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It is difficult to take good pictures without having a solid understanding of ISO, Shutter Speed and Aperture – the Three Kings of Photography, also known as the “Exposure Triangle”. While most new DSLRs have “Auto” modes that automatically pick the right shutter speed, aperture and even ISO for your exposure, using an Auto mode puts limits on what you can achieve with your camera. In many cases, the camera has to guess what the right exposure should be by evaluating the amount of light that passes through the lens. Thoroughly understanding how ISO, shutter speed and aperture work together allows photographers to fully take charge of the situation by manually controlling the camera. Knowing how to adjust the settings of the camera when needed, helps to get the best out of your camera and push it to its limits to take great photographs. It is challenging to take good pictures without a good understanding of how ISO works and what it does. Camera ISO is one of the three pillars of photography (the other two being Aperture and Shutter Speed) and every photographer should thoroughly understand it, to get the most out of their equipment. Since this article is for beginners in photography, I will try to explain ISO as simple as I can. Before we go any further, you should first understand how DSLR cameras work. 1) What is ISO? In very basic terms, ISO is the level of sensitivity of your camera to available light. The lower the ISO number, the less sensitive it is to the light, while a higher ISO number increases the sensitivity of your camera. The component within your camera that can change sensitivity is called “image sensor” or simply “sensor”. It is the most important (and most expensive) part of a camera and it is responsible for gathering light and transforming it into an image. With increased sensitivity, your camera sensor can capture images in low-light environments without having to use a flash. But higher sensitivity comes at an expense – it adds grain or “noise” to the pictures. Take a look at the following picture (click to open a larger version):

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Superconductivity appears to rely on very different mechanisms in two varieties of iron-based superconductors. The insight comes from research groups that are making bold statements about the correct description of superconductivity in iron-based compounds in two papers about to be published in journals of the American Physical Society. The 2008 discovery of high-temperature superconductivity in iron-based compounds has led to a flood of research in the past year. As the literature mounts on these materials, which superconduct at temperatures as high as 55 K, two key questions are emerging: Is the origin of superconductivity in all of the iron-based compounds the same and are these materials similar to the copper oxide-based high-temperature superconductors (commonly known as cuprates), which physicists have studied for nearly twenty years but are still unable to explain with a complete theory? These questions are addressed separately in two papers highlighted in the July 13 issue of Physics. A collaboration between scientists at Lawrence Berkeley National Lab, the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Stanford University and institutions in Switzerland, China, Mexico and the Netherlands reports in Physical Review B x-ray experiments indicating that, in iron-based superconductors that contain arsenic or phosphorous (called 'iron pnictides'), the electrons that ultimately pair to form the superconducting state behave differently than those in the cuprates. More specifically, while the electrons in the cuprates are strongly correlated - meaning the energy of one electron is tied to the energy of the others - the electrons in the iron-pnictide superconductors behave more like those of a normal metal in which the electrons do not (to first approximation) interact. In a paper appearing in Physical Review Letters, scientists at Princeton, UC Berkeley and Shanghai Jiao Tong University in China present the first photoemission measurements on an iron-based superconductor that contains tellurium, Fe1+xTe. They argue the origin of superconductivity in this type of iron compound, which belongs to a class of materials called the iron-chalcogenides, has a different origin than in the arsenic and phosphorous containing iron-pnictides. In fact, the measurements suggest that superconductivity in the iron-chalcogenides may be more similar to that of the cuprates. The statements put forth in these two articles are likely to influence the direction taken by physicists who work on the theory of iron-based superconductors. See the Viewpoint article in the July 13 issue of APS Physics to learn more. More information: physics.aps.org/ Source: American Physical Society Explore further: New X-ray method shows how frog embryos could help thwart disease

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New upper limit to neutrino mass Nov 22, 1999 [Corrected version of story published on 19 Nov 1999] An international team of physicists has found a new upper limit for the effective electron neutrino mass. According to physicists from the Max Planck Institute for Nuclear Physics in Heidelberg and the Kurchatov institute in Moscow, the neutrino must have a mass of not more than 0.2 eV - which is 2.5 million times smaller than the mass of the electron. The experiment, in the Gran Sasso underground laboratory in Italy, is presently the world's most sensitive double beta decay experiment. The team studied the radioactive decay of germanium 76, which cannot occur by normal beta decay in which one electron and one antineutrino would be emitted. The nucleus can, however, undergo double beta decay, which is extremely rare. This "neutrinoless" mode is only possible if the neutrino has mass and is its own antiparticle. The experiment uses 11.5 kg of enriched germanium-76 in form of five high-purity Ge-detectors. The signature of neutrinoless double beta decay would be a peak in an energy spectrum at the Q-value of the reaction. Finding such a peak would be the first evidence that the neutrinos emitted in nuclear decays have mass. Neutrinos come in three types - electron neutrinos, muon neutrinos and tau neutrinos - which all could contribute to the double beta decay. Last year, so-called neutrino oscillation experiments at the SuperKamiokande detector in Japan reported the first clear evidence for non-zero neutrino masses. However, such experiments can only measure mass differences between different neutrino mass eigenstates, while double beta decay could help to fix the absolute mass scale.

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Many species of shark and ray have taken major hits from human over-hunting (e.g., “finning” and sport-killing) as well as marine environment changes brought about by climate change impacts (e.g., the collapse of many smaller fish species). Understanding how these creatures live out their lives is crucial to helping protect them. Most sharks and rays are deemed apex predators, as they “sit” at the top of the food chain in which they exist, and thus play a vital role in the maintenance of oceanic ecosystems. But much about these cartilagenous fishes remains unknown or puzzling. For example, the life-cycles and true population numbers of these creatures are not completely understood or known. Further, the genetic/evolutionary relationships between species of shark, or rays, or between sharks and rays, is the subject of much disagreement and debate amongst marine biologists. To help elucidate these relationships, a team of biologists at the College of Charleston in South Carolina, led by Gavin Naylor, took DNA samples from over 4,200 specimens of shark and ray and sequenced them to determine their relatedness. Of the 4,283 samples, the scientists were able to identify 574 species. But, most surprisingly, they also discovered 79 sequences that potentially represent entirely new species. Currently, it is estimated that there are about 1200 known species (including both shark and ray species) worldwide. And so, discovering so many new species — even by genetic analysis alone — has come as a shock to many marine biologists. The discovery may indicate that many or most of these possibly new species are similar in appearance to known species, and so have just been misidentified. As a result, what was described as a single, large population may in fact be two or more populations of closely related but separate species — making all said species members of smaller populations than previously thought. The discovery of these potentially new species may also mean that many or most are far more critically endangered than supposed. As an example, Naylor’s analysis revealed that the endangered scalloped hammerhead (Sphyrna lewini) is actually two separate species of hammerhead shark. The scalloped hammerhead is one of those species that have taken a major “hit” (as noted earlier). Thus, given the tendency to lump similar-looking but genetically distinct species together, this finding may indicate that the sustainable population numbers of either species are far worse than estimated. The team is currently working with the US National Science Foundation to compile a catalog of shark/ray diversity and is assisting the International Union for Conservation of Nature to map the preferred habitats and ranges of all known species of sharks and rays. “This will have an impact on what is considered endangered and the fragility of different organisms. These are sentinel species of all sorts of other organisms in the sea which are probably undergoing similar or worse kinds of impacts.” [Source: Sci Am] Other scientists who were informed of the genetic analysis caution that using these new molecular techniques (i.e., gene sequencing from stored specimens) poses certain problems for zoological classification; they allow a more exact comparison of relationships between species, but because the sequences are being “mined” blindly — not knowing where the originals came from or whether any given sample was correctly identified — may result in a distorted estimation of species numbers and even total population numbers. Naylor acknowledges the importance of using genetic sequencing in combination with other techniques (including in situ sampling and identification). Sharks and rays are classified under the clade (or superorder) Selachimorpha (or Selachii). The earliest known shark fossils date to over 420 million years ago. The team recently published their report in the Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. For more infomration, check out the source (SciAm) article for this story: Total of 79 Potentially New Shark Species Found. - Top Photo: (hammerhead shark) by suneko - Chart: (global shark catch) Chris huh - Second Photo: (shark fin soup) Arthur Hungry Michael Ricciardi is a well-published writer of science/nature/technology articles and essays, poetry and short fiction. Michael has interviewed dozen of scientists from many scientific fields, including Brain Greene, Paul Steinhardt, and Nobel Laureate Ilya Progogine (deceased). Michael was trained as a naturalist and taught ecology and natural science on Cape Cod, Mass. from 1986-1991. His first arts grant was for production of the environmental (video) documentary 'The Jones River - A Natural History', 1987-88 (Kingston, Mass.). Michael is also an award winning, internationally screened video artist. Two of his more recent short videos; 'A Time of Water Bountiful' and 'My Name is HAM' (an "imagined memoir" about the first chimp in space), and several other short videos, can be viewed on his website (http://www.chaosmosis.net). Michael currently lives in Seattle, Washington.

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The UNESCO leads the Education for All (EFA) global initiative. The initiative is based on the six goals established by the countries in Dakar, Senegal in 2000, as a way to advance towards quality education for everyone in the world by 2015 (early childhood, universal primary education, literacy, youth and adult education, gender, quality); UNESCO monitors these goals through diverse technical and political mechanisms. In the region, UNESCO leads the Regional Education Project for Latin America and the Caribbean (EFA/PRELAC). This strategy was conceived to fulfill the Education for All objectives in the region, which end in 2015, in a contextualized manner; and its goal is to encourage substantial changes in educational policies and practices with the intent to fulfill the objectives stated in the Dakar Framework. Action areas of the Regional Bureau of Education: support to the educational subsystems 1. Quality of Education 2. Regional Strategy on Teachers 3. Inclusive Education 4. Educational Innovation 5. HIV/AIDS Prevention and Sexuality Education 6. Education for Sustainable Development 7. Literacy and Youth and Adult Education Download Strategic framework 2012-2013

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Individual differences | Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology | See Animal hoarding for the human behavior in which people keep too many pets. - Larder hoarding, the collection of large amounts of food in a single place (a larder), which usually also serves as the nest where the animal lives. Hamsters are famous larder hoarders. Indeed, the word "hamster" is derived from the German verb "hamstern" which means "to hoard"; similar verbs are found in various related languages Dutch hamsteren, and Swedish hamstra). Other languages also draw a clear connection between hamsters and hoarding: Polish chomikować, from chomik – hamster; Hebrew hamster; oger (אוגר) comes from to hoarde; le'egor (לאגור). - Scatter hoarding, the formation of a large number of small hoards or caches of nuts and other seeds. Many species of squirrel, including the Eastern Gray Squirrel and the fox squirrel are well known for scatter hoarding. This behaviour plays an important part in seed dispersal, as those seeds that are left uneaten will have a chance to germinate, thus enabling plants to spread their populations effectively. The group of animals dislaying this behavior include:

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Individual differences | Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology | Philosophy Index: Aesthetics · Epistemology · Ethics · Logic · Metaphysics · Consciousness · Philosophy of Language · Philosophy of Mind · Philosophy of Science · Social and Political philosophy · Philosophies · Philosophers · List of lists Philosophy of psychology refers to issues at the theoretical foundations of modern psychology. Some of these issues are epistemological concerns about the methodology of psychological investigation. For example: - What is the most appropriate methodology for psychology: mentalism, behaviorism, or a compromise? - Are self-reports a reliable data-gathering method? - What conclusions can be drawn from null hypothesis tests? - Can first-person experiences (emotions, desires, beliefs, etc.) be measured objectively? Other issues in philosophy of psychology are philosophical questions about the nature of mind, brain, and cognition, and are perhaps more commonly thought of as part of cognitive science, or philosophy of mind, such as: - What is a cognitive module? - Are humans rational creatures? - What psychological phenomena come up to the standard required for calling it knowledge? - What is innateness? Since antiquity, questions that are now treated within psychology were subsumed within philosophy and it is only relatively recently that the relationship between psychology and philosophy has been redrawn. Philosophy of psychology is a relatively young field because "scientific" psychology—that is, psychology that favors experimental methods over introspection—came to dominate psychological studies only in the late 19th century. One of philosophy of psychology's concerns is to evaluate the merits of the many different schools of psychology that have been and are practiced. For example, cognitive psychology's use of internal mental states might be compared with behaviorism, and the reasons for the widespread rejection of behaviorism in the mid-20th century examined. The relationship between philosophy and psychology has not always been easy. For example as Harre & Secord (1972) wrote: When a behavioural scientist reads philosophical writings he often feels that the philosopher is being dogmatic and arbitrary, that he is legislating truth instead of leaving it to empirical investigation to discover. When a philosopher reads psychology, he often thinks that the conceptual basis of the study is naive and ill-secured, and developed in a haphazard manner without adequate critical thought, so that the empirical work is vitiated because it is ultimately confused, overlooking distinctions that seem to him obvious. However in recent years a fruitful two-way dialogue has developed between scholars in the two fields covering most of the areas of philosophy. Philosophy of mindEdit Topics that fall within philosophy of mind, of course, go back much farther. For example, questions about the very nature of mind, the qualities of experience, and particular issues like the debate between dualism and monism have been discussed in philosophy for many centuries. Philosophy of psychology now closely monitors contemporary work conducted in cognitive neuroscience, evolutionary psychology, and artificial intelligence, for example questioning whether psychological phenomena can be explained using the methods of neuroscience, evolutionary theory, and computational modeling, respectively. Although these are all closely related fields, some concerns still arise about the appropriateness of importing their methods into psychology. Some such concerns are whether psychology, as the study of individuals as information processing systems (see Donald Broadbent), is autonomous from what happens in the brain (even if psychologists largely agree that the brain in some sense causes behavior (see supervenience)); whether the mind is "hard-wired" enough for evolutionary investigations to be fruitful; and whether computational models can do anything more than offer possible implementations of cognitive theories that tell us nothing about the mind (Fodor & Pylyshyn 1988). Related to philosophy of psychology are philosophical and epistemological inquiries about clinical psychiatry and psychopathology. Philosophy of psychiatry is mainly concerned with the role of values in psychiatry: derived from philosophical value theory and phenomenology, values-based practice is aimed at improving and humanizing clinical decision-making in the highly complex environment of mental health care. Philosophy of psychopathology is mainly involved in the epistemological reflection about the implicit philosophical foundations of psychiatric classification and evidence-based psychiatry. Its aim is to unveil the constructive activity underlying the description of mental phenomena. Philosophy of scienceEdit - Experimental philosophy - History of psychology - Philosophical method - Philosophy of social science - ↑ O'Donohue, W. and Kitchener, R.F. (1996). The Philosophy of Psychology. London:Sage. - ↑ Harre, R. & Secord, P. (1972). The Explanation of Social Behavior. Oxford:Blackwell. - ↑ Fulford KWM, Stanghellini G. (2008). The Third Revolution: Philosophy into Practice in Twenty-first Century Psychiatry. Dialogues in Philosophy, Mental and Neuro Sciences 1 (1): 5–14. - ↑ Aragona M (2009). Il mito dei fatti. Una introduzione alla Filosofia della Psicopatologia, Crossing Dialogues. - The London Philosophy Study Guide offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: Philosophy of psychology - Part 7 of MindPapers: Philosophy of Cognitive Science (contains over 1,500 articles, many with online copies) |General: Philosophy: Eastern - Western | History of philosophy: Ancient - Medieval - Modern | Portal| |Lists: Basic topics | Topic list | Philosophers | Philosophies | Glossary of philosophical "isms" | Philosophical movements | Publications | Category listings ...more lists| |Branches: Aesthetics | Ethics | Epistemology | Logic | Metaphysics | Philosophy of: Education, History, Language, Law, Mathematics, Mind, Philosophy, Politics, Psychology, Religion, Science, Social philosophy, Social Sciences| |Schools: Agnosticism | Analytic philosophy | Atheism | Critical theory | Determinism | Dialectics | Empiricism | Existentialism | Humanism | Idealism | Logical positivism | Materialism | Nihilism | Postmodernism | Rationalism | Relativism | Skepticism | Theism| |References: Philosophy primer | Internet Encyclo. of Philosophy | Philosophical dictionary | Stanford Encyclo. of Philosophy | Internet philosophy guide| |This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).|

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Using the operating impedance bridge Most radio engineers today will recall uncomfortable evenings and cold nights spent in dog houses making antenna impedance measurements, or worse, still trying to balance a laboratory model GR bridge on a freestanding steel ATU cabinet, adjust a signal generator or oscillator, tune a detector and probably try to take notes. The development of the operating impedance bridge by Delta Electronics about 40 years ago changed all that, and together with the receiver generator made antenna impedance measurements not only much easier to perform, but more accurate because antenna measurements can now be made under actual operating conditions. Almost inevitably measurements made with actual operating power, or at least sufficient power to produce operating conditions, are more accurate than cold measurements made using flea power. The first version of the OIB was known as the OIB-1, and as it became widely used a few minor changes were made. Today the OIB-3 is very similar in appearance to the OIB-1 and is shown at left. Its impedance measuring range now covers from -1000 to +1000Ω resistance and -900 to +900 reactance to 1MHz. When the OIB was first introduced it became possible for the first time to measure circuit impedances under operating conditions at any point in the antenna system. Remember that the bridge is calibrated at 1MHz and it is necessary to apply a correction to the reactance read directly on the reactance dial. Many years ago I found it was quite easy to forget to make this correction. However, with practice it becomes automatic. The actual correction is engraved on the panel of the instrument: X (corrected) = X/F. X = reactance (dial reading) and F = operating frequency in megahertz. The OIB-3 is available in two versions. The first version measures up to 2MHz, and version 2 has an extended range to 5MHz. The operating ranges are identified by the bridge's serial number. Serial numbers 001 through 1224 cover the broadcast band, and serial numbers 1225 and above tune higher. Two-range bridges have meter DIR/TUNE switches marked Tune HI and Tune LO. The high position extends the tuning range to 5MHz, which greatly increases its usefulness. This instrument offers a choice of 12" or 18" connecting cables and comes with a coaxial adapter. I have always found the 18" cables very useful when measurements have to be made in difficult areas using the transmitter as the power source (but not more than 5kW). Care should be taken to avoid contaminated measurements caused by random lead movements. Coaxial connectors are also available in the form of a large male UHF male-to-female PNC adapter. It is very important to ensure that both clip leads are properly grounded at the instrument input and output connections when used with an actual transmitter. The OIB-3 requires only an RF power source to put it into action and has a built in detector and indicator so that additional equipment is not normally required when used with a transmitter RF power source. The built-in detector and tuning circuit usually provides adequate sensitivity when using a transmitter as an RF source. Acceptable Use Policy blog comments powered by Disqus [an error occurred while processing this directive] Today in Radio History The history of radio broadcasting extends beyond the work of a few famous inventors. EAS Information More on EAS The feed provides feeds for all US states and territories. Need a calendar for your computer desktop? Use one of ours. Information from manufacturers and associations about industry news, products, technology and business announcements. This high-visibility and high-traffic area got the full acoustic treatment. Browse Back Issues[an error occurred while processing this directive] Also in the May Issue - Remote Access and Site Connectivity: Wireless - Standards of FM Allocation and Interference - Side by Side: Mic Processors - Field Report: Deva Broadcast DB4004 - Field Report: APT WorldCast Systems Horizon NextGen - New Products - 20 Years of Radio magazine: May 1994

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Union[, , ... ] gives a sorted list of all the distinct elements that appear in any of the . Union[list] gives a sorted version of a list, in which all duplicated elements have been dropped. If the are considered as sets, Union gives their union. Union[, , ... ] can be input in StandardForm and InputForm as ... . The character can be entered as un or \[Union]. The must have the same head, but it need not be List. Union[, ... , SameTest->test] applies test to each pair of elements in the to determine whether they should be considered the same. See Section 1.8.7 and Section 1.8.8. See also: Join, Intersection, Complement, Split. New in Version 1; modified in 3.

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Dec 29th 2004 From The Economist print edition Nanotechnology will give humans greater control of matter at tiny scales. That is a good thing, says Natasha Loder (interviewed here) ATOMS are the fundamental building blocks of matter, which means they are very small indeed. The world at the scale of atoms and molecules is difficult to describe and hard to imagine. It is so odd that it even has its own special branch of physics, called quantum mechanics, to explain the strange things that happen there. If you were to throw a tennis ball against a brick wall, you might be surprised if the ball passed cleanly through the wall and sailed out on the other side. Yet this is the kind of thing that happens at the quantum scale. At very small scales, the properties of a material, such as colour, magnetism and the ability to conduct electricity, also change in unexpected ways. It is not possible to “see” the atomic world in the normal sense of the word, because its features are smaller than the wavelength of visible light (see table 1). But back in 1981, researchers at IBM designed a probe called the scanning tunnelling microscope (STM), named after a quantum-mechanical effect it employs. Rather like the stylus on an old-fashioned record player, it could trace the bumps and grooves of the nanoscale world. This allowed scientists to “see” atoms and molecules for the first time. It revealed landscapes as beautiful and complex as the ridges, troughs and valleys of a Peruvian mountainside, but at the almost unimaginably small nanometre (nm) scale. A nanometre is a billionth of a metre, or roughly the length of ten hydrogen atoms. Although scientists had thought about tinkering with things this small as long ago as the late 1950s, they had to wait until the invention of the STM to make it possible. Nanotechnology is generally agreed to cover objects measuring from 1 to 100nm, though the definition is somewhat arbitrary. Some people include things as small as a tenth of a nanometre, which is about the size of the bond between two carbon atoms. At the other end of the range, in objects larger than 50nm the laws of classical physics become increasingly dominant. There are plenty of materials that simply happen to have features at the nanoscale—such as stained glass, mayonnaise or cat litter—but do not qualify for the nanotechnology label. The point about nanotechnology is that it sets out deliberately to exploit the strange properties found in these very small worlds. At the nanoscale, explains George Smith, the amiable head of materials science at Oxford University, “new, exciting and different” properties can be found. If you were to start with a grain of sugar, he says, and chopped it up into ever smaller pieces and simply ended up with a tiny grain of sugar, that would be no big deal. But as an object gets smaller, the ratio between its surface area and its volume rises. This matters because the atoms on the surface of a material are generally more reactive than those at its centre. So icing sugar, for instance, dissolves more quickly in water than does the granulated form. And if silver is turned into very small particles, it has antimicrobial properties that are not present in the bulk material. One company exploits this phenomenon by making nanoparticles of the compound cerium oxide, which in that form are chemically reactive enough to serve as a catalyst. In this invisible world, tiny particles of gold melt at temperatures several hundred degrees lower than a large nugget, and copper, which is normally a good conductor of electricity, can become resistant in thin layers in the presence of a magnetic field. Electrons, like that imaginary tennis ball, can simply jump (or tunnel) from one place to another, and molecules can attract each other at moderate distances. This effect allows geckos to walk on the ceiling, using tiny hairs on the soles of their feet. But finding novel properties at the nanoscale is only the first step. The next is to make use of this knowledge. Most usefully, the ability to make stuff with atomic precision will allow scientists to produce materials with improved, or new, optical, magnetic, thermal or electrical properties. And even just understanding the atomic-scale defects in a material can suggest better ways of making it. Indeed, entirely new kinds of material are now being developed. For example, NanoSonic in Blacksburg, Virginia, has created metallic rubber, which flexes and stretches like rubber but conducts electricity like a solid metal. General Electric's research centre in Schenectady in New York state is trying to make flexible ceramics. If it succeeds, the material could be used for jet-engine parts, allowing them to run at higher, more efficient temperatures. And several companies are working on materials that could one day be made into solar cells in the form of paint. Because nanotechnology has such broad applications, many people think that it may turn out to be as important as electricity or plastic. As this survey will show, nanotechnology will indeed affect every industry through improvements to existing materials and products, as well as allowing the creation of entirely new materials. Moreover, work at the smallest of scales will produce important advances in areas such as electronics, energy and biomedicine. Nanotechnology does not derive from a single scientific discipline. Although it probably has most in common with materials science, the properties of atoms and molecules underpin many areas of science, so the field attracts scientists of different disciplines. Worldwide, around 20,000 people are estimated to be working in nanotechnology, but the sector is hard to define. Small-scale work in electronics, optics and biotechnology may have been relabelled “nanobiotechnology”, “nano-optics” and “nanoelectronics” because nano-anything has become fashionable. The “nano” prefix is thought to derive from the Greek noun for dwarf. Oxford's Mr Smith jokingly offers an alternative explanation: that it “comes from the verb which means to seek research funding”. And research funding is certainly available by the bucketload. Lux Research, a nanotechnology consultancy based in New York, estimates that total spending on nanotechnology research and development by governments, companies and venture capitalists worldwide was more than $8.6 billion in 2004, with over half coming from governments. But Lux predicts that in future years companies are likely to spend more than governments. For America, nanotechnology is the largest federally funded science initiative since the country decided to put a man on the moon. In 2004, the American government spent $1.6 billion on it, well over twice as much as it did on the Human Genome Project at its peak. In 2005, it is planning to shell out a further $982m. Japan is the next biggest spender, and other parts of Asia as well as Europe have also joined the funding race (see chart 2). Perhaps surprisingly, the contenders include many developing countries, such as India, China, South Africa and Brazil. In the six years up to 2003, nanotechnology investment reported by government organisations increased roughly sevenfold, according to figures from Mihail Roco, senior adviser for nanotechnology at America's National Science Foundation. This large amount of funding has raised expectations that may not be met. Some people worry that all the nanotechnology start-ups will help to inflate a bubble reminiscent of the internet one. But there are good reasons to think that the risk has been exaggerated. Private investors are being much more cautious than they were during the dotcom boom, and much of the money that is being spent by governments is going on basic science and on developing technologies that will not become available for years. However, a number of existing products have already been improved through nanotechnology, with more to come in the next few years. Bandages for burns have been made antimicrobial by the addition of nanoparticles of silver. Fabrics have been stain- and odour-proofed by attaching molecules to cotton fibres that create a protective barrier. Tennis rackets have been strengthened by adding tiny particles that improve torsion and flex resistance. Other applications include coatings for the hulls of boats, sunscreen, car parts and refrigerators. In the longer term nanotechnology may produce much bigger innovations, such as new kinds of computer memory, improved medical technology and better energy-production methods such as solar cells. The technology's most ardent proponents claim that it will lead to clean energy, zero-waste manufacturing and cheap space travel, if not immortality. Its opponents fear that it will bring universal surveillance and harm the poor, the environment and human health—and may even destroy the whole planet through self-replicating “grey goo”. This survey will argue that both sides overstate their case, but that on balance nanotechnology should be welcomed. OPINION | WORLD | BUSINESS | FINANCE & ECONOMICS | SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY| PEOPLE | BOOKS & ARTS | MARKETS & DATA | DIVERSIONS | PRINT EDITION Copyright © The Economist Newspaper Limited 2004. All rights reserved.

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The term “wrought iron” has come to mean different things to different people. To a blacksmith, it refers to a raw material, not a type of work. In the first half of the 19th century, much of the nation’s wrought iron was made in the mountains of Pennsylvania and in the Adirondack Mountains of New York. It was made right on the mountainside where it was mined, and was smelted in a furnace called a bloomery. The newly smelted iron was called a bloom.

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The 1st of January 1813, the Russian armies crossed Neman and soon reached Vistula and Oder. In February Prussia joined Russia, in April the forces of allies were on Elba. In May Napoleon who collected a new army, repulsed the allies to Oder. In July, the forces of the coalition increased because of the unification with Austria and German princedoms. But in the battle near Dresden (the 14th -15th of August), Napoleon turned into flight his opponent possessing a numerical superiority. The 4th -6th of October in "fight of peoples" near Leipzig (220 thousand allies, 175 thousand French) the army of Napoleon was broken. Losses reached 65 thousand in the French army and 54 thousand in army of coalition. The 19th of March 1814, after a number of bloody battles, the allied army with the 6th anti-French coalition (England, Russia, Austria and Prussia) entered Paris. Napoleon abdicated and was banished to Elba Island in the Mediterranean sea. The congress of allied forces took place in September 1814 and June 1815 in Vienna. Serious contradictions between them caused a long secret struggle. News about flight of Napoleon to Elba and the temporary capture of the power by him in France ("Hundred days") unexpectedly sped up the achievement of the consent. Under the final act of the Viennese congress (the 28th of May 1815) Russia received Finland, Bessarabia and the territory of the former duchy of the Warsaw Empire called the Polish kingdom, unified with Russia through a dynastic union. The 6th of June 1815, Napoleon was broken in Waterloo by the incorporated forces of allies and banished for life at the Island St Elena in the Atlantic ocean. For the maintenance of the new European order under Alexander's I initiative Russia, Austria and Prussia concluded the 14th of September 1815 Sacred Union, proclaiming the unification of Christian monarchies and their citizens. The recognition of the firmness of existing European monarchy was the basis of the union. Soon the Sacred union was adjoined almost by all European governors (England, Vatican and Turkey) were the exception due to the formal order). At meetings and congresses of the Sacred union in Aachen (1818), Тroppau and Laibakhe (1820-1821), Vienna and Verona (1822), decisions were taken, allowing managing with the revolutionary wave, which swept on Europe. The force of weapons suppressed the revolutions in Italy and Spain. Trying to strengthen its influence in the East, Russia wanted to use the Sacred union for the support of Slavic people and Greeks in their struggle against the Muslim Turkey, but it was counteracted by England and Austria. The situation aggravated in the spring 1821 with the beginning of the Greek revolt under A.Ipsilanti , an officer of the Russian army. From fear to weaken the Union, Alexander I did not dare to assist insurgents, but in July 1821 he broke off diplomatic relations with Turkey.

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The cell membrane is argued to afford survival imperatives that overcome the selfishness of the gene and promote cooperative behavior among species that adjust environmental conditions towards the common good compatible with the literally constitutive role of the cell membrane. Cell membranes are co-extensive with the very viability of the cell. This is reflected in the fact that, apart from an outer membrane separating the cell from its external environment, the cell also has inner membranes separating its organelles from its inner and their external environment. Cell membranes function, first of all, to secure the organized molecular structures within from dispersing into the outer world. For example, “[a] hole less than 1000th the area of the membrane of … a red blood cell would allow its contents to escape in less than a second.” Secondly, cell membranes operate “to sustain an internal environment” compatible with cellular viability. In this connection, they are equipped with “pumps that regulate the flow of ions and molecules” into and out of the internal environments they sustain. Finally, cell membranes also “accommodate the division of the cell when it reproduces.” Membranes are therefore vitally important to the cell. The trouble is, the intermolecular forces that hold the cell membrane together – Van der Waal’s forces – are extremely weak: they invest cell membranes with the strength of soap bubbles. Yet, life has managed to survive on Earth for nearly four billion years. Can it be expected that the environment would have maintained, for nearly four billion year!?, the narrow range of physical and chemical conditions (e.g. “temperature, salinity, acidity, redox potential, and water availability”) compatible with the soap-bubble strength of the cell membrane? This is most improbable, Lovelock argues. Further, he argues that life, primarily through the activities of bacteria, must have cooperated to adjust environmental conditions to the narrow range compatible with the indefinite survival of the cell membrane. Lovelock’s arguments are at variance with neo-Darwinian evolutionary theory that takes the survivability of the environment as a given; and competitive self-interest as an organizing principle among species as an axiomatic necessity (see: The Bare Bones of Natural Selection). Thus, the neo-Darwinian would argue that, since there are bacteria “that can live in boiling water” and other species “that can exist in saturated brine,” surely there is no need for biotic adjustment of the environment to more favorable conditions. To this objection, Lovelock responds by pointing out that cells living in adverse conditions “are less efficient and more vulnerable than the cells of regular forms of life, and often depend for their nutrients on mainstream life.” As for cooperation among species, there is no way to effect this without foresight, intention, and communication among and between the various species, the neo-Darwinian would argue. Lovelock responds by showing how such cooperation could be achieved. He begins by pointing out that the environment is modified by the chemistry connected with life processes. Those modifications would then have reciprocal selective effects upon life. It follows that those organisms whose life chemistry altered environmental conditions to favorable effect compatible with the integrity of the cell membrane would be selectively propagated by the environment. (These organisms would even be insulated from predation, disease, and parasitism since the reduction of their numbers by these environmental negative feedbacks would result in adverse conditions for the species effecting the negative feedbacks.) Over time, therefore, it is to be expected that the species that would be preferentially selected for propagation by the environment would be those that cooperatively altered (through division of labor exemplified by bacteria) environmental conditions to favorable effect for the cell membrane. In this way, the cell membrane, because of its literally constitutive nature, secures inter-species cooperation despite the selfish gene of the neo-Darwinians, with its axiomatically required competitive imperatives (Lovelock 1991: 95-101). (Reference: Lovelock, James. 1991. Healing Gaia: Practical Medicine for the Planet. New York: Harmony Books)

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en

|Spend the time||outdoors| Thanks to rapid advances in technology, it’s now possible to build high-quality space-science hardware with off-the-shelf parts –- stuff you’d find at Maker Shed or Radio Shack. We are seeking experiments that can be built on a citizen-science budget using facilities that are reasonably available to citizen scientists. That means a TechShop, hackerspace, or DIY Bio lab, not Area 51 or Los Alamos National Laboratory. Citizens in Space |Invite public to fly in space and build real space experiments.| |Build experiments that fly in space| Citizens in Space, a project of the United States Rocket Academy, plans to fly citizen-science experiments on fully reusable suborbital spacecraft that are now being developed by US companies. Citizens in Space has acquired an initial contract for 10 flights with XCOR Aerospace, the Mojave, California-based company that is developing the Lynx spacecraft. It expects to acquire additional flights from XCOR and other companies in the future. Citizens in Space is currently training three astronaut candidates to fly as operators. It will select and train seven additional astronaut candidates over the next 12 to 24 months. Citizens in Space is also inviting citizen scientists to build 100 experiments to fly on those flights, which are expected to begin in late 2013 or early 2014. In addition to the general call for experiments, Citizens in Space will offer a cash prize for certain experiments deemed to be of special importance.

