language, of the administration. One important change to Turkish literature was enacted in 1928, when Mustafa Kemal initiated the creation and dissemination of a modified version of the Latin alphabet to replace the Arabic alphabet based Ottoman script. Over time, this change, together with changes in Turkey's system of education, would lead to more widespread literacy in the country. Modern standard Turkish is based on the dialect of Istanbul. Nonetheless, dialectal variation persists, in spite of the levelling influence of the standard used in mass media and the Turkish education system since the 1930s. The terms \"ağız\" or \"şive\" often refer to the different types of Turkish dialects. There are three major Anatolian Turkish dialect groups spoken in Turkey: the West Anatolian dialect (roughly to the west of the Euphrates), the East Anatolian dialect (to the east of the Euphrates), and the North East Anatolian group, which comprises the dialects of the Eastern Black Sea coast, such as Trabzon, Rize, and the littoral districts of Artvin. The Balkan Turkish dialects are considerably closer to standard Turkish and do not differ significantly from it, despite some contact phenomena, especially in the lexicon. In the post-Ottoman period, Cypriot Turkish was relatively isolated from standard Turkish and had strong influences by the Cypriot Greek dialect. The condition of coexistence with the Greek Cypriots led to a certain bilingualism whereby Turkish Cypriots knowledge of Greek was important in areas where the two communities lived and worked together. The linguistic situation changed radically in 1974, when the island was divided into a Greek south and a Turkish north (Northern Cyprus). Today, the Cypriot Turkish dialect is being exposed to increasing standard Turkish through immigration from Turkey, new mass media, and new educational institutions. The Meskhetian Turks speak an Eastern Anatolian dialect of Turkish, which hails from the regions of Kars, Ardahan, and Artvin. The Meskhetian Turkish dialect has also borrowed from other languages (including Azerbaijani, Georgian, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Russian, and Uzbek), which the Meskhetian Turks have been in contact with during the Russian and Soviet rule.", "According to the CIA factbook, 99.8% of the population in Turkey is Muslim, most of them being Sunni (Hanafi). The remaining 0.2% is mostly Christian and Jewish. There are also some estimated 10 to 15 million Alevi Muslims in Turkey. Christians in Turkey include Assyrians/Syriacs, Armenians, and Greeks. Jewish people in Turkey include those that descend from Sephardic Jews who escaped Spain in 15th century and Greek-speaking Jews from Byzantine times. There is an ethnic Turkish Protestant Christian community most of them came from recent Muslim Turkish backgrounds, rather than from ethnic minorities. According to KONDA research, only 9.7% of the population described themselves as \"fully devout,\" while 52.8% described themselves as \"religious.\" 69.4% of the respondents reported that they or their wives cover their heads (1.3% reporting chador), although this rate decreases in several demographics: 53% in ages 18–28, 27.5% in university graduates, 16.1% in masters-or-higher-degree holders. Turkey has also been a secular state since the republican era. According to a poll, 90% of respondents said the country should be defined as secular in the new Constitution that is being written.", "An autosomal DNA study of Turks in 2014 by Can Alkan found that the Turkic East Asian impact on modern Turkey was 21.7% A study in 2015 found that \"\"Previous genetic studies have generally used Turks as representatives of ancient populations from Turkey. Our results show that Turks are genetically shifted towards modern Central Asians, a pattern consistent with a history of mixture with populations from this region\"\". A study involving mitochondrial analysis of a Byzantine-era population, whose samples were gathered from excavations in the archaeological site of Sagalassos, found that the Byzantine population of Sagalassos might have left a genetic signature in the modern Turkish populations. Modern-day samples from the nearby town of Ağlasun showed that lineages of East Eurasian descent assigned to macro-haplogroup M were found in the modern samples from Ağlasun. This haplogroup is significantly more frequent in Ağlasun (15%) than in Byzantine Sagalassos. One study found that results pointed out that language (Turkish) in Anatolia might not have been replaced by the elites, but by a large group of people, which means there was no elite assimilation in Anatolia. Another study found the Circassians are closest to the Turkish population among sampled European (French, Italian, Sardinian), Middle Eastern (Druze, Palestinian), and Central (Kyrgyz, Hazara, Uygur), South (Pakistani), and East Asian (Mongolian, Han) populations." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Chemical structure.", "Importance for living organisms.", "Adipose tissue.", "Fatty acids and human health." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "There are many different kinds of fats, but each is a variation on the same chemical structure. All fats are derivatives of fatty acids and glycerol. Most fats are glycerides, particularly triglycerides (triesters of glycerol). One chain of fatty acid is bonded to each of the three -OH groups of the glycerol by the reaction of the carboxyl end of the fatty acid (-COOH) with the alcohol; i.e. three chains per molecule. Water is eliminated and the carbons are linked by an -O- bond through dehydration synthesis. This process is called esterification and fats are therefore esters. As a simple visual illustration, if the kinks and angles of these chains were straightened out, the molecule would have the shape of a capital letter E. The fatty acids would each be a horizontal line; the glycerol \"backbone\" would be the vertical line that joins the horizontal lines. Fats therefore have \"ester\" bonds. The properties of any specific fat molecule depend on the particular fatty acids that constitute it. Fatty acids form a family of compounds that are composed of increasing numbers of carbon atoms linked into a zig-zag chain (hydrogen atoms to the side). The more carbon atoms there are in any fatty acid, the longer its chain will be. Long chains are more susceptible to intermolecular forces of attraction (in this case, van der Waals forces), and so the longer ones melt at a higher temperature (melting point). Fatty acid chains may also differ by length, often categorized as short to very long. Any of these aliphatic fatty acid chains may be glycerated and the resultant fats may have tails of different lengths from very short triformin to very long, e.g., cerotic acid, or \"hexacosanoic acid\", a 26-carbon long-chain saturated fatty acid. Long chain fats are exemplified by tallow (lard) whose chains are 17 carbons long. Most fats found in food, whether vegetable or animal, are made up of medium to long-chain fatty acids, usually of equal or nearly equal length. Many cell types can use either glucose or fatty acids for this energy. In particular, heart and skeletal muscle prefer fatty acids. Despite long-standing assertions to the contrary, fatty acids can also be used as a source of fuel for brain cells.", "Fats are also sources of essential fatty acids, an important dietary requirement. They provide energy as noted above. Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble, meaning they can only be digested, absorbed, and transported in conjunction with fats. Fats play a vital role in maintaining healthy skin and hair, insulating body organs against shock, maintaining body temperature, and promoting healthy cell function. Fat also serves as a useful buffer against a host of diseases. When a particular substance, whether chemical or biotic, reaches unsafe levels in the bloodstream, the body can effectively dilute—or at least maintain equilibrium of—the offending substances by storing it in new fat tissue. This helps to protect vital organs, until such time as the offending substances can be metabolized or removed from the body by such means as excretion, urination, accidental or intentional bloodletting, sebum excretion, and hair growth.", "In animals, adipose tissue, or fatty tissue is the body's means of storing metabolic energy over extended periods of time. Adipocytes (fat cells) store fat derived from the diet and from liver metabolism. Under energy stress these cells may degrade their stored fat to supply fatty acids and also glycerol to the circulation. These metabolic activities are regulated by several hormones (e.g., insulin, glucagon and epinephrine). Adipose tissue also secretes the hormone leptin. The location of the tissue determines its metabolic profile: visceral fat is located within the abdominal wall (i.e., beneath the wall of abdominal muscle) whereas subcutaneous fat is located beneath the skin (and includes fat that is located in the abdominal area beneath the skin but \"above\" the abdominal muscle wall). Visceral fat was recently discovered to be a significant producer of signaling chemicals (i.e., hormones), among which several are involved in inflammatory tissue responses. One of these is resistin which has been linked to obesity, insulin resistance, and Type 2 diabetes. This latter result is currently controversial, and there have been reputable studies supporting all sides on the issue.", "Dietary consumption of fatty acids has effects on human health. Studies have found that replacing saturated fats with \"cis\" unsaturated fats in the diet reduces risk of cardiovascular disease. For example, a 2015 systematic review of randomized control trials by the Cochrane Library concluded: \"Lifestyle advice to all those at risk of cardiovascular disease and to lower risk population groups should continue to include permanent reduction of dietary saturated fat and partial replacement by unsaturated fats.\" Numerous studies have also found that consumption of \"trans\" fats increases risk of cardiovascular disease. The Harvard School of Public Health advises that replacing \"trans\" fats and saturated fats with \"cis\" monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats is beneficial for health." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Composition.", "Variations.", "Production and sale of the \"Original Sacher Torte\".", "Legal dispute with Demel's.", "Other." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "According to Franz Sacher's son Eduard, sachertorte was invented by Franz, when he was an apprentice under Chancellor Metternich's chef, one \"maître\" Chambellier. The story goes that Franz was required to create a novel cake when the chef was ill. The Metternich connection was probably invented by Eduard many years later, to appeal to \"Viennese nostalgic for their imperial past\". Sachertorte remains popular in Austria and worldwide.", "The cake consists of a dense chocolate cake with a thin layer of apricot jam on top, coated in dark chocolate icing on the top and sides. It is traditionally served with unsweetened whipped cream.", "The \"Original\" Sacher Torte has two layers of apricot jam between the outer layer of chocolate icing and the sponge base, while Demel's \"Eduard-Sacher-Torte\" has only one. Demel's cake is denser and smoother. Some of the various recipes for cakes similar to the \"Original\" are listed below. For example, at \"Graz-Kulturhauptstadt 2003\", a festival marking the city of Graz being declared cultural capital that year, \"Sacher-Masoch-Torte\" was presented (its name alluding to Leopold von Sacher-Masoch), using redcurrant jam and marzipan.", "Hotel Sacher's \"Original Sacher Torte\" is sold at the Vienna and Salzburg locations of the Hotel Sacher, at Cafe Sacher branches in Innsbruck and Graz, at the Sacher Shop in Bolzano, in the Duty Free area of Vienna airport, and via the Hotel Sacher's online shop. The recipe of the Hotel Sacher's version of the cake is a closely guarded secret. Those privy to it claim that the secret to the Sacher Torte's desirability lies not in the ingredients of the cake itself, but rather those of the chocolate icing. According to widely available information, the icing consists of three special types of chocolate, which are produced exclusively by different manufacturers for this sole purpose. The hotel obtains these products from Lübeck in Germany and from Belgium. The Hotel Sacher has gone to great lengths to distinguish the Original Sacher Torte from other variations. This includes four golden corners on the wooden box, the wood engraving of the Hotel Sacher Wien as well as “Das Original” and “Hotel Sacher Wien” in writing in the inside of the lid, and bordeaux red wrapping paper with a Biedermeier motif.", "In 1934, the Demel pastry shop started selling \"Eduard Sacher-Torte\", while the Sacher Hotel sold the \"Original Sacher-Torte\". The hotel's owners sued Demel for trademark infringement, and won in 1938. The lawsuit was appealed after the war, and the hotel was eventually given the exclusive right to call its version \"the original\".", "December 5 is National Sachertorte Day in the United States." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and military career.", "Oath Crisis and rebirth of the Polish Army.", "World War II, exile and death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Wacław Teofil Stachiewicz was born November 19, 1894 in Lwów (Lemberg, L'viv) in Austro-Hungarian Galicia. After graduating from one of local gymnasiums, he entered the geological faculty at the University of Lwów. In 1912 he joined the underground Związek Strzelecki, where he received military training and graduated from NCO and officer courses. After the outbreak of the Great War, in August 1914 he joined the Polish Legions, where he became a platoon commander in the 1st Regiment. On October 9 he was promoted to Second Lieutenant and sent with a secret mission to the other side of the Russo-Austrian front to help in creation of Polish underground organizations in the territory still under Russian occupation. In 1915 he was moved to the newly formed 5th Regiment, where he commanded the 4th company. Wounded in the battle of Konary, he was moved to various staff duties, among others he served as an aide to the chief of staff of the regiment. In March 1917 he graduated from an officer course of the General Staff and was to be promoted.", "However, in the effect of the Oath Crisis of 1917 he was drafted into the Austro-Hungarian Army, demoted to sergeant and sent to the Italian Front. In March of the following year he defected from the army, returned to Poland and joined the secret Polish Military Organization. He headed that organization's central branch based in Warsaw. After Poland regained her independence, Stachiewicz's organization became one of the cores of the reborn Polish Army. Initially serving as the head of the I Detachment of the General Staff and the deputy chief of staff of the Warsaw military district, Stachiewicz soon became a staff officer of General Stanisław Haller's Army. He also served in a number of roles in the Polish Ministry of War Affairs. During the battle of Warsaw of 1920 he served as a deputy chief of staff and chief of operations of Gen. Kazimierz Sosnkowski's Volunteer Army. After the end of hostilities and the Peace of Riga, Stachiewicz returned to the ministry. In 1921 he was sent to Paris, where he graduated from Ecole Supérieure de Guerre in late 1923. Upon his return he became a professor of tactics at the \"Wyższa Szkoła Wojenna\" in Warsaw. In April 1926 he started a year of practice at the post of head of 1st detachment of the Polish General Staff and in June of the following year he became the 1st Officer of the Staff of the General Inspectorate of Armed Forces. In January 1928 he completed his practice as the commanding officer of the Częstochowa-based 27th Infantry Regiment. Finally, after a year of training there he became the chief of infantry in the elite 1st Legions Infantry Division in Wilno. In December 1933 he returned to Częstochowa, this time as a commanding officer of the entire 7th Infantry Division and in 1935 he was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General. After the death of Marshal of Poland Józef Piłsudski, his place was taken by General Edward Rydz-Śmigły who nominated Stachiewicz for the post of the Chief of Staff of the Polish Army.", "One of the most promising staff officers in the Polish military, Stachiewicz was the author of various military plans, among them the Plan Zachód, the Polish plan of operations in case of a war with Nazi Germany and the Plan Wschód, a similar plan in case of a war against the Soviet Union. He was also the officer to prepare the Polish mobilization. In late 1939 he supervised the mobilization which was successfully accomplished despite the fact that it had to be called off due to British and French pressure. After the outbreak of the Polish Defensive War he automatically became the Chief of Staff of the headquarters of the Polish commander-in-chief. However, due to lack of communication he lost any influence on the conflict and withdrew together with Rydz-Śmigły to south-eastern Poland. After the Soviets joined the war on the side of the Nazis, on September 18 he crossed the border with Romania in order to continue the struggle abroad in France. However, due to internal struggle for power among the Polish emigrees, the French pressured the Romanian authorities and both Stachiewicz and his superior were interned. In January 1940 Wacław Stachiewicz managed to escape from captivity and, through Bucharest and Yugoslavia, reached the French-held port of Algiers. However, due to Gen. Władysław Sikorski's insistence he was again interned, this time by the French, and it was not until 1943 that he finally reached London. There he spent the remaining part of the war, without any assignment. After World War II he was deprived of his Polish citizenship by the Soviet-backed communist authorities of Poland and had to remain in exile. In 1948 he moved to Montreal in Canada. Blamed by many for the Polish defeat in the war, Stachiewicz devoted himself to writing and was an author of several books on the Polish preparations for the war of 1939. He died November 12, 1973. The Polish Library of the McGill University is named after him." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Prelude.", "Battle.", "Carrier action on 26 October: first strikes.", "Carrier action on 26 October: post-first strike actions.", "Aftermath." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "On 7 August 1942, Allied forces (primarily U.S.) landed on Japanese-occupied Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and the Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands. The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases for threatening the supply routes between the U.S. and Australia, and to secure the islands as starting points for a campaign with the eventual goal of neutralizing the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign. The landings initiated the six-month-long Guadalcanal campaign. After the Battle of the Eastern Solomons on 24–25 August, in which the aircraft carrier was heavily damaged and forced to travel to Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, for a month of major repairs, three U.S. carrier task forces remained in the South Pacific area. The task forces included the carriers,, and plus their respective air groups and supporting surface warships, including battleships, cruisers, and destroyers, and were primarily stationed between the Solomons and New Hebrides (Vanuatu) islands. At this location, the carriers were charged with guarding the line of communication between the major Allied bases at New Caledonia and Espiritu Santo, supporting the Allied ground forces at Guadalcanal and Tulagi against any Japanese counteroffensives, covering the movement of supply ships to Guadalcanal, and engaging and destroying any Japanese warships, especially carriers, that came within range. The area of ocean in which the U.S. carrier task forces operated was known as \"Torpedo Junction\" by U.S. forces because of the high concentration of Japanese submarines in the area. On 31 August, was torpedoed by and was out of action for three months for repairs. On 14 September, was hit by three torpedoes fired by Japanese submarine while supporting a major reinforcement and resupply convoy to Guadalcanal and almost engaging two Japanese carriers and (which withdrew just before the two adversaries came into range of each other's aircraft). With power knocked out from torpedo damage, \"Wasp\" damage-control teams were unable to contain the ensuing large fires, and she was abandoned and scuttled. Although the U.S. now had only one operational carrier (\"Hornet\") in the South Pacific, the Allies still maintained air superiority over the southern Solomon Islands because of their aircraft based at Henderson Field on Guadalcanal. However, at night, when aircraft were not able to operate effectively, the Japanese were able to operate their ships around Guadalcanal almost at will. Thus, a stalemate in the battle for Guadalcanal developed Allies delivering supplies and reinforcements to Guadalcanal during the day, and the Japanese doing the same by warship (called the \"Tokyo Express\" by the Allies) at night with neither side able to deliver enough troops to the island to secure a decisive advantage. By mid-October, both sides had roughly an equal number of troops on the island. The stalemate was briefly interrupted by two large-ship naval actions. On the night of 11–12 October, a U.S. naval force intercepted and defeated a Japanese naval force en route to bombard Henderson Field in the Battle of Cape Esperance. But just two nights later, a Japanese force that included the battleships and successfully bombarded Henderson Field, destroying most of the U.S. aircraft and inflicting severe damage on the field's facilities. Although still marginally operational, it took several weeks for the airfield to recover from the damage and replace the destroyed aircraft. The U.S. made two moves to try to break the stalemate in the battle for Guadalcanal. First, repairs to \"Enterprise\" were expedited so that she could return to the South Pacific as soon as possible. On 10 October, \"Enterprise\" received her new air group (Air Group 10) and on 16 October, she left Pearl Harbor; and on 23 October, she arrived back in the South Pacific and rendezvoused with \"Hornet\" and the rest of the Allied South Pacific naval forces on 24 October, northeast of Espiritu Santo. Second, on 18 October, Admiral Chester Nimitz, Allied Commander-in-Chief of Pacific Forces, replaced Vice Admiral Robert L. Ghormley with Vice Admiral William Halsey, Jr. as Commander, South Pacific Area: this position commanded Allied forces involved in the Solomon Islands campaign. Nimitz felt that Ghormley had become too myopic and pessimistic to lead Allied forces effectively in the struggle for Guadalcanal. Halsey was reportedly respected throughout the U.S. naval fleet as a \"fighter\". Upon assuming command, Halsey immediately began making plans to draw the Japanese naval forces into a battle, writing to Nimitz, \"I had to begin throwing punches almost immediately.\" The Japanese Combined Fleet was also seeking to draw Allied naval forces into what was hoped to be a decisive battle. Two fleet carriers— and —and one light carrier——arrived at the main Japanese naval base at Truk Atoll from Japan in early October and joined \"Shōkaku\" and \"Zuikaku\". With five carriers fully equipped with air groups, plus their numerous battleships, cruisers, and destroyers, the Japanese Combined Fleet, directed by Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, was confident that it could make up for the defeat at the Battle of Midway. Apart from a couple of air raids on Henderson Field in October, the Japanese carriers and their supporting warships stayed in the northwestern area of the Solomon Islands, out of the battle for Guadalcanal and waiting for a chance to approach and engage the U.S. carriers. With the Japanese Army's next planned major ground attack on Allied forces on Guadalcanal set for 20 October, Yamamoto's warships began to move towards the southern Solomons to support the offensive and to be ready to engage any enemy ships, especially carriers, that approached to support the Allied defenses on Guadalcanal.", "From 20–25 October, Japanese land forces on Guadalcanal attempted to capture Henderson Field with a large-scale attack against U.S. troops defending the airfield. The attack was decisively defeated with heavy casualties for the Japanese during the Battle for Henderson Field. Incorrectly believing that the Japanese army troops had succeeded in capturing Henderson Field, the Japanese sent warships toward Guadalcanal on the morning of 25 October to support their ground forces on the island. Aircraft from Henderson Field attacked the convoy throughout the day, sinking the light cruiser and damaging the destroyer. Despite the failure of the Japanese ground offensive and the loss of \"Yura\", the rest of the Combined Fleet continued to maneuver near the southern Solomon Islands on 25 October with the hope of encountering Allied naval forces in battle. The Japanese naval forces now comprised four carriers, because had suffered an accidental, damaging fire in her engine room on 22 October that forced her to return to Truk for repairs. The Japanese naval forces were divided into three groups: The \"Advanced\" force consisted of the carrier, plus two battleships, four heavy cruisers, one light cruiser, and 10 destroyers, and was commanded by Vice Admiral Nobutake Kondō in heavy cruiser ; the \"Main Body\" consisted of \"Shōkaku\", \"Zuikaku\", and \"Zuihō\" plus one heavy cruiser and eight destroyers, and was commanded by Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo aboard \"Shōkaku\"; and the \"Vanguard\" force contained two battleships, three heavy cruisers, one light cruiser, and seven destroyers, and was commanded by Rear Admiral Hiroaki Abe in battleship. In addition to commanding the Advanced force, Kondo acted as the overall commander of the three forces. On the U.S. side, the and task groups, under the overall command of Rear Admiral Thomas Kinkaid, swept around to the north of the Santa Cruz Islands on 25 October searching for the Japanese naval forces. The U.S. warships were deployed as two separate carrier groups, each centered on either \"Hornet\" or \"Enterprise\", and separated from each other by about. A U.S. PBY Catalina based in the Santa Cruz Islands located the Japanese Main Body carriers at 11:03. However, the Japanese carriers were about from the U.S. force, just beyond carrier aircraft range. Kinkaid, hoping to close the range to be able to execute an attack that day, steamed towards the Japanese carriers at top speed and, at 14:25, launched a strike force of 23 aircraft. But the Japanese, knowing that they had been spotted by U.S. aircraft and not knowing where the U.S. carriers were, turned to the north to stay out of range of the U.S. carriers' aircraft. Thus, the U.S. strike force returned to their carriers without finding or attacking the Japanese warships.", "", "At 02:50 on 26 October, the Japanese naval forces reversed direction and the naval forces of the two adversaries closed the distance until they were only away from each other by 05:00. Both sides launched search aircraft and prepared their remaining aircraft to attack as soon as the other side's ships were located. Although a radar-equipped PBY Catalina sighted the Japanese carriers at 03:10, the report did not reach Kinkaid until 05:12. Therefore, believing that the Japanese ships had probably changed position during the intervening two hours, he decided to withhold launching a strike force until he received more current information on the location of the Japanese ships. At 06:45, a U.S. scout aircraft sighted the carriers of Nagumo's main body. At 06:58, a Japanese scout aircraft reported the location of \"Hornet\" task force. Both sides raced to be the first to attack the other. The Japanese were first to get their strike force launched, with 64 aircraft, including 21 Aichi D3A2 dive bombers, 20 Nakajima B5N2 torpedo bombers, 21 A6M3 Zero fighters, and two Nakajima B5N2 contact aircraft on the way towards \"Hornet\" by 07:40. This first strike was commanded by Lieutenant Commander Shigeharu Murata, while the fighter cover was led by Lieutenants Ayao Shirane and Saneyasu Hidaka. Also at 07:40, two U.S. SBD-3 Dauntless scout aircraft, responding to the earlier sighting of the Japanese carriers, arrived and dove on \"Zuihō\". With the Japanese combat air patrol (CAP) busy chasing other U.S. scout aircraft away, the two U.S. aircraft were able to hit \"Zuihō\" with both their 500-pound bombs, causing heavy damage and preventing the carrier's flight deck from being able to land aircraft. Meanwhile, Kondo ordered Abe's Vanguard force to race ahead to try to intercept and engage the U.S. warships. Kondo also brought his own Advanced force forward at maximum speed so that \"Junyō\" aircraft could join in the attacks on the U.S. ships. At 08:10, \"Shōkaku\" launched a second wave of strike aircraft, consisting of 19 dive bombers and five Zeros, and \"Zuikaku\" launched 16 torpedo bombers and four Zeros at 08:40. The second strike leader was Lieutenant Commander Mamoru Seki, while the fighter cover was led by Lieutenant Hideki Shingo. Thus, by 09:10 the Japanese had 110 aircraft on the way to attack the U.S. carriers. The U.S. strike aircraft were running about 20 minutes behind the Japanese. Believing that a speedy attack was more important than a massed attack, and because they lacked fuel to spend time assembling prior to the strike, the U.S. aircraft proceeded in small groups towards the Japanese ships, rather than forming into a single large strike force. The first group — consisting of 15 Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bombers, six Grumman TBF-1 Avenger torpedo bombers, and eight Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters, led by Lieutenant Commander William J. \"Gus\" Widhelm from \"Hornet\" — was on its way by about 08:00. A second group — consisting of three SBDs, nine TBFs (including the Air Group Commander's), and eight Wildcats from \"Enterprise\" — was off by 08:10. A third group — consisting of nine SBDs, ten TBFs (including the Air Group Commander's), and seven F4Fs from \"Hornet\" — was on its way by 08:20. At 08:40, the opposing aircraft strike formations passed within sight of each other. Lieutenant Hidaka's nine \"Zuihō\" Zeros surprised and attacked the \"Enterprise\" group, attacking the climbing aircraft from out of the sun. In the resulting engagement, four Zeros, three Wildcats, and two TBFs were shot down, with another two TBFs and a Wildcat forced to return to \"Enterprise\" with heavy damage. The remaining \"Zuihō\" Zeros, having exhausted their ammunition, withdrew from the action. At 08:50, the lead U.S. attack formation from \"Hornet\" spotted four ships from Abe's Vanguard force. Pressing on, the U.S. aircraft sighted the Japanese carriers and prepared to attack. Three Zeros from \"Zuihō\" attacked the formation's Wildcats, drawing them away from the bombers they were assigned to protect. Thus, the dive bombers in the first group initiated their attacks without fighter escort. Twelve Zeros from the Japanese carrier CAP attacked the SBD formation, shot down two (including Widhelm's, though he survived), and forced two more to abort. The remaining 11 SBDs commenced their attack dives on \"Shōkaku\" at 09:27, hitting her with three to six bombs, wrecking her flight deck and causing serious damage to the interior of the ship. The final SBD of the 11 lost track of \"Shōkaku\" and instead dropped its bomb near the Japanese destroyer, causing minor damage. The six TBFs in the first strike force, having become separated from their strike group, did not find the Japanese carriers and eventually turned back towards \"Hornet\". On the way back, they attacked the Japanese heavy cruiser, missing with all their torpedoes. The TBFs of the second U.S. attack formation from \"Enterprise\" were unable to locate the Japanese carriers and instead attacked the Japanese heavy cruiser from Abe's Vanguard force but caused no damage. At about the same time, nine SBDs from the third U.S. attack formation — from \"Hornet\" — found Abe's ships and attacked the Japanese heavy cruiser, hitting her with two bombs and causing heavy damage. The three \"Enterprise\" SBDs then arrived and also attacked \"Chikuma\", causing more damage with one bomb hit and two near-misses. Finally, the nine TBFs from the third strike group arrived and attacked the smoking \"Chikuma\", scoring one more hit. \"Chikuma\", escorted by two destroyers, withdrew from the battle and headed towards Truk for repairs. The U.S. carrier forces received word from their outbound strike aircraft at 08:30 that Japanese attack aircraft were headed their way. At 08:52, the Japanese strike force commander sighted the \"Hornet\" task force (the \"Enterprise\" task force was hidden by a rain squall) and deployed his aircraft for attack. At 08:55, the U.S. carriers detected the approaching Japanese aircraft on radar—about away—and began to vector the 37 Wildcats of their CAP to engage the incoming Japanese aircraft. However, communication problems, mistakes by the U.S. fighter control directors, and primitive control procedures prevented all but a few of the U.S. fighters from engaging the Japanese aircraft before they began their attacks on \"Hornet\". Although the U.S. CAP was able to shoot down several dive bombers, most of the Japanese aircraft commenced their attacks relatively unmolested by U.S. fighters. At 09:09, the anti-aircraft guns of \"Hornet\" and her escorting warships opened fire as the 20 untouched Japanese torpedo planes and remaining 16 dive bombers commenced their attacks on the carrier. At 09:12, a dive bomber placed its, semi-armor-piercing bomb dead center on \"Hornet\" flight deck, across from the island, which penetrated three decks before exploding, killing 60 men. Moments later, a \"land\" bomb struck the flight deck, detonating on impact to create an hole and kill 30 men. A minute or so later, a third bomb hit \"Hornet\" near where the first bomb hit, penetrating three decks before exploding, causing severe damage but no loss of life. At 09:14, a dive bomber was set on fire by \"Hornet\" anti-aircraft guns; the pilot, Warrant Officer Shigeyuki Sato, deliberately crashed into \"Hornet\" stack, killing seven men and spreading burning aviation fuel over the signal deck. At the same time as the dive bombers were attacking, the 20 torpedo bombers were also approaching \"Hornet\" from two different directions. Despite suffering heavy losses from anti-aircraft fire, including Lieutenant Commander Murata, the torpedo planes planted two torpedoes into \"Hornet\" side between 09:13 and 09:17, knocking out her engines. As \"Hornet\" came to a stop, a damaged Japanese dive bomber approached and purposely crashed into the carrier's side, starting a fire near the ship's main supply of aviation fuel. At 09:20, the surviving Japanese aircraft departed, leaving \"Hornet\" dead in the water and burning. Twenty-five Japanese and six American aircraft were destroyed in this attack. With the assistance of fire hoses from three escorting destroyers, the fires on \"Hornet\" were under control by 10:00. Wounded personnel were evacuated from the carrier, and an attempt was made by the heavy cruiser under Captain Willard A. Kitts to tow \"Hornet\" away from the battle area. However, the effort to rig the towline took some time, and more attack waves of Japanese aircraft were inbound.", "Starting at 09:30, \"Enterprise\" landed many of the damaged and fuel-depleted CAP fighters and returning scout aircraft from both carriers. However, with her flight deck full, and the second wave of incoming Japanese aircraft detected on radar at 09:30, \"Enterprise\" ceased landing operations at 10:00. Fuel-depleted aircraft then began ditching in the ocean, and the carrier's escorting destroyers rescued the aircrews. One of the ditching aircraft, a damaged TBF from \"Enterprise\" strike force that had been attacked earlier by Zeros from \"Zuihō\", crashed into the water near the destroyer. As \"Porter\" rescued the TBF's aircrew, she was struck by a torpedo, perhaps from the ditched aircraft, causing heavy damage and killing 15 crewmen. After the task force commander ordered the destroyer scuttled, the crew was rescued by the destroyer which then sank \"Porter\" with gunfire (). As the first wave of Japanese strike aircraft began returning to their carriers from their attack on \"Hornet\", one of them spotted the \"Enterprise\" task force (which had just emerged from a rain squall) and reported the carrier's position. The second Japanese aircraft strike wave, believing \"Hornet\" to be sinking, directed their attacks on the \"Enterprise\" task force, beginning at 10:08. Again, the U.S. CAP had trouble intercepting the Japanese aircraft before they attacked \"Enterprise\", shooting down only two of the 19 dive bombers as they began their dives on the carrier. Attacking through the intense anti-aircraft fire put up by \"Enterprise\" and her escorting warships, the bombers hit the carrier with two bombs and near-missed with another (the first of these was released by Lieutenant Keiichi Arima's aircraft). The bombs killed 44 men and wounded 75, and caused heavy damage to the carrier, including jamming her forward elevator in the \"up\" position. Ten of the nineteen Japanese bombers were lost in this attack, including Lieutenant Commander Seki's, with two more ditching on their return. Twenty minutes later, the 16 \"Zuikaku\" torpedo planes arrived and split up to attack \"Enterprise\". One group of torpedo bombers was attacked by two CAP Wildcats which shot down three of them and damaged a fourth. On fire, the fourth damaged aircraft purposely crashed into the destroyer, setting the ship on fire and killing 57 of her crew. The torpedo carried by this aircraft detonated shortly after impact, causing more damage. The fires initially seemed out of control until \"Smith\" commanding officer ordered the destroyer to steer into the large spraying wake of the battleship, which helped put out the fires. \"Smith\" then resumed her station, firing her remaining anti-aircraft guns at the torpedo planes. The remaining torpedo planes attacked \"Enterprise\", \"South Dakota\", and cruiser, but all of their torpedoes missed or failed, causing no damage. The engagement was over at 10:53; nine of the 16 torpedo aircraft were lost in this attack. After suppressing most of the onboard fires, at 11:15 \"Enterprise\" reopened her flight deck to begin landing returning aircraft from the morning U.S. strikes on the Japanese warship forces. However, only a few aircraft landed before the next wave of Japanese strike aircraft arrived and began their attacks on \"Enterprise\", forcing a suspension of landing operations. Between 09:05 and 09:14, \"Jun'yō\" had arrived within of the U.S. carriers and launched a strike of 17 dive bombers and 12 Zeros. As the Japanese main body and advanced force maneuvered to try to join formations, \"Jun'yō\" readied follow-up strikes. At 11:21, the \"Jun'yō\" aircraft arrived and dove on the \"Enterprise\" task force. The dive bombers scored one near miss on \"Enterprise\", causing more damage, and one hit each on \"South Dakota\" and light cruiser, causing moderate damage to both ships. Eight of the 17 Japanese dive bombers were destroyed in this attack, with three more ditching on their return. At 11:35, with \"Hornet\" out of action, \"Enterprise\" heavily damaged, and the Japanese assumed to have one or two undamaged carriers in the area, Kinkaid decided to withdraw \"Enterprise\" and her screening ships from the battle. Leaving \"Hornet\" behind, Kinkaid directed the carrier and her task force to retreat as soon as they were able. Between 11:39 and 13:22, \"Enterprise\" recovered 57 of the 73 airborne U.S. aircraft as she retreated. The remaining U.S. aircraft ditched in the ocean, and their aircrews were rescued by escorting warships. Between 11:40 and 14:00, the two undamaged Japanese carriers, \"Zuikaku\" and \"Jun'yō\", recovered the few aircraft that returned from the morning strikes on \"Hornet\" and \"Enterprise\" and prepared follow-up strikes. It was now that the devastating losses sustained during these attacks became apparent. Lt. Cmdr. Masatake Okumiya, \"Jun'yō\" air staff officer, described the return of the carrier's first strike groups: At 13:00, Kondo's Advanced force and Abe's Vanguard force warships together headed directly towards the last reported position of the U.S. carrier task forces and increased speed to try to intercept them for a warship gunfire battle. The damaged carriers \"Zuihō\" and \"Shōkaku\", with Nagumo still on board, retreated from the battle area, leaving Rear Admiral Kakuji Kakuta in charge of the \"Zuikaku\" and \"Jun'yō\" aircraft forces. At 13:06, \"Junyō\" launched her second strike of seven torpedo planes and eight Zeros, and \"Zuikaku\" launched her third strike of seven torpedo planes, two dive bombers, and five Zeros. At 15:35, \"Junyō\" launched the last Japanese strike force of the day, consisting of four bombers and six Zeros. After several technical problems, \"Northampton\" finally began slowly towing \"Hornet\" out of the battle area at 14:45, at a speed of only five knots. \"Hornet\" crew was on the verge of restoring partial power but at 15:20, \"Jun'yō\" second strike arrived, and the seven torpedo planes attacked the almost stationary carrier. Although six of the torpedo planes missed, at 15:23, one torpedo struck \"Hornet\" mid-ship, which proved to be the fatal blow. The torpedo hit destroyed the repairs to the power system and caused heavy flooding and a 14-degree list. With no power to pump out the water, \"Hornet\" was given up for lost, and the crew abandoned ship. The third strike from \"Zuikaku\" attacked \"Hornet\" during this time, hitting the sinking ship with one more bomb. All of \"Hornet\" crewmen were off by 16:27. The last Japanese strike of the day dropped one more bomb on the sinking carrier at 17:20. After being informed that Japanese forces were approaching and that further towing efforts were infeasible, Admiral Halsey ordered the \"Hornet\" sunk. While the rest of the U.S. warships retired towards the southeast to get out of range of Kondō's and Abe's oncoming fleet, destroyers and attempted to scuttle \"Hornet\" with multiple torpedoes and over 400 shells, but she still remained afloat. With advancing Japanese naval forces only 20 minutes away, the two U.S. destroyers abandoned \"Hornet\" burning hulk at 20:40. By 22:20, the rest of Kondō's and Abe's warships had arrived at \"Hornet\" location. The destroyers and then finished \"Hornet\" with four torpedoes. At 01:35 on 27 October 1942, she finally sank at approximately. Several night attacks by radar-equipped Catalinas on \"Jun'yō\" and \"Teruzuki\", knowledge of the head start the U.S. warships had in their retreat from the area, plus a critical fuel situation apparently caused the Japanese to reconsider further pursuit of the U.S. warships. After refueling near the northern Solomon Islands, the ships returned to their main base at Truk on 30 October. During the U.S. withdrawal from the battle area towards Espiritu Santo and New Caledonia, while taking evasive action from a Japanese submarine, \"South Dakota\" collided with destroyer, heavily damaging the destroyer.", "Both sides claimed victory. The Americans stated that two \"Shōkaku\"-class fleet carriers had been hit with bombs and eliminated. Kinkaid's summary of damage to the Japanese included hits to a battleship, three heavy cruisers, a light cruiser, and possible hits on another heavy cruiser. For their part, the Japanese asserted that they sank three American carriers, one battleship, one cruiser, one destroyer, and one \"unidentified large warship\". Actual American losses comprised the carrier \"Hornet\" and the destroyer \"Porter\", and damage to \"Enterprise\", the light cruiser \"San Juan\", the destroyer \"Smith\" and the battleship \"South Dakota\". The loss of \"Hornet\" was a severe blow for Allied forces in the South Pacific, leaving \"Enterprise\" as the one operational, but damaged, Allied carrier in the entire Pacific theater. As she retreated from the battle, the crew posted a sign on the flight deck: \"Enterprise vs Japan\". \"Enterprise\" received temporary repairs at New Caledonia and, although not fully restored, returned to the southern Solomons area just two weeks later to support Allied forces during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal. There she played an important role in what turned out to be the decisive naval engagement in the overall campaign for Guadalcanal when her aircraft sank several Japanese warships and troop transports during the naval skirmishes around Henderson Field. The lack of carriers pressed the Americans and Japanese to deploy battleships in night operations around Guadalcanal, one of only two actions in the entire Pacific War in which battleships fought each other, with \"South Dakota\" again being damaged while two Japanese battleships were lost. Although the Battle of Santa Cruz was a tactical victory for the Japanese in terms of ships sunk, it came at a high cost for their naval forces, as \"Jun'yō\" was the only active aircraft carrier left to challenge \"Enterprise\" or Henderson Field for the remainder of the Guadalcanal campaign. \"Zuikaku\", despite being undamaged and having recovered the aircraft from the two damaged carriers, returned to home islands via Truk for training and aircraft ferrying duties, only returning to the South Pacific in February 1943 to cover the evacuation of Japanese ground forces from Guadalcanal. Both damaged carriers were forced to return to Japan for extensive repairs and refitting. After repair, \"Zuihō\" returned to Truk in late January 1943. \"Shōkaku\" was under repair until March 1943 and did not return to the front until July 1943, when she was reunited with \"Zuikaku\" at Truk. The most significant losses for the Japanese Navy were in aircrew. The U.S. lost 81 aircraft of the 175 U.S. aircraft at the start of the battle, of which 33 were fighters, 28 were dive-bombers, and 20 were torpedo bombers. Only 26 pilots and aircrew members were lost. The Japanese fared much worse, especially in airmen; in addition to losing 99 aircraft of the 203 involved in the battle, they lost 148 pilots and aircrew members, including two dive bomber group leaders, three torpedo squadron leaders, and eighteen other section or flight leaders. The most notable casualties were the commanders of the first two strikes - Shigeharu Murata and Mamoru Seki. Forty-nine percent of the Japanese torpedo bomber aircrews involved in the battle were killed, along with 39% of the dive bomber crews and 20% of the fighter pilots. The Japanese lost more aircrew at Santa Cruz than they had lost in each of the three previous carrier battles at Coral Sea (90), Midway (110), and Eastern Solomons (61). By the end of the Santa Cruz battle, at least 409 of the 765 elite Japanese carrier aviators who had participated in the attack on Pearl Harbor were dead. Having lost so many of its veteran carrier aircrew, and with no quick way to replace them – because of an institutionalized limited capacity in its naval aircrew training programs and an absence of trained reserves – the undamaged \"Zuikaku\" and \"Jun'yō\" were also forced to return to Japan because of the scarcity of trained aircrew to man their air groups. Although the Japanese carriers returned to Truk by the summer of 1943, they played no further offensive role in the Solomon Islands campaign. Admiral Nagumo was relieved of command shortly after the battle and reassigned to shore duty in Japan. He acknowledged that the victory was incomplete: Military historian Dr. John Prados offers a dissenting view, asserting that this was not a Pyrrhic victory for Japan, but a strategic victory: In Prados' view, the real story of the aftermath is that the Imperial Navy failed to exploit their hard-won victory. Relentless night actions waged by destroyers and light cruisers in \"the slot\" with heavy cruisers and battleships likewise operating outside the slot around Guadalcanal, in concert with continued Japanese submarine operations are the obvious tactical choice to press on the Japanese advantage at this point. Yet none of this could do more than delay the eventual overwhelming superiority of U.S. forces due to a much greater industrial base." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Variants.", "Other meanings.", "Prosecution history.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Director Sidney Hayers used the phrase as the title of his 1972 crime drama \"All Coppers Are...\", and the \"Dictionary of Catchphrases\" states that while the initialism—later seen in 1977 by a Newcastle journalist written on the walls of a prison cell—may be no older than the 1970s, the full phrase may date back as far as the 1920s. The acronym is often integrated into prison tattoos in the United Kingdom, commonly rendered as one letter per finger, alternatively sometimes seen as symbolic small dots across each knuckle. In Germany, usage of the term is a criminal offense when it refers to the honor of an individual, however when used to describe a large group of people, it is permitted. The acronym is meant then, not as a personal insult, but a commentary on the institutional role of the police. Some police officers may be \"bad apples,\" but the term refers to the police as an institution. When an individual joins a police force, they become bound by their profession and their employer. It has also been shown that the job of a police officer tends to negatively affect the individual, sometimes causing PTSD. The police as an institution hold power over the people they patrol, helping to maintain social order of the nation-state, which may be against the interests of the public. This social order may be maintained through force or violence and can be seen in the origin of modern policing. In certain contexts, the Anti-Defamation League categorizes the phrase as a hate symbol and describes it as \"a slogan of long standing in the skinhead culture,\" while noting the phrase is used both by racist and anti-racist skinheads. Used by anarchists and punks, the phrase garnered wider mainstream attention in 2020 as a result of the killing of George Floyd and the protests that ensued following his killing.", "Similar phrases are used in various languages. Though many still use the A.C.A.B. acronym.", "A large number of backronyms and variations have developed to \"All Cops Are Bastards\". Among political progressives, some people use \"All Cops Are Bullshit\" or \"All Cops Are Bad\" since the term \"bastard\" may also be a racist term (i.e. \"Rhineland Bastard\"). In addition, there are other \"left-wing\" interpretations of the abbreviation such as \"All Colors Are Beautiful\", \"All Capitalists are Bastards,\" or \"All Communists Are Beautiful\" In punk, skinhead and football culture is the use of the term \"eight cola eight beer\" (German: 8 ColaBier). In addition, there is the anti-Semitic variant used by Neonazis \" A.J.A.B. \" (All Jews are Bastards). The anarchist variant, \"Anarchist Chaotics Argue Better.", "Governments across the world, even in countries with free speech laws, are not always tolerant of that speech. In Germany both \"ACAB\" and \"1312\" have been deemed insults by state courts. In 2015, the Federal Constitutional Court ruled in reference to the term \"FCK CPS\" (read as \"Fuck Cops\") that an insult is only punishable when it is directed at a specific, identifiable group, but left interpretation of individual cases to the criminal courts. In Austria the use of A.C.A.B. was seen as \"violating public decency,\" which could be punished under administrative law, for example by means of an administrative penal order. The fine could be up to 700 euros (or alternatively a week police detention). In 2019, the Austrian Constitutional Court (VfGH) ruled that punishing the slogan as a violation of decency, in certain cases, violates the fundamental right to freedom of expression under Article 10 ECHR. The specific case involved a soccer fan who had waved an A.C.A.B. flag in the stadium. According to the VfGH, the banner should \"primarily refer to the tense relationship between some football fans and the police and to express the negative attitude towards the police as part of the state's regulatory power\" and should therefore \"not be a concrete 'insult' to certain other people\". Therefore, the criticism expressed \"should be accepted with a view to the special meaning and function of freedom of expression in a democratic society, taking into account all circumstances of the case.\" In other European countries, there are examples of police action towards people using ACAB in some fashion. Brian Stableford's 2009 \"Exotic Encounters\" states that \"many years ago\" during a fad for wearing ACAB shirts, a British youth was arrested for incitement to riot for wearing one, and ineffectively claimed the shirt stood for \"All Canadians Are Bastards\". In January 2011, three Ajax football fans in the Netherlands were fined for wearing T-shirts with the numbers 1312 printed on them. On 4 July 2015, a girl in Alicante, Spain, was fined for wearing a T-shirt with the acronym \"ACAB\" printed on it. On 22 May 2016, a 34-year-old woman in Madrid, Spain, was charged under Article 37 of the Citizen Safety Law for carrying a bag displaying the acronym \"ACAB\" accompanied by the words \"All Cats Are Beautiful\". The charges were dropped 3 days later. On 15 September 2017, a man from Karlovac, Croatia posted a photomontage with the message \"Fuck da Police A.C.A.B.\" from his Facebook profile. For this, he was later charged with violating the public order and fined €100 by the Misdemeanor Court in Karlovac. On 4 April 2019, a 26 year old hockey fan was arrested for wearing a T-shirt that had a numeric version of \"ACAB\", \"1312\". \"ACAB\" and \"1312\" are both considered \"extremist information\" in Belarus. However, this is not just a European phenomenon. In 2018, a group of Persija Jakarta football fans in Indonesia were arrested for displaying a banner with the message \"All Cops Are Bastards\" on it during the league match day.", "The abbreviation was often used musically in the 1980s. The 4-Skins, a British Oi! punk band, popularized the initialism A.C.A.B. in their 1980s song of the same name., as did the German punk band Slime. The term has also been used by the: Used in film:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Scope.", "Transmembrane lipoproteins.", "Plasma lipoprotein particles.", "Functions.", "Metabolism.", "Exogenous pathway.", "Endogenous pathway.", "Role in inflammation.", "Classification.", "By density.", "Alpha and beta.", "Subdivisions.", "Studies." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Some transmembrane proteolipids, especially those found in bacteria, are referred to as lipoproteins; they are not related to the lipoprotein particles this article is about. Such transmembrane proteins are difficult to isolate, as they bind tightly to the lipid membrane, often require lipids to display the proper structure, and can be water-insoluble. Detergents are usually required to isolate transmembrane lipoproteins from their associated biological membranes.", "Because fats are insoluble in water, they cannot be transported on their own in extracellular water, including blood plasma. Instead, they are surrounded by a hydrophilic external shell that functions as a transport vehicle. The role of lipoprotein particles is to transport fat molecules, such as triacylglycerols (also known as triglycerides), phospholipids, and cholesterol within the extracellular water of the body to all the cells and tissues of the body. The proteins included in the external shell of these particles, called apolipoproteins, are synthesized and secreted into the extracellular water by both the small intestine and liver cells. The external shell also contains phospholipids and cholesterol. All cells use and rely on fats and cholesterol as building blocks to create the multiple membranes that cells use both to control internal water content and internal water-soluble elements and to organize their internal structure and protein enzymatic systems. The outer shell of lipoprotein particles have the hydrophilic groups of phospholipids, cholesterol, and apolipoproteins directed outward. Such characteristics make them soluble in the salt-water-based blood pool. Triacylglycerols and cholesteryl esters are carried internally, shielded from the water by the outer shell. The kind of apolipoproteins contained in the outer shell determines the functional identity of the lipoprotein particles. The interaction of these apolipoproteins with enzymes in the blood, with each other, or with specific proteins on the surfaces of cells, determines whether triacylglycerols and cholesterol will be added to or removed from the lipoprotein transport particles. Characterization in human plasma", "", "The handling of lipoprotein particles in the body is referred to as \"lipoprotein particle metabolism\". It is divided into two pathways, exogenous and endogenous, depending in large part on whether the lipoprotein particles in question are composed chiefly of dietary (exogenous) lipids or whether they originated in the liver (endogenous), through de novo synthesis of triacylglycerols. The hepatocytes are the main platform for the handling of triacylglycerols and cholesterol; the liver can also store certain amounts of glycogen and triacylglycerols. While adipocytes are the main storage cells for triacylglycerols, they do not produce any lipoproteins.", "Bile emulsifies fats contained in the chyme, then pancreatic lipase cleaves triacylglycerol molecules into two fatty acids and one 2-monoacylglycerol. Enterocytes readily absorb the small molecules from the chymus. Inside of the enterocytes, fatty acids and monoacylglycerides are transformed again into triacylglycerides. Then these lipids are assembled with apolipoprotein B-48 into \"nascent chylomicrons\". These particles are then secreted into the lacteals in a process that depends heavily on apolipoprotein B-48. As they circulate through the lymphatic vessels, nascent chylomicrons bypass the liver circulation and are drained via the thoracic duct into the bloodstream. In the blood stream, \"nascent chylomicron particles\" interact with HDL particles, resulting in HDL donation of apolipoprotein C-II and apolipoprotein E to the nascent chylomicron. The chylomicron at this stage is then considered mature. Via apolipoprotein C-II, mature chylomicrons activate lipoprotein lipase (LPL), an enzyme on endothelial cells lining the blood vessels. LPL catalyzes the hydrolysis of triacylglycerol that ultimately releases glycerol and fatty acids from the chylomicrons. Glycerol and fatty acids can then be absorbed in peripheral tissues, especially adipose and muscle, for energy and storage. The hydrolyzed chylomicrons are now called \"chylomicron remnants\". The chylomicron remnants continue circulating the bloodstream until they interact via apolipoprotein E with chylomicron remnant receptors, found chiefly in the liver. This interaction causes the endocytosis of the chylomicron remnants, which are subsequently hydrolyzed within lysosomes. Lysosomal hydrolysis releases glycerol and fatty acids into the cell, which can be used for energy or stored for later use.", "The liver is the central platform for the handling of lipids: it is able to store glycerols and fats in its cells, the hepatocytes. Hepatocytes are also able to create triacylglycerols via de novo synthesis. They also produce the bile from cholesterol. The intestines are responsible for absorbing cholesterol. They transfer it over into the blood stream. In the hepatocytes, triacylglycerols and cholesteryl esters are assembled with apolipoprotein B-100 to form \"nascent VLDL particles\". Nascent VLDL particles are released into the bloodstream via a process that depends upon apolipoprotein B-100. In the blood stream, \"nascent VLDL particles\" bump with HDL particles; as a result, HDL particles donate apolipoprotein C-II and apolipoprotein E to the nascent VLDL particle. Once loaded with apolipoproteins C-II and E, the nascent VLDL particle is considered mature. VLDL particles circulate and encounter LPL expressed on endothelial cells. Apolipoprotein C-II activates LPL, causing hydrolysis of the VLDL particle and the release of glycerol and fatty acids. These products can be absorbed from the blood by peripheral tissues, principally adipose and muscle. The hydrolyzed VLDL particles are now called VLDL remnants or intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDLs). VLDL remnants can circulate and, via an interaction between apolipoprotein E and the remnant receptor, be absorbed by the liver, or they can be further hydrolyzed by hepatic lipase. Hydrolysis by hepatic lipase releases glycerol and fatty acids, leaving behind \"IDL remnants\", called low-density lipoproteins (LDL), which contain a relatively high cholesterol content (). LDL circulates and is absorbed by the liver and peripheral cells. Binding of LDL to its target tissue occurs through an interaction between the LDL receptor and apolipoprotein B-100 on the LDL particle. Absorption occurs through endocytosis, and the internalized LDL particles are hydrolyzed within lysosomes, releasing lipids, chiefly cholesterol.", "Inflammation, a biological system response to stimuli such as the introduction of a pathogen, has an underlying role in numerous systemic biological functions and pathologies. This is a useful response by the immune system when the body is exposed to pathogens, such as bacteria in locations that will prove harmful, but can also have detrimental effects if left unregulated. It has been demonstrated that lipoproteins, specifically HDL, have important roles in the inflammatory process. When the body is functioning under normal, stable physiological conditions, HDL has been shown to be beneficial in several ways. LDL contains apolipoprotein B (apoB), which allows LDL to bind to different tissues, such as the artery wall if the glycocalyx has been damaged by high blood sugar levels. If oxidised, the LDL can become trapped in the proteoglycans, preventing its removal by HDL cholesterol efflux. Normal functioning HDL is able to prevent the process of oxidation of LDL and the subsequent inflammatory processes seen after oxidation. Lipopolysaccharide, or LPS, is the major pathogenic factor on the cell wall of Gram-negative bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria has a similar component named Lipoteichoic acid, or LTA. HDL has the ability to bind LPS and LTA, creating HDL-LPS complexes to neutralize the harmful effects in the body and clear the LPS from the body. HDL also has significant roles interacting with cells of the immune system to modulate the availability of cholesterol and modulate the immune response. Under certain abnormal physiological conditions such as system infection or sepsis, the major components of HDL become altered, The composition and quantity of lipids and apolipoproteins are altered as compared to normal physiological conditions, such as a decrease in HDL cholesterol (HDL-C), phospholipids, apoA-I (a major lipoprotein in HDL that has been shown to have beneficial anti-inflammatory properties), and an increase in Serum amyloid A. This altered composition of HDL is commonly referred to as acute-phase HDL in an acute-phase inflammatory response, during which time HDL can lose its ability to inhibit the oxidation of LDL. In fact, this altered composition of HDL is associated with increased mortality and worse clinical outcomes in patients with sepsis.", "", "Lipoproteins may be classified as five major groups, listed from larger and lower density to smaller and higher density. Lipoproteins are larger and less dense when the fat to protein ratio is increased. They are classified on the basis of electrophoresis, ultracentrifugation and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy via the Vantera Analyzer. For young healthy research subjects, ~70 kg (154 lb), these data represent averages across individuals studied, percentages represent % dry weight:", "It is also possible to classify lipoproteins as \"alpha\" and \"beta\", according to the classification of proteins in serum protein electrophoresis. This terminology is sometimes used in describing lipid disorders such as abetalipoproteinemia.", "Lipoproteins, such as LDL and HDL, can be further subdivided into subspecies isolated through a variety of methods. These are subdivided by density or by the protein contents/ proteins they carry. While the research is currently ongoing, researchers are learning that different subspecies contain different apolipoproteins, proteins, and lipid contents between species which have different physiological roles. For example, within the HDL lipoprotein subspecies, a large number of proteins are involved in general lipid metabolism. However, it is being elucidated that HDL subspecies also contain proteins involved in the following functions: homeostasis, fibrinogen, clotting cascade, inflammatory and immune responses, including the complement system, proteolysis inhibitors, acute-phase response proteins, and the LPS-binding protein, heme and iron metabolism, platelet regulation, vitamin binding and general transport.", "Atherosclerosis is the leading cause of coronary artery disease, which is the leading cause of mortality in the world. Since the 1980s, many studies have examined possible \"correlations\" between the incidence of the disease and plasma lipoprotein particle concentrations in the blood. Hypotheses exist for possible \"causations\". Studies have shown correlation between atherosclerosis and concentrations of particles. Further studies looked for correlations between nutrition and concentration of the distinguishable lipoprotein particles, e.g. whether the ratio of dietary fat raises or lowers levels of LDL particles in the blood. Studies have shown that different phenotypes do exist regarding the amount of particles and reaction to diet composition." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and career.", "1803–1821: Early years.", "1821–1824: Medical student.", "1824–1830: Conservatoire student.", "1830–1832: Prix de Rome.", "1832–1840: Paris.", "1840s: Struggling composer.", "1850s: International success.", "1860–1869: Final years.", "Works.", "Reputation and Berlioz scholarship.", "Writers.", "Changing reputation.", "Recordings.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Berlioz was born on 11 December 1803, the eldest child of Louis Berlioz (1776–1848), a physician, and his wife, Marie-Antoinette Joséphine, \"née\" Marmion (1784–1838). His birthplace was the family home in the commune of La Côte-Saint-André in the département of Isère, in south-eastern France. His parents had five more children, three of whom died in infancy; their surviving daughters, Nanci and Adèle, remained close to Berlioz throughout their lives. Berlioz's father, a respected local figure, was a progressively-minded doctor credited as the first European to practise and write about acupuncture. He was an agnostic with a liberal outlook; his wife was a strict Roman Catholic of less flexible views. After briefly attending a local school when he was about ten, Berlioz was educated at home by his father. He recalled in his \"Mémoires\" that he enjoyed geography, especially books about travel, to which his mind would sometimes wander when he was supposed to be studying Latin; the", "In March 1821 Berlioz passed the baccalauréat examination at the University of Grenoble – it is not certain whether at the first or second attempt – and in late September, aged seventeen, he moved to Paris. At his father's insistence he enrolled at the School of Medicine of the University of Paris. He had to fight hard to overcome his revulsion at dissecting bodies, but in deference to his father's wishes, he forced himself to continue his medical studies. The", "In 1824 Berlioz composed a \"Messe solennelle\". It was performed twice, after which he suppressed the score, which was thought lost until a copy was discovered in 1991. During 1825 and 1826 he wrote his first opera, \"Les Francs-juges\", which was not performed and survives only in fragments, the best known of which is the overture. In later works he reused parts of the score, such as the \"March of the Guards\", which he incorporated four years later in the \"Symphonie fantastique\" as the \"March to the Scaffold\". In August 1826 Berlioz was admitted as a student to the Conservatoire, studying composition under Le Sueur and counterpoint and fugue with Anton Reicha. In the same year he made the first of four attempts to win France's premier music prize, the Prix de Rome, and was eliminated in the first round. The following year, to earn some money, he joined the chorus at the Théâtre des Nouveautés. He competed again for the Prix de Rome, submitting the first of his Prix cantatas, \"La Mort d'Orphée\", in July.", "Berlioz was largely apolitical, and neither supported nor opposed the July Revolution of 1830, but when it broke out he found himself in the middle of it. He recorded events in his \"Mémoires\": The cantata was \"La Mort de Sardanapale\", with which he won the Prix de Rome. His entry the previous year, \"Cléopâtre\", had attracted disapproval from the judges because to highly conservative musicians it \"betrayed dangerous tendencies\", and for his 1830 offering he carefully modified his natural style to meet official approval. During the same year he wrote the \"Symphonie fantastique\" and became engaged to be married. By now recoiling from his obsession with", "On 9 December 1832 Berlioz presented a concert of his works at the Conservatoire. The programme included the overture of \"Les Francs-juges\", the \"Symphonie fantastique\" – extensively revised since its premiere – and \"Le Retour à la vie\", in which Bocage, a popular actor, declaimed the monologues. Through a third party, Berlioz had sent an invitation to Harriet Smithson, who accepted, and was dazzled by the celebrities in the audience. Among the musicians present were Liszt, Frédéric Chopin and Niccolò Paganini; writers included Alexandre Dumas, Théophile Gautier, Heinrich Heine, Victor Hugo and George Sand. The concert was such a success that the programme was repeated within the month, but the more immediate consequence was that Berlioz and Smithson finally met. By 1832 Smithson's career was in decline. She presented a ruinously unsuccessful season, first at the Théâtre-Italien and then at lesser venues, and by March 1833 she was deep in debt. Biographers differ about whether and to what extent Smithson's receptiveness to Berlioz's wooing was motivated by financial considerations; but she accepted him, and in the", "The \"Symphonie funèbre et triomphale\", marking the tenth anniversary of the 1830 Revolution, was performed in the open air under the direction of the composer in July 1840. The following year the Opéra commissioned Berlioz to adapt Weber's \"Der Freischütz\" to meet the house's rigid requirements: he wrote recitatives to replace the spoken dialogue and orchestrated Weber's \"Invitation to the Dance\" to provide the obligatory ballet music. In the same year he completed settings of six poems by his friend Théophile Gautier, which formed the song cycle \"Les Nuits d'été\" (with piano accompaniment, later orchestrated). He also worked on a projected opera, \"La Nonne sanglante\"", "After the failure of \"La Damnation de Faust\", Berlioz spent less time on composition during the next eight years. He wrote a Te Deum, completed in 1849 but not published until 1855, and some short pieces. His most substantial work between \"The Damnation\" and his epic \"Les Troyens\" (1856–1858) was a \"sacred trilogy\", \"L'Enfance du Christ\" (Christ's Childhood), which he began in 1850. In 1851 he was at the Great Exhibition in London as a member of an international committee judging musical instruments. He returned to London in 1852 and 1853, conducting his own works and others'. He enjoyed consistent success there, with the exception of a revival of \"Benvenuto Cellini\" at Covent Garden which was withdrawn after one performance. The opera was presented in Leipzig in 1852 in a revised version prepared by Liszt with Berlioz's approval and was moderately successful. In the early", "In June 1862 Berlioz's wife died suddenly, aged 48. She was survived by her mother, to whom Berlioz was devoted, and who looked after him for the rest of his life. \"Les Troyens\" – a five-act, five-hour opera – was on too large a scale to be acceptable to the management of the Opéra, and Berlioz's efforts to have it staged there failed. The only way he could find of seeing the work produced was to divide it into two parts: \"The Fall of Troy\" and \"The Trojans at Carthage\". The latter,", "In his 1983 book \"The Musical Language of Berlioz\", Julian Rushton asks \"where Berlioz comes in the history of musical forms and what is his progeny\". Rushton's answers to these questions are \"nowhere\" and \"none\". He cites well-known studies of musical history in which Berlioz is mentioned only in passing or not at all, and suggests that this is partly because Berlioz had no models among his predecessors and was a model to none of his successors. \"In his works, as in his life, Berlioz was a lone wolf\". Forty years earlier, Sir Thomas Beecham, a lifelong proponent of Berlioz's music, commented similarly, writing that although, for example, Mozart was a greater composer, his music drew on the works of his predecessors, whereas Berlioz's works were all wholly original: \"the \"Symphonie fantastique\" or \"La Damnation de Faust\" broke upon the world like some unaccountable effort of spontaneous generation which had dispensed with the machinery of normal parentage\". Rushton suggests that \"Berlioz's way is neither architectural nor developmental, but illustrative\". He judges this to be part of a continuing French musical aesthetic, favouring a \"decorative\" – rather than the German \"architectural\" – approach to composition. Abstraction and discursiveness are alien to this tradition, and in operas, and to a large extent in orchestral music, there is little continuous development; instead self-contained numbers or sections are preferred. Berlioz's compositional techniques have been strongly criticised and equally strongly defended. It is common ground for critics and defenders that his approach to harmony and musical structure conforms to no established rules; his detractors ascribe this to ignorance, and his proponents to independent-minded adventurousness. His approach to rhythm caused perplexity to conservatively-inclined contemporaries; he hated the \"phrase carrée\" – the unvaried four- or eight-bar phrase – and introduced new varieties of rhythm to his music. He explained his practice in an 1837 article: accenting weak beats at the expense of the strong, alternating triple and duple groups of notes and using unexpected rhythmic themes independent of the main melody. Macdonald writes that Berlioz was a natural melodist, but that his rhythmic sense led him away from regular phrase lengths; he \"spoke naturally in a kind of flexible musical prose, with surprise and contour important elements\". Berlioz's approach to harmony and counterpoint was idiosyncratic, and has provoked adverse criticism. Pierre Boulez commented, \"There are awkward harmonies in Berlioz that make one scream\". In Rushton's analysis, most of Berlioz's melodies have \"clear tonal and harmonic implications\" but the composer sometimes chose not to harmonise accordingly. Rushton observes that Berlioz's preference for irregular rhythm subverts conventional harmony: \"Classic and romantic melody usually implies harmonic motion of some consistency and smoothness; Berlioz's aspiration to musical prose tends to resist such consistency.\" The pianist and musical analyst Charles Rosen has written that Berlioz often sets the climax of his melodies in relief with the most emphatic chord a triad in root position, and often a tonic chord where the melody leads the listener to expect a dominant. He gives as an example the second phrase of the main theme – the \"idée fixe\" – of the \"Symphonie fantastique\", \"famous for its shock to classical sensibilities\", in which the melody implies a dominant at its climax resolved by a tonic, but in which Berlioz anticipates the resolution by putting a tonic under the climactic note. Even among those unsympathetic to his music, few deny that Berlioz was a master of orchestration. Richard Strauss wrote that Berlioz invented the modern orchestra. Some of those who recognise Berlioz's mastery of orchestration nonetheless dislike a few of his more extreme effects. The pedal point for trombones in the \"Hostias\" section of the Requiem is often cited; some musicians such as Gordon Jacob have found the effect unpleasant. Macdonald has questioned Berlioz's fondness for divided cellos and basses in dense, low chords, but he emphasises that such contentious points are rare compared with \"the felicities and masterstrokes\" abounding in the scores. Berlioz took instruments hitherto used for special purposes and introduced them into his regular orchestra: Macdonald mentions the harp, the cor anglais, the bass clarinet and the valve trumpet. Among the characteristic touches in Berlioz's orchestration singled out by Macdonald are the wind \"chattering on repeated notes\" for brilliance, or being used to add \"sombre colour\" to Romeo's arrival at the Capulets' vault, and the \"Chœur d'ombres\" in \"Lélio\". Of Berlioz's brass he writes:", "", "The first biography of Berlioz, by Eugène de Mirecourt, was published during the composer's lifetime. Holoman lists six other French biographies of the composer published in the four decades after his death. Of those who wrote for and against Berlioz's music in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, among the most outspoken were musical amateurs such as the lawyer and diarist George Templeton Strong, who called the composer's music variously \"flatulent\", \"rubbish\", and \"the work of a tipsy chimpanzee\", and, in the pro-Berlioz camp, the poet and journalist Walter J. Turner, who wrote what Cairns calls \"exaggerated eulogies\". Like Strong, Turner was, in the words of the music critic Charles Reid, \"unhampered by any excess of technical knowledge\". Serious studies of Berlioz in the 20th century began with Adolphe Boschot's \"L'Histoire d'un romantique\" (three volumes, 1906–1913). His successors were Tom S. Wotton, author of a 1935 biography, and Julien Tiersot, who wrote numerous scholarly articles on Berlioz and began the collection and editing of the composer's letters, a process eventually completed in 2016, eighty years after Tiersot's death. In the early 1950s", "Because few of Berlioz's works were often performed in the late-19th and early 20th centuries, widely accepted views of his music were based on hearsay rather than on the music itself. Orthodox opinion emphasised supposed technical defects in the music and ascribed to the composer characteristics that he did not possess. Debussy called him \"a monster... not a musician at all. He creates the illusion of music by means borrowed from literature and painting\". In 1904, in the second edition of \"Grove\", Henry Hadow made this judgment: By the 1950s the critical climate was changing, although in 1954 the fifth edition of \"Grove\" carried this verdict from Léon Vallas: Cairns dismisses the article as \"an astonishing anthology of all the nonsense that has ever been talked about [Berlioz]\", but adds that by the 1960s it seemed a quaint survival from a vanished age. By 1963 Cairns, viewing Berlioz's greatness as firmly established, felt able to advise anyone writing on the subject, \"Do not keep harping on the'strangeness' of Berlioz's music; you will no longer carry the reader with you. And do not use phrases like 'genius without talent', 'a certain strain of amateurishness', 'curiously uneven': they", "All of Berlioz's major works and most of his minor ones have been commercially recorded. This is a comparatively recent development. In the mid-1950s the international record catalogues listed complete recordings of seven major works: the \"Symphonie fantastique\", \"Symphonie funèbre et triomphale\", \"Harold in Italy\", \"Les Nuits d'été,\" \"Roméo et Juliette\", the Requiem and the Te Deum, and various overtures. Excerpts from \"Les Troyens\" were available but there were no complete recordings of the operas. Recordings conducted by Colin Davis are prominent in the Berlioz discography, some studio-made and others recorded live. The first was \"L'Enfance du Christ\" in 1960 and the last the Requiem in 2012. In between there were five", "Works Writings" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Creation and publication.", "Production History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The play comprises three acts: In \"Act I\" a poor but aristocratic young doctor named Harry Trench and his friend William Cokane are holidaying at Remagen on the Rhine. They encounter fellow travellers Mr Sartorius, a self-made businessman, and his daughter Blanche. Harry and Blanche fall in love and become engaged. \"Act II\" opens with everyone back at home in London. Sartorius, in talking to Mr Lickcheese, whom he employs as a rent-collector, reveals himself to be a slum landlord. He dismisses Lickcheese for dealing too leniently with tenants. Trench and Cokane arrive to visit, but when Trench discovers that Sartorius makes his money by renting slum housing to the poor, he is disgusted and refuses to allow Blanche to accept money from her father after they are married, insisting that they must live instead on Harry's small income. Following a bitter argument, they break up. Sartorius reveals that Trench's income depends on interest from mortgaged tenements, and is therefore as \"dirty\" as his own; but the lovers do not reconcile. Blanche utterly rejects Harry because of her wounded feelings. In \"Act III\", Trench, Cokane and Lickcheese return to Sartorius' house to plan a shady business venture. Trench, disillusioned and coarsened by knowing his income is tainted by its source, no longer takes the moral high ground. In the final scene, notable for its erotic tension, Harry and Blanche reunite.", "The play had originally been written in 1885 as a collaboration with William Archer; but the two fell out and this first attempt was abandoned. Shaw reorganised his fragments, and added a third act for the production, at the invitation of Jakub Grein. This is one of three plays Shaw published as \"Plays Unpleasant\" in 1898. They were termed \"unpleasant\" because they were intended, not to entertain their audiences – as traditional Victorian theatre was expected to – but to raise awareness of social problems and to censure exploitation of the labouring class by the unproductive rich. The other plays in the group are \"The Philanderer\" and \"Mrs. Warren's Profession\".", "The play was first performed at the Royalty Theatre by the Independent Theatre Society on 9 December 1892. The lead role was taken by W. J. Robertson. The play was performed in March 1907 in New York at the Herald Square Theatre. It was performed at the Shaw Festival in 2003. On 3 July 2011, a radio adaptation directed by Martin Jarvis was broadcast on BBC Radio 3 starring Ian McKellen as Sartorius, Charles Dance as William Cokane, Honeysuckle Weeks as Blanche, Dan Stevens as Harry Trench and Tim Pigott-Smith as Lickcheese. It was performed in New York City at Theatre Row in March 2016 in a production with The Actors Company Theater and Gingold Theatrical Group. The production was directed by David Staller." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early career.", "Deep Purple and solo.", "Notable collaborations and performances.", "Personal life.", "Gear.", "Painting and photography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Born near Brecon, Wales, Glover moved with his family to St Helens before settling in the South Kensington area of London, at the age of ten. Around that time his interests started to shift towards rock music, and by the time he was thirteen Glover began playing guitar. He later moved to the North London district of Pinner, and while at Harrow County School for Boys he formed his first band, Madisons, with a group of friends; in time this merged with a rival band to become Episode Six, a band which later featured Glover's future Deep Purple bandmate, vocalist Ian Gillan. The two left Episode Six in 1969 to join Deep Purple.", "Glover spent four years (1969–1973) with Deep Purple, during which the band saw their most successful releases in the albums \"in Rock\", \"Machine Head\", \"Who Do We Think We Are\" and the live album \"Made in Japan\". He is credited with developing the title for the band's iconic \"Smoke on the Water\" song, thus inspiring the song's lyrics which were written by Ian Gillan. Glover says the title came to him when he awoke from a dream two days after the famous fire over Lake Geneva. While he liked the title, he was reluctant to have the band use it because he initially thought it sounded like a drug song. Glover also developed the guitar riff to \"Maybe I'm a Leo\", stating, \"I wrote the riff to 'Maybe I'm a Leo' after hearing John Lennon's 'How Do You Sleep?'.\" Glover contributed bass on Jon Lord's first solo album, 'Gemini Suite' (1971), and was the featured soloist in the bass movement. Glover departed Deep Purple, along with Gillan, after the band's second tour of Japan in the summer of 1973. Throughout the 1970s Glover produced albums and/or singles by such acts as Judas Priest, Nazareth, Elf, Status Quo, the Ian Gillan Band and David Coverdale. In 1974 Glover released his first solo album, \"The Butterfly Ball and the Grasshopper's Feast\", which generated the single \"Love Is All\". The single did little in the U.K., but became an unexpected number one-hit song in the Netherlands and Belgium. The song came with an animated music video starring a guitar-playing frog. In 1978 Glover's second album followed: \"Elements\". From 1979 to 1984 he was the bassist, lyricist and producer for Ritchie Blackmore’s band, Rainbow, working on four of the group's studio albums. In 1983 he recorded his third solo album, \"Mask\", released the next year. When Deep Purple reformed in April 1984, Glover returned to his old band where he has remained for the last three decades. In 1988 Glover, along with fellow Deep Purple member Ian Gillan, recorded the side-project album \"Accidentally on Purpose\". Almost two decades later Glover played with Gillan during Gillan's brief solo tour in 2006. In 2002 Glover released his fourth post-DP album, entitled \"Snapshot\", under the name Roger Glover and the Guilty Party. The album featured performances from Randall Bramblett (who shared co-writing credits on several tracks) as well as Glover's daughter, Gillian. In 2011 he released his second Guilty Party album, \"If Life Was Easy\", which featured guest appearances by Nazareth's Dan McCafferty and Pete Agnew as well as Walther Gallay and Daniel \"Sahaj\" Ticotin.", "In 2001 Glover was among a host of bass players who contributed to Gov't Mule's double album \"The Deep End\", recorded as a tribute to the late Allen Woody, Mule's original bassist. Glover played on Deep Purple's \"Maybe I'm a Leo\", which was one of Woody's favourite songs. On 3 May 2003, in New Orleans, Glover also took part in a special concert performed by Gov't Mule featuring appearances from all bass players who had contributed to \"The Deep End\" album. On 7 October 2007 Glover joined his former bandmate Jon Lord to perform \"Concerto for Group and Orchestra\" at the Royal & Derngate in Northampton. The concert also featured the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Paul Mann. In 2008 Glover played bass on a charity single called \"Lucy's Song\", written and produced by David Domminney of Rogue Studios in London and available at iTunes. Income from the sale went to The Linda McCartney Cancer Centre (specifically to promote their Field of Women event which took place at Liverpool Cricket Club on 6 July 2008). On 21 March 2012 Ian Paice was playing a gig with the Deep Purple tribute band Purpendicular in Pratteln, Switzerland. The band received a surprise reinforcement as Roger Glover \"happened to be in the neighbourhood\" and joined them on stage.", "Glover has been married twice and has three daughters. The oldest, musician Gillian Glover (born 1976), is from his first marriage. He currently lives in Switzerland with his partner and their two daughters. In 2004 ITV Wales aired a TV special about Glover, entitled \"Roger Glover – Made in Wales\" (produced by Craig Hooper) which featured interviews from fellow musicians Ian Gillan and Ian Paice, as well as Glover's mother, Brenda, and his then-wife.", "Roger Glover played Fender Precision, Fender Mustang and Rickenbacker 4001 basses during his early years with Deep Purple. In late 1970s, he used a Gibson Thunderbird. In the mid-1980s Roger used Peavey Foundation with neck from Peavey Fury Bass. Since the mid-1990s, he has used Vigier Bass Guitars, SWR heads and cabinets, and Picato and Ernie Ball strings.", "On 22 October 2010 Roger Glover's artwork exhibition called \"Happy Silence\" opened at the K-8 e.V. Galerie in Cologne. Previously Glover has let many of his pictures be auctioned in other galleries for charitable purposes, but this was the first large-scale presentation of his work." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Marian apparitions.", "Early history.", "The crown ornament.", "The venerated image as artifact.", "Physical description.", "Technical analyses.", "Trans-religious significance.", "Cultural significance.", "Symbol of Mexico.", "Mexican culture.", "In literature and film.", "Catholic Church.", "Papal honors.", "Pious beliefs and devotions.", "Protection from damage.", "Other alleged supernatural qualities.", "Veneration." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Catholic accounts say that the Virgin Mary appeared four times before Juan Diego and once more before Juan Diego's uncle, Juan Bernardino. The first apparition occurred on the morning of December 9, 1531 (on the Julian calendar, which would be December 19 on the Gregorian calendar used today), when it is said that a native Mexican peasant named Juan Diego experienced a vision of a young woman at a place called the Hill of Tepeyac, which would become part of Villa de Guadalupe, in a suburb of Mexico City. According to the accounts, the woman, speaking to Juan Diego in his native Nahuatl language (the language of the Aztec Empire), identified herself as the Virgin Mary, \"mother of the very true deity\". She was said to have asked for a church to be built at that site in her honor. Based on her words, Juan Diego then sought out the archbishop of Mexico City, Fray Juan de Zumárraga, to tell him what had happened. Not unexpectedly, the bishop did not believe Diego, but on the same day Juan Diego saw the young woman for a second time (the second apparition). The story continues saying she then asked him to keep insisting. On Sunday, December 10, Juan Diego talked to the archbishop for a second time. The latter instructed him to return to Tepeyac Hill, and to ask the lady for a truly acceptable, miraculous sign to prove her identity. That same day, the third apparition occurred when Diego returned to Tepeyac and encountering the same woman, he reported back to her the bishop's request for a sign; she consented to provide one on the following day (December 11). By Monday, December 11, however, Juan Diego's uncle, Juan Bernardino, had fallen sick so Juan Diego was obliged to attend to him. In the very early hours of Tuesday, December 12, Juan Bernardino's condition having deteriorated overnight, Juan Diego set out to Tlatelolco to fetch a Catholic priest to hear Juan Bernardino's confession and help minister to him on his death-bed. In order to avoid being delayed by the Virgin and ashamed at having failed to meet her on the Monday as agreed, Juan Diego chose another route around the hill, but the Virgin intercepted him and asked where he was going (fourth apparition); Juan Diego explained what", "Following the Conquest in 1519–1521, the Spanish destroyed a temple of the mother goddess Tonantzin at Tepeyac outside Mexico City, and built a chapel dedicated to the Virgin on the same site. Tonantzin (the beloved mother of the gods) was celebrated around each winter solstice which occurred on different dates, the winter solstice of 1531 occurred on December 12, 1531 according to the UNAM. Even many of the newly converted to Catholicism natives then continued to come from afar to worship there, often addressing the renamed native image, as if she were the Virgin Mary, which they had known as their Tonantzin. What is purported by some to be the earliest mention of the miraculous apparition of the Virgin is a page of parchment, the \"Codex Escalada\", which was discovered in 1995 and, according to investigative analysis, dates from the sixteenth century. This document bears two pictorial representations of Juan Diego and the apparition, several inscriptions in Nahuatl referring to Juan Diego by his Aztec name, and the date of his death: 1548, as well as the year that the then named Virgin Mary appeared: 1531. It also contains the glyph of Antonio Valeriano; and finally, the signature of Fray Bernardino de Sahagun that was authenticated by experts from the Banco de Mexico and Charles E. Dibble. Scholarly doubts have been cast on the authenticity of the document, however. A more complete early description of the apparition occurs in a 16-page manuscript called the \"Nican mopohua\", which was acquired by the New York Public Library in 1880 and has been reliably dated in 1556. This document, written in Nahuatl, but in Latin script, tells the story of the apparitions and the supernatural origin of the image. It was probably composed by a native Aztec man, Antonio Valeriano, who had been educated by Franciscans. The text of this document was later incorporated into a printed pamphlet which was widely circulated in 1649. In spite of these documents, there are no written accounts of the Guadalupe vision by Catholic clergymen of the 16th century, as there ought to have been if the event had the Christian importance it is said to have had. In particular, the canonical account of the vision also features archbishop Juan de Zumárraga as a major player in the story, but, although Zumárraga was a prolific writer, there is nothing in his extant writings that can confirm the indigenous story. The written record that does exist suggests the Catholic clergy in 16th century Mexico were deeply divided as to the orthodoxy of the native beliefs springing up around the image of Our Lady of Guadalupe, with the Franciscan order (who then had custody of the chapel at Tepeyac) being strongly opposed to the outside groups, while the Dominicans supported it. The main promoter of the story and those native believers was the Dominican Alonso de Montúfar, who succeeded the Franciscan Juan de Zumárraga as archbishop of Mexico. In a 1556 sermon Montúfar commended popular devotion to \"Our Lady of Guadalupe,\" referring to a painting on cloth (the tilma) in the chapel of the Virgin Mary at Tepeyac, where certain miracles had also occurred. Days later, Fray Francisco de Bustamante, local head of the Franciscan order, delivered a sermon denouncing the native belief and believers. He expressed concern that the Catholic Archbishop was promoting a superstitious regard for an indigenous image: The devotion at the chapel... to which they have given the name Guadalupe was prejudicial to the Indians because they believed that the image itself worked miracles, contrary to what the missionary friars had been teaching them, and because many were disappointed when it did not. The next day Archbishop Montúfar opened an inquiry into the matter. At the inquiry, the Franciscans repeated their position that the image encouraged idolatry and superstition, and four witnesses testified to Bustamante's statement that the image was painted by an Indian, with one witness naming him \"the Indian painter Marcos\". This could refer to the Aztec painter Marcos Cipac de Aquino, who was active at that time. But \"if he did, he apparently did so without making a preliminary sketches – in itself then seen as a near-miraculous procedure... Cipac may well have had a hand in painting the Image, but only in painting the additions, such as the angel and moon at the Virgin's feet\", says Prof. Jody Brant Smith (referring to Philip Serna Callahan's examination of the tilma using infrared photography in 1979). Ultimately Archbishop Montúfar, himself a Dominican, decided to end Franciscan custody of the shrine. From then on the shrine was kept and served by diocesan priests under the authority of the archbishop. Moreover, Archbishop Montúfar authorized the construction of a much larger church at Tepeyac, in which the tilma was later mounted and displayed. The report of this 1556 inquiry is the most extensive documentation concerning the Virgin of Guadalupe from the 16th century, and it makes no mention of Juan Diego, the miraculous apparition, or any other element from the legend. In the late 1570s, the Franciscan historian Bernardino de Sahagún denounced the cult at Tepeyac and the use of the name \"Tonantzin\" or to call her Our Lady in a personal digression in his \"General History of the Things of New Spain\", in the version known as the Florentine Codex. At this place [Tepeyac], [the Indians] had a temple dedicated to the mother of the gods, whom they called Tonantzin, which means Our Mother. There they performed many sacrifices in honor of this goddess... And now that a church of Our Lady of Guadalupe is built there, they also called her Tonantzin, being motivated by those preachers who called Our Lady, the Mother of God, Tonantzin. While it is not known for certain where the beginning of Tonantzin may have originated, but this we know for certain, that, from its first usage, the word refers to the ancient Tonantzin. And it was viewed as something that should be remedied, for their having [native] name of the Mother of God, Holy Mary, instead of Tonantzin, but \"Dios inantzin\". It appears to be a Satanic invention to cloak idolatry under the confusion of this name, Tonantzin. Sahagún's criticism of the indigenous group seems to have stemmed primarily from his concern about a syncretistic application of the native name \"Tonantzin\" to the Catholic Virgin Mary. However, Sahagún often used the same name in his sermons as late as the 1560s. In the 16th century and probably continuing into the early 17th century, the image was modified by then adding the mandorla-shaped sunburst around the Virgin, the stars on her cloak, the Moon under her feet, and the angel with a folded cloth supporting her—as was determined by an infrared and ocular study of the tilma in 1979.", "The image had originally featured a 12-point crown on the Virgin's head, but this disappeared in 1887–88. The change was first noticed on February 23, 1888, when the image was removed to a nearby church. Eventually a painter confessed on his deathbed that he had been instructed by a clergyman to remove the crown. This may have been motivated by the fact that the gold paint was flaking off of the crown, leaving it looking dilapidated. But according to the historian David Brading, \"the decision to remove rather than replace the crown was no doubt inspired by a desire to'modernize' the image and reinforce its similarity to the nineteenth-century images of the Immaculate Conception which were exhibited at Lourdes and elsewhere... What is rarely mentioned is that the frame which surrounded the canvas was adjusted to leave almost no space above the Virgin's head, thereby obscuring the effects of the erasure.\" A different crown was installed to the image. On February 8, 1887, a Papal bull from Pope Leo XIII granted permission a Canonical Coronation of the image, which occurred on October 12, 1895. Since then the Virgin of Guadalupe has been proclaimed \"Queen of Mexico\", \"Patroness of the Americas\", \"Empress of Latin America\", and \"Protectress of Unborn Children\" (the latter two titles given by Pope John Paul II in 1999). Under this title, she was also proclaimed \"Heavenly Patroness of the Philippines\" on July 16, 1935 by Pope Pius XI both witnessed and signed by Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli, a designation he later rescinded on September 12, 1942 upon becoming Pope Pius XII. On March 25, 1966, Pope Paul VI presented a Golden Rose to the sacred image. Finally, under Pope John Paul II the move to beatify Juan Diego intensified. John Paul II took a special interest in non-European Catholics and saints. During his leadership, the Congregation for the Causes of Saints declared Juan Diego \"venerable\" (in 1987), and the pope himself announced his beatification on May 6, 1990, during a Mass at the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico City, declaring him \"protector and advocate of the indigenous peoples,\" with December 9 established as his feast day. At that time historians revived doubts as to the quality of the evidence regarding Juan Diego. The writings of bishop Zumárraga, into whose hands Juan purportedly delivered the miraculous image, did not refer to him or the event. The record of the 1556 ecclesiastical inquiry omitted him, and he was not mentioned in documentation before the mid-17th century. In 1996 the 83-year-old abbot of the Basilica of Guadalupe, Guillermo Schulenburg, was forced to resign following an interview published in the Catholic magazine \"Ixthus,\" in which he was quoted as saying that Juan Diego was \"a symbol, not a reality\", and that his canonization would be the \"recognition of a cult. It is not recognition of the physical, real existence of a person.\" In 1883 Joaquín García Icazbalceta, historian and biographer of Zumárraga, in a confidential report on the Lady of Guadalupe for Bishop Labastida, had been hesitant to support the story of the vision. He concluded that Juan Diego had not existed. In 1995, Father Xavier Escalada, a Jesuit whose four volume Guadalupe encyclopedia had just been published, announced the existence of a sheet of parchment (known as \"Codex Escalada\"), which bore an illustrated account of the vision and some notations in Nahuatl concerning the life and death of Juan Diego. Previously unknown, the document was dated 1548. It bore the signatures of Antonio Valeriano and Bernardino de Sahagún, which are considered to verify its contents. The codex was the subject of an appendix to the Guadalupe encyclopedia, published in 1997. Some scholars remained unconvinced, one describing the discovery of the Codex as \"rather like finding a picture of St. Paul's vision of Christ on the road to Damascus, drawn by St. Luke and signed by St. Peter.\"", "", "The portrait was executed on a fabric support of natural material constituted by two pieces (originally three) joined together. The join is clearly visible as a seam passing from top to bottom, with the Virgin's face and hands and the head of the angel on the left piece. It passes through the left wrist of the Virgin. The fabric is mounted on a large metal sheet to which it has been glued for some time. The image, currently set in a massive frame protected behind bullet-proof glass, hangs inclined at a slight angle on the wall of the basilica behind the altar. At this point, there is a wide gap between the wall and the sanctuary facilitating", "Neither the fabric (\"the support\") nor the image (together, \"the tilma\") has been analyzed using the full range of resources now available to museum conservationists. Four technical studies have been conducted so far. Of these, the", "Religious imagery of Our Lady of Guadalupe appears in Roman Catholic parishes, especially those with Latin American heritage. <section end=Alleged corruption in the Catholic Church transclusion/>In addition, due to the growth of Hispanic communities in the United States, religious imagery of Our Lady of Guadalupe has started appearing in some Anglican, Lutheran, and Methodist churches. Additionally, Our Lady of Guadalupe is venerated by some Mayan Orthodox Christians in Guatemala. The iconography of the Virgin is fully Catholic: Miguel Sánchez, the author of the 1648 tract \"Imagen de la Virgen María\", described her as the Woman of the Apocalypse", "", "\"Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe\" became a recognized symbol of Catholic Mexicans. Miguel Sánchez, the author in 1648 of the first published account of the vision, identified Guadalupe as \"Revelation's\" Woman of the Apocalypse, and said: ... this New World has been won and conquered by the hand of the Virgin Mary... [who had] prepared, disposed, and contrived her exquisite likeness in this, her Mexican land, which was conquered for such a glorious purpose, won that there should appear so Mexican an image. Throughout the", "Harringon argues that:The Aztecs... had an elaborate, coherent symbolic system for making sense of their lives. When this was destroyed by the Spaniards, something new was needed to fill the void and make sense of New Spain... the image of Guadalupe served that purpose. Hernán Cortés, the Conquistador who overthrew the Aztec Empire in 1521, was a native of Extremadura, home to Our Lady of Guadalupe. By the 16th century the Extremadura Guadalupe, a statue of the Virgin said to be carved by Saint Luke the Evangelist, was already a national icon. It was found at the beginning of the 14th century when the Virgin appeared to a humble shepherd and ordered him to dig at the site of the apparition. The recovered Virgin then miraculously helped to expel the Moors from Spain, and her small shrine evolved into the great Guadalupe", "One notable reference in literature to La Virgen of Guadalupe and her predecessor, the Aztec Earth goddess Tonantzin, is in Sandra Cisneros' short story \"Little Miracles, Kept Promises,\" from her collection \"Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories\" (1991). Cisneros' story is constructed out of brief notes that people give Our Lady of Guadalupe in thanks for favors received, which in Cisneros' hands becomes a portrait of an extended Chicano community living throughout Texas. \"Little Miracles\" ends with an extended narrative (pp. 124–129) of a feminist artist, Rosario \"Chayo\" de León, who at first didn't allow images of La Virgen de Guadalupe in her home because she associated her with subservience and", "", "Several Pontiffs have", "", "Catholic sources attest that the original image has many miraculous and supernatural properties, including that the tilma has maintained its structural integrity for approximately 500 years despite exposure to soot, candle wax, incense, constant manual veneration by devotees, the historical fact that the image was displayed without any protective glass for its first 115 years, while replicas normally endure for only circa 15 years before degrading,", "In 1929 and 1951 photographers said they found a figure reflected in the Virgin's eyes; upon inspection they said that the reflection was tripled in what is called the Purkinje effect, commonly found in human eyes. An ophthalmologist, Dr. Jose Aste Tonsmann, later enlarged an image of the Virgin's eyes by 2500x and said he found not only the aforementioned single figure, but images of all the witnesses present when the tilma was first revealed before Zumárraga in 1531, plus a small family group of mother,", "The shrine of the Virgin of Guadalupe is the most visited Catholic pilgrimage destination in the world. Over the Friday and Saturday of December 11 to 12, 2009, a record number of 6.1 million pilgrims visited the Basilica of Guadalupe in Mexico City to commemorate the anniversary of the apparition. The Virgin of Guadalupe is" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Classification.", "Signs and symptoms.", "Cause.", "Treatment.", "Epidemiology.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 2003, \"persistent genital arousal\" was considered for inclusion with regard to the International Consultation on Sexual Medicine (ICSM). In 2009, \"persistent genital arousal dysfunction\" was included in its third edition. PGAD is not included in the \"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\" (DSM-5) or the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10), which may be due to the disorder requiring further research. The condition has been characterized by a researcher as being a term with no scientific basis. There is concern that the title may be misleading because, since the genital arousal is unwanted, it is dubious to characterize it as arousal. Other researchers have suggested that the disorder be renamed \"persistent genital vasocongestion disorder (PGVD)\" or \"restless genital syndrome (ReGS).\"", "Physical arousal caused by PGAD can be very intense and persist for extended periods, days or weeks at a time. Symptoms include pressure, pain, irritation, clitoral tingling, throbbing, vaginal congestion, vaginal contractions, and sometimes spontaneous orgasms. Pressure, discomfort, pounding, pulsating, throbbing or engorgement may include the clitoris, labia, vagina, perineum, or the anus. The symptoms may result from sexual activity or from no identified stimulus, and are not relieved by orgasm except for cases where multiple orgasms over hours or days allow for relief. The symptoms can impede on home or work life. Women may feel embarrassment or shame, and avoid sexual relationships, because of the disorder. Stress can make the symptoms worse.", "Researchers do not know the cause of PGAD, but assume that it has neurological, vascular, pharmacological, and psychological causes. Tarlov cysts have been speculated as a cause. PGAD has been associated with clitoral priapism, and has been compared to priapism in men. It is also similar to vulvodynia, in that the causes for both are not well understood, both last for a long time, and women with either condition may be told that it is psychological rather than physical. It has been additionally associated with restless legs syndrome (RLS), but a minority of women with PGAD have restless legs syndrome. In some recorded cases, the syndrome was caused by or can cause a pelvic arterial-venous malformation with arterial branches to the clitoris. Surgical treatment was effective in this instance.", "Because PGAD has only been researched since 2001, there is little documenting what may cure or remedy the disorder. Treatment may include extensive psychotherapy, psycho-education, and pelvic floor physical therapy. In one case, serendipitous relief of symptoms was concluded from treatment with varenicline, a treatment for nicotine addiction.", "PGAD is very rare. Although online surveys have indicated that hundreds of women may have PGAD, documented case studies have been limited to about 22. No population data on the disorder exists.", "The earliest references to PGAD may be Greek descriptions of hypersexuality (previously known as \"satyriasis\" and \"nymphomania\"), which confused persistent genital arousal with sexual insatiability. While PGAD involves the absence of sexual desire, hypersexuality is characterized as heightened sexual desire. The term \"persistent sexual arousal syndrome\" was coined by researchers Leiblum and Nathan in 2001. In 2006, Leiblum renamed the condition to \"persistent genital arousal disorder\" to indicate that genital arousal sensations are different from those that result from true sexual arousal. The rename was also considered to give the condition a better chance of being classified as a dysfunction." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins and arrival in New Spain.", "\"Protector of the Indians\".", "Evangelization efforts.", "Later years." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Zumárraga was born in 1468 or 1469 of a noble family, in Durango in the Biscay province in Spain. He entered the Franciscan Order, and in 1527 was custodian of the convent of Abrojo. Shortly afterwards he was appointed one of the judges of the court for the examination of witches in the Basque province. From his writings it would appear that he looked upon witches merely as women possessed of hallucinations. By this time more detailed accounts of the importance of the conquest of Hernán Cortés began to be received, and on December 20, 1527, Zumárraga was recommended by Charles V for the post of first bishop of Mexico. Without having been consecrated and with only the title of bishop-elect and Protector of the Indians, he, accompanied by Fray Andrés de Olmos, left Spain with the first civil officials, magistrates (\"oidores\"), towards the end of August 1528, and reached Mexico on December 6. Thirteen days after, two of these judges, Alonso de Parada and Diego Maldonado, men of years and experience, died. Their companions, Juan Ortiz de Matienzo and Diego Delgadillo, assumed their authority, which was also shared by Nuño de Guzmán, who had come from his territories in the Pánuco Valley. Their administration was one of the most disastrous epochs in New Spain and one of great difficulty for Zumárraga.", "Although Zumárraga was appointed bishop on August 20, 1530, he was not consecrated until April 27, 1533. Zumárraga, as Protector of the Indians, endeavored to defend them. His position was a critical one; the Spanish monarchy had defined neither the extent of his jurisdiction nor his duties as Protector of the Indians. Moreover, he had not received official consecration as bishop, and was thus at a disadvantage when he attempted to exercise his authority. The Indians appealed to him as protector with all manner of complaints. His own Franciscans, who had so long labored for the welfare of the Indians, pressed him to put an end to the excesses of the auditors. It was clear that he must have had an open conflict with the civil officials of the colony, relying only on his spiritual prerogatives, which commanded no respect from these immoral and unprincipled men. Some members of other religious orders, perhaps envious of the influence of the Franciscans, upheld the persecution of the Indians. Bishop Zumárraga attempted to notify the Spanish court of the course of events, but the auditors had established a successful censorship of all letters and communications from New Spain. Finally, a Biscayne sailor concealed a letter in a cake of wax which he immersed in a barrel of oil. Meanwhile, news reached Mexico that Cortés had been well received at the Spanish court and was about to return to New Spain. Fearful of the consequences, Nuño de Guzmán left Mexico City on December 22, 1529, and began his famous expedition to Michoacán, Jalisco, and Sinaloa. The remaining auditors retained power and continued their outrages. In the early part of 1530 they dragged a priest and a former servant of Cortés from a church, quartered him and tortured his servant. Zumárraga placed the city under interdict, and the Franciscans retired to Texcoco. At Easter the interdict was lifted, but the auditors were excommunicated for a year. On July 15, 1530, Cortés, now titled Captain General of New Spain, reached Vera Cruz. The Crown appointed new auditors, among them Sebastián Ramírez de Fuenleal, Bishop of Santo Domingo, and the lawyer Vasco de Quiroga, who later became the first Bishop of Michoacán. In December of the same year, the new \"Audiencia\", the ensemble of auditors, reached Mexico and, with them, an era of peace for both Zumárraga and the Indians. Matienzo and Delgadillo were sent to Spain as prisoners, but Nuño de Guzmán escaped, being then absent in Sinaloa. Meantime the calumnies spread by the enemies of Zumárraga and the partisans of the first auditor had shaken the confidence of the Spanish Court, and he set sail in May 1532 under orders to return to Spain. On his arrival he met his implacable enemy Delgadillo, who, though still under indictment, continued his calumnies. As a result of Delgadillo's charges, Charles V held back the Bull of Clement VII, originally dated September 2, 1530, that would have named Zumárraga bishop. Zumárraga, however, had little difficulty vindicating his good name, and was consecrated bishop at Valladolid on April 27, 1533 by Diego Ribera de Toledo, Bishop of Segovia, with Francisco Zamora de Orello, Titular Bishop of \"Brefny\", and Francisco Solís, Bishop of Drivasto, as Co-Consecrators. After another year in Spain working for favourable concessions for the Indians, he reached Mexico in October 1534, accompanied by a number of mechanics and six female teachers for the Indian girls. He no longer held the title of Protector of the Indians, as it was thought that the new auditors would refrain from the abuses of prior regimes. On November 14, 1535, with the arrival of the first viceroy, Antonio de Mendoza, the rule of the new auditors ended. While bishop, he was the principal consecrator of Juan Lopez de Zárate, Bishop of Antequera, Oaxaca (1537); Francisco Marroquín Hurtado, Bishop of Santiago de Guatemala (1537); and Vasco de Quiroga, Bishop of Michoacán (1539).", "According to Fray Toribio de Benavente Motolinia, the number of baptized Indians in Mexico in 1536 was five million. The multitude of Indians who asked for baptism, said to have greatly increased after the apparition of Our Lady of Guadalupe in 1531, forced the missionaries to adopt a special form for administering this sacrament. The catechumens were arranged in order, with children in front. Prayers were recited in common over all, salt, saliva, etc., applied to a few, and then water was poured on the head of each without using the customary holy oils or chrism. The practice faced no opposition while the Franciscans were in charge of the missions, but as soon as members of other religious orders and some secular ecclesiastics arrived, doubt began to be cast upon the validity of these baptisms. To put an end to the dispute Bishop Zumárraga submitted the case to Rome, and on June 1, 1537, Pope Paul III issued the bull \"Altitudo divini consilii\", which declared that the friars had not sinned in administering baptism in this form, but decreed that in the future it should not be thus administered except in cases of urgent need. Another difficulty arose regarding marriage. The pre-Columbian religions had permitted polygyny and the taking of concubines, and when Natives were converted the question arose as to which were legitimate wives and which were concubines, and whether any of the marriages had been valid at all. The Franciscans knew that certain rites were observed for certain unions, and that in some cases, where separation or divorce was desired, it was necessary to obtain the consent of the authorities, while in other cases the consent of the interested parties sufficed. These customs, they argued, meant that there were valid marriages among the Indians. Others denied that this was the case. Bishop Zumárraga took part in all these discussions until the case was submitted to the Holy See. Pope Paul III decreed in the \"Altitudo\" that the converted Indians should keep the first woman wed as their wife. A third important difficulty concerned the position of the regular clergy (non-order affiliated) and their privileges. Adrian VI on May 9, 1522, issued the bull \"Exponi nobis fecisti\" to Charles V, in which he transferred his own Apostolic authority in all matters to the Franciscans and other mendicant orders when they judged it necessary for the conversion of the Indians, except for acts requiring episcopal consecration. This provision affected regions where there was no bishop, or where it required two or more days of travel to reach one. Pope Paul III confirmed the bull on January 15, 1535. The bishops found their authority much limited, and a series of assemblies followed in which Zumárraga with his customary prudence tried to arrive at an understanding with the regulars without openly clashing with them. Various modifications were adopted with the consent of the regulars on condition that these \"should not impair the privileges of the regulars\". The question therefore remained open. In 1535, Bishop Zumárraga received the title and powers of Apostolic Inquisitor of the diocese of Mexico from the Inquisitor General, Álvaro Manrique, Archbishop of Seville, including that of delivering criminals to the secular courts. He never availed himself of the title and did not establish the tribunal, although he did indict and deliver to the secular courts a lord of Texcoco, known as Don Carlos Ometochtzin Chichimecatecuhtli, accused of having \"reverted to idolatry\" and of offering human sacrifices. Meanwhile, Fray Las Casas had gone to Spain and obtained from the Junta of Valladolid (1541–1542) the approbation of the celebrated \"\"Nuevas Leyes\"\". These laws conclusively and decisively prohibited the enslavement of the Indians, withdrew all grants from all corporations, ecclesiastical and secular, and from those who were or had been Viceroys, governors, or employees of any description whatsoever; previous grants were reduced; Indians were taken from owners who had ill-treated them; all governors were deprived of the faculty to \"encomendar\" (a system of patents which permitted forced labor of the Indians); owners were compelled to live upon their own possessions; and in all newly discovered territory no grants could be made. Francisco Tello de Sandoval, commissioned to carry out the New Laws, reached Mexico on March 8, 1544. The gravest difficulties confronted him. Those affected by the new laws were almost all the Spaniards of the colony, many of them far advanced in years, who had passed through all the trying period of the conquest, and whom the new laws would leave in abject poverty. These had recourse to Bishop Zumárraga to intercede with Tello to obtain a suspension of the order until they could be heard before the Spanish Court. The representatives of the colonists found the emperor, Charles V, at Mechlin, on October 20, 1545. In virtue of the situation as explained to him, he modified the general tenor of the laws so that while still correcting the principal abuses, they would not bear too heavily on the Spaniards of the colony. Through the prudent intervention of Bishop Zumárraga and the compliance of Tello, Mexico was undoubtedly saved from a bloody civil struggle such as engulfed Peru on account of the enforcement of these same laws and from which the Indians emerged worse off than they were before.", "The last years of Bishop Zumárraga's life were devoted to carrying out the numerous works he had undertaken for the welfare of his diocese. Among the chief of these should be mentioned: the school for Indian girls; the famous \"Colegio de Santa Cruz\" in Tlatelolco; the introduction of the first printing press into the New World; the foundation of various hospitals, especially those of Mexico and Vera Cruz; the impetus he gave to industries, agriculture, and manufactures, for which he brought trained mechanics and labourers from Spain; and the printing of many books. At the instance of the emperor, Pope Paul III separated (February 11, 1546) the See of Mexico from the metropolitan See of Seville, and erected the Archdiocese of Mexico, appointing Bishop Zumárraga first archbishop and designating the dioceses of Oaxaca, Michoacán, Tlaxcala, Guatemala, and Ciudad Real de Chiapas, as suffragans. The Bull of appointment was sent on July 8, 1548, but Bishop Zumárraga had died one month previously. Bishop Zumarraga is also credited with chocolate becoming a popular drink among Europeans. A community of nuns in Oaxaca, after encountering a recipe of cocoa mixed with sugar, prepared it for the bishop. Prior to this, ground cocoa had not found a role in European diets." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Poll.", "Opposition to the poll.", "2012 Summer Olympics.", "Full list." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The poll resulted in nominees including Guy Fawkes, who was executed because of his role in the plot to blow up the Parliament of England; Oliver Cromwell, who created a republican England; Richard III, suspected of murdering his nephews; James Connolly, an Irish nationalist and socialist who was executed by the Crown, for his part in the 1916 Rising, an open rebellion to British rule in Ireland; and a surprisingly high ranking of 17th for actor and singer Michael Crawford (the second highest-ranked entertainer, after John Lennon). Diana, Princess of Wales was judged to be a greater historical figure than Isaac Newton, William Shakespeare, and Charles Darwin by BBC respondents to the survey. Michael Crawford was judged to be the greatest living British person. One of the more controversial figures to be included on the list was the occultist Aleister Crowley. His works had a direct influence on the rise in popular occultism and some forms of neopaganism in the 20th century. In addition to the Britons, some notable non-British entrants were listed, including two Irish nationals, the philanthropic musicians Bono and Bob Geldof. The top 19 entries were people of English origin (though Sir Ernest Shackleton and Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, were both born into Anglo-Irish families when what is now the Republic of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom). The highest-placed Scottish entry was Alexander Fleming in 20th place, and the highest Welsh entry was Owain Glyndŵr in 23rd place. Sixty had lived in the 20th century. The highest-ranked living person was Margaret Thatcher, placed 16th. Ringo Starr was the only member of The Beatles not on the list. Isambard Kingdom Brunel occupied the top spot in the polls for some time thanks largely to \"students from Brunel University who have been campaigning vigorously for the engineer for weeks.\" However, a late surge in the final week of voting put Churchill over the top. Of the top 100, 13 were women.", "There were no black Britons on the list, prompting a separate three-month survey to find 100 Great Black Britons. In 2004, two years after the 100 Greatest Britons list was voted on, Patrick Vernon created a similar poll exclusively for Black Britons with Mary Seacole named the greatest Black Briton.", "The opening and closing ceremonies of the 2012 Summer Olympics featured the two greatest Britons, Isambard Kingdom Brunel and Winston Churchill as main characters, played by Kenneth Branagh and Timothy Spall, each of them reading a monologue from William Shakespeare's \"The Tempest\". The ceremony also included a personal appearance by Tim Berners-Lee, who was placed 99th on the list. Although the BBC's original ranked list has been removed from their web server and what remains is only an alphabetical list of the Top 100, several other sources have preserved the original ranked list.", "There was some question as to whether the Richard Burton listed at No. 96 was the actor or the explorer. A BBC press release makes clear that the actor was intended." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early years.", "First successes.", "1930s.", "Second World War.", "Postwar.", "Last years.", "Legacy.", "Music.", "Orchestral music.", "Overtures and short orchestral pieces.", "Concertos and symphonies.", "Music for ballets, plays and films.", "Opera.", "Chamber works.", "Choral and other vocal music.", "Recordings." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Walton was born into a musical family in Oldham, Lancashire, the second son in a family of three boys and a girl. His father, Charles Alexander Walton, was a musician who had trained at the Royal Manchester College of Music under Charles Hallé, and made a living as a singing teacher and church organist. Charles's wife, Louisa Maria (\"née\" Turner), had been a singer before their marriage. William Walton's musical talents were spotted when he was still a young boy, and he took piano and violin lessons, though he never mastered either instrument. He was more successful as a singer: he and his elder brother sang in their father's choir, taking part in performances of large-scale works by Handel, Haydn, Mendelssohn and others. Walton was sent to a local school, but in 1912 his father saw a newspaper advertisement for probationer choristers at Christ Church Cathedral School in Oxford and applied for William to be admitted. The boy and his mother missed their intended train from Manchester to Oxford because Walton's father had spent the money for the fare in a local public house. Louisa Walton had to borrow the fares from a greengrocer. Although they arrived", "The Sitwells looked after their protégé both materially and culturally, giving him not only a home but a stimulating cultural education. He took music lessons with Ernest Ansermet, Ferruccio Busoni and Edward J. Dent. He attended the Russian ballet, met Stravinsky and Gershwin, heard the Savoy Orpheans at the Savoy Hotel and wrote an experimental string quartet heavily influenced by the Second Viennese School that was performed at a festival of new music at Salzburg in 1923. Alban Berg heard the performance and was impressed enough to take Walton to meet Arnold Schoenberg, Berg's teacher and the founder of the Second Viennese School. In 1923, in collaboration with Edith Sitwell, Walton had his first great success, though at first it was a \"succès de scandale\". \"Façade\" was first performed in public at the Aeolian Hall, London, on 12 June. The work consisted of", "In the 1930s, Walton's relationship with the Sitwells became less close. He had love affairs and new friendships that drew him out of their orbit. His first long affair was with Imma von Doernberg, the young widow of a German baron. She and Walton met in the late 1920s and they were together until 1934, when she left him. His later affair with Alice, Viscountess Wimborne (born 1880), which lasted from 1934 until her death in April 1948, caused a wider breach between Walton and the Sitwells, as she disliked them as much as they disliked her. By the 1930s, Walton was earning enough from composing to allow", "During the Second World War Walton was exempted from military service on the understanding that he would compose music for wartime propaganda films. In addition to driving ambulances (extremely badly, he said), he was attached to the Army Film Unit as music adviser. He wrote scores for six films during the war – some that he thought \"rather boring\" and some that have become classics such as \"The First of the Few\" (1942) and Laurence Olivier's adaptation of Shakespeare's \"Henry V\" (1944).", "In 1947, Walton was presented with the Royal Philharmonic Society's Gold Medal. In the same year he accepted an invitation from the BBC to compose his first opera. He decided to base it on Chaucer's \"Troilus and Criseyde\", but his preliminary work came to a halt in April 1948 when Alice Wimborne died. To take Walton's mind off his grief, the music publisher Leslie Boosey persuaded him to be a British delegate to a conference on copyright in Buenos Aires later that year. Walton's last work of the 1940s was his music for Olivier's film of \"Hamlet\" (1948). After that, he focused his attentions on his opera \"Troilus and Cressida\". On the advice of the", "Walton was never a facile or quick composer, and in his final decade, he found composition increasingly difficult. He repeatedly tried to compose a third symphony for André Previn, but eventually abandoned it. Many of his final works are re-orchestrations or revisions of earlier music. He orchestrated his song cycle \"Anon. in Love\" (originally for tenor and guitar), and at the request of Neville Marriner adapted his A minor String Quartet as a Sonata for Strings. One original work from this period was his \"Jubilate Deo\", premiered as one of several events to celebrate his seventieth birthday. The British prime minister, Edward Heath, gave a birthday dinner for Walton at 10 Downing Street, attended by royalty and Walton's most eminent", "In 1944, it was said of Walton that he summed up the recent past of English music and augured its future. Later writers have concluded that Walton had little influence on the next generation of composers. In his later years, Walton formed friendships with younger composers", "Walton was a slow worker. Both during composition and afterwards he would continually revise his music; he said, \"Without an india-rubber I was absolutely sunk.