"Active core rewarming" refers to
(D) All of the above # REWARMING STRATEGIES> There are numerous widely available active core rewarming options.> Airway rewarming with heated humidified oxygen (4degC to 45degC) is a convenient option via mask or endotracheal tube.> Although airway rewarming provides less heat than some other forms of active core rewarming, it eliminates respiratory heat loss and adds 1deg to 2degC to the overall rewarming rate.> Crystalloids should be heated to 40degto 42degC. The quantity of heat provided is significant only during massive volume resuscitation.> The most efficient method for heating and delivering fluid or blood is with a countercurrent in-line heat exchanger.> Heated irrigation of the gastrointestinal tract or bladder transfers minimal heat because of the limited available surface area.> These methods should be reserved for patients in cardiac arrest and then used in combination with all available active rewarming techniques.> Closed thoracic lavage is far more efficient in severely hypothermic patients with cardiac arrest.> The hemithoraces are irrigated through two large-bore thoracostomy tubes that are inserted into the left or both of the hemithoraces.> Thoracostomy tubes should not be placed in the left chest of a spontaneously perfusing patient for purposes of rewarming.> Peritoneal lavage with the dialysate at 40deg to 45degC efficiently transfers heat when delivered through two catheters with outflow suction.> Like peritoneal dialysis, standard hemodialysis is especially useful for patients with electrolyte abnormalities, rhabdomyolysis, or toxin ingestions.> The efficacy of arteriovenous anastomoses rewarming, which provides exogenous heat by immersion of the hands, forearms, feet, and calves in 44deg to 45degC water, is unclear.
Heated crystalloids
Heated humidified O2
Peritoneal dialysis
All of the above
Miscellaneous