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After the segmentation of an image, its regions or edges are represented and described in a manner appropriate for further processing. "Shape" is an intrinsic characteristic of 3-D objects or projections thereof. Many other properties, such as edges and surfaces, can be derived from an image. Objects and the naming thereof are primarily defined by shape (and by the function of the object), and not by properties such as color, reflection, surface texture, etc. We are conscious of shape by both outline, which are mainly 2-D data, and by surfaces, which are mainly 3-D structures. To be useful for further processing the shapes must somehow be represented. This is a tricky but a very interesting problem that becomes more complicated by several factors: - Shapes are often complex. Color, motion and intensity can be quantified by a small number of well-understood parameters. Shape can often only be explicitly represented using hundreds of parameters. An explicit and complete representation is often not useful for a basic operation such as matching, due to the complexity of the needed arithmetic operations. It is not clear which aspects or features of shape are important for recognition and which can decrease the complexity to a manageable dimension. -Introspection does not help. A large amount of the human brains seems to work on shape recognition. However, this activity occurs primarily subconsciously. Why is shape recognition (think of faces for example) so easy for a human and shape description so difficult? The fact that we do not have a precise language for shapes (we speak of egg-shaped or ellipse-shaped) already shows how unapproachable it is to make shape processing algorithms or data structures. - There is little mathematical guidance. Math has traditionally not used "computational geometry". For example, just recently a mathematical definition of a "static field" has been given which coincides with our intuition of set operations on static fields. - This field of expertise is young, only recently it is useful to represent complex shapes in a manner that a computer can read, edit and graphically represent them. There are no generally accepted representation schemas for all types of shapes; there are several with each their own advantages and disadvantages for certain applications. Algorithms for the manipulation of shapes (for example, how to carry a couch up the stairs) are extremely complex, and still in a rudimentary stage. Chain codes are made up of line segments that must lie on a fixed grid with the given set of possible directions. The starting point is given by its coordinates, the other points are reached by passing the grid from to the grid point to grid point. The derivative (0:straight, 1:to the left, 2:to the right) is invariant under rotation and needs both a starting point and a direction. The -s curve is a generalization of the chain code. Here is the angle between a static line and a line tangent to the shape, at a certain point along the path s followed from the starting point. Here too, a starting point and a direction must be given. Straight horizontal lines in -s are caused by straight lines in the x-y, the other straight lines in -s by circular arches in x-y. Segmentation of -s in straight lines thus results in descriptions in x-y in terms of straight lines and circular arches. Using "signatures" [fig. 11.5] the distance towards the center is recorded along an angle; a starting position and direction is therefore necessary. To the side another "signature" method. An edge, in a digital image given by several consecutive pixels, can each be approximated to any desired precision by a polyline. Finding a polyline approximation for a certain edge is a segmentation problem: finding the corner points or breakpoints that yield a good or a best polyline approximation (according to a certain criterion). Just as with regional segmentation, methods can also be characterized by the concepts "merging" and "splitting". Both concepts can be combined, especially when the number of desired linear segments of the edge is known a priori. Some methods will now be explained briefly. If we know that an edge is almost linear, we can specify it by giving its breakpoints. To find these we move along the edge looking at the angle between the two line pieces: the angle between the current point and some points previously visited on the line, and the other angle between the current point and some points on the line ahead. If this angle is larger than a certain threshold value, then we take the current point as a break point. Tolerance band solutions place two parallel polylines at a distance 2around the boundary that falls completely within this band. Let Pi walk along the boundary and define t1 as the top line of all the previous lines between A1 and Pi, and t2 as the bottom line. Stop when the angle between t1 and t2 changes sign. The endpoints of t1 and t2 (where the edge touches one of the parallel lines) are used as the new starting points. This method usually does not find the most economical set of segments. This is a general problem of these "one-pass" algorithms, a new break point is only taken when something went wrong, but it is often desired to take a new break point at an earlier stage. Afterwards one can try to find a better solution by shifting certain break points. Using split method the segments of a polyline are split up as soon as a certain fit-condition is not satisfied. Take the straight line between the endpoints of a curve and calculate, for each point on the curve between those endpoints, the perpendicular distance to that line. If the maximum distance is larger than the tolerance, take the point on the edge with the maximum distance as a new break point. Repeat the above recursively for the two resulting straight lines. The algorithm terminates when the deviation of the edge is less than the tolerance for each line piece. This algorithm must be adjusted for the situation in which a part of the edge runs parallel to a line piece. See [fig. 11.4] for an application of this in a closed contour. An obvious representation of a region on a grid is an occupation predicator p(x,y) for each grid point that has the value 1 when (x,y) is in the region and 0 otherwise. This spatial occupation-matrix is itself a binary image. Union and intersection can easily (and quickly) be realized using AND and OR operations. This representation occupies a lot of space and is furthermore not even an explicit edge representation. The y-axis representation is a run-length coding in the y-direction of the spatial occupation-matrix. There are several possibilities to do this: Union and intersection can be implemented as sorting and joining operations on the RLE rows, with a timescale initially proportional to the number of y rows. This representation is more compact than the occupation-matrix, except when there are long structures in the y-direction. In that case coding in the x-direction may be attractive. Working with a mixed x and y-axis representation is possible, but looses much of its simplicity. Quad trees are another manner of coding the spatial occupation-matrix. The matrix is recursively divided into four parts until every region is composed solely out of a 1 or 0. They can easily be constructed from an intermediate pyramid structure and stored as a linear structure. A figure in a 2-D real plane can be represented by its median (skeleton) and the distances from the median to the boundary of the figure. This is an especially suitable representation when the region is composed of thin components. The medial-axis of an area A is a set of pairs: This skeleton is very vulnerable for noise on the boundary, which can be prevented by smoothing the edge. The distance from each pixel in the region to the edge must be taken. The "distance transformation" of a binary image generates an image matrix where each element is an integer or a floating point value equal to the distance from that pixel to the set of zeros. Different distance sizes are possible: - 4 neighbor: the minimum number of steps required to reach a 0 via 4-neighbors - 8 neighbor: via 8 neighbors, always smaller or equal to the 4-neighbor distance - Euclidic: the real Euclidic distance - approximations (see Borgefors, CVGIP 34(1986)344 ) From left to right: original image, 4-neighbor DT, 8-neighbor DT. A parallel algorithm for the 4-neighbor Distance Transformation is: f(ai,j) = min ( ai-1,j, ai+1,j , ai,j-1 , ai,j+1 ) + 1 if ai,j 0 else 0 this is repeated in a parallel manner until nothing changes anymore; the amount of repetitions is maximally the largest distance (the sum of the number of rows and columns). The serial version is composed of two local operators applied sequentially: f1 applied in a grid scan in the forward direction ( 1,1 ; 1,2 ; ... 1,m; 2,1....n,m) followed by f2 in the reverse scan ( n,m ; n,m-1 ; ... n,1 ; n-1,m ; .... 1,1) : f1(ai,j) = min( ai-1,j + 1, ai,j-1 + 1 ) if ai,j = 1 else 0 f2(ai,j) = min( ai,j , ai+1,j + 1, ai,j+1 + 1) if ai,j 0 else 0 (it has not been specified what must happen on the edge of the image). A DT image is a suitable starting point for certain types of editing on the region, such as determining its thickness (most frequently occurring distance) and its circumference (count the number of ones). Regions can be "peeled": fn( di,j ) = 0 if di,j =1,2..,n else unchanged Regions that are thinner than n and for example caused by noise, have then be eliminated. Round regions, for example cells on a biological slide, which partially overlap each other, then become separated from each other. These types of operations are also important in many industrial applications of image processing. The median axis is then the set of local maximums in the DT image: (i,j) if none of the following is true: di-1,j , di+1,j , di,j-1, di,j+1 (di,j +1 ) This is the smallest set of points from which the original binary image can be reconstructed, see also Rosenfeld and Pfaltz, J ACM 13(1966) 471. This can also be done using serial operations: g1(ai,j) = max( ai,j , ai,j-1 - 1, ai-1,j +1 ) in forward direction and g2(ai,j) = max( ai,j , ai+1,j - 1, ai,j+1 - 1) in the reverse direction by applying the grid scan consecutively. Thinning algorithms, of which there are many, shrink a (binary) region until there is a sort of median left over, which is then used for further processing and editing. The distance information is not stored, therefore the original image cannot be reconstructed. Shape numbers of order n, related to their chain code of length n, can be given to edges. The derivative of the chain code with length n is rotated such that the smallest value is attained [fig. 11.11]. This shape number is independent of the position and orientation of the object. It is also independent of the scaling of the object, only dependent on the relative proportions between scale and size of the digitization grid. By changing the size of this grid, "shape numbers" of different orders can be attained. The lower the order, the coarser the digitalization, and the smaller the differences between the shapes become. At the highest order, two shapes still having the same shape number is an indication of equal shapes [see fig. 12.24]. The curve (s)= (s) - 2s/P (the increasing component has been removed) is used as a basis for the shape description by Fourier transformation. Some shape parameters are determined by using the amplitudes of the lower order Fourier components. These parameters give an indication of the "pointiness" of the shape. A Fourier description can also be determined directly from the shape: x(s) =Xk e jks here = 2 /P, with P the circumference and x interpreted as a complex number x + jy. A shape is usually well described by a small amount of lower order Xk terms [fig. 11.14]. These are not invariant under rotation, translation and scaling, but combinations can be determined that do have those properties. These shape descriptions are not suitable for reconstruction or graphical presentation; for example, a closed shape can become open when a limited amount of coefficients are used. Another standard is based on modelling the edge as a thin bent wire. The normalized bend energy of the wire is: (this is minimal for a circle) E = 1/P 0 P | (s) | 2 ds with representing the amount of bending. This can be calculated from the chain-code, making use of = /s. The following also holds: | (s) |2 = ( 2x/s2) 2 + ( 2y/s2) 2 such that E can be determined from the Fourier coefficients: E = k (k 0) 4 ( |Xk| 2 + |Yk| 2 ) The most basic characteristic of a region is its surface area. This can easily be determined out of a closed polyline ( xi,yi, i=0,...,n-1 ) representation: 0.5 0n-1 (xi+1 yi - xi yi+1 ) For a curve, represented by functions x(s) and y(s) with the length of the arch being s, this becomes: 0P (x y/s - y x/s) ds, with P the circumference The surface area can also easily be determined from a chain code: initialize area = 0 and ypos = 0, walk along the edge and for each element do the following: code == 0 area = area + ypos 1 ypos = ypos + 1 2 area = area - ypos 3 ypos = ypos - 1 The are several units for the stretch or eccentricity. For example, if A is a piece of string of the maximum length, B the string perpendicular to A and also of maximal length, then: = A / B Other eccentricity units are based on moments: Mij = R (x0-x)i(y0-y)j with x0 = (1/n) R x and y0 = (1/n) R y The orientation of a region (the angle between the main axis of the region to the x-axis) and is given by: tan 2 = 2 M11 / ( M20 - M02 ) = ( ( M20 - M02 ) 2 + 4 M11) / surface area A unit for the compactness is the ratio: circumference2 / surface area This is minimal for a circle (4). This can easily be calculated from the chain-code. This method is not appropriate for smaller discrete objects. The moments for a continuous 2-dimensonal function are: mpq = xp yq f(x,y) dxdy µpq = (x-x0)p (y-y0)q f(x,y) dxdy with x0 = m10 / m00 and y0 = m01 / m00 For a discrete function this then becomes: µpq = x y (x-x0)p (y-y0)q f[x,y] A uniqueness theorem states that if f(x,y) is continuous and only unequal to 0 in a restricted area, then the series mpq is uniquely determined by f(x,y) and vice versa. From the second and third order moments a set of seven invariant moments can be calculated, which do not change during translation, scaling and rotation of a region [fig. 11.25]. In practice it is very difficult to use these moments for the recognition of objects. Besides shapes, regions have a certain gray- or color-value distribution named "texture" when there is a certain type of repetition in the structure of it [fig. 11.24]. A possible description of texture is: "an image is built up of many interweaved elements". The idea of interweaved elements is closely related to the idea of texture resolution, something like the average number of pixels needed to describe each texture element. If this is large enough, one can try to describe the individual elements with some detail and especially their positions. When this number comes close to 1, it is more difficult to characterize individual elements. Combined together these result in less individual spatial patterns. Statistical methods are then used to describe the distribution of the gray levels in the image. Textures can be hierarchical, different levels correspond to different recording resolutions. When we look at a brick wall closely, we see that each brick has color or intensity variations which we can describe using a statistical model. If we look at the wall at a larger distance, then we can recognize half or whole bricks and describe the location and orientation of those bricks relative to each other. At an even larger distance each individual brick will only be several pixels large and is not suitable for geometric descriptions, we must then migrate to a more suitable statistical model. Texture is almost always a characteristic bound to a region. It can therefore be used to determine the properties of hte region, such as the orientation with respect to the viewing direction, or the distance, to the camera: the so called texture gradient techniques. Statistical pattern recognition occupies itself with the classification of (individual occurrences) patterns. It is a separate field of expertise and has many application possibilities. Here we use an approximation to classify the texture of a region using a set of given textures. Over the last few years neural networks have been used more and more for such classification problems. A basic notation in pattern recognition is the "feature vector", v = (v1,...,vn), with which the relevant properties of a pattern are represented in a small n-dimensional Euclidic space. The feature vector is calculated out of available measurement data. With effective features the different classes can be divided into well-defined sub-spaces. The vectors of instances of a certain class lie close to each other and are well separated from vectors in other classes. See also fig. 12.1. Suitable features and a good partition of the feature space can be achieved by: There are many methods for the classification of a newly measured point in the feature space. An example is the "nearest mean" or "minimum distance" method, see fig. 12.6. Here every texture class i has a center point ci in the n-dimensional feature space. It is determined by training, for example by averaging the training samples of each class. Add the new point, for which the Euclidic distance || v - ci||2is minimal, to class i. Using the "nearest neighbour" classifier we are interested in the training samples which lie the closest to the new point, and we take that class as the class of the new point. This can require a lot of calculation time. With the "condensed nearest neighbor" classification we are only interested in the training samples that lie on the edge of each class subspace. Naturally, there are many possibilities for the condensation of training samples. With the "k-Nearest Neighbour" (kNN) classifier we are interested in the k training samples that are the closest to the new point. We take the class with less than the k (e.g. k = 5) points and occurring most frequently, as that of the new point. When texture is spatially periodic, the energy spectrum of it ( |F(u,v)|2 ) shall show peaks at corresponding frequencies (see fig. 11.24). We can find these peaks directly from the energy spectrum when the local maximums are clearly separated. However, if these peaks are not clear or do not yield the desired distinction between a given set of textures, then we can use the energy distribution over the frequency plane. The feature vector is given by the energy per segment of the spectrum: When a texture has a direction preference, thus the orientation of lines or figures in a certain direction, then the energy spectrum shall also show a clustering in that direction. In that case, it would be best for the feature vector to measure energy densities in a certain direction: V1,2= |F(u,v)|2 dudv To make a choice out of a given set of textures, we must include features such as the radius and tangent. We can also apply a similar sort of energy approximation to the spatial image itself. The advantage is that the basis is not the Fourier basis (cos and sin waves) but rather a more suitable set of basic texture patterns. An example of Laws (1980): The m-dimensional feature space is then divided up into regions. Each region is labeled with a certain class of textures. Each pixel then obtains the texture class of the region where its feature vector lies, for example with the "nearest mean" method. To the left you see a collage of 3 textures, to the right the result of the classification of the pixels. An alternative, that which Laws used, is to construct about 25 5*5 convolution kernels from 5 one-dimensional kernels. This is done by the convolution of one horizontal 1-D kernel with one vertical 1-D kernel: L5 = [ 1 4 6 4 1 ] (Level) E5 = [ -1 -2 0 2 1 ] (Edge) S5 = [ -1 0 2 0 -1 ] (Spot) W5 = [ -1 2 0 -2 1 ] (Wave) R5 = [ 1 -4 6 -4 1 ] (Ripple) If the direction of the texture is not of importance, the features can be averaged to a set of 14 features that remain invariant under the rotation of the texture. Spatial Gray Level Dependence (SGLD) matrices (sometimes also referred to as co-occurrence matrices) are one of the most popular sources of texture features, see also chapter 11.3.3 on page 668. The definition of the SGLD matrix is: S(i,j,d,) : the number of locations (x,y) in the image f with f(x,y) = i and f(x + d cos, y + d sin) = j; i and j are gray values, where usually the complete resolution of the image is not used: minI, minI+I,...., maxI d the distance, smaller than the texel size (a small number of pixels) usually restricts itself to a small number of angles (steps of 45°) For many textures the reversal of the direction is not relevant: S'(d,) = 1/2 ( S(d,) + S(d,+) ) Some features which can be derived from the SGLD matrix are: E(d,) = ij S(i,j,d,)2 (Energy) H(d,) = ij S(i,j,d,) ln S(i,j,d,) (Entropy) I(d,) = ij (i-j)2 S(i,j,d,) (Inertia, contrast) A summation over several d and s can also be taken. These features have no relationship with "rough" or "smooth" which people typically use to describe textures. With regular models the texels are placed in a plane in an ordered manner. The black hexagonal tiles divide the plane into regular hexagonals. This regular tessellation of a plane is often indicated by (6,6,6) because the three polygons that surround a vertex have 6 edges. More important than the texels is the division of the plane, which describe the positioning of the texels. The centers of the tiles divide the plane into equilateral triangles which have been indicated using red. This is a (3,3,3,3,3,3) division, every vertex is surrounded by 6 polygons, each with 3 edges. Another regular division is (4,4,4,4). There are also semi-regular divisions of the plane, for example (4,8,8), (3,6,3,6), (3,4,6,4), (3,3,3,4,4), (3,3,4,3,4), (3,3,3,3,6), (3,12,12) and (4,6,12). Grammatical models describe how patterns are generated by the application of rewriting rules on a small number of symbols, which are related to texels. For generated textures to appear as real ones, often probabilities are credited to the rules: stochastic grammars. There is no unique grammar for a given texture, often resulting in an infinite amount of possibilities for rules and symbols. A shape-grammar is defined as a 4-tuple: <Vt ,Vm ,R, S> where: - Vt is an infinite set of shapes, terminal shape elements - Vm is a finite set of non-terminal marking shapes, disjoint of the set of Vt : Vt Vm = - R is the finite set of rules: ordered pairs (u,v) with u a shape consisting of elements from Vm+ and v a shape consisting of an element from Vt* combined with an element from Vm*. - S is the starting symbol (such as a v-shape) Here the elements are formed out of the set Vt+ by finitely rearranging one or more of the elements of Vt. Each element and its reflected shape can be used several times in each position, orientation or scale. And Vt* is equal to Vt+ . Here is a simple example of the many ways in which a hexagonal texture positioning can be generated. A more complicated example is the generation of "reptile-skin" texture, which can be portrayed as a (3,6,3,6) positioning with local deformations and extra lines. The rules which determine whether normal continuation or addition of a new line is necessary are executed according to certain probabilities, such that more or less regular textures are generated. When applying the rules in the inverse direction, textures should be recognizable. We must concentrate on the variation in the shapes that either exist in real textures or are caused by the portrayal process. For this reason, in practice, textures are practically never recognized by parsing. Updated on April 4st 2003 by Theo Schouten.

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http://www.cs.ru.nl/~ths/rt2/col/h9/9gebiedENG.html

2013-06-20T09:23:10Z

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en

Chasing the Ghost Bird Science, Skepticism, and the Ivory-billed Woodpecker Interview with Scott Crocker Strangely enough, the ivory-bill has captured the imagination of people the world over for a very long time. The chance sighting in Arkansas's Cache River National Wildlife Refuge of a presumed extinct woodpecker led to a 2005 scientific expedition that confirmed that the birds still live. The ivory-billed woodpecker (Campephilus principalis), last known to exist in 1944, was supposedly sighted in eastern Arkansas in 2004. A blurry video clip showed the bird's distinctive size and markings. "The bird captured on video is clearly an ivory-billed woodpecker. Amazingly, America may have another chance to protect the future of this spectacular bird and the awesome forests in which it lives," said John Fitzpatrick, director of the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology. The discovery of the bird spawned international headlines and an article in the journal Science (see "Rare Woodpecker, Presumed Extinct, Found in Arkansas," SI, March/April 2006). The rediscovery was also trumpeted by believers in Bigfoot and lake monsters as proof that animals thought long extinct may still exist. Yet after five years of searching (at a cost of over $10 million) the ivory-billed woodpecker's existence remains unproven. Not a single bird has been found. A discovery once touted worldwide as a hopeful environmental miracle has turned into a complex and fascinating tale of environmentalism, anecdotal evidence, and scientific debate. What happened is the subject of a new documentary film titled Ghost Bird. I interviewed the film's director, Scott Crocker. Benjamin Radford Why was the story of the rediscovery of an obscure woodpecker such a big deal? Scott Crocker Strangely enough, the ivory-bill has captured the imagination of people the world over for a very long time. They were truly striking black and white woodpeckers, the males having bright red crests, and they were once the largest woodpeckers in North America. Full grown they were two feet tall and had a wingspan of nearly three feet. The alleged rediscovery of the ivory-billed woodpecker in 2005 made headlines around the world. That a species of this magnitude had returned from the dead after being presumed extinct for over half a century was both miraculous and astonishing. A kayaker's sighting was confirmed by a search team from Cornell University's Laboratory of Ornithology, one of the world's leading institutions devoted to studying all things avian. Their rediscovery in Arkansas was perceived as a kind of environmental miracle suggesting that mankind was getting a second chance to save a species he had singlehandedly exterminated. And just maybe, the efforts of conservationists were beginning to turn the tide of human-caused extinctions. Radford The tiny town of Brinkley, Arkansas, was the epicenter of the furor over the ivory-bill. What effect did all this international publicity have on the town? Crocker Brinkley played a central role in both receiving and reinforcing the rediscovery hype, partly because they had nothing to lose. Radford Many towns that have a local "monster" are quick to capitalize on their local mystery (for example, Bluff Creek, California, has a booming Bigfoot-related business, and Inverness, Scotland, earns a lot of money from Nessie tourism). Brinkley, quite understandably, did the same thing. Crocker They tried. While some locals were quick to capitalize on the publicity by selling ivory-bill burgers, haircuts, and T-shirts, the influx of birders and their fat wallets never quite materialized. The world's only ivory-billed woodpecker gift shop has closed, and there was only one Annual Ivory-bill Celebration in Brinkley's new convention center. Radford How did you get involved in making Ghost Bird? Crocker I heard about the ivory-bill's rediscovery like everyone else, when then-Secretary of the Interior Gale Norton announced it had been seen in Arkansas. And as fascinating as the rediscovery was, I was equally intrigued by the descriptions of the yearlong top-secret search and the many hours birders spent deep in the snake- and mosquito-infested cypress swamps of Arkansas waiting for a glimpse of the largest and rarest woodpecker in North America. It sounded like a Samuel Becket play, Waiting for a Woodpecker. I didn't get personally pulled into the story until the following September. I was attending the Jackson Hole Wildlife Film Festival where I met a cameraman who had practically lived in those swamps waiting for the ultimate money shot. Fourteen months later he emerged with a couple brief sightings and a few compelling bird sounds only to discover his second wife had left him. I thought, wow, these people are seriously obsessed. I needed to find out why. While I didn't go into it as a skeptic, I also didn't unquestioningly accept everything the search team announced or claimed about their very blurry video of something flying through the swamp. Radford One person in your film described the debate as about "hope versus skepticism." Crocker That was [bird expert] David Sibley's distillation of the whole issue, and I think he hit the nail on the head. The sightings by top ornithologists, their scientific documentation, and the controlled media campaign announcing the ivory-bill's rediscovery created an atmosphere that was not unlike G.W. Bush's doctrine of "Either you are with us or you are against us." Radford That doesn't sound like open, scientific debate. Crocker Well, some of that exclusiveness came down to the good intentions of protecting the species from being "loved to death" by birders. However, it was also driven by the need to raise money and acquire local land inexpensively. Questioning the evidence was a threat to the $10 million in federal, state, and private money the search team raised. Questioning the sightings also meant questioning the integrity of the ornithologists and birders who made those sightings—and the birding community heavily relies on individual integrity. Since the search scientists didn't invite any real critique of their findings, in the end you were either on board and hopeful, or you were a skeptical outsider. And no one wanted this iconic bird's rediscovery not to be true. Radford Political grandstanding and bird expert squabbles aside, the ivory-bill's rediscovery was given scientific credibility by a high-profile cover article in Science, right? Crocker Absolutely. The Science article in many ways is the lynchpin to all of this. Without that article and the magazine's enormous clout, I don't think the rediscovery would have had much traction. That their editorial staff seemingly looked the other way and gave the ornithologists the benefit of the doubt raises some of the more interesting questions about the whole rediscovery fiasco. How much of this had to do with selling magazine issues? How much had to do with everyone hitching a ride on a career-making moment? Radford What does the story of the woodpecker say about how science works? Crocker I think the most disturbing message of the rediscovery is the central role money plays in driving scientific inquiry and research. One academic who has been tracking this trend described to me the process of acquiring funding for research as being akin to throwing spaghetti at the wall: whatever project sticks gets the green light. This "stickiness factor" of proposals is often determined by very unscientific agendas having more to do with commercial and public relation interests. Radford How did the search for the ivory-bill become so politicized, with agendas and egos? Crocker Territorial squabbles are of course nothing new to academics. And there was a healthy amount of slinging from both sides in the ivory-bill debate. However, the real anger surrounded the redirection of scarce funding from existing endangered species recovery programs to the search for a ghost bird. It's one thing to run around in the swamp seeing things. It's another thing entirely to do that with money "rediscovered" in the research accounts of other scientists. This brings us back to the legacy of the Bush administration: they promised $10 million in funding for the search but then robbed Peter to pay Paul; it wasn't new funding. Radford What's been the response to your film? Is there any current funding for the search, or is it effectively dead? Crocker Cornell continues to maintain that they saw an ivory-bill and documented it on video. They admit that the bird has not been quite as "persistent" as they had hoped. As of this year they are no longer actively searching for the bird in Arkansas, though they were one of two groups looking in Florida last year. Radford Does it matter if the ivory-billed woodpecker exists or not? Crocker If there's only one of them, no, not really. I think what matters is that we collectively come to grips with taking responsibility for the species mankind is causing to go extinct. Ultimately, perhaps the most lasting significance of the ivory-bill is how it has become a mirror that reflects back to us our difficult relationship to the natural world and our uncertain place in it. We can look deeper into that mirror and change how we inhabit the planet, or we can look away and go about our business as usual. Ghost Bird opened in New York City at the end of March for a week at Anthology Film Archives. The DVD should be available in June; find more details at www.GhostBirdMovie.com. Benjamin Radford is managing editor of the Skeptical Inquirer and an avid fan of documentary films.

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http://www.csicop.org/si/show/chasing_the_ghost_bird

2013-06-20T09:42:57Z

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Definitions for rhetoricˈrɛt ər ɪk Random House Webster's College Dictionary rhet•o•ricˈrɛt ər ɪk(n.) the art of effectively using language, including the use of figures of speech. language skillfully used. a book or treatise on rhetoric. the undue use of exaggerated language; bombast. the art of prose writing. the art of persuasive speaking; oratory. Origin of rhetoric: 1300–50; ME rethorik < ML rēthorica, L rhētorica < Gk rhētorikḕ (téchnē) rhetorical (art); see rhetor , -ic using language effectively to please or persuade grandiosity, magniloquence, ornateness, grandiloquence, rhetoric(noun) high-flown style; excessive use of verbal ornamentation "the grandiosity of his prose"; "an excessive ornateness of language" palaver, hot air, empty words, empty talk, rhetoric(noun) loud and confused and empty talk study of the technique and rules for using language effectively (especially in public speaking) The art of using language, especially public speaking, as a means to persuade. Meaningless language with an exaggerated style intended to impress. Itu2019s only so much rhetoric. the art of composition; especially, elegant composition in prose oratory; the art of speaking with propriety, elegance, and force hence, artificial eloquence; fine language or declamation without conviction or earnest feeling fig. : The power of persuasion or attraction; that which allures or charms The Nuttall Encyclopedia the science or art of persuasive or effective speech, written as well as spoken, and that both in theory and practice was cultivated to great perfection among the ancient Greeks and Romans, and to some extent in the Middle Ages and later, but is much less cultivated either as a science or an art to-day. The Foolish Dictionary, by Gideon Wurdz Language in a dress suit.

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http://www.definitions.net/definition/rhetoric

2013-06-20T09:58:14Z

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Mississippi is now the 20th state of United States. It became the US state in 1810. Before enjoining US, Mississippi was under British control. The history of the state goes like this: first in 1540 it was discovered by Spanish and it was then controlled by Spain, later on it was claimed by France. In 1713 Britain took control of Mississippi and in 1768 this area was given to US. The state became the legally bounded area of US in 1810. This was the brief history of Mississippi now below are given some facts about the state. 1. The cotton crop Cotton was the main crop and biggest economy contributor till 20th century. The warm climate and rich soil of Mississippi born cotton that is to date, the big cash crop of this region. Mississippi took a step towards growth and progress by diversifying its production and entered more agriculture and industry. For last four decades, soybean is panted even more than cotton. But cotton is still the main crop. 3. Black residents In all American states, the number of white residents is more than black residents. In other words, black residents are in minority in every state except Mississippi where they are a majority. The climate and soil of Mississippi are so rich that they are perfect for agriculture. The other crops that are grown in Mississippi include; corn, peanuts, rice, sugar cane, sweet potatoes, food grains. 5. Live stock and poultry Mississippi does not only earn from agriculture but live stoke and poultry are also the contributors. The poultry, eggs, meat animals, dairy products, especially milk and feed crops etc also play their role in boosting the economy. Near 60 percent of the area of Mississippi is covered with forests. There are found almost 100 species of trees in Mississippi alone. 7. Teddy bear Teddy bear are world famous because of President Roosevelt who refused to kill a captured bear while his expedition of hunting in sharked county. 8. The first nuclear submarine in south Mississippi is not only an agriculture oriented region any more. With the start of industry it has diversified its business. The first nuclear submarine of south was produced in Mississippi. 9. Mississippi river Mississippi river is the world famous water carrier. It is US largest river and chief water source. The nick name given to this river is Old Man River. 10. Education system Despite from the economic growth, Mississippi has the poorest education system in America as compared to other states.

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http://www.didyouknow-facts.com/world-facts/10-mississippi-facts.html

2013-06-20T09:37:20Z

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en

Doggfucius uses common and simple Chinese words and phrases to teach children basic appreciation of the language. As the story and series progresses, the children use this basic knowledge to help Doggfucius solve puzzles and problems on his many adventures. These words and phrases include a variety of basic nouns, adjectives, and commands such as "", which means "danger", and "", which means "I love you". Children pick up on Chinese words and associate the Chinese characters that make up the words through repetition throughout the "Doggfucius and the Adventure of the White Carrot" story.

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http://www.doggfu.com/teach.html

2013-06-20T09:53:08Z

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en

• • • • • • • History of Underwater Acoustics Historical Perspective on Underwater Acoustics: From Aristotle to the Cold War Scientists have always been curious about sounds and how they travel, or propagate. Underwater acoustics is the study of sounds moving through water, a phenomenon first noted over 2,000 years ago by Aristotle. Since these early beginnings, the science of underwater acoustics has grown to include research ranging from basic sound propagation to using sound for tasks such as mapping surfaces, measuring distances, and communicating. The following sections will lead you through the development of underwater acoustics as a formal science up through World War II (WWII) and the astounding discoveries that have been made during that journey. One interesting post-WWII development, the SOund SUrveillance System, is also included here. The History of the SOFAR Channel is described in another section of the DOSITS website. History of Underwater Acoustics sections:

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http://www.dosits.org/people/history/

2013-06-20T09:53:17Z

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en

Keeping saltwater corals and invertebrates in a home aquarium is a challenging and rewarding hobby. To be successful, you must strive to duplicate the conditions of the natural environment to which these organisms are accustomed. Wavemakers Make Corals Healthier One of the most important components of a natural environment is water movement. Ocean water movement is much different than the relatively consistent flow of a river. Movement around ocean reefs alternates with periods of strong and weak currents. Corals and invertebrates need these irregular currents for both feeding and for waste removal. Wavemakers have been developed to meet this need by imitating ocean currents in the aquarium. Wavemakers are electrical timing devices that turn multiple submerged powerheads on and off at predetermined intervals. By installing powerheads at different locations in the aquarium, the wavemaker alternates power to these powerheads, mimicking natural ocean currents. Some of these devices are programmable to include slower nighttime and feeding time currents. You can also adjust the length of time the powerheads remain on, giving you the ability to simulate different wave action in the aquarium. If you have a reef aquarium, and have been treating your corals with a constant, steady water flow (like that of a river), try incorporating a wavemaker into your system, and watch the improvement in your coral growth and expansion.