\" Consequently, his total body of work from his sixty-year career as a composer is not large. Between the first performance of \"Façade\" in 1923, for example, and that of the Sinfonia Concertante in 1928, he averaged only one small piece a year. Of his work as a whole, Byron Adams in \"Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians\" writes: The writer adds that Walton's allegiance to his basic style never wavered and that this loyalty to his own vision, together with his rhythmic vitality, sensuous melancholy, sly charm and orchestral flair, gives Walton's finest music \"an imperishable glamour\". Another biographer of Walton, Neil Tierney, writes that although contemporary critics felt that the post-war music did not match Walton's pre-war compositions, it has become clear that the later works are \"if emotionally less direct, more profound.\"", "", "Walton's first work for full orchestra, \"Portsmouth Point\" (1925), inspired by a Rowlandson print of the same name, depicts a rumbustious dockside scene (in Kennedy's phrase, \"the sailors of H.M.S. Pinafore have had a night on the tiles\") in a fast moving score full of syncopation and cross-rhythm that for years proved hazardous for conductors and orchestras alike. Throughout his career, Walton wrote works in this pattern, such as the lively Comedy Overture \"Scapino\", a virtuoso piece commissioned by the Chicago Symphony", "Walton's first successful large-scale concert work, the Viola Concerto (1929) is in marked contrast to the raucous \"Portsmouth Point\"; despite the common influence of jazz and of the music of Hindemith and Ravel, in its structure and romantic longing it owes much to the Elgar Cello Concerto. In this work, wrote Edward Sackville-West and Desmond Shawe-Taylor in \"The Record Guide\", \"the lyric poet in Walton, who had so far been hidden under a mask of irony, fully emerged.\" Walton followed this pattern in his two subsequent concertos, for Violin (1937) and for Cello (1956). Each opens reflectively, is in three movements, and contrasts agitated and jagged passages with warmer romantic sections. The", "Although generally a slow and perfectionist composer, Walton was capable of working quickly when necessary. Some of his stage and screen music was written to tight deadlines. He regarded his ballet and incidental music as of less importance than his concert works and was generally dismissive of what he produced. Of his ballets for Sadler's Wells, \"The Wise Virgins\" (1940) is an arrangement of eight extracts from choral and instrumental music by Bach. \"The Quest\" (1943), written in great haste, is, according to Grove, oddly reminiscent of Vaughan Williams. Neither of these works established itself in the regular repertoire, unlike the ballet score Walton arranged from the music of \"Façade\", the music for", "Walton worked for many years on his only full-length opera, \"Troilus and Cressida\", both before its premiere and afterwards. It has never been regarded as a success. The libretto is generally considered weak, and Walton's music, despite many passages that have won critical praise, is not dramatic enough to sustain interest. Grove", "Apart from an early experiment in atonalism in his String Quartet (1919–22), which he later described as \"full of undigested Bartók and Schoenberg\", Walton's major essays in chamber music are his String Quartet in A Minor (1945–46) and the Sonata for Violin and Piano (1947–49). In the opinion of Adams in \"Grove's Dictionary\", the quartet is one of Walton's supreme achievements. Earlier critics did not always share this view. In 1956 \"The Record Guide\" said, \"[T]he material", "Walton's liturgical compositions include the \"Coronation Te Deum\" (1952), \"Missa brevis\" (1966), \"Jubilate Deo\" (1972), and \"Magnificat\" and \"Nunc dimittis\" (1974), and the anthems \"A Litany\" (1916) and \"Set me as a seal upon thy heart\" (1938). One of the best-known and most frequently performed of Walton's works is the cantata \"Belshazzar's Feast\". Written for large orchestra, chorus and baritone soloist, it intersperses a choral", "From the days of 78 rpm discs, when relatively little modern music was being put on record, Walton was favoured by the record companies. In 1929 the small, new Decca company recorded eleven movements from \"Façade\", with the composer conducting a chamber ensemble, with the speakers Edith Sitwell and Walton's friend and colleague Constant Lambert. In the 1930s, Walton also had two of his major orchestral works on disc, both on Decca, the First Symphony recorded by Harty and the London Symphony Orchestra, and the Viola Concerto with Frederick Riddle and the LSO conducted by the composer. In the 1940s Walton moved from Decca to its older, larger rival, EMI. The EMI producer Walter Legge arranged a series of recordings of Walton's major works and many" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Signs and symptoms.", "Cause.", "Bacteria.", "Viruses.", "Fungi.", "Parasites.", "Noninfectious.", "Mechanisms.", "Bacterial.", "Viral.", "Diagnosis.", "Prevention.", "Vaccination.", "Medications.", "Other.", "Management.", "Bacterial.", "Viral.", "Aspiration.", "Follow-up.", "Prognosis.", "Clinical prediction rules.", "Pleural effusion, empyema, and abscess.", "Respiratory and circulatory failure.", "Epidemiology.", "Children.", "History.", "Society and culture.", "Awareness.", "Costs." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "People with infectious pneumonia often have a productive cough, fever accompanied by shaking chills, shortness of breath, sharp or stabbing chest pain during deep breaths, and an increased rate of breathing. In elderly people, confusion may be the most prominent sign. The typical signs and symptoms in children under five are fever, cough, and fast or difficult breathing. Fever is not very specific, as it occurs in many other common illnesses and may be absent in those with severe disease, malnutrition or in the elderly. In addition, a cough is frequently absent in children less than 2 months old. More severe signs and symptoms in children may", "Pneumonia is due to infections caused primarily by bacteria or viruses and less commonly by fungi and parasites. Although there are more than 100 strains of infectious agents identified, only a few are responsible for the majority of cases. Mixed infections with both viruses and bacteria may occur in roughly 45% of infections in children and in 15% of infections in adults. A causative agent may not be isolated in about half of cases despite careful testing. The term \"pneumonia\" is sometimes more broadly applied to any condition resulting in inflammation of the lungs (caused for example by autoimmune diseases, chemical burns or drug reactions); however, this inflammation is more accurately referred to as pneumonitis. Factors that predispose to pneumonia include smoking, immunodeficiency, alcoholism, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, sickle cell disease (SCD), asthma, chronic kidney disease, liver disease, and old age. Additional risks in children include not being breastfed, exposure to cigarette smoke and other air pollution, malnutrition, and poverty. The use of acid-suppressing medications – such as proton-pump inhibitors or H2 blockers – is associated with an increased risk of pneumonia. Approximately 10% of people who require mechanical ventilation develop ventilator-associated pneumonia, and people with a gastric feeding tube have an increased risk of developing aspiration pneumonia. For people with certain variants of the FER gene, the risk of death is reduced in sepsis caused by pneumonia. However, for those with TLR6 variants, the risk of getting Legionnaires' disease is increased.", "Bacteria are the most common cause of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), with \"Streptococcus pneumoniae\" isolated in nearly 50% of cases. Other commonly isolated bacteria include \"Haemophilus influenzae\" in 20%, \"Chlamydophila pneumoniae\" in 13%, and \"Mycoplasma pneumoniae\" in 3% of cases; \"Staphylococcus aureus\"; \"Moraxella catarrhalis\"; and \"Legionella pneumophila\". A number of drug-resistant versions of the above infections are becoming more common, including drug-resistant \"Streptococcus", "In adults, viruses account for about one third of pneumonia cases, and in children for about 15% of them. Commonly implicated agents include rhinoviruses, coronaviruses, influenza virus, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), adenovirus, and parainfluenza. Herpes simplex virus rarely causes pneumonia, except in groups such as: newborns, persons with cancer, transplant recipients, and people with significant burns. After organ", "Fungal pneumonia is uncommon, but occurs more commonly in individuals with weakened immune systems due to AIDS, immunosuppressive drugs, or other medical problems. It is most often caused by \"Histoplasma capsulatum\", \"Blastomyces\", \"Cryptococcus neoformans\", \"Pneumocystis jiroveci\" (pneumocystis pneumonia, or PCP), and", "A variety of parasites can affect the lungs, including \"Toxoplasma gondii\", \"Strongyloides stercoralis\", \"Ascaris lumbricoides\", and \"Plasmodium malariae\". These organisms typically enter the body through direct contact with the skin, ingestion, or via an insect vector. Except for \"Paragonimus westermani\", most parasites do not specifically affect the lungs but", "Idiopathic interstitial pneumonia or noninfectious pneumonia is a class of diffuse lung diseases. They include diffuse alveolar damage, organizing pneumonia, nonspecific interstitial pneumonia, lymphocytic interstitial", "Pneumonia frequently starts as an upper respiratory tract infection that moves into the lower respiratory tract. It is a type of pneumonitis (lung inflammation). The normal flora of the upper airway give protection by competing with pathogens for nutrients. In the lower airways, reflexes of the glottis, actions of complement proteins and immunoglobulins are important for protection. Microaspiration of contaminated secretions can infect the lower airways and cause pneumonia. The progress of pneumonia is determined by the virulence of the organism; the amount of organism required to start an infection; and the body's immune response against the infection.", "Most bacteria enter the lungs via small aspirations of organisms residing in the throat or nose. Half of normal people have these small aspirations during sleep. While the throat always contains bacteria, potentially infectious ones reside there only at certain times and under certain conditions. A minority of types of bacteria such as \"Mycobacterium tuberculosis\" and \"Legionella pneumophila\"", "Viruses may reach the lung by a number of different routes. Respiratory syncytial virus is typically contracted when people touch contaminated objects and then they touch their eyes or nose. Other viral infections occur when contaminated airborne droplets are inhaled through the mouth or nose. Once in the upper airway, the viruses may make their way in the lungs, where they invade the cells lining the", "Pneumonia is typically diagnosed based on a combination of physical signs and a chest X-ray. In adults with normal vital signs and a normal lung examination the diagnosis is unlikely. However, the underlying cause can be difficult to confirm, as there is no definitive test able to distinguish between bacterial and non-bacterial origin. The overall impression of a physician appears to be at least as good as decision rules for making or excluding the diagnosis. The World Health Organization has defined pneumonia in children clinically based on either a cough or difficulty breathing and a rapid respiratory rate, chest indrawing, or a decreased level of consciousness. A rapid respiratory rate is defined as greater than 60 breaths per minute in children under 2 months old, greater than 50 breaths per minute in children 2 months to 1 year old, or greater than 40 breaths per minute in children 1 to 5 years old. In children, low oxygen levels and lower chest indrawing are more sensitive than hearing chest crackles with a stethoscope or increased respiratory rate. Grunting and nasal flaring may be other useful signs in children less than five years old. Lack of wheezing is an indicator of \"Mycoplasma pneumoniae\" in children with pneumonia, but as an indicator it is not accurate enough to decide whether or not macrolide treatment should be used. The presence of chest pain in children with pneumonia doubles the probability of \"Mycoplasma pneumoniae\". In general, in adults, investigations are not needed in mild cases. There is a very low risk of pneumonia if all vital signs and auscultation are normal. C-reactive protein (CRP) may help support the diagnosis. For those with CRP less than 20 mg/L without convincing evidence of pneumonia, antibiotics are not recommended. Procalcitonin may help determine the cause and support who should receive antibiotics. Antibiotics is encouraged if procalcitonin level reaches 0.25 μg/L, strongly encouraged if it reaches 0.5 μg/L, and strongly discouraged if the level is below 0.10 μg/L. In persons requiring hospitalization, pulse oximetry, chest radiography and blood tests – including a complete blood count, serum electrolytes, C-reactive protein level, and possibly liver function tests – are recommended. The diagnosis of influenza-like illness can be made based on the signs and symptoms; however, confirmation of an influenza infection requires testing. Thus, treatment is frequently based on the presence of influenza in the community or a rapid influenza test.", "Prevention includes vaccination, environmental measures and appropriate treatment of other health problems. It is believed that, if appropriate preventive measures were instituted globally, mortality among children could be reduced by 400,000; and, if proper treatment were universally available, childhood deaths could be decreased by another 600,000.", "Vaccination prevents against certain bacterial and viral pneumonias both in children and adults. Influenza vaccines are modestly effective at preventing symptoms of influenza, The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends yearly influenza vaccination for every person 6 months and older. Immunizing health care workers decreases the risk of viral pneumonia among their people. Vaccinations against \"Haemophilus influenzae\" and \"Streptococcus pneumoniae\" have good evidence to support their use. There is strong evidence for vaccinating children under the age of 2 against \"Streptococcus pneumoniae\" (pneumococcal conjugate vaccine). Vaccinating children against \"Streptococcus pneumoniae\" has led to a decreased rate of these infections in", "When influenza outbreaks occur, medications such as amantadine or rimantadine may help prevent the condition; however are associated with side", "Smoking cessation and reducing indoor air pollution, such as that from cooking indoors with wood, crop residues or dung, are both recommended. Smoking appears to be the single biggest risk factor for pneumococcal pneumonia in otherwise-healthy adults. Hand hygiene and coughing into one's sleeve may also be effective preventative measures. Wearing surgical masks by the sick may also prevent illness. Appropriately treating underlying illnesses (such as HIV/AIDS, diabetes mellitus, and malnutrition) can decrease the risk of pneumonia. In children less than 6 months of age, exclusive breast feeding reduces both the risk and severity of disease. In those with HIV/AIDS and a CD4 count of less than 200 cells/uL the antibiotic trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole decreases the risk of \"Pneumocystis pneumonia\" and is also useful for prevention in those that are immunocomprised but do not have HIV. Testing pregnant women for Group B Streptococcus and \"Chlamydia trachomatis\",", "Antibiotics by mouth, rest, simple analgesics, and fluids usually suffice for complete resolution. However, those with other medical conditions, the elderly, or those with significant trouble breathing may require more advanced care. If the symptoms worsen, the pneumonia does not improve with home treatment, or complications occur, hospitalization may be required. Worldwide, approximately 7–13% of cases in children result in hospitalization, whereas in the developed world between 22 and 42% of adults with community-acquired pneumonia are admitted. The CURB-65 score is useful for determining the need for admission in adults. If the score is 0 or 1, people can typically be managed at home; if it is 2, a short hospital stay or close follow-up is needed; if it is 3–5, hospitalization is recommended. In children those with respiratory distress or oxygen saturations of less than 90% should be hospitalized. The utility of chest physiotherapy in pneumonia has not yet been determined. Over-the-counter cough medicine has not been found to be effective, nor has the use of zinc in children. There is insufficient evidence for mucolytics. There is no strong evidence to recommend that children who have non-measles related pneumonia take vitamin A supplements. Vitamin D, as of 2018 is of unclear benefit in children. Pneumonia can cause severe illness in a number of ways, and pneumonia with evidence of organ dysfunction may require intensive care unit admission for observation and specific treatment. The main impact is on the respiratory and the circulatory system. Respiratory failure not responding to normal oxygen therapy may require heated humidified high-flow therapy delivered through nasal cannulae, non-invasive ventilation, or in severe cases invasive ventilation through an endotracheal tube. With regards to circulatory problems as part of sepsis, evidence of poor blood flow or low blood pressure is initially treated with 30 ml/kg of crystalloid infused intravenously. In situations where fluids alone are ineffective, vasopressor medication may be required. For adults with moderate or severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) undergoing mechanical ventilation, there is a reduction in mortality when people lay on their front for at least 12 hour a day. However, this increases the risk of endotracheal tube obstruction and pressure sores.", "Antibiotics improve outcomes in those with bacterial pneumonia. First dose of antibiotics should be given as soon as possible. Increased use of antibiotics, however, may lead to the development of antimicrobial resistant strains of bacteria. Antibiotic choice depends initially on the characteristics of the person affected, such as age, underlying health, and the location the infection was acquired. Antibiotic use is also associated with side effects such as nausea, diarrhea, dizziness, taste distortion, or headaches. In the UK, treatment before culture results with amoxicillin is recommended as the first line for community-acquired pneumonia, with doxycycline or clarithromycin as alternatives. In North America, amoxicillin, doxycycline, and in some areas a macrolides (such as azithromycin or erythromycin) is first-line outpatient treatment in adults. In children with mild or moderate symptoms, amoxicillin taken by mouth is the first line. The use of fluoroquinolones in uncomplicated cases is discouraged due to concerns about side-effects and generating resistance in light of there being no greater benefit. For those who require hospitalization and caught their pneumonia in the community the use of a β-lactam such as cephazolin plus macrolide such as azithromycin is recommended. A fluoroquinolone may replace azithromycin but is less preferred. Antibiotics", "Neuraminidase inhibitors may be used to treat viral pneumonia caused by influenza viruses (influenza A and influenza B). No specific antiviral medications are recommended for other types of community acquired viral pneumonias including SARS coronavirus, adenovirus, hantavirus, and parainfluenza virus. Influenza A may be treated with rimantadine or amantadine, while influenza A or B may be treated", "In general, aspiration pneumonitis is treated conservatively with antibiotics indicated only for aspiration pneumonia. The choice of antibiotic will depend on several factors, including the suspected causative organism and", "The British Thoracic Society recommends that a follow-up chest radiograph is taken in people with", "With treatment, most types of bacterial pneumonia will stabilize in 3–6 days. It often takes a few weeks before most symptoms resolve. X-ray finding typically clear within four weeks and mortality is low (less than 1%). In the elderly or people with other lung problems, recovery may take more than 12 weeks. In persons requiring hospitalization, mortality may be as high as 10%, and in those requiring intensive care it may reach 30–50%. Pneumonia is the most common hospital-acquired infection that causes death. Before the advent of antibiotics, mortality was typically 30% in those that were hospitalized. However, for those whose lung condition deteriorates within 72 hours, the problem is usually due to sepsis. If pneumonia deteriorates after 72 hours, it could be due to nosocomial infection or excerbation of other underlying co-morbidities. About 10% of those discharged from hospital are readmitted due to underlying co-morbidities such as heart, lung, or neurology disorders, or due to new onset of pneumonia. Complications may occur in particular in the elderly and those with underlying health problems. This may include, among others: empyema, lung abscess, bronchiolitis obliterans, acute respiratory distress syndrome, sepsis, and worsening of underlying health problems.", "Clinical prediction rules have been developed to more objectively predict outcomes", "In pneumonia, a collection of fluid may form in the space that surrounds the lung. Occasionally, microorganisms will infect this fluid, causing an empyema. To distinguish an empyema from the more common simple parapneumonic effusion, the fluid may be collected with a needle (thoracentesis), and examined. If this shows evidence of empyema, complete drainage of the fluid is necessary, often requiring a drainage catheter. In severe cases of empyema, surgery may be needed. If the", "Pneumonia can cause respiratory failure by triggering acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), which results from a combination of infection and inflammatory response. The lungs quickly fill with fluid and become stiff. This stiffness, combined with severe difficulties extracting oxygen due to the alveolar fluid, may", "Pneumonia is a common illness affecting approximately 450 million people a year and occurring in all parts of the world. It is a major cause of death among all age groups resulting in 4 million deaths (7% of the world's total death) yearly. Rates are greatest in children less than five, and adults older than 75 years. It occurs about five times more frequently in the developing world than in the developed world. Viral pneumonia accounts for about 200 million cases. In the United States, as of 2009, pneumonia is the 8th leading cause of death.", "In 2008, pneumonia occurred in approximately 156 million children (151 million in the developing world and 5 million in the developed world). In 2010, it resulted in 1.3 million deaths, or 18% of all deaths in those under five years, of which 95% occurred in the developing world. Countries with the greatest burden of disease include India (43 million), China", "Pneumonia has been a common disease throughout human history. The word is from Greek πνεύμων (pneúmōn) meaning \"lung\". The symptoms were described by Hippocrates (c. 460–370 BC): \"Peripneumonia, and pleuritic affections, are to be thus observed: If the fever be acute, and if there be pains on either side, or in both, and if expiration be if cough be present, and the sputa expectorated be of a blond or livid color, or likewise thin, frothy, and florid, or having any other character different from the common... When pneumonia is at its height, the case is beyond remedy if he is not purged, and it is bad if he has dyspnoea, and urine that is thin and acrid, and if sweats come out about the neck and head, for such sweats are bad, as proceeding from the suffocation, rales, and the violence of the disease which is obtaining the upper hand.\" However, Hippocrates referred to pneumonia as a disease \"named by the ancients\". He also reported the results of surgical drainage of empyemas. Maimonides (1135–1204 AD) observed: \"The basic symptoms that occur in pneumonia and that are never lacking are as follows: acute fever, sticking pleuritic pain in the side, short rapid breaths, serrated pulse and cough.\" This clinical description is quite similar to those found in modern textbooks,", "", "Due to the relatively low awareness of the disease, 12 November was declared as", "The global economic cost of community-acquired pneumonia has been estimated at $17 billion annually. Other estimates are considerably higher. In 2012 the estimated aggregate costs of treating pneumonia in the United States were $20 billion; the median cost of a single pneumonia-related hospitalization is over" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Conquests.", "West Indies.", "Mexico.", "Peru.", "Río de la Plata and Paraguay.", "New Granada.", "Governance.", "Organization and administration of empire.", "Early institutions of governance.", "Spanish Law and indigenous peoples.", "Council of the Indies.", "Viceroyalties.", "Audiencias, the High Courts.", "Civil administrative districts.", "Ecclesiastical organization.", "Cabildos or town councils.", "Frontier institutions – presidio and mission.", "19th century.", "Demographic impact." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The Catholic Monarchs Isabella of Castile, Queen of Castile and her husband King Ferdinand, King of Aragon, pursued a policy of joint rule of their kingdoms and created a single Spanish monarchy. Even though Castile and Aragon were ruled jointly by their respective monarchs, they remained separate kingdoms. The Catholic Monarchs gave official approval for the plans of Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus for a voyage to reach India by sailing West. The funding came from the queen of Castile, so the profits from Spanish expedition flowed to Castile. In the extension of Spanish sovereignty to its overseas territories, authority for expeditions of discovery, conquest, and settlement resided in the monarchy.", "Columbus made four voyages to the West Indies as the monarchs granted Columbus the governorship of the new territories, and financed more of his trans-Atlantic journeys. He founded La Navidad on the island later named Hispaniola (now divided into Haiti and the Dominican Republic), in what is the present-day Haiti on his first voyage. After its destruction by the indigenous Taino people, the town of Isabella was begun in 1493, on his second voyage. In 1496 his brother, Bartholomew, founded Santo Domingo. By 1500, despite a high death rate, there were between 300 and 1000 Spanish", "The Spanish conquest of Mexico is generally understood to be the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire (1519–21) which was the base for later conquests of other regions. Later conquests were protracted campaigns with less spectacular results than the conquest of the Aztecs. The Spanish conquest of Yucatán, the Spanish conquest of Guatemala, the war of Mexico's west, and the Chichimeca War in northern Mexico expanded Spanish control over territory and indigenous populations. But not until the Spanish conquest of Peru was the conquest of the Aztecs matched in scope by the victory over the Inca empire in 1532. The Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire was led by Hernán Cortés. The victory over the Aztecs was", "In 1532 at the Battle of Cajamarca a group of Spaniards under Francisco Pizarro and their indigenous Andean Indian auxiliaries native allies ambushed and captured the Emperor Atahualpa of the Inca Empire. It was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting to subdue the mightiest empire in the Americas. In the following years Spain extended its rule over the Empire of the Inca civilization.", "European explorers arrived in Río de la Plata in 1516. Their first Spanish settlement in this zone was the Fort of Sancti Spiritu established in 1527 next to the Paraná River. Buenos Aires, a permanent colony, was established in 1536 and in 1537 Asunción was established in the area that is now Paraguay. Buenos Aires suffered attacks by the indigenous peoples", "Between 1537 and 1543, six Spanish expeditions entered highland Colombia, conquered the Muisca Confederation, and set up the New Kingdom of Granada (). Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada was the leading conquistador with his brother Hernán second in command. It was governed by the president of the Audiencia of Bogotá, and comprised an", "", "The empire in the Indies was a newly established dependency of the kingdom of Castile alone, so crown power was not impeded by any existing cortes (i.e. parliament), administrative or ecclesiastical institution, or seigneurial group. The crown sought to establish and maintain control over its overseas possessions through a complex, hierarchical bureaucracy, which in many ways was decentralized. The crown asserted is authority and sovereignty of the territory and vassals it claimed, collected taxes, maintained public order, meted out justice, and established policies for governance of large indigenous populations. Many institutions", "The crown relied on ecclesiastics as important councilors and royal officials in the governance of their overseas territories. Archbishop Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca, Isabella's confessor, was tasked with reining in Columbus's independence. He strongly influenced the formulation of colonial policy under the Catholic Monarchs, and was instrumental in establishing the Casa de Contratación (1503), which enabled crown control over trade and immigration. Ovando fitted out Magellan's voyage of circumnavigation, and became the first President of the Council of the Indies in 1524. Ecclesiastics also functioned as administrators overseas in the early Caribbean period, particularly Frey Nicolás de Ovando, who was sent to investigate the administration of Francisco de Bobadilla, the governor appointed to succeed Christopher Columbus. Later ecclesiastics served as interim viceroys, general inspectors (visitadores), and other high posts. The crown established control over trade and emigration to the Indies with the 1503 establishment the Casa de Contratación (House of Trade) in Seville. Ships and cargoes were registered, and", "The protection of the indigenous populations from enslavement and exploitation by Spanish settlers were established in the Laws of Burgos, 1512–1513. The laws were the first codified set of laws governing the behavior of Spanish settlers in the Americas, particularly with regards to treatment of native Indians in the institution of the encomienda. They forbade the maltreatment of natives, and endorsed the Indian Reductions with attempts of conversion to Catholicism. Upon their failure to effectively protect the indigenous and following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire and the Spanish conquest of Peru, more stringent laws to control conquerors' and settlers' exercise of power, especially their maltreatment of the indigenous populations, were promulgated, known as the New Laws (1542). The crown aimed to prevent the formation of an aristocracy in", "In 1524 the Council of the Indies was established, following the system of system of Councils that advised the monarch and made decisions on his behalf about specific matters of government. Based in Castile, with the assignment of the governance of the Indies, it was thus responsible for drafting legislation, proposing the appointments to the King for civil government as well as ecclesiastical appointments, and pronouncing judicial sentences; as maximum authority in the overseas territories, the Council of the Indies took over both the institutions", "The impossibility of the physical presence of the monarch and the necessity of strong royal governance in The Indies resulted in the appointment of viceroys (\"vice-kings\"), the direct representation of the monarch, in both civil and ecclesiastical spheres. Viceroyalties were the largest territory unit of administration in the civil and religious spheres and the boundaries of civil and ecclesiastical governance coincided by design, to ensure crown control over both bureaucracies. Until the eighteenth century, there were just two viceroyalties, with the Viceroyalty of New", "The Audiencias were initially constituted by the crown as a key administrative institution with royal authority and loyalty to the crown as opposed to conquerors and first settlers. Although constituted as the highest judicial authority in their territorial jurisdiction, they also had executive and legislative authority, and served as the executive on an interim basis. Judges (\"oidores\") held \"formidable power. Their role in judicial affairs and in overseeing the implementation of royal legislation made their decisions important for the communities they served.\" Since their appointments were for life or the pleasure of the monarch, they had a continuity of power and authority that viceroys and captains-general lacked because of their shorter-term appointments. They were the \"center of the administrative system [and] gave the government of the Indies a strong basis of permanence and continuity.\" Their main function was judicial, as a court of justice of second instance —court of appeal— in penal and civil matters, but also the Audiencias were", "During the early era and under the Habsburgs, the crown established a regional layer of colonial jurisdiction in the institution of Corregimiento, which was between the Audiencia and town councils. Corregimiento expanded \"royal authority from the urban centers into the countryside and over the indigenous population.\" As with many colonial institutions, corregimiento had its roots in Castile when the Catholic Monarchs centralize power over municipalities. In the Indies, corregimiento initially functioned to bring control over Spanish settlers who exploited the indigenous populations held in encomienda, in order to protect the shrinking indigenous populations and prevent the", "During the early colonial period, the crown authorized friars of Catholic religious orders (Franciscans, Dominicans, and Augustinians) to function as priests during the conversion of indigenous populations. During the early Age of Discovery, the diocesan clergy in Spain was poorly educated and considered of a low moral standing, and the Catholic Monarchs were reluctant to allow them to spearhead evangelization. Each order set up networks of parishes in the various regions (provinces), sited in existing Indian settlements, where Christian churches were built and where evangelization of the indigenous was based. However, after the 1550s, the crown increasingly favored the diocesan clergy over the religious orders since the diocesan clergy was under the direct authority of the crown, while religious orders were with their own internal regulations and leadership. The crown had authority to draw the boundaries for dioceses and parishes. The creation of the ecclesiastical hierarchy with priests who not members", "Spanish settlers sought to live in towns and cities, with governance being accomplished through the town council or \"Cabildo\". The cabildo was composed of the prominent residents (\"vecinos\") of the municipality, so that governance was restricted to a male elite, with majority of the population exercising power. Cities were governed on the same pattern as in Spain and in the Indies the city was the framework of Spanish life. The cities were Spanish and the countryside indigenous. In areas of previous indigenous empires with settled populations, the crown also melded existing indigenous rule into a Spanish pattern, with the establishment of cabildos and the participation of indigenous elites as officials holding Spanish titles. There were a variable number of councilors (\"regidores\"), depending on the size of the town, also two municipal judges (\"alcaldes menores\"), who were judges of first instance, and also other officials as police chief, inspector of supplies, court clerk, and a public herald.", "As the empire expanded into areas of less dense indigenous populations, the crown created a chain of presidios, military forts or garrisons, that provided Spanish settlers protection from Indian attacks. In Mexico during the sixteenth-century Chichimec War guarded the transit of silver from the mines of Zacatecas to Mexico City. As many as 60 salaried soldiers were garrisoned in presidios. Presidios had a resident commanders, who set up commercial enterprises of imported merchandise, selling it to soldiers as well as Indian allies. The other frontier institution was the religious mission to convert the indigenous populations. Missions were established with royal authority through the Patronato real. The Jesuits were effective missionaries in frontier areas until their expulsion from Spain and its empire in 1767. The Franciscans took over some former Jesuit missions and continued the expansion of areas incorporated into the empire. Although their primary focus was on religious conversion, missionaries served", "During the Napoleonic Peninsular War in Europe between France and Spain, assemblies called \"juntas\" were established to rule in the name of Ferdinand VII of Spain. The Libertadores (Spanish and Portuguese for \"Liberators\") were the principal leaders of the Spanish American wars of independence. They were predominantly \"criollos\" (Americas-born people of European ancestry, mostly Spanish or Portuguese), bourgeois and influenced by liberalism and in some cases with military training in the mother country. In 1809 the first declarations of independence from Spanish rule occurred in the Viceroyalty of Peru. The first two were in the Alto Perú, present-day Bolivia, at Charcas (present day Sucre, May 25), and La Paz (July 16); and the third in present-day Ecuador at Quito (August 10). In 1810 Mexico declared independence, with the Mexican War of Independence following for over a decade. In 1821 Treaty of Córdoba established Mexican independence from Spain and concluded the War. The Plan of Iguala was part of the peace treaty to establish a constitutional foundation for an independent Mexico. These began a movement for colonial independence that spread to Spain's other colonies in the Americas. The ideas from the French and the American Revolution influenced the efforts. All of the colonies, except Cuba and Puerto Rico, attained independence by the 1820s. The British Empire offered support, wanting to end the Spanish monopoly on trade with its colonies in the Americas. In 1898, the United States achieved victory in the Spanish–American War with Spain, ending the Spanish colonial era. Spanish possession and rule of its remaining colonies in the Americas ended in that year with its sovereignty transferred to the United States. The United States took occupation of Cuba, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico continues to be a possession of the United States, now officially continues as a self-governing unincorporated territory.", "It has been estimated that over 1.86 million Spaniards emigrated to Latin America in the period between 1492 and 1824, with millions more continuing to immigrate following independence. In Hispaniola, the indigenous Taíno pre-contact population before the arrival of Columbus of several hundred thousand had declined to sixty thousand by 1509. The population of the Native American population in Mexico declined by an estimated 90% (reduced to 1–2.5 million people) by the early 17th century. In Peru, the indigenous Amerindian pre-contact population of around 6.5 million declined to 1 million" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Availability.", "Cracking.", "Effectiveness." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The electric immobiliser/alarm system was invented by St. George Evans and Edward Birkenbuel and patented in 1919. They developed a 3x3 grid of double-contact switches on a panel mounted inside the car so when the ignition switch was activated, current from the battery (or magneto) went to the spark plugs allowing the engine to start, or immobilizing the vehicle and sounding its horn. The system settings could be changed each time the car was driven. Modern immobiliser systems are automatic, meaning the owner does not have to remember to activate it. Immobilisers have been mandatory in all new cars sold in Germany since 1 January 1998, in the United Kingdom since 1 October 1998, in Finland since 1998, in Australia since 2001 and in Canada since 2007. Early models used a static code in the ignition key (or key fob) which was recognised by an RFID loop around the lock barrel and checked against the vehicle's engine control unit (ECU) for a match. If the code is unrecognised, the ECU will not allow fuel to flow and ignition to take place. Later models use rolling codes or advanced cryptography to defeat copying of the code from the key or ECU. The microcircuit inside the key is activated by a small electromagnetic field which induces current to flow inside the key body, which in turn broadcasts a unique binary code which is read by the automobile's ECU. When the ECU determines that the coded key is both current and valid, the ECU activates the fuel-injection sequence. In some vehicles, attempts to use an unauthorised or \"non-sequenced\" key cause the vehicle to activate a timed no-start condition and in some highly advanced systems, even use satellite or mobile phone communication to alert a security firm that an unauthorised attempt was made to code a key. Coincidentally, this information is often recorded in modern automobile ECUs, which may record many other variables including speed, temperature, driver weight, geographic location, throttle position and yaw angle. This information can be used during insurance investigations, warranty claims or technical troubleshooting.", "Add-on immobilisers are available for older cars or vehicles that do not come equipped with factory immobilisers. The insurance approval for a self-arming immobiliser is known as \"Thatcham 2\" after the Motor Insurance Repair Research Centre in Thatcham, England. Approved immobilisers must intercept at least two circuits; typically the low-voltage ignition circuit and the fuel pump circuit. Some may also intercept the low-current starter motor circuit from the key switch to the relay. Statistics in Australia show that three out of four vehicle thefts are older cars stolen for joyriding, transport, or to commit another crime. Immobilisers are fitted to around 45% of all cars in Australia, but account for only 7% of those cars that are stolen. In many instances where a vehicle fitted with an immobiliser has been stolen, the thief had access to the original key. Only around one in four stolen vehicles are stolen by professional thieves. The majority of vehicles are stolen by opportunistic thieves relying on finding older vehicles that have ineffective security or none at all. Honda was the first motorcycle manufacturer to include immobilisers on its products in the 1990s. In September 2007, a Transport Canada regulation mandated the installation of engine immobilisers in all new lightweight vehicles and trucks manufactured in Canada.", "Numerous vulnerabilities have been found in the immobilisers designed to protect modern cars from theft. Many vehicle immobilisers use the Megamos-chip, which has been proven to be crackable. The Megamos transponder is one of many different transponders found in today's immobiliser systems and also comes in many different versions. Hacking of an immobiliser in the real world would be performed on the vehicle, not on the key. It would be faster to program a new key to the vehicle than to try to clone the existing key, especially on modern vehicles. Some immobiliser systems tend to remember the last key code for so long that they may even accept a non-transponder key even after the original key has been removed from the ignition for a few minutes.", "A 2016 study in the \"Economic Journal\" finds that the immobiliser lowered the overall rate of car theft by about 40% between 1995 and 2008. The benefits in terms of prevented thefts are at least three times higher than the costs of installing the device." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Design.", "Controversy.", "Performance.", "Service.", "Variants.", "Survivors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The driving force in the development of the Challenger was William Arthur Robotham. \"Roy\" Robotham had been a Rolls-Royce executive in the car division who, with no work to do, had led a team to develop a tank powerplant from the Rolls-Royce Merlin aircraft engine. The Rolls-Royce Meteor gave the British a powerful, reliable engine, which was used in the A27M Cruiser Mk VIII Cromwell tank. Robotham's contributions gained him a place in the Ministry of Supply and on the Tank Board, despite his lack of experience in tank design. The General Staff brought forward specification A29 for a 45 ton, 17 pounder-armed cruiser tank based on needs identified in the African desert campaign. British tanks were generally underarmed compared to German vehicles. The design weight of this vehicle was subsequently seen as excessive and the specification was passed over in favour of the alternate specification, A30, which was lighter. In 1942, an order for the development of an A30 based tank was placed with Birmingham Railway Carriage and Wagon Company (BRC&W) expecting it to be based on the Cromwell components also being manufactured by BRC&W. The turret and gun mounting were in the hands of Stothert & Pitt. Birmingham Carriage had to modify the Cromwell hull to take a bigger turret. The first prototype was ready in August 1942, only seven months after development had commenced, but proved to be very flawed. An improved second prototype was presented in January 1943 but was still considered unacceptable. A committee met to determine whether a requirement for a 17-pounder tank existed. The Challenger had been developed in anticipation of more heavily armoured Axis tanks, following the trend in Nazi German tank design. At roughly the same time the Tiger 1 entered service with the German army, placing an immediate need for a 17-pounder armed tank in response. When the second prototype was tested at Lulworth, it was found that although it would be effective at long range against the current best-gunned tank in German service (the Panzer IV \"Special\" with the long gun), at shorter ranges it would be at a disadvantage due to its slow firing rate and thin armour. The design received additional emphasis when, in May 1943, it was found in that the Cromwell could not carry its intended armament. Vickers had been developing a L 50 calibre high velocity tank gun. It was realised late in the design process that the Cromwell's turret ring was too small for this gun. The Challenger would be the only British cruiser tank to mount a weapon that could tackle heavier German armour until the arrival of the A34 Comet. Therefore already in February 1943 an order was made of two hundred vehicles. British tank production was constrained by limited resources and insufficient numbers could be made. This was compensated by American production. In the lead up to D-Day, Sherman tanks were fitted with the 17 pounder, creating the interim 17 pounder Sherman Firefly. Converting Sherman tanks was simpler than producing Challengers, so it was decided in November 1943 to terminate the A30 production run after the two hundred vehicles had been built, allowing BRC&W to concentrate on the Cromwell. At the same time the A 40 \"Challenger Stage II\" project was cancelled, which had envisaged a 36 tonne type with heavier armour. Future design priority was concentrated on the A34 Comet, which eventually replaced the Cromwell, Firefly and Challenger. Challenger production started in March 1944. That year 145 vehicles were delivered with another 52 in 1945. Production was in two batches. A first run of forty vehicles had a 40 mm gun mantlet; with the second batch this was replaced by a 102 mm mantlet. From the hundredth vehicle onwards appliqué 25 mm armour plates were fitted on the turret, that had already been applied to existing vehicles by field units. The tank was rendered obsolete when the Vickers HV 75 mm gun was developed to become the (actually 3 inch = 76.2 mm calibre) to arm the Comet tank. The used the same projectiles as the 17 pounder with a reduced propellant charge. The 17 pounder gun was reintroduced briefly on earlier marks of the Comet's successor, the Centurion tank.", "The turret mounted the Ordnance QF 17-pounder gun required in the Tank Board specification and the hull machine gun was removed to provide stowage space for the long 17-pounder cartridges. The War Office expected that this larger ammunition, together with its stowage forward, would require two loaders, which raised the turret crew to four, the commander, gunner, loader 1 and loader 2. To fit the larger weapon \"and\" additional crewman in the turret, a much larger turret than that of the Cromwell was specified, developed separately, which had a significant effect on the design and was not resolved until later development of Avenger. To carry the weight of the 17-pounder and ammunition, an extra wheel station and suspension arm was needed, lengthening the hull. This change in length, without a corresponding change in width across the tracks, reduced mobility compared to the Cromwell, although speed remained high at 25 mph. To limit the weight, the amount of armour was reduced but this could only be achieved on the turret, on the front and on the sides compared to and on the Cromwell. The turret did not use a conventional turret ring: to increase the aperture diameter with four inches, it rested on a ball mount on the hull floor. As therefore the base of the turret was unprotected, and it would cantilever when struck by enemy rounds, a jacking feature, with four internal semi-automatic jacks, was fitted to clear jams. The additional length allowed larger hatches to be fitted in the hull while still clearing the turret, providing easier access than Cromwell.", "Upon Robotham's appointment as Chief Engineer to the Department of Tank Design, the lack of progress on an (A29) 17-pounder armed tank could not adequately be explained. Robotham's memoirs indicate a lack of awareness that any such requirement existed within the department and military users were still unsure whether the tank was required at the point when the rushed A30 design had been completed and prototype vehicles run. The Challenger was then rushed into production alongside existing production runs of Cromwell, limiting the number of tanks that could be produced. The dubious reliability of earlier British tank designs, along with limited manufacturing capacity, led to a joint mission to the US to explore US tank options and share design experiences learned from action. Consequently, British and other Commonwealth forces introduced a much larger contingent of US-made vehicles, each using dual purpose 75 mm guns with reduced anti-armour capability (US doctrine placed artillery as the primary anti-tank weapon, while tanks used the dual-purpose gun to fire high-explosive shells at un-armoured targets). Cromwells carrying the 6-pounder had been delayed in design and the move to cancel Challenger while switching Cromwell to the dual purpose 75 mm gun (with a corresponding drop in anti-armour performance) left British and other Commonwealth forces without a main-force tank weapon capable of taking on the equivalent generation of Axis tanks. The lack of firepower was keenly felt by tank crews fighting heavier armed and sometimes more heavily armoured, Axis tanks. The Firefly was used as a stop-gap, which was only resolved, much later, with the A34 Comet. While Comet improved significantly upon both Cromwell and Challenger designs, its design and production followed that of the Cromwell and was delayed much longer than an equivalent production (and evolution) of Challenger.", "The 17-pounder gun mounted on the Challenger offered sufficient performance against the majority of German AFVs, including the Tiger I and Panther tank and had a higher top speed and cross country mobility than the Panzer IV or StuG III. The armour of the Challenger offered very little protection against contemporary German anti-tank guns and was lower than that of the Cromwell, which often operated with Challengers. In combat, the Challenger fulfilled much the same role as the Sherman Firefly, providing overwatch for the other tanks in the troop, as its 17-pounder could penetrate almost all German AFVs frontally, unlike the 75 mm. It was deployed in a similar manner at a troop level, this was typically one 17-pounder armed tank (such as Challenger or Firefly) to three 75 mm armed tanks (Cromwells or Shermans); at times, the deployment of 17-pounder armed tanks was increased to two per troop. The Challenger was based on the reliable Cromwell tank, which used the new Rolls-Royce Meteor engine, which was far more reliable and powerful than the ageing Liberty engine used in earlier British Cruiser designs like the Crusader tank. Its reliability was slightly below that of the Cromwell, as a problem was experienced with track throwing, caused by mud building up in the wheels but this was resolved in the field. Supply and maintenance were vastly simplified through the use of common parts with the Cromwell. In comparison with the Firefly, the tank lacked the sloping forward armour but presented a lower profile and avoided the Firefly's constraint on gun depression. The Challenger provided 10° of gun depression while Firefly was limited to 5°, which was significant disadvantage in combat. It was preferred within Cromwell units as it shared similar mobility and manoeuvrability, whereas the Firefly was slower. Despite a lower design weight than the earlier A29 specification, the Challenger was heavy and required dockyard equipment to ship, making it impractical to use in amphibious assaults, such as the D-day landings.", "No provision was made for deep wading, before the design went into production; as a result, the A30 could not be landed in the initial phase of the Allied invasion of Normandy. Challenger crews had to wait until July 1944, when Mulberry harbours were operational and ports had been captured. The Challenger and Firefly, equipped with 17-pounder, were added to tank squadrons to deal with opposing heavy tanks and many Challengers were issued to reconnaissance units using Cromwells. It was initially used by the Guards Armoured Division and the 11th Armoured Division, with about sixteen vehicles in each unit. The latter division phased the type out from February 1945 onwards, while it was being introduced to the Cromwell units of the 7th Armoured Division. The tank was unpopular at first, with crews complaining about the lack of armour, the high silhouette and the tracks being thrown. The track problem was caused by the smaller idler wheels compared to the Cromwell; these were in August replaced by idlers with a standard diameter. Troops used to the low profile of the Crusader and Cromwell found the height a serious problem, although it was still shorter than the comparable Sherman Firefly. Confidence in the vehicle grew and it became preferred over the Firefly, being lower, faster and more manoeuvrable but the early bad reputation persisted with others. Allied forces were issued with the Challenger, the 1st Polish Armoured Division receiving several in mid-1945 and the 1st Czechoslovak Armoured Brigade used it during the siege of Dunkirk in late 1944. After the war, the Czechoslovak government purchased 22 Challengers from the brigade inventory, which served in the Czechoslovak army (first with the 11th, later 23rd, Tank Brigade and then with the 13th Independent Tank Battalion) until they were put in reserve in 1951 and scrapped in 1959.", "A30 Avenger SP2 or SP 17pdr, A30 (Avenger) was a development of Challenger to be used as a self-propelled gun. It removed the second loader's position and featured a much lower profile turret and lower superstructure on the hull. An additional stowage bin was provided on the glacis plate for a large camo net and return rollers were added to the tracks. Avenger featured a permanent opening in the turret roof covered with an armoured cover supported a few inches above. This provided the commander and loader with full 360 degree visibility. As many as 500 vehicles appear to have been planned and 230 vehicles were ordered from BRC&W, but this dropped to 80 with the end of the war. It is not known how many were actually built; the SP2 nomenclature indicates its production with the Valentine Archer (SP1) and Alecto (SP3). Avenger suffered in trials as the engine had to remain running to run the turret traverse motor, because the noise and exhaust could give the vehicle away. Winter trials in a prolonged stationary position also failed in comparison with Archer, when Avenger's steering failed. Both vehicles had problems with camouflage. The vehicle was dropped from trials in 1950, along with removal of Achilles, its US derived equivalent. While the Avenger was only used for trials and was ultimately unsuccessful as a self-propelled artillery piece, in comparison with the purpose built vehicles, it provides an interesting example of what could have been possible for the Challenger tank had it not been forced to accommodate the second loader and larger turret during the tank design. This is highlighted in Robotham's memoirs, indicating that it may have been corrected had design effort not moved to the Comet.", "Two vehicles survive, one at the Overloon War Museum in the Netherlands, acquired from the Muzeeaquarium Delfzijl in 1976; the other was awaiting restoration at the Isle of Wight Military Museum in the United Kingdom until its closure. Once restored, it will be displayed at the Bovington Tank Museum." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Depictions." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "\"Mandorla\" is Italian for the almond nut, to which shape it refers. It may be elliptical or depicted as a vesica, a lens shape as the intersection of two circles. Rhombic mandorlas are also sometimes depicted. In icons of the Eastern Orthodox Church, the mandorla is used to depict sacred moments that transcend time and space, such as the Resurrection and the Transfiguration of Jesus Christ and the Dormition of the Theotokos. These mandorla often are painted in several concentric bands of different color, which become darker in progression to the center of the mandorla. This accords with the church's use of apophatic theology, as described by Dionysius the Areopagite and others: as holiness increases, only increasing darkness can depict the luminance and brightness thereof. In architectural iconography, the frame of the mandorla is often marked with decorative mouldings. The interior of the mandorla is usually undecorated, but may contain the symbols for Alpha and Omega (Α and Ω) or, less frequently, depictions of a starry sky or clouds. In a famous Catholic Romanesque fresco of Jesus Christ in Glory in Sant Climent de Taüll, the scriptural inscription \"Ego Sum Lux Mundi\" (\"I Am the Light of the World\") is incorporated in the mandorla design. The tympanum at Conques has Christ, with a gesture carved in Romanesque sculpture, indicate the angels at his feet bearing candlesticks. Six surrounding stars that resemble blooming flowers, indicate the planets that were known at the time, including the Moon. Here the symbolism evokes Christ as the Sun. In one special case, at Cervon (Nièvre), Jesus Christ is seated and surrounded by eight stars that resemble blooming flowers. At Conques the flowers are six-petalled. At Cervon, where the almond motif is repeated in the rim of the mandorla, they are five-petalled, as are true almond flowers, which are the first flowers to bloom after Winter, even before vernation of the leaves of the tree. The symbolism of the nine-branched Chanukkiyah candelabrum may be relevant. In the 12th century a great school of Judaic thought radiated from Narbonne, coinciding with the origins of the Kabbalah. Furthermore, at Cervon the eight stars/flowers only are six-petalled: the \"Root of David\", the \"Morningstar\", mentioned in the end of the \"Book of Revelation\" (22: 16). (In one of the oldest manuscripts of the complete Hebrew Bible, the \"Leningrad Codex\", the Star of David is embedded in an octagon.) In the symbolism of Saint Hildegard of Bingen OSB the mandorla symbolizes the Cosmos." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "\"Mezquita Abdallah\".", "Religious Groups." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Islam was largely introduced to Cuba during the colonial times (the late sixteenth century to the nineteenth century). This introduction, though, was not from colonists, but from Muslim Western African slaves who arrived in Cuba. Between 1808 and 1848, 49.4% (20,654) of the enslaved Muslim Africans who were captured and brought to the Americas arrived in Cuba, and many more who lack proper documentation have been suggested to have arrived. The majority of these slaves were Mandingo from Senegambia or, as the British colonists called them, Mohammedanists. Many different groups of Africans arrived in Cuba in the nineteenth century and joined with the Mandingas because of a jihad in Western Africa. Little formal records exist on the impact of Islam on Cuba in the colonial times, but the Registry of the Court of Mixed Commission of Havana does confirm the Muslim African slaves' arrival in Cuba by documented records which included a unique number to each individual, sex, name, age, height, and from which the slaves came. Also, evidence pointing to African origins of Islam in Cuba comes from the many Islamic names found by scholars, such as Henry Lovejoy, belonging to these slaves, such as Mohammed, Hausa, and Nupe. In 2011, Islam scholars also analyzed the different names found on the records from the Mixed Commission Courts of Havana to identify the names of Muslim and Arabic origin. It's been reported that there was more than 5,000 Muslims in Cuba before 1959 but most (around 80 percent) emigrated after the Cuban Revolution. Cuban Muslims learned Islam through embassies of Middle Eastern countries as well as through students coming to study in Cuba from Muslim countries. Islam started to spread among Cubans in the 1970s and '80s. Printed and audio-visual Islamic resources are now almost nonexistent in Cuba. Spanish translation of the Quran and other major Islamic books are not available in the country. The Muslim community of Cuba even lacks educated religious cadres.", "There is now a masjid in Old Havana open to everyone for all daily prayers. Elsewhere, Cuba's Muslims usually pray in their homes. Although former President Fidel Castro was reported to have promised to build a mosque for his country's Muslims, according to members of the Humanitarian Aid Foundation (IHH) who visited Cuba. In the past, the only prayers performed in public were the Friday Prayers that were conducted in a place known as Casa de los Árabes (\"The Arab House\") in old Havana. The Arab House belonged to a wealthy Arab immigrant who lived in Cuba during the 1940s, and it was built on Andalusian architectural designs. The House encompasses an Arab museum and restaurant. Qatar donated US$40,000 for the remodeling of the House, but it was only opened for Friday prayers.", "There are two Islamic groups in Cuba: the Cuban Islamic Union, which is headed by its president, Imam Yahya Pedro, and Cuban Association for the Diffusion of Islam, which is headed by its president, Abu Duyanah. Other Sunnis are concentrated in the Malcolm X Center, in the home of the Muslim Hassan AbdulGafur, in Cerro, in Havana. Hassan AbdulGafur was the first to form an Islamic organization in Cuba in 1994." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early and personal life.", "Ski jumping career.", "2006/07 World Cup.", "2007/08 World Cup.", "2008/09 World Cup.", "2009/10 World Cup.", "2010/11 World Cup.", "2011/12 World Cup.", "2012/13 World Cup.", "2017/18 World Cup.", "2018/19 World Cup." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Gregor Schlierenzauer was born on 7 January 1990 in Innsbruck, Tyrol, to Paul and Angelika Schlierenzauer. The second of three children, he has an older sister, Gloria, and a younger brother, Lukas. His uncle is Markus Prock, the winner of three Winter Olympic medals in men's luge, who settled him a contract with Fischer Skis in 2001 and a few years later with Red Bull. Schlierenzauer is deaf in the left ear from birth. He is also the cousin of luger Hannah Prock. At age eight, Schlierenzauer began training in ski jumping at SV Innsbruck–Bergisel club. He attended an ordinary Austrian grammar school, however, due to tight schedules in both sport and school, he had problems keeping up with his class work. Schlierenzauer then enrolled at Skigymnasium Stams in Austria, the world's oldest ski-sport training center and boarding secondary school. He currently resides in Fulpmes, Tyrol. Schlierenzauer began competing professionally in the 2005/06 season in the Continental Cup, then only fifteen years old. In February 2006, he won the gold medal at the Junior World Championships in Kranj, Slovenia and then Alex Pointner, the coach of the Austrian professional team, called him to compete in the World Cup. Schlierenzauer debuted in the World Cup finishing in 24th place at the Holmenkollen Ski Festival on 12 March 2006.", "", "On 3 December 2006, Schlierenzauer took his first World Cup victory in Lillehammer, Norway, and became one of the youngest jumpers to ever win in Lillehammer. He also won in Oberstdorf, Germany, at the Four Hills Tournament 2006/07. During the Four Hills Tournament, Finnish newspapers claimed that Schlierenzauer was extremely underweight, however, no evidence has ever been found to substantiate this accusation. He won the fourth competition, in Bischofshofen, Austria, on his 17th birthday, but finished the tournament in second place, behind Anders Jacobsen (Norway), and in front of Simon Ammann (Switzerland). Schlierenzauer took fourth place in World Cup 2006/07. He was second, but Adam Małysz from Poland ended up taking the first-place position from Anders Jacobsen, so Schlierenzauer finished third. His coach deemed the event in Planica too demanding for 17-year-old Schlierenzauer, so he did not compete there and ended finishing fourth, behind Adam Małysz, Anders Jacobsen and Simon Ammann.", "At the beginning of the World Cup 2007/08, Schlierenzauer took 2nd place on the World Cup list, behind his teammate Thomas Morgenstern. He also took 2nd place in Oberstdorf,Germany, during the Four Hills Tournament 2007/08. He won 1st place in Garmisch-Partenkirchen,Germany. He took 8th place at the competition in Bischofshofen which was originally to be held in Innsbruck but was moved due to strong winds. He was one of the favorites for the tournament, but, due to variable weather conditions, arrived only in 42nd position in the first series and did not enter the second series. At the end of the Four Hills Tournament, he ended up in 12th place. He skipped the competitions in Predazzo, where Tom Hilde from Norway took his first World Cup victory, and in Harrachov. On 25 January 2007, Schlierenzauer took his second World Cup victory in Zakopane, Poland. He also skipped the competition in Sapporo, ruining his chance to take the first-place position from his Austrian teammate Thomas Morgenstern. After two-second-place finishes in Liberec and an eighth-place finish in Willingen, he took part in the FIS Ski Flying World Championships in Oberstdorf in 2008. After four series of competing, he won the gold medal, on 23 February 2008. The next day, on 24 February, the Austrian team, composed of (Schlierenzauer-Thomas Morgenstern-Koch-Kofler) won gold in the team competition. He also took part in the 2008 Nordic Tournament. He took the second and fourth place at the two competitions in Kuopio and in Lahti which was moved to Kuopio because of bad weather). Winning at the competitions in Lillehammer and Oslo, he won the 2008 Nordic Tournament. After consecutively winning the last four individual competitions of the season, Schlierenzauer ranked second overall in the 2007/08 World Cup, 233 points behind his teammate Thomas Morgenstern. In March 2008, he improved the Austrian national record on flying hills to 233.5 meters, which was also the longest jump of Planica 2008 ski jumping events.", "On 11 February 2009, Schlierenzauer became only the fourth jumper to win 6 consecutive World Cup events, tying the record held by Austrian teammate Thomas Morgenstern and Finns Janne Ahonen and Matti Hautamäki. The run of victories came to an end in Oberstdorf during the ski flying event on 14 February, when Schlierenzauer arrived in 8th position. On 21 February he won silver in the individual normal hill event at the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 2009 in Liberec behind fellow Austrian and Four Hills winner Wolfgang Loitzl. One week later, Schlierenzauer won gold in the team large hill event. He returned to winning ways in individual competition on 8 March at Lahti, Finland, taking his number of wins to 11 for that season, one victory shy of Janne Ahonen's record of 12 wins in one season. On 20 March he won the ski flying event at Planica, taking his number of wins to 13 for the season record, record of 20 podiums in a season and clinching the 2008–09 world cup title with two flying events left to run. He also achieved a record of 2083 points in the World Cup over a single season, becoming the first person to obtain more than 2000 points. The current records of wins, podiums and points in a single world cup season is held by Peter Prevc.", "In the 2009/10 World Cup, Schlierenzauer finished second behind Simon Ammann. He celebrated 8 World Cup victories including wins in Garmisch-Partenkirchen and Innsbruck during the Four Hills Tournament. One of the season highlights for Schlierenzauer was the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. He was only 7th after the first round in the Normal Hill competition, but jumping 106.5 meters in the final round, moved him up to 3rd position. The Normal Hill event was won by Simon Ammann while Adam Malysz was second. A week later, Schlierenzauer was 5th after the first round in the Large Hill competition, but moved to 3rd place again in the final round. The competition was once again won by Simon Ammann while Adam Malysz finished second. Two days later he won the Team Event with Wolfgang Loitzl, Andreas Kofler and Thomas Morgenstern, earning Schlierenzauer his first ever Olympic Gold Medal.", "At the beginning of the 2010/11 World Cup, Schlierenzauer suffered an injury and missed the first two events of the Four Hills Tournament. Even though he was recovering from injury, he managed to take two victories at the Vikersund ski flying hill and, later in the season, won three gold medals at FIS Nordic World Ski Championships at Holmenkollen in Oslo. He also set a new Personal Best at a competition in Vikersund by jumping 243.5 meters.", "Schlierenzauer celebrated his first victory of the 2011/12 season in Harrachov on 9 December 2011. On 6 January 2012, Schlierenzauer won the 4 Hills Tournament for the first time. As of 5 February 2012, Schlierenzauer has 40 World Cup victories, 1 gold and 2 bronze Olympic medals, and 8 gold and 2 silver medals at World championships.", "In the 2012–13 season, Schlierenzauer won the Individual World Cup Standings for the second time total. He also won the Four Hills Tournament for a second time, and the Ski Flying World Cup for a third time total. At the first Individual Competition in Vikersund, Gregor equaled Nykänen's record of 46 World Cup Wins, and at Harrachov he superseded Nykänen's record by winning again.", "Schlierenzauer made a comeback to the World Cup at Titisee-Neustadt. His best result of the season was 13th at Oberstdorf in the Four Hills Tournament. At the season Final in Planica, Schlierenzauer jumped 253.5 meters in the Qualification but touched the ground with his hands. It was the same length as Stefan Kraft's world record, however it did not count as he touched the ground with his hands. Schlierenzauer finished the season 35th overall with 77 points.", "Schlierenzauer disappointed in the season opener at Wisla, but was 12th in the difficult wind conditions at Kuusamo, a week later." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definitions.", "Development and contents.", "Publication and surveys.", "Chartoularios." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Michael Clanchy defines a cartulary as \"a collection of title deeds copied into a register for greater security\". A cartulary may take the form of a book or a \"codex\". Documents, chronicles or other kinds of handwritten texts were compiled, transcribed or copied into the cartulary. In the introduction to the book \"Les Cartulaires\", it is argued that in the contemporary diplomatic world it was common to provide a strict definition as the organized, selective, or exhaustive transcription of diplomatic records, made by the owner of them or by the producer of the archive where the documents are preserved. In the \"Dictionary of Archival Terminology\" a cartulary is defined as \"a register, usually in volume form, of copies of charters, title deeds, grants of privileges and other documents of significance belonging to a person, family or institution\". In 1938, the French historian, Emile Lesne, wrote: \"Every Cartulary is the testimony of the statement of the Archives in a Church at the time when it was compiled\". Related terms in other languages are: \"cartularium\" (Latin); \"Kopiar\", \"Kopialbuch\" (German), \"Chartular\" (Oes.); \"cartolario, cartulario, cartario\" (Italian); \"cartulario\" (Spanish). In medieval Normandy, a type of cartulary was common from the early 11th century that combined a record of gifts to the monastery with a short narrative. These works are known as \"pancartes\".", "The allusion of Gregory of Tours to \"chartarum tomi\" in the 6th century is commonly taken to refer to cartularies. The oldest surviving cartularies, however, originated in the 10th century. Those from the 10th to the 13th centuries are very numerous. Cartularies frequently contain historical texts, known as cartulary chronicles, which may focus on the history of the monastery whose legal documents it accompanies, or may be a more general history of the world. This link between legal and historical writings has to be understood in the context of the importance of past events for establishing legal precedence. Sometimes the copyist of the cartulary reproduced the original documents with literal exactness. On the other hand, some copyists took liberties with the text, including modifying the phraseology, modernizing proper names of persons and places, and even changing the substance, so as to extend the scope of the privileges or immunities granted in the document. The value of a cartulary as a historical document depends not only on how faithfully it reproduces the substance of the original, but also, if edited, on the clues it contains to the motivation for those changes. These questions are generally the subject of scrutiny under well-known canons of historical criticism.", "Many cartularies of medieval monasteries and churches have been published, more or less completely. A listing of all known medieval cartularies of the British Isles, edited by Godfrey Davis, was published in 1958, and republished in a heavily revised and extended edition in 2010: the revised edition contains entries for about 2,000 cartularies, including those of both ecclesiastical establishments and secular corporations, dating from the 11th to 16th centuries, with details of dates, provenance, current location, and (where appropriate) publication. The \"Catalogue général des cartulaires des archives départementales\" (Paris, 1847) and the \"Inventaire des cartulaires\" etc. (Paris, 1878–9) were the chief sources of information regarding the cartularies of medieval France. There may be more recent developments in cataloguing.", "The late Roman/Byzantine \"chartoularios\" was an administrative and fiscal official. In the Greek Orthodox Church, the corresponding position was called \"chartophylax\". This title was also given to an ancient officer in the Roman Church, who had the care of charters and papers relating to public affairs. The chartulary presided in ecclesiastical judgments, in lieu of the Pope." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Campus.", "Academics.", "Coordinated dual-degree and interdisciplinary programs.", "Academic medical center and biomedical research complex.", "Admissions selectivity.", "Research, innovations and discoveries.", "Academic Profile.", "International partnerships.", "General rankings.", "Research rankings.", "Other rankings.", "Graduate and professional programs.", "Executive salary.", "Student life.", "Demographics.", "Penn Face and suicides.", "Selected student organizations.", "Athletics.", "Rowing.", "Rugby.", "Cricket.", "Football.", "Basketball.", "Facilities.", "Notable people." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The University of Pennsylvania considers itself the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States, though this is contested by Princeton and Columbia Universities. The university also considers itself as the first university in the United States with both undergraduate and graduate studies. In 1740, a group of Philadelphians joined together to erect a great preaching hall for the traveling evangelist George Whitefield, who toured the American colonies delivering open-air sermons. The building was designed and built by Edmund Woolley and was the largest building in the city at the time, drawing thousands of people the first time it was preached in. It was initially planned to serve as a charity school as well, but a lack of funds forced plans for the chapel and school to be suspended. According to Franklin's autobiography, it was in 1743 when he first had the idea to establish an academy, \"thinking the Rev. Richard Peters a fit person to superintend such an institution\". However, Peters declined a casual inquiry from Franklin and nothing further was done for another six years. In the fall of 1749, now more eager to create a school to educate future generations, Benjamin Franklin circulated a pamphlet titled \"\", his vision for what he called a \"Public Academy of Philadelphia\". Unlike the other colonial colleges that existed in 1749—Harvard, William & Mary, Yale, and Princeton—Franklin's new school would not focus merely on education for the clergy. He advocated an innovative concept of higher education, one which would teach both the ornamental knowledge of the arts and the practical skills necessary for making a living and doing public service. The proposed program of study could have become the nation's first modern liberal arts curriculum, although it was never implemented because Anglican priest William Smith (1727-1803), who became the first provost, and other trustees strongly preferred the traditional curriculum. Franklin assembled a board of trustees from among the leading citizens of Philadelphia, the first such non-sectarian board in America. At the first meeting of the 24 members of the Board of Trustees (November 13, 1749), the issue of where to locate the school was a prime concern. Although a lot across Sixth Street from the old Pennsylvania State House (later renamed and famously known since 1776 as \"Independence Hall\"), was offered without cost by James Logan, its owner, the Trustees realized that the building erected in 1740, which was still vacant, would be an even better site. The original sponsors of the dormant building still owed considerable construction debts and asked Franklin's group to assume their debts and, accordingly, their inactive trusts. On February 1, 1750, the new board took over the building and trusts of the old board. On August 13, 1751, the \"Academy of Philadelphia\", using the great hall at 4th and Arch Streets, took in its first secondary students. A charity school also was chartered on July 13, 1753, by the intentions of the original \"New Building\" donors, although it lasted only a few years. On June 16, 1755, the \"College of Philadelphia\" was chartered, paving the way for the addition of undergraduate instruction. All three schools shared the same Board of Trustees and were considered to be part of the same institution. The first commencement exercises were held on May 17, 1757. The institution of higher learning was known as the College of Philadelphia from 1755 to 1779. In 1779, not trusting then-provost the Reverend William Smith's \"Loyalist\" tendencies, the revolutionary State Legislature created a University of the State of Pennsylvania. The result was a schism, with Smith continuing to operate an attenuated version of the College of Philadelphia. In 1791, the Legislature issued a new charter, merging the two institutions into a new University of Pennsylvania with twelve men from each institution on the new Board of Trustees. Penn has three claims to being the first university in the United States, according to university archives director Mark Frazier Lloyd: the 1765 founding of the first medical school in America made Penn the first institution to offer both \"undergraduate\" and professional education; the 1779 charter made it the first American institution of higher learning to take the name of \"University\"; and existing colleges were established as seminaries (although, as detailed earlier, Penn adopted a traditional seminary curriculum as well). After being located in downtown Philadelphia for more than a century, the campus was moved across the Schuylkill River to property purchased from the Blockley Almshouse in West Philadelphia in 1872, where it has since remained in an area now known as University City. Although Penn began operating as an academy or secondary school in 1751 and obtained its collegiate charter in 1755, it initially designated 1750 as its founding date; this is the year that appears on the first iteration of the university seal. Sometime later in its early history, Penn began to consider 1749 as its founding date and this year was referenced for over a century, including at the centennial celebration in 1849. In 1899, the board of trustees voted to adjust the founding date earlier again, this time to 1740, the date of \"the creation of the earliest of the many educational trusts the University has taken upon itself\". The board of trustees voted in response to a three-year campaign by Penn's General Alumni Society to retroactively revise the university's founding date to appear older than Princeton University, which had been chartered in 1746.", "Much of Penn's architecture was designed by the Cope and Stewardson firm (same architects who designed a large part of Washington University in St. Louis and Princeton University) known for having combined the Gothic architecture of the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge with the local landscape to establish the Collegiate Gothic style. The present core campus covers over in a contiguous area of West Philadelphia's University City section, whereas the older heart of the campus comprises the University of Pennsylvania Campus Historic District. All of Penn's schools and most of its research institutes are located on this campus. The surrounding neighborhood includes several restaurants and pubs, a large upscale grocery store and a movie theater on the western edge of campus. The campus has several notable art installations. The \"Covenant\", better known to the student body as \"The Tampons\", is a large red structure located on Locust Walk between the high rise residences. It was installed in 1975 and is made of rolled sheets of milled steel. A larger-than-life white button, known as \"The Button\", is another popular sculpture. It sits at the south entrance of Van Pelt Library and has button holes large enough to stand in. Penn also has a replica of the \"Love\" sculpture, part of a series created by Robert Indiana. It is a painted aluminum sculpture and was installed in 1998. The Module 6 Utility Plant and Garage at Penn was designed by BLT Architects and completed in 1995. Module 6 is located at 38th and Walnut and includes spaces for 627 vehicles, of storefront retail operations, a 9,500-ton chiller module and corresponding extension of the campus chilled water loop and a 4,000-ton ice storage facility. In 2007, Penn acquired about between the campus and the Schuylkill River (the former site of the Philadelphia Civic Center and a nearby site owned by the United States Postal Service). Dubbed the Postal Lands, the site extends from Market Street on the north to Penn's Bower Field on the south, including the former main regional U.S. Postal Building at 30th and Market Streets, now the regional office for the U.S. Internal Revenue Service. Over the next decade, the site became the home to educational, research, biomedical, and mixed-use facilities. The first phase, comprising a park and athletic facilities, opened in the fall of 2011. In 2010, in its first significant expansion across the Schuylkill River, Penn purchased 23 acres at the northwest corner of 34th Street and Grays Ferry Avenue from DuPont for storage and office space. In September 2011, Penn completed the construction of the $46.5 million Penn Park, which features passive and active recreation and athletic components framed and subdivided by canopy trees, lawns, and meadows. It is located east of the Highline Green and stretches from Walnut Street to South Streets. The University also owns the Morris Arboretum in Chestnut Hill in northwestern Philadelphia, the official arboretum of the state of Pennsylvania. Penn also owns the New Bolton Center, the research and large-animal health care center of its Veterinary School. Located near Kennett Square, New Bolton Center received nationwide media attention when Kentucky Derby winner Barbaro underwent surgery at its Widener Hospital for injuries suffered while running in the Preakness Stakes. Penn borders Drexel University and is near the University of the Sciences in Philadelphia. The renowned cancer research center Wistar Institute is also located on campus. In 2014, a new 7-story glass and steel building was completed next to the Institute's historic 117-year-old brick building further expanding collaboration between the university and the Wistar Institute.", "The College of Arts and Sciences is the undergraduate division of the School of Arts and Sciences. The School of Arts and Sciences also contains the Graduate Division and the College of Liberal and Professional Studies, which is home to the Fels Institute of Government, the master's programs in Organizational Dynamics, and the Environmental Studies (MES) program. Wharton is the business school of the University of Pennsylvania. Other schools with undergraduate programs include the School of Nursing and the School of Engineering and Applied Science (SEAS). Penn has a strong focus on interdisciplinary learning and research. It offers double degree programs, unique majors, and academic flexibility. Penn's \"One University\" policy allows undergraduates access to courses at all of Penn's undergraduate and graduate schools except the medical, veterinary and dental schools. Undergraduates at Penn may also take courses at Bryn Mawr, Haverford, and Swarthmore under a reciprocal agreement known as the Quaker Consortium.", "Penn offers specialized coordinated dual-degree (CDD) programs, which award candidates degrees from multiple schools at the university upon completion of graduation criteria of both schools. Undergraduate programs include: Dual-degree programs that lead to the same multiple degrees without participation in the specific above programs are also available. Unlike CDD programs, \"dual degree\" students fulfill requirements of both programs independently without the involvement of another program. Specialized dual-degree programs include Liberal Studies and Technology as well as an Artificial Intelligence: Computer and Cognitive Science Program. Both programs award a degree from the College of Arts and Sciences and a degree from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences. Also, the Vagelos Scholars Program in Molecular Life Sciences allows its students to either double major in the sciences or submatriculate and earn both a B.A. and an M.S. in", "In 2018, the University's Nursing school was ranked number one by Quacquarelli Symonds. That year, Quacquarelli Symonds also ranked Penn's school of Veterinary Medicine sixth. In 2019, the Perelman School of Medicine was named the third-best medical school for research in \"U.S. News & World Report's\" 2020 ranking. However, the size of Penn's biomedical research organization adds", "The Princeton Review ranks Penn as the 6th-most selective school in the United States. For the Class of 2024, entering in the fall of 2020, the University received 42,205 applications and admitted 8.07 percent", "Penn is classified as an \"R1\" doctoral university: \"Highest research activity.\"<ref name=\"RU/VH\"></ref> Its economic impact on the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania for 2015 amounted to $14.3 billion. Penn's research expenditures in the 2018 fiscal year were $1.442 billion, the fourth largest in the U.S. In fiscal year 2019 Penn received $582.3 million in funding from the National Institutes of Health. In line with its well-known interdisciplinary tradition, Penn's research centers often span two or more disciplines. In the 2010–2011 academic year alone, five interdisciplinary research centers were created or substantially expanded; these include the Center for Health-care Financing, the Center for Global Women's Health at the Nursing School, the $13 million Morris Arboretum's Horticulture Center, the $15 million Jay H. Baker Retailing Center at Wharton and the $13 million Translational Research Center at Penn Medicine. With these additions, Penn now counts 165 research centers hosting a research community of over 4,300 faculty and over 1,100 postdoctoral fellows, 5,500 academic support staff and graduate student trainees. To further assist the advancement of interdisciplinary research President Amy Gutmann established the \"Penn Integrates Knowledge\" title awarded to selected Penn professors \"whose research and teaching exemplify the integration of knowledge\". These professors hold endowed professorships and joint appointments between Penn's schools. Penn is also among the most prolific producers of doctoral students. With 487 PhDs awarded in 2009, Penn ranks third in the Ivy League, only behind Columbia and Cornell (Harvard did not report data). It also has one of the highest numbers of post-doctoral appointees (933 in number for 2004–2007), ranking third in the Ivy League (behind Harvard and Yale) and tenth nationally. In most disciplines Penn professors' productivity is among the highest in the nation and first in the fields of Epidemiology, Business, Communication Studies, Comparative Literature, Languages, Information Science, Criminal Justice and Criminology, Social Sciences and Sociology. According to the National Research Council nearly three-quarters of Penn's 41 assessed programs were placed in ranges including the top 10 rankings in their fields, with more than half of these in ranges including the top five rankings in these fields. Penn's research tradition has historically been complemented by innovations that shaped higher education.", "", "Students can study abroad for a semester or a year at partner institutions", "\"U.S. News & World Report\"'s 2020 rankings place Penn 6th among national universities in the United States. The Princeton Review includes Penn in its Dream Colleges list. As reported by \"USA Today\", Penn was ranked 1st in the United States by College Factual for 2015. In their 2020 edition, Penn was ranked 15th in the world by the \"QS World", "The Center for Measuring University Performance places Penn in the first tier of the United States' top research universities (tied with Columbia, MIT and Stanford), based on research expenditures, faculty awards, PhD granted and other academic criteria. Penn was also ranked 18th of all U.S. colleges and universities in terms of R&D expenditures in fiscal year 2013 by the National Science Foundation. The High Impact Universities research performance index ranks Penn 8th in the world,", "The, which ranks universities on the basis of the number of alumni listed among CEOs in the 500 largest worldwide companies, ranks Penn 11th worldwide and 2nd nationally", "Among its professional schools, the schools of education, business, communication, dentistry, medicine, nursing, and veterinary medicine rank in the top 5 nationally.", "Amy Gutmann's total compensation in 2018 was $3.9 million, placing", "", "Of those accepted for admission to the undergraduate Class of 2018, 52 percent are Asian, Hispanic, African-American or Native American. In addition, 53% of current students are women. Twelve percent of the undergraduate Class of 2018 were international students. The composition of international students accepted", "The university's social pressure surrounding academic perfection, extreme competitiveness, and nonguaranteed readmission have created what is known as \"Penn Face\": students put on a façade of confidence and happiness while enduring mental turmoil. Stanford University calls this phenomenon \"Duck Syndrome.\" In recent years, mental health has become an issue on campus with ten student suicides between the years of 2013 to 2016. The school responded by launching a", "The Philomathean Society, founded in 1813, is one of the United States' oldest collegiate literary society and continues to host lectures and intellectual events open to the public. The Mask and Wig Club, founded in 1889, is the oldest all-male musical comedy troupe in the country. The University of Pennsylvania Glee Club, founded in 1862, is one of the oldest continually operating collegiate choruses in the United States. Bruce Montgomery, its best-known and longest-serving director, led the club from 1956 until 2000. The International Affairs Association (IAA) was founded in 1963 as an organization to promote international affairs and diplomacy at Penn and beyond. With over 400 members, it is the largest student-funded organization on campus. The IAA serves as an umbrella organization for various conferences (UPMUNC, ILMUNC, and PIRC), as well as a host of other academic and social activities. The Student Committee on Undergraduate", "Penn's sports teams are nicknamed the Quakers, but the teams are often also referred to as The Red & Blue. The athletes participate in the Ivy League and Division I (Division I FCS for football) in the NCAA. In recent decades, they often have been league champions in football (14 times from 1982 to 2010) and basketball (22 times from 1970 to 2006). The first athletic team at Penn was its cricket team.", "Rowing at Penn dates back to at least 1854 with the founding of the University Barge Club. The university currently hosts both heavyweight and lightweight men's teams and an open weight women's team, all of which compete as part of the Eastern Sprints", "The Penn Men's Rugby Football team is one of the oldest collegiate rugby teams in America. Indeed, Penn first fielded a team in mid 1870s playing by rules much closer to the rugby union and Association Football code rules (than American Football rules as such American Football rules had not yet been invented). Among its earliest games was a game against College of New Jersey (which in 1895 changed its name to Princeton) played in Philadelphia on Saturday, November 11, 1876, which was less than two weeks before Princeton met on November 23, 1876 with Harvard and Columbia to confirm that all their games would be played using the rugby union rules. Princeton and Penn played their November 1876 game per a combination of rugby (there were 20 players per side and players were able to touch the ball with their hands) and Association Football codes. The rugby code influence was due, in part, to", "In the latter half of the nineteenth century and the early twentieth Philadelphia was the center of cricket in the United States. Cricket had gained in popularity among the upper class from their travels abroad and cricket clubs sprung up all across the Eastern Seaboard (even today Philadelphia still has three cricket clubs—the Philadelphia, the Merion and the Germantown). Many East Coast universities and colleges fielded", "Penn first fielded a football team against Princeton at the Germantown Cricket Club in Philadelphia on November 11, 1876. Penn football made many contributions to the sport in its early days. During the 1890s, Penn's famed coach and alumnus George Washington Woodruff introduced the quarterback kick, a forerunner of the forward pass, as well as the place-kick from scrimmage and the delayed pass. In 1894, 1895, 1897 and 1904, Penn was generally regarded as the national champion of collegiate football. The achievements of two of Penn's outstanding players from that era, John Heisman, a University of Pennsylvania Law School alumnus, and John Outland, a Penn Med alumnus, are remembered each year with the presentation of the Heisman Trophy to the most outstanding college football player of the", "Penn basketball is steeped in tradition. Penn made its only (and the Ivy League's second) Final Four appearance in 1979, where the Quakers lost to Magic Johnson-led Michigan State in Salt Lake City. (Dartmouth twice finished second in the tournament", "Franklin Field is where the Quakers play football, field hockey, lacrosse, sprint football and track and field (and formerly soccer and rugby). It is the oldest stadium still operating for football games and was the first stadium to sport two tiers. It hosted the first commercially televised football game, was once the home field of the Philadelphia Eagles, and was the site of 18 Army–Navy games between 1899 and 1935. Today it is also used by Penn students for", "Penn has produced many alumni that have distinguished themselves in the sciences, academia, politics, the military, arts and media. Fourteen heads of state or government have attended or graduated from Penn, including current president Donald J. Trump, former president William Henry Harrison, who attended the medical school for less than a semester; former Prime Minister of the Philippines Cesar Virata; the first president of Nigeria, Nnamdi Azikiwe; the first president of Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah; and the current president of Ivory Coast, Alassane Ouattara. Other notable politicians who hold a degree from Penn include India's Minister of State for Finance Jayant Sinha, former ambassador to Russia, former ambassador to China, former 2012 presidential candidate, and former Utah governor Jon Huntsman, Jr., Mexico's current minister of finance, Ernesto J. Cordero, former Pennsylvania senator Arlen Specter, and former Pennsylvania governor and DNC Chair Ed Rendell. The university's presence in the judiciary in and outside of the United States is also notable. It has produced three United States Supreme Court justices, William J. Brennan, Owen J. Roberts and James Wilson, Supreme Court justices of foreign states (e.g., Ronald Wilson of the High Court of Australia, Ayala Procaccia of the Israel Supreme Court and Yvonne Mokgoro, former Justice of the Constitutional Court of South Africa, its Supreme Constitutional Court), European Court of Human Rights judge Nona Tsotsoria, Irish Court of Appeal justice Gerard Hogan and founders of international law firms, e.g. James Harry Covington (co-founder of Covington & Burling), Martin Lipton (co-founder of Wachtell, Lipton, Rosen, & Katz) and George Wharton Pepper (U.S. Senator from Pennsylvania and founder of Pepper Hamilton). Penn alumni also have a strong presence in financial and economic life. Penn has educated several governors of central banks including Yasin Anwar (State Bank of Pakistan), Ignazio Visco (Bank of Italy), Kim Choongsoo (Bank of Korea), Zeti Akhtar Aziz (Central Bank of Malaysia), Pridiyathorn Devakula (Governor, Bank of Thailand, and former Minister of Finance), Farouk El Okdah (Central Bank of Egypt) and Alfonso Prat Gay (Central Bank of Argentina), as well as the director of the United States National Economic Council, Gene Sperling. Founders of technology companies include Ralph J. Roberts (co-founder of Comcast), Elon Musk (co-founder of PayPal, founder and CEO of Tesla Motors and SpaceX), Leonard Bosack (co-founder of Cisco), David J. Brown (co-founder of Silicon Graphics) and Mark Pincus (founder of Zynga, the company behind FarmVille). Other notable businessmen and entrepreneurs who attended or graduated from the University of Pennsylvania include William S. Paley (former president of CBS), Warren Buffett (CEO of Berkshire Hathaway), Donald Trump, Jr., and Ivanka Trump, Safra Catz (president and CFO of Oracle Corporation), Leonard Lauder (chairman emeritus of Estée Lauder Companies and son of founder Estée Lauder), Steven A. Cohen (founder of SAC Capital Advisors), Robert Kapito (president of BlackRock, the world's largest asset manager), Sundar Pichai (CEO of Alphabet Inc.), P. Roy Vagelos (former president and CEO of multinational pharmaceutical company Merck & Co.) and Baidyanath Misra, former Vice-Chancellor of the Odisha University of Agriculture and Technology. Among other distinguished alumni are the current or past presidents of over one hundred Universities including Harvard University, Drew Gilpin Faust, Harvard's first female President; Cornell University, Martha E. Pollack; Penn, Judith Rodin, first female President in Ivy League; Princeton University, Harold Dodds; the University of California, Mark Yudof; Carnegie Mellon University, Jared Cohon; and Northwestern University, Morton O. Schapiro. Penn's alumni also include poets William Augustus Muhlenberg, Ezra Pound and William Carlos Williams, linguist and political theorist Noam Chomsky, architect Louis Kahn, cartoonist Charles Addams, actresses Candice Bergen and Elizabeth Banks, theatrical producer Harold Prince, motion picture producer Robert W. Cort, counter-terrorism expert and author Richard A. Clarke, pollster and strategist Frank Luntz, attorney Gloria Allred, journalist Joe Klein, fashion designer Tory Burch, recording artist John Legend, football athlete and coach John Heisman, former U.S. Deputy Attorney General Rod Rosenstein, philosopher Hilary Putnam, and SEC Chairman Jay Clayton. Within the ranks of Penn's most historic graduates are also eight signers of the Declaration of Independence and nine signers of the Constitution. These include George Clymer, Francis Hopkinson, Thomas McKean, Robert Morris, William Paca, George Ross, Benjamin Rush, James Wilson, Thomas Fitzsimons, Jared Ingersoll, Rufus King, Thomas Mifflin, Gouverneur Morris and Hugh Williamson. As of October 2019, 36 Penn affiliates have won Nobel Prizes, of whom four are current faculty members and eight are alumni. Penn also counts 115 members of the United States National Academies, 79 members of the Academy of Arts and Sciences, eight National Medal of Science laureates, 108 Sloan Fellows, 30 members of the American Philosophical Society and 170 Guggenheim Fellowships." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology and origin.", "Depiction in literary sources.", "Lemnos.", "Samothrace.", "Thebes in Boeotia.", "Myth." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Cabeiri were possibly originally Phrygian deities and protectors of sailors, who were imported into Greek ritual. R. S. P. Beekes believes that their name is of non-Indo-European, pre-Greek origin. In the past, the Semitic word \"kabir\" (\"great\") has been compared to Κάβειροι since at least Joseph Justus Scaliger in the sixteenth century, but nothing else seemed to point to a Semitic origin, until the idea of \"great\" gods expressed by the Semitic root \"kbr\" was definitively attested for North Syria in the thirteenth century BCE, in texts from Emar published by D. Arnaud in 1985–87. Friedrich Wilhelm Schelling connected the Greek word to the Hebrew חבר (\"khaver\" \"friend, associate\") and via this to several priest names as one attached to the Persians (\"Chaverim\"), linking them to the Dioskouri or priestly blacksmiths alternatively. T. J. Wackernagel produced an Indian etymology in 1907; in 1925 A. H. Sayce had suggested a connection to Hittite \"habiri\" (\"looters\", \"outlaws\"), but subsequent discoveries have made this implausible on phonological grounds. Dossein compares Κάβειροι to the Sumerian word \"kabar\", \"copper.\" The name of the \"Cabeiri\" recalls Mount Kabeiros, a mountain in the region of Berekyntia in Asia Minor, closely associated with the Phrygian Mother Goddess. The name of Kadmilus (Καδμῖλος), or \"Kasmilos\", one of the Cabeiri who was usually depicted as a young boy, was linked even in antiquity to \"Camillus\", an old Latin word for a boy-attendant in a cult, likely a loan from the Etruscan language, which may be related to Lemnian. However, according to Beekes, the name \"Kadmilus\" may be of pre-Greek origin, as seems to be the case with the name \"Cadmus\".", "They were most commonly depicted as two people: an old man, Axiocersus, and his son, Cadmilus. Due to the cult's secrecy, however, their exact nature and relationship with other ancient Greek and Thracian religious figures remained mysterious. As a result, the membership and roles of the Cabeiri changed significantly over time, with common variants including a female pair (Axierus and Axiocersa) and twin youths (frequently confused with Castor and Pollux, who were also worshiped as protectors of sailors).", "The Lemnians were originally non-Greek; they were Hellenized after Miltiades conquered the island for Athens in the sixth century BCE. In Lemnos the cult of the Cabeiri survived, according to archaeological evidence, through the conquest: an ancient sanctuary dedicated to the Cabeiri is identifiable by traces of inscriptions, and seems to have survived the process of Hellenization. Walter Burkert records that wine jars are \"the only characteristic group of finds\" from the Cabeirium of Lemnos and that the Cabeirium was the location for initiation into an ancient mystery cult. However, due to the secret nature of mystery cults in the ancient world little survives to indicate what was involved in these initiation ceremonies; indeed, Hugh Bowden notes that on the basis of our evidence we do not know what happened at Lemnos beyond the fact of initiation, and that 'we have no descriptions and nothing on which even to base speculation'. The geographer Strabo reported (Geogr. 10,3,21) that in Lemnos, the mother (there was no father) of the Cabeiri was Kabeiro (Greek: Καβειρώ) herself, a daughter of Nereus (one of the \"old men of the sea\") and a goddess whom the Greeks might have called Rhea. In general Greek myth identifies the Cabeiri as divine craftsmen, sons or grandsons of Hephaestus, who was also chiefly worshipped on Lemnos. Aeschylus wrote a tragedy called \"The Kabeiroi\", which apparently featured the deities as a chorus greeting the Argonauts at Lemnos and the Argonauts' initiation into the cult of the Cabeiri.", "The Samothracians were also originally non-Greek, and are associated with the Trojans and the Pelasgians; they used a foreign language in the temple through Julius Caesar's time. Samothrace offered an initiatory mystery, which promised safety and prosperity to seamen. The secret of these mysteries has largely been kept; but we know that of three things about the ritual, the aspirants were asked the worst action they had ever committed. The mysteries of Samothrace did not publish the names of their gods; and the offerings at the shrine are all inscribed \"to the gods\" or \"to the great gods\" rather than with their names. But ancient sources tell us that there were two goddesses and a god: \"Axieros\", \"Axiokersa\", and \"Axiokersos\", and their servant \"Cadmilos\" or \"Casmilos\". Karl Kerényi conjectured that Axieros was male, and the three gods were the sons of Axiokersa (Cadmilos, the youngest, was also the father of the three); Burkert disagrees. In Classical Greek culture the mysteries of the Cabeiri at Samothrace remained popular, though little was entrusted to writing beyond a few names and bare genealogical connections. Seamen among the Greeks might invoke the Cabeiri as \"great gods\" in times of danger and stress. The archaic sanctuary of Samothrace was rebuilt in Greek fashion; by classical times, the Samothrace mysteries of the Cabeiri were known at Athens. Herodotus had been initiated. But at the entrance to the sanctuary, which has been thoroughly excavated, the Roman antiquary Varro learned that there had been twin pillars of brass, phallic hermae, and that in the sanctuary it was understood that the child of the Goddess, Cadmilus, was in some mystic sense also her consort. Varro also describes these twin pillars as Heaven and Earth, denying the vulgar error that they are Castor and Pollux.", "At Thebes in Boeotia there are more varied finds than on Lemnos; they include many little bronze votive bulls and which carry on into Roman times, when the traveller Pausanias, always alert to the history of cults, learned that it was Demeter \"Kabeiriia\" who instigated the initiation cult there in the name of Prometheus and his son Aitnaios. Walter Burkert (1985) writes, \"This points to guilds of smiths analogous to the Lemnian Hephaistos.\" The votive dedications at Thebes are to a \"Kabeiros\" (Greek: Κάβειρος) in the singular, and childish toys like votive spinning tops for \"Pais\" suggest a manhood initiation. Copious wine was drunk, out of characteristic cups that were ritually smashed. Fat, primitive dwarves (similar to the followers of Silenus) with prominent genitalia were painted on the cups. Thebes is connected to Samothrace in myth, primarily the wedding of Cadmus and Harmonia, which took place there.", "In myth, the Cabeiri bear many similarities to other fabulous races, such as the Telchines of Rhodes, the Cyclopes, the Dactyls, the Korybantes, and the Kuretes. These different groups were often confused or identified with one another since many of them, like the Cyclopes and Telchines, were also associated with metallurgy. Diodorus Siculus said of the Cabeiri that they were \"Idaioi dactyloi\" (\"Idaian Dactyls\"). The Idaian Dactyls were a race of divine beings associated with the Mother Goddess and with Mount Ida, a mountain in Phrygia sacred to the goddess. Hesychius of Alexandria wrote that the Cabeiri were \"karkinoi\" (\"crabs\"). The Cabeiri as Karkinoi were apparently thought of as amphibious beings (again recalling the Telchines). They had pincers instead of hands, which they used as tongs (Greek: \"karkina\") in metalworking. It has been suggested by Comyns Beaumont that the Orphic mysteries may have had their origins with the Cabeiri." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Academics.", "Campus.", "Academic facilities.", "Athletic facilities.", "Residential housing and student life facilities.", "Student life.", "Student safety.", "Student groups.", "Athletics.", "Native Americans at Dartmouth.", "Traditions.", "Insignia and other representations.", "Motto and song.", "Seal.", "Shield.", "Nickname, symbol, and mascot.", "Alumni.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Dartmouth was founded by Eleazar Wheelock, a Congregational minister from Columbia, Connecticut, who had sought to establish a school to train Native Americans as Christian missionaries. Wheelock's ostensible inspiration for such an establishment resulted from his relationship with Mohegan Indian Samson Occom. Occom became an ordained minister after studying under Wheelock from 1743 to 1747, and later moved to Long Island to preach to the Montauks. Wheelock founded Moor's Indian Charity School in 1755. The Charity School proved somewhat successful, but additional funding was necessary to continue school's operations, and Wheelock sought the help of friends to raise money. The first major donation to the school was given by John Phillips in 1762, who would go on to found Phillips Exeter Academy. Occom, accompanied by the Reverend Nathaniel Whitaker, traveled to England in 1766 to raise money from churches. With these funds, they established a trust to help Wheelock. The head of the trust was a Methodist named William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth. Although the fund provided Wheelock ample financial support for the Charity School, Wheelock initially had trouble recruiting Indians to the institution, primarily because its location was far from tribal territories. In seeking to expand the school into a college, Wheelock relocated it to Hanover, in the Province of New Hampshire. The move from Connecticut followed a lengthy and sometimes frustrating effort to find resources and secure a charter. The Royal Governor of New Hampshire, John Wentworth, provided the land upon which Dartmouth would be built and on December 13, 1769, issued a royal charter in the name of King George III establishing the College. That charter created a college \"for the education and instruction of Youth of the Indian Tribes in this Land in reading, writing & all parts of Learning which shall appear necessary and expedient for civilizing & christianizing Children of Pagans as well as in all liberal Arts and Sciences and also of English Youth and any others\". The reference to educating Native American youth was included to connect Dartmouth to the Charity School and enable use of the Charity School's unspent trust funds. Named for William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth—an important supporter of Eleazar Wheelock's earlier efforts but who, in fact, opposed creation of the College and never donated to it—Dartmouth is the nation's ninth oldest college and the last institution of higher learning established under Colonial rule. The College granted its first degrees in 1771. Given the limited success of the Charity School, however, Wheelock intended his new college as one primarily for whites. Occom, disappointed with Wheelock's departure from the school's original goal of Indian Christianization, went on to form his own community of New England Indians called Brothertown Indians in New York. In 1819, Dartmouth College was the subject of the historic Dartmouth College case, which challenged New Hampshire's 1816 attempt to amend the college' charter to make the school a public university. An institution called Dartmouth University occupied the college buildings and began operating in Hanover in 1817, though the college continued teaching classes in rented rooms nearby. Daniel Webster, an alumnus of the", "Dartmouth, a liberal arts institution, offers a four-year Bachelor of Arts and ABET-accredited Bachelor of Engineering degree to undergraduate students. The college has 39 academic departments offering 56 major programs, while students are free to design special majors or engage in dual majors. For the graduating class of 2017, the most popular majors were economics, government, computer science, engineering sciences, and history. The Government Department, whose prominent professors include Stephen Brooks, Richard Ned Lebow, and William Wohlforth, was ranked the top solely undergraduate political science program in the world by researchers at the London School of Economics in 2003. The Economics Department, whose prominent professors include David Blanchflower and Andrew Samwick, also holds the distinction as the top-ranked bachelor's-only economics program in the world. In order to graduate, a student must complete 35 total courses, eight to ten of which are typically part of a chosen major program. Other requirements for graduation include the completion of ten \"distributive requirements\" in a variety of academic fields, proficiency in a foreign language, and completion of a writing class and first-year seminar in writing. Many departments offer honors programs requiring students seeking that distinction to engage in \"independent, sustained work\", culminating in the production of a thesis. In addition to the courses offered in Hanover, Dartmouth offers 57 different off-campus programs, including Foreign Study Programs, Language Study Abroad programs, and Exchange Programs. Through the Graduate Studies program, Dartmouth grants doctorate and master's degrees in 19 Arts & Sciences graduate programs. Although the first graduate degree, a PhD in classics, was awarded in 1885, many of the current PhD programs have only existed since the 1960s. Furthermore, Dartmouth is home to three professional schools: the Geisel School of Medicine (established 1797), Thayer School of Engineering (1867)—which also serves as the undergraduate department of engineering sciences—and Tuck School of Business (1900). With these professional schools and graduate programs, conventional American usage would accord Dartmouth the label of \"Dartmouth University\"; however, because of historical and nostalgic reasons (such as \"Dartmouth College v. Woodward\"), the school uses the name \"Dartmouth College\" to refer to the entire institution. Dartmouth employs a total of 607 tenured or tenure-track faculty members, including the highest proportion of female tenured professors among the Ivy League universities. Faculty members have been at the forefront of such major academic developments as the Dartmouth Workshop, the Dartmouth Time Sharing System, Dartmouth BASIC, and Dartmouth ALGOL 30. In 2005, sponsored project awards to Dartmouth faculty research amounted to $169 million. Dartmouth serves as the host institution of the University Press of New England, a university press founded in 1970 that is supported by a consortium of schools that also includes Brandeis University, the University of New Hampshire, Northeastern University, Tufts University and the University of Vermont.", "Dartmouth College is situated in the rural town of Hanover, New Hampshire, located in the Upper Valley along the Connecticut River in New England. Its campus is centered on a \"Green\", a former field of pine trees cleared in 1771. Dartmouth is the largest private landowner of the town of Hanover, and its total landholdings and facilities are worth an estimated $434 million. In addition to its campus in Hanover, Dartmouth owns of Mount Moosilauke in the White Mountains and a tract of land in northern New Hampshire known as the Second College Grant. Dartmouth's campus buildings vary in age from Wentworth and Thornton Halls of the 1820s (the oldest surviving buildings constructed by the college) to new dormitories and mathematics facilities completed in 2006. Most of Dartmouth's buildings are designed in the Georgian colonial architecture style, a theme which has been preserved in recent architectural additions. The College has actively sought to reduce carbon emissions and energy usage on campus, earning it the grade of A- from the Sustainable Endowments Institute on its College Sustainability Report Card 2008. A notable feature of the Dartmouth campus is its many trees which (despite Dutch elm disease) include some 200 American elms.", "The college's creative and performing arts facility is the Hopkins Center for the Arts (\"the Hop\"). Opened in 1962, the Hop houses the College's drama, music, film, and studio arts departments, as well as a woodshop, pottery studio, and jewelry studio which are open for use by students and faculty. The building was designed by the famed architect Wallace Harrison, who would later design the similar-looking façade of Manhattan's Metropolitan Opera House at Lincoln Center. Its facilities include two theaters and one 900-seat auditorium. The Hop is also the location of all student mailboxes (\"Hinman boxes\") and the Courtyard Café dining facility. The Hop is connected to the Hood Museum of Art, arguably North America's oldest museum in continuous operation, and the Loew Auditorium, where films are screened. In addition to its 19 graduate programs in the arts and sciences, Dartmouth is home to three separate", "Dartmouth's original sports field was the Green, where students played cricket and old division football during the 19th century. Today, two of Dartmouth's athletic facilities are located in the southeast corner of campus. The center of athletic life is the Alumni Gymnasium, which includes the Karl Michael Competition Pool and the Spaulding Pool, a state of the art fitness center, a weight room, and a 1/13th-mile (123 m) indoor track. Attached to Alumni Gymnasium is the Berry Sports Center, which contains basketball and volleyball courts (Leede Arena), as well as the Kresge Fitness Center. Behind the Alumni Gymnasium is Memorial Field, a 15,600-seat stadium overlooking Dartmouth's football field and track. The nearby Thompson Arena, designed by Italian engineer Pier Luigi Nervi", "Beginning in the fall term of 2016, Dartmouth placed all undergraduate students in one of six House communities, similar to residential colleges, including Allen House, East Wheelock House, North Park House, School House, South House, and West House, alongside independent Living Learning Communities. Dartmouth used to have nine residential communities located throughout campus, instead of ungrouped dormitories or residential colleges. The dormitories varied in design from modern to traditional Georgian styles, and room arrangements range from singles to quads and apartment suites. Since 2006, the college has", "In 2006, \"The Princeton Review\" ranked Dartmouth third in its \"Quality of Life\" category, and sixth for having the \"Happiest Students\". Athletics and participation in the Greek system are the most popular campus activities. In all, Dartmouth offers more than 350 organizations, teams, and sports. The school is also home to a variety of longstanding traditions and celebrations and has a loyal alumni network; Dartmouth ranked #2 in \"The Princeton Review\" in 2006 for Best Alumni Network.", "In 2014, Dartmouth College was the third highest in the nation in \"total of reports of rape\" on their main campus, with 42 reports of rape. The \"Washington Post\" attributed the high number of rape reports to the fact that a growing number of sexual assault victims feel comfortable enough to report sexual assaults", "Dartmouth's more than 200 student organizations and clubs cover a wide range of interests. In 2007, the college hosted eight academic groups, 17 cultural groups, two honor societies, 30 \"issue-oriented\" groups, 25 performing groups, 12 pre-professional groups, 20 publications, and 11 recreational groups. Notable student groups include the nation's largest and oldest collegiate outdoors club, the Dartmouth Outing Club, which includes the nationally recognized Big Green Bus; the campus's oldest a cappella group, The Dartmouth Aires; the controversial conservative newspaper \"The Dartmouth Review\"; and \"The Dartmouth\", arguably the nation's oldest university newspaper. \"The Dartmouth\" describes itself as \"America's Oldest College Newspaper, Founded 1799\". Partially because of Dartmouth's rural, isolated location, the Greek system dating from the 1840s is one of the most popular social", "Approximately 20% of students participate in a varsity sport, and nearly 80% participate in some form of club, varsity, intramural, or other athletics. In 2007, Dartmouth College fielded 34 intercollegiate varsity teams: 16 for men, 16 for women, and coeducational sailing and equestrian programs. Dartmouth's athletic teams compete in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I eight-member Ivy League conference; some teams also participate in the Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC). As is mandatory for the members of the Ivy League, Dartmouth College does not offer athletic scholarships. In addition to the traditional American team sports (football, basketball,", "The charter of Dartmouth College, granted to Wheelock in 1769, proclaims that the institution was created \"for the education and instruction of Youth of the Indian Tribes in this Land in reading, writing and all parts of Learning... as well as in all liberal Arts and Sciences; and also of English Youth and any others\". However, Wheelock primarily intended the college to educate white youth, and the few Native students that attended", "Dartmouth is well known for its fierce school spirit and many traditions. The college functions on a quarter system, and one weekend each term is set aside as a traditional celebratory event, known on campus as \"big weekends\" or \"party weekends\". In the fall term, Homecoming (officially called Dartmouth Night) is marked by a bonfire on the Green constructed by the freshman class. Winter term is celebrated by Winter Carnival, a tradition started in 1911 by the Dartmouth Outing Club to promote winter sports. This tradition is the oldest in the United States, and subsequently went on to", "", "Dartmouth's motto, chosen by Eleazar Wheelock, is \"Vox clamantis in deserto\". The Latin motto is literally translated as \"A calling voice in the wilderness\", but is more often rendered as \"A voice crying out in the wilderness\". The phrase appears five times in", "Dartmouth's 1769 royal charter required the creation of a seal for use on official documents and diplomas. The college's founder, Eleazar Wheelock, designed a seal for his college bearing a striking resemblance to the seal of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, a missionary society founded in London in 1701, in order to maintain the illusion that his college was more for mission work than for higher education. Engraved by a Boston silversmith, the seal was ready by commencement", "On October 28, 1926, the trustees approved a \"Dartmouth College Shield\" for general use. Artist and engraver W. Parke Johnson designed this emblem on the basis of the shield that is depicted at the center of the original seal. This design does not survive. On June 9, 1944, the trustees approved another coat of arms based on the shield part of the seal, this one by Canadian artist and", "Dartmouth has never had an official mascot. The nickname \"The Big Green\", originating in the 1860s, is based on students' adoption of a shade of forest green (\"Dartmouth Green\") as the school's official color in 1866. Beginning in the 1920s, the Dartmouth College athletic teams were known by their unofficial nickname \"the Indians\", a moniker that probably originated among sports journalists. This unofficial mascot and team name was used until the early 1970s, when its use came under criticism. In 1974, the Trustees declared the \"use of the", "Dartmouth's alumni are known for their devotion to the college. Most start by giving to the Senior Class Gift. According to a 2008 article in \"The Wall Street Journal\" based on data from payscale.com, Dartmouth graduates also earn higher median salaries at least 10 years after graduation than alumni of any other American university surveyed. By 2008, Dartmouth had graduated 238 classes of students, and had over 60,000 living alumni in a variety of fields. Nelson A. Rockefeller, 41st Vice President of the United States and 49th Governor of New York, graduated \"cum laude\" from Dartmouth with a degree in economics in 1930. Over 164 Dartmouth graduates have served in the United States Senate and United States House of Representatives, such as Massachusetts statesman Daniel Webster. Cabinet members of American presidents include Attorney General Amos T. Akerman, Secretary of Defense James V. Forrestal, Secretary of Labor Robert Reich, Secretary of the Treasury Henry Paulson, and Secretary of the Treasury Timothy Geithner. C. Everett Koop was the Surgeon General of the United States under President Ronald Reagan. Two Dartmouth alumni have served as justices on the Supreme Court of the United States: Salmon P. Chase and Levi Woodbury. Eugene Norman Veasey (class of 1954) served as the Chief Justice of Delaware. The 46th Governor of Pennsylvania, Tom Wolf; the 42nd Governor of Illinois, businessman Bruce Rauner; and the 31st governor and current senator from North Dakota, John Hoeven (R), are also Dartmouth alumni. Ernesto de la Guardia, class of 1925, was president of the Republic of Panama. In literature and journalism, Dartmouth has produced 13 Pulitzer Prize winners: Thomas M. Burton, Richard Eberhart, Dan Fagin, Paul Gigot, Frank Gilroy, Jake Hooker, Nigel Jaquiss, Joseph Rago, Martin J. Sherwin, David K. Shipler, David Shribman, Justin Harvey Smith and Robert Frost. Frost, who received four Pulitzer Prizes for Poetry in his lifetime, attended but did not graduate from Dartmouth; he is, however, the only person to have received two honorary degrees from Dartmouth. Other authors and media personalities include ABC Senior White House correspondent Jake Tapper, novelist and founding editor of \"The Believer\" Heidi Julavits, \"Dean of rock critics\" Robert Christgau, National Book Award winners Louise Erdrich and Phil Klay, novelist/screenwriter Budd Schulberg, political commentator Dinesh D'Souza, radio talk show host Laura Ingraham, commentator Mort Kondracke, and journalist James Panero. Norman Maclean, professor at the University of Chicago and author of \"A River Runs Through It and Other Stories\", graduated from Dartmouth in 1924. Theodor Geisel, better known as children's author Dr. Seuss, was a member of the class of", "Dartmouth College has appeared in or been referenced by a number of popular media. Most notably, the 1978 comedy film \"National Lampoon's Animal House\" was co-written by Chris Miller '63, and is based loosely on a series of stories he wrote about his fraternity days at Dartmouth. In a CNN interview, John Landis said the movie was \"based on Chris Miller's real fraternity at Dartmouth\", Alpha Delta Phi. Dartmouth's Winter Carnival tradition was the subject of the 1939 film \"Winter Carnival\" starring Ann Sheridan and written by Budd Schulberg '36 and F. Scott Fitzgerald." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development and release.", "Summary.