The most common non-cardiac peripheral factor that leads to decreased cardiac output is:
Decrease in Cardiac Output Caused by Non-cardiac Peripheral Factors—Decreased Venous Return. Anything that interferes with venous return also can lead to decreased cardiac output. Some of these factors are the following:
1. Decreased blood volume. By far, the most common non-cardiac peripheral factor that leads to decreased cardiac output is decreased blood volume, resulting most often from hemorrhage. It is clear why this condition decreases the cardiac output: Loss of blood decreases the filling of the vascular system to such a low level that there is not enough blood in the peripheral vessels to create peripheral vascular pressures high enough to push the blood back to the heart.
2. Acute venous dilation. On some occasions, the peripheral veins become acutely vasodilated. This results most often when the sympathetic nervous system suddenly becomes inactive. For instance, fainting often results from sudden loss of sympathetic nervous system activity, which causes the peripheral capacitative vessels, especially the veins, to dilate markedly. This decreases the filling pressure of the vascular system because the blood volume can no longer create adequate pressure in the now flaccid peripheral blood vessels. As a result, the blood “pools” in the vessels and does not return to the heart.
3. Obstruction of the large veins. On rare occasions, the large veins leading into the heart become obstructed, so the blood in the peripheral vessels cannot flow back into the heart. Consequently, the cardiac output falls markedly.
4. Decreased tissue mass, especially decreased skeletal muscle mass. With normal aging or with prolonged periods of physical inactivity, there is usually a reduction in the size of the skeletal muscles. This, in turn, decreases the total oxygen consumption and blood flow needs of the muscles, resulting in decrease in skeletal muscle blood flow and cardiac output.
5. Decreased metabolic rate of the tissues. If tissue metabolic rate is reduced, such as occurs in skeletal muscle during prolonged bed rest, the oxygen consumption and nutrition needs of the tissues will also be lower. This decreases blood flow to the tissues, resulting in reduced cardiac output. Other conditions, such as hypothyroidism, may also reduce metabolic rate and therefore tissue blood flow and cardiac output.
Decreased blood volume
Acute venous dilation
Obstruction of the large veins
Decreased tissue mass, especially decreased skeletal muscle mass