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http://www.drsfostersmith.com/pic/article.cfm?c=3578&articleid=366&d=158&category=580

2013-06-20T09:22:38Z

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en

West Nile Virus Symptoms and Treatments Similar to an influenza infection, the symptoms of West Nile virus can leave a person feeling anywhere from a bit yucky to horribly ill. However, unlike the flu, a West Nile infection can cause meningitis and encephalitis in rare cases. Nearly 80 percent of people who contract the West Nile virus — transmitted from the bite of an infected mosquito — never become sick. Almost all of the remaining 20 percent suffer only mild symptoms, which include Rash on the chest, stomach, or back Swollen lymph glands Less than one percent of people who become sick from exposure to the West Nile virus suffer serious illness. In these folks, the virus attacks their neurological system. Specifically, the virus can cause inflammation of the brain (encephalitis) or inflammation of the membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord (meningitis). These conditions can cause permanent neurological damage and even death. Symptoms of the more serious effects of West Nile include West Nile virus can also cause acute flaccid paralysis. This sudden weakness in the arms, legs, or breathing muscles occurs because the virus has attacked the spinal cord. There are no medications that cure West Nile virus. Most people are able to fight off milder infections on their own, with the help of bed rest, over-the-counter analgesics, and plenty of fluids. The symptoms of West Nile virus usually last a few days to a couple weeks. The unfortunate few who develop encephalitis, meningitis, or acute flaccid paralysis may require intravenous fluids, anticonvulsants to prevent seizures, or anti-inflammatory corticosteroids to reduce swelling and pressure. These sufferers may experience long-lasting neurological problems, such as muscle weakness. In some instances, these problems remain for the rest of the person’s life.

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2013-06-20T10:00:31Z

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en

At the end of this week on July 8, the final mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program launches from Kennedy Space Center in Florida. The program's thirty year history is familiar to space-watchers, but less is known of the program's pre-history. Before there was a Space Shuttle program, there was an initial twenty-five period filled with sci fi-like proto-spacecraft. It turns out that our familiar Shuttle program is just one of many "space plane" projects that were sketched out over the years, both by the U.S. Air Force and by NASA. In this piece, we'll take a look the various shapes those space planes took, and the awesome artwork our space ambitions produced, too. Back in the 1950s, the main objective was to develop a reusable technology for getting to space and back. Program designers wanted a craft that would be cheaper than rockets, and more efficient. One that could scoot around in orbit, dock with a space station, and return to Earth. In order to be reusable, it would need to return to earth in a gentle, airplane-like landing. Therefore most designs featured something like wings, making it look something like a plane. This ad from 1961 advertises the hot gas steering system being developed by Bendix: Hot gas is the product of a controlled, pneumatic combustion that powers thrusters that steer and control the pitch, yaw and roll of the craft. Here the hot gas is shown as little jets of "flame" (really gas) popping out the tips of the wings like little spikes. Engineers developed some shorthand lingo for talking about such possible craft. "Space plane" is the most common catchphrase. Space plane technology is referred to by acronyms: VTHL (vertical takeoff, horizontal landing), and RLV (reusable launch vehicle). The idea was also referred to in another shorthand, too: space transport. Eventually when the Shuttle program was developed in the 1970s, it was officially named the "Space Transportion System," hence the mission names: "STS-135," which is what Atlantis's impending mission is called. Back in 1960, ideas about what space transport might look like were wide-ranging. As with a lot of other new space technologies, artists drew freely from their imaginations to depict what things might look like before they were built. Here the boomerang-shaped "delta wing" design idea on the left, labeled "Space Transport," is described as being a spacecraft "capable of transporting, to an orbit of more than 1,000 miles, a pilot and 1,000 pounds of payload, or three passengers equipped to work in space..." This was Lockheed's proposed design for a possible Air Force space plane: The Mach 6-7 Air Transport pictured here with the Space Transport (bottom right, above) bears a suggestive similarity to a 1960 Chevy Corvair automobile. The space plane idea was always planned to coordinate with a space station. Until engineers started working out the practicalities, it was widely assumed that a space station would look like a wheel. Here in the artwork from another ad from Bendix, the space plane is shown at four different points in its trajectory between space station and Earth: And again, in artwork from a recruitment ad from the defunct aerospace corporation Marquardt: Some companies had more sophisticated artists creating fantasy-like images for recruitment advertisements. The artwork above, from 1963, is most likely by the space artist Ken Smith, who created other similar images for Marquardt that bear his signature. For several years the Air Force's X-20 Dyna-Soar ("Dynamic Soarer") project was the most promising space plane in the works. This real program was on the drawing boards from the late 1950s until it was canceled in 1963. Every company that wanted a chance at designing the craft for the Air Force made their own unique design (such as the aforementioned delta wing design by Lockheed, above). But the most common style was like this, anticipating our familiar Space Shuttle: This particular design seems to have been planned as a robotic spacecraft, as it has no windows for astronauts to look out of. Different space plane designs went back and forth between being robotic spacecraft and being planned for astronaut control. Before the familiar Shuttle program was finalized in the mid-1970s, NASA experimented with some widely varied designs of "wingless flight" craft. These projects, carried out during the mid-1960s to early '70s, were different from the early ideas of the space plane. Designed to glide based on the shape of their chubby, aerodynamic profiles, they were referred to as "lifting bodies" rather than "space planes." At a 1963 air show in San Mateo County, California, the Northrop-designed M2-F2 lifting body was promoted with this image on the back of the show program: Several lifting body designs were built and tested, including the M2-F2. Science fiction connection: the crash of the final flight of the M2-F2, caught on film, was used in the title sequence of The Six Million Dollar Man. NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center also has a Web page with a few movies of the M2-F2 test vehicles in action. By the 1970s a combination of political and technological forces created the Space Shuttle program that formally began in 1981 and is wrapping up this week. While our working Shuttle program is drawing to a close, the proliferation of "space plane" projects throughout history is grounds for optimism that other similar projects will be up and running someday for exploration. Space plane technology is still alive and well. We're just going to be missing the opportunity for our astronauts and scientists to travel in one. New space plane projects are already at work in the commercial and defense realms: SpaceShipOne is a spaceplane, and won the Ansari X Prize. The U.S. Department of Defense is currently operating a classified robotic space plane project, the X-37B. Bearing some design similarities to the Space Shuttle, in the context of history it really brings to mind the Dyna-Soar even more than the Space Shuttle: Now, in a fitting end that captures not where we've been, but where we're going: in this image from 1962, the astronaut at the wheel of a proto-space plane forgets its orbital boundaries and heads for the heart of the Milky Way Galaxy. (The pictures in this post were generously provided by Megan Prelinger and the Prelinger Library. Click on any of them to see each image larger, or explore them all at once in the gallery below.) About Our Guest Blogger Megan Prelinger is a citizen historian of space and technology. She is author of the advertising-based history of the early space industry, Another Science Fiction: Advertising the Space Race 1957-62. A lifelong collector of forgotten historical ephemera, she is co-founder of the Prelinger Library in San Francisco which is open to the public. She posts tidbits to Twitter @meganprelinger. You can check out a video TIME magazine did on the Prelinger Library here.

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Ocean lovers, from fishermen to surfers, have long known the power of waves. Now electricity companies are also beginning to take notice. The Finnish renewable technology company Wello announced at the end of February that it had successfully created a wave energy converter that had passed screening tests and was ready for full-scale deployment. The first 0.5 megawatt (MW) device, called Penguin, will be plugged in at the European Marine Energy Centre (EMEC) that already hosts various underwater and ocean energy devices in Orkney, an archipelago of islands north of Scotland. The device passed extensive testing and environmental impact studies over the last few years, Wello said. The 220-ton shiplike vessel is approximately 30 meters long and is held in place by three wires anchored to the seabed below. As it sits in the ocean riding the waves and capturing kinetic energy—the power of motion—for energy production, only about 2 meters of the Penguin is visible above the surface of the water. According to Wello, the device may have a longer lifespan than most wind turbines while producing power with the same ease and consistency. Wave energy is in fact one of the more reliable power sources among the renewables because it can operate fairly consistently. Through rain and shine, the ocean is almost always in motion. There are of course moments of stillness, but they are easily compensated in the long run by stormy weather conditions that produce giant waves. But wave power also faces some of the same challenges that wind power, and particularly offshore wind power, faces. Wave power can do little if it isn’t connected to the grid, but transmission lines that reach all the way into the ocean are difficult and costly to build. And power companies won’t build the lines until there is a significant financial incentive in producing power from the ocean. So developers first need to build very good, cheap devices that can produce significant numbers of megawatts before power companies will take wave energy seriously. One Penguin device produces a sixth of the power a typical 3 MW wind turbine can produce, and only a quarter of the power of a smaller 2 MW turbine. Among some of the first approved wave energy devices, the Penguin’s success or failure will help determine if wave energy catches on. There was a time when wind and solar power probably seemed like far-fetched dreams. Will wave power be a household term in a decade? And what will that mean for fish and underwater ecosystems? What will that mean for ocean lovers who bask in the wide open undisturbed sea? As companies slowly test the devices, the costs may or may not prove to outweigh the benefits. But boasting zero emissions and a never-ending source of free fuel, ocean power may be more successful than anyone could have ever imaged.

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6.2 Censorship and freedom of speech What is censorship? Censorship is the suppression of information or ideas. Censorship occurs when access to material whose content is considered offensive, is restricted. For example: The film Ken Park was refused classification (banned) in Australia in 2003 because it deals with matters of sex in a way that offends the standards of morality, decency and propriety generally accepted by reasonable adults. The free flow of information and ideas can be impeded at the societal, institutional or individual level. The societal level Legal and regulatory frameworks are designed to support the interests and concerns of society as a whole. In Australia, there are three regulatory bodies: These bodies work within the confines of relevant legislation including: The institutional level Libraries can affect the free flow of information and ideas via the selection and acquisition of materials. The individual level Individual citizens can exercise their rights and responsibilities by making informed decisions. What is freedom of speech? Freedom of speech is the right to express opinions freely without interference. The right to free speech is affirmed by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 19). The Australian Constitution however does not have a provision concerning freedom of speech. So the free flow of information and ideas can be restricted through censorship legislation and other laws (provided they are not in conflict with other areas of the constitution). Censorship versus freedom of speech The issue of censorship versus freedom of speech has always been a hotly contested topic. With the increasing use of electronic media for the dissemination of information, new questions over the individual's rights are being raised. Recent censorship issues in Australia include:

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Glossary of Education - Universal Aspects of Literacy - Ability to transfer to English skills in reading and writing that are learned in first language even when orthographic system is quite different from the Roman alphabet. Underlie the reading process (which is essentially similar for all languages) and facilitate transfer of skills and knowledge from one language to another. Not what you're looking for?

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en

Jong Won Yun and colleagues point out that obesity is a major public health threat worldwide, linked to diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, and other health problems. Laboratory studies have hinted that capsaicin may help fight obesity by decreasing calorie intake, shrinking fat tissue, and lowering fat levels in the blood. Nobody, however, knows exactly how capsaicin might trigger such beneficial effects. In an effort to find out, the scientists fed high-fat diets with or without capsaicin to lab rats used to study obesity. The capsaicin-treated rats lost 8 percent of their body weight and showed changes in levels of at least 20 key proteins found in fat. The altered proteins work to break down fats. “These changes provide valuable new molecular insights into the mechanism of the anti obesity effects of capsaicin,” the scientists say. 1. Jong Won Yun, et al. Proteomic Analysis for Antiobesity Potential of Capsaicin on White Adipose Tissue in Rats Fed with a High Fat Diet. J. Proteome Res., 2010, 9 (6), pp 2977-2987 DOI:10.1021/pr901175w

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2013-06-20T09:22:02Z

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Definition of Integron Integron: A mobile DNA element that can capture and carry genes, particularly those responsible for antibiotic resistance. Integrons do this by site-specific recombination. There are at least three classes of integrons based upon which integrase gene they contain. The antibiotic resistance genes that integrons capture are located on gene cassettes. These cassettes can exist as free circular DNA. A recombination event occurs, integrating the cassette into the integron. Additional gene cassettes can integrate, resulting in the integration of several genes. Although gene cassettes are a mechanism for the development of multiple antibiotic resistance, bacteria predating the use of antibiotics have also been found to contain cassettes.Source: MedTerms™ Medical Dictionary Last Editorial Review: 6/14/2012 Medical Dictionary Definitions A - Z Search Medical Dictionary eMedicineHealth Top News Find out what women really need. Most Popular Topics Pill Identifier on RxList - quick, easy, Find a Local Pharmacy - including 24 hour, pharmacies

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Mercury is one of the basic chemical elements. It is a heavy, silvery metal that is liquid at normal temperatures. Mercury readily forms alloys with other metals, and this makes it useful in processing gold and silver. Much of the impetus to develop mercury ore deposits in the United States came after the discovery of gold and silver in California and other western states in the 1800s. Unfortunately, mercury is also a highly toxic material, and as a result, its use has severely declined over the past 20 years. Its principal applications are in the production of chlorine and caustic soda, and as a component of many electrical devices, including fluorescent and mercury-vapor lamps. Mercury has been found in Egyptian tombs dating to about 1500 B.C., and it was probably used for cosmetic and medicinal purposes even earlier. In about 350 B.C., the Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle described how cinnabar ore was heated to extract mercury for religious ceremonies. The Romans used mercury for a variety of purposes and gave it the name hydrargyrum, meaning liquid silver, from which the chemical symbol for mercury, Hg, is derived. Demand for mercury greatly increased in 1557 with the development of a process that used mercury to extract silver from its ore. The mercury barometer was invented by Torricelli in 1643, followed by the invention of the mercury thermometer by Fahrenheit in 1714. The first use of a mercury alloy, or amalgam, as a tooth filling in dentistry was in 1828, although concerns over the toxic nature of mercury prevented the widespread use of this new technique. It wasn't until 1895 that experimental work by G.V. Black showed that amalgam fillings were safe, although 100 years later scientists were still debating that point. Mercury found its way into many products and industrial applications after 1900. It was commonly used in batteries, paints, explosives, light bulbs, light switches, pharmaceuticals, fungicides, and pesticides. Mercury was also used as part of the processes to produce paper, felt, glass, and many plastics. In the 1980s, increasing understanding and awareness of the harmful health and environmental effects of mercury started to greatly outweigh its benefits, and usage began to drop sharply. By 1992, its use in batteries had dropped to less than 5% of its level in 1988, and overall use in electrical devices and light bulbs had dropped 50% in the same period. The use of mercury in paints, fungicides, and pesticides has been banned in the United States, and its use in the paper, felt, and glass-manufacturing processes has been voluntarily discontinued. Worldwide, production of mercury is limited to only a few countries with relaxed environmental laws. Mercury mining has ceased altogether in Spain, which until 1989 was the world's largest producer. In the United States, mercury mining has also stopped, although small quantities of mercury are recovered as part of the gold refining process to avoid environmental contamination. China, Russia (formerly the USSR), Mexico, and Algeria were the largest producers of mercury in 1992. Mercury is rarely found by itself in nature. Most mercury is chemically bound to other materials in the form of ores. The most common ore is red mercury sulfide (HgS), also known as cinnabar. Other mercury ores include corderoite (Hg3S2Cl2), livingstonite (HgSb4S8), montroydite (HgO), and calomel (HgCl). There are several others. Mercury ores are formed underground when warm mineral solutions rise towards the earth's surface under the influence of volcanic action. They are usually found in faulted and fractured rocks at relatively shallow depths of 3-3000 ft (1-1000 m). Other sources of mercury include the dumps and tailing piles of earlier, less-efficient mining and processing operations. The Manufacturing Process The process for extracting mercury from its ores has not changed much since Aristotle first described it over 2,300 years ago. Cinnabar ore is crushed and heated to release the mercury as a vapor. The mercury vapor is then cooled, condensed, and collected. Almost 95% of the mercury content of cinnabar ore can be recovered using this process. Here is a typical sequence of operations used for the modern extraction and refining of mercury. Cinnabar ore occurs in concentrated deposits located at or near the surface. About 90% of these deposits are deep enough to require underground mining with tunnels. The remaining 10% can be excavated from open pits. - 1 Cinnabar is dislodged from the surrounding rocks by drilling and blasting with explosives or by the use of power equipment. The ore is brought out of the mine on conveyor belts or in trucks or trains. Because cinnabar ore is relatively concentrated, it can be processed directly without any intermediate steps to remove waste material. - 2 The ore is first crushed in one or more cone crushers. A cone crusher consists of an interior grinding cone that rotates on an eccentric vertical axis inside a fixed outer cone. As the ore is fed into the top of the crusher, it is squeezed between the two cones and broken into smaller pieces. - 3 The crushed ore is then ground even smaller by a series of mills. Each mill consists of a large cylindrical container laying on its side and rotating on its horizontal axis. The mill may be filled with short lengths of steel rods or with steel balls to provide the grinding action. - 4 The finely powdered ore is fed into a furnace or kiln to be heated. Some operations use a multiple-hearth furnace, in which the ore is mechanically moved down a vertical shaft from one ledge, or hearth, to the next by slowly rotating rakes. Other operations use a rotary kiln, in which the ore is tumbled down the length of a long, rotating cylinder that is inclined a few degrees off horizontal. In either case, heat is provided by combusting natural gas or some other fuel in the lower portion of the furnace or kiln. The heated cinnabar (HgS) reacts with the oxygen (02) in the air to produce sulfur dioxide (SO2), allowing the mercury to rise as a vapor. This process is called roasting. - 5 The mercury vapor rises up and out of the furnace or kiln along with the sulfur dioxide, water vapor, and other products of combustion. A considerable amount of fine dust from the powdered ore is also carried along and must be separated and captured. - 6 The hot furnace exhaust passes through a water-cooled condenser. As the exhaust cools, the mercury, which has a boiling point of 675° F (357° C), is the first to condense into a liquid, leaving the other gases and vapors to be vented or to be processed further to reduce air pollution. - 7 The liquid mercury is collected. Because mercury has a very high specific gravity, any impurities tend to rise to the surface and form a dark film or scum. These impurities are removed by filtration, leaving a liquid mercury that is about 99.9% pure. The impurities are treated with lime to Most commercial-grade mercury is 99.9% pure and can be used directly from the roasting and condensing process. Higher purity mercury is needed for some limited applications and must be refined further. This ultrapure mercury commands a premium price. - 8 Higher purity can be obtained through several refining methods. The mercury may be mechanically filtered again, and certain impurities may be removed through oxidation with chemicals or air. In some cases the mercury is refined through an electrolytic process, in which an electric current is passed through a tank of liquid mercury to remove the impurities. The most common refining method is triple distillation, in which the temperature of the liquid mercury is carefully raised until the impurities either evaporate or the mercury itself evaporates, leaving the impurities behind. This distillation process is performed three times, with the purity increasing each time. - 9 Commercial-grade mercury is poured into wrought-iron or steel flasks and sealed. Each flask contains 76 lb (34.5 kg) of mercury. Higher purity mercury is usually sealed in smaller glass or plastic containers for shipment. Commercial-grade mercury with 99.9% purity is called prime virgin-grade mercury. Ultrapure mercury is usually produced by the triple-distillation method and is called triple-distilled mercury. Quality control inspections of the roasting and condensing process consist of spot checking the condensed liquid mercury for the presence of foreign metals, since those are the most common contaminants. The presence of gold, silver, and base metals is detected using various chemical-testing methods. Triple-distilled mercury is tested by evaporation or spectrographic analysis. In the evaporation method, a sample of mercury is evaporated, and the residue is weighed. In the spectrographic analysis method, a sample of mercury is evaporated, and the residue is mixed with graphite. Light coming from the resulting mixture is viewed with a spectrometer, which separates the light into different color bands depending on the chemical elements present. Health and Environmental Effects Mercury is highly toxic to humans. Exposure may come from inhalation, ingestion, or absorption through the skin. Of the three, inhalation of mercury vapor is the most dangerous. Short-term exposure to mercury vapor can produce weakness, chills, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and other symptoms within a few hours. Recovery is usually complete once the victim is removed from the source. Long-term exposure to mercury vapor produces shaking, irritability, insomnia, confusion, excessive salivation, and other debilitating effects. In normal situations, most exposure to mercury comes from the ingestion of certain foods, such as fish, in which the mercury has accumulated at high levels. Although mercury is not absorbed in great quantities when passing through the human digestive system, ingestion over a long period of time has been shown to have cumulative effects. In industrial situations, mercury exposure is a far more serious hazard. Mining and processing mercury ore can expose workers to mercury vapor as well as to direct contact with the skin. The production of chlorine and caustic soda can also cause significant mercury exposure hazards. Dentists and dental assistants can be exposed to mercury while preparing and placing mercury amalgam fillings. Because mercury poses a serious health hazard, its use and release to the environment has come under increasingly tight restrictions. In 1988, it was estimated that 24 million lb/yr (11 million kglyr) of mercury were released into the air, land, and water worldwide as the result of human activities. This included mercury released by mercury mining and refining, various manufacturing operations, the combustion of coal, the discarding of municipal refuse and sewage sludge, and other sources. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has banned the use of mercury for many applications. The EPA has set a goal of reducing the level of mercury found in municipal refuse from 1.4 million Ib/yr (0.64 million kg/yr) in 1989 to 0.35 million lb/yr (0.16 million kg/yr) by 2000. This is to be accomplished by decreasing the use of mercury in products and increasing the diversion of mercury from municipal refuse through recycling. Mercury is still an important component in many products and processes, although its use is expected to continue to decline. Improved handling and recycling of mercury are expected to significantly reduce its release to the environment and thereby reduce its health hazard. Where to Learn More Brady, George S., Henry R. Clauser, and John A. Vaccari. Materials Handbook, 14th Edition. McGraw-Hill, 1997. Heiserman, David L. Exploring Chemical Elements and Their Compounds. TAB Books, 1992. Kroschwitz, Jacqueline I., executive editor, and Mary Howe-Grant, editor. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 4th edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1993. Stwertka, Albert. A Guide to the Elements. Oxford University Press, 1996. Raloff, J. "Mercurial Airs: Tallying Who's to Blame." Science News (February 19, 1994): 119. Spencer, Peter, and G. Murdoch. "Mercury in Paint." Consumers' Research Magazine (January 1991): 2. Stone, R. "Mercurial Debate." Science (March 13, 1992): 1356-1357. [This website contains a summary of the history, sources, properties, and uses of mercury.] Did this raise a question for you?

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Much of the emphasis on green living today is all about scaling down: own a bike and not a SUV, for example. But when it comes to wind turbines a new study has found that the reverse is true: bigger turbines are better for the environment. Since the founding of EWEA some 30 years ago (read more about our 30th anniversary here and look out for a special edition of Wind Directions magazine in September) turbine technology has been transformed. In 1982, turbine manufacturers were building 55kW turbines; today typical onshore turbines are around 3 MW, with the largest onshore turbines reaching a powerful 7 MW. The study conducted by the Institute of Environmental Engineering in Switzerland found that bigger is better because larger turbines produce markedly more energy than smaller sizes and the manufacturing, transporting, maintaining and disposing energy costs of building bigger turbines are only marginally higher than for smaller turbines. In short, bigger turbines can generate much more power while not needing proportional increases in materials and energy than smaller ones thus reducing their carbon footprint. “The results showed that the bigger the wind turbine is, the greener the produced electricity is,” the study said, attributing this result to size-scaling and technological experience gained over time. This effect has important implications for the cost of wind energy, which for onshore turbines has now come down low enough to make onshore wind power competitive with fossil fuels and cheaper than nuclear. Meanwhile, the industry continues its search to make wind power even cheaper through lighter turbines with fewer parts, for example. Speaking at EWEA’s Annual Event in Copenhagen earlier this year Ian Mays, CEO of RES, pointed out that the cost of wind power falls by six to eight percent for every doubling of capacity. Meanwhile, if you plotted the cost of conventional fossil fuels going forward you would see a steep upwards trend, he said.

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2013-06-20T09:57:45Z

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en

means “London weight.” London used to be called Troy-novant. (See above.) The general notion that the word is from Troyes, a town of France, and that the weight was brought to Europe from Grand Cairo by crusaders, is wholly untenable, as the term Troy Weight was used in England in the reign of Edward the Confessor. Troy weight is old London weight, and Avoirdupois the weight brought over by the Normans. (See Avoirdupois.) Source: Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, E. Cobham Brewer, 1894 More on Troy Weight from Fact Monster: - English units of measurement - English units of measurement English units of measurement, principal system of weights and measures ... - Conversion Factors - Conversion Factors Below are instructions for converting factors, including changing acres to ... - U.S. Weights and Measures - U.S. Weights and Measures Here is information about the units of measure used in the United States. ... - troy weights - troy weights: troy weights: see English units of measurement. - Troyes - Troyes Troyes , city (1990 pop. 60,755), capital of Aube dept., NE France, on the Seine River. It ...

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Charles IV, 1316–78, Holy Roman emperor (1355–78), German king (1347–78), and king of Bohemia (1346–78). The son of John of Luxemburg, Charles was educated at the French court and fought the English at Crécy, where his father's heroic death made him king of Bohemia. Pope Clement VI, to whom he had promised far-reaching concessions, helped secure his election (1346) by the imperial electors as antiking to Holy Roman Emperor Louis IV. Louis's death (1347), the popular desire for peace, which was fostered by the ravages of the Black Death (bubonic plague), and the absence of a strong leader to unite the opposition enabled Charles to make good his claim to the crown by 1349. In 1355 he journeyed to Rome, where, on Easter Sunday, he was crowned emperor by the papal legate (the pope was then residing at Avignon). His coronation with papal approval ended years of conflict between popes and emperors, during which time the imperial rulers had tried to regain control of Italy and the papacy. Although the emperors continued to be crowned at Rome, they were excluded from Italian affairs. At the same time, Charles's Golden Bull of 1356 ended papal interference in the Holy Roman Empire by eliminating the need for papal approval and confirmation of emperors. Although he had virtually renounced imperial pretensions in Italy through his treaty with Clement VI, Charles supported the plans of Urban V to return the papacy from Avignon to Rome. Charles's major concern was to strengthen his dynasty. Through skillful diplomacy he acquired Brandenburg (1373) and added to his territories in Silesia and Lusatia. He ensured the succession of his son Wenceslaus by bribing the electors to name him German king (1376). To raise the money for the bribes, he imposed even higher taxes on the cities. This led to a revolt by a league of Swabian cities. Charles obtained peace (1378) by granting concessions. During Charles's reign Bohemia flourished. His imperial capital was at Prague, where he founded (1348) Charles Univ. (the oldest in Central Europe) and rebuilt the Cathedral of St. Vitus. By introducing new agricultural methods and by expanding industries, he fostered economic life. He drew up a code of laws, the Maiestas Carolina (1350)—which, however, was rejected by the diet—and he protected the lower classes by giving them courts in which to sue their overlords. Through Charles's efforts as margrave of Moravia, Prague was elevated (1344) to an archbishopric, thus gaining ecclesiastic independence. By the Golden Bull, which strengthened the electors at the expense of the emperor, he confirmed Bohemia's internal autonomy. As Holy Roman emperor, his reputation rests mainly on the Golden Bull, which, although it confirmed the weakness of the imperial power, provided a stable constitutional foundation for its exercise. See biographies by G. G. Walsh (1924) and B. Jarett (with a translation of Charles's autobiography, 1935). The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. More on Charles IV Holy Roman emperor from Fact Monster: See more Encyclopedia articles on: German History: Biographies

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cryolite or kryolite (both: krĪˈəlĪtˌ) [key] [Gr., = frost stone], mineral usually pure white or colorless but sometimes tinted in shades of pink, brown, or even black and having a luster like that of wax. Chemically, it is a double fluoride of sodium and aluminum, Na3AlF6. Its principal use is as a flux in the smelting of aluminum. It is used also as a source of soda, aluminum salts, fluorides, and hydrofluoric acid (by the action of sulfuric acid). It was discovered in Greenland in 1794 and occurs almost nowhere else. Cryolite has been produced synthetically. More on cryolite from Fact Monster: See more Encyclopedia articles on: Mineralogy and Crystallography

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Are You D-Ficient? Get enough sunlight in your first trimester Low levels of vitamin D may put women at risk for preeclampsia, a dangerous pregnancy complication. Researchers found that women with preeclampsia were more likely to have had low blood levels of the vitamin in early pregnancy. Vitamin D is found in fortified milk and cereals; certain types of fish, such as tuna, sardines and salmon; and supplements. It is also made by the body when exposed to sunlight.

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Off the coast of Nova Scotia, Canada lies Oak Island. Near the southern tip of this island lies a special little tourist destination called The Money Pit. In 1795 the then-16 year old Daniel McGinnis discovered an odd depression in the ground, and convinced that something special must be buried here, he enlisted the help of his friends John Smith and Anthony Vaughan to excavate the pit. As they dug down they discovered a layer of flagstones, and a few feet below was a layer of logs. Convinced that these logs were evidence that treasure from pirates must be buried underneath, the three boys removed the logs and dug another ten feet, finding a second layer of logs. Undeterred, they removed these and dug yet another ten feet… to find a third layer of logs. The boys decided that whatever the pirates buried here, they didn’t want it walking off, and pirates obviously had a great deal more resources than three sixteen year old boys, so they gave up. But they never forgot about their treasure, and made a point of sharing the story. Some 8 years after this incident, in the early 1800s, the Onslow Company heard of this “money pit” and decided to sail out with some excavation equipment out to claim the treasure for themselves. They managed to dig 90 feet, finding another “marker” layer of logs every ten feet. At around the 90 foot mark, just as the company was about to run out of money, they uncovered a stone that read “forty feet below, two million pounds lie buried.” Elated at this discovery, the crew retired to bed for the night, only to find the pit full of water the next morning. The men bailed water out as quick as they could, but found that it rose and lowered with the tide. Bailing it out would do nothing. Word of the tablet spread, however, and in 1849 the Truro company came to try their hand at the dig. They dug the pit back down to the 86 foot level, where it quickly flooded again. They then ran a drill into the water-filled hole to see what they could expect to find should they continue digging, and managed to drill through more layers of wood and encountered metal, which they were certain meant they had drilled into a treasure chest. The next team arrived in 1861 and used heavy pumps to keep the water out, but soon their boiler exploded killing some of their workers and collapsing the cavern below. When paint was lowered into the pit and emerged out into the ocean at three points around the island, the men concluded that the flooding was due to elaborate booby trap meant to keep treasure thieves out. Something really good must be buried here to justify not one, but three flood tunnels! These booby traps drove wild speculation as to what must be buried behind such elaborate protection. Pirates wouldn’t go to this length for treasure because the only reason for them to bury treasure is for temporary storage to free up room in their ships. They would intend to reclaim it. This must have been something that no one was meant to find, such as the Arc and the Covenant, or even the Holy Grail! Surely a wonderful treasure must be hidden down there to go to all this effort. Afterall, flood gates like this would be quite a technological feat. More companies tried their luck at digs in 1866, 1893, 1909, 1931, 1935, 1936, and 1959, none of which was successful. In that time they did manage to dig 134 feet down and even take blurry pictures of a chamber at the bottom, but little more. The entire area in and around Nova Scotia is made of limestone, carved with cave systems and peppered with sink holes. It is very common for a sink hole to drop ten feet or so every few hundred to thousand years, nearby trees fall in, then debris piles on top of that and it’s forgotten as the forest regrows. Hundreds of examples of this phenomena can be found in the mainland and on many of the hundreds of neighboring islands. Cave systems that are capable of flooding the money pit are also normal and expected for this area. The digging companies, including the one running the island today and who are poised to fund yet another dig, are all aware of the geological surveys; but they will not hear any of it. They are convinced that there is treasure at the bottom of the money pit, even while the rest of the world has come to use that phrase to refer to throwing money away. Self delusion is very much part of human nature, and the more we have invested in that delusion the harder it is to accept the reality that all our efforts and invested money was for nothing. The escalation of commitment bias, also known as the Sunken Cost Fallacy, is one of the most powerful driving forces of delusions. I had the opportunity to witness this in a class at BYU using the popular Dollar Auction experiment. Wikipedia describes the experiment thus: The setup involves an auctioneer who volunteers to auction off a dollar bill with the following rule: the dollar goes to the highest bidder, who pays the amount he bids. The second-highest bidder also must pay the highest amount that he bid, but gets nothing in return. Suppose that the game begins with one of the players bidding 1 cent, hoping to make a 99 cent profit. He will quickly be outbid by another player bidding 2 cents, as a 98 cent profit is still desirable. Similarly, another bidder may bid 3 cents, making a 97 cent profit. Alternatively, the first bidder may attempt to convert their loss of 1 cent into a gain of 96 cents by bidding 4 cents. In this way, a series of bids is maintained. However, a problem becomes evident as soon as the bidding reaches 99 cents. Supposing that the other player had bid 98 cents, they now have the choice of losing the 98 cents or bidding a dollar even, which would make their profit zero. After that, the original player has a choice of either losing 99 cents or bidding $1.01, and only losing one cent. After this point the two players continue to bid the value up well beyond the dollar, and neither stands to profit. When I witnessed this experiment, the entire room was shocked when the bidding continued to rise. The instructor stopped the auction as it was about to approach $20. By the time it got this high, both students knew full well that they would not profit from this at all. The more they invested the more they would lose. Yet they could not convince themselves that their best move would be to stop bidding and cut their losses; in fact one of them protested when the instructor stopped them. This is the same psychology that drove people to the money pit despite the geological survey, the absurdity of the claim about what’s at the bottom, and the fact that there’s more evidence suggesting that the stone tablet pulled from there was a hoax than that supports it. This psychology is taught to anyone studying business, and many students in business classes likely have seen dollar auction or at least heard about it. Being run almost entirely by business men, the Mormon church is all too aware of this, a fact which is brutally apparent with their missionary program. Missionaries are instructed to get investigators (or doubters) to commit to one little thing. Just one, like saying your prayers every night. It’ll just take five minutes out of your day, and what could it hurt? There’s blessings to be had! Then on their next visit they’ll ask for a little more. Read just a few verses in your scriptures every night. Then on the next visit they’ll ask for a little more. Give up your coffee, read a chapter each night instead of a verse, start attending church, and so forth until you wake up one morning a full tithe payer with two callings and a strong testimony in something you previously knew sounded fishy. From this it’s abundantly clear that the leadership of the church has done their research and knows full well what they’re doing and why it works. If you are asked to do even a little thing by the missionaries, like praying every night, my advice is to take a rain check on that and investigate the truth of their claims—all of their claims—before committing to anything.