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Filmmakers Ray Nowosielski and John Duffy first became interested in making a film about the September 11 attacks when they found Paul Thompson's \"Complete 911 Timeline\" website in spring 2003. After obtaining funding, they met Thompson in September 2004, who agreed to let them adapt his work. The filmmakers also met Kyle Hence, who had co-founded 9/11 Citizens Watch, an advocacy organization which monitored the activities of the 9/11 Commission on behalf of the public and was in close contact with the 9/11 Family Steering Committee. He agreed to join the production as executive producer (eventually also becoming a co-producer and co-writer), and in the spring of 2005, helped them get interviews with three of the \"Jersey Girls\" (widows of individuals killed in the attacks). Production ended in December 2005, with post-production completed in July 2006. The film premiered theatrically in September 2006 in New York City and the San Francisco Bay area. It received a simultaneous limited DVD release in over fifty cities across America as well as Canada, Great Britain, the Czech Republic, Australia, and Japan.", "\"9/11: Press for Truth\" follows three of the Jersey Girls, as well as some other family members in their search for answers about the September 11 attacks. Among their questions were: The film uses archive news footage, interviews, press conferences and newspaper clippings to document the attacks and the establishment and workings of the 9/11 Commission. The film can be roughly divided into three sections: The first part of the film describes the efforts to pressure the U.S. government into setting up a formal investigation and shows how eventually the decision was made to create the 9/11 Commission. The family members in turn, set up a group called the 9/11 Family Steering Committee, to monitor the Commission and provide it with additional questions. The film shows some of the initial stumbles of the Commission, such as the resignation of Henry Kissinger, the original chairman of the Commission, after receiving criticism for refusing to release the names of all his firm's clients. It denounces some of the decisions of the Bush Administration, such as only allowing certain members of the Commission to review sensitive White House documents, and president George W. Bush and vice president Dick Cheney agreeing to meet with the Commission, but only together, behind closed doors and not under oath. The segment ends with the Jersey Girls complaining that the eventual report of the 9/11 Commission failed to meet their expectations. The second part begins by expounding the Jersey Girls' complaints of what they perceive as unsatisfactory coverage by the U.S. news media. It introduces Paul Thompson, who discusses what he claims is evidence showing the U.S. government was aware of the threat of planes being flown into buildings, and that it ignored numerous warnings from foreign countries. He then describes the August 6, 2001 President's Daily Brief (entitled \"Bin Ladin Determined To Strike in US\") that gave a general warning about a possible attack. The final part of the film looks at the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan, detailing how Osama Bin Laden, along with top members of Al-Qaeda and the Taliban, was able to repeatedly escape while being chased by U.S. forces, eventually fleeing to Pakistan. It also elaborates briefly on the Soviet–Afghan War and how the Afghan Muhajadeen, some elements of which later played a role in Al-Qaeda, were funded by the U.S. to fight the Soviets. This is followed by a look at Indian claims that Pakistani intelligence service ISI was involved in funding the 9/11 hijackers, and blames the 9/11 Commission for a lack of attention to this investigational avenue. The film concludes with a final reflection on what it sees as shortcomings in the U.S. news media.", "The film was reviewed by New Zealand news site \"Scoop.co.nz\", \"The New American\", \"The Stanford Daily\", \"Santa Maria Sun\", \"The Hartford Courant\", \"Slant Magazine\", \"The Indianapolis Star\", \"NUVO\", \"The Albuquerque Tribune\", Polish magazine \"Przekrój\", and Glenn Erickson from DVD Talk. Nowosielski and Duffy later produced the documentary \"Who is Rich Blee\", deducing the identities of several CIA agents inside the Bin Laden Issue Station in the years immediately before 2001. Before publication, the CIA threatened them under the Intelligence Identities Protection Act. Their documentary was posted with the names redacted. But they claim their webmaster accidentally posted some emails that contained the identities." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Structure.", "Function.", "Clinical significance.", "Cancer.", "Diagnostics.", "Cancer stem cells.", "Evolution.", "Name." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The human NANOG protein coded by the NANOG1 gene, consists of 305 amino acids and possesses 3 functional domains: the N-terminal domain, the C- terminal domain, and the conserved homeodomain motif. The homeodomain region facilitates DNA binding. The human Nanog 1 gene is located on chromosome 12, and the mRNA contains a 915 bp open reading frame (ORF) with 4 exons and 3 introns. The N-terminal region of human NANOG is rich in serine, threonine and proline residues, and the C-terminus contains a tryptophan-rich domain. The homeodomain in hNANOG ranges from residues 95 to 155. There are also additional NANOG genes (NANOG2, NANOG p8) which potentially affect ESCs' differentiation. Scientists have shown that NANOG1 is fundamental for self-renewal and pluripotency, and NANOG p8 is highly expressed in cancer cells.", "NANOG is a transcription factor in embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and is thought to be a key factor in maintaining pluripotency. NANOG is thought to function in concert with other factors such as POU5F1 (Oct-4) and SOX2 to establish ESC identity. These cells offer an important area of study because of their ability to maintain pluripotency. In other words, these cells have the ability to become virtually any cell of any of the three germ layers (endoderm, ectoderm, mesoderm). It is for this reason that understanding the mechanisms that maintain a cell's pluripotency is critical for researchers to understand how stem cells work, and may lead to future advances in treating degenerative diseases. Analysis of arrested embryos demonstrated that embryos express pluripotency marker genes such as POU5F1, NANOG and Rex1. Derived human ESC lines also expressed specific pluripotency markers: These markers allowed for the differentiation \"in vitro\" and \"in vivo\" conditions into derivatives of all three germ layers. POU5F1, TDGF1 (CRIPTO), SALL4, LECT1, and BUB1 are also related genes all responsible for self-renewal and pluripotent differentiation. The NANOG protein has been found to be a transcriptional activator for the Rex1 promoter, playing a key role in sustaining Rex1 expression. Knockdown of NANOG in embryonic stem cells results in a reduction of Rex1 expression, while forced expression of NANOG stimulates Rex1 expression. Besides the effects of NANOG in the embryonic stages of life, ectopic expression of NANOG in the adult stem cells can restore the proliferation and differentiation potential that is lost due to organismal aging or cellular senescence.", "", "NANOG is highly expressed in cancer stem cells and may thus function as an oncogene to promote carcinogenesis. High expression of NANOG correlates with poor survival in cancer patients. Recent researches has shown that the localization of NANOG and other transcription factors have potential consequences on cellular function. Experimental evidence has shown that the level of NANOG p8 expression is elevated specially in cancer cells, which mean that NANOG p8 gene is a critical member in (CSCs) Cancer stem cells, so knocking it down could reduce the cancer malignancy.", "NANOG p8 gene has been evaluated as a prognostic and predictive cancer biomarker.", "Nanog is a transcription factor that controls both self-renewal and pluripotency of embryonic stem cells. Similarly, the expression of Nanog family proteins is increased in many types of cancer and correlates with a worse prognosis.", "Humans and chimpanzees share ten NANOG pseudogenes (NanogP2-P11) during evaluation, two of them are located on the X chromosome and they characterized by the 5’ promoter sequences and the absence of introns as a result of mRNA retrotransposition all in the same places: one duplication pseudogene and nine retropseudogenes. Of the nine shared NANOG retropseudogenes, two lack the poly-(A) tails characteristic of most retropseudogenes, indicating that copying errors occurred during their creation. Due to the high improbability that the same pseudogenes (copying errors included) would exist in the same places in two unrelated genomes, evolutionary biologists point to NANOG and its pseudogenes as providing evidence of common descent between humans and chimpanzees.", "The name NANOG derives from Tír na nÓg (Irish for \"Land of the Young\"), a name given to the Celtic Otherworld in Irish and Scottish mythology. Residents of Tír na nÓg are described as having eternal health and youth, hence the connection to the NANOG protein." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Political career.", "Views and opinions.", "Media perception.", "Controversies.", "Statements towards Arab members of Knesset.", "Statements about Egypt.", "Statements about Palestinians.", "Conflict with Mossad.", "Relations with Vladimir Putin.", "Investigations and allegations.", "Conviction for assault.", "Corruption investigation and trial." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Evet Lvovich Lieberman (later Avigdor Lieberman) was born to a Russian-speaking Jewish family in Kishinev, Soviet Union (now Chișinău, Moldova). His father Lev (18 May 1921 – 2 July 2007) was a writer who had served in the Red Army and spent seven years in a Siberian exile under Joseph Stalin's rule, where he met his wife Esther (2 July 1923 – 4 December 2014). His parents imbued him with a strong secular Jewish identity and consciously taught him only Yiddish up until the age of three. Inheriting a love of Russian literature from his father, Lieberman had dreamed of becoming a poet. Lieberman attributes his forthright personality to his youth in the large Jewish community of 1970s Kishinev, saying: \"Jews were 25 percent of the population of Kishinev [during the 1970s]... We were more affluent, better educated, and we showed it... The Jews of Moldova have this no-nonsense streak.\" After high school, Lieberman enrolled at the Chișinău Agriculture Institute majoring in hydrological land improvement. As a student in Moldova, his passion for Russian literary classics continued, as he won first prize for a play he wrote, and dreamed of a literary career. Lieberman and his family immigrated to Israel on 18 June 1978. Lieberman studied Hebrew at an ulpan and changed his first name to Avigdor. He was conscripted into the Israel Defense Forces, and was only obligated to do one year of active service instead of three, during which he served in the IDF military government", "In 1983-1988, Lieberman helped found the Zionist Forum for Soviet Jewry and was a member of the Board of the Jerusalem Economic Corporation and the Secretary of the Jerusalem branch of the Histadrut Ovdim Le'umit (\"National Workers' Union\"). In 1988, he started working with Benjamin Netanyahu. From 1993 to 1996, following Netanyahu's election as party leader, Lieberman served as Director-General of the Likud party. After Netanyahu was elected Prime Minister, Lieberman served as Director-General of the Prime Minister's Office from 1996 to 1997. In 1997, Lieberman resigned from Likud after Prime Minister Netanyahu granted concessions to the Palestinians in the Wye River Memorandum, and expressed disappointment when Yisrael BaAliyah, a new immigrant party headed by Natan Sharansky did not quit the coalition government in protest. In 1999, Lieberman formed the Yisrael Beiteinu party to create a platform for Soviet immigrants who supported a hard line in negotiations with the Palestinians. The party ran for the Knesset during the 1999 legislative election, and ran on a joint list with Aliyah, a party formed by Michael Nudelman and Yuri Stern, who had broken away from Yisrael BaAliyah. The new party won four seats, one of which was taken by Lieberman. Lieberman served on the Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee and State Control Committee, and as Chairman of the Israel-Moldova Parliamentary Friendship League. In March 2001, Lieberman was appointed Minister of National Infrastructure, but resigned in March 2002. In the 2003 legislative election, Yisrael Beiteinu ran on a joint list with the National Union. The joint list won seven seats, with Yisrael Beiteinu allotted four of them. In February 2003, Lieberman was appointed Minister of Transport, and resigned from the Knesset to take a seat in the Cabinet. He maintained leadership of the party and returned to the Knesset in 2006. Later he would simultaneously serve in the Knesset and Cabinet. In May 2004, Lieberman was dismissed from the cabinet by Prime Minister Ariel Sharon due to his opposition to the Gaza disengagement, and Yisrael Beiteinu left the government in June in protest of the disengagement. In the 2006 legislative election, Lieberman's party split from the National Union to run alone. The party won eleven seats, a gain from its previous six seats. It was initially in the opposition, but in October 2006, Lieberman and Prime Minister Ehud Olmert signed a coalition agreement under which Lieberman became the Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Strategic Affairs, a newly created position with a focus towards the strategic threat from Iran. In December 2006, he called Iranian nuclear proliferation \"the biggest threat facing the Jewish people since the Second World War\". He advocated that Israel join the European Union and NATO. Lieberman resigned his cabinet position and Yisrael Beiteinu left the coalition in January 2008. He cited opposition to the resuming peace talks, saying that \"Negotiations on the basis of land for peace are a critical mistake... and will destroy us.\" Yisrael Beiteinu, which was described at times as Lieberman's \"one man's party\" for its media-closed meetings and party members' reluctance to give interviews, emerged as the third largest party in Israel after 2009 legislative election and on 16 March, it entered the coalition government led by Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. Lieberman was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs and Deputy Prime Minister. On 25 October 2012, Lieberman and Benjamin Netanyahu announced that their respective political parties, Likud and Yisrael Beiteinu, had merged and would run together on a single ballot in Israel's 22 January 2013 general elections. \"In view of the challenges we're facing, we need responsibility on a national level... We're providing a true alternative, and an opportunity for the citizens to stabilize leadership and government,\" Lieberman said. Lieberman was appointed Minister of Defense in May 2016. He resigned from the Knesset under the Norwegian Law, allowing Yulia Malinovsky to replace him. Lieberman has attracted interest of voters from Israel's business community. Former ambassador to the United States Danny Gillerman explains: \"His agenda is interesting, especially the combination between his vigorous opposition to a state of halakha and his uncompromising condition of the formation of a national-unity government. There is a yearning for leadership, and this milieu is fed up with the parties and with religious coercion.\" Dalia Itzik has said “He represents the historic Mapai today.”", "Lieberman believes the peace process is based on three false basic assumptions: that “Israeli-Palestinian conflict is the main cause of instability in the Middle East; that the conflict is territorial and not ideological; and that the establishment of a Palestinian state based on the 1967 borders will end the conflict.\" In late May 2004, Lieberman unveiled the Lieberman Plan, proposing that the populations and territories of Israeli Jews and Arabs, including some Israeli Arabs, would be \"separated\". According to the plan, also known as the \"Populated-Area Exchange Plan\", Israeli Arab towns adjacent to Palestinian Authority areas would be transferred to Palestinian Authority, and only those Arab Israelis who migrated from the area to within Israel's new borders and pledged loyalty to Israel would be allowed to remain Israeli citizens. On 30 May 2004, Prime Minister Ariel Sharon condemned Lieberman's statements, stating \"We regard Israeli Arabs as part of the State of Israel.\" On 4 June 2004, as the disputes over the up-coming disengagement plan grew more intense, Sharon dismissed Lieberman from the cabinet. After the 2009 Israeli elections, Lieberman said he changed his mind in recent years and decided to support the creation of a Palestinian state. He wrote in a letter to \"The Jewish Week\" that he \"advocates the creation of a viable Palestinian state\", and told \"The Washington Post\" that he would agree to the evacuation of Nokdim \"if there really will be a two-state solution\". He stated in the Knesset that \"reality changes\" and that his shift had occurred over the last few years. In his \"The Jewish Week\" article, Lieberman tried to explain his party's \"no", "A large number of media sources within and outside of Israel have labelled Yisrael Beiteinu and Lieberman as right wing to far right or ultra-nationalist. However, in general, Israelis are divided on how to characterize Lieberman's politics. In a 2014 poll conducted in Israel, 62% saw Lieberman as a national leader. Yisrael Beiteinu has shown support for a two-state solution and were also noted for a secularist approach upon leading new legislation for", "", "A polarizing figure within Israeli politics, Lieberman is quoted as saying, \"I've always been controversial because I offer new ideas. For me to be controversial, I think this is positive.\" Lieberman has called to redraw the border between Israel and the West Bank so that Israel would include large Jewish settlement blocs and the Palestinian state would include large Arab-Israeli population centers. He proposed that Israel's citizens should sign a loyalty oath or lose their right to vote. In November 2006, Lieberman, who described Arab members of the Knesset that meet with Hamas as \"terror collaborators\", called for their execution: \"World War II ended with the Nuremberg Trials. The heads of the Nazi regime, along with their", "In 1998, news reports stated that Lieberman suggested the bombing of the Aswan Dam in retaliation for Egyptian support for Yasser Arafat. In 2001, reports stated that he told a group of ambassadors from the Former Soviet Union that if Egypt and Israel were ever to face off militarily again, that Israel could bomb the Aswan Dam. Since the signing of the Egyptian–Israeli Peace Treaty, which followed Egyptian President Anwar Sadat's historic visit to Israel, multiple Israeli heads of state have visited Egypt on numerous occasions. However, Sadat's successor,", "Following a series of attacks on Israelis perpetrated by Palestinian militants during a three-day period in March 2002, Lieberman proposed issuing an ultimatum to the Palestinian National Authority to halt all militant activity or face wide-ranging attacks. He said, \"if it were up to me I would notify the Palestinian Authority that tomorrow at ten in the morning we would bomb all their places of business in Ramallah, for example.\" This led then Foreign Minister Shimon Peres to respond that excessive military measures could lead to accusations of war crimes and that the Israeli administration must not \"escalate the situation\". In July 2003, reacting to a commitment made by then Prime Minister Ariel Sharon to the US, where amnesty could be given to approximately 350 Palestinian prisoners including members of Hamas and Islamic Jihad, Lieberman rejected a chance to participate in the related committee and said \"It would be better to drown these prisoners in the Dead Sea if possible, since that's the lowest point in the world,\" Lieberman continued, according to Galei Tzahal ('Israel Army Radio'), by stating his willingness, as Minister of Transport, to supply buses to take the prisoners there. Lieberman's suggestion also led to", "In 2011, Lieberman became the first Foreign Minister to sever ties with the Mossad. Lieberman ordered the foreign ministry", "After the 2011 Duma election, in which Russian President Vladimir Putin's party United Russia won, Lieberman was the first international politician to describe them as \"absolutely fair, free and democratic\". Putin has described Lieberman's own political career as \"brilliant\". Lieberman's pro-Russian stance and perceived friendly relations with Putin have also drawn criticism from other Israelis.", "", "On 24 September 2001, Lieberman acknowledged in the Jerusalem District Court that he attacked a twelve-year-old youth from Tekoa, who had hit his son. The incident occurred in December 1999 in the Nokdim settlement. His son told him that three boys hit him. Lieberman located one of the boys in a trailer and hit him in", "Some of Lieberman's connections with local and foreign businessmen were under police investigation. Lieberman allegedly received millions of shekels from various entrepreneurs while serving as member of Knesset; under Israeli law, MKs are not allowed to receive any payment beyond their salary. One claim was that Michael Cherney paid a company called Path to the East large amounts of money between the years 1999 and 2006, and that these sums were then allegedly passed on to Lieberman as a bribe. Other allegations concern a company called M.L.1, founded by Lieberman's daughter Michal when she was 21. These allegations concern money transferred to M.L.1 from unknown sources outside Israel; the money was later allegedly used for paying salaries to Avigdor and Michal Lieberman. Lieberman was also under investigation for receiving a bribe from Austrian-Jewish businessman Martin Schlaff. Lieberman denied all allegations of wrongdoing in these cases, and claims that the police are conspiring against him. In particular, he has pointed to the proximity of his investigation to the 2009 Israeli elections and said that such investigations are \"part of my routine before every parliamentary election.\" Allegations of bias on the part of the police have also been reported in Arutz Sheva, which reported that the investigation, which had been" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Causes.", "As a symptom.", "As a disorder.", "Treatment.", "Terminology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "There is little consensus among experts as to the causes of hypersexuality. Some research suggests that some cases can be linked to biochemical or physiological changes that accompany dementia. Psychological needs also complicate the biological explanation, which identifies the temporal/frontal lobe of the brain as the area for regulating libido. Persons suffering from injuries to this part of the brain are at increased risk for aggressive behavior and other behavioral problems including personality changes and socially inappropriate sexual behavior such as hypersexuality. The same symptom can occur after unilateral temporal lobotomy. There are other biological factors that are associated with hypersexuality such as premenstrual changes, and the exposure to virilising hormones in childhood or in utero. In research involving the use of antiandrogens to reduce undesirable sexual behaviour such as hypersexuality, testosterone has been found to be necessary, but not sufficient, for sexual drive. Other proposed factors include a lack of physical closeness and forgetfulness of the recent past. Pathogenic overactivity of the dopaminergic mesolimbic pathway in the brain—forming either psychiatrically, during mania, or pharmacologically, as a side effect of dopamine agonists, specifically D-preferring agonists—is associated with various addictions and has been shown to result among some in overindulgent, sometimes hypersexual, behavior. HPA axis dysregulation has been associated with hypersexual disorder. The American Association for Sex Addiction Therapy acknowledges biological factors as contributing causes of sex addiction. Other associated factors include psychological components (which affect mood and motivation as well as psychomotoric and cognitive functions), spiritual control, mood disorders, sexual trauma, and intimacy anorexia as causes or type of sex addiction.", "Hypersexuality is known to present itself as a symptom in connection to a number of mental and neurological disorders. Some people with borderline personality disorder (sometimes referred to as BPD) can be markedly impulsive, seductive, and extremely sexual. Sexual promiscuity, sexual obsessions, and hypersexuality are very common symptoms for both men and women with BPD. On occasion for some there can be extreme forms of paraphilic drives and desires. \"Borderline\" patients, due in the opinion of some to the use of splitting, experience love and sexuality in unstable ways. People with bipolar disorder may often display tremendous swings in sex drive depending on their mood. As defined in the DSM-IV-TR, hypersexuality can be a symptom of hypomania or mania in bipolar disorder or schizoaffective disorder. Pick's disease causes damage to the temporal/frontal lobe of the brain; people with Pick's disease show a range of socially inappropriate behaviors. Several neurological conditions such as Alzheimer's disease, autism, various types of brain injury, Klüver–Bucy syndrome, Kleine–Levin syndrome, and many more neurodegenerative diseases can cause hypersexual behavior. Sexually inappropriate behavior has been shown to occur in 7–8% of Alzheimer's patients living at home, at a care facility or in a hospital setting. Hypersexuality has also been reported to result as a side-effect of some medications used to treat Parkinson's disease. Some street drugs, such as methamphetamine, may also contribute to hypersexual behavior. A positive link between the severity of dementia and occurrence of inappropriate behavior has also been found. Hypersexuality can be caused by dementia in a number of ways, including disinhibition due to organic disease, misreading of social cues, understimulation, the persistence of learned sexual behaviour after other behaviours have been lost, and the side-effects of the drugs used to treat dementia. Other possible causes of dementia-related hypersexuality include an inappropriately expressed psychological need for intimacy and forgetfulness of the recent past. As this illness progresses, increasing hypersexuality has been theorized to sometimes compensate for declining self-esteem and cognitive function. Symptoms of hypersexuality are also similar to those of sexual addiction in that they embody similar traits. These symptoms include the inability to be intimate (intimacy anorexia), depression and bipolar disorders. The resulting hypersexuality may have an impact in the person's social and occupational domains if the underlying symptoms have a large enough systemic influence.", ", a proposal to add \"Sexual Addiction\" to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) system has failed to get support of the American Psychiatric Association (APA). The DSM does include an entry called Sexual Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (Sexual Disorder NOS) to apply to, among other conditions, \"distress about a pattern of repeated sexual relationships involving a succession of lovers who are experienced by the individual only as things to be used\". The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10) of the World Health Organization (WHO), includes two relevant entries. One is \"Excessive Sexual Drive\" (coded F52.7), which is divided into satyriasis for males and nymphomania for females. The other is \"Excessive Masturbation\" or \"Onanism (excessive)\" (coded F98.8). In 1988, Levine and Troiden questioned whether it makes sense to discuss hypersexuality at all, arguing that labeling sexual urges \"extreme\" merely stigmatizes people who do not conform to the norms of their culture or peer group, and that sexual compulsivity is a myth. However, and in contrast to this view, 30 years later in 2018, the ICD-11 created a new condition classification, compulsive sexual behavior, to cover \"a persistent pattern of failure to control intense, repetitive sexual impulses or urges resulting in repetitive sexual behaviour\". It classifies this \"failure to control\" as an abnormal mental health condition.", "Hypersexuality may negatively impact an individual. The concept of hypersexuality as an addiction was started in the 1970s by former members of Alcoholics Anonymous who felt they experienced a similar lack of control and compulsivity with sexual behaviors as with alcohol. Multiple 12-step style self-help groups now exist for people who identify as sex addicts, including Sex Addicts Anonymous, Sexaholics Anonymous, Sex and Love Addicts Anonymous, and Sexual Compulsives Anonymous. Some hypersexuals may treat their condition with the usage of medication (such as Cyproterone acetate) or consuming foods considered to be anaphrodisiacs. Other hypersexuals may choose a route of consultation, such as psychotherapy, self-help groups or counselling.", "The \"Merriam-Webster Dictionary\" defines \"hypersexual\" as \"exhibiting unusual or excessive concern with or indulgence in sexual activity\". Sexologists have been using the term \"hypersexuality\" since the late 1800s, when Krafft-Ebing described several cases of extreme sexual behaviours in his seminal 1886 book, \"Psychopathia Sexualis.\" The author used the term \"hypersexuality\" to describe conditions that would now be termed premature ejaculation. Terms to describe males with the condition include \"donjuanist\", \"satyromaniac\",\"satyriac\" and \"satyriasist\", for women \"clitoromaniac\", \"nympho\" and \"nymphomaniac\", for teleiophilic (attracted to adults) heterosexual women \"andromaniac\", while \"hypersexualist\", \"sexaholic\", \"onanist\", \"hyperphiliac\" and \"erotomaniac\" are gender neutral terms. Other, mostly historical, names include Don Juanism, the Messalina complex, sexaholism, hyperlibido and furor uterinus." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Conceptual development.", "Construction.", "Flight test.", "Curtiss-Sperry Flying Bomb.", "Return of the N-9.", "Follow-on programs." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Before World War I, the possibility of using radio to control aircraft intrigued many inventors. One of these, Elmer Sperry, succeeded in arousing the US Navy's interest. Sperry had been perfecting gyroscopes for naval use since 1896 and established the Sperry Gyroscope Company in 1910. In 1911, airplanes had only been flying for eight years, and yet Sperry became intrigued with the concept of applying radio control to them. He realized that for radio control to be effective, automatic stabilization would be essential, so he decided to adapt his naval gyro-stabilizers (which he had developed for destroyers). In 1913, the Navy provided a flying boat to test and evaluate the gyro-based autopilot. Sperry's son Lawrence served as an engineer during the test phase. In 1914, Lawrence Sperry was in Europe and observed the developing techniques of aerial warfare, including the use of aircraft. In 1915, the New-York Tribune broke the news of the project. In 1916, the two Sperrys joined Peter Hewitt, an early inventor of radio-related devices, to develop an explosive-laden pilotless airplane. Elmer Sperry and Hewitt served together on the Naval Consulting Board, where they both were members of the Committee on Aeronautics and Aeronautical Motors. Because of these connections, they were able to arrange for a representative of the Navy's Bureau of Ordnance, Lt. T. S. Wilkinson, to examine the control equipment they assembled. The system consisted of a gyroscopic stabilizer, a directive gyroscope, an aneroid barometer to regulate height, servo-motors for control of rudders and ailerons, and a device for distance gearing. These all could be installed in an airplane which could be catapulted or flown from the water, and would climb to a predetermined altitude, fly a pre-set course, and after traveling a pre-set distance, drop its bombs or dive to the ground. Wilkinson reported that the weapon did not possess a degree of accuracy sufficient to hit a ship, but, because of its range of 50 to, it might be of interest to the Army.", "However, after the US declaration of war on Germany, Sperry began urging the Navy to revisit the idea. The Naval Consulting Board supported him, and formally requested the Secretary of Navy to apportion $50,000 for the work. The government thus included the development of the flying bomb or aerial torpedo in its war preparations. The Senate went so far as to establish two classes for the type weapon, one for wireless control, the other for completely automatic operation. Final approval came on May 17, 1917, and the Navy agreed to provide five (later upped to seven) Curtiss N-9 seaplanes and to purchase six sets of the Sperry automatic control gear. Navy Secretary Josephus Daniels agreed to spend $200,000 on the project, with the money to be administered by the Bureau of Ordnance, the Bureau of Construction and Repair and the Bureau of Engineering. The operation was established at Copiague, Long Island. The autopilot equipment was already designed, but the radio control system hadn't been fully developed, so while the hangars were being built at Copiague, Sperry turned his attention to this aspect, purchasing rights to a number of patented radio-related inventions. Ultimately, though, the radio control systems were not used on the Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane. Later, in 1922, the system was installed on several Verville-designed planes along with gear for the Army Air Services engineering division. These aircraft successfully hit their targets from ranges of 30, 60 and.", "The first test flights of an autopilot-equipped aircraft was in September, 1917, and took place with a human pilot on board to fly the takeoff. By November, the system successfully flew the aircraft to its intended target at a range, where the distance-measuring gear would drop a bag of sand. Accuracy was within two miles (3 km) of target. Having observed the test flights, Rear Admiral Ralph Earle proposed a program to eliminate the German U-boat threat, one element of which was to use flying bombs, launched from Navy ships, to attack the submarine bases at Wilhelmshaven, Cuxhaven and Heligoland. Ultimately this plan was rejected, but had an element of prophecy, for in September 1944, during World War II, a modified B-24 flying as a drone attacked the submarine installations at Heligoland. Not only was Earle's recommendation rejected, but the Navy declared that though development of the system was to continue, no production resources were to be diverted to it, and it was not to go into production.", "When the N-9 flight test program got started, it became apparent that a more efficient airframe was needed. Because war production deliveries could not be diverted, a special, rush order was placed with Curtiss in October, 1917, for six planes of unique design, with an empty weight of, top speed of, range of and the capability of carrying up to of explosives. They became known as the Curtiss-Sperry Flying Bomb. Because this was to be a design dedicated to the remote control concept, the planes were not equipped with seats or standard pilot controls. No flight or wind-tunnel testing of the design was performed before production began. The first was delivered on November 10. One of the most daunting challenges to the designers was the launch mechanism. The original concept envisioned by Hewitt and Sperry was a catapult mechanism or from the water (the N-9s were seaplanes, the Flying Bomb was not). For the Flying Bomb, it was decided to try to launch it by sliding it down a long wire. In November and December 1917, three attempts were made to launch the Flying Bomb. On the first launch, one wing was damaged as the plane went down the wire, and on the second, the plane lifted from the wire but immediately plunged to the ground. The wire method was then abandoned in favor of a traditional catapult with a track, with power obtained from a 3-ton weight being dropped from a height of. On the third try, the plane lagged behind the cart, damaging the propeller, and the plane flipped over its nose. Two more attempts in January, 1918, saw the plane get airborne, but it was too tail-heavy, so it stalled and crashed almost immediately. It was realized that some flight test evaluation of the aircraft's capabilities was necessary. One of the planes was then fitted out with sled runners for landing gear, a seat and standard control stick, and Lawrence Sperry decided that he would be the test pilot. While taxiing it on ice, he hit some slushy snow, and wrecked the plane, though Sperry was unhurt. A second airplane was fitted out, and Sperry managed to get it in the air, but lost control when the automatic pilot was engaged. After two complete rolls, Sperry managed to regain control and land safely. Clearly, though, more attention to flight testing the basic design was needed, particularly in the area of handling qualities. Sperry and his assistant, N. W. Dalton, obtained a Marmon automobile, and mounted the Curtiss-Sperry Flying Bomb to the top of it. In this configuration, Sperry and his crew drove the Long Island Motor Parkway at, one of the first examples of an open-air wind tunnel, and adjusted the flight controls to what they thought was the optimum settings. The design of the fuselage was changed slightly, lengthening it by two feet. The Marmon was not only an excellent way to adjust the flight controls, it was realized that it would also be a good launching platform, and this was tried on March 6, 1918. The aircraft left the car cleanly, and flew in stable flight for the that the distance-measuring gear had been set for. For the first time in history, an unmanned, heavier-than-air vehicle had flown in controlled flight. The feat, however, could not be duplicated, and it was thought that the roadway was too rough. The Marmon was fitted with railroad wheels, and an unused spur of the Long Island Rail Road, four miles (6 km) east of Farmingdale, New York was put back into service. On the first try, before full flying speed had been reached, the aircraft developed enough lift to raise the front wheels off the track, and another crash resulted. It was time to re-think the catapult system, and to help design it, Sperry and Hewitt hired a young and promising engineer named Carl Norden. The first try with the new system was in August, 1918, and it too resulted in a crash. Two more tests were tried, with the stabilization package that had been design for the Flying Bomb replaced with the four-gyro system used earlier on the N-9 tests, but the result was again a disappointment, with very short flights ending in crashes. On the last one, on September 26, the Flying Bomb climbed straight for about a hundred yards, then entered a spiral dive and crashed. This was the final flight for the Curtiss-Sperry Flying Bomb, as all the usable airframes had been consumed in crashes, and there remained no confidence in the design. Sperry and Hewitt returned to the N-9.", "The Sperrys built a wind tunnel at the Washington Navy Yard and carried out a series of tests on the N-9, fine tuning the design. On October 17, an unmanned N-9 was launched using the new Norden catapult system. It came cleanly off the track, climbed steadily and flew within 2° of the line of intended flight. The distance gear had been set for a flight of eight miles (13 km), but somehow malfunctioned. When last seen, the N-9 was cruising over Bayshore Air Station at about, heading east. It was never seen again. Despite the success of the stabilization gear, there was doubt in the Navy about the program, and they asked Carl Norden to review the Sperry components and recommend improvement. The navy was, by now, satisfied with the concept, and was contemplating purchasing such equipment on its own, apart from the Sperrys. Elmer Sperry tried to stir up enthusiasm again, calling the concept of the flying bomb the \"gun of the future\". This was to no avail, however. World War I came to a close when the Armistice was signed on November 11, 1918. Almost a hundred flights had been flown in the N-9, but almost all of these were in the N-9s and had a safety pilot on board. The Navy took complete control of the program from Sperry, spelling the end of the Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane.", "During the early post-war years, the Navy sponsored similar projects. For the first program, Witteman-Lewis aircraft and Norden-designed gyrostabilizers were used, but the results were no better than those achieved by the Sperrys. In 1921, the program was reoriented to focus on the radio control aspect. The control equipment was developed at the radio laboratory at NAS Anacostia (later the Naval Research Laboratory). In 1923, tests began, and were relatively successful, but interest waned and the project lapsed in 1925. Over a decade was to pass before the Navy seriously undertook the development of target drones and pilotless aircraft." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Historical changes.", "Official status.", "Controversy.", "Use in education.", "Geographic distribution.", "Classification.", "Dialects.", "Accents.", "Code-switching with English.", "Phonology.", "Vowels.", "Consonants.", "Stress and final glottal stop.", "Writing system.", "Baybayin.", "Latin alphabet.", "Abecedario.", "Abakada.", "Revised alphabet.", "\"ng\" and \"mga\".", "\"pô/hô\" and \"opò/ohò\".", "Vocabulary and borrowed words.", "Austronesian comparison chart.", "Religious literature.", "Examples.", "Lord's Prayer.", "Universal Declaration of Human Rights.", "Numbers.", "Months and days.", "Time.", "Common phrases.", "Proverbs." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The word \"Tagalog\" is derived from the endonym \"taga-ilog\" (\"river dweller\"), composed of \"tagá-\" (\"native of\" or \"from\") and \"ilog\" (\"river\"). Linguists such as Dr. David Zorc and Dr. Robert Blust speculate that the Tagalogs and other Central Philippine ethno-linguistic groups originated in Northeastern Mindanao or the Eastern Visayas. Possible words of Old Tagalog origin are attested in the Laguna Copperplate Inscription from the tenth century, which is largely written in Old Malay. The first known complete book to be written in Tagalog is the \"Doctrina Christiana\" (Christian Doctrine), printed in 1593. The \"Doctrina\" was written in Spanish and two transcriptions of Tagalog; one in the ancient, then-current Baybayin script and the other in an early Spanish attempt at a Latin orthography for the language. Throughout the 333 years of Spanish rule, various grammars and dictionaries were written by Spanish clergymen. In 1610, the Dominican priest Francisco Blancas de San Jose published the \"Arte y reglas de la lengua tagala\" (which was subsequently revised with two editions in 1752 and 1832) in Bataan. In 1613, the Franciscan priest Pedro de San Buenaventura published the first Tagalog dictionary, his \"Vocabulario de la lengua tagala\" in Pila, Laguna. The first substantial dictionary of the Tagalog language was written by the Czech Jesuit missionary Pablo Clain in the beginning of the 18th century. Clain spoke Tagalog and used it actively in several of his books. He prepared the dictionary, which he later passed over to Francisco Jansens and José Hernandez. Further compilation of his substantial work was prepared by P. Juan de Noceda and P. Pedro de Sanlucar and published as \"Vocabulario de la lengua tagala\" in Manila in 1754 and then repeatedly reedited, with the last edition being in 2013 in Manila. Among others, \"Arte de la lengua tagala y manual tagalog para la administración de los Santos Sacramentos\" (1850) in addition to early studies of the language. The indigenous poet Francisco Baltazar (1788–1862) is regarded as the foremost Tagalog writer, his most notable work being the early 19th-century epic \"Florante at Laura\".", "Tagalog differs from its Central Philippine counterparts with its treatment of the Proto-Philippine schwa vowel. In most Bikol and Visayan languages, this sound merged with and. In Tagalog, it has merged with. For example, Proto-Philippine (adhere, stick) is Tagalog \"dikít\" and Visayan & Bikol \"dukot\". Proto-Philippine,, and merged with but is between vowels. Proto-Philippine (name) and (kiss) became Tagalog \"ngalan\" and \"halík\". Proto-Philippine merged with. (water) and (blood) became Tagalog \"tubig\" and \"dugô\".", "Tagalog was declared the official language by the first revolutionary constitution in the Philippines, the in 1897. In 1935, the Philippine constitution designated English and Spanish as official languages, but mandated the development and adoption of a common national language based on one of the existing native languages. After study and deliberation, the National Language Institute, a committee composed of seven members who represented various regions in the Philippines, chose Tagalog as the basis for the evolution and adoption of the national language of the Philippines. President Manuel L. Quezon then, on December 30, 1937, proclaimed the selection of the Tagalog language to be used as the basis for the evolution and adoption of the national language of the Philippines. In 1939, President Quezon renamed the proposed Tagalog-based national language as \"Wikang Pambansâ\" (national language). Under the Japanese puppet government during World War II, Tagalog as a national language was strongly promoted; the 1943 Constitution specifying: The government shall take steps toward the development and propagation of Tagalog as the national language.\". In 1959, the language was further renamed as \"Pilipino\". Along with English, the national language has had official status under the 1973 constitution (as \"Pilipino\") and the present 1987 constitution (as Filipino).", "The adoption of Tagalog in 1937 as basis for a national language is not without its own controversies. Instead of specifying Tagalog, the national language was designated as \"Wikang Pambansâ\" (\"National Language\") in 1939. Twenty years later, in 1959, it was renamed by then Secretary of Education, José Romero, as \"Pilipino\" to give it a national rather than ethnic label and connotation. The changing of the name did not, however, result in acceptance among non-Tagalogs, especially Cebuanos who had not accepted the selection. The national language issue was revived once more during the 1971 Constitutional Convention. The majority of the delegates were even in favor of scrapping the idea of a \"national language\" altogether. A compromise solution was worked out—a \"universalist\" approach to the national language, to be called \"Filipino\" rather than \"Pilipino\". The 1973 constitution makes no mention of Tagalog. When a new constitution was drawn up in 1987, it named Filipino as the national language. The constitution specified that as the Filipino language evolves, it shall be further developed and enriched on the basis of existing Philippine and other languages. However, more than two decades after the institution of the \"universalist\" approach, there seems to be little if any difference between Tagalog and Filipino. Many of the older generation in the Philippines feel that the replacement of English by Tagalog in the popular visual media has had dire economic effects regarding the competitiveness of the Philippines in trade and overseas remittances.", "Upon the issuance of \"Executive Order No. 134\", Tagalog was declared as basis of the National Language. On 12 April 1940, \"Executive No. 263\" was issued ordering the teaching of the national language in all public and private schools in the country. Article XIV, Section 6 of the 1987 Constitution of the Philippines specifies, in part: Under Section 7, however: In 2009, the Department of Education promulgated an order institutionalizing a system of mother-tongue based multilingual education (\"MLE\"), wherein instruction is conducted primarily in a student's mother tongue (one of the various regional Philippine languages) until at least grade three, with additional languages such as Filipino and English being introduced as separate subjects no earlier than grade two. In secondary school, Filipino and English become the primary languages of instruction, with the learner's first language taking on an auxiliary role. After pilot tests in selected schools, the MLE program was implemented nationwide from School Year (SY) 2012–2013. Tagalog is the first language of a quarter of the population of the Philippines (particularly in Central and Southern Luzon) and the second language for the majority.", "According to the Philippine Statistics Authority, as of 2014 there were 100 million people living in the Philippines, where the vast majority have some basic level of understanding of the language. The Tagalog homeland, Katagalugan, covers roughly much of the central to southern parts of the island of Luzon—particularly in Aurora, Bataan, Batangas, Bulacan, Cavite, Laguna, Metro Manila, Nueva Ecija, Quezon, Rizal, and Zambales. Tagalog is also spoken natively by inhabitants living on the islands of Marinduque and Mindoro, as well as Palawan to a lesser extent. Significant minorities are found in the other Central Luzon provinces of Pampanga and Tarlac, Ambos Camarines in Bicol Region, and the Cordillera city of Baguio. Tagalog is also the predominant language of Cotabato City in Mindanao, making it the only place outside of Luzon with a native Tagalog speaking majority. At the 2000 Philippines Census, it is spoken by approximately 57.3 million Filipinos, 96% of the household population who were able to attend school; slightly over 22 million, or 28% of the total Philippine population, speak it as a native language. The following regions and provinces of the Philippines are majority Tagalog-speaking (from north to south): Tagalog speakers are also found in other parts of the Philippines and through its standardized form of Filipino, the language serves the national \"lingua franca\" of the country. Tagalog also serves as the common language among Overseas Filipinos, though its use overseas is usually limited to communication between Filipino ethnic groups. The largest concentration of Tagalog speakers outside the Philippines is found in the United States, where in 2013, the U.S. Census Bureau reported (based on data collected in 2011) that it was the fourth most-spoken non-English language at home with almost 1.6 million speakers, behind Spanish, French (including Patois, Cajun, Creole), and Chinese (with figures for Cantonese and Mandarin combined). In urban areas, Tagalog ranked as the third most spoken non-English language, behind Spanish and Chinese varieties but ahead of French. Other countries with significant concentrations of overseas Filipinos and Tagalog speakers include Saudi Arabia, Canada, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, and Malaysia.", "Tagalog is a Central Philippine language within the Austronesian language family. Being Malayo-Polynesian, it is related to other Austronesian languages, such as Malagasy, Javanese, Malay (Malaysian and Indonesian), Tetum (of Timor), and Yami (of Taiwan). It is closely related to the languages spoken in the Bicol Region and the Visayas islands, such as the Bikol group and the Visayan group, including Waray-Waray, Hiligaynon and Cebuano.", "At present, no comprehensive dialectology has been done in the Tagalog-speaking regions, though there have been descriptions in the form of dictionaries and grammars of various Tagalog dialects. Ethnologue lists Manila, Lubang, Marinduque, Bataan (Western Central Luzon), Batangas, Bulacan (Eastern Central Luzon), Tanay-Paete (Rizal-Laguna), and Tayabas (Quezon and Aurora) as dialects of Tagalog; however, there appear to be four main dialects, of which the aforementioned are a part: Northern (exemplified by the Bulacan dialect), Central (including Manila), Southern (exemplified by Batangas), and Marinduque. Some example of dialectal differences are: Perhaps the most divergent Tagalog dialects are those spoken in Marinduque. Linguist Rosa Soberano identifies two dialects, western and eastern, with the former being closer to the Tagalog dialects spoken in the provinces of Batangas and Quezon. One example is the verb conjugation paradigms. While some of the affixes are different, Marinduque also preserves the imperative affixes, also found in Visayan and Bikol languages, that have mostly disappeared from most Tagalog early 20th century; they have since merged with the infinitive. Northern and central dialects form the basis for the national language.", "The Tagalog language also boasts accentations unique to some parts of Tagalog-speaking regions. For example, in some parts of Manila, a strong pronunciation of \"i\" exists and vowel-switching of \"o\" and \"u\" exists so words like \"gising\" (to wake) is pronounced as \"giseng\" with a strong 'e' and the word \"tagu-taguan\" (hide-and-go-seek) is pronounced as \"tago-tagoan\" with a mild 'o'. Batangas Tagalog boasts the most distinctive accent in Tagalog compared to the more Hispanized northern accents of the language. The Batangas accent has been featured in film and television and Filipino actor Leo Martinez speaks with this accent. Martinez's accent, however, will quickly be recognized by native Batangueños as representative of the accent in western Batangas which is milder compared to that used in the eastern part of the province. Bulacan Tagalog has more deep words and accented like Filipino during the Spanish period. Quezon and Aurora's (Tayabas Tagalog) has unique accents. Quezon's Tagalog has also has several unique words, and each town has a different tone, like in Sariaya, Atimonan and Gumaca. Cavite accent specifically in the lowland part of the province were a mix of deep Tagalog and Chavacano, a language also spoken in Zamboanga while in upland Cavite like in the municipalities of Alfonso, Cavite, Magallanes, Cavite as well as Tagaytay City uses the accent comparable to the accent used in western Batangas due to its proximity. Laguna also has a different set of accents, notably in the municipality of Alaminos, Laguna and the City of San Pablo, Laguna has the accent comparable to the accent used in eastern Batangas while the accent used in the northern parts of Laguna such as Biñan, Laguna and San Pedro, Laguna uses the accent comparable to Manila Tagalog. Nueva Ecija's accent is like Bulacan's, but with different intonations. Tarlac also has this accent.", "\"Taglish\" and \"Englog\" are names given to a mix of English and Tagalog. The amount of English vs. Tagalog varies from the occasional use of English loan words to changing language in mid-sentence. Such code-switching is prevalent throughout the Philippines and in various languages of the Philippines other than Tagalog. Code-mixing also entails the use of foreign words that are \"Filipinized\" by reforming them using Filipino rules, such as verb conjugations. Users typically use Filipino or English words, whichever comes to mind first or whichever is easier to use. City-dwellers are more likely to do this. The practice is common in television, radio, and print media as well. Advertisements from companies like Wells Fargo, Wal-Mart, Albertsons, McDonald's, and Western Union have contained Taglish.", "Tagalog has 33 phonemes: 19 of them are consonants and 14 are vowels. Syllable structure is relatively simple, being maximally CrVC, where Cr only occurs in borrowed words such as \"trak\" \"truck\" or \"sombréro\" \"hat\".", "Tagalog has ten simple vowels, five long and five short, and four diphthongs. Before appearing in the area north of the Pasig river, Tagalog had three vowel qualities:,, and. This was later expanded to five with the introduction of words from central and northern Philippines, such as the Kapampangan, Pangasinan and Ilocano languages, as well as Spanish words. Nevertheless, simplification of pairs and is likely to take place, especially in some Tagalog as second language, remote location and working class registers. The four diphthongs are,,, and. Long vowels are not written apart from pedagogical texts, where an acute accent is used: \"á é í ó ú.\" The table above shows all the possible realizations for each of the five vowel sounds depending on the speaker's origin or proficiency. The five general vowels are in bold.", "Below is a chart of Tagalog consonants. All the stops are unaspirated. The velar nasal occurs in all positions including at the beginning of a word. Loanword variants using these phonemes are italicized inside the angle brackets. Glottal stop is not indicated. Glottal stops are most likely to occur when:", "Stress is a distinctive feature in Tagalog. Primary stress occurs on either the final or the penultimate syllable of a word. Vowel lengthening accompanies primary or secondary stress except when stress occurs at the end of a word. Tagalog words are often distinguished from one another by the position of the stress and/or the presence of a final glottal stop. In formal or academic settings, stress placement and the glottal stop are indicated by a diacritic (\"tuldík\") above the final vowel. The penultimate primary stress position (\"malumay\") is the default stress type and so is left unwritten except in dictionaries.", "Tagalog, like other Philippines languages today, is written using the Latin alphabet. Prior to the arrival of the Spanish in 1521 and the beginning of their colonization in 1565, Tagalog was written in an abugida—or alphasyllabary—called Baybayin. This system of writing gradually gave way to the use and propagation of the Latin alphabet as introduced by the Spanish. As the Spanish began to record and create grammars and dictionaries for the various languages of the Philippine archipelago, they adopted systems of writing closely following the orthographic customs of the Spanish language and were refined over the years. Until the first half of the 20th century, most Philippine languages were widely written in a variety of ways based on Spanish orthography. In the late 19th century, a number of educated Filipinos began proposing for revising the spelling system used for Tagalog at the time. In 1884, Filipino doctor and student of languages Trinidad Pardo de Tavera published his study on the ancient Tagalog script \"Contribucion para el Estudio de los Antiguos Alfabetos Filipinos\" and in 1887, published his essay \"El Sanscrito en la lengua Tagalog\" which made use of a new writing system developed by him. Meanwhile, Jose Rizal, inspired by Pardo de Tavera's 1884 work, also began developing a new system of orthography (unaware at first of Pardo de Tavera's own orthography). A major noticeable change in these proposed orthographies was the use of the letter ⟨k⟩ rather than ⟨c⟩ and ⟨q⟩ to represent the phoneme. In 1889, the new bilingual Spanish-Tagalog \"La España Oriental\" newspaper, of which Isabelo de los Reyes was an editor, began publishing using the new orthography stating in a footnote that it would \"use the orthography recently introduced by... learned Orientalis\". This new orthography, while having its supporters, was also not initially accepted by several writers. Soon after the first issue of \"La España\", Pascual H. Poblete's \"Revista Católica de Filipina\" began a series of articles attacking the new orthography and its proponents. A fellow writer, Pablo Tecson was also critical. Among the attacks was the use of the letters \"k\" and \"w\" as they were deemed to be of German origin and thus its proponents were deemed as \"unpatriotic\". The publishers of these two papers would eventually merge as \"La Lectura Popular\" in January 1890 and would eventually make use of both spelling systems in its articles. Pedro Laktaw, a schoolteacher, published the first Spanish-Tagalog dictionary using the new orthography in 1890. In April 1890, Jose Rizal authored an article \"Sobre la Nueva Ortografia de la Lengua Tagalog\" in the Madrid-based periodical La Solidaridad. In it, he addressed the criticisms of the new writing system by writers like Pobrete and Tecson and the simplicity, in his opinion, of the new orthography. Rizal described the orthography promoted by Pardo de Tavera as \"more perfect\" than what he himself had developed. The new orthography was however not broadly adopted initially and was used inconsistently in the bilingual periodicals of Manila until the early 20th century. The revolutionary society Kataás-taasan, Kagalang-galang Katipunan ng̃ mg̃á Anak ng̃ Bayan or Katipunan made use of the k-orthography and the letter k featured prominently on many of its flags and insignias. In 1937, Tagalog was selected to serve as basis for the country's national language. In 1940, the \"Balarílà ng Wikang Pambansâ\" () of grammarian Lope K. Santos introduced the Abakada alphabet. This alphabet consists of 20 letters and became the standard alphabet of the national language. The orthography as used by Tagalog would eventually influence and spread to the systems of writing used by other Philippine languages (which had been using variants of the Spanish-based system of writing). In 1987, the ABAKADA was dropped and in its place is the expanded Filipino alphabet.", "Tagalog was written in an abugida (alphasyllabary) called Baybayin prior to the Spanish colonial period in the Philippines, in the 16th century. This particular writing system was composed of symbols representing three vowels and 14 consonants. Belonging to the Brahmic family of scripts, it shares similarities with the Old Kawi script of Java and is believed to be descended from the script used by the Bugis in Sulawesi. Although it enjoyed a relatively high level of literacy, Baybayin gradually fell into disuse in favor of the Latin alphabet taught by the Spaniards during their rule. There has been confusion of how to use Baybayin, which is actually an abugida, or an alphasyllabary, rather than an alphabet. Not every letter in the Latin alphabet is represented with one of those in the Baybayin alphasyllabary. Rather than letters being put together to make sounds as in Western languages, Baybayin uses symbols to represent syllables. A \"kudlit\" resembling an apostrophe is used above or below a symbol to change the vowel sound after its consonant. If the kudlit is used above, the vowel is an \"E\" or \"I\" sound. If the kudlit is used below, the vowel is an \"O\" or \"U\" sound. A special kudlit was later added by Spanish missionaries in which a cross placed below the symbol to get rid of the vowel sound all together, leaving a consonant. Previously, the consonant without a following vowel was simply left out (for example, \"bundok\" being rendered as \"budo\"), forcing the reader to use context when reading such words. Example: Baybayin is encoded in Unicode version 3.2 in the range 1700-171F under the name \"Tagalog\".", "", "Until the first half of the 20th century, Tagalog was widely written in a variety of ways based on Spanish orthography consisting of 32 letters called 'ABECEDARIO' (Spanish for \"alphabet\"):", "When the national language was based on Tagalog, grammarian Lope K. Santos introduced a new alphabet consisting of 20 letters called \"ABAKADA\" in school grammar books called \"balarilà\":", "In 1987, the Department of Education, Culture and Sports issued a memo stating that the Philippine alphabet had changed from the Pilipino-Tagalog Abakada version to a new 28-letter alphabet to make room for loans, especially family names from Spanish and English:", "The genitive marker \"ng\" and the plural marker \"mga\" (e.g. \"Iyan ang mga damit ko.\" (Those are my clothes)) are abbreviations that are pronounced \"nang\" and \"mangá\". \"Ng\", in most cases, roughly translates to \"of\" (ex. \"Siya ay kapatid ng nanay ko.\" She is the sibling \"of\" my mother) while \"nang\" usually means \"when\" or can describe how something is done or to what extent (equivalent to the suffix \"-ly\" in English adverbs), among other uses. In the first example, \"nang\" is used in lieu of the word \"noong\" (when; \"Noong si Hudas ay madulas\"). In the second, \"nang\" describes that the person woke up (\"gumising\") early (\"maaga\"); \"gumising nang maaga\". In the third, \"nang\" described up to what extent that Juan improved (\"gumaling\"), which is \"greatly\" (\"nang \"). In the latter two examples, the ligature \"na\" and its variants \"-ng\" and \"-g\" may also be used (\"Gumising na maaga/Maagang gumising\"; \"Gumaling na /Todong gumaling\"). The longer \"nang\" may also have other uses, such as a ligature that joins a repeated word:", "The words \"pô/hô\" and \"opò/ohò\" are traditionally used as polite iterations of the affirmative \"\"oo\"\" (\"yes\"). It is generally used when addressing elders or superiors such as bosses or teachers. \"Pô\" and \"opò\" are specifically used to denote a high level of respect when addressing older persons of close affinity like parents, relatives, teachers and family friends. \"Hô\" and \"ohò\" are generally used to politely address older neighbours, strangers, public officials, bosses and nannies, and may suggest a distance in societal relationship and respect determined by the addressee's social rank and not their age. However, \"pô\" and \"opò\" can be used in any case in order to express an elevation of respect. Used in the affirmative: \"Pô/Hô\" may also be used in negation.", "Tagalog vocabulary is composed mostly of words of native Austronesian origin - most of the words that end with the diphthongs -iw, (e.g. saliw) and those words that exhibit reduplication (e.g. halo-halo, patpat, etc.). However it has a significant number of Spanish loanwords. Spanish is the language that has bequeathed the most loanwords to Tagalog. In pre-Hispanic times, Trade Malay was widely known and spoken throughout Maritime Southeast Asia. Tagalog also includes many loanwords from English, Indian languages (Sanskrit and Tamil), Chinese languages (Hokkien, Cantonese, Mandarin), Japanese, Arabic and Persian. Due to trade with Mexico via the Manila galleons from the 16th to the 19th centuries, many words from Nahuatl (Aztec) and Castilian (Spanish) were introduced to Tagalog. The Philippines has long been a melting pot of nations. The islands have been subject to different influences and a meeting point of numerous migrations since the early prehistoric origins of trading activities, especially from the time of the Neolithic Period, the Silk Road, the Tang Dynasty, the Ming Dynasty, the Ryukyu Kingdom, the Spice Route and the Manila Galleon trading periods. This means that the evolution of the language is difficult to reconstruct (although many theories exist). English has borrowed some words from Tagalog, such as abaca, barong, balisong, boondocks, jeepney, Manila hemp, pancit, ylang-ylang, and yaya, although the vast majority of these borrowed words are only used in the Philippines as part of the vocabularies of Philippine English. Tagalog has contributed several words to Philippine Spanish, like \"barangay\" (from \"balan͠gay,\" meaning \"barrio\"), the \"abacá\", \"cogon\", \"palay\", \"dalaga\" etc.", "Below is a chart of Tagalog and a number of other Austronesian languages comparing thirteen words.", "Religious literature remains one of the most dynamic contributors to Tagalog literature. The first Bible in Tagalog, then called \"Ang Biblia\" (\"the Bible\") and now called \"Ang Dating Biblia\" (\"the Old Bible\"), was published in 1905. In 1970, the Philippine Bible Society translated the Bible into modern Tagalog. Even before the Second Vatican Council, devotional materials in Tagalog had been in circulation. There are at least four circulating Tagalog translations of the Bible When the Second Vatican Council, (specifically the Sacrosanctum Concilium) permitted the universal prayers to be translated into vernacular languages, the Catholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines was one of the first to translate the Roman Missal into Tagalog. The Roman Missal in Tagalog was published as early as 1982. Jehovah's Witnesses were printing Tagalog literature at least as early as 1941 and \"The Watchtower\" (the primary magazine of Jehovah's Witnesses) has been published in Tagalog since at least the 1950s. New releases are now regularly released simultaneously in a number of languages, including Tagalog. The official website of Jehovah's Witnesses also has some publications available online in Tagalog. The revised bible edition, the \"New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures,\" was released in Tagalog on 2019 and it is distributed without charge both printed and online versions. Tagalog is quite a stable language, and very few revisions have been made to Catholic Bible translations. Also, as Protestantism in the Philippines is relatively young, liturgical prayers tend to be more ecumenical.", "", "In Tagalog, the Lord's Prayer is exclusively known by its incipit, \"Amá Namin\" (literally, \"Our Father\").", "This is Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (\"Pángkalahatáng Pagpapahayag ng Karapatáng Pantao\")", "The numbers (\"mga bilang\") in Tagalog language are of two sets. The first set consists of native Tagalog words and the other set are Spanish loanwords. (This may be compared to other East Asian languages, except with the second set of numbers borrowed from Spanish instead of Chinese.) For example, when a person refers to the number \"seven\", it can be translated into Tagalog as \"\"pito\"\" or \"\"siyete\"\" (Spanish: \"siete\").", "Months and days in Tagalog are also localised forms of Spanish months and days. \"Month\" in Tagalog is \"buwán\" (also the word for moon) and \"day\" is \"araw\" (the word also means sun). Unlike Spanish, however, months and days in Tagalog are always capitalised.", "Time expressions in Tagalog are also Tagalized forms of the corresponding Spanish. \"Time\" in Tagalog is \"panahon\", or more commonly \"oras\". Unlike Spanish and English, times in Tagalog are capitalized whenever they appear in a sentence.", "", "\"Ang hindî marunong lumingón sa pinánggalingan ay hindî makaráratíng sa paroroonan\". (José Rizal)One who knows not how to look back from whence he came, will never get to where he is going. \"Unang kagat, tinapay pa rin.