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http://angelicferret.com/blog/the-escalation-of-commitment

2013-05-20T14:03:42Z

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en

In the year 2020, schoolchildren may well read about the tiger, that noble beast of the jungle, the way generations past have read about the dinosaur: as an extinct animal that once roamed the Earth. In the hope of avoiding that curriculum, National Geographic, in partnership with "Put a Tiger in Your Tank" Exxon Corp., has launched an alternative set of lessons. It is a school-based program that will not only educate children about the endangered tiger's plight, but also aid in efforts to prevent its extinction. "Habitats: Realm of the Tiger" is a multimedia kit sponsored by Exxon, which has used the tiger as its longtime corporate symbol. The kit contains two 60-minute videotapes, posters, transparencies, student handouts, trivia cards and a teacher's guide - all tools closely tied to national standards in science, geography and math, and linked to Asian studies, ecology, animal behavior and population dynamics. "There is a lot of potential to make this a cross-curriculum program," said Alicia Feddor, a ninth-grade science teacher at Hammond High School in Howard County, and a teacher at the Baltimore Zoo's summer camp program. "Teachers rarely have the time to put together a packet like that or the money to make it flashy and entertaining for kids." Feddor said that middle school-age children are ripe for learning abstract issues such as ecosystem conservation in foreign countries. "Once you have a kid in middle school, they are able to take a problem and globalize it," she said. Students may have seen tigers in their local zoo, but wild tigers are found only in Asia, scattered across 14 countries, including the world's most densely populated ones: China, India, Bangladesh and Indonesia. In these areas the tiger vies for land being logged or cleared for farmland, farms and villages. Its prey, such as deer and pigs, are also in demand as food for an exploding human population. Tigers were once killed by hunters for sport and fur, and now are poached mostly for their bones, which in China are used as an aphrodisiac and in a concoction to treat arthritis pain. Because of such forces, the tiger population has declined from 100,000 to a mere 5,000 to 7,000 during the 20th century. The need to educate both at home and abroad is an urgent one, and consciousness raising, even with American schoolchildren who may be too young to join the effort first-hand, can help save the tigers. "Raising public awareness for tiger conservation in the states is important," said David Phemister, manager of the Save the Tiger Fund for the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, "Getting a population interested in tigers can trickle back to corporate and government interests that can affect the tiger." Exxon is subsidizing the sale of the kit that now sells for $40, including tax and shipping- $30 of which goes directly to the Save the Tiger Fund, a joint effort by Exxon and the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation to generate awareness and raise money for the tiger's fight for survival through field research and other education programs. In the future the kit may sell for as much as $200. Exxon also donated $5 million in 1995 to be used for tiger conservation over a five-year period, with an additional $1 million slated for 1998 - the Year of the Tiger in Chinese astrology. Since the fund's inception in 1991, $3.5 million has been spent on tiger conservation and education efforts that include projects to help stabilize and improve tiger populations in the wild; support habitat protection; enhance conservation breeding programs in U.S., European and Asian zoos; and educate the public on the need for tiger conservation. A council that includes some of the world's leading zoologists, conservationists and tiger authorities oversees the fund. Other environmental education efforts for children and adults totaling $100,000 have been implemented in far eastern Russia and China. The fund's goal is to create awareness about how to coexist with the animals in a habitat with heavy population pressure, and to reduce the tiger's use in traditional medicine. Closer to home, funds promoting tiger conservation are of good use, according to Phemister. "Environmental education is almost never wasted money," Phemister said. "In America, it may not have a direct impact on tiger conservation, but is a way to engage children with conservation ideas in general and environmental issues which are closer to home." Peter Jackson, a Save the Tiger Fund council member, and chairman of the Cat Specialist Group for the Swiss-based World Conservation Union, agrees. "It may turn some of the students into very good wildlife biologists or turn them on to other careers in wildlife or nature conservation," Jackson said. "That would be a great achievement." The "Habitats: Realm of the Tiger" kit can be ordered by calling 1-800-5-TIGERS. Also sponsored by the fund is the "5Tigers" Web site that can be used as an education source for groups ranging from schoolchildren to scientific scholars. The Web address is http://www.5tigers.org Pub Date: 8/02/98

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http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1998-08-02/news/1998214111_1_save-the-tiger-tiger-fund-tiger-conservation

2013-05-20T13:47:40Z

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en

The Sugar Act is often overshadowed by its infamous cousin: the Townshend Act and its tax on tea. But the outcome of the Sugar Act, instituted on this day in 1764, is significant enough to stand alone in American history. Though it did not have the flair of war-painted men seasoning the Boston Harbor, the imposition of the Sugar Act marks one of the first times the colonists gathered together to protest Parliament’s encroaching authority. The British Parliament instituted the Sugar Act for the reason most taxes are imposed: to fill empty coffers. But the act was also intended “for better securing and encouraging the trade of His Majesties’ sugar colonies in America”. The tax guaranteed the British West Indies a monopoly in the American market, forcing shippers to pay outrageous fees and every colonist to spend more money on everyday items (like molasses). The colonists had been in the practice of ignoring British regulations by smuggling their goods in and out of the country. But under the Sugar Act, this was no longer an option. The Act gave the British Navy the authority to try smugglers in courts without juries. Thus, the colonists had to find other means to protest the unfair tax. As trade was increasingly obstructed, the colonial merchants called for a boycott of British goods. Samuel Adams brought the leaders of this effective boycott to form the revolutionary society, the Sons of Liberty. Together they began to petition Parliament and protest the effect of the tax on the colonial economy. The Sugar Act was also the impetus for the colonists to doubt whether Britain had the authority to demand taxes without colonial representation in Parliament. In 1764 James Otis asked, “can there be any liberty where property is taken without consent?” The question still stands. Leslie Grimard currently is a member of the Young Leaders Program at the Heritage Foundation. For more information on interning at Heritage, please visit: http://www.heritage.org/about/departments/ylp.cfm

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http://blog.heritage.org/2011/04/05/every-tea-party-needs-sugar/

2013-05-20T14:02:35Z

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Life’s Good at the Mega-Roost It’s one of the most spectacular mass migrations on Earth, but one that has largely remained hidden from human eyes. Each year, millions of straw-colored fruit bats fly to Zambia’s Kasanka region in October, drawn by the area’s bounty of fruits like figs, loquat, and mango. Giant masses of bats roost in nearby trees, clinging to branches that sag or break under the collective tons of weight. As evening falls, 150,000 bats per minute will leave the roost to forage, flying as far as 37 miles and in the process pollinating flowers and dispersing millions of seeds from ecologically and economically important trees. Over the course of their stay, the bats will consume twice their collective body weight in food and devour the equivalent of several billion bananas. While predators routinely attack the mega-roost, the sheer size of the roost deters some birds of prey; those hunters that do succeed in picking off a few bats have a negligible impact on the group as a whole. Ten weeks into this mega-roost, just as mysteriously as the bats arrived, they depart—in some cases flying more than a thousand miles to the Congo rainforest.

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http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/80beats/2010/03/26/photo-gallery-ridiculously-good-photography-of-life-in-all-its-glory/4/

2013-05-20T14:02:22Z

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Katherine Harmon is a freelance writer and contributing editor for Having a mixed up body clock has been linked to a vast array of ailments, including obesity and bipolar disorder. And researchers are still trying to understand just how these cyclical signals influence aspects of our cellular and organ system activity. Now, a study published online August 3 in Cell Metabolism shows that in mice, a disrupted circadian rhythm spurs an increase in triglycerides—heightened levels of which have been linked to heart disease and metabolic syndrome in humans. To find this link, researchers compared normal lab mice to those bred to have dysfunctional sleep-wake cycles. As nocturnal animals, the control mice had the lowest levels of triglycerides at night, when they were most active, and higher levels during the daytime rest period. The mice with out-of-whack cycles kept confused hours, fed longer and were less active overall. These mutant mice also had far less fluctuation in their triglyceride levels. "We show that the normal up and down [of triglycerides] is lost in clock mutants," M. Mahmood Hussain, of the Department of Cell Biology and Pediatrics at the State University of New York Downstate Medical Center in Brooklyn and coauthor of the paper, said in a prepared statement. The mutant mice had "high triglycerides all the time," he noted. Hussain and colleagues found that the CLOCK protein, which is implicated in establishing the body’s circadian rhythm, also plays a role in moderating microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP), which is in charge of moving triglycerides through the blood. Thus, when CLOCK was not functioning properly, neither was the triglyceride transporter MTP. A disrupted body clock has already been linked to weight gain, but "this study establishes a molecular link between circadian physiology and plasma lipid metabolism," the researchers noted in their paper. By pinpointing these more precise links, researchers hope to be able to eventually develop therapeutics for humans. And because the body’s daily cycle seems to be so crucial in controlling lipid levels, the findings also might help inform important treatment details such as dosing and pill-popping instructions. With these and other recent circadian-linked findings, "we can start to think about [the role of] drug timing in controlling disease states," Hussain said. Image courtesy of iStockphoto/WebSubstance

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http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/2010/08/03/confused-circadian-rhythm-could-increase-triglycerides/

2013-05-20T13:43:52Z

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en

Properties of Multiplication - Word Resource Cards Vonnie Oyer teaches fourth grade Bridges at 91 Elementary School in Canby, Oregon. After using the Word Resource Cards for commutative and associative property, she decided to make additional cards for zero, and identity and distributive properties of multiplication. Teachers in grade three (Unit 4), grade four, and grade five (review) may wish to use this pdf: Properties of Multiplication: Zero, Identity, Distributive , (updated 1/30/12) Thanks so much for sharing, Vonnie!

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http://bridges1.mathlearningcenter.org/resources/blog/201111/properties-multiplication-word-resource-cards

2013-05-20T13:44:58Z

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One of the more recently discovered types of food poisoning caused by a protozoan Cryptosporidium, which means “hidden spore” in Greek. The tiny invisible microbe infects cells lining the intestinal tract and was identified as a cause of human disease in 1976. In the United States, many outbreaks in childcare centers are never identified. The number of cases that occur each year are not well documented. Some immunity follows infection, but the degree to which this immunity occurs is not clear. This parasite lives its entire life within the intestinal cells; it produces worms (oocysts) that are excreted in feces. These infectious oocysts can survive outside the human body for long periods of time, passing into food and drinking water, onto objects, and spread from hand to mouth. Unfortunately, chlorine does not kill the protozoan; instead, drinking water must be filtered to eliminate it. Many municipal water supplies do not have the technology to provide this filter. Because the bacteria is transmitted by the fecaloral route, the greatest risk occurs in those infected people who have diarrhea, those with poor personal hygiene, and diapered children. Between one to 12 days after infection, the most common symptom is a watery diarrhea together with stomach cramps, nausea and vomiting, fever, headache, and loss of appetite. Some people with the infection do not experience any symptoms at all. Healthy patients usually exhibit symptoms for about two weeks, but those with impaired immune systems may have a severe and lasting illness. The infection is diagnosed by identifying the parasite during examination of the stool. If cryptosporidiosis is suspected, a specific lab test should be requested, since most labs do not yet routinely perform the necessary tests. There is no standard treatment, but some patients may respond to some antiparasitic drugs. Intravenous fluids may be necessary, and antidiarrheal drugs may help. Posted in Health and Wellness

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http://bryanking.net/cryptosporidiosis/

2013-05-20T13:37:02Z

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en

Thinking on religious liberty has developed over time "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof" are the first words of the Bill of Rights, ratified in 1791. Before then, established churches — the Church of England in most colonies — were the rule throughout colonial America. While other beliefs and practices were tolerated in some of the colonies by the time of the founding of the United States, the established churches were supported by taxes, and public officials usually had to swear adherence to the established church. But the First Great Awakening, a religious revival that swept Britain and the American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s, had greatly increased the numbers of dissenters, especially Baptists and Presbyterians, and it was they who pushed for religious freedom to be enshrined in the Constitution and for disestablishment state by state. Religious liberty was desirable in the minds of the founders of the republic from the beginning, according to Douglas Laycock, law professor at the University of Virginia in Charlottesville. Political conflicts over religion were a part of living memory for many of them. The first major conflict over the First Amendment came, McConnell said, with the influx of Irish and German Catholic immigrants beginning in the 1830s. It was then that there were riots, McConnell said, over public schools' use of the King James Version of the Bible. A later conflict in the 1870s centered on government funding of schools Catholics were establishing as alternatives to the public schools that were dominated by Protestant teaching and that used the King James Version. Other groups such as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and Jehovah's Witnesses faced persecution in the 19th and 20th centuries. McConnell said fewer arguments now break along Catholic, Protestant, Jewish or Muslim lines. Rather, he said, the most conservative members of all those groups tend to come out on one side of an issue — so that some evangelical Protestant voters are supporting conservative Catholic candidates. In other instances, more moderate or slightly liberal members of religious groups are willing to work together. At the outlying extreme, he said, are liberal members of religious groups and religiously indifferent or anti-religious secularists who strongly oppose any cooperation between government and religious groups as well as any kind of religious observance or display connected with civil events. (Liz O'Connor is former editor of The Long Island Catholic.)

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http://catholicvoiceoakland.org/2012/06-11/inthisissue4.htm

2013-05-20T13:55:56Z

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en

A fantastic breakthrough with important ecological implications is hereby announced: the scientific revelation of life's purpose. From the Big Bang on, the cosmos has been heading in a direction defined by the spreading of energy, or the reducing of gradients, which are measurable temperature, pressure, and chemical differences. The differences tend to be broken down but complex cycling systems—of which life is one—help them break down more quickly and completely. Energy dispersal is a simple way of describing the cosmic drive—implicit in the second law of thermodynamics—behind nature's tendency, from friction to petroleum-dependent modern civilization, to break down gradients. In supercolliders human beings produce energies not seen anywhere else in the universe except in black holes and supernovas. Our unusual capacity for gradient reduction may be valuable to the biosphere and perhaps the universe itself. But our rampant growth and gradient reduction has also led to global warming, which impairs the biosphere’s gradient-reducing function. Plant communities in Amazonia and Borneo are among the most effective gradient reducers on the planet. Deforestation, along with the fossil fuel emissions connected to our own growth, measurably decrease global gradient reduction—giving the biosphere the “fever” known as global warming. Something similar happened two billion years ago. Using solar energy to break bonds in water, green bacteria tapped into water as a source of hydrogen. In doing so, they released oxygen gas into the atmosphere, which was toxic. Like us, the microbes were terrific gradient reducers. Also like us, they expanded mightily, imperiling many ecosystems. It took a long time to adjust. Many organisms died. But now oxygen is part of the biosphere’s metabolism—including the processes by which tropical ecosystems export heat and entropy into space, safeguarding our biosphere's health. We have much promise as a species. By burial of man-made charcoal (produced by burning agricultural waste at low oxygen levels) sufficient carbon may be removed from the atmosphere to turn back global warming. If successful, this would be an example of us using our gradient-fed intelligence to increase, rather than impair sustainable global gradient-reduction. Long term, to avoid extinction, we must organically reintegrate with our biodiverse planet. Understanding life’s natural purpose—which we outline in the new Chelsea Green book, The Purpose of Life: Science’s Surprising Answer to Religion’s Most Profound Question—allows us to plan to come into accord with it for our own good and the planet’s. In a natural universe governed by the laws of energy flow we must understand our true nature and how it is shared with other naturally occurring complex energy systems. Dorion Sagan @ ChelseaGreen |View All of Dorion Sagan's Posts| Posted on Tuesday, January 27th, 2009 at 3:24 pm by Dorion Sagan

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http://chelseagreen.com/blogs/dorionsagan/2009/01/27/the-purpose-of-life-and-humanitys-place-in-the-biosphere/

2013-05-20T13:44:38Z

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Corrosion is the deterioration of a metal as a result of chemical reactions between it and the surrounding environment. Both the type of metal and the environmental conditions, particularly what gases that are in contact with the metal, determine the form and rate of deterioration. - Types of Corrosion - Corrosion Prevention - Corrosion Control Checklist - Corrosion Rate Calculator - Galvanic Corrosion Types of Corrosion The most common example of corrosion is, of course, rust. The reddish-brown compound referred to as rust is actually iron oxide (Fe2O3), a result of reactions between oxygen and iron. But the oxidization of iron is just one example of corrosion. Corrosion can take many forms, which are classified depending on the environmental causes. More... The World Corrosion Organization estimates the global cost of corrosion to be roughly US$ 2.2 trillion annually, and that a large portion of this - as much as 25% - could be eliminated by applying simple, well-understood prevention techniques. Corrosion prevention should not, however, be considered solely a financial issue, but also one of health and safety, as evidenced by the 1967 collapse of Silver Bridge. An effective prevention system begins in the design stage with a proper understanding of the environmental conditions and metal properties. More...

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http://metals.about.com/od/Corrosion/a/What-Is-Corrosion.htm

2013-05-26T05:18:23Z

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Democratizing Mexican Politics Reforms in Mexico’s stable but top-heavy “Institutional Revolution” came only gradually. Characteristically, street protests were brutally put down at first, with officials only later working to address grievances. Generations of dominance by the PRI, the Institutional Revolutionary Party, led to widespread cynicism and citizen apathy. Regardless of who gets elected, the typical person on the street would tell you that the officeholder was bound to retire with his or her pockets full. Nevertheless, by 1985, movement toward more justice and pluralism seemed be in store for Mexico. During the subsequent dozen years, minority parties increasingly elected candidates to state and federal office. Although none captured a majority of any state legislature, the strongest non-PRI parties, such as the conservative pro-Catholic Partido Acción Nacional (PAN) or National Action Party and the liberal-left Partido Revolucionario Democratico (PRD) elected governors. In 1986, minority parties were given federal legislative seats, up to a maximum of 20, for winning a minimum of 2.5 percent of the national presidential vote. In the 1994 election, minority parties received public campaign financing, depending upon their fraction of the vote. After his 1994 inaugural address, in which he called loudly and clearly for more reforms, President Zedillo quickly began to produce results. He immediately appointed a respected member of the PAN opposition party as attorney general—the first non-PRI cabinet appointment in Mexican history. Other Zedillo firsts were federal Senate confirmation of both Supreme Court nominees and the attorney general, multiparty participation in the Chiapas peace negotiations, and congressional approval of the 1995 financial assistance package received from the United States. Zedillo, moreover, organized a series of precedent-setting meetings with opposition leaders that led to a written pact for political reform and the establishment of permanent working groups to discuss political and economic questions. Perhaps most important was Zedillo’s campaign and inaugural vow to separate both his government and himself from PRI decision-making. He kept his promise, becoming the first Mexican president, in as long as anyone could remember, who did not choose his successor. © Bruce Whipperman from Moon Puerto Vallarta, 7th edition

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http://moon.com/destinations/puerto-vallarta/background/economy-and-government/government-and-politics/democratizing-mexican-politics

2013-05-26T04:53:02Z

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Jewish communities in Europe and the Middle East share many genes inherited from the ancestral Jewish population that lived in the Middle East some 3,000 years ago, even though each community also carries genes from other sources — usually the country in which it lives. That is the conclusion of two new genetic surveys, the first to use genome-wide scanning devices to compare many Jewish communities around the world. A major surprise from both surveys is the genetic closeness of the two Jewish communities of Europe, the Ashkenazim and the Sephardim. The Ashkenazim thrived in Northern and Eastern Europe until their devastation by the Hitler regime, and now live mostly in the United States and Israel. The Sephardim were exiled from Spain in 1492 and from Portugal in 1497 and moved to the Ottoman Empire, North Africa and the Netherlands. The two genome surveys extend earlier studies based just on the Y chromosome, the genetic element carried by all men. They refute the suggestion made last year by the historian Shlomo Sand in his book “The Invention of the Jewish People” that Jews have no common origin but are a miscellany of people in Europe and Central Asia who converted to Judaism at various times.... One of the surveys was conducted by Gil Atzmon of the Albert Einstein College of Medicine and Harry Ostrer of New York University and appears in the current American Journal of Human Genetics. The other, led by Doron M. Behar of the Rambam Health Care Campus in Haifa and Richard Villems of the University of Tartu in Estonia, is published in Thursday’s edition of the journal Nature. Dr. Atzmon and Dr. Ostrer have developed a way of timing demographic events from the genetic elements shared by different Jewish communities. Their calculations show that Iraqi and Iranian Jews separated from other Jewish communities about 2,500 years ago. This genetic finding presumably reflects a historical event, the destruction of the First Temple at Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar in 587 B.C. and the exile of much of the Jewish population to his capital at Babylon. The shared genetic elements suggest that members of any Jewish community are related to one another as closely as are fourth or fifth cousins in a large population, which is about 10 times higher than the relationship between two people chosen at random off the streets of New York City, Dr. Atzmon said. Ashkenazic and Sephardic communities have roughly 30 percent European ancestry, with most of the rest from the Middle East, the two surveys find. The two communities seem very similar to each other genetically, which is unexpected because they have been separated for so long. One explanation is that they come from the same Jewish source population in Europe. The Atzmon-Ostrer team found that the genomic signature of Ashkenazim and Sephardim was very similar to that of Italian Jews, suggesting that an ancient population in northern Italy of Jews intermarried with Italians could have been the common origin. The Ashkenazim first appear in Northern Europe around 800 A.D., but historians suspect that they arrived there from Italy. Another explanation, which may be complementary to the first, is that there was far more interchange and intermarriage than expected between the two communities in medieval times, despite the fact that they spoke different languages. The genetics confirms a trend noticed by historians: that there was more contact between Ashkenazim and Sephardim than suspected, with Italy as the linchpin of interchange, said Aron Rodrigue, a Stanford University historian and expert on Sephardic and Ottoman history. Jewish communities from Europe, the Middle East and the Caucasus all have substantial genetic ancestry that traces back to the Levant, except for Ethiopian Jews and two Judaic communities in India, which are genetically much closer to their host populations.Abstracts of the two articles Abraham's Children in the Genome Era: Major Jewish Diaspora Populations Comprise Distinct Genetic Clusters with Shared Middle Eastern Ancestry (Atzmon and Ostrer) For more than a century, Jews and non-Jews alike have tried to define the relatedness of contemporary Jewish people. Previous genetic studies of blood group and serum markers suggested that Jewish groups had Middle Eastern origin with greater genetic similarity between paired Jewish populations. However, these and successor studies of monoallelic Y chromosomal and mitochondrial genetic markers did not resolve the issues of within and between-group Jewish genetic identity. Here, genome-wide analysis of seven Jewish groups (Iranian, Iraqi, Syrian, Italian, Turkish, Greek, and Ashkenazi) and comparison with non-Jewish groups demonstrated distinctive Jewish population clusters, each with shared Middle Eastern ancestry, proximity to contemporary Middle Eastern populations, and variable degrees of European and North African admixture. Two major groups were identified by principal component, phylogenetic, and identity by descent (IBD) analysis: Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews. The IBD segment sharing and the proximity of European Jews to each other and to southern European populations suggested similar origins for European Jewry and refuted large-scale genetic contributions of Central and Eastern European and Slavic populations to the formation of Ashkenazi Jewry. Rapid decay of IBD in Ashkenazi Jewish genomes was consistent with a severe bottleneck followed by large expansion, such as occurred with the so-called demographic miracle of population expansion from 50,000 people at the beginning of the 15th century to 5,000,000 people at the beginning of the 19th century. Thus, this study demonstrates that European/Syrian and Middle Eastern Jews represent a series of geographical isolates or clusters woven together by shared IBD genetic threads.The genome-wide structure of the Jewish people (Behar and Villems) Contemporary Jews comprise an aggregate of ethno-religious communities whose worldwide members identify with each other through various shared religious, historical and cultural traditions. Historical evidence suggests common origins in the Middle East, followed by migrations leading to the establishment of communities of Jews in Europe, Africa and Asia, in what is termed the Jewish Diaspora. This complex demographic history imposes special challenges in attempting to address the genetic structure of the Jewish people. Although many genetic studies have shed light on Jewish origins and on diseases prevalent among Jewish communities, including studies focusing on uniparentally and biparentally inherited markers, genome-wide patterns of variation across the vast geographic span of Jewish Diaspora communities and their respective neighbours have yet to be addressed. Here we use high-density bead arrays to genotype individuals from 14 Jewish Diaspora communities and compare these patterns of genome-wide diversity with those from 69 Old World non-Jewish populations, of which 25 have not previously been reported. These samples were carefully chosen to provide comprehensive comparisons between Jewish and non-Jewish populations in the Diaspora, as well as with non-Jewish populations from the Middle East and north Africa. Principal component and structure-like analyses identify previously unrecognized genetic substructure within the Middle East. Most Jewish samples form a remarkably tight subcluster that overlies Druze and Cypriot samples but not samples from other Levantine populations or paired Diaspora host populations. In contrast, Ethiopian Jews (Beta Israel) and Indian Jews (Bene Israel and Cochini) cluster with neighbouring autochthonous populations in Ethiopia and western India, respectively, despite a clear paternal link between the Bene Israel and the Levant. These results cast light on the variegated genetic architecture of the Middle East, and trace the origins of most Jewish Diaspora communities to the Levant.

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Beautiful and engaging, red pandas are classified as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. There may be fewer than 2,500 adult red pandas living in the wild today. The National Zoo has been at the forefront of red panda conservation, developing new reproductive technologies that will preserve sperm and egg DNA for future breeding and reintroduction to the wild programs. More than 100 surviving cubs have been born at the Zoo's two campuses since 1962. Four were born in June 2011. Much still needs to be done to ensure the survival of this species and its future in the wild. Adopt a red panda, celebrate the 2011 cubs, and help support conservation efforts at both the National Zoo's D.C. campus and the Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute in Front Royal, Virginia.

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A French cardinal, b. probably c. 1421, in Poitou; d. 5 October, 1491, at Ripatransone (March of Ancona). He has been frequently, but erroneously, called "de la Balue". He was graduated as licentiate in law about 1457, and at an early date entered the ecclesiastical state. He became so intimate with Jacques Juvénal des Ursins, Bishop of Poitiers (1449-57), that the latter named him executor of his will. The charge that in this capacity he misappropriated funds destined for the poor must be received with reserve. After the death of Des Ursins, Balue entered the service of John de Beauvau, Bishop of Angers (1451-67), who made him vicar-general (1461). In 1462, he accompanied his bishop to Rome, and thenceforth his career was marked by clever and unscrupulous intrigue. On his return, he was introduced by Charles de Melun to King Louis XI (1461-83), and, owing to the royal favour, his rise both in ecclesiastical and civil affairs was rapid. In 1464, Louis XI made him his almoner; the same year, Balue received the Abbeys of Fécamp and Saint-Thierri (Reims) and in 1465, that of Saint-Jean-d'Angély, two priories, and the Bishopric of Evreux. Having obtained the deposition of his benefactor, Beauvau, from the See of Angers, he secured the see for himself (1467). His intrigues in the affair of the Pragmatic Sanction procured him, at the request of Louis XI, the cardinalate, to which Paul II (1464-71) reluctantly raised him (1467). Guilty of high treason, he was arrested two years later (1469) with his accomplice William d'Haraucourt, Bishop of Verdun (1456-1500). As a cardinal, he could not be judged by a civil tribunal, but the negotiations between the pope and the king, regarding his trial, remaining fruitless, he was held captive by Louis XI for eleven years (1469-80). The baseless story of his detention in an iron cage originated in Italy in the sixteenth century. After many fruitless attempts, the pope in 1480 obtained Balue's freedom through Cardinal Julian de la Rovere, later Pope Julius II (1503-13). Balue went to Rome with the cardinal, was restored to all his rights and dignities (1482) and was named Bishop of Albano (1483). At the death of Louis XI (1483) he came, at the request of Charles VIII, as papal legate to France and left it as French ambassador to Rome (1485). Balue succeeded, moreover, in securing, besides several benefices, the nomination as Protector of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem and Guardian to Prince Djem, brother of the Sultan of Turkey. But his end was near; he died in 1491 and was buried at Rome. He had attained numerous dignities and amassed wealth, but dishonoured the Church. Forgeot, Jean Balue (Paris, 1895); Pastor, Gesch. Der Papste (Freiburg, 1904), 4th ed., II, 372-375; tr. IV, 102-105 (London, 1894). APA citation. (1907). Jean Balue. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02241b.htm MLA citation. "Jean Balue." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02241b.htm>. Transcription. This article was transcribed for New Advent by Susan Birkenseer. Ecclesiastical approbation. Nihil Obstat. 1907. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor. Imprimatur. +John M. Farley, Archbishop of New York. Contact information. The editor of New Advent is Kevin Knight. My email address is feedback732 at newadvent.org. (To help fight spam, this address might change occasionally.) Regrettably, I can't reply to every letter, but I greatly appreciate your feedback — especially notifications about typographical errors and inappropriate ads.

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A stressful life may make it tougher to fight the virus which causes the majority of cervical cancer cases, say scientists. Cervical screening can spot signs of cancer developing HPV is a sexually transmitted infection - but only a small percentage of women who catch it develop cancer. US researchers, writing in the journal Annals of Behavioural Medicine, said that stressed women had a weaker immune response to the virus. But the study did not prove that stress was the root cause of the problem. It is already known that the way the body's immune system reacts when confronted with HPV - short for human papillomavirus - can determine whether the infection causes more serious problems. Many women appear able to "clear" the virus from their bodies, while in others it can cause a persistent infection which raises the risk of the abnormal cell changes which can eventually lead to cancer. The latest study, carried out at the Fox Chase Cancer Center in Philadelphia, looked for reasons why, in some women, the immune system is unable to clear the virus. Their small study asked 78 women who had had abnormal smear tests to fill in a questionnaire about their day-to-day stresses over the previous month, and any major events such as bereavements or divorce over a longer period. Then the ability of their immune system to respond to HPV16 - the most common variety of the virus linked to cervical cancer - was measured. Similar tests were carried out on 28 women who had not received an abnormal smear test, and the results compared. The researchers found that the immune response was poorer among women who reported higher levels of day-to-day stress. However, there was no correlation between immune response and the number of major events. Dr Carolyn Fang, who led the study, said: "Women with higher levels of perceived stress were more likely to have an impaired immune response to HPV16. "That means that women who report feeling more stressed could be at greater risk of developing cervical cancer because their immune system can't fight off one of the most common viruses that cause it." The researchers admitted, however, that the design of the study meant that it was impossible to look for proof that stress actually caused the immune response, rather than just accompanied it. A spokesman for Cancer Research UK said that more research would be needed to prove the link. "We already know that an effective immune response against certain forms of HPV can guard against cervical cancer - this knowledge helped to spearhead the development of cervical cancer vaccines targeting this virus. "This small study does not provide conclusive evidence that a stressful life directly suppresses the immune system and increases the risk of cervical cancer. "More work would be needed before we know if there is a relationship between stress levels and the ability to fight HPV infection."

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The screen, developed by Sara Sukumar, Ph.D. and Mary Jo Fackler, Ph.D., first separates cells from fluid, then sifts through the cells' DNA for chemical tags on certain genes associated with cancer. Reporting in the June 1 issue of Clinical Cancer Research, the scientists say they have tested their screening tool on breast fluid, in search of cells shed from growing tumors. "This screening method can see what the eye cannot see," says Sukumar, who is the Barbara B. Rubenstein Professor of Oncology at the Johns Hopkins Kimmel Cancer Center. "It can be a valuable tool, in combination with pathological review, for breast cancer as well as other diseases where fluid can be obtained relatively easily, such as lung, head and neck cancers, pancreatic and cervical cancers." Pathologists look for telltale shapes of cells to determine if cancer is present, but molecular changes in cells, especially for early cancers, are beyond the reach of even the most powerful microscopes. Sukumar's test searches for unusually high amounts of chemical tags embedded by a process called methylation within critical regions of DNA. The tags attach to the "on" switch of genes which starts the message-manufacturing process. Cancer cells have abnormal levels of methylation, which turns the gene switch off halting the assembly line of critical proteins found in normal cells. The Hopkins test, called quantitative multiplex methylation-specific PCR or QM-MSP, determines the percentage of methylation present in each of five to ten cancer genes. The percentages are added together for a cumulative score, which is compared to a threshold value. Levels above the threshold indicate the potential pre Contact: Vanessa Wasta Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions

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Wasps can recognize faces much like many apes do, researchers report online today in Science. The team taught paper wasps (Polistes fuscatus), whose faces sport distinctive brown and creamy markings, to associate certain wasp mugshots with safety and others with danger in an electrified maze. The buzzers flew to safety quicker and with fewer errors when a kind face led the way, the team found. Closely related, but much less social, wasp species couldn't achieve that same feat of recognition. Still, the paper wasps weren't flawless. When the team plucked the antennae off the heads of photographed bugs, the ability of the wasps to distinguish one insect from another dropped—as if the critters had been missing a nose. See more ScienceShots.

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(Wilfredo Lee/AP)It sounds like the plot for a Syfy movie of the week, but the moral of the story is more heartwarming than terrifying: There's an unexpected newfound harmony between a nuclear power plant and a 15-foot-long endangered species of crocodile. The Turkey Point Nuclear Power Plant in southeastern Florida has been so good to the American crocodile that the reptile was recently taken off the endangered species list. But the croc's newly thriving condition has nothing to do with nuclear power itself; rather the species has cottoned to the 168 miles of manmade cooling canals that surround the plant, adopting the system as a new natural breeding ground. "The way the cooling canal system was designed actually turned out to be pretty good for crocodile nesting," said John Wrublik, a biologist with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. "It wasn't designed for crocodiles, but they've done a very good job of maintaining that area." The recirculating water system at Turkey Point works by pumping water from the canals through a condenser, somewhat like a car's cooling system. The canals and berms used in the process have unintentionally become a nesting habitat for the crocodiles, that has helped lower their risk status from "endangered" to "threatened." Federal wildlife officials say the crocodiles have experienced a five-fold population increase since the late 70's. And the crocs living in the canals are doing even better than their counterparts at the state's other two official sanctuaries, which still classify the enormous reptile as threatened. In 1997, the American crocodile population was down to just 300, while today, it's estimated to be more than 1,500 and growing. "We wouldn't advise people to normally make those types of impacts," Wrublik said of removing wetlands to make way for a nuclear power plant. "But this just so happens to have benefited the crocodile population." What's more, it's not just the crocodiles that are thriving in the power plant canals; dozens of other protected species are booming there as well, including the manatee and loggerhead turtle. Aside from the canals themselves, the plant's remote location has given the creatures a safety zone rarely found in the state after years of development destroyed most of their natural habitats. And even though humans regard the crocodiles are fierce creatures, they're actually very gentle and intelligent, according to researcher Mario Aldecoa. "They are very misunderstood. All reptiles are," Aldecoa said. "They are a lot smarter than people think. And they just look like dinosaurs, and that's pretty neat." Other popular Yahoo! News stories:

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How could you make a renewable energy even more environmentally friendly? The German company, Timber Tower, believes it may have an answer. Create wind turbines from renewable materials, in their case wood. They have created the technology to build wooden wind turbine towers that can be as tall as 200 metres. The towers are hollow, multi-faceted structures which are developed using ecologically sourced, PERC certified wood. A test turbine is currently in place in Hannover, and uses a 1.5 MW Vensys wind turbine to generate sufficient electricity to power 1,000 homes. One of the main advantages of using wood from a business point of view is the cost. Steel, which is normally used to build wind turbine towers, can be very expensive, whereas locally sourced timber is much cheaper. Transportation of timber pieces is also much easier than large tubular steel sections. Timber Tower guarantees the wooden towers to have a minimum life cycle of twenty years, at which point the tower can be replaced, and the material recycled. By. Charles Kennedy of Oilprice.com