\" It means :\"First bite, still bread.\" or \"All fluff no substance.\" \"Tao ka nang humarap, bilang tao kitang haharapin.\"(A proverb in Southern Tagalog that made people aware the significance of sincerity in Tagalog communities. It says, \"As a human you reach me, I treat you as a human and never act as a traitor.\") \"Hulí man daw (raw) at magalíng, nakáhahábol pa rin.\"If one is behind but capable, one will still be able to catch up. \"Magbirô ka na sa lasíng, huwág lang sa bagong gising.\"Make fun of someone drunk, if you must, but never one who has just awakened. \"Aanhín pa ang damó kung patáy na ang kabayo?\"What use is the grass if the horse is already dead? \"Ang sakít ng kalingkingan, ramdám ng buóng katawán.\"The pain in the pinkie is felt by the whole body. \"Nasa hulí ang pagsisisi.\"Regret is always in the end. \"Pagkáhabà-habà man ng prusisyón, sa simbahan pa rin ang tulóy.\"The procession may stretch on and on, but it still ends up at the church. \"Kung 'dî mádaán sa santóng dasalan, daanin sa santóng paspasan.\"If it cannot be got through holy prayer, get it through blessed force." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History of development.", "Sumerian civilization.", "Ancient Egypt.", "Classic schools of antiquity.", "Cyrenaic school.", "Epicureanism.", "Yangism.", "Judaism.", "Christianity.", "Hinduism.", "Utilitarianism.", "Libertinage.", "Contemporary approaches.", "Michel Onfray.", "Abolitionism.", "Dan Haybron.", "Hedonism as a scientific basis for long-term future forecasting.", "Criticism.", "Islamic criticisms." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The name derives from the Greek word for \"delight\" ( \"hēdonismos\" from \"hēdonē\" \"pleasure\", cognate via Proto-Indo-European swéh2dus through Ancient Greek with English \"sweet\" + suffix -ισμός \"-ismos\" \"ism\"). Opposite to hedonism, there is hedonophobia. This is an extremely strong aversion to hedonism. According to medical author William C. Shiel Jr., MD, FACP, FACR, hedonophobia is \"an abnormal, excessive, and persistent fear of pleasure.\" The condition of being unable to experience pleasure is anhedonia.", "", "In the original Old Babylonian version of the Epic of Gilgamesh, which was written soon after the invention of writing, Siduri gave the following advice: \"Fill your belly. Day and night make merry. Let days be full of joy. Dance and make music day and night [...] These things alone are the concern of men.\" This may represent the first recorded advocacy of a hedonistic philosophy.", "Scenes of a harper entertaining guests at a feast were common in ancient Egyptian tombs (see Harper's Songs), and sometimes contained hedonistic elements, calling guests to submit to pleasure because they cannot be sure that they will be rewarded for good with a blissful afterlife. The following is a song attributed to the reign of one of the pharaohs around the time of the 12th dynasty, and the text was used in the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties.", "Democritus seems to be the earliest philosopher on record to have categorically embraced a hedonistic philosophy; he called the supreme goal of life \"contentment\" or \"cheerfulness\", claiming that \"joy and sorrow are the distinguishing mark of things beneficial and harmful\" (DK 68 B 188).", "The Cyrenaics were an ultra-hedonist Greek school of philosophy founded in the 4th century BC, supposedly by Aristippus of Cyrene, although many of the principles of the school are believed to have been formalized by his grandson of the same name, Aristippus the Younger. The school was so called after Cyrene, the birthplace of Aristippus. It was one of the earliest Socratic schools. The Cyrenaics taught that the only intrinsic good is pleasure, which meant not just the absence of pain, but positively enjoyable momentary sensations. Of these, physical ones are stronger than those of anticipation or memory. They did, however, recognize the value of social obligation, and that pleasure could be gained from altruism. Theodorus the Atheist was a latter exponent of hedonism who was a disciple of younger Aristippus, while becoming well known for expounding atheism. The school died out within a century, and was replaced by Epicureanism. The Cyrenaics were known for their skeptical theory of knowledge. They reduced logic to a basic doctrine concerning the criterion of truth. They thought that we can know with certainty our immediate sense-experiences (for instance, that one is having a sweet sensation) but can know nothing about the nature of the objects that cause these sensations (for instance, that the honey is sweet). They also denied that we can have knowledge of what the experiences of other people are like. All knowledge is immediate sensation. These sensations are motions which are purely subjective, and are painful, indifferent or pleasant, according as they are violent, tranquil or gentle. Further, they are entirely individual and can in no way be described as constituting absolute objective knowledge. Feeling, therefore, is the only possible criterion of knowledge and of conduct. Our ways of being affected are alone knowable. Thus the sole aim for everyone should be pleasure. Cyrenaicism deduces a single, universal aim for all people which is pleasure. Furthermore, all feeling is momentary and homogeneous. It follows that past and future pleasure have no real existence for us, and that among present pleasures there is no distinction of kind. Socrates had spoken of the higher pleasures of the intellect; the Cyrenaics denied the validity of this distinction and said that bodily pleasures, being more simple and more intense, were preferable. Momentary pleasure, preferably of a physical kind, is the only good for humans. However some actions which give immediate pleasure can create more than their equivalent of pain. The wise person should be in control of pleasures rather than be enslaved to them, otherwise pain will result, and this requires judgement to evaluate the different pleasures of life. Regard should be paid to law and custom, because even though these things have no intrinsic value on their own, violating them will lead to unpleasant penalties being imposed by others. Likewise, friendship and justice are useful because of the pleasure they provide. Thus the Cyrenaics believed in the hedonistic value of social obligation and altruistic behaviour.", "Epicureanism is a system of philosophy based upon the teachings of Epicurus (\"c\". 341–\"c\". 270 BC), founded around 307 BC. Epicurus was an atomic materialist, following in the steps of Democritus and Leucippus. His materialism led him to a general stance against superstition or the idea of divine intervention. Following Aristippus—about whom very little is known—Epicurus believed that the greatest good was to seek modest, sustainable \"pleasure\" in the form of a state of tranquility and freedom from fear (ataraxia) and absence of bodily pain (aponia) through knowledge of the workings of the world and the limits of our desires. The combination of these two states is supposed to constitute happiness in its highest form. Although Epicureanism is a form of hedonism, insofar as it declares pleasure as the sole intrinsic good, its conception of absence of pain as the greatest pleasure and its advocacy of a simple life make it different from \"hedonism\" as it is commonly understood. In the Epicurean view, the highest pleasure (tranquility and freedom from fear) was obtained by knowledge, friendship and living a virtuous and temperate life. He lauded the enjoyment of simple pleasures, by which he meant abstaining from bodily desires, such as sex and appetites, verging on asceticism. He argued that when eating, one should not eat too richly, for it could lead to dissatisfaction later, such as the grim realization that one could not afford such delicacies in the future. Likewise, sex could lead to increased lust and dissatisfaction with the sexual partner. Epicurus did not articulate a broad system of social ethics that has survived but had a unique version of the Golden Rule. It is impossible to live a pleasant life without living wisely and well and justly (agreeing \"neither to harm nor be harmed\"), and it is impossible to live wisely and well and justly without living a pleasant life. Epicureanism was originally a challenge to Platonism, though later it became the main opponent of Stoicism. Epicurus and his followers shunned politics. After the death of Epicurus, his school was headed by Hermarchus; later many Epicurean societies flourished in the Late Hellenistic era and during the Roman era (such as those in Antiochia, Alexandria, Rhodes and Ercolano). The poet Lucretius is its most known Roman proponent. By the end of the Roman Empire, having undergone Christian attack and repression, Epicureanism had all but died out, and would be resurrected in the 17th century by the atomist Pierre Gassendi, who adapted it to the Christian doctrine. Some writings by Epicurus have survived. Some scholars consider the epic poem \"On the Nature of Things\" by Lucretius to present in one unified work the core arguments and theories of Epicureanism. Many of the papyrus scrolls unearthed at the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum are Epicurean texts. At least some are thought to have belonged to the Epicurean Philodemus.", "Yangism has been described as a form of psychological and ethical egoism. The Yangist philosophers believed in the importance of maintaining self-interest through \"keeping one's nature intact, protecting one's uniqueness, and not letting the body be tied by other things\". Disagreeing with the Confucian virtues of li (propriety), ren (humaneness), and yi (righteousness) and the Legalist virtue of fa (law), the Yangists saw wei wo, or \"everything for myself,\" as the only virtue necessary for self-cultivation. Individual pleasure is considered desirable, like in hedonism, but not at the expense of the health of the individual. The Yangists saw individual well-being as the prime purpose of life, and considered anything that hindered that well-being immoral and unnecessary. The main focus of the Yangists was on the concept of xing, or human nature, a term later incorporated by Mencius into Confucianism. The xing, according to sinologist A. C. Graham, is a person's \"proper course of development\" in life. Individuals can only rationally care for their own xing, and should not naively have to support the xing of other people, even if it means opposing the emperor. In this sense, Yangism is a \"direct attack\" on Confucianism, by implying that the power of the emperor, defended in Confucianism, is baseless and destructive, and that state intervention is morally flawed. The Confucian philosopher Mencius depicts Yangism as the direct opposite of Mohism, while Mohism promotes the idea of universal love and impartial caring, the Yangists acted only \"for themselves,\" rejecting the altruism of Mohism. He criticized the Yangists as selfish, ignoring the duty of serving the public and caring only for personal concerns. Mencius saw Confucianism as the \"Middle Way\" between Mohism and Yangism.", "Judaism believes that the world was created to serve God, and in order to do so properly, God in turn gives mankind the opportunity to experience pleasure in the process of serving Him. (Talmud Kidushin 82:b) God placed Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden—Eden being the Hebrew word for \"pleasure\". In recent years, Rabbi Noah Weinberg articulated five different levels of pleasure; connecting with God is the highest possible pleasure. The Book of Ecclesiastes in the Old Testament proclaims, \"There is nothing better for a person than that he should eat and drink and find enjoyment in his toil. This also, I saw, is from the hand of God...\" (Ecclesiastes 2:24)", "Ethical hedonism as part of Christian theology has also been a concept in some evangelical circles, particularly in those of the Reformed tradition. The term Christian Hedonism was first coined by Reformed Baptist theologian John Piper in his 1986 book \"Desiring God\": “My shortest summary of it is: God is most glorified in us when we are most satisfied in Him. Or: The chief end of man is to glorify God by enjoying Him forever. Does Christian Hedonism make a god out of pleasure? No. It says that we all make a god out of what we take most pleasure in.” Piper states his term may describe the theology of Jonathan Edwards, who in 1812 referred to \"a future enjoyment of Him [God] in heaven\". Already in the 17th century, the atomist Pierre Gassendi had adapted Epicureanism to the Christian doctrine.", "The concept of hedonism is also found in Nastika (heterodox) philosophy such as the Charvaka school. However, Hedonism is criticized by Astika (orthodox) schools of thought on the basis that it is inherently egoistic and therefore detrimental to spiritual liberation.", "Utilitarianism addresses problems with moral motivation neglected by Kantianism by giving a central role to happiness. It is an ethical theory holding that the proper course of action is the one that maximizes the overall good of the society. It is thus one form of consequentialism, meaning that the moral worth of an action is determined by its resulting outcome. The most influential contributors to this theory are considered to be the 18th and 19th-century British philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. Conjoining hedonism—as a view as to what is good for people—to utilitarianism has the result that all action should be directed toward achieving the greatest total amount of happiness (see Hedonic calculus). Though consistent in their pursuit of happiness, Bentham and Mill's versions of hedonism differ. There are two somewhat basic schools of thought on hedonism:", "An extreme form of hedonism that views moral and sexual restraint as either unnecessary or harmful. Famous proponents are Marquis de Sade and John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester.", "Contemporary proponents of hedonism include Swedish philosopher Torbjörn Tännsjö, Fred Feldman. and Spanish ethic philosopher Esperanza Guisán (published a \"Hedonist manifesto\" in 1990).", "A dedicated contemporary hedonist philosopher and writer on the history of hedonistic thought is the French Michel Onfray. He has written two books directly on the subject (\"L'invention du plaisir : fragments cyréaniques\" and \"La puissance d'exister : Manifeste hédoniste\"). He defines hedonism \"as an introspective attitude to life based on taking pleasure yourself and pleasuring others, without harming yourself or anyone else\". Onfray's philosophical project is to define an ethical hedonism, a joyous utilitarianism, and a generalized aesthetic of sensual materialism that explores how to use the brain's and the body's capacities to their fullest extent – while restoring philosophy to a useful role in art, politics, and everyday life and decisions.\" Onfray's works \"have explored the philosophical resonances and components of (and challenges to) science, painting, gastronomy, sex and sensuality, bioethics, wine, and writing. His most ambitious project is his projected six-volume Counter-history of Philosophy,\" of which three have been published. For him \"In opposition to the ascetic ideal advocated by the dominant school of thought, hedonism suggests identifying the highest good with your own pleasure and that of others; the one must never be indulged at the expense of sacrificing the other. Obtaining this balance – my pleasure at the same time as the pleasure of others – presumes that we approach the subject from different angles – political, ethical, aesthetic, erotic, bioethical, pedagogical, historiographical....\" For this he has \"written books on each of these facets of the same world view\". His philosophy aims for \"micro-revolutions\", or \"revolutions of the individual and small groups of like-minded people who live by his hedonistic, libertarian values\".", "The Abolitionist Society is a transhumanist group calling for the abolition of suffering in all sentient life through the use of advanced biotechnology. Their core philosophy is negative utilitarianism. David Pearce is a theorist of this perspective and he believes and promotes the idea that there exists a strong ethical imperative for humans to work towards the abolition of suffering in all sentient life. His book-length internet manifesto \"The Hedonistic Imperative\" outlines how technologies such as genetic engineering, nanotechnology, pharmacology, and neurosurgery could potentially converge to eliminate all forms of unpleasant experience among human and non-human animals, replacing suffering with gradients of well-being, a project he refers to as \"paradise engineering\". A transhumanist and a vegan, Pearce believes that we (or our future posthuman descendants) have a responsibility not only to avoid cruelty to animals within human society but also to alleviate the suffering of animals in the wild. In a talk David Pearce gave at the Future of Humanity Institute and at the Charity International 'Happiness Conference', he said: Sadly, what \"won't\" abolish suffering, or at least not on its own, is socio-economic reform, or exponential economic growth, or technological progress in the usual sense, or any of the traditional panaceas for solving the world's ills. Improving the external environment is admirable and important; but such improvement can't recalibrate our hedonic treadmill above a genetically constrained ceiling. Twin studies confirm there is a [partially] heritable set-point of well-being - or ill-being - around which we all tend to fluctuate over the course of a lifetime. This set-point varies between individuals. It's possible to \"lower\" an individual's hedonic set-point by inflicting prolonged uncontrolled stress; but even this re-set is not as easy as it sounds: suicide-rates typically go down in wartime; and six months after a quadriplegia-inducing accident, studies suggest that we are typically neither more nor less unhappy than we were before the catastrophic event. Unfortunately, attempts to build an ideal society can't overcome this biological ceiling, whether utopias of the left or right, free-market or socialist, religious or secular, futuristic high-tech or simply cultivating one's garden. Even if \"everything\" that traditional futurists have asked for is delivered - eternal youth, unlimited material wealth, morphological freedom, superintelligence, immersive VR, molecular nanotechnology, etc - there is no evidence that our subjective quality of life would on average significantly surpass the quality of life of our hunter-gatherer ancestors - or a New Guinea tribesman today - in the absence of reward pathway enrichment. This claim is difficult to prove in the absence of sophisticated neuroscanning; but objective indices of psychological distress e.g. suicide rates, bear it out. \"Un\"enhanced humans will still be prey to the spectrum of Darwinian emotions, ranging from terrible suffering to petty disappointments and frustrations - sadness, anxiety, jealousy, existential angst. Their biology is part of \"what it means to be human\". Subjectively unpleasant states of consciousness exist because they were genetically adaptive. Each of our core emotions had a distinct signalling role in our evolutionary past: they tended to promote behaviours that enhanced the inclusive fitness of our genes in the ancestral environment.", "Haybron has distinguished between psychological, ethical, welfare and axiological hedonism.", "Russian physicist and philosopher Victor Argonov argues that hedonism is not only a philosophical but also a verifiable scientific hypothesis. In 2014, he suggested \"postulates of pleasure principle\" confirmation of which would lead to a new scientific discipline, hedodynamics. Hedodynamics would be able to forecast the distant future development of human civilization and even the probable structure and psychology of other rational beings within the universe. In order to build such a theory, science must discover the neural correlate of pleasure - neurophysiological parameter unambiguously corresponding to the feeling of pleasure (hedonic tone). According to Argonov, posthumans will be able to reprogram their motivations in an arbitrary manner (to get pleasure from any programmed activity). And if pleasure principle postulates are true, then general direction of civilization development is obvious: maximization of integral happiness in posthuman life (product of life span and average happiness). Posthumans will avoid constant pleasure stimulation, because it is incompatible with rational behavior required to prolong life. However, they can become on average much happier than modern humans. Many other aspects of posthuman society could be predicted by hedodynamics if the neural correlate of pleasure were discovered. For example, optimal number of individuals, their optimal body size (whether it matters for happiness or not) and the degree of aggression.", "Critics of hedonism have objected to its exclusive concentration on pleasure as valuable or that the retentive breadth of dopamine is limited. In particular, G. E. Moore offered a thought experiment in criticism of pleasure as the sole bearer of value: he imagined two worlds—one of exceeding beauty and the other a heap of filth. Neither of these worlds will be experienced by anyone. The question then is if it is better for the beautiful world to exist than the heap of filth. In this, Moore implied that states of affairs have value beyond conscious pleasure, which he said spoke against the validity of hedonism. Perhaps the most famous objection to hedonism is Robert Nozick's famous experience machine. Nozick asks us to hypothetically imagine a machine that will allow us to experience whatever we want—if we want to experience making friends, it will give this to us. Nozick claims that by hedonistic logic, we should remain in this machine for the rest of our lives. However, he gives three reasons why this is not a preferable scenario: firstly, because we want to \"do\" certain things, as opposed to merely experience them; secondly, we want to be a certain kind of person, as opposed to an 'indeterminate blob' and thirdly, because such a thing would limit our experiences to only what we can imagine. Peter Singer, a hedonistic utilitarian, and Katarzyna de Lazari-Radek have both argued against such an objection by saying that it only provides an answer to certain forms of hedonism, and ignores others.", "In Islam, one of the main duties of a Muslim is to conquer his nafs (his ego, self, passions, desires) and to be free from it. Certain joys of life are permissible provided they do not lead to excess or evildoing that may bring harm. It is understood that everyone takes their passion as their idol, Islam calls these tawaghit (idols) and Taghut (worship of other than Allah) so there has to be a means of controlling these nafs." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Nigel Pegrum played drums with an early line-up of the Small Faces, then played drums with Lee Grant And The Capitols before joining Spice, who subsequently changed their name to Uriah Heep and replaced him with a drummer who had a heavier style of playing, but not before recording the \"Lansdowne Tapes\". These sessions have since been released under the Uriah Heep name, and feature Pegrum on drums on some tracks. He then joined the art-rock/prog-rock band Gnidrolog, where he was able to use his ability on the flute and oboe. He recorded two studio albums with them, plus a live album before playing with Halcyon and then living on a commune in Worcestershire in 1973. Steeleye Span had finally decided to use a full-time drummer and invited him to join them. Two weeks later he was touring America with Steeleye Span, opening up shows for Jethro Tull. He remained with Steeleye Span for 17 years then moved to Australia where he has recorded world-beat albums with aboriginal musicians. He rejoined Steeleye Span for a one-off project called \"The Journey\" in 1995. In 1979 Nigel joined up with Steeleye Span bassist Rick Kemp to create Plant Life Records. A third member of Steeleye Span, Maddy Prior recorded one of her albums on the label. The most successful recordings were with the Tannahill Weavers. Nigel was producer on over 30 albums on the label. They closed down in 1984. Nigel Pegrum has been a session musician drummer for June Tabor, Wizz Jones, Rosie Hardman and John Otway. He worked as a freelance producer before emigrating to Australia where he works with Australian Sun Records. Both Pegrum and Rick Kemp were members of the punk parody band the Pork Dukes in 1977, using pseudonyms. Pegrum produced two albums of the German folk band Lorbass (\"Wie es uns gefällt\" in 1979 and \"Wohl bekomm's\" in 1981, both on Burlington Records) where he played drums as a guest musician. In 1980 Nigel joined up with the German band Stenderband with Stefan Stoppok. He recorded one album called \"Erfrischungen\". Nigel now operates his own recording studio, Pegasus Studios, in Whitfield, a suburb of Cairns, Queensland." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Medical uses.", "Efficacy.", "Treatment algorithm.", "Contraindications.", "Preparation.", "Reduced-osmolarity.", "Administration.", "Associated therapies.", "Zinc.", "Feeding.", "Children with malnutrition.", "Antibiotics.", "Physiological basis.", "History.", "Definition.", "Development.", "Mozambique civil war refugees, 1990.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "ORT is less invasive than the other strategies for fluid replacement, specifically intravenous (IV) fluid replacement. Mild to moderate dehydration in children seen in an emergency department is best treated with ORT. Persons taking ORT should eat within 6 hours and return to their full diet within 24–48 hours. Oral rehydration therapy may also be used as a treatment for the symptoms of dehydration and rehydration in burns in resource-limited settings.", "ORT may lower the mortality rate of diarrhea by as much as 93%. Case studies in 4 developing countries also have demonstrated that an association between increased use of ORS and reduction in mortality. ORT has no effect on the duration of the diarrheic episode or the volume of fluid loss.", "The degree of dehydration should be assessed before initiating ORT. ORT is suitable for people who are not dehydrated and those who show signs and symptoms of mild to moderate dehydration. People who have severe dehydration should seek professional medical help immediately and receive intravenous rehydration as soon as possible to rapidly replenish fluid volume in the body.", "ORT should be discontinued and fluids replaced intravenously when vomiting is protracted despite proper administration of ORT, signs of dehydration worsen despite giving ORT, the person is unable to drink due to a decreased level of consciousness, or there is evidence of intestinal blockage or ileus. ORT might also be contraindicated in people who are in hemodynamic shock due to impaired airway protective reflexes. Short-term vomiting is not a contraindication to receiving oral rehydration therapy. In persons who are vomiting, drinking oral rehydration solution at a slow and continuous pace will help the vomiting to resolve.", "WHO and UNICEF jointly have developed official guidelines for the manufacture of oral rehydration solution and the oral rehydration salts used to make it (both often abbreviated as ORS). They also describe acceptable alternative preparations, depending on material availability. Commercial preparations are available as either pre-prepared fluids or packets of oral rehydration salts ready for mixing with water. The formula for the WHO oral rehydration solution (also known as \"low-osmolar ORS\" or \"reduced-osmolarity ORS\") is salt (NaCl), trisodium citrate dihydrate (), potassium chloride (KCl), anhydrous glucose () per litre of fluid. This is 44 mmol salt, 10 mmol trisodium citrate dihydrate, 20 mmol potassium chloride, and 75 mmol anhydrous glucose per litre. This would have a total osmolarity of (44×2 + 10×4 + 20×2 + 75) = 243 mOsm/L. A basic oral rehydration therapy solution can also be prepared when packets of oral rehydration salts are not available. A WHO publication for physicians recommends a homemade ORS consisting of one liter water with one teaspoon salt (3 grams) and two tablespoons sugar (18 grams) added (approximately the \"taste of tears\"). Rehydration Project recommends adding the same amount of sugar but only one-half a teaspoon of salt, stating that this more dilute approach is less risky with very little loss of effectiveness. Both agree that drinks with too much sugar or salt can make dehydration worse. The molar ratio of sugar to salt should be 1:1 and the solution should not be hyperosmolar. The Rehydration Project states, \"Making the mixture a little diluted (with more than 1 litre of clean water) is not harmful.\" The optimal fluid for preparing oral rehydration solution is clean water. However, if this is not available, the usually available water should be used. Oral rehydration solution should \"not\" be withheld simply because the available water is potentially unsafe; rehydration takes precedence. When oral rehydration salts packets and suitable teaspoons for measuring sugar and salt are not available, the WHO has recommended that homemade gruels, soups, etc., may be considered to help maintain hydration. A Lancet review in 2013 emphasized the need for more research on appropriate home made fluids to prevent dehydration. Sports drinks are not optimal oral rehydration solutions, but they can be used if optimal choices are not available. They should not be withheld for lack of better options; again, rehydration takes precedence. But they are not replacements for oral rehydration solutions in nonemergency situations.", "In 2003, WHO and UNICEF recommended that the osmolarity of oral rehydration solution be reduced from 311 to 245 mOsm/L. These guidelines were also updated in 2006. This recommendation was based on multiple clinical trials showing that the reduced osmolarity solution reduces stool volume in children with diarrhea by about twenty-five percent and the need for IV therapy by about thirty percent when compared to standard oral rehydration solution. The incidence of vomiting is also reduced. The reduced osmolarity oral rehydration solution has lower concentrations of glucose and sodium chloride than the original solution, but the concentrations of potassium and citrate are unchanged. The reduced osmolarity solution has been criticized by some for not providing enough sodium for adults with cholera. Clinical trials have, however, shown reduced osmolarity solution to be effective for adults and children with cholera. They seem to be safe but some caution is warranted according to the Cochrane review.", "ORT is based on evidence that water continues to be absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract even while fluid is lost through diarrhea or vomiting. The World Health Organization specify indications, preparations and procedures for ORT. WHO/UNICEF guidelines suggest ORT should begin at the first sign of diarrhea in order to prevent dehydration. Babies may be given ORS with a dropper or a syringe. Infants under two may be given a teaspoon of ORS fluid every one to two minutes. Older children and adults should take frequent sips from a cup, with a recommended intake of 200-400 ml of solution after every loose movement. The WHO recommends giving children under two a quarter- to a half-cup of fluid following each loose bowel movement and older children a half- to a full cup. If the person vomits, the caretaker should wait 5–10 minutes and then resume giving ORS. ORS may be given by aid workers or health care workers in refugee camps, health clinics and hospital settings. Mothers should remain with their children and be taught how to give ORS. This will help to prepare them to give ORT at home in the future. Breastfeeding should be continued throughout ORT.", "", "As part of oral rehydration therapy, the WHO recommends supplemental zinc (10 to 20 mg daily) for ten to fourteen days, to reduce the severity and duration of the illness and make recurrent illness in the following two to three months less likely. Preparations are available as a zinc sulfate solution for adults, a modified solution for children and in tablet form.", "After severe dehydration is corrected and appetite returns, feeding the person speeds the recovery of normal intestinal function, minimizes weight loss and supports continued growth in children. Small frequent meals are best tolerated (offering the child food every three to four hours). Mothers should continue to breastfeed. A child with watery diarrhea typically regains his or her appetite as soon as dehydration is corrected, whereas a child with bloody diarrhea often eats poorly until the illness resolves. Such children should be encouraged to resume normal feeding as soon as possible. Once diarrhea is corrected, the WHO recommends giving the child an extra meal each day for two weeks, and longer if the child is malnourished.", "Dehydration may be overestimated in wasted children and underestimated in edematous children. Care of these children must also include careful management of their malnutrition and treatment of other infections. Useful signs of dehydration include an eagerness to drink, lethargy, cool and moist extremities, weak or absent radial pulse (wrist), and reduced or absent urine flow. In children with severe malnutrition, it is often impossible to reliably distinguish between moderate and severe dehydration. A severely malnourished child who has signs of severe dehydration but who does not have a history of watery diarrhea should be treated for septic shock. The original ORS (90 mmol sodium/L) and the current standard reduced-osmolarity ORS (75 mmol sodium/L) both contain too much sodium and too little potassium for severely malnourished children with dehydration due to diarrhea. ReSoMal (Rehydration Solution for Malnutrition) is recommended for such children. It contains less sodium (45 mmol/l) and more potassium (40 mmol/l) than reduced osmolarity ORS. It can be obtained in packets produced by UNICEF or other manufacturers. An exception is if the severely malnourished child also has severe diarrhea (in which case ReSoMal may not provide enough sodium), in which case standard reduced-osmolarity ORS (75 mmol sodium/L) is recommended. Malnourished children should be rehydrated slowly. The WHO recommends 10 milliliters of ReSoMal per kilogram body weight for each of the first two hours (for example, a 9-kilogram child should be given 90 ml of ReSoMal over the course of the first hour, and another 90 ml for the second hour) and then continuing at this same rate or slower based on the child's thirst and ongoing stool losses, keeping in mind that a severely dehydrated child may be lethargic. If the child drinks poorly, a nasogastric tube should be used. The IV route should not be used for rehydration except in cases of shock and then only with care, infusing slowly to avoid flooding the circulation and overloading the heart. Feeding should usually resume within 2–3 hours after starting rehydration and should continue every 2–3 hours, day and night. For an initial cereal diet before a child regains his or her full appetite, the WHO recommends combining 25 grams skimmed milk powder, 20 grams vegetable oil, 60 grams sugar, and 60 grams rice powder or other cereal into 1,000 milliliters water and boiling gently for five minutes. Give 130 ml per kilogram of body weight during per 24 hours. A child who cannot or will not eat this minimum amount should be given the diet by nasogastric tube divided into six equal feedings. Later on, the child should be given cereal made with a greater amount of skimmed milk product and vegetable oil and slightly less sugar. As appetite fully returns, the child should be eating 200 ml per kilogram of body weight per day. Zinc, potassium, vitamin A, and other vitamins and minerals should be added to both recommended cereal products, or to the oral rehydration solution itself. Children who are breastfed should continue breastfeeding.", "The WHO recommends that all severely malnourished children admitted to hospital should receive broad-spectrum antibiotics (for example, gentamicin and ampicillin). In addition, hospitalized children should be checked daily for other specific infections. If cholera is suspected give an antibiotic to which \"V. cholera\"e are susceptible. This reduces the volume loss due to diarrhea by 50% and shortens the duration of diarrhea to about 48 hours.", "Fluid from the body enters the intestinal lumen during digestion. This fluid is isosmotic with the blood and contains a high quantity, about 142 mEq/L, of sodium. A healthy individual secretes 2000–3000 milligrams of sodium per day into the intestinal lumen. Nearly all of this is reabsorbed so that sodium levels in the body remain constant. In a diarrheal illness, sodium-rich intestinal secretions are lost before they can be reabsorbed. This can lead to life-threatening dehydration or electrolyte imbalances within hours when fluid loss is severe. The objective of therapy is the replenishment of sodium and water losses by ORT or intravenous infusion. Sodium absorption occurs in two stages. The first is via intestinal epithelial cells (enterocytes). Sodium passes into these cells by co-transport with glucose, via the SGLT1 protein. From the intestinal epithelial cells, sodium is pumped by active transport via the sodium-potassium pump through the basolateral cell membrane into the extracellular space. The sodium–potassium ATPase pump at the basolateral cell membrane moves three sodium ions into the extracellular space, while pulling into the enterocyte two potassium ions. This creates a \"downhill\" sodium gradient within the cell. SGLT proteins use energy from this downhill sodium gradient to transport glucose across the apical membrane of the cell against the glucose gradient. The co-transporters are examples of secondary active transport. The GLUT uniporters then transport glucose across the basolateral membrane. Both SGLT1 and SGLT2 are known as symporters, since both sodium and glucose are transported in the same direction across the membrane. The co-transport of glucose into epithelial cells via the SGLT1 protein requires sodium. Two sodium ions and one molecule of glucose (or galactose) are transported together across the cell membrane via the SGLT1 protein. Without glucose, intestinal sodium is not absorbed. This is why oral rehydration salts include both sodium and glucose. For each cycle of the transport, hundreds of water molecules move into the epithelial cell to maintain osmotic equilibrium. The resultant absorption of sodium and water can achieve rehydration even while diarrhea continues.", "", "In the early 1980s, \"oral rehydration therapy\" referred only to the preparation prescribed by the World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF. In 1988, the definition changed to encompass recommended home-made solutions, because the official preparation was not always readily available. The definition was again amended in 1988 to include continued feeding as an appropriate associated therapy. In 1991, the definition became, \"an increase in administered hydrational fluids\" and in 1993, \"an increase in administered fluids and continued feeding\".", "Until 1960, ORT was not known in the West. Dehydration was a major cause of death during the 1829 cholera pandemic in Russia and Western Europe. In 1831, William Brooke O'Shaughnessy noted the loss of water and salt in the stool of people with cholera and prescribed intravenous fluid therapy (IV fluids). The prescribing of hypertonic IV therapy decreased the mortality rate of cholera from 70 to 40 percent. In the West, IV therapy became the \"gold standard\" for the treatment of moderate and severe dehydration. In 1957 Indian physician Hemendra Nath Chatterjee published his results in The Lancet of treating people with cholera with ORT. He was the first to formulate and demonstrate the effectiveness of ORS for diarrhea. The formulation of the fluid replacement solution was 4 g of sodium chloride, 25 g of glucose and 1000 ml of water. Robert A. Phillips attempted to create an effective ORT solution based on his discovery that, in the presence of glucose, sodium and chloride could be absorbed in patients with cholera. However, Phillips' efforts failed because the solution he used was excessively hypertonic. In the early 1960s, biochemist Robert K. Crane described the sodium-glucose co-transport mechanism and its role in intestinal glucose absorption. This, combined with evidence that the intestinal mucosa appears undamaged in cholera, suggested that intestinal absorption of glucose and sodium might continue during the illness. This supported the notion that oral rehydration might be possible even during severe diarrhea due to cholera. In 1967–1968, Norbert Hirschhorn and Nathaniel F. Pierce, working in Dhaka, Bangladesh and Calcutta, India, respectively, showed that people with severe cholera can absorb glucose, salt and water and that this can occur in sufficient amounts to maintain hydration. In 1968, David R. Nalin and Richard A. Cash reported that in adults with cholera, given an oral glucose-electrolyte solution in volumes equal to that of the diarrhea losses, reduced the need for IV fluid therapy by eighty percent. Rafiqul Islam (c. 1936 – 5 March 2018) was a Bangladeshi physician and medical scientist. He is known for the discovery of food saline (Orsaline) for the treatment of diarrhea. In 1971, fighting during the Bangladesh Liberation War displaced millions and an epidemic of cholera ensued among the refugees. When IV fluid ran out in the refugee camps, Rafiqul Islam and Dilip Mahalanabis, a physician working with the Johns Hopkins International Center for Medical Research and Training in Calcutta, instructed to prepare and distribute an oral rehydration solution prepared from individual ingredients to family members and caregivers. Over 3,000 people with cholera received ORT in this way. The mortality rate was 3.6 percent among those given ORT compared with 30 percent in those given IV fluid therapy. It was also known as \"Dhaka Saline\". After the independence of Bangladesh, a wide circulation campaign was conducted on the use of saline in the treatment of diarrhea. In the year 1980, the World Health Organization recognized Orosaline. In the early 1970s, Norbert Hirschhorn used oral rehydration therapy on the White River Apache Indian Reservation with a grant from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. He made the important observation that children would voluntarily drink as much of the solution as needed to restore hydration, and that rehydration and early re-feeding would protect their nutrition. This led to increased use of ORT for children with diarrhea, especially in developing countries. In 1980 the Bangladeshi nonprofit BRAC created a door-to-door and person-to-person sales force to teach ORT for use by mothers at home. A task force of fourteen women, one cook and one male supervisor traveled from village to village. After visiting with women in several villages, they hit upon the idea of encouraging the women in the village to make their own oral rehydration fluid. They used available household equipment, starting with a \"half a seer\" (half a quart) of water and adding a fistful of sugar and a three-finger pinch of salt. Later on, the approach was broadcast over television and radio and a market for oral rehydration salts packets developed. Three decades later, national surveys have found that almost 90% of children with severe diarrhea in Bangladesh are given oral rehydration fluids at home or in a health facility. From 2006 to 2011, UNICEF estimated that worldwide about a third of children under 5 who had diarrhea received an oral rehydration solution, with estimates ranging from 30% to 41% depending on the region. ORT is one of the principal elements of the UNICEF \"GOBI FFF\" program (growth monitoring; ORT; breast feeding; immunization; female education; family spacing and food supplementation). The program aims to increase child survival in developing nations through proven low-cost interventions.", "People had fled from civil war in Mozambique to southern Malawi. In November 1990, cholera broke out in a refugee camp in southern Malawi where approximately 74,000 persons were temporarily living. David Swerdlow of the U.S.'s CDC Epidemic Intelligence Service (EIS) wrote about the situation. He recommended setting up a tent just for children who would be assisted by some of the best nurses. He recommended against over-reliance on IV tubes, which often were left attached to persons for a week or more and which could lead to infections and septic shock. And he noticed that sick persons were not drinking enough rehydration solution. He assigned so-called \"ORS officers\" whose job was to encourage persons to drink more solution. It was a minor mystery how persons were getting sick since deep-bore wells provided clean water and refugees were encouraged to wash their hands. It was then discovered that the only place for persons to wash hands were in the same buckets in which water was transported and stored. Swerdlow wrote in his report, \"Use of narrow mouthed water containers would probably decrease the likelihood of contamination.\"", "Sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History and architecture.", "Modern era.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The present castle was built in the Gothic Revival style. Work on it began in 1743. This castle replaced an earlier 15th-century castle. The foundation stone was laid in October 1746. These dates makes it one of the earliest Gothic Revival buildings, together with Strawberry Hill House. Originally, all the roofs were flat and crenellated. Later, a third floor with pitched roof and dormer windows was added on all four wings and steep conical roofs were added on top of the four round towers. The village of Inveraray was moved in the 1770s to give the castle a more secluded setting. Designers who worked on the house include William Adam and Roger Morris; the interior includes a number of neoclassical rooms created for the 5th Duke by Robert Mylne. These are among the rooms open to the public. James Lees-Milne was not impressed by the house when he visited it in 1943, noting the \"ugly\" grey stone and calling it \"grim and forbidding\". In 1975 a devastating fire struck Inveraray and for some time the 12th Duke and his family lived in the castle's basement, while restorations requiring a worldwide fundraising drive were carried out.", "The castle is open to visitors. Its collection includes more than 1,300 pikes, muskets, swords and other weapons. The 13th Duke and his family live in private apartments occupying two floors and set between two of the four crenellated circular towers. Recent renovations included the installation of the house's first central heating, powered by burning wood-chips from the family's forestry holdings. Inveraray Castle is a Category A listed building. It is surrounded by a garden and an estate of. Besides welcoming visitors to the castle, the estate's activities include commercial forestry, tenanted farming, wind and hydro power, and deer hunting.", "The 2012 Christmas episode of \"Downton Abbey\" was partly filmed here; the castle portraying the fictional \"Duneagle Castle\". Inveraray Castle also featured in a series on Scottish castles made by American broadcaster PBS. The \"Best of the West\" festival, organised by the Duchess, is held at the castle each September." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Belgium and Luxembourg independent.", "Decolonisation.", "Modern events.", "Constituent countries.", "Netherlands.", "Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba.", "Aruba.", "Curaçao.", "Sint Maarten.", "Institutions.", "Charter and constitutions.", "Government.", "Legislature.", "Council of State.", "Judiciary.", "Mutual arbitration between the constituent countries and the Kingdom.", "Kingdom affairs.", "Foreign relations.", "Constitutional nature.", "Relationship with the European Union.", "Constitutional reform of the Netherlands Antilles.", "Distinction between the Netherlands and the Kingdom.", "Geography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Kingdom of the Netherlands originated in the aftermath of French Emperor Napoleon I's defeat in 1815. In that year the Netherlands regained its independence from France under its First French Empire, which had annexed its northern neighbour in 1810, as the Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands. The great powers of Europe, united against Napoleonic France, had decided in the secret treaty of the London Protocol to establish a single state in the territories that were previously the Dutch Republic/Batavian Republic/Kingdom of Holland, the Austrian Netherlands and the Prince-Bishopric of Liège, awarding rule over this to William, Prince of Orange and Nassau, although the southern territories remained under Prussian (German) rule until Napoleon's return from his first exile on Elba (\"Hundred Days\"). In March 1815, amidst the turmoil of the Hundred Days, the Sovereign Prince William of Orange and Nassau adopted the style of \"King of the Netherlands\". Following Napoleon's second defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815, the Vienna Congress supplied international recognition of William's unilateral move. The new King of the Netherlands was also made Grand Duke of Luxembourg, a part of the Kingdom that was, at the same time, a member state of the German Confederation.", "In 1830, Belgium seceded from the Kingdom, a step that was recognised by the Netherlands only in 1839 in the Treaty of London. At that point, Luxembourg became a fully independent country in a personal union with the Netherlands. Luxembourg also lost more than half of its territory to Belgium. To compensate the", "The Kingdom's 1954 administrative reform was sparked by the 1931 Statute of Westminster and the 1941 Atlantic Charter (stating ′′the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live, and the desire for a permanent system of general security′′), which was signed by the Netherlands on 1 January 1942. Changes were proposed in the 7 December 1942 radio speech by Queen Wilhelmina. In this speech, the Queen, on behalf of the Dutch government in exile in London, expressed a desire to review the relations between the Netherlands and its colonies after the end of the war. After liberation, the government would call a conference to agree on a settlement in which the overseas territories could participate in the administration of the", "The Kingdom celebrated its bicentennial in a series of festive occasions spanning", "The Kingdom of the Netherlands currently consists of four constituent countries: the Netherlands, Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten. Note that there is a difference between the \"Kingdom of the Netherlands\" and the \"Netherlands\": the Kingdom of the Netherlands is the comprehensive sovereign state, while the Netherlands is one of its four countries. Three Caribbean islands (Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten) are the three remaining constituent countries. Three other Caribbean islands (Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba) are special municipalities within the country of the Netherlands. Until its dissolution in 2010, the islands had formed the Netherlands Antilles, with the exception of Aruba, which left the grouping in 1986.", "The Netherlands is a representative parliamentary democracy organised as a unitary state. Its administration consists of the Monarch and the Council of Ministers, which is headed by a Prime Minister (currently Mark Rutte). The people are represented by the States General of the Netherlands, which consists of a House of Representatives and a Senate. The Netherlands is divided into 12 provinces: Drenthe, Flevoland, Friesland, Gelderland, Groningen, Limburg, Noord-Brabant, Noord-Holland, Overijssel, Utrecht, Zeeland, and Zuid-Holland. The provinces are divided into municipalities. The Netherlands has the euro as its currency, except in the special municipalities of the Caribbean Netherlands (BES islands), where the Netherlands Antillean guilder was replaced by the U.S. dollar in 2011.", "The special municipalities of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba (referred to as Caribbean Netherlands or \"BES islands\") are part of the Netherlands proper but are not part of any province. They resemble ordinary Dutch municipalities in most ways (with a mayor, aldermen, and a municipal council, for example) and are subject to the ordinary Dutch legislative process. Residents of these three islands are also able to vote in Dutch national and European elections. There are, however, some derogations for these islands. Social security, for example, is not on the same level as it is in the Netherlands proper. In November 2008 it was decided to introduce the U.S. dollar in the three islands. The date of introduction was 1 January 2011. The Netherlands carries the risk of exchange rate fluctuations regarding cash flows between the state and the islands.", "Aruba, with its own constitution, is a representative parliamentary democracy organised as a unitary state. Its administration consists of the Governor, who represents the Monarch, and the (Aruban) Council of Ministers, headed by a Prime Minister. The sovereign people of Aruba are represented by", "Curaçao is a centralised unitary state, with similar", "Sint Maarten is a centralised unitary state, with similar administrative characteristics to Aruba. It has the Antillean Guilder as its currency. Unlike the other Dutch Caribbean", "", "Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten regulate the governance of their respective countries, but are subordinate to the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The Netherlands is ruled by the provisions and institutions of the Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands that also constitutes and regulates the institutions of the Kingdom that are mentioned in the Charter. The Constitution is also subordinate to the Charter. The provisions in the Charter for some of these institutions are additional and are applicable only for those affairs of the", "The Monarch and the ministers he appoints form the Government of the Kingdom. According to Article 7 of the Charter, the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom of the Netherlands consists of the Council of Ministers of the Netherlands complemented by one Minister Plenipotentiary of Aruba, one Minister Plenipotentiary of Curaçao, and one Minister Plenipotentiary of Sint Maarten. The Dutch Prime Minister chairs the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom. In December 2007, a Deputy Council for Kingdom Relations was established. This deputy council prepares the meetings of the Council of", "The legislature of the Kingdom consists of the States General of the Netherlands and the", "Article 13 of the Charter specifies that there is a Council of State of the Kingdom. It is (as all institutions of the Kingdom) regulated in the Constitution, but the Charter implies that at the request of Aruba, Curaçao, or", "The Hoge Raad der Nederlanden is the supreme court of the Kingdom by virtue of the Cassation regulation for the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba. The basis for this regulation is article 23 of the Charter. The second paragraph of that article specifies that if an overseas country of the Kingdom so requests, the Kingdom Act should provide for an additional court member from that country. To date, neither Aruba, Curaçao, nor Sint Maarten has used this right. According to Article 39 of the Charter, \"civil and commercial law, the law of civil procedure, criminal law, the law of criminal procedure, copyright, industrial property, the office of notary, and provisions concerning weights and measures shall be regulated as far as possible in a similar manner in the Netherlands, Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten\". The Article further stipulates that when a drastic amendment of the existing legislation in regard to these matters is proposed, the proposal shall not be submitted to or considered by a representative assembly until the Governments in the other countries have had the opportunity to express their views on the matter.", "In case of a conflict between a constituent country and the Kingdom, Article 12 of the Charter prescribes an administrative reconciliation procedure. This was often deemed a democratic deficit of the Kingdom, leading to the adoption of an amendment to the Charter, which entered into force on 10 October 2010. The new Article 12a specifies that in addition to the", "Article 3 of the Charter specifies the Affairs of the Kingdom: One additional Kingdom affair is specified in article 43(2): Paragraph 2 of Article 3 specifies that \"other matters may be declared to be Kingdom affairs in consultation\". These Kingdom affairs are only taken care of by the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, if the affair affects Aruba, Curaçao or St. Maarten. Article 14, paragraph 3, of the Charter, foresees the handling of Kingdom affairs in all other cases by the Netherlands. On the basis of Article 38, the countries of the Kingdom can decide to adopt a Kingdom Act outside of the scope of the aforementioned Kingdom affairs. Such acts are referred to as Consensus Kingdom Acts, as they require the consent of the parliaments of Aruba, Curaçao and St. Maarten.", "The Kingdom negotiates and concludes international treaties and agreements. Those that do not affect Aruba, Curaçao, or Sint Maarten directly are dealt with by the provisions of the Constitution (in fact by the Netherlands alone). Article 24 of the Charter specifies that when an international treaty or agreement affects Aruba, Curaçao, or Sint Maarten, the treaty or agreement concerned shall be submitted to their representative assemblies. The article further specifies that when such a treaty or agreement is submitted for the tacit approval of the States General of the Netherlands (), the Ministers Plenipotentiary may communicate their wish that the treaty or agreement concerned shall be subject to the express", "Most scholars agree that it is difficult to group the constitutional arrangements of the Kingdom in one of the traditional models of state organisation, and consider the Kingdom to be a arrangement. Instead, the Kingdom is said to have characteristics of a federal state, a confederation, a federacy, and a devolved unitary state. The Kingdom's federal characteristics include the delineation of Kingdom affairs in the Charter, the enumeration of the constituting parts of the Kingdom in the Charter, the fact that the Charter subordinates the law of the constituting countries to the law of the Kingdom, the establishment of Kingdom institutions in the Charter, and the fact that the Kingdom has its own legislative instruments: the Kingdom act and the Order-in-Council for the Kingdom. Its confederal characteristics include the fact that the Charter can only be amended by consensus among the constituent countries; in most ordinary federations, the federal institutions themselves can change the constitution. Characteristics that point more or less to a federacy include the fact that the functioning of the institutions of the Kingdom is governed by the Constitution of the Netherlands where the Charter does not provide for them. The Charter also does not provide a procedure for the enactment of Kingdom acts; articles 81 to 88 of the Constitution of the Netherlands also apply for Kingdom acts, but with some additions and corrections stipulated in articles 15 to 22 of the Charter. The only Kingdom institution that requires the participation of the Caribbean countries in a mandatory way is the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom; both the Supreme Court and the Council of State of the Kingdom only include Caribbean members if one or more Caribbean countries ask for it, and the Caribbean countries are almost completely excluded from participating in the Kingdom's legislature. They can, however, participate in the drafting of a Kingdom act and their Ministers Plenipotentiary can oppose a Kingdom act otherwise supported by the Kingdom government in front of the Kingdom's parliament. Furthermore, according to article 15 of the Charter, the Ministers Plenipotentiary can request the Kingdom parliament to introduce a draft Kingdom act. Last, but not least, the Netherlands can, according to article 14 of the Charter, conduct Kingdom affairs on its own if conducting such affairs does not affect Aruba, Curaçao, or Sint Maarten. Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten do not have this right. A characteristic that points to a devolved unitary state is the ability of the Kingdom government, according to article 50 of the Charter, to render a legislative or administrative measure of one of the Caribbean countries void if it is inconsistent with the Charter, an international agreement, a Kingdom act, an Order-in-Council for the Kingdom, or if it regulates an otherwise Kingdom affair. The constitutional structure of the Kingdom is summarised by constitutional scholar C. Borman, in an often-cited definition, as follows: Constitutional scholar C. A. J. M. Kortmann speaks of an \"association of countries that has characteristics of a federation, yet one of its own kind.\" Belinfante and De Reede do speak about a \"federal association\" without any reservations.", "The Kingdom of the Netherlands is a founding member state of the European Union. Although originally both Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles were explicitly excluded from association with the European Economic Community by means of a special protocol attached to the Treaty of Rome, the status of Suriname as an overseas country (OCT) of the Community was established by a Supplementary Act completing the instrument of ratification of the Kingdom of the", "In 2004, a joint commission proposed major reforms for the Netherlands Antilles. On 11 October and 2 November 2006, agreements were signed between the Dutch government and the governments of each island that would put into effect the commission's findings by 15 December 2008. The reform took effect on 10 October 2010. Under these reforms, the Netherlands Antilles were dissolved and Curaçao and Sint Maarten became constituent countries within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, obtaining the same status as Aruba which seceded from the Netherlands Antilles in 1986. The BES islands (i.e., Bonaire, Saba, and Sint Eustatius) became direct parts of the Netherlands, which is itself the major constituent country of the Kingdom. As special municipalities, they were constituted as \"public bodies\" () under the Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands. These municipalities resemble", "Outside the Kingdom of the Netherlands, \"Netherlands\" is used as the English short-form name to describe the Kingdom of the Netherlands. At the United Nations, for example, the Kingdom is identified in the General Assembly by its English short-form name \"Netherlands\", whereas the English long-form name \"Kingdom of the Netherlands\" may be used in place of the name \"Netherlands\" in formal UN documentation. International treaties, also, frequently shorten \"Kingdom of the Netherlands\" to \"Netherlands\". The Dutch name that is commonly used is \"Nederland\", which is a singular form, whereas the official Dutch name \"Koninkrijk der Nederlanden\" like the English \"(Kingdom of the) Netherlands\", uses the plural form. In Dutch practice, however, \"Kingdom of the Netherlands\" is shortened to \"Kingdom\" and not to \"Netherlands\", as the latter name could be confused with the Kingdom's principal constituent country rather than with the Kingdom in its Charter capacity. The Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands also shortens \"Kingdom of the Netherlands\" to \"Kingdom\" rather than to \"Netherlands\". Apart from the fact that referring to the Kingdom of the Netherlands as the \"Netherlands\" can be confusing, the term \"Kingdom\" is also used", "The Kingdom of the Netherlands covers a total area of ; and a land area of. The Kingdom of the Netherlands has land borders with Belgium, Germany (both in the European Netherlands), and France (on Saint Martin). About one quarter of the Netherlands lies below sea level, as much land has been reclaimed from the sea. Dikes were erected to protect the land from flooding. Previously, the highest point of the Netherlands was the Vaalserberg in Limburg at only, but with the constitutional reform of 10 October 2010 this changed as Saba became part of the Netherlands as a special municipality, and its Mount Scenery () took the place of the Vaalserberg. The Caribbean parts of the Kingdom consist of two zones with different geographic origins. The Leeward Islands (Saba, Sint Eustatius and Sint Maarten) are all of volcanic origin and hilly, leaving little ground suitable for agriculture. The Leeward Antilles (Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao) are largely lacking in volcanic activity: the island arc occurs along the deformed southern edge of the Caribbean Plate and was formed by the plate's subduction under the South American Plate. The Caribbean islands have a tropical climate, with warm weather all year round. The Leeward Islands are subject to hurricanes in the summer months. The European part of the Netherlands has a moderate maritime climate, with cool summers and mild winters." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Differences between civil and criminal procedure.", "Civil procedural types." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Some systems, including the English and French, allow governmental persons to bring a criminal prosecution against another person. Prosecutions are nearly always started by the state in order to punish the accused. Civil actions, on the other hand, are started by private individuals, companies or organizations, for their own benefit. In addition, governments (or their subdivisions or agencies) may also be parties to civil actions. The cases are usually in different courts. However this is distinguished from civil penal actions. In jurisdictions based on English common-law systems, the party bringing a criminal charge (in most cases, the state) is called the \"prosecution\", but the party bringing most forms of civil action is the \"plaintiff\" or \"claimant\". In both kinds of action the other party is known as the \"defendant\". A criminal case against a person called Ms. Sanchez would be described as “The People v. (= \"versus\", \"against\" or \"and\") Sanchez,” \"The State (or Commonwealth) v. Sanchez\" or \"[The name of the State] v. Sanchez\" in the United States and “R. (\"Regina\", Latin for \"Queen\" but spoken as \"The Crown\") v. Sanchez” in England and Wales, amongst other Commonwealth realms. But a civil action between Ms. Sanchez and a Mr. Smith would be “Sanchez v. Smith” if it were started by Sanchez, and “Smith v. Sanchez” if it were started by Mr. Smith (though the order of parties' names can change if the case is appealed). Most countries make a clear distinction between civil and criminal procedure. For example, a criminal court may force a convicted defendant to pay a fine as punishment for his crime, and the legal costs of both the prosecution and defence. But the victim of the crime generally pursues his claim for compensation in a civil, not a criminal, action. In France and England, however, a victim of a crime may incidentally be awarded compensation by a criminal court judge. Evidence from a criminal trial is generally admissible as evidence in a civil action about the same matter. For example, the victim of a road accident does not directly benefit if the driver who injured him is found guilty of the crime of careless driving. He still has to prove his case in a civil action, unless the doctrine of collateral estoppel applies, as it does in most American jurisdictions. In fact he may be able to prove his civil case even when the driver is found not guilty in the criminal trial, because the standard to determine guilt is higher than the standard to determine fault. However, if a driver is found by a civil jury not to have been negligent, a prosecutor may be estopped from charging him criminally. If the plaintiff has shown that the defendant is liable, the main remedy in a civil court is the amount of money, or \"damages\", which the defendant should pay to the plaintiff. Alternative civil remedies include restitution or transfer of property, or an injunction to restrain or order certain actions. The standards of proof are higher in a criminal case than in a civil one, since the state does not wish to risk punishing an innocent person. In English law the prosecution must prove the guilt of a criminal “beyond reasonable doubt”; but the plaintiff in a civil action is required to prove his case “on the balance of probabilities”. Thus, in a criminal case a crime cannot be proven if the person or persons judging it doubt the guilt of the suspect and have a reason (not just a feeling or intuition) for this doubt. But in a civil case, the court will weigh all the evidence and decide what is most probable.", "Civil procedure is traditionally divided into inquisitorial and adversarial." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Development.", "Service.", "Description." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "During the 1930s, the Soviet Union devoted much effort and funding to the development of six-wheeled medium or heavy armoured cars. A primary shortcoming of these vehicles was their lack of all-wheel drive, however, which restricted them to roads. In 1940, the Main Directorate of Soviet Armoured Forces (GABTU), issued a requirement for new armoured car designs which could operate effectively on open terrain and possessed an all-wheel drive chassis. This ushered in the development of several new 4X4 designs, such as the \"LB-62\" and the \"BA-NATTI\". Although these were the first all-wheel drive Soviet armoured cars, neither was accepted for service with the Red Army, as they suffered from excessive weight, fuel consumption, and poor operating range. During Operation Barbarossa, Nazi Germany's rapid offensives in Ukraine and western Russia temporarily disrupted new military projects as most Soviet factories involved with the production of armoured fighting vehicles were forced to evacuate their facilities and relocate operations east of the Ural Mountains. Gorkovsky Avtomobilny Zavod (GAZ) was one of a few exceptions to the rule, as it was already located east of Moscow. Its contribution to the early Soviet war effort was strategically vital, since it could continue manufacturing vehicles to replace the massive losses then being sustained by the Red Army while the rest of the local defence industry was struggling to relocate and reorganise. GAZ increased its manufacture and assembly of light tanks accordingly, as well as continuing to produce military trucks. Since the programme to mass produce a new all-wheel drive armoured car had been interrupted by the German invasion, it also fell to GAZ to investigate possibilities in that regard. GAZ technicians initiated concept work on a new armoured car designated \"Izdeliye\" 64-125 on July 17, 1941, basing its construction and design on a preexisting commercial chassis. This was to ensure the manufacturing process could in be undertaken in an economical and rapid manner. After some deliberation, the GAZ-64 jeep was chosen as the base for the Izdeliye 64-125. This chassis was considered ideal due to its short wheel base and excellent ground clearance, and the fact that its mechanical parts were already in serial production. The original Izdeliye 64-125 bore almost no similarities with what would later become the BA-64; it resembled little more than a shorter BA-20. On August 23, a captured German Sd.Kfz. 221 scout car was exhibited near Moscow by the Red Army. Vitaliy Grachev and other GAZ engineers were permitted to inspect the vehicle; a month later Grachev arranged to have it brought to the GAZ factory for a detailed analysis. Grachev was impressed by the highly faceted armour plate on the Sd.Kfz. 221, which was angled for maximum ricochet, and he ordered that a similar hull be incorporated into the Izdeliye 64-125. In late November, GAZ assembled the first three prototypes carrying the new hull. Field trials with the Red Army commenced on January 9, 1942. The Izdeliye 64-125 was accepted for service as the \"BA-64\" on March 14, 1942. The BA-64 was initially armed with a single 7.62mm Degtyaryov machine gun in an open-topped turret. The machine gun was mounted on a fixed mount that allowed it to be elevated sufficiently to engage low-flying aircraft. BA-64s started being issued in large numbers to Soviet units in early 1943. Around the same time a specialist driving school was set up to train BA-64 drivers. For reasons still unclear, only fifty armoured cars of this type were manufactured in 1942 and mass production was not undertaken until the first six months of 1943, when over a thousand were manufactured. Even after 1943, production figures never gained consistency and could fluctuate greatly from year to year due to more pressing priorities at GAZ and a few technical shortcomings of the GAZ-64 chassis which had to be resolved. BA-64s remained unique in that they were the only new Soviet armoured car design to be produced during World War II. They had better armour, speed, range, and off-road capability than any other wheeled fighting vehicles in Soviet service, although due to the limitations of the chassis they could only carry a single light machine gun. Unlike the BA-3/6 and BA-20 heavy armoured cars, which were armed with anti-tank cannon, the BA-64 was not considered suitable for front-line combat against German armour. It was, however, widely used for transporting officers, liaison purposes, reconnaissance, and other secondary battlefield tasks. In September 1943, production of the GAZ-64 was superseded by the improved GAZ-67B jeep, which had a wider wheel base. Consequently, the BA-64 was modified to accommodate the new chassis. This alteration proved to be a major improvement for the BA-64, which was notoriously unstable on slopes due to its narrow track and somewhat top-heavy nature; the wider GAZ-67B track increased the vehicle's side slope angle to 25°. The modified BA-64 was designated \"BA-64B\" by the Soviet government. Other detailed improvements included firing ports, a wider range of armament and a new carburetor which gave better performance on low grade fuel. Most BA-64Bs continued to be fitted with the same turret and 7.62mm machine gun as the original series; however, Soviet troops removed some of the original BA-64B turrets and replaced them with PTRS-41 anti-tank rifles or captured German 2 cm KwK 30 cannon. Another, more extensive, field modification involved removing the turret and even part of the upper hull, as well as adding a windshield salvaged from captured Volkswagen Schwimmwagens. This converted the BA-64B into an open-topped staff car. In 1944, GAZ produced a variant of the BA-64B mounting a single 12.7mm DShK heavy machine gun in a larger turret. Although this greatly improved the vehicle's firepower, the turret remained insufficient to adequately rotate the bulky machine gun, and there was not enough space in the hull to accommodate adequate 12.7mm ammunition stowage. Only a small number were manufactured. Another unusual variant, the BA-64ZhD, was produced using surplus, old BA-64 hulls, albeit mounted on the GAZ-67 chassis. It possessed flanged, steel rail wheels which allowed it to patrol railroad tracks. Production of the BA-64B was severely curtailed by the end of World War II, as the Red Army no longer had any interest in maintaining such large numbers of new armoured cars. The last 62 BA-64Bs were manufactured in mid 1946. Approximately 9,110 BA-64s of all variants were produced in the Soviet Union between 1942 and 1946. Of that figure, about half were fitted with communications equipment, chiefly RP radios, which were inferior to the 71-TK models used in Soviet heavy armoured cars. After the war, Soviet interest in wheeled armoured vehicles shifted primarily to purpose-built armoured personnel carriers (APCs). Soviet military officials wanted armoured vehicles capable of keeping pace with tanks that could transport infantry to an engagement. As early as mid-March 1943, GAZ had developed an APC variant of the BA-64B, the BA-64E, which could accommodate six passengers. This vehicle was open-topped and the passengers debarked through a door in the rear hull. The BA-64E was rejected as being too small for a practical APC; however, a number of its features would later be incorporated into a new design better able to combine the traditional roles of an armoured car with that of a general transporter: the BTR-40. GAZ manufactured new parts for the existing BA-64 fleet until 1953, the last year it remained in operational service with the Soviet Armed Forces. Thereafter the BA-64 was superseded by the BTR-40 and subsequently, by the BRDM-1. All the remaining vehicles were placed in storage, and some were gradually disposed of as military aid to Soviet client states, particularly North Korea. Prior to export, the stored BA-64s were refurbished at the same Soviet facilities responsible for the maintenance of the BTR series.", "The first BA-64s produced were deployed to the Don Front in 1942. However, larger quantities were operated by Soviet units on the Voronezh Front and the Bryansk Front from mid to late 1943. BA-64s also took part in the final phases of the Battle of Stalingrad. During prolonged road marches, Soviet crews retrofitted them with standard tread road wheels to save fuel. BA-64Bs were deployed during Soviet offensives in Austria, Germany, Hungary, and Romania, seeing extensive combat during the Second Battle of Kiev and the Battle of Berlin. Eighty-one BA-64Bs were also donated by the Soviets to the Polish People's Army and ten to the 1st Czechoslovak Army Corps. The Czechoslovak BA-64Bs were used in the Prague Offensive of 1945. During the early to mid 1950s, ex-Soviet BA-64s were shipped to a number of Soviet client states in Eastern Europe and Asia, including Bulgaria, East Germany, Romania, Albania, North Korea, and the People's Republic of China. Small quantities were later also supplied to Yugoslavia. In North Korean service, the BA-64 engaged ground forces of the United Nations Command during the Korean War, where it received the nickname \"\"Bobby\"\" from American soldiers. This was a likely play on the armoured car's Russian nickname, \"\"Bobik\"\". The last country known to have received BA-64s for its armed forces was North Vietnam, although it is not known whether these saw actual combat during the Vietnam War. By the 1970s, BA-64s had been retired by all Warsaw Pact armies, being typically donated to paramilitary groups such as the East German Combat Groups of the Working Class, and similar workers' militia units. However, some remained in service with the national armies of North Korea and Albania. In 2013, the Korean People's Army continued to hold an unknown number of BA-64s in reserve.", "The BA-64 consisted of the chassis of a GAZ-64 or GAZ-67 jeep modified to accept an armoured hull. The jeep chassis required some alterations to accept the hull; for example, the cooling, fuel, and electrical systems had to be relocated while the rear suspension was braced to accommodate the additional weight. Suspension consists of semi-elliptical springs front and rear, and steering is restricted to the front wheels. A BA-64's gearbox initially had one reverse and three forward gears on a two-speed transfer case, although a few models appear to have one reverse and four forward gears and no transfer case. All BA-64 hulls were of all-welded steel construction and varied in armour thickness from 15mm on the hull front to 6mm on the hull sides. To provide maximum ballistic protection, most armour plates were angled at approximately 30°. Both the driving and engine compartments were located at the front of the hull. The crew members are seated in tandem, with the turret gunner seated behind and above the driver. The driving compartment is fitted with a one-piece hatch cover opening upwards. When the hatch is closed during combat, the driver continues to navigate via a triplex auxiliary sight. The sight was developed from a similar device on the T-60 light tank. Both the BA-64 and BA-64B were powered by a four-cylinder GAZ petrol engine developed 50 hp (37 kW) at 2,800 rpm. The engine was particularly reliable and known for operating for extended periods even on low octane fuel and poor quality oil with minimal maintenance. Under wartime conditions it was capable of providing good operational service up to 15,000 kilometres without needing major repair. The BA-64 could be fitted with bullet-proof GK combat tyres, although these resulted in higher fuel consumption and reduced road speeds to 40 km/h. Red Army mechanics typically fitted standard tires from the GAZ-M1 passenger car with civilian tread to the BA-64 for use in convoys, long-distance road marches, and rearguard duties. An open-topped turret was fitted as standard to the BA-64 series, with a 7.62mm light machine gun mounted on a pintle to the right. The machine gun mount was designed for maximum elevation so it could engage low-flying aircraft or infantry in the upper floors of a building during urban combat. A very small number of BA-64s were fitted with a 12.7mm heavy machine gun in a larger, open-topped turret. This model included splash guards and armoured fillets on the hull roofline. Personal crew weapons, such as hand grenades, were also stored inside the vehicle's hull. The BA-64 underwent some minor modifications as the BA-64B. While the most noticeable of these changes were the new carburetor and the wider track, successive models of BA-64Bs also included firing ports, cylindrical sheet metal exhaust shields, an additional air intake atop the engine compartment, and an air intake for the driving compartment on the hull roof." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Rules of procedure and complications.", "Procedure.", "Pleading.", "Pretrial discovery.", "Resolution.", "Appeal.", "Enforcement.", "Research in law, economics and management.", "Etymology.", "Financing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Rules of criminal or civil procedure govern the conduct of a lawsuit in the common law adversarial system of dispute resolution. Procedural rules are constrained and informed by separate statutory laws, case laws, and constitutional provisions that define the rights of the parties to a lawsuit (see especially due process), though the rules generally reflect this legal context on their face. The details of the procedure differ greatly from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, and often from court to court even within the same jurisdiction. These rules of the particular procedures are very important for litigants to know, because the litigants are the ones who dictate the timing and progression of the lawsuit. Litigants are responsible to obtain the suited result and the timing of reaching this result. Failure to comply with the procedural rules may result in serious limitations that can affect the ability of one to present claims or defenses at any subsequent trial, or even promote the dismissal of the lawsuit altogether. Though the majority of lawsuits are settled before ever reaching a state of trial, they can still be very complicated to litigate. This is particularly true in federal systems, where a federal court may be applying state law (e.g. the \"Erie\" doctrine, for example in the United States), or vice versa. It is also possible for one state to apply the law of another in cases where additionally it may not be clear which level (or location) of court actually has jurisdiction over the claim or personal jurisdiction over the defendant, or whether the plaintiff has standing to participate in a lawsuit. About 98 percent of civil cases in the United States federal courts are resolved without a trial. Domestic courts are also often called upon to apply foreign law, or to act upon foreign defendants, over whom they may not even have the ability to even enforce a judgment if the defendant's assets are theoretically outside their reach. Lawsuits can become additionally complicated as more parties become involved (see joinder). Within a \"single\" lawsuit, there can be any number of claims and defenses (all based on numerous laws) between any number of plaintiffs or defendants. Each of these participants can bring any number of cross claims and counterclaims against each other, and even bring additional parties into the suit on either side after it progresses. In reality however, courts typically have some power to sever claims and parties into separate actions if it is more efficient to do so. A court can do this if there is not a sufficient overlap of factual issues between the various associates, separating the issues into different lawsuits. The official ruling of a lawsuit can be somewhat misleading because post-ruling outcomes are often not listed on the internet. For example, in the case of William J. Ralph Jr. v. Lind-Waldock & Company (September 1999), one would assume that Mr. Ralph lost the case when in fact, upon review of the evidence, it as found that Mr. Ralph was correct in his assertion that improper activity took place on the part of Lind-Waldock, and Mr. Ralph settled with Lind-Waldock. Cases such as this illustrate the need for more comprehensive information than mere internet searches when researching legal decisions. While online searches are appropriate for many legal situations, they are not appropriate for all.", "The following is a generalized description of how a lawsuit may proceed in a common law jurisdiction:", "A lawsuit begins when a complaint or petition, known as a pleading, is filed with the court. A complaint should explicitly state that one or more plaintiffs seek(s) damages or equitable relief from one or more stated defendants, and also should state the relevant factual allegations supporting the legal claims brought by the plaintiffs. As the initial pleading, a complaint is the most important step in a civil case because a complaint sets the factual and legal foundation for the entirety of a case. While complaints and other pleadings may ordinarily be amended by a motion with the court, the complaint sets the framework for the entire case and the claims that will be asserted throughout the entire lawsuit. It is likewise important that the plaintiff select the proper venue with the proper jurisdiction to bring the lawsuit. The clerk of a court signs or stamps the court seal upon a summons or citation, which is then served by the plaintiff upon the defendant, together with a copy of the complaint. This service notifies the defendants that they are being sued and that they are limited in the amount of time of a reply. The service provides a copy of the complaint in order to notify the defendants of the nature of the claims. Once the defendants are served with the summons and complaint, they are subject to a time limit to file an answer stating their defenses to the plaintiff's claims, which includes any challenges to the court's jurisdiction, and any counterclaims they wish to assert against the plaintiff. In a handful of jurisdictions (notably, the U.S. state of New York) a lawsuit begins when one or more plaintiffs properly serve a summons and complaint upon the defendants. In such jurisdictions, nothing must be filed with the court until a dispute develops requiring actual judicial intervention. If the defendant chooses to file an answer within the time permitted, the answer must address each of the plaintiffs' allegations. The defendant has three choices to make, which include either admitting to the allegation, denying it, or pleading a lack of sufficient information to admit or deny the allegation. Some jurisdictions, like California and Florida, still authorize general denials of each and every allegation in the complaint. At the time the defendant files an answer, the defendant also raises all \"affirmative\" defenses. The defendant may also assert counterclaims for damages or equitable relief against the plaintiff. For example, in the case of \"compulsory counterclaims,\" the defendant must assert some form of counterclaim or risk having the counterclaim barred in any subsequent proceeding. In the case of making a counterclaim, the defendant is making a motion directed towards the plaintiff claiming that he/she was injured in some way or would like to sue the plaintiff. The plaintiff in this example would then receive some amount of time to make a reply to this counterclaim. The defendant may also file a \"third party complaint\", which is the defendant's privilege to join another party or parties in the action with the belief that those parties may be liable for some or all of the plaintiff's claimed damages. An answer from the defendant in response to the claims made against him/her, can also include additional facts or a so-called \"excuse\" for the plead. Filing an answer \"joins the cause\" and moves the case into the pre-trial phase. Instead of filing an answer within the time specified in the summons, the defendant can choose to dispute the validity of the complaint by filing a demurrer (in the handful of jurisdictions where that is still allowed) or one or more \"pre-answer motions,\" such as a motion to dismiss. It is important that the motion be filed within the time period specified in the summons for an answer. If all of the above motions are denied by the trial court, and the defendant loses on all appeals from such denials (if that option is available), and finally the defendant \"must\" file an answer. Usually the pleadings are drafted by a lawyer, but in many courts persons can file papers and represent themselves, which is called appearing \"pro se\". Many courts have a \"pro se\" clerk to assist people without lawyers.", "A pretrial discovery can be defined as \"the formal process of exchanging information between the parties about the witnesses and evidence they’ll present at trial\" and allows for the evidence of the trial to be presented to the parties before the initial trial begins. The early stages of the lawsuit may involve initial disclosures of evidence by each party and discovery, which is the structured exchange of evidence and statements between the parties. Discovery is meant to eliminate surprises, clarify what the lawsuit is about, and also to make the parties decide if they should settle or drop frivolous claims and/or defenses. At this point the parties may also engage in pretrial motions to exclude or include particular legal or factual issues before trial. There is also the ability of one to make an under oath statement during the pretrial, also known as a deposition. The deposition can be used in the trial or just in the pretrial, but this allows for both parties to be aware of the arguments or claims that are going to be made by the other party in the trial. It is notable that the depositions can be written or oral. At the close of discovery, the parties may either pick a jury and then have a trial by jury or the case may proceed as a bench trial. A bench trial is only heard by the judge if the parties waive a jury trial or if the right to a jury trial is not guaranteed for their particular claim (such as those under equity in the U.S.) or for any lawsuits within their jurisdiction.", "Usually, lawsuits end in a settlement, with an empirical analysis finding that less than 2% of cases end with a trial. It is sometimes said that 95% of cases end in settlement; few jurisdictions report settlements, but empirical analysis suggests that the settlement rate varies by type of lawsuit, with torts settling around 90% of the time and overall civil cases settling 50% of the time; other cases end due to default judgment, lack of a valid claim, and other reasons. At trial, each person presents witnesses and the evidence collected is recorded. After this occurs, the judge or jury renders their decision. Generally speaking, the plaintiff has the burden of proof in making his claims, however, the defendant may have the burden of proof on other issues, such as affirmative defenses. The attorneys are held responsible in devising a trial strategy that ensures they meet the necessary elements of their case or (when the opposing party has the burden of proof) to ensure the opponent will not be able to meet his or her burden. There are numerous motions that either party can file throughout the lawsuit to terminate it \"prematurely\"—before submission to the judge or jury for final consideration. These motions attempt to persuade the judge, through legal argument and sometimes accompanying evidence, that there is no reasonable way that the other party could legally win and therefore there is no sense in continuing with the trial. Motions for summary judgment, for example, can usually be brought before, after, or during the actual presentation of the case. Motions can also be brought after the close of a trial to undo a jury verdict contrary to law or against the weight of the evidence, or to convince the judge to change the decision or grant a new trial. Also, at any time during this process from the filing of the complaint to the final judgment, the plaintiff may withdraw the complaint and end the whole matter, or the defendant may agree to a settlement. If the case settles, the parties might choose to enter into a stipulated judgment with the settlement agreement attached, or the plaintiff may simply file a voluntary dismissal, so that the settlement agreement is never entered into the court record. The decisions that the jury makes are not put into effect until the judge makes a judgment, which is the approval to have this trial information be filed in public records. In a civil case, the judge is allowed at this time to make changes to the verdict that the jury came up with by either adding on or reducing the punishment. In criminal cases the situation is a little different, because in this case the judge does not have the authority to change the jury decision.", "After a final decision has been made, either party or both may appeal from the judgment if they believe there had been a procedural error made by the trial court. It isn't necessarily an automatic appeal after every judgment has been made, however, if there is a legal basis for the appeal, then one has the right to do so. The prevailing party may appeal, for example, if they wanted a larger award than was granted. The appellate court (which may be structured as an intermediate appellate court) and/or a higher court then affirms the judgment, declines to hear it (which effectively affirms it), reverses—or vacates and remands. This process would then involve sending the lawsuit back to the lower trial court to address an unresolved issue, or possibly request for a whole new trial. Some lawsuits go up and down the appeals ladder repeatedly before final resolution. The appeal is a review for errors rather than a new trial, so the appellate court will defer to the discretion of the original trial court if an error is not clear. The initial step in making an appeal consists of the petitioner filing a notice of appeal and then sending in a brief, a written document stating reason for appeal, to the court. Decisions of the court can be made immediately after just reading the written brief, or there can also be oral arguments made by both parties involved in the appeal. The appellate court then makes the decision about what errors were made when the law was looked at more closely in the lower court. There were no errors made, the case would then end, but if the decision was reversed, the appellate court would then send the case back down to the lower court level. There, a new trial will be held and new information taken into account. Some jurisdictions, notably the United States, but prevalent in many other countries, prevent parties from relitigating the facts on appeal, due to a history of unscrupulous lawyers deliberately reserving such issues in order to ambush each other in the appellate courts (the \"invited error\" problem). The idea is that it is more efficient to force all parties to fully litigate all relevant issues of fact before the trial court. Thus, a party who does not raise an issue of fact at the trial court level generally cannot raise it on appeal. When the lawsuit is finally resolved, or the allotted time to appeal has expired, the matter is \"res judicata\", meaning the plaintiff may not bring another action based on the same claim again. In addition, other parties who later attempt to re-litigate a matter already ruled on in a previous lawsuit will be \"estopped\" from doing so.", "When a final judgment is entered, the plaintiff is usually barred under the doctrine of \"res judicata\" from relitigating any of the issues, even under different legal theories. Judgments are typically a monetary award. If the defendant fails to pay, the court has various powers to seize any of the defendant's assets located within its jurisdiction, such as: If all assets are located elsewhere, the plaintiff must file another suit in the appropriate court to seek enforcement of the other court's previous judgment. This can be a difficult task when crossing from a court in one state or nation to another, however, courts tend to grant each other respect when there is not a clear legal rule to the contrary. A defendant who has no assets in \"any\" jurisdiction is said to be \"judgment-proof.\" The term is generally a colloquialism to describe an impecunious defendant. Indigent judgment-proof defendants are no longer imprisoned; debtor's prisons have been outlawed by statute, constitutional amendment, or international human rights treaties in the vast majority of common law jurisdictions.", "Scholars in law, economics and management have studied why firms involved in a dispute choose between private dispute resolution—such as negotiation, mediation, and arbitration—and litigation. The presence of prior relationships between firms does not systematically decrease the use of lawsuits. In fact, the likelihood of litigation is higher when firms have not developed joint relational norms. In addition, firms are more likely to resort to a private dispute resolution mechanism when they expect joint future exchanges.", "During the 18th and 19th centuries, it was common for lawyers to speak of bringing an \"action\" at law and a \"suit\" in equity. An example of that distinction survives today in the codified text of the Third Enforcement Act. The fusion of common law and equity in England in the Judicature Acts of 1873 and 1875 led to the collapse of that distinction, so it became possible to speak of a \"lawsuit.\" In the United States, the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure (1938) abolished the distinction between actions at law and suits in equity in federal practice, in favor of a single form referred to as a \"civil action.\" In England and Wales the term \"claim\" is far more common; the person initiating proceedings is called the claimant. American terminology is slightly different, in that the term \"claim\" refers only to a particular count or cause of action in a lawsuit. Americans also use \"claim\" to describe a demand filed with an insurer or administrative agency. If the claim is denied, then the claimant, policyholder, or applicant files a lawsuit with the courts to seek review of that decision, and from that point forward participates in the lawsuit as a plaintiff. In other words, the terms \"claimant\" and \"plaintiff\" carry substantially different connotations of formality in American English, in that only the latter risks an award of costs in favor of an adversary in a lawsuit. In medieval times, both \"action\" and \"suit\" had the approximate meaning of some kind of legal proceeding, but an action terminated when a judgment was rendered, while a suit also included the execution of the judgment.", "Particularly in the United States, plaintiffs and defendants who lack financial resources for litigation or other attorney's fees may be able to obtain legal financing. Legal financing companies can provide a cash advance to litigants in return for a share of the ultimate settlement or award. If the case ultimately loses, the litigant does not have to pay any of the money funded back. Legal financing is different from a typical bank loan in that the legal financing company does not look at credit history or employment history. Litigants do not have to repay the cash advance with monthly payments, but do have to fill out an application so that the legal financing company can review the merits of the case. Legal financing can be a practical means for litigants to obtain financing while they wait for a monetary settlement or an award in their personal injury, workers' compensation, or civil rights lawsuit. Often, plaintiffs who were injured or forced to leave their jobs still have mortgages, rent, medical expenses, or other bills to pay. Other times, litigants may simply need money to pay for the costs of litigation and attorneys' fees, and for this reason, many litigants turn to reputable legal financing companies to apply for a cash advance to help pay for bills. Defendants, civil rights organizations, public interest organizations, and government public officials can all set up an account to pay for litigation costs and legal expenses. These legal defense funds can have large membership counts where the members contribute to the fund. Unlike legal financing from legal financing companies, legal defense funds provide a separate account for litigation rather than a one-time cash advancement, nevertheless, both are used for purposes of financing litigation and legal costs. There was a study conducted in the \"Supreme Court Economic Review\" that shows why litigation financing can be practical and beneficial to the overall court system and lawsuits within the court. This study concluded that the new rules that were set for litigation financing actually did produce more settlements. Under conservative rules, there tended to be fewer settlements, however under the older rules they tended to be larger on average. Legal financing can become an issue in some cases, varying from case to case and person to person. It can be beneficial in many situations, however also detrimental in others." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin and history.", "Fighting methods." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Pekiti-Tirsia's movements are based on the traditional blade art of the Philippines - Kali, which involves slicing swords in a circular motion, symbolic of the orbits of the moon and the planets. It also incorporated triangular movements symbolic of constellations. In ancient times, Kali was taught in rituals that were then used pragmatically to survive against adversaries and wild animals. The Visayan datus established a state in Kalibo, Aklan — this is sometimes cited as the origin of the name \"Kali\". Another reason is that a practitioner of the art is trained in carrying a knife, which is called a \"kalis\". Pekiti-Tirsia Kali specifically was a family system that goes back at least four generations, starting with Norberto Tortal. It was further developed and improved during the years 1930-36 by his grandson Conrado Tortal. The system is now headed by Leo T. Gaje Jr., the grandson of Conrado Tortal. Gaje introduced his system to North America after arriving in the US in 1972. His style earned recognition and respect from major martial arts organizations such as the Jewish Karate Federation, the United States Karate Association International, and the United States Karate Federation. His system has been an influence on the Dog Brothers, Dan Inosanto and other FMA practitioners. He has since brought the system to various European countries as well. In 1995, Pekiti Tirsia International was formed in the US. In 1997, this organization went its own way. It is currently headed by McGrath (President and Chief Instructor). (Law Enforcement Director), Magino'o Dan Inosanto (North American Director), Sifu Manfred Steiner (European Director), Ralf Beckmann (Director for Germany), and Roberto Bonomelli and Attilio Acquistapace (Co-Directors for Italy). In 1996, Pekiti-Tirsia Europe Organization was formed, with Uli Weidle as Managing Director. In the year 1997 the Centennial Celebration for 100 years of Pekiti-Tirsia was celebrated in Subic Bay, Zambales, Philippines last October 25, 1997. Pekiti-Tirsia was the only Filipino Martial Art officially recognized as having a centennial. In 2003, Pekiti Tirsia Global was established. PTKGO (Tim Waid) National Directors include Leo T. Gaje Jr.. and Rommel Tortal in the Philippines, Timothy D. Waid in the United States, Philip Gelinas in Canada, and Uli Weidle in Europe.", "All fighting ranges are integral parts of the Pekiti-Tirsia system, but special attention is given to closing in to kill in close-quarter combat. Integral to this is a coiled close quarter stance that allows evasion and generation of a powerful strike even in close range. Pekiti-Tirsia is about quartering the opponent, or 'cutting up into little pieces', emphasizing destruction with counter offence while not getting hit. The Pekiti-Tirsia methodology originates from offensive and counter offensive principles against attacks from all ranges, angles and threat levels. There is less emphasis on purely defensive techniques per se, as this is not seen as an effective survival strategy. Pekiti-Tirsia Kali incorporates 5 main weapon categories (including the human body): There are various subsystems of training that have evolved over the years, including: All of the basic of 64 attacks including the breakdown of Thrust and Tapping, Break In/Break out, Five attacks, Seven attacks, and Clock system. It includes advanced techniques of Sequidas, Contradas, and Recontras. There are inserts along the way of unarmed knife tapping, bladework, locks and technical throws, unarmed combat and armed combat. The footwork strategy and handiwork with the weapon are also most important. Doce Methodos, a unique structure compatible to any mode of attacks using the Diagonal V and Reverse V." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Translators.", "Translation Services Department.", "2013 revision.", "Translation.", "Textual basis.", "Other languages.", "Features.", "Use of \"Jehovah\".", "Editions.", "\"Kingdom Interlinear Translation of the Greek Scriptures\".", "Non-print editions.", "Critical review.", "Overall review.", "Old Testament.", "New Testament.", "\"Kingdom Interlinear Translation of the Greek Scriptures\".", "Controversial passages." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Until the release of the \"New World Translation\", Jehovah's Witnesses in English-speaking countries primarily used the \"King James Version\". According to the publishers, one of the main reasons for producing a new translation was that most Bible versions in common use, including the \"Authorized Version\" (King James), employed archaic language. The stated intention was to produce a fresh translation, free of archaisms. Additionally, over the centuries since the \"King James Version\" was produced, more copies of earlier manuscripts of the original texts in the Hebrew and Greek languages have become available. According to the publishers, better manuscript evidence had made it possible to determine with greater accuracy what the original writers intended, particularly in more obscure passages, allowing linguists to better understand certain aspects of the original languages. In October 1946, the president of the Watch Tower Society, Nathan H. Knorr, proposed a fresh translation of the New Testament, which Jehovah's Witnesses usually refer to as the \"Christian Greek Scriptures\". Work began on December 2, 1947 when the \"New World Bible Translation Committee\" was formed, composed of Jehovah's Witnesses who professed to be anointed. The Watch Tower Society is said to have \"become aware\" of the committee's existence a year later. The committee agreed to turn over its translation to the Society for publication and on September 3, 1949, Knorr convened a joint meeting of the board of directors of both the Watch Tower Society's New York and Pennsylvania corporations where he again announced to the directors the existence of the committee and that it was now able to print its new modern English translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures. Several chapters of the translation were read to the directors, who then voted to accept it as a gift. The \"New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures\" was released at a convention of Jehovah's Witnesses at Yankee Stadium, New York, on August 2, 1950. The translation of the Old Testament, which Jehovah's Witnesses refer to as the \"Hebrew Scriptures\", was released in five volumes in 1953, 1955, 1957, 1958, and 1960. The complete \"New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures\" was released as a single volume in 1961, and has since undergone minor revisions. Cross references which had appeared in the six separate volumes were updated and included in the complete volume in the 1984 revision. In 1961 the Watch Tower Society began to translate the \"New World Translation\" into Dutch, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish; the New Testament in these languages was released simultaneously in July 1963 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. By 1989 the \"New World Translation\" was translated into eleven languages, with more than 56,000,000 copies printed.", "The \"New World Translation\" was produced by the New World Bible Translation Committee, formed in 1947. This committee is said to have comprised unnamed members of multinational background. The committee requested that the Watch Tower Society not publish the names of its members, stating that they did not want to \"advertise themselves but let all the glory go to the Author of the Scriptures, God,\" adding that the translation, \"should direct the reader... to... Jehovah God\". The publishers believe that \"the particulars of [the New World Bible Translation Committee's members] university or other educational training are not the important thing\" and that \"the translation testifies to their qualification\". Former high-ranking Watch Tower staff have identified various members of the translation team. Former governing body member Raymond Franz listed Nathan H. Knorr, Fredrick W. Franz, Albert D. Schroeder, George D. Gangas, and Milton G. Henschel as members of the translation team, adding that only Frederick Franz had sufficient knowledge in biblical languages. Referring to the identified members, evangelical minister Walter Ralston Martin said, \"The New World Bible translation committee had no known translators with recognized degrees in Greek or Hebrew exegesis or translation... None of these men had any university education except Franz, who left school after two years, never completing even an undergraduate degree.\" Franz had stated that he was familiar with not only Hebrew, but with Greek, Latin, Spanish, Portuguese, German, and French for the purpose of biblical translation.", "In 1989 a Translation Services Department was established at the world headquarters of Jehovah's Witnesses, overseen by the Writing Committee of the Governing Body. The goal of the Translation Services Department was to accelerate Bible translation with the aid of computer technology. Previously, some Bible translation projects lasted twenty years or more. Under the direction of the Translation Services Department, translation of the Old Testament in a particular language may be completed in as little as two years. During the period from 1963 to 1989, the \"New World Translation\" became available in ten additional languages. Since the formation of the Translation Services Department in 1989, there has been a significant increase in the number of languages in which the \"New World Translation\" has been made available.", "At the Watch Tower Society's annual meeting on October 5, 2013, a significantly revised translation was released. Referring to the new revision, the publishers stated, \"There are now about 10 percent fewer English words in the translation. Some key Biblical terms were revised. Certain chapters were changed to poetic format, and clarifying footnotes were added to the regular edition.\" The Pericope Adulterae (John 7:53 – 8:11) and the Short and Long Conclusions of Mark 16 (Mark 16:8–20)—offset from the main text in earlier editions—were removed. The new revision was also released as part of an app called \"JW Library\". As of April 2020, the 2013 edition of the \"New World Translation\" has been translated into 31 languages.", "According to the Watch Tower Society, the \"New World Translation\" attempts to convey the intended sense of original-language words according to the context. The \"New World Translation\" employs nearly 16,000 English expressions to translate about 5,500 biblical Greek terms, and over 27,000 English expressions to translate about 8,500 Hebrew terms. The translators state that, where possible in the target language, the \"New World Translation\" prefers literal renderings and does not paraphrase the original text.", "The master text used for translating the Old Testament into English was Kittel's Biblia Hebraica. The Hebrew texts, Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia and Biblia Hebraica Quinta, were used for preparing the latest version of this translation. Other works consulted in preparing the translation include Aramaic Targums, the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Samaritan Torah, the Greek Septuagint, the Latin Vulgate, the Masoretic Text, the Cairo Codex, the Aleppo Codex, Christian David Ginsburg's Hebrew Text, and the Leningrad Codex. The Greek master text by the Cambridge University scholars B. F. Westcott and F. J. A. Hort (1881) was used as the basis for translating the New Testament into English. The committee also referred to the Novum Testamentum Graece (18th edition, 1948) and to works by Jesuit scholars José M. Bover (1943), and Augustinus Merk (1948). The United Bible Societies' text (1975) and the Nestle-Aland text (1979) were used to update the footnotes in the 1984 version. Additional works consulted in preparing the \"New World Translation\" include the Armenian Version, Coptic Versions, the Latin Vulgate, Sistine and Clementine Revised Latin Texts, Textus Receptus, the Johann Jakob Griesbach's Greek text, the Emphatic Diaglott, and various papyri.", "Translation into other languages is based on the English text, supplemented by comparison with the Hebrew and Greek. The complete \"New World Translation\" has been published in more than one hundred languages or scripts, with the New Testament available in more than fifty additional languages. When the Writing Committee approves the translation of the Bible into a new language, it appoints a group of baptized Jehovah's Witnesses to serve as a translation team. Translators are given a list of words and expressions commonly used in the English \"New World Translation\" with related English words grouped together (e.g. \"atone\", \"atonement\" or \"propitiation\"). A list of vernacular equivalents is then composed. A database of Greek and Hebrew terms is available where a translator has difficulty rendering a verse. The vernacular terms are then applied to the text in the target language. Further editing and translation is then performed to produce a final version.", "The layout resembles the 1901 edition of the American Standard Version. The translators use the terms \"Hebrew-Aramaic Scriptures\" and \"Christian Greek Scriptures\" rather than \"Old Testament\" and \"New Testament\", stating that the use of \"testament\" was based on a misunderstanding of 2 Corinthians 3:14. Headings were included at the top of each page to assist in locating texts; these have been replaced in the 2013 revision by an \"Outline of Contents\" introducing each Bible book. There is also an index listing scriptures by subject. Square brackets [ ] were added around words that were inserted editorially, but were removed as of the 2006 printing. Double brackets were used to indicate text considered doubtful. The pronoun \"you\" was printed in small capitals (i.e., ) to indicate plurality, as were some verbs when plurality may be unclear. These features were discontinued in the 2013 release. The \"New World Translation\" attempts to indicate progressive rather than completed actions, such as \"proceeded to rest\" at Genesis 2:2 instead of \"rested\". The 2013 release indicates progressive verbs only where considered contextually important.", "The name \"Jehovah\" is a translation of the Tetragrammaton (, transliterated as \"YHWH\", though the original pronunciation is unknown). The \"New World Translation\" uses the name \"Jehovah\" 6,979 times in the Old Testament. According to the Watch Tower Society, the Tetragrammaton appears in \"the oldest fragments of the Greek Septuagint\". In reference to the \"Septuagint\", biblical scholar Paul E. Kahle stated, \"We now know that the Greek Bible text as far as it was written by Jews for Jews did not translate the Divine name by Kyrios, but the Tetragrammaton written with Hebrew or Greek letters was retained in such MSS (manuscripts). It was the Christians who replaced the Tetragrammaton by Kyrios, when the divine name written in Hebrew letters was not understood any more.\" However, according to professor Albert Pietersma, since pre-Christian times « adonai » and the Tetragrammaton where considered equivalent to the Greek term « kyrios ». Pietersma stated that \"The translators felt no more bound to retain the tetragram in written form than they felt compelled to render distinctively Hebrew el, elohim or shaddai.\" Moreover, he considers that old manuscripts containing the tetragram, like the papyrus Fouad 266, \"is evidence of a secondary stage.\" The \"New World Translation\" also uses the name \"Jehovah\" 237 times in the New Testament where the extant texts use only the Greek words \"kyrios\" (\"Lord\") and \"theos\" (\"God\"). The use of \"Jehovah\" in the New Testament is very rare, but not unique to the \"New World Translation\". Walter Martin, an evangelical minister, wrote, \"It can be shown from literally thousands of copies of the Greek New Testament that not once does the tetragrammaton appear.\" However, the translators of the \"New World Translation\" believed that the name \"Jehovah\" was present in the original manuscripts of the New Testament when quoting from the Old Testament, but replaced with the other terms by later copyists. Based on this reasoning, the translators consider to have \"restored the divine name\", though it is not present in any extant manuscripts.", "In 1984, a \"Reference\" edition of the \"New World Translation\" was released in addition to a revision of the regular volume. The regular edition includes several appendices containing arguments for various translation decisions, maps, diagrams and other information; and over 125,000 cross references. The reference edition contains the cross references and adds footnotes about translation decisions and additional appendices that provide further detail relating to certain translation decisions and doctrinal views.", "The New World Bible Translation Committee included the English text from the \"New World Translation\" in its 1969 and 1985 editions of \"The Kingdom Interlinear Translation of the Greek Scriptures\". It also incorporates the Greek text published by Westcott and Hort in \"The New Testament in the Original Greek\" and a literal word-for-word translation.", "In 1978, the Watch Tower Society began producing recordings of the \"New World Translation\" on audio cassette, with the New Testament released by 1981 and the Old Testament in three albums released by 1990. In 2004, the NWT was released on compact disc in MP3 format in major languages. Since 2008, audio downloads of the NWT have been made available in 18 languages in MP3 and AAC formats, including support for Podcasts. In 1983, the English Braille edition of the \"New World Translation\"s New Testament was released; the complete English Braille edition was released by 1988. NWT editions have since become available in several additional Braille scripts. Production of the NWT in American Sign Language began in 2006, with the complete New Testament made available by 2010; sign language editions are also available for download. In 1992 a digital edition of the \"New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures—With References\" was released on floppy disk. Since 1994, the \"New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures—With References\" has been included in the \"Watchtower Library on CD-ROM\", available only to baptized Jehovah's Witnesses. Both editions of the \"New World Translation\" are available online in various languages and digital formats. Since 2015, a \"Study Edition\" of the \"New World Translation\" has been gradually released online starting with the books of the New Testament, based on the 2013 revision with additional reference material.", "", "In its review of Bible translations released from 1955 to 1985, \"The HarperCollins Bible Dictionary\" listed the \"New World Translation\" as one of the major modern translations. In 1993 Gordon Fee in his book, \"How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth\", refers to the New World translation as being an \"extremely literal translation\" filled with \"heretical doctrines\". In 2004, Anthony Byatt and Hal Flemings published their anthology \"Your Word is Truth', Essays in Celebration of the 50th Anniversary of the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures (1950, 1953)\". They included essays responding to criticism of the \"New World Translation\" from non-Witnesses, and a bibliography of reviews of the work.", "Regarding the \"New World Translation\"s use of English in the 1953 first volume of the NWT (\"Genesis to Ruth\"), biblical scholar Harold Henry Rowley was critical of what he called \"wooden literalism\" and \"harsh construction.\" He characterized these as \"an insult to the Word of God\", citing various verses of Genesis as examples. Rowley concluded, \"From beginning to end this [first] volume is a shining example of how the Bible should not be translated.\" He added in a subsequent review that \"the second volume shows the same faults as the first.\" Rolf Furuli, a Jehovah's Witness and a former professor in Semitic languages, notes that a literal translation that follows the sentence structure of the source language rather than target language must be somewhat wooden and unidiomatic. Furuli adds that Rowley's assessment based on his own preference for idiomatic translations ignores the NWT's stated objective of being as literal as possible. Samuel Haas, in his 1955 review of the 1953 first volume of the \"New World Translation of the Hebrew Scriptures\", in the \"Journal of Biblical Literature\", states: \"this work indicates a great deal of effort and thought as well as considerable scholarship, it is to be regretted that religious bias was allowed to colour many passages.\" In 1981, biblical scholar Benjamin Kedar-Kopfstein stated that the Old Testament work is largely based upon the formal structure of biblical Hebrew.", "In 1952, religious writer Alexander Thomson wrote of the \"New World Translation\": \"The translation is evidently the work of skilled and clever scholars, who have sought to bring out as much of the true sense of the Greek text as the English language is capable of expressing.... We heartily recommend the \"New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures\", published in 1950 by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society.\" In 1959, Thomson added that on the whole the version was quite a good one, even though it was padded with many English words which had no equivalent in the Greek or Hebrew. In 1953, former American Bible Society board member Bruce M. Metzger concluded that \"on the whole, one gains a tolerably good impression of the scholarly equipment of the translators,\" but identified instances where the translation has been written to support doctrine, with \"several quite erroneous renderings of the Greek.\" Metzger noted a number of \"indefensible\" characteristics of the translation, including its use of \"Jehovah\" in the New Testament. In 1954, Unitarian theologian Charles F. Potter stated about the \"New World Translation\": \"Apart from a few semantic peculiarities like translating the Greek word \"stauros\" as \"stake\" instead of \"cross\", and the often startling use of the colloquial and the vernacular, the anonymous translators have certainly rendered the best manuscript texts, both Greek and Hebrew, with scholarly ability and acumen.\" F. E. Mayer wrote: \"It is a version that lends support to denial of doctrines which the Christian churches consider basic, such as the co-equality of Jesus Christ with the Father, the personhood of the Holy Spirit, and the survival of the human person after physical death. It teaches the annihilation of the wicked, the non-existence of hell, and the purely animal nature of man's soul.\" In his review in \"Andover Newton Quarterly\" Robert M. McCoy reported in 1963, \"The translation of the New Testament is evidence of the presence in the movement of scholars qualified to deal intelligently with the many problems of Biblical translation. One could question why the translators have not stayed closer to the original meaning, as do most translators.... In not a few instances the \"New World Translation\" contains passages which must be considered as 'theological translations.' This fact is particularly evident in those passages which express or imply the deity of Jesus Christ.\" In 1963, theologian Anthony A. Hoekema wrote: \"Their New World Translation of the Bible is by no means an objective rendering of the sacred text into modern English, but is a biased translation in which many of the peculiar teachings of the Watchtower Society are smuggled into the text of the Bible itself.\" Julius R. Mantey, co-author of \"A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament\" and \"A Hellenistic Greek Reader\", said about the New Testament of the NWT that it's \"a distortion not a translation.\" In 1982, Robert H. Countess in his critical analysis \"The Jehovah's Witness' New Testament\" wrote that the NWT \"must be viewed as a radically biased piece of work.\" Theologian William Barclay concluded that \"the deliberate distortion of truth by this sect is seen in the New Testament translation.... It is abundantly clear that a sect which can translate the New Testament like that is intellectually dishonest.\" Theologian John Ankerberg accused the \"New World Translation\"s translators of renderings that conform \"to their own preconceived and unbiblical theology.\" John Weldon and Ankerberg cite several examples wherein they consider the NWT to support theological views overriding appropriate translation. The \"New Catholic Encyclopedia\" states, \"[Jehovah's Witnesses] are allowed no other books than the Bible and the society's own publications, which includes its own translation of the Bible with an impressive critical apparatus. The work is excellent except when scientific knowledge comes into conflict with the accepted doctrines of the movement. In their so-called \"New World Translation\", the term \"Kyrios\" is rendered Jehovah instead of Lord everywhere in the New Testament (237 times) except at Philippians 2.11, where St. Paul refers the word to Christ.\" In 2004, historian Jason BeDuhn examined New Testament passages that he believed \"bias is most likely to interfere with translation\" from nine of \"the Bibles most widely in use in the English-speaking world\". For each passage, he compared the Greek text with the renderings of each English translation, and looked for biased attempts to change the meaning. BeDuhn states that the \"New World Translation\" was \"not bias free\", adding that whilst the general public and various biblical scholars might assume that the differences in the New World Translation are the result of religious bias, he considered it to be \"the most accurate of the translations compared\", and a \"remarkably good translation\". He also states that \"most of the differences are due to the greater accuracy of the NW as a literal, conservative translation\". Despite his positive review, BeDuhn said the introduction of the name \"Jehovah\" into the New Testament 237 times was \"not accurate translation by the most basic principle of accuracy\", and that it \"violate[s] accuracy in favor of denominationally preferred expressions for God\". In his rebuttal, Thomas Howe strongly criticizes BeDuhn's positive review of the \"New World Translation\", stating that BeDuhn's main goal is to deny the deity of Christ.", "Thomas Winter considered the \"Kingdom Interlinear Translation of the Greek Scriptures\" to be a \"highly useful aid toward the mastery of \"koine\" (and classical) Greek,\" adding that the translation \"is thoroughly up-to-date and consistently accurate.\"", "Much criticism of the \"New World Translation\" involves the rendering of certain texts in the New Testament considered to be biased in favor of specific Witness practices and doctrines. These include the use of \"torture stake\" instead of \"cross\" as the instrument of Jesus' crucifixion; the use of the indefinite article (\"a\") in its rendering of to give \"the Word was \"a\" god\"; the term \"public declaration\" at Romans 10:10, which may reinforce the imperative to engage in public preaching; the term \"taking in knowledge\" rather than \"know\" at John 17:3 to suggest that salvation is dependent on ongoing study; and the placement of the comma in Luke 23:43, which affects the timing of the fulfillment of Jesus' promise to the thief at Calvary." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Biography.", "Coinage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Arses\" is the Greek form of the Old Persian \"Aršaka\" (also spelled Aršāma, \"Xšayaaršan\"). The common Iranian variant is attested in Avestan \"Aršan\"- (linguistically related to Greek \"arsēn\" \"male, manly\").", "Arses was the youngest son of Artaxerxes III and his wife Atossa. Arses had several brothers, only one whose name is attested, a certain Bisthanes. Persia was experiencing a resurgence under Artaxerxes III, who reorganized his empire, and suppressed revolts throughout the country. However, the fortunes of Persia came to an abrupt end in autumn of 338, when Artaxerxes III was murdered by the ambitious eunuch and chiliarch Bagoas, who had the king poisoned. Artaxerxes III's early death proved to be a problematic issue for Persia, and may have played a role in the weakening of the country. The majority of Artaxerxes III's sons, with the exception of Arses and Bisthanes, were also murdered by Bagoas. Bagoas, who wanted to be kingmaker, put the young Arses on the throne. On his ascension to the throne, Arses most likely assumed the regnal name of Artaxerxes IV. He was put on the throne by Bagoas due to his youth, which the latter sought to take advantage of in order to control him. Around the same period, most of the Greek city-states had joined the Greek league under the leadership of the Macedonian king Philip II, who took advantage of the events in Persia by demanding compensation from the country for helping the town of Perinthus during the reign of Artaxerxes III. Arses declined, and as a result, a Greek expedition was started with Philip II as general, who sent 10,000 Macedonian soldiers into Asia in 336 BC. At the same time, however, Arses was focused on trying to free himself from Bagoas' authority and influence; he made an unsuccessful effort to have the latter poisoned, only to be poisoned himself along with the rest of his family by Bagoas, who put Arses' cousin Darius III on the throne. Macedonian propaganda, made in order to legitimize the conquests of Alexander the Great a few years later, accused Darius III of playing a key role in the murder of Arses, who was portrayed as the last king of the Achaemenid royal house.", "There is no dynastic coinage of Artaxerxes IV, but it is thought he may be depicted as a young ruler wearing the Pharaonic crown on the reverse of some of the contemporary coinage of satrap Mazaios in Cilicia, while his father Artaxerxes III appears seated, also in Pharaonic dress, on the obverse." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Expansion." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Angela Merici was a member of the Third Order of St. Francis. According to the account of the history of the Company, she experienced a call from God to found a community to share this way of life. Among the group of men and women who formed around her due to her spiritual leadership, she soon selected 28 women who wished to commit their lives in this endeavor. These women, along with Merici, made a commitment of their lives on 25 November 1535, the feast day of St. Catherine of Alexandria, a major female spiritual figure in the Middle Ages. They called themselves the Company of St. Ursula, taking as their patroness the medieval patron saint of education. Continuing to live in their family homes, they would meet regularly for conferences and prayer in common. Merici drew up a rule of life for them. They were to live among the people they served without any distinguishing feature such as a religious habit, and would live outside a cloister. They would meet periodically and to assist at Holy Mass monthly. They also observed the evangelical counsels but did not take vows. The Company grew rapidly, being joined by women from throughout the city. The increasing number of members came to be organized in groups, according to the parish in which they lived, each of them called a Company. The group then spread throughout the Diocese of Brescia. One of the early works of the new Company was to give religious instruction to the girls of the town at the parish church each Sunday, which was an innovation for the period, having traditionally been left to the local parish priest. Companies soon developed in other dioceses in the region. In 1538 the Company had grown to such an extent that they held their first General Chapter. At this gathering, Merici was elected \"Mother\" of the Company for life. The following year, as her health began to fail, she dictated her \"Testament\" and a book of \"Counsels\" to regulate the life of the group. She died in 1540. The Company was formally recognized in 1546 by Pope Paul III. In 1572 in Milan, under Saint Charles Borromeo, the Cardinal Archbishop of Milan, the members of the Company there became an enclosed religious order. Pope Gregory XIII placed them the Rule of St. Augustine. Especially in France, groups of the Company begin to re-shape themselves into communities of cloistered nuns under solemn vows, and dedicated to the education of girls within the walls of their monasteries.", "Communities of the Company continued to exist and flourish, especially in Italy. In 1810, however, like other religious groups, they were suppressed after the invasion of Italy by the forces of the Napoleonic Empire. Two sisters who had belonged to the Company, Elisabetta and Maddalena Girelli, reconstituted the Company in Brescia in 1866. Once again, Companies began to spread throughout Italy. Legally independent from one another, discussions took place which led to the creation of a Federation of Companies. By the 20th century, Companies again began to be established outside of Italy. In 1947 the Catholic Church, under Pope Pius XII, recognized the growing strength of lay Catholic spirituality and created a category of secular institute in canon law to provide committed groups of lay people some formal status. The Angelines were established by the Holy See on 25 May 1958 as the Secular Institute of Saint Angela Merici. Further expansion of the Company has continued until today Companies of Angelines are present in 23 countries worldwide. Among the most recent foundations has been one in the United States in 2000, whose members were mentored by the Angelines of Canada and were officially incorporated into the Federation in 2006. Since 2010 a Company has been established in Australia under the guidance of the Company in France, which is also mentoring Companies in Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Singapore." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The reason for the setting of mining limits.", "Support for breaching the mining limits.", "Opposition to dismantling the limits.", "Parliament removes expropriation clause from Mining Act.", "New president, new threat to mining limits.", "Czech Coal purchases its own power plant with question marks over its coal supply.", "Marketing campaigns to influence public opinion.", "A fall in government provides a new opportunity for pro-mining interests.", "New Social Democrat-led government searches for a solution to the limits." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "During the course of the 20th century, the North Bohemian Basin, an area of over 1100 km2, was heavily mined from Kadaň to Ústí nad Labem for brown coal for burning in a large number of thermal power stations, electrical power stations and factories. In the 1970s and 1980s, the mining increased on a massive scale, and because of the expansion of mining operations whole villages, towns and even cities (Most) were demolished to extract the coal that lay beneath; their inhabitants were rehoused in large-scale new prefabricated panelled apartment buildings. The low quality technology used for large-scale burning of", "The viability of these limits has long had doubt cast on them by the mining companies directly affected by the limits, Severočeské doly and the Czech Coal Group, and the electricity power company ČEZ. While the official stance of Czech Prime Minister Petr Nečas and all political parties represented in the Czech parliament as of 2012 (apart from the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia) was in favour of maintaining the North Bohemian mining limits, the miners have or have had the support of at least some individual national members of parliament. These include prominent members of the main government coalition partner, the Civic Democratic Party, such as deputy party leader and Trade and Industry Minister Martin Kuba and Jan Bureš. At the regional level, however, Czech Social Democratic Party politicians in the Ustí region in which the mining limits apply have broken ranks with their national organisation by supporting a breach of the limits. Following regional elections in 2012, the Communists emerged as the largest regional party in the Usti region. The Communist Party won 25.26% of the popular vote in the region, which was over 9% more than its closest rival, the Czech Social Democratic Party (16.13%). Its regional leader, Oldřich Bubeníček, restated the need from his party's perspective to breach the limits to maintain regional employment, albeit “only if the miners agree with the local inhabitants and there is proper compensation\". Negotiations between the Communist Party, the Czech Social Democratic Party and Severočeši.cz (North Bohemians) on forming a coalition regional government indicated that there was general agreement on breaching the mining limits. After successfully negotiating a coalition government and becoming", "Support for maintaining the limits and opposing expanded mining operations is led by a coalition of national NGOs, local civic associations and elected municipal officials from the towns most at threat from the lifting of the limits, e.g. Horní Jiřetín and Litvínov. The most prominent opponent to expanded mining from among local municipal politicians is Vladimír Buřt, Mayor of Horní Jiřetín, who has been a member of the local council there since 2003. Buřt won a seat on the Ustí regional council as a member of the Green Party on the Hnutí PRO kraj ticket in the 2012 regional elections. Buřt has stated his conviction that in relation to Horní Jiřetín, there is little coal remaining following termination of coal mining operations in town's cadastre in the late 1980s that made extensive use of deep mining technology, and therefore Horní Jiřetín represents more of a blockage to mining further afield rather than as a site resting on large coal reserves. “A large part of Jiřetín is built on the slopes of the Ore Mountains. If the miners wanted to get the rest of the coal directly under Jiřetín, they’d not only have to mine the built-up area, but also much of the slopes of the Ore Mountains. They'd have to remove the beech forests and hillsides up to another one hundred metres above the town. That in itself is incredible barbarity, and it’s nonsense of course from an economic point of view.” Buřt is supported in his views by other equally vocal representatives of towns bordering the mining limits. These include Milan Štovíček, the Deputy Mayor of Litvínov (formerly the Mayor until the 2014 municipal elections), the Mayor of Hora Svaté Kateřiny Lukáš Pakosta, and his father, the former Mayor of Hora Svaté Kateřiny, Petr Pakosta. Lukáš Pakosta has even suggested that his town could secede from the Czech Republic and join Germany if the mining limits are lifted because of problems with accessibility to the town that would be caused by expanded mining. Another major voice in the pro-limits camp is Martin Říha, a former Deputy Minister for the Environment from 1990 to 1992, and a well-known Czech architect and expert in Environmental Impact Assessment. He was instrumental in overturning plans to demolish the North-West Bohemian town of Duchcov in the 1980s for the sake of mining the coal deposits beneath it, and for preserving Jezeří Chateau from the danger posed by mining near its base. Together with Petr Pakosta and a number of others he was responsible for publishing a book in 2005 on the history of coal mining in North-West Bohemia and the battle to establish the limits. A newspaper interview with Severní energetická co-owner Jan Dienstl (see above), for example, provoked a rapid rebuttal from Říha: “The need for coal for the production of electricity is falling and if we didn’t export near 20% of electricity abroad, it would be even lower and there would also be enough coal within the limits for the production of heating for residential and municipal purposes. Moreover, international climate protection commitments will push us to lower the production of CO2 and hence to a further reduction in the amount of coal burned. And finally it should also be taken into consideration whether it’s sensible to use coal as a fuel and to burn valuable future sources of hydrocarbons today with an efficiency of 35 – 42% and not leave part of the reserves in the ground for another generation and better technology. Jan Dienstl is right that as long as an environment prevails in the coal basin that is co-created by open cast mining and the energy sector, it will be difficult to entice other sectors and other technology there. That’s also why surface mining and an energy industry based on the burning of coal has to be wound down and gradually replaced with emissionless, non-exhaustible or renewable sources. It’s hypocritical to say the miners support the locals. Even after 1989 there was no change in the practice that an imperceptible fraction of what is taken from it is returned to the region. The miners’ contribution to town budgets for maintenance and repairs to monuments, and for the civic life of a community affected by the consequences of mining are in comparison to the profits of the miners shamefully low, within a fraction of a percentage. Payments to towns for the mining of occupied territory are also low, and tax payments to the state are also not returned through the state budget in a corresponding amount to the local area for reclamation of the landscape, restoration of communities, and reconstruction of transport and technical infrastructure as the region and its inhabitants would deserve. The Czech office of Greenpeace has campaigned against the dismantling of the limits since 2005. Greenpeace has undertaken a large amount of lobbying and mobilisation work both at the national and regional level. It has also staged dozens of public awareness events - from the creation of a new out-door living area for the people of Horní Jiřetín through to the unfolding of a huge banner with a cartoon depiction of Prime Minister Petr Nečas on one the bucket-wheel excavators in the Czechoslovak Army mine that endangers Horní Jiřetín, to repeated squatting on the roof and garden of the Office of the Czech Government during governmental sittings.", "Supporters of expanded brown coal mining beyond the existing limits took a major blow on 26 September 2012 when parliament agreed an amendment to the Mining Act which removed the right to expropriate private property for mining purposes. The amendment was criticised by the opposition parties in parliament: parliamentary Economic Committee chairman, Milan Urban, said the amendment could cause such large damage that it could be viewed in future as high treason, while Communist Party MP Kateřina Konečná said it could “wreck the state’s economic policy”. President Vaclav Klaus provided some hope to the amendment's critics when he exercised his right to veto the law", "With the end of President Klaus's second term in office in January 2013, the two contenders to take over from him following the first round of voting in new direct elections were in opposing positions regarding the mining limits. While TOP09 leader and Minister of Foreign Affairs Karel Schwarzenberg was in favour of retaining the limits, his opponent, former Czech Social Democratic Party leader and premier from 1998-2002 Miloš Zeman, boasted of his opposition to the limits during the presidential election campaign. Zeman won the presidency 55%-45%. The result was even more overwhelming in the Ústi region, where Zeman received 62% of the vote. Even in the voting district of Horní Jiřetín, Zeman won with", "The controversial owner of Czech Coal, Pavel Tykač, sold part of the group, Litvínovská uhelná (which operates the Czechoslovak Army Mine bordering the towns of Horní Jiřetín and Černice), to his two Czech Coal colleagues Jan Dienstl and Tomáš Fohler in March 2013. Tykač retained ownership of the rest of the group. The deal went through at the same time Czech Coal entered into a long expected historic contract with the half state-owned energy supplier ČEZ, which guaranteed Czech Coal sales of coal for the next 50 years at a fixed price. Czech media immediately began referring to Dienstl and Fohler as the Czech Republic's two newest “coal barons”. Shortly before this deal was made, ČEZ and Czech Coal signed the “energy deal of the century” when the former sold the Chvaletice power plant to Litvínovská uhelná for CZK 4.12 billion, which in turn follows another deal for the supply of coal by Czech Coal to Počerady, which is the most powerful power plant in the ČEZ portfolio. In August 2013, Litvínovská uhelná was officially renamed Severní energetická. The Chvaletice deal immediately raised fears among other market players, such as that the sale of the plant to a company managed by Czech Coal executives would lead to all available coal disappearing from the Czech market. Moreover, Czech Coal also faced accusations from the Association of Heating Plants that it had intentionally provided government representatives, including the Ministry of Trade and Industry, with undervalued coal reserves and which were subsequently used in strategic government documents. “Our earlier suspicion that Czech Coal had purposefully underestimated opportunities for the mining of coal in order to push consumers to the wall and increase the price has been fully confirmed,” said Association of Heating Plants chairman and former premier Mirek Topolanek. In December 2012, Dienstl stated in relation to the potential purchase of both Počerady and Chvaletice: “Počerady is our priority, but we can’t mine enough coal to supply both plants. Officially, Czech Coal had until then reckoned on a fall in mining at its Czechoslovak Army Mine to two million tons a year. Such an amount of coal, were it to be used solely for the Chvaletice power plant, would be difficult to justify the agreed purchase price paid by Czech Coal. Moreover, Czech Coal at the end of 2012 asserted that it had contractually guaranteed sales for all", "According to Litvínovská uhelná co-owner Jan Dienstl, repealing the mining limits will save jobs and help to develop the region. Dienstl said in April 2013 there were 23.2 million tons of coal left in the seams currently being excavated up to the mining limits, which would take another 10 years to mine fully, after which the Czechoslovak Army Mine would be closed. “We’ll lay off 1,000 people, which is one thing, but related to that another two or three thousand jobs will go in the region. From a regional point of view it’s a problem, but from the perspective of Most, it’s a tragedy,” said Dienstl. “If the limits can be repealed, the lifespan of the mine would be extended by 150 years.” The mining company would, therefore, try to convince the inhabitants of the region that it was worth breaching the limits. Dienstl admitted, however, that the demolition of Černice and Horní Jiřetína would be a major problem. It was, therefore, necessary to reach a consensus that the coal beyond the limits was needed. The key contemporary problem, according to Dienstl, was that people from around the mine had nothing themselves from the mining. \"If the mine closes, they won’t have anything at all anymore because there won’t even be work from it...In today's times of crisis, a lot of people realize that it’s very important that there are investors there and that there’s work there,\" said Dienstl. People would have to lose their homes as a result of expanded mining, but they should also get a generous offer for the sale of their properties. \"An offer like this hasn’t yet been made here at such a level that it would be taken seriously and that if someone agreed with it they would", "Prime Minister Petr Nečas resigned and his government collapsed amid a corruption scandal in June 2013. President Zeman rejected the candidate nominated by ODS to replace Nečas and form a new caretaker government until new elections could be held. Instead, Zeman elected to choose his own temporary prime minister to form a government of “experts”. The man he chose was Jiří Rusnok, Zeman's personal economics advisor and a former Finance Minister in Zeman's government 1998-2002. Rusnok's government lost a vote of confidence in August, triggering elections in late October 2013 when it became apparent that no grouping in parliament could elicit the support needed to form a new government. Some of the people Rusnok had appointed to his cabinet became candidates for Zeman's political party (The Party of Civic Rights - Zeman's People) in those elections, resulting in acute embarrassment to them after the party failed to score more than 1.5% of the vote. Rusnok's government continued to govern in a caretaker capacity until the formation of a new government approved by Zeman. In the meantime, Rusnok promised that his cabinet would not make any decisions about changes to the limits in relation to debating the state's raw materials policy. “We certainly won’t pass any binding decisions to dismantle the limits or introduce new ones” Rusnok said. Speaking at a press conference after the vote of no confidence, Rusnok was asked whether his caretaker government was intent on debating the state's raw materials policy in light of an earlier statement that he would not make any fundamental decisions about the state's direction. Rusnok responded by saying he did not know what the points of discussion would be on the next government agenda. “So I wouldn’t have any fears - don’t worry, I'm sure nothing will come up that would be somehow problematic, intractable and too binding on future governments. There is really no need to worry. By the way, as a big ecologist I’m a supporter of preserving the limits, although I say this as Jiří Rusnok, not as the Prime Minister in regard to the mining limits.” Later maneuvering by Rusnok was to prove highly controversial in light of these comments. During the following month, President Zeman reiterated his support for dismantling the mining limits. Remarking that the president should not be a “silent Sphinx”, Zeman said that 8,500 jobs would be lost in Mostecko if the limits were not repealed. If the mining boundaries were shifted, the Czech Republic would be fundamentally less dependent on foreign energy sources. “I listened to both the opinions of the mining company owners and union representatives. And of course I got know to the opinions of the leadership of the Usti region. The biggest problem of the Usti region is the excessively high rate of unemployment – the highest of all the regions in the Czech Republic. It’s necessary to combat this joblessness and even accept measures which are unpopular in the eyes of some,” said Zeman. “I believe I’ve been adequately informed about the quality of coal that is to be found for example beneath Horní Jiřetín and other villages.” Zeman added that since the expropriation clause had been removed from the Mining Act, the mining lobby could only purchase property by agreement with the owners and by offering conditions that would be favourable to them. Responding to Zeman's comments, Green Party leader Ondřej Liška said: \"Miloš Zeman today definitively confirmed that he’s out of it. After supporting the tobacco industry, this is another Zeman excess that confirms he’s primarily the president of various lobby interests to the detriment of people’s health. Support for smoking and burning coal can maybe only be trumped by celebrating land mines.\" Following closely in Zeman's footsteps, Rusnok visited Most in mid-November 2013 and stated while he was there that his government would deal with the issue of the mining limits. He called the 1991 government resolution that established the limits “outmoded and obsolete” and did not rule out re-evaluating them. Asked whether the resolution could be annulled, Rusnok said: “I’m not ruling out any options”. Given Rusnok's earlier statement that he personally supported the mining limits and would not make any fundamental political decisions while in office, this new announcement provoked immediate reactions from opponents and supporters alike. The head of the Greenpeace energy campaign, Jan Rovenský, said: “Rusnok just elastically bent his spine 180 degrees. At a government press conference three months ago he claimed that as a big environmentalist he was an opponent of breaching the limits, and now he’s claiming they are vexatious and his government will probably cancel them...Rusnok’s caretaker government has no authority to make irreversible decisions about anything at all, let alone fundamental matters.” Former Prime Minister and Social Democrat shadow environment minister, Vladimír Špidla, also weighed into the debate: “By taking this step Jiří Rusnok has clearly exceeded the mandate of his government, which didn’t obtain the confidence of the Chamber of Deputies, and is therefore only a caretaker government according to the Constitution. Rusnok’s government doesn’t have the right to decide on issues of such strategic importance, such as the mining limits, which are also highly sensitive and controversial.” The town", "Despite Sobotka's pledge that the mining limits issue would be dealt with in the coalition agreement, it was eventually dropped from the final draft. The newly installed ANO Minister of Environment, Richard Brabec, explained that this was the result of pressure from other coalition partners, but he was nevertheless confident that the new government would not repeal the limits. \"ANO had a clear declaration that it would maintain the limits. A clearer statement dropped out of the government policy statement. It got in there only in the form that is in the coalition agreement, i.e. that repealing the limits will ensue from an update of the state energy plan,\" Brabec explained. I am convinced that even though it's not in the policy statement, the reality will really be what we have promised - that there will be no breaching of the mining limits. Yes, the Ministry of Environment wanted to have it mentioned there more explicitly. But at the moment it's a compromise between the coalition partners.\" Brabec rejected the argument that if there were no immediate decision on lifting the limits there would be no coal for heating plants and thousands of people would lose their jobs. He said that would not happen in the immediate future. In the immediate wake of Brabec's statement, Greenpeace published survey results it had commissioned on attitudes to the mining limits in the Usti region. They showed that fully 70% in the region rejected the demolition of communities for the purpose of extracting coal. Of this figure, 51% rejected the lifting of the limits outright, while a further 18% favoured maintenance of the limits where towns would be directly affected. Meanwhile, Social Democrat Minister of Industry and Trade, Jan Mládek, traveled to the region himself to conduct his own research into the arguments from the opposing camps. Mládek admitted during his visit that postponement of the extensions to the nuclear power plant in Temelín in South Bohemia would play a part in the decision-making over coal and the mining limits. He also did not rule out the possibility of organising a regional referendum to the gauge the attitudes of the local population. He did not take recent surveys conducted by either Greenpeace or mining interests as conclusive. \"A survey is one of the inputs into the debate, but on the other hand someone always has to pay\", said Mládek. Mládek added that he would personally prefer a compromise between lifting and not lifting the limits. Whatever the decision would be, the government would not take any fundamental steps in 2014, but a decision would be made within the next two years. On his return to the region in early 2015, Mládek announced that the state would most likely repeal the limits to permit further extraction around the coal mine near the town of Bílina where no demolition of houses would be required. In the case of the Czechoslovak Army Mine modification of the limits would be considered without the demolition of Černice and Horní Jiřetín. The government would focus on the limits in March as part of its evaluation of the state's raw material policy when the minister would also propose a ten-fold increase in payments made to town affected by mining. Mládek added that the lifting of the limits in the case of Bílina had been under preparation for a long time with the cooperation and agreement of the surrounding communities. It would ensure work for a further generation of people from 2030 to 2055 and would guarantee heating for four million people dependent on lignite-fired central heating systems, he said. According to Environment Minister Brabec, it would have to be clear before any possible lifting of the limits that there was a need for the coal. \"We have to be sure that we really need the coal, when we will need it and what we need it for. Using the coal from the North Bohemian mines in a way that we extract it, burn it, produce electricity from it and export it, and all for very little money because prices today are very low, is absolutely the worst way of using this coal,\" said Brabec, adding that he did not yet know the details of Mládka proposals." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Post-Soviet times." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "It was an establishment for all kinds of recreational activities and hobbies: sports, collecting, arts, etc.; the Palace of Culture was designed to have room for multiple uses. A typical Palace contained one or several cinema halls, concert hall(s), dance studios (folk dance, ballet, ballroom dance), various do-it-yourself hobby groups, amateur-radio groups, amateur-theatre studios, amateur musical studios and bands, \"lectoriums\" (lecture halls), and many more. Groups were also subdivided by age of participants, from children to retirees. A public library may sometimes have been housed in the Palace of Culture as well. All hobby groups were free of charge until most recent times, when many hobbies with less official recognition were housed based on \"self-repayment\". A Palace of Culture was sometimes called a \"club\", but this did not mean that it was membership-based. In official rhetoric, all these were supposed to aid the \"cultural leisure\" of Soviet workers and children and to fight \"cultureless leisure\", such as drinking and hooliganism. Palaces or Houses of Culture were introduced in the early days of the Soviet Union, inheriting the role that was earlier fulfilled by so-called \"People's Houses\". Below is an excerpt from John Dewey's \"Impressions of Soviet Russia and the revolutionary world\" (1929). The other impression I would record came from a non-official visit to a House of Popular Culture. Here was a fine new building in the factory quarter, surrounded by recreation grounds, provided with one large theater, four smaller assembly halls, fifty rooms for club meetings, recreation and games, headquarters for trade unions, costing two million dollars, frequented daily—or rather, nightly—by five thousand persons as a daily average. Built and controlled, perhaps, by the government? No, but by the voluntary efforts of the trade unions, who tax themselves two percent of their wages to afford their collective life these facilities. The House is staffed and managed by its own elected officers. The contrast with the comparative inactivity of our own working men and with the quasi-philanthropic quality of similar enterprises in my own country left a painful impression. It is true that this House—there is already another similar one in Leningrad—has no intrinsic and necessary connection with communistic theory and practice. The like of it might exist in any large modern industrial center. But there is the fact that the like of it does not exist in the other and more highly developed industrial centers. There it is in Leningrad, as it is not there in Chicago or New York... There were two basic categories of Palaces of Culture: those owned by the state and those owned by the enterprise. Every town, kolkhoz and sovkhoz had a central Palace or House of Culture. Major industrial enterprises had their own Palaces of Culture, managed by the corresponding trade unions. Palaces of Culture served another important purpose: they housed local congresses and conferences of the regional divisions of the Communist Party, the Komsomol, etc. In smaller rural settlements similar establishments of lesser scope were known as \"clubs\", with main activities there being dance nights and cinema. In 1988 there were over 137,000 club establishments in the Soviet Union. In the People's Republic of China, the best-known, and most centrally located, Palace of Culture is perhaps the \"Workers' Palace of Culture\" located in the former Imperial Ancestral Temple just outside the Forbidden City in Beijing. The concept and the name of a \"House of Culture\" also appears in (for example) France (), Belgium and Quebec.", "Most Palaces of Culture continue to exist after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, but their status, especially the financial one, changed significantly, for various reasons." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early years.", "Marriage.", "Growing reputation.", "National and international fame.", "Last major works.", "Last years.", "Music.", "Influences, antecedents and early works.", "Peak creative years.", "Final years and posthumous completions.", "Reputation.", "Honours, awards and commemorations.", "Notes and references." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Edward Elgar was born in the small village of Lower Broadheath, outside Worcester, England. His father, William Henry Elgar (1821–1906), was raised in Dover and had been apprenticed to a London music publisher. In 1841 William moved to Worcester, where he worked as a piano tuner and set up a shop selling sheet music and musical instruments. In 1848 he married Ann Greening (1822–1902), daughter of a farm worker. Edward was the fourth of their seven children. Ann Elgar had converted to Roman Catholicism shortly before Edward's birth, and he was baptised and brought up as a Roman Catholic, to the disapproval of his father. William Elgar was a violinist of professional standard and held the post of organist of St. George's Roman Catholic Church, Worcester, from 1846 to 1885. At his instigation, masses by Cherubini and Hummel were first heard at the Three Choirs Festival by the orchestra in which he played the violin. All the Elgar children received a musical upbringing. By the age of eight, Elgar was taking piano and violin lessons, and his father, who tuned the pianos at many grand houses in Worcestershire, would sometimes take him along, giving him the chance to display his skill", "When Elgar was 29, he took on a new pupil, Caroline Alice Roberts, daughter of the late Major-General Sir Henry Roberts, and published author of verse and prose fiction. Eight years older than Elgar, Alice became his wife three years later. Elgar's biographer Michael Kennedy writes, \"Alice's family was horrified by her intention to marry an unknown musician who worked in a shop and was a Roman Catholic. She was disinherited.\" They were married on 8 May 1889, at Brompton Oratory. From then until her death,", "During the 1890s, Elgar gradually built up a reputation as a composer, chiefly of works for the great choral festivals of the English Midlands. \"The Black Knight\" (1892) and \"King Olaf\" (1896), both inspired by Longfellow, \"The Light of Life\" (1896) and \"Caractacus\" (1898) were all modestly successful, and he obtained a long-standing publisher in Novello and Co. Other works of this decade included the \"Serenade for Strings\" (1892) and \"Three Bavarian Dances\" (1897). Elgar was of enough consequence locally", "Elgar's biographer Basil Maine commented, \"When Sir Arthur Sullivan died in 1900 it became apparent to many that Elgar, although a composer of another build, was his true successor as first musician of the land.\" Elgar's next major work was eagerly awaited. For the Birmingham Triennial Music Festival of 1900, he set Cardinal John Henry Newman's poem \"The Dream of Gerontius\" for soloists, chorus and orchestra. Richter conducted the premiere, which was marred by a poorly prepared chorus, which sang badly. Critics recognised the mastery of the piece despite the defects in performance. It was performed in Düsseldorf, Germany, in 1901 and again in 1902, conducted by Julius Buths, who also conducted the European premiere of the \"Enigma Variations\" in 1901. The German press was enthusiastic. \"The Cologne Gazette\" said, \"In both parts we meet with beauties of imperishable value.... Elgar stands on the shoulders of Berlioz, Wagner, and Liszt, from whose influences he has freed himself until he has become an important individuality. He is one of the leaders of musical art of modern times.\" \"The Düsseldorfer Volksblatt\" wrote, \"A memorable and epoch-making first performance! Since the days of Liszt nothing has been produced in the way of oratorio... which reaches the greatness and importance of this sacred cantata.\" Richard Strauss, then widely viewed as the leading composer of his day, was so impressed that in Elgar's presence he proposed a toast to the success of \"the first English progressive musician, Meister Elgar.\" Performances in Vienna, Paris and New York followed, and \"The Dream of Gerontius\" soon became equally", "In June 1911, as part of the celebrations surrounding the coronation of King George V, Elgar was appointed to the Order of Merit, an honour limited to twenty-four holders at any time. The following year, the Elgars moved back to London, to a large house in Netherhall Gardens, Hampstead, designed by Norman Shaw. There Elgar composed his last two large-scale works of the pre-war era, the choral ode, \"The Music Makers\" (for the Birmingham Festival, 1912) and the symphonic study \"Falstaff\" (for the Leeds Festival, 1913). Both were received politely but without enthusiasm. Even the dedicatee of \"Falstaff\", the conductor Landon Ronald, confessed privately that he could not \"make head or tail of the piece,\" while the musical", "Although in the 1920s Elgar's music was no longer in fashion, his admirers continued to present his works when possible. Reed singles out a performance of the Second Symphony in March 1920 conducted by \"a young man almost unknown to the public\", Adrian Boult, for bringing \"the grandeur and nobility of the work\" to a wider public. Also in 1920, Landon Ronald presented an all-Elgar concert at the Queen's Hall. Alice Elgar wrote with enthusiasm about the reception of the symphony, but this was one of the last times she heard Elgar's music played in public. After a short illness, she died of lung cancer on 7 April 1920, at the age of seventy-two. Elgar was devastated by the loss of his wife. With no public demand for new works, and deprived of Alice's constant support and inspiration, he allowed himself to be deflected from composition. His daughter later wrote that Elgar inherited from his father a reluctance to \"settle down to work on hand but could cheerfully spend hours over some perfectly unnecessary and entirely unremunerative undertaking\", a trait that became stronger after", "", "Elgar was contemptuous of folk music and had little interest in or respect for the early English composers, calling William Byrd and his contemporaries \"museum pieces\". Of later English composers, he regarded Purcell as the greatest, and he said that he had learned much of his own technique from studying Hubert Parry's writings. The continental composers who most influenced Elgar were Handel, Dvořák and, to some degree, Brahms. In Elgar's chromaticism, the influence of Wagner is apparent, but Elgar's individual style of orchestration owes much to the clarity of nineteenth-century French composers, Berlioz, Massenet, Saint-Saëns and, particularly, Delibes, whose music Elgar played and conducted at Worcester and greatly admired. Elgar began composing when still a child, and all his life he drew on his early sketchbooks for themes and inspiration. The habit of assembling his compositions, even large-scale ones, from scraps of themes jotted down randomly remained throughout his life. His early adult works included violin and piano pieces, music for the wind quintet in which he and his brother played between 1878 and 1881, and music of many", "Elgar's best-known works were composed within the twenty-one years between 1899 and 1920. Most of them are orchestral. Reed wrote, \"Elgar's genius rose to its greatest height in his orchestral works\" and quoted the composer as saying that, even in his oratorios, the orchestral part is the most important. The \"Enigma Variations\" made Elgar's name nationally. The variation form was ideal for him at this stage of his career, when his comprehensive mastery of orchestration was still in contrast to his tendency to write his melodies in short, sometimes rigid, phrases. His next orchestral works, \"Cockaigne\", a concert-overture (1900–1901), the first two \"Pomp and Circumstance\" marches (1901), and the gentle \"Dream Children\" (1902), are all short: the longest of them, \"Cockaigne\", lasting less than fifteen minutes. \"In the South\" (1903–1904), although designated by Elgar as a concert-overture, is, according to Kennedy, really a tone poem", "After the Cello Concerto, Elgar completed no more large-scale works. He made arrangements of works by Bach, Handel and Chopin, in distinctively Elgarian orchestration, and once again turned his youthful notebooks to use for the \"Nursery Suite\" (1931). His other compositions of this period have not held a place in the regular repertory. For most of the rest of the twentieth century, it was generally agreed that Elgar's creative impulse ceased after his wife's death. Anthony Payne's elaboration", "Views of Elgar's stature have varied in the decades since his music came to prominence at the beginning of the twentieth century. Richard Strauss, as noted, hailed Elgar as a progressive composer; even the hostile reviewer in \"The Observer\", unimpressed by the thematic material of the First Symphony in 1908, called the orchestration \"magnificently modern\". Hans Richter rated Elgar as \"the greatest modern composer\" in any country, and Richter's colleague Arthur Nikisch considered the First Symphony \"a masterpiece of the first order\" to be \"justly ranked with the great symphonic models – Beethoven and Brahms.\" By contrast, the critic W. J. Turner, in the mid-twentieth century, wrote of Elgar's \"Salvation Army symphonies,\" and Herbert von Karajan called the \"Enigma Variations\" \"second-hand Brahms\". Elgar's immense popularity was not long-lived. After the success of his First Symphony and Violin Concerto, his Second Symphony and Cello Concerto were politely received but without the earlier wild enthusiasm. His music was identified in the public mind with the Edwardian era, and after the First World War he no longer seemed a progressive or modern composer. In the early 1920s, even the", "Elgar was knighted in 1904, and in 1911 he was appointed a member of the Order of Merit. In 1920 he received the Cross of Commander of the Belgian Order of the Crown; in 1924 he was made Master of the King's Musick; the following year he received the Gold Medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society; and in 1928 he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (KCVO). Between 1900 and 1931, Elgar received honorary degrees from the Universities of Cambridge, Durham, Leeds, Oxford, Yale (USA), Aberdeen, Western Pennsylvania (USA), Birmingham and London. Foreign academies of which he was made a member were Regia Accademia di Santa Cecilia, Rome; Accademia del Reale Istituto Musicale, Florence; Académie des Beaux Arts, Paris; Institut de France; and the American Academy. In 1931 he was created a Baronet, of Broadheath in the County of Worcester. In 1933 he was promoted within the Royal Victorian Order to Knight Grand Cross (GCVO). In Kennedy's words, he \"shamelessly touted\" for a peerage, but in vain. In \"Who's Who\", post World War I, he claimed to have been awarded \"several Imperial Russian and German decorations (lapsed)\". Elgar was offered, but declined, the office of Mayor of Hereford (despite not being a member of its city council) when he lived in the city in 1905. The same year he was made an honorary Freeman of the city of Worcester. The house in Lower Broadheath where Elgar was born is now the Elgar Birthplace Museum, devoted to his life and work. Elgar's daughter, Carice, helped to found the museum in 1936 and bequeathed to it much of her collection of Elgar's letters and documents on her death in 1970. Carice left Elgar manuscripts to musical colleges: \"The Black Knight\" to Trinity College of Music; \"King Olaf\" to the Royal Academy of Music; \"The", "Notes References" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Wartime years and death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Arent was born Benno Georg Eduard Wilhelm Joachim von Arent in Görlitz on 19 July 1898, the son of a Prussian Lieutenant Colonel also named Benno von Arent (1868-1904) and grandson of a Prussian Lieutenant General likewise named Benno von Arent. Arent fought in the First World War and then joined the Freikorps and Reichswehr. In the time of high unemployment he had a number of jobs including car salesman, while teaching himself to be architect. In 1923, he worked as an outfitter in various theatres across Berlin, initially without success. He also became a member of the völkisch-minded and anti-Semitic Militant League for German Culture.", "In 1931, he joined the SS and 1932 in the NSDAP. That same year, he became one of the founders of the \"Bund nationalsozialistischer Bühnen- und Filmkünstler\" (\"Union of National Socialist Stage and Movie Artists\"), which was renamed \"Kameradschaft der Deutschen Künstler\" (\"Fellowship of German Artists\") after Hitler's rise to power in 1933. After some personal assignments for Adolf Hitler in 1936, Arent was appointed \"Reichsbühnenbildner\" (\"Reich Stage Designer\"), a title intended primarily to underscore Arent's exemplary position as a set designer and outfitter. Occasionally, Hitler imposed his own stage designs on a kind of teacher-student relationship, a relationship that would greatly benefit Arent's career. Hitler described him as one of the greatest stage designers. Arent, whose artistic views were shared and probably influenced by Hitler, favored a realistic, often monumental style in his own sets and costumes. Nevertheless, he was ultimately unable to develop his own style, partly due to the outbreak of World War II, and because of competition in his field of expertise. His task as a designer of street decorations during major marches also had an effect on his stage style. He was also the designer of the diplomatic uniforms for the Foreign Ministry. On 20 April 1937, he received the title of professor like many other leading Nazi culture officials. In addition to his party responsibilities, Arent continued to work as an architect. His most famous work was the design of the Berlin House of the German Labour Front (DAF). In the spring of 1939, Arent was appointed \"Reich Commissioner for Fashion\", an office that was soon terminated due to the war.", "During World War II, Arent, who had been a member of the SS since 1931, joined the staff of Heinrich Himmler. On 15 August 1941, he witnessed the murder of partisans and Jews near Minsk. In 1944, he fought in the Waffen-SS and was appointed \"SS-Oberführer.\" Near the end of the war, he fell into Soviet captivity, from which he was released in 1953. In 1956, a denazification process was started against Arent in Berlin. Shortly after his sentencing, Arent died in Bonn, West Germany." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Number of conjugations.", "Principal parts.", "Regular conjugations.", "First conjugation.", "Perfect tenses.", "Second conjugation.", "Third conjugation.", "Third conjugation -iō verbs.", "Fourth conjugation.", "Irregular verbs.", "\"Sum\" and \"possum\".", "\"Volō\", \"nōlō\", and \"mālō\".", "\"Eō\" and compounds.", "\"Ferō\" and compounds.", "\"Fīō\".", "\"Edō\".", "Non-finite forms.", "Participles.", "Infinitives.", "Supine.", "Gerund.", "Gerundive.", "Periphrastic conjugations.", "Active.", "Passive.", "Peculiarities.", "Deponent and semi-deponent verbs.", "Defective verbs.", "\"For\".", "Impersonal verbs.", "Irregular future active participles.", "Alternative verb forms.", "Syncopated verb forms." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The ancient Romans themselves, beginning with Varro (1st century BC), originally divided their verbs into three conjugations ( \"there are three different conjugations for verbs: the first, second, and third\" (Donatus), 4th century AD), according to whether the ending of the 2nd person singular had an \"a\", an \"e\" or an \"i\" in it. However, others, such as Sacerdos (3rd century AD), Dositheus (4th century AD) and Priscian (c. 500 AD), recognised four different groups. Modern grammarians generally recognise four conjugations, according to whether their active present infinitive has the ending -āre, -ēre, -ere, or -īre (or the corresponding passive forms), for example: (1) \"to love\", (2) \"to see\", (3) \"to rule\" and (4) \"to hear\". There are also some verbs of mixed conjugation, having some endings like the 3rd and others like the 4th conjugation, for example, \"to capture\". In addition to regular verbs, which belong to one or other of the four conjugations, there are also a few irregular verbs, which have a different pattern of endings. The most important of these is the verb \"to be\". There also exist deponent and semi-deponent Latin verbs (verbs with a passive form but active meaning), as well as defective verbs (verbs in which some of the tenses are missing).", "A verb's full paradigm relies on multiple stems. The present indicative active and the present infinitive are both based on the present stem. It is not possible to infer the stems for other tenses from the present stem. This means that, although the infinitive active form normally shows the verb conjugation, knowledge of several different forms is necessary to be able to confidently produce the full range of forms for any particular verb. In a dictionary, Latin verbs are listed with four \"principal parts\" (or fewer for deponent and defective verbs), which allow the student to deduce the other conjugated forms of the verbs. These are:", "", "The first conjugation is characterized by the vowel \"ā\" and can be recognized by the \"-āre\" ending of the present active infinitive form. The non-perfect tenses conjugate as follows: <nowiki>*</nowiki> The 2nd person singular passive'can be shortened to '. \"-re\" was the regular form in early Latin and (except in the present indicative) in Cicero; \"-ris\" was preferred later. In early Latin (Plautus), the 3rd singular endings \"-at\" and \"-et\" were pronounced \"-āt\" and \"-ēt\" with a long vowel. Other forms: The principal parts usually adhere to one of the following patterns: The verb'\"I give\" is irregular in that except in the 2nd singular'and imperative ', the \"a\" is short, e.g.'\"I will give\". The \"a\" is also short in the supine'and its derivatives, but the other parts of'\"I stand\" are regular. Deponent verbs in this conjugation all follow the pattern below, which is the passive of the first type above:", "The three perfect tenses of the 1st conjugation go as in the following table: In poetry (and also sometimes in prose, e.g. Livy), the 3rd person plural of the perfect indicative is often'instead of '. Occasionally the form is also found. In early Latin, the future perfect indicative had a short \"i\" in, but by the time of Cicero these forms were usually pronounced with a long \"i\", in the same way as in the perfect subjunctive. Virgil has a short \"i\" for both tenses; Horace uses both forms for both tenses; Ovid uses both forms for the future perfect, but a long \"i\" in the perfect subjunctive. The \"-v-\" of the perfect active tenses sometimes drops out, especially in the pluperfect subjunctive:'for '. Forms such as'and'are also found. The passive tenses also have feminine and neuter forms, e.g.'\"she was loved\",'\"it was announced\". Forms made with instead of and instead of are also found. See Latin tenses. For other meanings of the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive, see Latin tenses#Perfect subjunctive. Other forms:", "The second conjugation is characterized by the vowel ē, and can be recognized by the -eō ending of the first person present indicative and the -ēre ending of the present active infinitive form: The passive also often means \"I seem\". Other forms: The principal parts usually adhere to one of the following patterns: In verbs with perfect in \"-vī\", syncopated (i.e. abbreviated) forms are common, such as for. Deponent verbs in this conjugation are few. They mostly go like the passive of, but and have a perfect participle with \"ss\": The following are semi-deponent, that is, they are deponent only in the three perfect tenses:", "The third conjugation has a variable short stem vowel, which may be e, i,or u in different environments. Verbs of this conjugation end in –ere in the present active infinitive. The future tense in the 3rd and 4th conjugation (\"-am, -ēs, -et\" etc.) differs from that in the 1st and 2nd conjugation (\"-bō, -bis, -bit\" etc.). Other forms: Four 3rd conjugation verbs have no ending in the imperative singular:'\"lead!\",'\"say!\",'\"bring!\",'\"do!\". Others, like \"run!\", have the ending \"-e\". There is no regular rule for constructing the perfect stem of third-conjugation verbs, but the following patterns are used: Although \"to give\" is 1st conjugation, its compounds are 3rd conjugation and have internal reduplication: Likewise the compounds of have internal reduplication. Although is transitive, its compounds are intransitive: Deponent verbs in the 3rd conjugation include the following: There are also a number of 3rd conjugation deponents with the ending \"-scor\": Deponent in some tenses only is the following: The following is deponent only in the non-perfect tenses:", "Intermediate between the third and fourth conjugation are the third-conjugation verbs with suffix –iō. These resemble the fourth conjugation in some forms. Other forms: Some examples are: Deponent verbs in this group include:", "The fourth conjugation is characterized by the vowel ī and can be recognized by the –īre ending of the present active infinitive: Other forms: Principal parts of verbs in the fourth conjugation generally adhere to the following patterns: Deponent verbs in the 4th conjugation include the following: The verb \"to arise\" is also regarded as 4th conjugation, although some parts, such as the 3rd singular present tense and imperfect subjunctive, have a short vowel like the 3rd conjugation. But its compound \"to rise up, attack\" is entirely 4th conjugation. In the perfect tenses, shortened forms without \"-v-\" are common, for example, for. Cicero, however, prefers the full forms to.", "", "The verb \"to be\" is the most common verb in Latin. It is conjugated as follows: In early Latin (e.g. Plautus),'can be found for the present subjunctive '. In poetry the subjunctive also sometimes occurs. An alternative imperfect subjunctive is sometimes made using etc. See further: Latin tenses#Forem. Other forms: The present participle is found only in the compounds'\"absent\" and'\"present\". In Plautus and Lucretius, an infinitive'is sometimes found for'\"to be able\". The principal parts of these verbs are as follows: The perfect tenses conjugate in the regular way. For the difference in meaning between and, see Latin tenses#Eram and fuī", "The verb and its derivatives and (short for ) resemble a 3rd conjugation verb, but the present subjunctive ending in \"-im\" is different: The spellings'and'were used up until the time of Cicero for'and '. These verbs are not used in the passive. Other forms: Principal parts: The perfect tenses are formed regularly.", "The verb \"I go\" is an irregular 4th conjugation verb, in which the \"i\" of the stem sometimes becomes \"e\". Like 1st and 2nd conjugation verbs, it uses the future \"-bō, -bis, -bit\": Other forms: The impersonal passive forms'\"they go\",'\"they went\" are sometimes found. The principal parts of some verbs which conjugate like are the following: In the perfect tenses of these verbs, the \"-v-\" is almost always omitted, especially in the compounds, although the form is common in the Vulgate Bible translation.", "The verb \"to bring, to bear, to carry\" is 3rd conjugation, but irregular in that the vowel following the root \"fer-\" is sometimes omitted. The perfect tense and supine stem are also irregularly formed. The future tense in the 3rd and 4th conjugation (\"-am, -ēs, -et\" etc.) differs from that in the 1st and 2nd conjugation (\"-bō, -bis, -bit\" etc.). Other forms: Compounds of include the following: The principal parts of some verbs which conjugate like are the following: The perfect tense, however, belongs to the verb :", "The irregular verb \"to become, to happen, to be done, to be made\" as well as being a verb in its own right serves as the passive of \"to do, to make\". The perfect tenses are identical with the perfect passive tenses of. The 1st and 2nd plural forms are almost never found. Other forms:", "The verb \"to eat\" has regular 3rd conjugation forms appearing alongside irregular ones: Other forms: The passive form \"it is eaten\" is also found. In early Latin a present subjunctive etc. is found. In writing, there is a possibility of confusion between the forms of this verb and those of \"I am\" and \"I give out, put forth\"; for example, \"to eat\" vs. \"to be\"; \"he eats\" vs. \"he gives out\". The compound verb \"to eat up, consume\" is similar.", "The non-finite forms of verbs are participles, infinitives, supines, gerunds and gerundives. The verbs used are:", "There are four participles: present active, perfect passive, future passive, and future active.", "There are seven main infinitives. They are in the present active, present passive, perfect active, perfect passive, future active, future passive, and potential active. Further infinitives can be made using the gerundive. The future passive infinitive was not very commonly used. The Romans themselves often used an alternate expression, followed by a subjunctive clause.", "The supine is the fourth principal part of the verb, as given in Latin dictionaries. It resembles a masculine noun of the fourth declension. Supines only occur in the accusative and ablative cases.", "The gerund is formed similarly to the present active participle. However, the \"-ns\" becomes an \"-ndus\", and the preceding \"ā\" or \"ē\" is shortened. Gerunds are neuter nouns of the second declension, but the nominative case is not present. The gerund is a noun, meaning \"the act of doing (the verb)\", and forms a suppletive paradigm to the infinitive, which cannot be declined. For example, the genitive form can mean \"of praising\", the dative form can mean \"for praising\", the accusative form can mean \"praising\", and the ablative form can mean \"by praising\", \"in respect to praising\", etc. One common use of the gerund is with the preposition to indicate purpose. For example, could be translated as \"ready to attack\". However the gerund was avoided when an object was introduced, and a passive construction with the gerundive was preferred. For example, for \"ready to attack the enemy\" the construction is preferred over.", "The gerundive has a form similar to that of the gerund, but it is a first and second declension adjective, and functions as a future passive participle (see above). It means \"(which is) to be...ed\". Often, the gerundive is used with part of the verb, to show obligation. An older form of the 3rd and 4th conjugation gerundive ends in \"-undum\", e.g. ( for ). This ending is also found with the gerundive of 'I go': 'it is necessary to go'. For some examples of uses of Latin gerundives, see the Gerundive article.", "There are two periphrastic conjugations. One is active, and the other is passive.", "The first periphrastic conjugation uses the future participle. It is combined with the forms of. It is translated as \"I am going to praise,\" \"I was going to praise\", etc.", "The second periphrastic conjugation uses the gerundive. It is combined with the forms of and expresses necessity. It is translated as \"I am needing to be praised\", \"I was needing to be praised\", etc., or as \"I have to (must) be praised\", \"I had to be praised,\" etc.", "", "Deponent verbs are verbs that are passive in form (that is, conjugated as though in the passive voice) but active in meaning. These verbs have only three principal parts, since the perfect of ordinary passives is formed periphrastically with the perfect participle, which is formed on the same stem as the supine. Some examples coming from all conjugations are: Deponent verbs use active conjugations for tenses that do not exist in the passive: the gerund, the supine, the present and future participles and the future infinitive. They cannot be used in the passive themselves (except the gerundive), and their analogues with \"active\" form do not in fact exist: one cannot directly translate \"The word is said\" with any form of, and there are no forms like \"loquō\", \"loquis\", \"loquit\", etc. Semi-deponent verbs form their imperfective aspect tenses in the manner of ordinary active verbs; but their perfect tenses are built periphrastically like deponents and ordinary passives; thus, semi-deponent verbs have a perfect active participle instead of a perfect passive participle. An example: Unlike the proper passive of active verbs, which is always intransitive, some deponent verbs are transitive, which means that they can take an object. For example: Note: In the Romance languages, which lack deponent or passive verb forms, the Classical Latin deponent verbs either disappeared (being replaced with non-deponent verbs of a similar meaning) or changed to a non-deponent form. For example, in Spanish and Italian, changed to \"mirar(e)\" by changing all the verb forms to the previously nonexistent \"active form\", and changed to \"osar(e)\" by taking the participle and making an \"-ar(e)\" verb out of it (note that \"au\" went to \"o\").", "Defective verbs are verbs that are conjugated in only some instances. The following are conjugated irregularly:", "The Romance languages lost many of these verbs, but others (such as ) survived but became regular fully conjugated verbs (in Italian, ).", "Impersonal verbs are those lacking a person. In English impersonal verbs are usually used with the neuter pronoun \"it\" (as in \"It seems,\" or \"it is raining\"). Latin uses the third person singular. These verbs lack a fourth principal part. A few examples are:", "The future active participle is normally formed by removing the \"–um\" from the supine, and adding a \"–ūrus.\" However, some deviations occur.", "Several verb forms may occur in alternative forms (in some authors these forms are fairly common, if not more common than the canonical ones):", "Like in most Romance languages, syncopated forms and contractions are present in Latin. They may occur in the following instances:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Dhaulagiri I climbing history.", "Other peaks in the Dhaulagiri Himalaya." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Looking north from the plains of India, most 8,000-metre peaks are obscured by nearer mountains, but in clear weather Dhaulagiri is conspicuous from northern Bihar and as far south as Gorakhpur in Uttar Pradesh. In 1808, survey computations showed it to be the highest mountain yet surveyed. This lasted until 1838 when Kangchenjunga took its place, followed by Mount Everest in 1858. Dhaulagiri I's sudden rise from lower terrain is almost unequaled. It rises from the Kali Gandaki River 30 km to the southeast. The south and west faces rise precipitously over. The south face of Gurja Himal in the same massif is also notably immense.", "Most ascents have followed the northeast ridge route of the first ascent, but climbs have been made from most directions. As of 2007 there had been 358 successful ascents and 58 fatalities, which is a summit to fatality rate of 16.2%. Between 1950 and 2006, 2.88% of 2,016 expedition members and staff going above base camp on Dhaulagiri I died. On all 8,000 metre peaks in Nepal the death rate was 1.63%, ranging from 0.65% on Cho Oyu to 4.04% on Annapurna I and 3.05% on Manaslu.", "† Only peaks above 7,200 m with more than of topographic prominence are ranked. ‡ The status of Churen Himal's three peaks is unclear and sources differ on their heights. The coordinates, heights and prominence values above are derived from the Finnmap. The first ascent data is from Neate, but it is unclear if the first ascent of Churen Himal East was actually an ascent of the highest of the three peaks, as Neate lists Churen Himal Central as a 7,320 m subpeak of Churen Himal East. Most of the named 7,000 metre peaks are on a ridge extending WNW, separated from Dhaulagiri I by 5,355m French Pass at 28°46'55\"N, 83°31'54\"E. In order they are Dhaulagiri II, III, V, IV, Junction Peak, Churens East, Central and West, Putha Hiunchuli and Hiunchuli Patan. False Junction Peak, Dhaulagiri VI and Gurja are on a ridge extending south from Junction Peak. The British Alpine Club's Himalayan Index lists 37 more peaks over 6,000 m. 6,182m \"Pota Himal\" (FinnMap sheet 2883-01 \"Chhedhul Gumba\") stands north of the main ridge between Churen and Putha Hiunchuli. Pota has been informally renamed \"Peak Hawley\" after Elizabeth Hawley, a notable expedition chronicler and Kathmandu-based reporter. Hiunchuli Patan at the western end nearest the Bheri River is locally called Sisne or Murkatta Himal. It was an iconic landmark to insurgents based in Rukum and Rolpa districts during the 1996–2006 Nepal Civil War." ] }