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Front Page Titles (by Subject) PART 5: Defending the Constitution: The Struggle over Ratification and the Bill of Rights - Liberty, Order, and Justice: An Introduction to the Constitutional Principles of American Government Return to Title Page for Liberty, Order, and Justice: An Introduction to the Constitutional Principles of American Government The Online Library of Liberty A project of Liberty Fund, Inc. Search this Title: PART 5: Defending the Constitution: The Struggle over Ratification and the Bill of Rights - James McClellan, Liberty, Order, and Justice: An Introduction to the Constitutional Principles of American Government Liberty, Order, and Justice: An Introduction to the Constitutional Principles of American Government (3rd ed.) (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2000). About Liberty Fund: The copyright to this edition, in both print and electronic forms, is held by Liberty Fund, Inc. Fair use statement: Defending the Constitution: The Struggle over Ratification and the Bill of Rights POINTS TO REMEMBER 1. After the Constitution was signed by the delegates to the Federal Convention in Philadelphia, it was submitted to the States for ratification. The approval of only nine States was needed to make the Constitution the supreme law of the land. The delegates to the State ratifying conventions were elected by the people, thereby placing the Constitution on a democratic foundation. The Americans were the first to establish popularly based constitutions. 2. The Anti-Federalists opposed the Constitution on a number of grounds, but their chief objection was that it gave too much power to the Federal government and encouraged consolidation. 3. The authors of The Federalist attempted to explain and defend the Constitution in a series of 85 essays that were published in New York newspapers and later distributed throughout the country. They agreed that the new government would be powerful, but denied that it would be too powerful or that it would be a threat to liberty and the independence of the States. 4. The federal system of government established by the new Constitution was a uniquely American contribution to the science of government. It was rooted not in abstract political theory but in compromise and the practical necessities of the time. It is unlikely that the Constitution would have been acceptable to the American people had the Framers stripped the States of their reserved powers and created a unitary form of government. 5. One of the major concerns expressed by the Anti-Federalists was the issue of local control of civil liberties. They insisted that the Federal government would be so powerful that it would trample on the rights of the people and the rights of the States. To correct this problem, they demanded that a Bill of Rights be added to the Constitution. The Federalists, on the other hand, argued that a bill of rights was unnecessary because no power had been delegated to the Federal government to regulate such matters as freedom of the press and religion in the first place. A Bill of Rights was nevertheless added to the Constitution in 1791. 6. The addition of the Bill of Rights was the chief accomplishment of the Anti-Federalists. It strengthened and affirmed the federal principle of the Constitution. It not only assured the people that the Federal government was prohibited from abridging their liberties, but it also assured the States that they would retain jurisdiction and control over most civil liberties disputes between the States and their citizens. 7. The American Constitution seeks to prevent rule by tyrannical majorities as well as tyrannical minorities. But in a democratic republic the problem of majority factions is usually the more difficult to resolve. In Federalist No. 10, James Madison explained that by establishing an extended, commercial, federal and democratic republic, the Framers sought to reduce and possibly eliminate the threat of government by tyrannical majorities. The system of representation established by the Framers is the key to an understanding of how the Constitution deals with this basic problem of democratic government. 8. The Bill of Rights is not a complete catalogue of all the rights that are enjoyed by the American people and are protected by the Constitution. As provided by the Ninth and Tenth Amendments, the people and the States retain jurisdiction over additional rights under their State constitutions and bills of rights, which the Federal government may not touch. Signed on September 17, 1787, by all the delegates who still remained at Philadelphia—except Gerry of Massachusetts and Randolph and Mason of Virginia—the text of the proposed Constitution was dispatched to New York City, where the last Congress under the Confederation was meeting. Then there commenced a struggle which would last for nearly a year to persuade the several States to accept the new Constitution. It would be a conflict with much shouting but no shooting. The Great Convention, in submitting the proposed Constitution to the Congress of the Confederation, had requested that Congress send copies to the State legislatures. Those legislatures, in turn, were asked to issue instructions for the election of delegates to a convention to be held in each State. At these State conventions, the new Constitution would be debated. Each State convention would then ratify or reject the document. If nine states ratified the Constitution, it would take effect as the country’s organic law, supplanting the Articles of Confederation. This method of adoption, it is important to remember, dates back to some of the State constitutions approved during the revolutionary period. It was intended to give the Constitution a popular base and to establish the new government on a firm democratic foundation. This foundation was lacking under the Articles of Confederation because our first national constitution was never submitted to the people for approval. Although Article VII of the new Constitution specified ratification by the States, the voters in each State elected the delegates who served in the State ratifying conventions. Hence the Constitution of 1787 was ratified by the people and by the States, or by “the people in the States” (rather than simply by the States or by the people at large). In sharp contrast, new constitutions and constitutional amendments in parliamentary systems of government are often written and approved by the parliament, and the consent of the electorate is not sought or required. The Americans were the first to establish popularly based constitutions. From a legal standpoint, the American Constitution, at its inception, was a “revolutionary” document. It may be doubted whether the Constitution would have prevailed had it not been approved by the American people. The delegates to the Federal Convention, as we noted earlier, were representatives of the States and were acting in response to a call by the Congress of the Confederation. They were sent to Philadelphia not to write a new Constitution but to “revise” the Articles of Confederation. No change in the Articles was permitted unless all thirteen State legislatures agreed. Nevertheless, the delegates to the Federal Convention boldly exceeded their mandate by proposing an entirely new government that was to go into effect when only nine State conventions ratified the Constitution. The two factions on opposite sides in this contest over the adoption of the Constitution are called the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists. These terms are mildly confusing, for at the time when the Great Convention’s deliberations had begun, the men friendly to the Articles of Confederation thought of themselves as favoring a federal system of government; by comparison, the advocates of a new constitution who intended to create a stronger national union are often called “Nationalists” by historians of the period. A few years later, these two divisions of opinion would harden into regular political parties called, respectively, Federalists (friendly toward a strong central government) and Republicans or Democratic-Republicans (many of whom formerly were Anti-Federalists). But by September 1787, the Nationalists were calling themselves Federalists. Like the Anti-Federalists, they sought to persuade the voters through speeches, pamphlets, newspaper articles, and personal correspondence. As we noted earlier, three of their leading men—James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay—wrote eighty-five essays for New York newspapers under the pseudonym of “Publius.” These essays, known as The Federalist, endeavored to explain and defend each provision of the Constitution and its underlying principles of government. To this day, The Federalist is regarded as one of the most insightful sources of understanding about the nature and purposes of the American political system. Anti-Federalist literature, previously uncollected and much ignored, is now available to the modern reader. Herbert Storing’s The Complete Anti-Federalist (7 vols., 1981) is the most complete and up-to-date version. Much knowledge about the Constitution is also to be gained by reading the debates in the several State ratifying Conventions. When the Philadelphia Convention adjourned on September 17, 1787, many of the delegates returned to their native States to defend the new Constitution and urge its adoption. Some, such as James Wilson of Pennsylvania, were elected to their State’s convention and thus entered into a second round of deliberations on the Constitution. These ratification debates contain a rich source of both Federalist and Anti-Federalist thought on the Constitution. They were later collected and published as a four-volume work by Jonathan Elliot under the title of The Debates in the Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution (1830). James Madison, it is interesting to note, was the last surviving member of the Federal Convention when he passed away in 1836. The comprehensive notes that he took at the Federal Convention were published after his death, and Elliot added them as a fifth volume to his Debates in 1840. Taken together, these works—Madison’s Notes, Elliot’s Debates, The Federalist, and Storing’s The Complete Anti-Federalist, represent the principal, though by no means the entire, source material of original documents on the framing and adoption of the United States Constitution. THE ANTI-FEDERALIST PERSUASION On the eve of the Federal Convention, the Anti-Federalists were basically in agreement with the Federalists that the Articles of Confederation needed to be changed. They admitted that the Articles were weak and that the powers of Congress, at least those respecting domestic and foreign commerce, needed to be strengthened. But they did not sense a need to abandon the Articles entirely and substitute a new system. Above all, the Anti-Federalists opposed any fundamental change in the existing relationship between the Confederation government and the States. They were strong advocates of States’ Rights who believed that self-government, independence, and individual liberty were best protected at the local level. A distant and powerful central government over which they might exert little control or influence represented a threat to the values they cherished. The Constitution Establishes a Consolidated Empire Thus the Anti-Federalists’ main objection to the proposed Constitution was that it created a central government that was too strong. “We drew the spirit of liberty from our British ancestors,” Patrick Henry told the delegates of the Virginia ratifying convention, and “by that spirit we have triumphed over every difficulty. But now, Sir, the American spirit, assisted by the ropes and chains of consolidation, is about to convert this country to a powerful and mighty empire. If you make the citizens of this country agree to become the subjects of one great consolidated empire of America, your government will not have sufficient energy to keep them together. Such a government is incompatible with the genius of republicanism. There will be no checks, no real balances in this government.” Like other Anti-Federalists, Henry saw no need for a powerful Federal government, preferring instead a loose-knit confederation that allowed the States to determine their own needs and interests. Why, asked Henry, should Virginia, a State with a large population, vast resources, and extensive territory, compromise its sovereignty and share power with smaller, less influential States? Given the great political, economic, cultural, and geographical differences among the States, was a powerful union either possible or desirable? The Anti-Federalists did not think so. “Agrippa,” the pseudonym of a Boston Anti-Federalist, warned the citizens of Massachusetts that the new Constitution was impractical and dangerous. “We find,” he said, that the very great empires have always been despotic. … It is impossible for one code of laws to suit Georgia and Massachusetts. … This new system is, therefore, a consolidation of all the States into one larger mass, however diverse the parts may be of which it is composed. The idea of an uncompounded republic, on an average, one thousand miles in length, and eight hundred in breadth, and containing six million white inhabitants all reduced to the same standard of morals or habits, and of laws, is in itself an absurdity and contrary to the whole experience of mankind. The attempt made by Great Britain to introduce such a system struck us with horror, and when it was proposed by some theorist that we should be represented in Parliament, we uniformly declared that one legislature could not represent so many different interests for the purposes of legislation and taxation. This was the leading principle of the revolution. The Constitution Establishes an Aristocracy The size and diversity of the existing confederation, in other words, led the Anti-Federalists to believe that the union envisioned by the Framers should not even be attempted. By republicanism, the Anti-Federalists meant democratic self-government, government close to the people, limited in scope, in which the representatives were held directly accountable through frequent elections. The problem with the new Constitution, they argued, was that it gave representatives too much power and independence. Once elected, representatives would be far from home, comfortable in their jobs, enjoying a big salary that they set themselves. They would be living in some distant, yet-to-be-built city far removed from the watchful eye of the people they represented. Under these circumstances, they surely would lose touch with their constituents. The system was an invitation to despotism. These fears and suspicions were also confirmed by certain deficiencies in the Constitution itself. The Constitution, for example, made no provision for recalling elections; and rotation in office, argued the Anti-Federalists, was not frequent enough. A common theme in Anti-Federalist literature was the complaint, as “A Plebian” from New York wrote, that “the power of the general legislature to alter and regulate the time, place, and manner of holding elections [Article I, Section 4] … will place in the hands of the general government the authority whenever they shall be disposed, and a favorable opportunity offers, to deprive the body of the people, in effect, of all share in the government.” Republicanism also meant rule by the majority. But the Constitution, insisted the Anti-Federalists, seemed to encourage government by minority factions and wealthy aristocrats. There would be too few members in the House of Representatives (only one for every 30,000 persons), and a mere handful of Senators—as few as eighteen if only nine States joined the Union—would be able to block legislation desired by a majority of the people. “Far from being a regular balanced government,” complained “Centinel,” a Pennsylvania Anti-Federalist, “it would be in practice a permanent aristocracy.” Patrick Henry of Virginia echoed these sentiments, contending that the two-thirds requirement for proposing amendments and the three-fourths requirement for their adoption allowed entrenched minorities and “the most unworthy characters” to obstruct the will of the majority. It would be impossible, he argued, to pass an amendment by those difficult means: To suppose that so large a number as three-fourths of the States will concur is to suppose that they will possess genius, intelligence, and integrity approaching to miraculous. … For four of the smallest States that do not collectively contain one-tenth part of the population of the United States may obstruct the most salutary and necessary amendments. … A bare majority in these four States may hinder the adoption of amendments, so that we may fairly and justly conclude that one-twentieth part of the American people may prevent the removal of the most grievous inconveniences and oppression by refusing to accede to amendments. A trifling minority may reject the most salutary amendments. Is this an easy mode of securing the public liberty? It is, sir, a most fearful situation when the most contemptible minority can prevent the alteration of the most oppressive government. … Is this the spirit of republicanism? Quoting from the Virginia Bill of Rights, Henry went on to assert that “a majority of the community have an indubitable, unalienable, and indefeasible right to reform, alter, or abolish” their government when it becomes inadequate. “This, sir, is the language of democracy: that a majority of the community have the right to alter their government when found to be oppressive. But how different is the genius of your new Constitution from this.” The Constitution Confers Too Much Power No less disturbing to these critics of the Constitution were specific provisions which seemed to be inconsistent with the ideals of limited constitutional government. Elbridge Gerry, a delegate to the Federal Convention from Massachusetts who refused to sign the Constitution, spoke for most Anti-Federalists when he challenged the Constitution’s broad delegations of power. In addition to the problems of representation and Congressional control of elections, “some of the powers of the Legislature are ambiguous, and others indefinite and dangerous.” The President “is balanced with and will have undue influence over the Legislature.” The Federal Judiciary “will be oppressive.” And, Gerry argued, “the system is without the security of a bill of rights.” An Imperial Congress Among the powers delegated to Congress, those authorizing the national legislature to provide for the general welfare, levy taxes, regulate the States’ militia, regulate interstate commerce, and make all laws necessary and proper, gave the Anti-Federalists their deepest misgivings. “Brutus,” writing in the New York Journal, offered one of the most perceptive and far-reaching examinations of Congressional power from the Anti-Federalist perspective. The “most natural and grammatical” construction of the General Welfare Clause in Article I, he observed, is that it authorizes the Congress “to do anything which in their judgment will tend to provide for the general welfare, and this amounts to the same thing as general and unlimited powers of legislation in all cases. …” The tax power is fundamentally unsound because “there is no limitation on this power” and Congress could levy any amount that it pleases, for any purpose, leaving the States no source of revenue. “This power therefore is neither more nor less than a power to lay and collect taxes, imposts, and excises, at their pleasure.” Likewise, the necessary and proper clause, wrote “Brutus,” “is a power very comprehensive and … [may] be exercised in such manner as entirely to abolish the State legislatures.” Taking the General Welfare, Tax, and Necessary and Proper clauses together, concluded “Brutus,” “It is therefore evident that the legislature under this Constitution may pass any law which they may think proper.” There was also criticism of the Commerce Clause, mostly from the southern States. What is meant by the power to “regulate”? What, precisely, is “commerce”? The Constitution did not define these terms. Although vagueness and the possibility of an indefinite grant of power were considerations, the southern Anti-Federalists were especially concerned that northern States might use their superior numbers in the Congress to discriminate against southern commercial and economic interests. It was Patrick Henry who opposed the Constitution because it impeded majority rule. On the question of commerce, however, the Anti-Federalists argued that majority rule was not enough: extraordinary or “super” majorities ought to be required for the enactment of commercial laws, in order to protect the agricultural interests of the South. Richard Henry Lee of Virginia thus complained that, “In this congressional legislature a bare majority of votes can enact commercial laws, so that the representatives of seven Northern States, as they will have a majority, can by law create the most oppressive monopoly upon the five Southern States.” Opposition to the Constitution, it may thus be seen, stemmed not only from republican considerations and a general distrust of centralized power, but from other causes as well, including sectional differences and jealousies among the States. An Elected Monarch Nor was Anti-Federalist dissatisfaction with Federal power under the new Constitution limited to Congress. Patrick Henry alleged that the Constitution “has an awful squinting; it squints towards monarchy. … Your President may easily become king.” A New York Anti-Federalist, writing under the name of “Cato,” repeated the charge, asserting that the Constitution inclines toward an “odious aristocracy and monarchy.” The President, he said, has so much power that his office “differs very immaterially from the establishment of monarchy in Great Britain.” An Omnipotent Judiciary The Anti-Federalists were also generally agreed that the Federal Judiciary would swallow up the State courts under the new system of government. “Brutus” addressed the issue at considerable length, producing what are surely the most extensive analyses of judicial power written by an Anti-Federalist. His main concern was Article III, Section 2, which provides that “The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and equity arising under this Constitution, the laws, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority.” This can only mean, said “Brutus,” that Article III vests the judicial branch “with a power to resolve all questions that may arise in any case on the construction of the Constitution, either in law or in equity.” By what principles of interpretation, he asked, is the Constitution to be construed? Since the Federal courts were empowered to decide cases in equity as well as law, it appeared that the Federal judges were free to interpret the Constitution “according to the reasoning and spirit of it, without being confined to the words or letter.” This was true, said “Brutus,” because equity law gave the courts broad discretion. Equity law emerged not in the common law courts of England, which follow strict rules of construction, but in the courts of chancery, which follow virtually no principles of interpretation. The goal of equity jurisprudence is “natural justice”; it seeks to produce fairness, as the judges understand it, and to override the common law when it stands in the way of this objective. Quoting Hugo Grotius, the great scholar of international law, “Brutus” contended “That equity, thus depending essentially upon each individual case [rather than precedent], there can be no established rules and fixed principles of equity laid down, without destroying its very essence, and reducing it to a positive law.” It therefore followed, said Brutus, that “The judicial power will operate to effect in the most certain, but yet silent and imperceptible manner, what is evidently the tendency of the Constitution: an entire subversion of the legislative, executive, and judicial powers of the individual States.” The inquiring citizen, he concluded, need only examine the Constitution itself, written “in general and indefinite terms, which are either equivocal, ambiguous, or which require long definitions,” to appreciate the truth of these remarks. “I question whether the world ever saw, in any period of it, a court of justice invested with such immense powers.” In light of criticisms like these, the Anti-Federalists insisted that the Constitution must either be rejected or substantially amended. Their points of disagreement with the basic design of the system and its particular provisions varied from writer to writer, and they did not agree in all respects. Taken together, however, their writings demonstrated a remarkable uniformity when we consider the distances in time and location, and the limited means of communication from one State to the next in that era. And on one issue they were almost unanimously agreed: the Constitution, because it conferred so much power upon the Federal government, was a threat to personal freedom and States’ Rights. They believed, therefore, that prohibiting the Federal government from abridging certain freedoms was absolutely essential. In the end, the Anti-Federalists were wholly unsuccessful in their effort to change the language of the Constitution and limit the power of the Federal government. They did succeed, however, in persuading the Federalists to add a bill of rights to the Constitution. This was their most important and lasting contribution to the making of the American Constitution. THE FEDERALIST RESPONSE Although the essays written by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay (“Publius”) in The Federalist were by no means the only thoughtful response to Anti-Federalists’ arguments, they were surely the most influential. Over the years they have come to be recognized as a primary source of understanding concerning the meaning and purpose of the Constitution. Indeed, no study of our political system and the ideas of the Framers is complete without a reading of this great American classic. In defending the Constitution, the authors of The Federalist faced the difficult task of explaining and justifying a document that differed sharply from the Articles of Confederation. Although the Articles were unsatisfactory in a number of ways, they were nevertheless tolerable to a great many Americans. There had been no popular uprisings anywhere in the country demanding a new constitution, and many prominent political leaders—now Anti-Federalists—preferred a modest revision rather than abandonment of the Articles. The Federalists thus found themselves in the awkward position of defending what appeared to be, at least on the surface, a radical and revolutionary change of government. Many though not all of the delegates to the Federal Convention had been instructed by their States to seek a modification of the Articles—not their wholesale elimination. These delegates were therefore highly vulnerable to the charge that they had violated the trust that had been placed in them, and had acted ultra vires (beyond the power vested in them). The Constitution itself, as the Anti-Federalists hotly contended, displayed all the characteristics of a novel experiment in government. The basic question was whether it strengthened and preserved freedom and independence, or whether it nullified the hard-fought gains of the American Revolution and promised to return America to the kind of tyranny it had known under George III. The Constitution Limits and Distributes Power The question was one of power, the Federalists arguing that the Articles of Confederation conferred too little power on the Federal government, and the Anti-Federalists asserting that the Constitution gave it too much. Conceding the point that the Constitution clearly increased the powers of the Federal government, the Federalists nonetheless insisted that the document had been carefully drafted to limit those powers. These limitations were sufficient, they contended, to allow for healthy and vigorous government, while at the same time preventing abuses of power. It was to be a powerful government, more powerful than the American people had known since the Revolution, the Federalists admitted. But it was not so powerful as to constitute a serious threat to liberty, and certainly not as powerful as the English monarchy. This was true, said “Publius,” because the Constitution disallowed concentrations of power. No single government, either Federal or State, possessed all the powers of government. Political power, in general, was divided between two levels of government under the principle of federalism. The national government was to be a government of limited and enumerated powers that were specifically laid out in the Constitution. Those powers not delegated to the national government remained with the States as “reserved” powers. The limited power that the national government possessed was further restricted because it was separated among three relatively independent branches—Congress, the President, and the Judiciary. This provided the machinery for the responsible exercise of power. The problem with the Articles of Confederation was that they did not provide for a proper distribution of power. Too much power had been concentrated in the States, making it difficult for the national government to deal effectively with foreign governments, interstate rivalries, insurrections, and military threats. And, what little power the national government did possess was concentrated in one branch—Congress. The government of the United States under the Articles thus suffered from “anarchy in the parts” rather than “tyranny in the head.” It was so weak, the Federalists argued, that it could not promote economic prosperity or provide for the safety of the people. These were the bare essentials of government. The new Constitution, as the Preamble stated, promised to “establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty. …” The first step in gaining public support for the proposed Constitution was to explain and justify the redistribution of power crafted by the Framers. The American system of federalism, unprecedented in the history of nations, was a unique arrangement that seemed foreign to some and unworkable to others. What was the nature of this new union? If sovereignty was to be divided between the general or Federal government and the States, who had ultimate authority to govern? These were difficult questions, but the authors of The Federalist answered them with consummate skill. The nature of the new union, explained Madison, was neither wholly national nor wholly federal, but contained both national and federal elements. Regarding the basic foundation of the government, it was federal because the Constitution must be ratified by the several States. With respect to the legislature, the new Union was partly national and partly federal, one house resting on a national and the other on a federal basis. The presidency was also partly national and partly federal, since the electoral vote was distributed partly in accordance with the principle of State equality, and partly according to population. Considering the operation of the government, it was seen as national rather than federal, inasmuch as it acted directly on individuals and not through the States. In the extent of its powers, however, the Union was federal because its jurisdiction was limited to specific objects, and all else was left to the States. Thus the government of the United States was to be neither a pure confederacy nor a “consolidated republic,” but a new type of government, in a class by itself. The States had not been reduced to provinces, the Federalists insisted, but remained in possession of “certain exclusive and very important portions of sovereign power.” They still held “all the rights of sovereignty which were not … exclusively delegated to the United States.” In a consolidated system, the local authorities are subject to control by the central government; but in the proposed Union the local authorities form distinct and independent portions of the supremacy, no more subject to the general authority than the general authority is to them within its own sphere.” The States may not be completely sovereign, but they did have a residuary sovereignty. Such was the nature of legal sovereignty under the Constitution. Real or political sovereignty rested, of course, not with the Federal or State governments, but with the “people.” “The ultimate authority,” concluded The Federalist, “resides in the people alone.” It therefore followed that the federal principle, woven into the entire fabric of the Constitution, would limit the power of both the Federal and State governments, while happily combining the best characteristics of both. The Anti-Federalists’ claim that the Federal government would usurp the powers of the States, argued Madison in Federalist 45, was false. It was more likely that the States would continue to dominate the national government. They had the advantage with respect “to the weight of personal influence which each side will possess; to the powers respectively vested in them; to the predilection and probable support of the people; to the disposition and faculty of resisting and frustrating the measures of each other.” Of paramount importance under the new scheme were the State legislatures. The President could not even be elected unless they acted. They played a key role in his election. Moreover, they elected the members of the Senate and would probably influence the election of members of the House of Representatives as well. Both the legislative and executive branches of the Federal government, in other words, owed their very existence to the State legislatures. Added to this, the States would exercise far more influence in public affairs because more people were employed under their authority than under that of the general government. “The members of the legislative, executive and judiciary departments of thirteen and more States; the justices of peace, officers of militia, ministerial officers of justice, with all the county corporation and town-officers, for three millions and more of people, intermixed and having particular acquaintance with every class and circle of people, must exceed beyond all proportion, both in number and influence, those of every description who will be employed in the administration of the federal system.” Accustomed to their own State constitutions, which except in Massachusetts and a few other States generally failed to provide for sufficient checks and balances, some Anti-Federalists also criticized the separation of powers system of the Constitution. There was too much “blending,” they argued, and the departments ought to be kept wholly separate and distinct. Not all Anti-Federalists shared this view, however, and many accepted the argument of Madison in Federalist 47 that some overlapping of functions was necessary in order to prevent one branch from encroaching upon the functions of another. Hence the issue of separation of powers did not become a major bone of contention in the struggle over ratification of the Constitution. The Anti-Federalists were preoccupied with the question of States’ Rights. This was the theme song of their campaign against the Constitution. In response to the many complaints that the proposed Constitution not only redistributed power improperly but also failed to limit the powers that had now been shifted to the Federal government, the authors of The Federalist assured their adversaries that such fears were unfounded. “The powers delegated by the proposed Constitution to the Federal government,” said Madison in Federalist 45, “are few and defined. Those which are to remain in the State governments are numerous and indefinite.” The scope of Federal power would be limited primarily to military and foreign affairs, foreign commerce and taxation. The States, he continued, would retain full authority over matters pertaining to civil liberties and the rights of property, the internal affairs of the States, and the administration of law and order. Congress Is Not an Oligarchy Turning to specific complaints lodged against the Constitution respecting the enumerated powers of Congress, Publius denied the allegation that the “times, places and manner” provision, which gave Congress concurrent authority to regulate the election of its own members, would displace the State legislatures. The States would regulate Federal elections in the first instance, contended Alexander Hamilton in Federalist 59, and Congress would not generally interfere except when “extraordinary circumstances might render the interposition necessary to its safety.” The “times, places and manner” clause was simply a device to protect Congress from being placed at the mercy of the States. Without it, the States might prevent the election of members of Congress altogether. It was justified by the general principle that “every government ought to contain in itself the means of its own preservation.” Anti-Federalist arguments against the General Welfare, Tax, and Necessary and Proper clauses of Article I, and the Supremacy Clause of Article VI, were also not justified, the Federalists countered. A proper interpretation of these provisions, said The Federalist, showed they were entirely consistent with the principles of limited government. The power “to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare” was not an “unlimited commission to exercise every power which may be alleged to be necessary for the common defense or general welfare.” Congress had not been given a general power to legislate for the general welfare, because the General Welfare Clause was tied inextricably to the power to tax and spend. Congress, said Madison in Federalist 41, could tax and spend only to carry out one of its enumerated powers. Any other interpretation would render superfluous the specific enumeration of other Congressional powers. It was true, of course, that the Framers had placed no limit on the amount that might be taxed. It would not be practical, the Federalists believed, to do so. In time of war and national emergencies, suggested Hamilton in Federalist 34, the situation might call for added revenue. “Constitutions of civil government are not to be framed upon a calculation of existing emergencies. … There ought to be a capacity to provide for future contingencies, as these may happen; and, as these are illimitable in their nature, it is impossible safely to limit that capacity.” Given the various constitutional restraints on government and the system of popular control over members of Congress, abuses of the tax power thus seemed remote. Similarly unwarranted, argued Publius, were Anti-Federalist assaults on the Necessary and Proper and Supremacy clauses. “These two clauses,” observed Hamilton in Federalist 33, “have been sources of much virulent invective and petulant declamation. … [and] have been held up to the people, in all the exaggerated colors of misrepresentation, as the pernicious engines by which their local governments were to be destroyed and their liberties exterminated.” Upon close examination, however, it was clear that both clauses were “perfectly harmless.” Indeed, wrote Hamilton, “the constitutional operation of the intended government would be precisely the same, if these clauses were entirely obliterated. … They are only declaratory of a truth, which would have resulted by necessary and unavoidable implication from the very act of constituting a Federal government, and vesting it with certain specified powers.” By this he meant that the Necessary and Proper clause was intended “to leave nothing to construction” and to remove all doubt that the delegation of certain powers to Congress carried with it the implied right to execute those powers by necessary and proper laws; and that the Supremacy Clause simply acknowledged the fact that “a law by the very meaning of the term includes supremacy.” The supremacy of national laws “flows immediately and necessarily from the institution of a Federal government.” The States were protected by language which “expressly confines this supremacy to laws made pursuant to the Constitution.” The President Is Not a King Anti-Federalist arguments that the President and the Federal courts also enjoyed excessive amounts of power under the proposed Constitution were also rebutted by Hamilton, principally in Federalist 69 and Federalist 78. Particularly weak was the charge that the President had been endowed with all of the rights and prerogatives of an English monarch. Astutely noting that the powers of the Chief Executive did not differ remarkably from those already being exercised by many State governors, Hamilton spelled out in exhaustive detail the differences between the President and the King of Great Britain: the President was elected by the people for four years, whereas the King is a perpetual hereditary prince; the President can be impeached and removed from office, whereas the person of the King is “sacred and inviolable”; the President has a qualified veto, whereas that of the King is absolute; the President is commander-in-chief of the armed forces, whereas the King not only raises and commands the military but may also declare war on his own authority; the President shares the treaty-making and appointment power with the legislature, whereas the King alone exercises these powers. These, and countless other differences, distinguished the two offices. “What answer,” asked Hamilton, “shall we give to those who would persuade us that things so unlike resemble each other? The same that ought to be given to those who tell us, that a government, the whole power of which would be in the hands of the elective and periodical servants of the people, is an aristocracy, a monarchy, and a despotism.” The Judiciary Is the Least Dangerous Branch On the question of Federal judicial power, however, Hamilton dismissed many of the Anti-Federalist objections out of hand, and never really came to grips with the issue. In Federalist 78, he argued persuasively for the principle of judicial independence, but the thought that Federal judges might usurp the powers of the State courts received only passing notice. The possibility that Federal judges might also encroach upon the powers of Congress or the President seemed equally remote. Historically, courts of law had served the interests of liberty as barriers to despotism. Because of the limited nature of their function—interpreting the law—they “will always be the least dangerous” branch. Under the Constitution, observed Hamilton, “The judiciary. … has no influence over either the sword or the purse, no direction either of the strength or of the wealth of society, and can take no active resolution whatever. It may truly be said to have neither Force nor Will, but merely judgment; and must ultimately depend upon the aid of the executive arm even for the efficacy of its judgments.” In sum, “the judiciary is beyond comparison the weakest of the three departments of power.” “[T]he supposed danger of judiciary encroachments on the legislative authority,” Hamilton surmised, “is in reality a phantom. Particular misconstructions and contraventions of the will of the legislature may now and then happen; but they can never be so extensive as to amount to an inconvenience, or in any sensible degree to affect the order of the political system.” Whether a Bill of Rights Was Necessary On May 28, 1788, one year after the delegates to the Constitutional Convention had convened in Philadelphia to begin their deliberations, Alexander Hamilton published his reply to the Anti-Federalists on the question of a bill of rights. Not until the final hours of the Convention had the thought occurred to any delegate that a bill of rights ought to be included in the Constitution. It was then that George Mason of Virginia made the proposal, and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts moved to appoint a committee to draft a “declaration of rights.” The motion was voted down unanimously (that is, by all of the States represented), because the general consensus was that a bill of rights was not necessary. This was essentially the same position taken by Hamilton in Federalist 84. Opposition to a bill of rights did not stem from indifference or hostility toward civil rights, but from the widely held belief that a declaration of rights would be superfluous. The Federal government was to be a government of delegated and enumerated powers. It had no authority to interfere with such matters as speech and religion. A declaration that it had no such authority would merely make explicit what was already implicit in the Constitution, with excess verbiage that simply stated what was already obvious. To this, Hamilton added other objections. First, the Constitution already contained specific guarantees of liberty. “The establishment of the writ of habeas corpus, the prohibition of ex post facto laws and of titles of nobility,” he asserted, “are perhaps greater securities to liberty and republicanism” than any provided by his own Constitution of New York. Second, a bill of rights does not properly belong in this kind of Constitution. Such bills of rights are ordinarily stipulations between kings and their subjects, “reservations of rights not surrendered to the prince”—as seen in the Magna Charta, the Petition of Right, and the English Bill of Rights of 1688. Hence, Hamilton argued,“they have no application to constitutions professedly founded upon the power of the people” because “in strictness, the people surrender nothing, and as they retain everything, they have no need of particular reservations.” The Preamble of the Constitution, he believed, “is a better recognition of popular rights than volumes of those aphorisms which make the principal figure in several of our State bills of rights, and which would sound much better in a treatise of ethics than in a constitution of government.” Third, said Hamilton, a bill of rights might even be dangerous. By listing freedoms that the Federal government could not deny, the government, by implication, would be free to deny those rights that had not been included. A bill of rights, he reasoned, “would contain various exceptions to powers which are not granted; and on this very account, would afford a colorable pretext to claim more than was granted. For why declare that things shall not be done which there is no power to do? Why, for instance, should it be said, that the liberty of the press shall not be restrained, when no power is given by which restrictions may be imposed?” Fourth, there was no clear understanding concerning the precise meaning of the liberties claimed, and the standards varied from State to State. “What signifies a declaration that ‘the liberty of the press shall be inviolably preserved’? What is the liberty of the press? Who can give it any definition which would not leave the utmost latitude for evasion?” If freedom of the press is to be enjoyed, Hamilton argued, it will be because of public opinion and the spirit of the people, not because of “fine declarations.” Finally, a bill of rights was not needed, Hamilton maintained, because the Constitution was itself a bill of rights. What protects liberty and gives it meaning and substance is the structure of government—concrete limitations on power, not parchment declarations. If a constitution—and that of the United States is such a constitution—is properly designed to check abuses of power, the government upon which it rests will in the general course of events discourage political authorities from trampling on the liberties of the people. The privileges and immunities that might be proclaimed in such a bill of rights were already embodied in the original document. In the end, Hamilton’s view did not prevail. The ratification struggle began as soon as Congress submitted the Constitution to the States, and the Anti-Federalists steadfastly held their position that a bill of rights was essential. This issue overshadowed all others, including the issues of legislative power and representation. Although ratification was secured within nine months, the margin of victory in at least half of the States was narrow. Had the Federalists refused to budge on the bill of rights question, it is not unlikely that the proposed Constitution would have been defeated. The Clash of Values This brief review of the main points of contention between the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists shows that they were in disagreement on some very fundamental issues. To the Anti-Federalists, the new Constitution posed a threat to liberty, order, and justice, whereas the Federalists believed that it would secure these values. Liberty depends on rule of law. Yet, as the Anti-Federalists repeatedly argued, the new system rested on a flagrant disregard of the forms of legality. The delegates to the Philadelphia Convention were sent to revise the Articles of Confederation, not to write a new Constitution. James Madison responded in Federalist 40 with the argument that even if the Framers had exceeded their powers (which he flatly denied), it was in the best interests of the country to substantially alter the system. Such changes were legitimate, he suggested, if they were “calculated to accomplish the views and happiness of the people of America” and were approved by them. Liberty also depended upon republicanism, said the Anti-Federalists, which in turn depended upon maintaining the primacy of the States. History and political theory persuaded the Anti-Federalists that free republican governments could extend only over small territories with homogeneous populations. Small republics were stable and orderly because they were public-spirited, enjoyed voluntary obedience to the laws, and were closely controlled by the people. Many Anti-Federalists preferred the simplicity of agrarian life to the complexity of a strife-ridden industrial society, and most agreed with Brutus that “in a republic, the manners, sentiments, and interests of the people should be similar. If this is not the case, there will be a constant clashing of opinions; and the representatives of one part will be continually striving against those of the other.” But the Federalists envisioned a different kind of America, and vigorously challenged this view. Homogeneous republics were possible only under the primitive conditions of pre-commercial society. “In every community whose industry is encouraged,” said Hamilton, “there will be a division of it into the few and the many.” And when this occurs, the innocence of agricultural life is lost. The Anti-Federalists criticized the man of commerce as rootless and greedy—“immersed in schemes of wealth” and “the last to take alarm when public liberty is threatened”; but they could not deny that America was already committed to a commercial order, and that the landed interests were fundamentally part of, and dependent upon, the commercial life of the nation. As Herbert Storing has observed, “The basic problem of the Anti-Federalists was that they accepted the need and desirability of the modern commercial world, while attempting to resist certain of its tendencies with rather half-hearted appeals to civic virtue. But such restraints, the Federalists replied, have never worked and will never work.” The solution, argued Madison in Federalist 10, was the extended commercial republic proposed by the Constitution. A loosely knit confederation of small republics was neither desirable nor possible. Small republics might even pose a threat to liberty because they were governed by single-minded majority factions that are difficult to control. Such factions tend to be overbearing, and even tyrannical. They become intolerant of the rights of wealthy property owners, small religious sects, and other minority groups because they have few differences among themselves. The system of representation adopted by the Framers was preferable, said Madison, because it established a large commercial republic in which majority factions would represent diverse populations with different interests. Majority factions of this kind would be more moderate than small, homogeneous factions, since they would be forced to compromise many of their positions in order to function as a majority. The Federal government, in other words, would have a conservative, moderating influence on the affairs of the people, checking the radical elements in the States—like Daniel Shays. Although the Federalists won the argument, we should not presume that the Anti-Federalists were wrong about any or all of these issues. The inquiring student, having examined the debates thoroughly and objectively, may well conclude that the Anti-Federalists were right about certain matters. For we must not lose sight of the fact that the debate over the Constitution was a political debate, and that both sides were seeking to persuade their fellow countrymen that their position was the correct one. In the course of the debate, both sides tended to exaggerate their claims, the Federalists playing down the fact that the Constitution did indeed confer great power on the Federal government, and the Anti-Federalists overstating the deficiencies of the Constitution. Moreover, we should not over-inflate the effect and significance of the Anti-Federalists’ victory in securing adoption of the Bill of Rights. For the Bill of Rights neither increased nor decreased the powers of the Federal government. The first ten amendments simply made explicit what was already implicit in the Constitution. Perhaps this is why the Federalists were only half-hearted in their opposition to a bill of rights, and in the end readily acceded to the demands of the Anti-Federalists. Although no formal agreements were made, ratification in many States was conditioned on the understanding that the first order of business in the first Congress would be the preparation of a bill of rights for submission to the States. Toward that end, five of the States sent long lists of proposed amendments to Congress for consideration. These amendments, it should be borne in mind, were motivated as much by a desire to whittle down the powers of the Federal government as by a desire to protect civil liberties. A review of the bill of rights proposals of the first three States to make them—Massachusetts, South Carolina, and New Hampshire—shows that the members of these conventions were much more concerned about the rights and powers of the States than about the rights of the people. Massachusetts proposed nine amendments, but only the sixth and seventh—referring, respectively, to indictment by grand jury and jury trials in civil disputes—dealt with individual liberty as such. The rest called for amendments declaring that: (1) all powers not expressly delegated were reserved to the States; (2) there shall be one representative for every thirty thousand persons until there are two hundred representatives; (3) Congress shall not exercise its “times, manner, and place” powers unless a State neglects or refuses to act or subverts the right of the people to free and equal representation; (4) Congress may not impose direct taxes unless there is insufficient money arising from imposts and excise taxes, and certain other conditions are met; (5) Congress may not create monopolies giving certain merchants an exclusive advantage; (6) The Supreme Court shall have no jurisdiction over disputes between citizens of different States unless the amount in contention is at least $3,000; (7) Congress shall never consent that a person holding office under the United States shall accept a title of nobility from a foreign state. In one place the list proposed by South Carolina mentioned the “freedom of the people,” but otherwise it dealt with the issue of “the sovereignty of the several States.” Of the twelve proposed amendments offered by New Hampshire, less than half had a direct bearing on individual liberty. The many amendments proposed by Virginia and New York, which went into great detail, dealt in part with individual liberty and in part with proposed changes to increase the powers of the States. Thus it may be seen that federalism was an important ingredient of the “Bill of Rights” as finally adopted. The Bill of Rights was, in fact, a concession to the Anti-Federalists and to the States’ Rightists who feared Federal usurpation of State power, particularly in the sensitive area of civil liberties. By its terms, the Bill of Rights applied only to Congress (the Federal government) and exempted the States. Viewed in historical perspective, its purpose was two-fold: (1) to assure each individual that the Federal government would not encroach upon his civil liberties, and (2) to assure each State that the Federal government would not have jurisdiction over most civil liberties disputes between a State and its citizens. Each amendment was a guarantee to the individual and to the States, limiting the powers of the Federal government but not those of the States. On the question of freedom of the press, for example, Congress alone was prohibited by the First Amendment from abridging such freedom, thus leaving the States to establish their own standards of free press under their own constitutions and State bills of rights. The task of drafting the Bill of Rights and submitting the amendments to the States for ratification fell on members of the First Congress in 1789. James Madison, who had been elected to the House of Representatives, was a member of the special committee that was responsible for sifting through the myriad amendments suggested by the States, and it was under his leadership that the Bill of Rights took shape. The Bill of Rights as originally adopted by Congress and submitted to the States contained twelve amendments. The first two, proposing a new scale of representation for the House of Representatives and a limitation on increasing the salaries of members of Congress failed to gain ratification, and the last ten, known as the Bill of Rights, became part of the Constitution on December 15, 1791. What is now the First Amendment was originally the third. The amendment restricting changes of Congressional salaries was finally ratified in 1992, and it is now the 27th amendment to the Constitution. Not until the sesquicentennial year of 1941 did Connecticut, Georgia, and Massachusetts formally ratify the Bill of Rights. The Bill Of Rights The first ten amendments were proposed by Congress in 1789, at their first session; and, having received the ratification of the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, they became a part of the Constitution December 15, 1791, and are known as the Bill of Rights. [Amendment I.]Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. [Amendment II.]A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. [Amendment III.]No Soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. [Amendment IV.]The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. [Amendment V.]No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject, for the same offense, to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled, in any criminal case, to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. [Amendment VI.]In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. [Amendment VII.]In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. [Amendment VIII.]Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. [Amendment IX.]The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively or to the people. * * * * * Some of the State constitutions drawn up during the Revolution included bills of rights. The most famous and influential of these was Virginia’s Declaration of Rights, written by George Mason in 1776. (Mason also had a large hand in writing the Virginian Constitution at about the same time. Strictly speaking, the Declaration of Rights was not part of that constitution.) It is upon Mason’s Declaration of Rights that much of the Bill of Rights of the Constitution is founded. The principal author of the Bill of Rights, however, was James Madison. All early Americans with any serious interest in politics knew something about the English Bill (or Declaration) of Rights of 1688. But, as in many other matters, American leaders tended to be influenced more by recent or colonial American precedents and example than by those from British history. John Adams and Thomas Jefferson both earnestly supported the idea of a national bill of rights, and so did many other leading men. We shall now examine those ten amendments, one by one, with a view to grasping their original purpose or meaning. For people of our time, the phrases of those amendments, like the phrases of the original Seven Articles of the Constitution, sometimes require interpretation. What did those words mean, as people used them near the end of the eighteenth century? One way to find out is to consult the first great dictionary of the English language, Samuel Johnson’s, published at London in 1775; or, later, Noah Webster’s American Dictionary of the English Language (1828). It is important to understand precisely, so far as possible, the meanings intended by the men (chiefly James Madison and George Mason) whose phrases are found in the Bill of Rights, because many important cases of constitutional law that affect millions of Americans are today decided on the presumed significance of certain phrases in the Bill of Rights. As the English jurist Sir James Fitzjames Stephen wrote in Victorian times, “Words are tools that break in the hand.” We therefore need to define the concepts which lie behind the words of the Bill of Rights. Another way to ascertain what the framers of the Bill of Rights intended by their amendments, and what the first Congress and the ratifying State legislatures understood by the amendments’ language, is to consult Sir William Blackstone’s Commentaries on the Laws of England (1765), and the early Commentaries on the Constitution (1833) and Commentaries on American Law (1826), written, respectively, by Joseph Story and James Kent. As eminent judges during the early decades of the Republic, both Story and Kent were more familiar with the constitutional controversies of the first five presidential administrations than any judge or professor of law near the close of the twentieth century can hope to be. The comments on the Bill of Rights that follow are based on such sources of information, and also on the books, letters, and journals of political leaders and judges from 1776 to 1840. It should be noted, moreover, that the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 also sheds light on the ideas and ideals of the generation that drafted the Constitution and the Bill of Rights. Passed by the Continental Congress on July 13, 1787, while the Federal Convention was meeting in Philadelphia, the Northwest Ordinance was later affirmed by the first Congress under the new Constitution. Its purpose was to provide a frame of government for the western territories that later became the States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. The Ordinance has been called our first national bill of rights, or “the Magna Charta of American Freedom.” The great American statesman Daniel Webster said he doubted “whether one single law of any lawgiver, ancient or modern, has produced effects of more distinct, marked and lasting character than the Ordinance of 1787.” In addition to protecting many civil liberties that later appeared in the Bill of Rights, the Northwest Ordinance also banned slavery in the Northwest Territory. The wording of the Thirteenth Amendment (1865) providing for the abolition of slavery in the United States was taken directly from the Northwest Ordinance. On the subject of religion, the ordinance provided that “No person, demeaning himself in a peaceable and orderly manner, shall ever be molested on account of his mode of worship or religious sentiments, in said Territory.” The Ordinance also declared as a matter of public policy that because “Religion, morality, and knowledge, [are] necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged.” The First Amendment: Religious Freedom, and Freedom to Speak, Print, Assemble, and Petition We hear a good deal nowadays about “a wall of separation” between church and state in America. To some people’s surprise, this phrase cannot be found in either the Constitution or the Declaration of Independence. Actually, the phrase occurs in a letter from Thomas Jefferson, as a candidate for office, to an assembly of Baptists in Connecticut. The first clause of the First Amendment reads, “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.” This clause is followed by guarantees of freedom of speech, of publication, of assembly, and of petitioning. These various aspects of liberty were lumped together in the First Amendment for the sake of convenience; Congress had originally intended to assign “establishment of religion” to a separate amendment because the relationships between state and church are considerably different from the civil liberties of speech, publication, assembly, and petitioning. The purpose of the “Establishment Clause” was two-fold: (1) to prohibit Congress from imposing a national religion upon the people; and (2) to prohibit Congress (and the Federal government generally) from interfering with existing church-state relations in the several States. Thus the “Establishment Clause” is linked directly to the “Free Exercise Clause.” It was designed to promote religious freedom by forbidding Congress to prefer one religious sect over other religious sects. It was also intended, however, to assure each State that its reserved powers included the power to decide for itself, under its own constitution or bill of rights, what kind of relationship it wanted with religious denominations in the State. Hence the importance of the word “respecting”: Congress shall make no law “respecting,” that is, touching or dealing with, the subject of religious establishment. In effect, this “Establishment Clause” was a compromise between two eminent members of the first Congress—James Madison and Fisher Ames. Representative Ames, from Massachusetts, was a Federalist. In his own State, and also in Connecticut, there still was an established church—the Congregational Church. By 1787–1791, an “established church” was one which was formally recognized by a State government as the publicly preferred form of religion. Such a church was entitled to certain taxes, called tithes, that were collected from the public by the State. Earlier, several other of Britain’s colonies had recognized established churches, but those other establishments had vanished during the Revolution. Now, if Congress had established a national church—and many countries, in the eighteenth century, had official national churches—probably it would have chosen to establish the Episcopal Church, related to the Church of England. For Episcopalians constituted the most numerous and influential Christian denomination in the United States. Had the Episcopal Church been so established nationally, the Congregational Church would have been disestablished in Massachusetts and Connecticut. Therefore, Fisher Ames and his Massachusetts constituents in 1789 were eager for a constitutional amendment that would not permit Congress to establish any national church or disestablish any State church. The motive of James Madison for advocating the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment was somewhat different. Madison believed that for the Federal government to establish one church—the Episcopal Church, say—would vex the numerous Congregationalist, Presbyterian, Baptist, Methodist, Quaker, and other religious denominations. After all, it seemed hard enough to hold the United States together in those first months of the Constitution without stirring up religious controversies. So Madison, who was generally in favor of religious toleration, strongly advocated an Establishment Clause on the ground that it would avert disunity in the Republic. In short, the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment was not intended as a declaration of governmental hostility toward religion, or even of governmental neutrality in the debate between believers and non-believers. It was simply a device for keeping religious passions out of American politics. The phrase “or prohibiting the free exercise thereof” was meant to keep the Congress from ever meddling in the disputes among religious bodies or interfering with the mode of worship. During the nineteenth century, at least, State governments would have been free to establish State churches, had they desired to do so. The Establishment Clause restrained only Congress—not State legislatures. But the States were no more interested in establishing a particular church than was Congress, and the two New England States where Congregationalism was established eventually gave up their establishments—Connecticut in 1818, Massachusetts in 1833. The remainder of the First Amendment is a guarantee of reasonable freedom of speech, publication, assembly, and petition. A key word in this declaration that the Congress must not abridge these freedoms is the article “the”—abridging the freedom of speech and press. For what the Congress had in mind, in 1789, was the civil freedom to which Americans already were accustomed, and which they had inherited from Britain. In effect, the clause means “that freedom of speech and press which prevails today.” In 1789, this meant that Congress was prohibited from engaging in the practice of “prior censorship”—prohibiting a speech or publication without advance approval of an executive official. The courts today give a much broader interpretation to the clause. This does not mean, however, that the First Amendment guarantees any absolute or perfect freedom to shout whatever one wishes, print whatever one likes, assemble in a crowd wherever or whenever it suits a crowd’s fancy, or present a petition to Congress or some other public body in a context of violence. Civil liberty as understood in the Constitution is ordered liberty, not license to indulge every impulse and certainly not license to overthrow the Constitution itself. As one of the more famous of Supreme Court Justices, Oliver Wendell Holmes, put this matter, “The most stringent protection of free speech would not protect a man in falsely shouting fire in a theatre and causing a panic.” Similarly, statutes that prohibit the publication of obscenities, libels, and calls to violence are generally held by the courts to conform to the First Amendment. For example, public assemblies can be forbidden or dispersed by local authorities when crowds threaten to turn into violent mobs. And even public petitions to the legislative or the executive branch of government must be presented in accordance with certain rules, or else they may be lawfully rejected. The Constitution recognizes no “absolute” rights. A Justice of the Supreme Court observed years ago that “The Bill of Rights is not a suicide pact.” Instead, the First Amendment is a reaffirmation of certain long-observed civil freedoms, and it is not a guarantee that citizens will go unpunished however outrageous their words, publications, street conduct, or mode of addressing public officials. The original, and in many ways the most important, purpose of freedom of speech and press is that it affords citizens an opportunity to criticize government—favorably and unfavorably—and to hold public officials accountable for their actions. It thus serves to keep the public informed and encourages the free exchange of ideas. The Second Amendment: The Right to Bear Arms This amendment consists of a single sentence: “A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.” Although today we tend to think of the “militia” as the armed forces or national guard, the original meaning of the word was “the armed citizenry.” One of the purposes of the Second Amendment was to prevent Congress from disarming the State militias. The phrasing of the Amendment was directly influenced by the American Revolutionary experience. During the initial phases of that conflict, Americans relied on the militia to confront the British regular army. The right of each State to maintain its own militia was thought by the founding generation to be a critical safeguard against “standing armies” and tyrants, both foreign and domestic. The Second Amendment also affirms an individual’s right to keep and bear arms. Since the Amendment limits only Congress, the States are free to regulate the possession and carrying of weapons in accordance with their own constitutions and bills of rights. “The right of the citizens to keep and bear arms,” observed Justice Joseph Story of the Supreme Court in his Commentaries on the Constitution (1833), “has justly been considered as the palladium of the liberties of the republic, since it offers a strong moral check against the usurpation and arbitrary power of rulers, and will generally, even if these are successful in the first instance, enable the people to resist and triumph over them.” Thus a disarmed population cannot easily resist or overthrow tyrannical government. The right is not absolute, of course, and the Federal courts have upheld Federal laws that limit the sale, possession, and transportation of certain kinds of weapons, such as machine guns and sawed-off shotguns. To what extent Congress can restrict the right is a matter of considerable uncertainty because the Federal courts have not attempted to define its limits. The Third Amendment: Quartering Troops Forbidding Congress to station soldiers in private houses without the householders’ permission in time of peace, or without proper authorization in time of war, was bound up with memories of British soldiers who were quartered in American houses during the War of Independence. It is an indication of a desire, in 1789, to protect civilians from military bullying. This is the least-invoked provision of the Bill of Rights, and the Supreme Court has never had occasion to interpret or apply it. The Fourth Amendment: Search and Seizure This is a requirement for search warrants when the public authority decides to search individuals or their houses, or to seize their property in connection with some legal action or investigation. In general, any search without a warrant is unreasonable. Under certain conditions, however, no warrant is necessary—as when the search is incidental to a lawful arrest. Before engaging in a search, the police must appear before a magistrate and, under oath, prove that they have good cause to believe that a search should be made. The warrant must specify the place to be searched and the property to be seized. This requirement is an American version of the old English principle that “Every man’s house is his castle.” In recent decades, courts have extended the protections of this amendment to require warrants for the search and seizure of intangible property, such as conversations recorded through electronic eavesdropping. The Fifth Amendment: Rights of Persons Here we have a complex of old rights at law that were intended to protect people from arbitrary treatment by the possessors of power, especially in actions at law. The common law assumes that a person is innocent until he is proven guilty. This amendment reasserts the ancient requirement that if a person is to be tried for a major crime, he must first be indicted by a grand jury. In addition, no person may be tried twice for the same offense. Also, an individual cannot be compelled in criminal cases to testify against himself, “nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law”; and the public authorities may not take private property without just compensation to the owner. The immunity against being compelled to be a witness against one’s self is often invoked in ordinary criminal trials and in trials for subversion or espionage. This right, like others in the Bill of Rights, is not absolute. A person who “takes the Fifth”—that is, refuses to answer questions in a court because his answers might incriminate him—thereby raises “a legitimate presumption” in the court that he has done something for which he might be punished by the law. If offered immunity from prosecution in return for giving testimony, either he must comply or else expect to be jailed, and kept in jail, for contempt of court. And, under certain circumstances, a judge or investigatory body such as a committee of Congress may refuse to accept a witness’s contention that he would place himself in danger of criminal prosecution were he to answer any questions. The Fifth Amendment’s due process requirement was originally a procedural right that referred to methods of law enforcement. If a person was to be deprived of his life, liberty or property, such a deprivation had to conform to the common law standards of “due process.” The Amendment required a procedure, as Daniel Webster once put it, that “hears before it condemns, proceeds upon inquiries, and renders judgment only after a trial” in which the basic principles of justice have been observed. The prohibition against taking private property for public use without just compensation is a restriction on the Federal government’s power of eminent domain. Federal courts have adopted a rule of interpretation that the “taking” must be “direct” and that private property owners are not entitled to compensation for indirect loss incidental to the exercise of governmental powers. Thus the courts have frequently held that rent-control measures, limiting the amount of rent which may be charged, are not a “taking,” even though such measures may decrease the value of the property or deprive the owners of rental income. As a general rule, Federal courts have not since 1937 extended the same degree of protection to property rights as they have to other civil rights. The Sixth Amendment: Rights of the Accused Here again the Bill of Rights reaffirms venerable protections for persons accused of crimes. The Amendment guarantees jury trial in criminal cases; the right of the accused “to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation”; also the rights to confront witnesses, to obtain witnesses through the arm of the law, and to have lawyers’ help. These are customs and privileges at law derived from long usage in Britain and America. The recent enlargement of these rights by Federal courts has caused much controversy. The right of assistance of counsel, for example, has been extended backward from the time of trial to the time the defendant is first questioned as a suspect, and forward to the appeals stage of the process. Under the so-called “Miranda” rule, police must read to a suspect his “Miranda” rights before interrogation. Only if a suspect waives his rights may any statement or confession obtained be used against him in a trial. Otherwise the suspect is said to have been denied “assistance of counsel.” The Sixth Amendment also specifies that criminal trials must be “speedy.” Because of the great backload of cases in our courts, this requirement is sometimes loosely applied today. Yet, as one jurist has put the matter, “Justice delayed is justice denied.” The Seventh Amendment: Trial by Jury in Civil Cases This guarantee of jury trial in civil suits at common law “where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars” (a much bigger sum of money in 1789 than now) was included in the Bill of Rights chiefly because several of the States’ ratifying conventions had recommended it. It applies only to Federal cases, of course, and it may be waived. The primary purpose of the Amendment was to preserve the historic line separating the jury, which decides the facts, from the judge, who applies the law. It applies only to suits at common law, meaning “rights and remedies peculiarly legal in their nature.” It does not apply to cases in equity or admiralty law, where juries are not used. In recent years, increasingly large monetary awards to plaintiffs by juries in civil cases have brought the jury system somewhat into disrepute. The Eighth Amendment: Bail and Cruel and Unusual Punishments How much bail, fixed by a court as a requirement to assure that a defendant will appear in court at the assigned time, is “excessive”? What punishments are “cruel and unusual”? The monetary sums for bail have changed greatly over two centuries, and criminal punishments have grown less severe. Courts have applied the terms of this amendment differently over the years. Courts are not required to release an accused person merely because he can supply bail bonds. The court may keep him imprisoned, for example, if the court fears that the accused person would become a danger to the community if released, or would flee the jurisdiction of the court. In such matters, much depends on the nature of the offense, the reputation of the alleged offender, and his ability to pay. Bail of a larger amount than is usually set for a particular crime must be justified by evidence. As for cruel and unusual punishments, public whipping was not regarded as cruel and unusual in 1789, but it is probably so regarded today. In recent years, the Supreme Court has found that capital punishment is not forbidden by the Eighth Amendment, although the enforcement of capital punishment must be carried out so as not to permit jury discretion or to discriminate against any class of persons. Punishment may be declared cruel and unusual if it is out of all proportion to the offense. The Ninth Amendment: Rights Retained by the People Are all the rights to be enjoyed by citizens of the United States enumerated in the first eight amendments and in the Articles of the original Constitution? If so, might not the Federal government, at some future time, ignore a multitude of customs, privileges, and old usages cherished by American men and women, on the ground that these venerable ways were not rights at all? Does a civil right have to be written expressly into the Constitution in order to exist? The Seven Articles and the first eight amendments say nothing, for example, about a right to inherit property, or a right of marriage. Are, then, rights to inheritance and marriage wholly dependent on the will of Congress or the President at any one time? The Federalists had made such objections to the very idea of a Bill of Rights being added to the Constitution. Indeed, it seemed quite possible to the first Congress under the Constitution that, by singling out and enumerating certain civil liberties, the Seven Articles and the Bill of Rights might seem to disparage or deny certain other prescriptive rights that are important but had not been written into the document. The Ninth Amendment was designed to quiet the fears of the Anti-Federalists who contended that, under the new Constitution, the Federal government would have the power to trample on the liberties of the people because it would have jurisdiction over any right that was not explicitly protected against Federal abridgment and reserved to the States. They argued in particular that there was an implied exclusion of trial by jury in civil cases because the Constitution made reference to it only in criminal cases. Written to serve as a general principle of construction, the Ninth Amendment declares that “The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.” The reasoning behind the amendment springs from Hamilton’s 83rd and 84th essays in The Federalist. Madison introduced it simply to prevent a perverse application of the ancient legal maxim that a denial of power over a specified right does not imply an affirmative grant of power over an unnamed right. This amendment is much misunderstood today, and it is sometimes thought to be a source of new rights, such as the “right of privacy,” over which Federal courts may establish jurisdiction. It should be kept in mind, however, that the original purpose of this amendment was to limit the powers of the Federal government, not to expand them. The Tenth Amendment: Rights Retained by the States This last amendment in the Bill of Rights was probably the one most eagerly desired by the various State conventions and State legislatures that had demanded the addition of a bill of rights to the Constitution. Throughout the country, the basic uneasiness with the new Constitution was the dread that the Federal government would gradually enlarge its powers and suppress the States’ governments. The Tenth Amendment was designed to lay such fears to rest. This amendment was simply a declaration that “the powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.” The Federalists maintained that the Framers at Philadelphia had meant from the first that all powers not specifically assigned to the Federal government were reserved to the States or the people of the States. The amendment declares that powers are reserved “to the States respectively, or to the people,” meaning they are to be left in their original state. It should be noted that the Tenth Amendment does not say that powers not expressly delegated to the United States are reserved to the States. The authors of the Bill of Rights considered and specifically rejected such a statement. They believed that an amendment limiting the national government to its expressed powers would have seriously weakened it. During much of our history, the Tenth Amendment was interpreted as a limitation of the delegated powers of Congress. Since 1937, however, the Supreme Court has largely rejected this view, and the Amendment no longer has the same operative meaning or effect that it once had. Rights Versus Duties Some Americans seem to fancy that the whole Constitution is a catalog of people’s rights. But actually the major part of the Constitution—the Seven Articles—establishes a framework of national government and only incidentally deals with individuals’ rights. In any society, duties are often even more important than rights. For example, the duty of obeying good laws is more essential than the right to be exempted from the ordinary operation of the laws. As has been said, every right is married to some duty. Freedom involves individual responsibility. With that statement in mind, let us look at some of the provisions of the Bill of Rights to see how those rights are joined to certain duties. If one has a right to freedom of speech, one has a duty to speak decently and honestly, not inciting people to riot or to commit crimes. If one has a right to freedom of the press (or, in our time, freedom of the “media”), one has the duty to publish the truth, temperately—not abusing this freedom for personal advantage or vengeance. If one has a right to join other people in a public assembly, one has the duty to tolerate other people’s similar gatherings and not to take the opportunity of converting a crowd into a mob. If one enjoys an immunity from arbitrary search and seizure, one has the duty of not abusing these rights by unlawfully concealing things forbidden by law. If one has a right not to be a witness against oneself in a criminal case, one has the duty not to pretend that he would be incriminated if he should testify: that is, to be an honest and candid witness, not taking advantage of the self-incrimination exemption unless otherwise one would really be in danger of successful prosecution. If one has a right to trial by jury, one ought to be willing to serve on juries when so summoned by a court. If one is entitled to rights, one has the duty to support the public authority that protects those rights. For, unless a strong and just government exists, it is vain to talk about one’s rights. Without liberty, order, and justice, sustained by good government, there is no place to which anyone can turn for enforcement of his claims to rights. This is because a “right,” in law, is a claim upon somebody for something. If a man has a right to be paid for a day’s work, for example, he asserts a claim upon his employer; but, if that employer refuses to pay him, the man must turn to a court of law for enforcement of his right. If no court of law exists, the “right” to payment becomes little better than an empty word. The unpaid man might try to take his pay by force, true; but when force rules instead of law, a society falls into anarchy and the world is dominated by the violent and the criminal. Knowing these hard truths about duties, rights, and social order, the Framers endeavored to give us a Constitution that is more than mere words and slogans. Did they succeed? At the end of two centuries, the Constitution of the United States still functions adequately. Had Americans followed the French example of placing all their trust in a naked declaration of rights, without any supporting constitutional edifice to limit power and the claims of absolute liberty, it may be doubted whether liberty, order, or justice would have prevailed in the succeeding years. There cannot be better proof of the wisdom of the Framers than the endurance of the Constitution. The Address and Reasons of Dissent of the Minority of the Convention of the State of Pennsylvania to Their Constituents Anti-Federalist dissent from the proposed Constitution is adequately represented by this document presented to the Pennsylvania Convention on December 18, 1787, by the minority (Anti-Federalists). Similar protests against ratification were made by Patrick Henry in Virginia and by able opponents in other States. It was not until after the termination of the late glorious contest, which made the people of the United States an independent nation, that any defect was discovered in the present confederation. It was formed by some of the ablest patriots in America. It carried us successfully through the war, and the virtue and patriotism of the people, with their disposition to promote the common cause, supplied the want of power in Congress. The requisition of Congress for the five per cent. impost was made before the peace, so early as the first of February, 1781, but was prevented taking effect by the refusal of one State; yet it is probable every State in the Union would have agreed to this measure at that period, had it not been for the extravagant terms in which it was demanded. The requisition was new molded in the year 1783, and accompanied with an additional demand of certain supplementary funds for twenty-five years. Peace had now taken place, and the United States found themselves laboring under a considerable foreign and domestic debt, incurred during the war. The requisition of 1783 was commensurate with the interest of the debt, as it was then calculated; but it has been more accurately ascertained since that time. The domestic debt has been found to fall several millions of dollars short of the calculation, and it has lately been considerably diminished by large sales of the Western lands. The States have been called on by Congress annually for supplies until the general system of finance proposed in 1783 should take place. It was at this time that the want of an efficient federal government was first complained of, and the powers vested in Congress were found to be inadequate to the procuring of the benefits that should result from the union. The impost was granted by most of the States, but many refused the supplementary funds; the annual requisitions were set at naught by some of the States, while others complied with them by legislative acts, but were tardy in their payments, and Congress found themselves incapable of complying with their engagements and supporting the federal government. It was found that our national character was sinking in the opinion of foreign nations. The Congress could make treaties of commerce, but could not enforce the observance of them. We were suffering from the restrictions of foreign nations, who had suckled our commerce while we were unable to retaliate, and all now agreed that it would be advantageous to the union to enlarge the powers of Congress, that they should be enabled in the amplest manner to regulate commerce and to lay and collect duties on the imports throughout the United States. With this view, a convention was first proposed by Virginia, and finally recommended by Congress for the different States to appoint deputies to meet in convention, “for the purposes of revising and amending the present articles of confederation, so as to make them adequate to the exigencies of the union.” This recommendation the legislatures of twelve States complied with so hastily as not to consult their constituents on the subject; and though the different legislatures had no authority from their constituents for the purpose, they probably apprehended the necessity would justify the measure, and none of them extended their ideas at that time further than “revising and amending the present articles of confederation.” Pennsylvania, by the act appointing deputies, expressly confined their powers to this object, and though it is probable that some of the members of the assembly of this State had at that time in contemplation to annihilate the present confederation, as well as the constitution of Pennsylvania, yet the plan was not sufficiently matured to communicate it to the public. The majority of the legislature of this commonwealth were at that time under the influence of the members from the city of Philadelphia. They agreed that the deputies sent by them to convention should have no compensation for their services, which determination was calculated to prevent the election of any member who resided at a distance from the city. It was in vain for the minority to attempt electing delegates to the convention who understood the circumstances, and the feelings of the people, and had a common interest with them. They found a disposition in the leaders of the majority of the house to choose themselves and some of their dependents. The minority attempted to prevent this by agreeing to vote for some of the leading members, who they knew had influence enough to be appointed at any rate, in hopes of carrying with them some respectable citizens of Philadelphia, in whose principles and integrity they could have more confidence, but even in this they were disappointed, except in one member: the eighth member was added at a subsequent session of the assembly. The Continental Convention met in the city of Philadelphia at the time appointed. It was composed of some men of excellent character; of others who were more remarkable for their ambition and cunning than their patriotism, and of some who had been opponents to the independence of the United States. The delegates from Pennsylvania were, six of them, uniform and decided opponents to the Constitution of this commonwealth. The convention sat upwards of four months. The doors were kept shut, and the members brought under the most solemn engagements of secrecy. Some of those who opposed their going so far beyond their powers, retired, hopeless, from the convention; others had the firmness to refuse signing the plan altogether; and many who did sign it, did it not as a system they wholly approved, but as the best that could be then obtained, and notwithstanding the time spent on this subject, it is agreed on all hands to be a work of haste and accommodation. Whilst the gilded chains were forging in the secret conclave, the meaner instruments of the despotism without were busily employed in alarming the fears of the people with dangers which did not exist, and exciting their hopes of greater advantages from the expected plan than even the best government on earth could produce. The proposed plan had not many hours issued forth from the womb of suspicious secrecy, until such as were prepared for the purpose, were carrying about petitions for people to sign, signifying their approbation of the system, and requesting the legislature to call a convention. While every measure was taken to intimidate the people against opposing it, the public papers teemed with the most violent threats against those who should dare to think for themselves, and tar and feathers were liberally promised to all those who would not immediately join in supporting the proposed government, be it what it would. Under such circumstances petitions in favor of calling a Convention were signed by great numbers in and about the city, before they had leisure to read and examine the system, many of whom—now they are better acquainted with it, and have had time to investigate its principles—are heartily opposed to it. The petitions were speedily handed in to the legislature. Affairs were in this situation, when on the 28th of September last, a resolution was proposed to the assembly by a member of the house, who had been also a member of the federal convention, for calling a State convention to be elected within ten days for the purpose of examining and adopting the proposed Constitution of the United States, though at this time the house had not received it from Congress. This attempt was opposed by a minority, who after offering every argument in their power to prevent the precipitate measure, without effect, absented themselves from the house as the only alternative left them, to prevent the measures taking place previous to their constituents being acquainted with the business. That violence and outrage which had been so often threatened was now practiced; some of the members were seized the next day by a mob collected for the purpose, and forcibly dragged to the house, and there detained by force whilst the quorum of the legislature so formed, completed their resolution. We shall dwell no longer on this subject: the people of Pennsylvania have been already acquainted therewith. We would only further observe that every member of the legislature, previously to taking his seat, by solemn oath or affirmation, declares “that he will not do or consent to any act or thing whatever, that will have a tendency to lessen or abridge their rights and privileges, as declared in the constitution of this State.” And that constitution which they are so solemnly sworn to support, cannot legally be altered but by a recommendation of the council of censors, who alone are authorized to propose alterations and amendments, and even these must be published at least six months for the consideration of the people. The proposed system of government for the United States, if adopted, will alter and may annihilate the constitution of Pennsylvania; and therefore the legislature had no authority whatever to recommend the calling of a convention for that purpose. This proceeding could not be considered as binding on the people of this commonwealth. The house was formed by violence, some of the members composing it were detained there by force, which alone would have vitiated any proceedings to which they were otherwise competent; but had the legislature been legally formed, this business was absolutely without their power. In this situation of affairs were the subscribers elected members of the Convention of Pennsylvania—a Convention called by a legislature in direct violation of their duty, and composed in part of members who were compelled to attend for the purpose, to consider a Constitution proposed by a Convention of the United States, who were not appointed for the purpose of framing a new form of government, but whose powers were expressly confined to altering and amending the present articles of confederation. Therefore the members of the continental Convention in proposing the plan acted as individuals, and not as deputies from Pennsylvania. The assembly who called the State Convention acted as individuals, and not as the legislature of Pennsylvania; nor could they or the Convention chosen on their recommendation have authority to do any act or thing that can alter or annihilate the Constitution of Pennsylvania (both of which will be done by the new Constitution), nor are their proceedings, in our opinion, at all binding on the people. The election for members of the Convention was held at so early a period, and the want of information was so great, that some of us did not know of it until after it was over, and we have reason to believe that great numbers of the people of Pennsylvania have not yet had an opportunity of sufficiently examining the proposed Constitution. We apprehend that no change can take place that will affect the internal government or Constitution of this commonwealth, unless a majority of the people should evidence a wish for such a change; but on examining the number of votes given for members of the present State Convention, we find that of upwards of seventy thousand freemen who are entitled to vote in Pennsylvania, the whole convention has been elected by about thirteen thousand voters, and though two-thirds of the members of the Convention have thought proper to ratify the proposed Constitution, yet those two-thirds were elected by the votes of only six thousand and eight hundred freemen. In the city of Philadelphia and some of the eastern counties there unto that took the lead in the business agreed to vote for none but such as would solemnly promise to adopt the system in toto, without exercising their judgment. In many of the counties the people did not attend the elections, as they had not an opportunity of judging of the plan. Others did not consider themselves bound by the call of a set of men who assembled at the State-house in Philadelphia and assumed the name of the legislature of Pennsylvania; and some were prevented from voting by the violence of the party who were determined at all events to force down the measure. To such lengths did the tools of despotism carry their outrage, that on the night of the election for members of convention, in the city of Philadelphia, several of the subscribers (being then in the city to transact your business) were grossly abused, ill-treated and insulted while they were quiet in their lodgings, though they did not interfere nor had anything to do with the said election, but, as they apprehend, because they were supposed to be adverse to the proposed constitution, and would not tamely surrender those sacred rights which you had committed to their charge. The convention met, and the same disposition was soon manifested in considering the proposed constitution, that had been exhibited in every other stage of the business. We were prohibited by an express vote of the convention from taking any questions on the separate articles of the plan, and reduced to the necessity of adopting or rejecting in toto. ’Tis true the majority permitted us to debate on each article, but restrained us from proposing amendments. They also determined not to permit us to enter on the minutes our reasons of dissent against any of the articles, nor even on the final question our reasons of dissent against the whole. Thus situated we entered on the examination of the proposed system of government, and found it to be such as we could not adopt, without, as we conceived, surrendering up your dearest rights. We offered our objections to the convention, and opposed those parts of the plan which, in our opinion, would be injurious to you, in the best manner we were able; and closed our arguments by offering the following propositions to the convention. 1. The right of conscience shall be held inviolable; and neither the legislative, executive or judicial powers of the United States shall have authority to alter, abrogate or infringe any part of the constitution of the several States, which provide for the preservation of liberty in matters of religion. 2. That in controversies respecting property, and in suits between man and man, trial by jury shall remain as heretofore, as well in the Federal courts as in those of the several States. 3. That in all capital and criminal prosecutions, a man has a right to demand the cause and nature of his accusation, as well in the Federal courts as in those of the several States; to be heard by himself and his counsel; to be confronted with the accusers and witnesses; to call for evidence in his favor, and a speedy trial by an impartial jury of his vicinage, without whose unanimous consent he cannot be found guilty; nor can he be compelled to give evidence against himself; and, that no man be deprived of his liberty, except by the law of the land or the judgment of his peers. 4. That excessive bail ought not to be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel nor unusual punishments inflicted. 5. That warrants unsupported by evidence, whereby any officer or messenger may be commanded or required to search suspected places; or to seize any person or persons, his or their property not particularly described, are grievous and oppressive, and shall not be granted either by the magistrates of the Federal government or others. 6. That the people have a right to the freedom of speech, of writing and publishing their sentiments; therefore the freedom of the press shall not be restrained by any law of the United States. 7. That the people have a right to bear arms for the defence of themselves and their own State or the United States, or for the purpose of killing game; and no law shall be passed for disarming the people or any of them unless for crimes committed, or real danger of public injury from individuals; and as standing armies in the time of peace are dangerous to liberty, they ought not to be kept up; and that the military shall be kept under strict subordination to, and be governed by the civil powers. 8. The inhabitants of the several States shall have liberty to fowl and hunt in seasonable time on the lands they hold, and on all other lands in the United States not inclosed, and in like manner to fish in all navigable waters, and others not private property, without being restrained therein by any laws to be passed by the legislature of the United States. 9. That no law shall be passed to restrain the legislatures of the several States from enacting laws for imposing taxes, except imposts and duties on goods imported or exported, and that no taxes, except imposts and duties upon goods imported and exported, and postage on letters, shall be levied by the authority of Congress. 10. That the House of Representatives be properly increased in number; that elections shall remain free; that the several States shall have power to regulate the elections for Senators and Representatives, without being controlled either directly or indirectly by any interference on the part of the Congress; and that the elections of Representatives be annual. 11. That the power of organizing, arming and disciplining the militia (the manner of disciplining the militia to be prescribed by Congress), remain with the individual States, and that Congress shall not have authority to call or march any of the militia out of their own State, without the consent of such State, and for such length of time only as such State shall agree. That the sovereignty, freedom and independence of the several States shall be retained, and every power, jurisdiction and right which is not by this Constitution expressly delegated to the United States in Congress assembled. 12. That the legislative, executive and judicial powers be kept separate; and to this end that a constitutional council be appointed to advise and assist the President, who shall be responsible for the advice they give—hereby the Senators would be relieved from almost constant attendance; and also that the judges be made completely independent. 13. That no treaty which shall be directly opposed to the existing laws of the United States in Congress assembled, shall be valid until such laws shall be repealed or made conformable to such treaty; neither shall any treaties be valid which are in contradiction to the Constitution of the United States, or the constitution of the several States. 14. That the judiciary power of the United States shall be confined to cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, to cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party; to controversies between two or more States—between a State and citizens of different States—between citizens claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State or the citizens thereof and foreign States; and in criminal cases to such only as are expressly enumerated in the Constitution; and that the United States in Congress assembled shall not have power to enact laws which shall alter the laws of descent and distribution of the effects of deceased persons, the titles of lands or goods, or the regulation of contracts in the individual States. After reading these propositions, we declared our willingness to agree to the plan, provided it was so amended as to meet those propositions or something similar to them, and finally moved the convention to adjourn, to give the people of Pennsylvania time to consider the subject and determine for themselves; but these were all rejected and the final vote taken, when our duty to you induced us to vote against the proposed plan and to decline signing the ratification of the same. During the discussion we met with many insults and some personal abuse. We were not even treated with decency, during the sitting of the convention, by the persons in the gallery of the house. However, we flatter ourselves that in contending for the preservation of those invaluable rights you have thought proper to commit to our charge, we acted with a spirit becoming freemen; and being desirous that you might know the principles which actuated our conduct, and being prohibited from inserting our reasons of dissent on the minutes of the convention, we have subjoined them for your consideration, as to you alone we are accountable. It remains with you whether you will think those inestimable privileges,which you have so ably contended for, should be sacrificed at the shrine of despotism, or whether you mean to contend for them with the same spirit that has so often baffled the attempts of an aristocratic faction to rivet the shackles of slavery on you and your unborn posterity. Our objections are comprised under three general heads of dissent, viz.: We dissent, first, because it is the opinion of the most celebrated writers on government, and confirmed by uniform experience, that a very extensive territory cannot be governed on the principles of freedom, otherwise than by a confederation of republics, possessing all the powers of internal government, but united in the management of their general and foreign concerns. If any doubt could have been entertained of the truth of the foregoing principle, it has been fully removed by the concession of Mr. Wilson, one of the majority on this question, and who was one of the deputies in the late general convention. In justice to him, we will give his own words; they are as follows, viz.: “The extent of country for which the new Constitution was required, produced another difficulty in the business of the Federal Convention. It is the opinion of some celebrated writers, that to a small territory, the democratical; to a middling territory (as Montesquieu has termed it), the monarchical; and to an extensive territory, the despotic form of government is best adapted. Regarding then the wide and almost unbounded jurisdiction of the United States, at first view, the hand of despotism seemed necessary to control, connect and protect it; and hence the chief embarrassment rose. For we know that although our constituents would cheerfully submit to the legislative restraints of a free government, they would spurn at every attempt to shackle them with despotic power.” And again, in another part of his speech, he continues: “Is it probable that the dissolution of the State governments, and the establishment of one consolidated empire would be eligible in its nature, and satisfactory to the people in its administration? I think not, as I have given reasons to show that so extensive a territory could not be governed, connected and preserved, but by the supremacy of despotic power. All the exertions of the most potent emperors of Rome were not capable of keeping that empire together, which in extent was far inferior to the dominion of America.” We dissent, secondly, because the powers vested in Congress by this Constitution must necessarily annihilate and absorb the legislative, executive, and judicial powers of the several States, and produce from their ruins one consolidated government, which from the nature of things will be an iron handed despotism, as nothing short of the supremacy of despotic sway could connect and govern these United States under one government. As the truth of this position is of such decisive importance, it ought to be fully investigated, and if it is founded to be clearly ascertained; for, should it be demonstrated that the powers vested by this Constitution in Congress will have such an effect as necessarily to produce one consolidated government, the question then will be reduced to this short issue, viz: whether satiated with the blessings of liberty, whether repenting of the folly of so recently asserting their unalienable rights against foreign despots at the expense of so much blood and treasure, and such painful and arduous struggles, the people of America are now willing to resign every privilege of freemen, and submit to the dominion of an absolute government that will embrace all America in one chain of despotism; or whether they will, with virtuous indignation, spurn at the shackles prepared for them, and confirm their liberties by a conduct becoming freemen. That the new government will not be a confederacy of States, as it ought, but one consolidated government, founded upon the destruction of the several governments of the States, we shall now show. The powers of Congress under the new Constitution are complete and unlimited over the purse and the sword, and are perfectly independent of and supreme over the State governments, whose intervention in these great points is entirely destroyed. By virtue of their power of taxation, Congress may command the whole or any part of the property of the people. They may impose what imposts upon commerce, they may impose what land taxes, poll taxes, excises, duties on all written instruments and duties on every other article, that they may judge proper; in short, every species of taxation, whether of an external or internal nature, is comprised in section the eighth of article the first, viz: “The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts, and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States.” As there is no one article of taxation reserved to the State governments, the Congress may monopolize every source of revenue, and thus indirectly demolish the State governments, for without funds they could not exist; the taxes, duties and excises imposed by Congress may be so high as to render it impracticable to levy farther sums on the same articles; but whether this should be the case or not, if the State governments should presume to impose taxes, duties or excises on the same articles with Congress, the latter may abrogate and repeal the laws whereby they are imposed, upon the allegation that they interfere with the due collection of their taxes, duties or excises, by virtue of the following clause, part of section eighth, article first, viz.: “To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof.” The Congress might gloss over this conduct by construing every purpose for which the State legislatures now lay taxes, to be for the “general welfare,” and therefore as of their jurisdiction. And the supremacy of the laws of the United States is established by article sixth, viz.: “That this Constitution and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby; anything in the constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding.” It has been alleged that the words “pursuant to the Constitution,” are a restriction upon the authority of Congress; but when it is considered that by other sections they are invested with every efficient power of government, and which may be exercised to the absolute destruction of the State governments, without any violation of even the forms of the Constitution, this seeming restriction, as well as every other restriction in it, appears to us to be nugatory and delusive; and only introduced as a blind upon the real nature of the government. In our opinion, “pursuant to the Constitution” will be co-extensive with the will and pleasure of Congress, which, indeed, will be the only limitation of their powers. We apprehend that two co-ordinate sovereignties would be a solecism in politics; that, therefore, as there is no line of distinction drawn between the general and State governments, as the sphere of their jurisdiction is undefined, it would be contrary to the nature of things that both should exist together—one or the other would necessarily triumph in the fullness of dominion. However, the contest could not be of long continuance, as the State governments are divested of every means of defense, and will be obliged by “the supreme law of the land” to yield at discretion. It has been objected to this total destruction of the State governments that the existence of their legislatures is made essential to the organization of Congress; that they must assemble for the appointment of the Senators and President-general of the United States. True, the State legislatures may be continued for some years, as boards of appointment merely, after they are divested of every other function; but the framers of the Constitution, foreseeing that the people will soon become disgusted with this solemn mockery of a government without power and usefulness, have made a provision for relieving them from the imposition in section fourth of article first, viz.: “The times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the place of choosing Senators.” As Congress have the control over the time of the appointment of the President-general, of the Senators and of the Representatives of the United States, they may prolong their existence in office for life by postponing the time of their election and appointment from period to period under various pretenses, such as an apprehension of invasion, the factious disposition of the people, or any other plausible pretence that the occasion may suggest; and having thus obtained life-estates in the government, they may fill up the vacancies themselves by their control over the mode of appointment; with this exception in regard to the Senators that as the place of appointment for them must, by the Constitution, be in the particular State, they may depute some body in the respective States, to fill up the vacancies in the Senate, occasioned by death, until they can venture to assume it themselves. In this manner may the only restriction in this clause be evaded. By virtue of the foregoing section, when the spirit of the people shall be gradually broken, when the general government shall be firmly established, and when a numerous standing army shall render opposition vain, the Congress may complete the system of despotism, in renouncing all dependence on the people by continuing themselves and children in the government. The celebrated Montesquieu, in his Spirit of Laws, vol. i., page 12, says, “That in a democracy there can be no exercise of sovereignty, but by the suffrages of the people, which are their will; now the sovereign’s will is the sovereign himself—the laws, therefore, which establish the right of suffrage, are fundamental to this government. In fact, it is as important to regulate in a republic in what manner, by whom, and concerning what suffrages are to be given, as it is in a monarchy to know who is the prince, and after what manner he ought to govern.” The time, mode and place of the election of Representatives, Senators and President-general of the United States, ought not to be under the control of Congress, but fundamentally ascertained and established. The new Constitution, consistently with the plan of consolidation, contains no reservation of the rights and privileges of the State governments, which was made in the confederation of the year 1778, by article the 2d, viz.: “That each State retains its sovereignty, freedom and independence, and every power, jurisdiction and right which is not by this confederation expressly delegated to the United States in Congress assembled.” The legislative power vested in Congress by the foregoing recited sections, is so unlimited in its nature, may be so comprehensive and boundless in its exercise, that this alone would be amply sufficient to annihilate the State governments, and swallow them up in the grand vortex of a general empire. The judicial powers vested in Congress are also so various and extensive, that by legal ingenuity they may be extended to every case, and thus absorb the State judiciaries; and when we consider the decisive influence that a general judiciary would have over the civil polity of the several States, we do not hesitate to pronounce that this power, unaided by the legislative, would effect a consolidation of the States under one government. The powers of a court of equity, vested by this Constitution in the tribunals of Congress—powers which do not exist in Pennsylvania, unless so far as they can be incorporated with jury trial—would, in this State, greatly contribute to this event. The rich and wealthy suitors would eagerly lay hold of the infinite mazes, perplexities and delays, which a court of chancery, with the appellate powers of the Supreme Court in fact as well as law would furnish him with, and thus the poor man being plunged in the bottomless pit of legal discussion, would drop his demand in despair. In short, consolidation pervades the whole Constitution. It begins with an annunciation that such was the intention. The main pillars of the fabric correspond with it, and the concluding paragraph is a confirmation of it. The preamble begins with the words, “We the people of the United States,” which is the style of a compact between individuals entering into a state of society, and not that of a confederation of States. The other features of consolidation we have before noticed. Thus we have fully established the position, that the powers vested by this constitution in Congress will effect a consolidation of the States under one government, which even the advocates of this Constitution admit could not be done without the sacrifice of all liberty. We dissent, thirdly, because if it were practicable to govern so extensive a territory as these United States include, on the plan of a consolidated government, consistent with the principles of liberty and the happiness of the people, yet the construction of this Constitution is not calculated to attain the object; for independent of the nature of the case, it would of itself necessarily produce a despotism, and that not by the usual gradations, but with the celerity that has hitherto only attended revolutions effected by the sword. To establish the truth of this position, a cursory investigation of the principles and form of this Constitution will suffice. The first consideration that this review suggests, is the omission of a BILL OF RIGHTS ascertaining and fundamentally establishing those unalienable and personal rights of men, without the full, free and secure enjoyment of which there can be no liberty, and over which it is not necessary for a good government to have the control—the principal of which are the rights of conscience, personal liberty by the clear and unequivocal establishment of the writ of habeas corpus, jury trial in criminal and civil cases, by an impartial jury of the vicinage or county, with the common law proceedings for the safety of the accused in criminal prosecutions; and the liberty of the press, that scourge of tyrants, and the grand bulwark of every other liberty and privilege. The stipulations heretofore made in favor of them in the State constitutions, are entirely superseded by this Constitution. The legislature of a free country should be so formed as to have a competent knowledge of its constituents, and enjoy their confidence. To produce these essential requisites, the representation ought to be fair, equal and sufficiently numerous to possess the same interests, feelings, opinions, and views which the people themselves would possess, were they all assembled; and so numerous as to prevent bribery and undue influence, and so responsible to the people, by frequent and fair elections, as to prevent their neglecting or sacrificing the views and interests of their constituents to their own pursuits. We will now bring the legislature under this Constitution to the test of the foregoing principles, which will demonstrate that it is deficient in every essential quality of a just and safe representation. The House of Representatives is to consist of sixty-five members; that is one for about every 50,000 inhabitants, to be chosen every two years. Thirty-three members will form a quorum for doing business, and seventeen of these, being the majority, determine the sense of the house. The Senate, the other constituent branch of the legislature, consists of twenty-six members, being two from each State, appointed by their legislatures every six years; fourteen senators make a quorum—the majority of whom, eight, determines the sense of that body, except in judging on impeachments, or in making treaties, or in expelling a member, when two-thirds of the Senators present must concur. The President is to have the control over the enacting of laws, so far as to make the concurrence of two-thirds of the Representatives and Senators present necessary, if he should object to the laws. Thus it appears that the liberties, happiness, interests, and great concerns of the whole United States, may be dependent upon the integrity, virtue, wisdom, and knowledge of twenty-five or twenty-six men. How inadequate and unsafe a representation! Inadequate, because the sense and views of three or four millions of people, diffuse over so extensive a territory, comprising such various climates, products, habits, interests, and opinions, cannot be collected in so small a body; and besides, it is not a fair and equal representation of the people even in proportion to its number, for the smallest State has as much weight in the Senate as the largest; and from the smallness of the number to be chosen for both branches of the legislature, and from the mode of election and appointment, which is under the control of Congress, and from the nature of the thing, men of the most elevated rank in life will alone be chosen. The other orders in the society, such as farmers, traders, and mechanics, who all ought to have a competent number of their best informed men in the legislature, shall be totally unrepresented. The representation is unsafe, because in the exercise of such great powers and trusts, it is so exposed to corruption and undue influence, by the gift of the numerous places of honor and emolument at the disposal of the executive, by the arts and address of the great and designing, and by direct bribery. The representation is moreover inadequate and unsafe, because of the long terms for which it is appointed, and the mode of its appointment, by which Congress may not only control the choice of the people, but may so manage as to divest the people of this fundamental right, and become self-elected. The number of members in the House of Representatives may be increased to one for every 30,000 inhabitants. But when we consider that this cannot be done without the consent of the Senate, who from their share in the legislative, in the executive, and judicial departments, and permanency of appointment, will be the great efficient body in this government, and whose weight and predominance would be abridged by an increase of the representatives, we are persuaded that this is a circumstance that cannot be expected. On the contrary, the number of representatives will probably be continued at sixty-five, although the population of the country may swell to treble what it now is, unless a revolution should effect a change. We have before noticed the judicial power as it would affect a consolidation of the States into one government; we will now examine it as it would affect the liberties and welfare of the people, supposing such a government were practicable and proper. The judicial power, under the proposed Constitution, is founded on well-known principles of the civil law, by which the judge determines both on law and fact, and appeals are allowed from the inferior tribunals to the superior, upon the whole question; so that facts as well as law, would be reexamined, and even new facts brought forward in the court of appeals; and to use the words of a very eminent civilian—“The cause is many times another thing before the court of appeals, than what it was at the time of the first sentence.” That this mode of proceeding is the one which must be adopted under this Constitution, is evident from the following circumstances: 1st. That the trial by jury, which is the grand characteristic of the common law, is secured by the Constitution only in criminal cases. 2d. That the appeal from both law and fact is expressly established, which is utterly inconsistent with the principles of the common law and trials by jury. The only mode in which an appeal from law and fact can be established, is by adopting the principles and practice of the civil law, unless the United States should be drawn into the absurdity of calling and swearing juries, merely for the purpose of contradicting their verdicts, which would render juries contemptible and worse than useless. 3d. That the courts to be established would decide on all cases of law and equity, which is a well-known characteristic of the civil law, and these courts would have cognizance not only of the laws of the United States, and of treaties, and of cases affecting ambassadors, but of all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction, which last are matters belonging exclusively to the civil law, in every nation in Christendom. Not to enlarge upon the loss of the invaluable right of trial by an unbiased jury, so dear to every friend of liberty, the monstrous expense and inconveniences of the mode of proceeding to be adopted, are such as will prove intolerable to the people of this country. The lengthy proceedings of the civil law courts in the chancery of England, and in the courts of Scotland and France, are such that few men of moderate fortune can endure the expense of them; the poor man must therefore submit to the wealthy. Length of purse will too often prevail against right and justice. For instance, we are told by the learned Judge Blackstone, that a question only on the property of an ox, of the value of three guineas, originating under the civil law proceedings in Scotland, after many interlocutory orders and sentences below, was carried at length from the court of sessions, the highest court in that part of Great Britain, by way of appeal to the House of Lords, where the question of law and fact was finally determined. He adds that no pique or spirit could in the Court of King’s Bench or Common Pleas at Westminster have given continuance to such a cause for a tenth part of the time, nor have cost a twentieth part of the expense. Yet the costs in the Courts of King’s Bench and Common Pleas in England are infinitely greater than those which the people of this country have ever experienced. We abhor the idea of losing the transcendent privilege of trial by jury, with the loss of which, it is remarked by the same learned author, that in Sweden, the liberties of the commons were extinguished by an aristocratic Senate; and that trial by jury and the liberty of the people went out together. At the same time we regret the intolerable delay, the enormous expense, and infinite vexation, to which the people of this country will be exposed from the voluminous proceedings of the courts of civil law, and especially from the appellate jurisdiction, by means of which a man may be drawn from the utmost boundaries of this extensive country to the seat of the Supreme Court of the nation to contend, perhaps, with a wealthy and powerful adversary. The consequence of this establishment will be an absolute confirmation of the power of aristocratical influence in the courts of justice; for the common people will not be able to contend or struggle against it. Trial by jury in criminal cases may also be excluded by declaring that the libeller for instance shall be liable to an action of debt for a specified sum, thus evading the common law prosecution by indictment and trial by jury. And the common course of proceeding against a ship for breach of revenue laws by informal (which will be classed among civil causes) will at the civil law be within the resort of a court, where no jury intervenes. Besides, the benefit of jury trial, in cases of a criminal nature, which cannot be evaded, will be rendered of little value, by calling the accused to answer far from home; there being no provision that the trial be by a jury of the neighborhood or county. Thus an inhabitant of Pittsburgh, on a charge of crime committed on the banks of the Ohio, may be obliged to defend himself at the side of the Delaware, and so vice versa. To conclude this head: we observe that the judges of the courts of Congress would not be independent, as they are not debarred from holding other offices, during the pleasure of the President and Senate, and as they may derive their support in part from fees, alterable by the legislature. The next consideration that the Constitution presents is the undue and dangerous mixture of the powers of government; the same body possessing legislative, executive and judicial powers. The Senate is a constituent branch of the legislature, it has judicial power in judging on impeachments, and in this case unites in some measure the characters of judge and party, as all the principal officers are appointed by the President-general, with the concurrence of the Senate, and therefore they derive their offices in part from the Senate. This may bias the judgments of the Senators, and tend to screen great delinquents from punishment. And the Senate has, moreover, various and great executive powers, viz., in concurrence with the President-general, they form treaties with foreign nations, that may control and abrogate the constitutions and laws of the several States. Indeed, there is no power, privilege or liberty of the State governments, or of the people, but what may be affected by virtue of this power. For all treaties, made by them, are to be the “supreme law of the land; anything in the constitution or laws of any State, to the contrary notwithstanding.” And this great power may be exercised by the President and ten Senators (being two-thirds of fourteen, which is a quorum of that body). What an inducement would this offer to the ministers of foreign powers to compass by bribery such concessions as could not otherwise be obtained. It is the unvaried usage of all free States, whenever treaties interfere with the positive laws of the land, to make the intervention of the legislature necessary to give them operation. This became necessary, and was afforded by the Parliament of Great Britain, in consequence of the late commercial treaty between that kingdom and France. As the Senate judges on impeachments, who is to try the members of the Senate for the abuse of this power! And none of the great appointments to office can be made without the consent of the Senate. Such various, extensive, and important powers combined in one body of men, are inconsistent with all freedom; the celebrated Montesquieu tells us, that “when the legislative and executive powers are united in the same person, or in the same body of magistrates, there can be no liberty, because apprehensions may arise, lest the same monarch or senate should enact tyrannical laws, to execute them in a tyrannical manner.” “Again, there is no liberty, if the power of judging be not separated from the legislative and executive powers. Were it joined with the legislative, the life and liberty of the subject would be exposed to arbitrary control; for the judge would then be legislator. Were it joined to the executive power, the judge might behave with all the violence of an oppressor. There would be an end of everything, were the same man, or the same body of the nobles, or of the people, to exercise those three powers; that of enacting laws, that of executing the public resolutions, and that of judging the crimes or differences of individuals.” The President general is dangerously connected with the Senate; his coincidence with the views of the ruling junto in that body, is made essential to his weight and importance in the government, which will destroy all independence and purity in the executive department; and having the power of pardoning without the concurrence of a council, he may screen from punishment the most treasonable attempts that may be made on the liberties of the people, when instigated by his coadjutors in the Senate. Instead of this dangerous and improper mixture of the executive with the legislative and judicial, the supreme executive powers ought to have been placed in the President, with a small independent council, made personally responsible for every appointment to office or other act, by having their opinions recorded; and that without the concurrence of the majority of the quorum of this council, the President should not be capable of taking any step. We have before considered internal taxation as it would effect the destruction of the State governments, and produce one consolidated government. We will now consider that subject as it affects the personal concerns of the people. The power of direct taxation applies to every individual, as Congress, under this government, is expressly vested with the authority of laying a capitation or poll tax upon every person to any amount. This is a tax that, however oppressive in its nature, and unequal in its operation, is certain as to its produce and simple in its collection; it cannot be evaded like the objects of imposts or excise, and will be paid, because all that a man hath will he give for his head. This tax is so congenial to the nature of despotism, that it has ever been a favorite under such governments. Some of those who were in the late general convention from this State have labored to introduce a poll tax among us. The power of direct taxation will further apply to every individual, as Congress may tax land, cattle, trades, occupations, etc., to any amount, and every object of internal taxation is of that nature; that however oppressive, the people will have but this alternative, either to pay the tax or let their property be taken, for all resistance will be vain. The standing army and select militia would enforce the collection. For the moderate exercise of this power, there is no control left in the State governments, whose intervention is destroyed. No relief, or redress of grievances, can be extended as heretofore by them. There is not even a declaration of RIGHTS to which the people may appeal for the vindication of their wrongs in the court of justice. They must, therefore, implicitly obey the most arbitrary laws, as the most of them will be pursuant to the principles and form of the Constitution, and that strongest of all checks upon the conduct of administration, responsibility to the people, will not exist in this government. The permanency of the appointments of Senators and Representatives, and the control the Congress have over their election, will place them independent of the sentiments and resentment of the people, and the administration having a greater interest in the government than in the community, there will be no consideration to restrain them from oppression and tyranny. In the government of this State, under the old confederation, the members of the legislature are taken from among the people, and their interests and welfare are so inseparably connected with those of their constituents, that they can derive no advantage from oppressive laws and taxes; for they would suffer in common with their fellow-citizens, would participate in the burdens they impose on the community, as they must return to the common level, after a short period; and notwithstanding every exertion of influence, every means of corruption, a necessary rotation excludes them from permanency in the legislature. This large State is to have but ten members in that Congress which is to have the liberty, property and dearest concerns of every individual in this vast country at absolute command, and even these ten persons, who are to be our only guardians, who are to supersede the legislature of Pennsylvania, will not be of the choice of the people, nor amenable to them. From the mode of their election and appointment they will consist of the lordly and high minded; of men who will have no congenial feelings with the people, but a perfect indifference for, and contempt of them; they will consist of those harpies of power that prey upon the very vitals, that riot on the miseries of the community. But we will suppose, although in all probability it may never be realized in fact, that our deputies in Congress have the welfare of their constituents at heart, and will exert themselves in their behalf, what security could even this afford? What relief could they extend to their oppressed constituents? To attain this, the majority of the deputies of the twelve other States in Congress must be alike well disposed; must alike forego the sweets of power, and relinquish the pursuits of ambition, which, from the nature of things, is not to be expected. If the people part with a responsible representation in the legislature, founded upon fair, certain and frequent elections, they have nothing left they can call their own. Miserable is the lot of that people whose every concern depends on the will and pleasure of their rulers. Our soldiers will become Janissaries, and our officers of government Bashaws; in short, the system of despotism will soon be completed. From the foregoing investigation, it appears that the Congress under this Constitution will not possess the confidence of the people, which is an essential requisite in a good government; for unless the laws command the confidence and respect of the great body of the people, so as to induce them to support them when called on by the civil magistrate, they must be executed by the aid of a numerous standing army, which would be inconsistent with every idea of liberty; for the same force that may be employed to compel obedience to good laws, might and probably would be used to wrest from the people their constitutional liberties. The framers of this Constitution appear to have been aware of this great deficiency— to have been sensible that no dependence could be placed on the people for their support: but on the contrary, that the government must be executed by force. They have therefore made a provision for this purpose in a permanent standing army and a militia that may be objected to as strict discipline and government. A standing army in the hands of a government placed so independent of the people may be made a fatal instrument to overturn the public liberties; it may be employed to enforce the collection of the most oppressive taxes, and to carry into execution the most arbitrary measures. An ambitious man who may have the army at his devotion, may step up into the throne, and seize upon absolute power. The absolute unqualified command that Congress have over the militia may be made instrumental to the destruction of all liberty, both public and private; whether of a personal, civil or religious nature. First, the personal liberty of every man, probably from sixteen to sixty years of age, may be destroyed by the power Congress have in organizing and governing of the militia. As militia they may be subjected to fines to any amount, levied in a military manner; they may be subjected to corporal punishments of the most disgraceful and humiliating kind; and to death itself, by the sentence of a court martial. To this our young men will be more immediately subjected, as a select militia, composed of them, will best answer the purposes of government. Secondly, the rights of conscience may be violated, as there is no exemption of those persons who are conscientiously scrupulous of bearing arms. These compose a respectable proportion of the community in the State. This is the more remarkable, because even when the distresses of the late war, and the evident disaffection of many citizens of that description, inflamed our passions, and when every person who was obliged to risk his own life, must have been exasperated against such as on any account kept back from the common danger, yet even then, when outrage and violence might have been expected, the rights of conscience were held sacred. At this momentous crisis, the framers of our State Constitution made the most express and decided declaration and stipulations in favor of the rights of conscience; but now, when no necessity exists, those dearest rights of men are left insecure. Thirdly, the absolute command of Congress over the militia may be destructive of public liberty; for under the guidance of an arbitrary government, they may be made the unwilling instruments of tyranny. The militia of Pennsylvania may be marched to New England or Virginia to quell an insurrection occasioned by the most galling oppression, and aided by the standing army, they will no doubt be successful in subduing their liberty and independence; but in so doing, although the magnanimity of their minds will be extinguished, yet the meaner passions of resentment and revenge will be increased, and these in turn will be the ready and obedient instruments of despotism to enslave the others; and that with an irritated vengeance. Thus may the militia be made the instruments of crushing the last efforts of expiring liberty, of riveting the chains of despotism on their fellow-citizens, and on one another. This power can be exercised not only without violating the Constitution, but in strict conformity with it; it is calculated for this express purpose, and will doubtless be executed accordingly. As this government will not enjoy the confidence of the people, but be executed by force, it will be a very expensive and burdensome government. The standing army must be numerous, and as a further support, it will be the policy of this government to multiply officers in every department; judges, collectors, tax-gatherers, excisemen and the whole host of revenue officers, will swarm over the land, devouring the hard earnings of the industrious—like the locusts of old, impoverishing and desolating all before them. We have not noticed the smaller, nor many of the considerable blemishes, but have confined our objections to the great and essential defects, the main pillars of the Constitution; which we have shown to be inconsistent with the liberty and happiness of the people, as its establishment will annihilate the State governments, and produce one consolidated government that will eventually and speedily issue in the supremacy of despotism. In this investigation we have not confined our views to the interests or welfare of this State, in preference to the others. We have overlooked all local circumstances—we have considered this subject on the broad scale of the general good; we have asserted the cause of the present and future ages—the cause of liberty and mankind. Northwest Ordinance (1787) An ordinance for the Government of the Territory of the United States, north-west of the River Ohio be it ordained by the United States in Congress assembled, That the said territory, for the purposes of temporary government, be one district; subject, however, to be divided into two districts, as future circumstances may in the opinion of Congress, make it expedient. Be it ordained by the authority aforesaid, That the estates, both of resident and non-resident proprietors in the said territory, dying intestate, shall descend to, and be distributed among their children, and the descendants of a deceased child in equal parts; the descendants of a deceased child or grandchild, to take the share of their deceased parent in equal parts among them: And where there shall be no children or descendants, then in equal parts to the next of kin, in equal degree; and among collaterals, the children of a deceased brother or sister of the intestate, shall have in equal parts among them, their deceased parents’ share; and there shall in no case be a distinction between kindred of the whole and half blood; saving in all cases to the widow of the intestate, her third part of the real estate for life, and one third part of the personal estate; and this law relative to descents and dower, shall remain in full force until altered by the legislature of the district.—And until the governor and judges shall adopt laws as herein after mentioned, estates in the said territory may be devised or bequeathed by wills in writing, signed and sealed by him or her, in whom the estate may be (being of full age) and attested by three witnesses;—and real estates may be conveyed by lease and release, or bargain and sale, signed, sealed, and delivered by the person being of full age, in whom the estate may be, and attested by two witnesses, provided such wills be duly proved, and such conveyances be acknowledged, or the execution thereof duly proved, and be recorded within one year after proper magistrates, courts, and registers shall be appointed for that purpose; and personal property may be transferred by delivery; saving, however, to the French and Canadian inhabitants, and other settlers of the Kaskaskies, Saint Vincent’s, and the neighboring villages, who have heretofore professed themselves citizens of Virginia, their laws and customs now in force among them, relative to the descent and conveyance of property. Be it ordained by the authority aforesaid, That there shall be appointed from time to time, by Congress, a governor, whose commission shall continue in force for the term of three years, unless sooner revoked by Congress; he shall reside in the district, and have a freehold estate therein, in one thousand acres of land, while in the exercise of his office. There shall be appointed from time to time, by Congress, a secretary, whose commission shall continue in force for four years, unless sooner revoked; he shall reside in the district, and have a freehold estate therein, in five hundred acres of land, while in the exercise of his office; it shall be his duty to keep and preserve the acts and laws passed by the legislature, and the public records of the district, and the proceedings of the governor in his executive department; and transmit authentic copies of such acts and proceedings, every six months, to the secretary of Congress. There shall also be appointed a court to consist of three judges, any two of whom to form a court, who shall have a common law jurisdiction, and reside in the district, and have each therein a freehold estate in five hundred acres of land, while in the exercise of their offices; and their commissions shall continue in force during good behavior. The governor and judges, or a majority of them, shall adopt and publish in the district, such laws of the original States, criminal and civil, as may be necessary, and best suited to the circumstances of the district, and report them to Congress, from time to time; which laws shall be in force in the district until the organization of the General Assembly therein, unless disapproved of by Congress; but afterwards the Legislature shall have authority to alter them as they shall think fit. The governor, for the time being, shall be commander-in-chief of the militia, appoint and commission all officers in the same below the rank of general officers; all general officers shall be appointed and commissioned by Congress. Previous to the organization of the general assembly, the governor shall appoint such magistrates and other civil officers, in each county or township, as he shall find necessary for the preservation of the peace and good order in the same. After the general assembly shall be organized, the powers and duties of magistrates and other civil officers shall be regulated and defined by the said assembly; but all magistrates and other civil officers, not herein otherwise directed, shall, during the continuance of this temporary government, be appointed by the governor. For the prevention of crimes and injuries, the laws to be adopted or made shall have force in all parts of the district, and for the execution of process, criminal and civil, the governor shall make proper divisions thereof—and he shall proceed from time to time, as circumstances may require, to lay out the parts of the district in which the Indian titles shall have been extinguished, into counties and townships, subject, however, to such alterations as may thereafter be made by the legislature. So soon as there shall be five thousand free male inhabitants, of full age, in the district, upon giving proof thereof to the governor, they shall receive authority, with time and place, to elect representatives from their counties or townships, to represent them in the general assembly; Provided, That for every five hundred free male inhabitants, there shall be one representative, and so on progressively with the number of free male inhabitants shall the right of representation increase, until the number of representatives shall amount to twenty-five; after which, the number and proportion of representatives shall be regulated by the legislature: Provided that no person be eligible or qualified to act as a representative, unless he shall have been a citizen of one of the United States three years, and be a resident in the district, or unless he shall have resided in the district three years; and, in either case, shall likewise hold in his own right, in fee simple, two hundred acres of land within the same: Provided also, That a freehold in fifty acres of land in the district, having been a citizen of one of the States, and being resident in the district, or the like freehold and two years residence in the district shall be necessary to qualify a man as an elector of a representative. The representatives thus elected shall serve for the term of two years; and in case of the death of a representative, or removal from office, the governor shall issue a writ to the county or township, for which he was a member, to elect another in his stead, to serve for the residue of the term. The general assembly or legislature shall consist of the Governor, Legislative Council, and House of Representatives. The Legislative Council shall consist of five members, to continue in office five years, unless sooner removed by Congress; any three of whom to be a quorum: and the members of the Council shall be nominated and appointed in the following manner, to wit: As soon as representatives shall be elected, the Governor shall appoint a time and place for them to meet together, and, when met, they shall nominate ten persons, residents in the district, and each possessed of a freehold in five hundred acres of land, and return their names to Congress; five of whom Congress shall appoint and commission to serve as aforesaid; and, whenever a vacancy shall happen in the council, by death or removal from office, the House of Representatives shall nominate two persons, qualified as aforesaid, for each vacancy, and return their names to Congress; one of whom Congress shall appoint and commission for the residue of the term. And every five years, four months at least before the expiration of the time of service of the members of Council, the said House shall nominate ten persons, qualified as aforesaid, and return their names to Congress; five of whom Congress shall appoint and commission to serve as members of the Council five years, unless sooner removed. And the Governor, Legislative Council, and House of Representatives, shall have authority to make laws, in all cases, for the good government of the district, not repugnant to the principles and articles in this ordinance established and declared. And all bills having passed by a majority in the House, and by a majority in the Council, shall be referred to the Governor for his assent; but no bill, or legislative Act whatever, shall be of any force without his assent. The governor shall have power to convene, prorogue and dissolve the General Assembly, when, in his opinion, it shall be expedient. The Governor, judges, Legislative Council, Secretary, and such other officers as Congress shall appoint in the district, shall take an oath or affirmation of fidelity, and of office; the Governor before the President of Congress, and all other officers before the Governor. As soon as a legislature shall be formed in the district, the Council and House assembled, in one room, shall have authority, by joint ballot, to elect a delegate to Congress, who shall have a seat in Congress, with a right of debating, but not of voting during this temporary government. And for extending the fundamental principles of civil and religious liberty, which form the basis whereon these republics, their laws and constitutions are erected; to fix and establish those principles as the basis of all laws, constitutions, and governments, which forever hereafter shall be formed in the said territory: to provide also for the establishment of States, and permanent government therein, and for their admission to a share in the federal councils on an equal footing with the original States, at as early periods as may be consistent with the general interest: It is hereby ordained and declared by the authority aforesaid, That the following articles shall be considered as articles of compact between the original States, and the people and States in the said territory, and forever remain unalterable, unless by common consent, to wit: Article the first. No person, demeaning himself in a peaceable and orderly manner, shall ever be molested on account of his mode of worship or religious sentiments, in the said territory. Article the second. The inhabitants of the said territory, shall always be entitled to the benefits of the writ of habeas corpus, and of the trial by jury; of a proportionate representation of the people in the legislature; and of judicial proceedings according to the course of the common law. All persons shall be bailable, unless for capital offenses, where the proof shall be evident or the presumption great. All fines shall be moderate; and no cruel or unusual punishments shall be inflicted. No man shall be deprived of his liberty or property, but by the judgment of his peers, or the law of the land, and, should the public exigencies make it necessary, for the common preservation, to take any person’s property, or to demand his particular services, full compensation shall be made for the same. And, in the just preservation of rights and property, it is understood and declared, that no law ought ever to be made, have force in the said territory, that shall, in any manner whatever, interfere with or affect private contracts or engagements, bona fide, and without fraud, previously formed. Article the third. Religion, morality, and knowledge, being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged. The utmost good faith shall always be observed towards the Indians; their lands and property shall never be taken from them without their consent; and, in their property, rights, and liberty, they never shall be invaded or disturbed, unless in just and lawful wars authorized by Congress; but laws founded in justice and humanity shall from time to time be made for preventing wrongs being done to them, and for preserving peace and friendship with them. Article the fourth. The said territory, and the States which may be formed therein, shall forever remain a part of this Confederacy of the United States of America, subject to the Articles of Confederation, and to such alterations therein as shall be constitutionally made; and to all the Acts and ordinances of the United States in Congress assembled, conformable thereto. The inhabitants and settlers in the said territory, shall be subject to pay a part of the federal debts contracted or to be contracted, and a proportional part of the expenses of government, to be appointed on them by Congress according to the same common rule and measure by which apportionments thereof shall be made on the other States; and the taxes for paying their proportion shall be laid and levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures of the district or districts, or new States, as in the original States, within the time agreed upon by the United States in Congress assembled. The legislatures of those districts or new States shall never interfere with the primary disposal of the soil by the United States in Congress assembled, nor with any regulations Congress may find necessary for securing the title in such soil to the bona fide purchasers. No tax shall be imposed on lands the property of the United States; and, in no case, shall non-resident proprietors be taxed higher than residents. The navigable waters leading into the Mississippi and St. Lawrence, and the carrying places between the same, shall be common highways and forever free, as well to the inhabitants of the said territory as to the citizens of the United States, and those of any other States that may be admitted into the confederacy, without any tax, impost, or duty therefor. Article the fifth. There shall be formed in the said territory, not less than three, nor more than five States; and the boundaries of the States, as soon as Virginia shall alter her act of cession, and consent to the same, shall become fixed and established as follows, to wit: The western State in the said territory, shall be bounded by the Mississippi, the Ohio and Wabash rivers; a direct line drawn from the Wabash and Post Vincents due north to the territorial line between the United States and Canada; and by the said territorial line to the lake of the Woods and Mississippi. The middle State shall be bounded by the said direct line, the Wabash from Post Vincents to the Ohio; by the Ohio, by a direct line drawn due north from the mouth of the Great Miami, to the said territorial line, and by the said territorial line. The eastern States shall be bounded by the last mentioned direct line, the Ohio, Pennsylvania, and the said territorial line: Provided however, and it is further understood and declared, that the boundaries of these three States shall be subject so far to be altered, that if Congress shall hereafter find it expedient, they shall have authority to form one or two States in that part of the said territory which lies north of an east and west line drawn through the southerly bend or extreme of Lake Michigan. And whenever any of the said States shall have sixty thousand free inhabitants therein, such State shall be admitted, by its delegates, into the Congress of the United States, on an equal footing with the original States, in all respects whatever; and shall be at liberty to form a permanent constitution and State government: provided the constitution and government so to be formed, shall be republican, and in conformity with the principles contained in these articles; and so far as it can be consistent with the general interest of the confederacy, such admission shall be allowed at an earlier period, and when there may be a less number of free inhabitants in the State than sixty thousand. Article the sixth. There shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in the said territory, otherwise than in the punishment of crimes whereof the party shall have been duly convicted: Provided, always, That any person escaping into the same, from whom labor or service is lawfully claimed in any one of the original States, such fugitive may be lawfully reclaimed, and conveyed to the person claiming his or her labor or service as aforesaid. Be it ordained by the authority aforesaid, That the resolutions of the 23rd of April, 1784, relative to the subject of this ordinance, be, and the same are hereby repealed and declared null and void. Shall we imitate the example of those nations who have gone from a simple to a splendid Government? Are those nations more worthy of our imitation? What can make an adequate satisfaction to them for the loss they have suffered in obtaining such a Government—for the loss of their liberty? If we admit this Consolidated Government, it will be because we like a great splendid one. Some way or other we must be a great and mighty empire; we must have an army, and a navy, and a number of things: When the American spirit was in its youth, the language of America was different: Liberty, Sir, was then the primary object. Patrick Henry, in the Virginia Ratifying Convention (1788) Is there no virtue among us? If there be not, we are in a wretched situation. No theoretical checks, no form of government, can render us secure. To suppose that any form of government will secure liberty or happiness without any virtue in the people is a chimerical idea. If there be sufficient virtue and intelligence in the community, it will be exercised in the selection of these men; so that we do not depend on their virtue, or put confidence in our rul-ers, but in the people who are to choose them. James Madison, in the Virginia Ratifying Convention (1788) The Bill of Rights provides a fitting close to the parenthesis around the Constitution that the preamble opens. But the substance is a design of government with powers to act and a structure to make it act wisely and responsibly. It is in that design, not in its preamble or its epilogue, that the security of the American civil and political liberty lies. Herbert J. Storing, “The Constitution and the Bill of Rights,” in M. Judd Harmon, ed., Essays on the Constitution (1978)

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http://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=679&chapter=68498&layout=html&Itemid=27

2013-05-26T04:59:18Z

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The Science Show has an good story on the strangeness of the arsenic utilising bacteria that NASA announced last week. Interestingly, the woman who found them had predicted they should exist. Very clever. Physicist author Paul Davies was involved too. He summarised the discovery as follows: This is the first time that any living organism has been found that can operate outside of the six basic elements on which all hitherto known life depends, which is carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur and lastly phosphorus. It's replacing phosphorus with arsenic. And it's doing this not just in a casual way, not just by stripping the energy out. We have known organisms that will do this. The way I best describe it is that they smoke the arsenic without inhaling it. These are organisms that take the arsenic into their innards, into their vital biological machinery, incorporating it into their biomass. So what we're dealing with here is a radically new type of organism. It's not just an outlier on the known spectrum of life. And in other new bug news, it turns out that it is bacteria that are eating away the poor old Titanic: Microorganisms collected from a "rusticle" – a structure that looks like an icicle but consists of rust – are slowly destroying the iron hull of the liner on the seabed 3.8km (2.36 miles) below the Atlantic waves where it plummeted, killing 1,517 people, in April 1912. The newly identified species, while potentially dangerous to vital underwater installations such as offshore oil and gas pipelines, could also offer a new way to recycle iron from old ships and marine structures, according to the researchers from Dalhousie University in Halifax, Canada, and Seville University in Spain. The discovery of the bacterium, now named Halomonas titanicae, will be reported in the International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiologyon Wednesday. When the researchers tested its rusting ability in the lab, they found that it was able to adhere to steel surfaces, creating knob-like mounds of corrosion products. I wonder if some new bug that would be helpful for terraforming Mars will be found soon.

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http://opiniondominion.blogspot.com/2010/12/bacteria-in-news.html

2013-05-26T05:18:08Z

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Anticipating forthcoming experiments, a CNST team has shown that few layer graphene stacks have favorable transport properties that could enable engineering of novel electronic devices. There has been significant research examining the properties of monolayer graphene, single sheets of carbon atoms that can be extracted from bulk graphite. However, the same extraction techniques can also make few-layer-thick stacks of graphene sheets. In this work, the CNST team calculated how the number of sheets and their relative orientation affects the multilayerselectrical conductivity. In the most energetically favorable case, where half of the carbon atoms on neighboring layers share the same x-y position, the researchers predicted that stacks of three or four sheets should not behave like bulk graphite, but rather like a collection of monolayer and bilayer graphene sheets. In their calculations, these high-symmetry stacking arrangements exhibited properties particularly promising for future electronics, including a carrier mobility that was higher than that of either a graphene monolayer or bilayer with the same impurity concentration. The calculations also found that if the stacks were sufficiently pure (comparable to the cleanest graphene monolayers reported in the literature), a transport measurement could be used to identify the number of layers, the stacking orientation, and whether the dominant disorder was due to short-range causes, such as missing atoms, or long-range causes, such charged adsorbates. Explore further: Scientists develop cheaper, more efficient fuel cells More information: Semiclassical Boltzmann transport theory for graphene multilayers, H. Min, P. Jain, S. Adam, and M. D. Stiles, Physical Review B 83, 195117 (2011). prb.aps.org/abstract/PRB/v83/i19/e195117

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http://phys.org/news/2011-06-team-electronic-properties-graphene-stacks.html

2013-05-26T05:04:41Z

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Super shock absorber could protect buildings Oct 26, 2001 Buildings and bridges may be among the structures to benefit from a proposed shock absorber that could reduce the force of an impact by up to 98%. Surajit Sen and colleagues at the State University of New York at Buffalo demonstrated the effect with computer simulations, which also showed that it should be possible to turn the absorbed energy into heat. Similar devices could even harness the energy from natural impacts such as ocean waves (S Sen et al 2001 Physica A 299 551). Granular materials, including sand and soil, have long been used to absorb impacts, but if the grains are all the same size, the shock waves are not always dispersed effectively. Instead, Sen’s team simulated a shock wave travelling along a chain of several hundred spherical elastic beads of ever-decreasing size. The beads at one end of the chain were around ten centimetres in diameter, and became progressively smaller. After the shock wave has passed through the large sphere at the beginning of the chain, it proceeds to the next – slightly smaller – sphere. But the wave cannot be transmitted symmetrically into this sphere. To ensure that its energy is conserved, the wave is forced to stretch out. Its leading edge accelerates away from its trailing edge and this effect occurs every time the wave moves from one bead to the next. As the beads get smaller, the energy of the impulse is distributed and successive beads carry less and less kinetic energy. Sen’s group found that the smallest bead at the other end of the chain feels the initial large impact as a long series of very small shocks. The amplitudes of these mini-shocks are less than 10% of the original impulse. “This very simple system demonstrates that theoretically, any size shock can be absorbed with assemblies of appropriately tapered chains”, explains Sen. This kind of nonlinear wave propagation is still poorly understood, according to Sen. But he is optimistic that his team’s demonstration could one day be exploited to reuse the energy from unwanted man-made mechanical vibrations and even natural shocks from geological activity. About the author Katie Pennicott is Editor of PhysicsWeb

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http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2001/oct/26/super-shock-absorber-could-protect-buildings

2013-05-26T04:40:55Z

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In the previous post, we began to build a theory of detection over time as the result of a very large number of independent glimpses. By assuming the environment to be fixed for awhile, we moved all the environmental factors into a constant (to be measured and tabulated), and simplified the function so it depended only on the range to the target. In this post we simplify still further, introducing lateral range curves and the sweep width (also known as effective sweep width). We will follow Washburn's Search & Detection, Chapter 2. (So there's nothing new in this post. Just hopefully a clear and accessible presentation.) Detection Rates, Randomness, Tests The model we developed in the last post is a detection rate model. Instead of searching for a single object, imagine you were in a target-rich environment. Then if each glimpse had the infinitesimal detection rate , you could add up all the glimpses to get n, the average number of detections you would expect to make by time t. We can approximate the sum as an integral: Then our probability of detection from the previous post becomes: Washburn notes that as long as detections are independent, the actual number of detections N(t) has a Poisson distribution (that's what you get when events are independent), which has n(t) as the expected value (average). Why should we care? For one, because it's a testable prediction for a controlled experiment! Washburn says, The reader should note that in deriving [detection probability and expected time to find], we have at no time given any instructions as to how such a search could actually be carried out.... The real justification is ... the fact that those formulas provide good approximations in a wide variety of circumstances. In a sense this is surprising. As both Washburn and Koopman note, the independence assumption amounts to cutting our actual, sensible search track into confetti, and scattering the confetti across the search area. The confetti overlaps. No one searches this way. No one should. So how can the model possible work? - Real detection functions are never 100% to begin with. - Imperfect navigation means our sensible planned tracks actually do overlap in unplanned ways. Not quite like scattering confetti, but with similar effect. - Even a little target motion means that in the target's coordinate system, our sensible search plan starts to look random. Washburn then cites experiments with pursuit-evader games run on a computer using ideal "cookie-cutter" detection functions. Even there, the results agree remarkably well with random detection. The evasion introduces deviations that drive the detection curve down to the random search model. So we will confidently adopt a random detection model. But how do we estimate the detection rate , if we're not in a situation with nice geometry? Lateral Range and Sweep Width In most cases where the target is not trying to evade us, we can model our search as a straight track past our target: the closest point of approach is the lateral range. Many sensors can simply be characterized by their lateral range curve. And if operational noise drives us down towards the random detection model, it isn't even necessary to know the shape of the lateral range curve -- all we need is the area under the curve, known as the sweep width. Lateral Range Curves Suppose you can write down your detection rate as a function of range, as with Koopman's inverse cube law from the previous post. In that case, you can get your total probability of detection by integrating along the line. A very useful case is to imagine a hypothetical straight track from horizon to horizon, passing the target at minimum distance x, the lateral range. The total probability of detection is the integral along that line, from horizon to horizon. Your may be highest when you are closest, but you spend little time there. The lateral range x is just the closest point of approach: you are searching the whole time. But if we calculated (or measured) this probability for lots of values of x, you would generate a lateral range curve, showing how your total probability of detection dropped off with the lateral range of your search track. Important! Each point on the lateral range curve is the detection probability for a whole search track. It's not the glimpse detection probability for being x meters away! The glimpse probabilities are much smaller. These curves can have many shapes. The following figure shows four lateral range curves with central peaks. All four have the same area as the blue rectangle. Any given sensor (in a given environment, for a given target) will have a lateral range curve that describes its performance as a function of lateral range. (It may or may not have a central peak.) In good conditions, search planners should consider the actual shape of the lateral range curve when planning searches. However, as we have seen, in many cases there is unavoidable overlap (at least in the target's frame of reference), meaning that we lose the benefit of careful planning. In those conditions, the only property of the lateral range curve that matters is the area under the curve. The area under the curve is called the sweep width, or effective sweep width (ESW), often written simply W. Because W adds up the detections at various lateral ranges, it tells us the expected number of targets we would detect in a single track through a large field containing many randomly placed targets. Because these four sensors have the same sweep width, they have the same detection rate. Therefore, on a single pass, they would be expected to find the same total number of targets. The cookie-cutter sensor would find all the targets within 10m of either side of the path, and none outside. The triangular sensor would find half of the targets out to 20m on either side of the path, in decreasing proportion (so that it found 75% of those within 10m and 25% of those between 10m and 20m). The inverse-cube sensor would miss more up close, but find many quite far out, and the Gaussian would be somewhere in between. The effective sweep width W is 20m, the actual width of the (equivalent) cookie-cutter. But what about multiple tracks? If we keep good parallel lines, the equivalence vanishes. In a perfect world, you can't beat a nice cookie. Multiple cookie cutters spaced W apart make a clean sweep with no overlap, so the search region's cumulative probability of detection rises linearly from 0% to 100%. No other sensor can do that, but we can space them optimally for their own lateral range curve, and get performance substantially better than the random detection curve. The following image shows the range of variation. In the common case where various factors conspire to introduce uncontrolled overlap, all sensors are driven to the random detection curve, making it a good conservative model for actual performance. On the random curve, only W matters. Next: sweep width and (average) maximum detection range

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http://sarbayes.org/search-theory/a-brief-intro-to-search-theory-2-of-4/

2013-05-26T05:04:35Z

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A Soft Landing - Egg Drop! Sixth graders at Bell Manor learned that landing a spacecraft on the moon or another planet is difficult due to a "thin" atmosphere and the pull of gravity. A science activity they used to illustrate this problem was an Egg Drop. The students were asked to try to create a soft landing. The students were divided into groups and asked to research how on "Drop Day" they could make an egg fall safely from the top bleachers in Pennington Field! The students had to come up with a way to package a raw egg (which was placed in a plastic bag in case of an unsuccessful landing) so it would not break from the fall. Parachutes could not be used because in a factual soft landing, there is no air or very little air available to operate them. The students had great fun watching the eggs drop over the edge of the stadium and guessing if the egg made the fall safely. There were quite a few groups that made the landing successfully!!! [ << index ] All items

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http://schoolctr.hebisd.edu/education/components/album/default.php?sectiondetailid=53127

2013-05-26T04:50:04Z

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Henna, a tropical shrub native to southern and western Asia, Australia, and North Africa. It is also known as the mignonette tree and Egyptian privet. Henna is grown in Florida and California as an ornamental plant. Henna grows 6 to 25 feet (1.8 to 7.6 m) high. It has small, lance-shaped leaves that grow opposite each other on the stem. The fragrant flowers, which grow in loose clusters, are white, red, or rose-pink. An orange-red dye is made from the dried, powdered leaves. Henna dye has been used by various peoples since ancient times to color parts of the body and animal skins. At one time it was a common hair dye in North America. Henna is Lawsonia inermis of the loosestrife family, Lythraceae.

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http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/botany/henna-info.htm

2013-05-26T05:10:55Z

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Why Is The Delta So Important? The Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta is an important economic and environmental resource that benefits virtually all of California. The Delta provides agricultural and municipal water supplies for two-thirds of the state’s population and is a unique ecosystem that provides crucial habitat for important species. It is also an attractive destination for urban, environmental and recreational uses. The Delta has experienced declines in ecosystem health over many years, but several years ago the decline became dramatic with a sharp drop in populations of delta smelt and several other fish species, and the rise of invasive species, including clams and predatory fish that change the ecosystem’s delicate food web. The decline in fish population also coincided with the federal government mandating that California become more reliant on the Delta as the main source of water for Southern California and the Central Valley. In 2003, the federal Department of the Interior and its Bureau of Reclamation cut California’s exports from the Colorado River by half, ensuring sufficient water supplies were available for further downstream users like Las Vegas, Arizona and Mexico during drought conditions. Both additional drought years and precipitous species decline created a crisis that put into question the ability of the state’s current water system to continue historic levels of water diversions to users in the south part of the state and fostered an urgency to define causes and create solutions to the Delta’s problems.

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http://senweb03.senate.ca.gov/focus/water/delta.aspx

2013-05-26T04:49:26Z

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It is a white powder. It dissolves easily in water to make a basic solution. It is corrosive to skin. It reacts with acids to give potassium salts. It is less common than sodium hydroxide. About 700,000 tons are made each year. It is hygroscopic, meaning that it absorbs water from the air and forms a solution. It is very hard to get the water out again. It releases heat when it is dissolved in water, similar to sodium hydroxide. It gradually reacts with carbon dioxide in the air to form potassium carbonate. It melts easily. It feels greasy when it gets on the skin because it makes soap from the fat in your skin. It is made when potassium reacts with water. It is made by electrolysis of a potassium chloride solution. It can also be made by reacting calcium hydroxide with potassium carbonate. The calcium carbonate precipitates and is filtered, leaving potassium hydroxide. It is used to make soap. It is also used in organic chemistry. It can be used to make fertilizers and other potassium compounds. It is used to make diesel from plants. It is used in alkaline cells and nicads as an electrolyte. It can be used to identify mushrooms.

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http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_hydroxide

2013-05-26T05:04:15Z

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(All you wanted to know about…) Even a tiny stone in our system can be excruciatingly painful. Here're the answers to some FAQs on kidney stone... WHAT IS A KIDNEY STONE Kidney stone is a hard mass that is caused when calcium oxalate or other chemicals in the urine form crystals that stick together. These crystals may grow into stones, ranging in size from a grain of sand to a golf ball. Kidney stones are common between the age of 20 and 40 years. And they are more common in men, who account for four out of every five cases. X-rays can usually identify the presence of stones. Specialised X-ray techniques (sometimes using dye injections) or sound waves may be used to identify more accurately the size and location of the stones and to test kidney functions as well. Blood and urine tests may help a doctor to zero in on the factors causing the stone and plan the best treatment. Normally, urine contains substances such as potassium, magnesium, vitamin C and vitamin B6 that prevent crystals from forming, but some people may have a deficiency. The main factors that can contribute to stone formation include, too little fluid intake, chronic urinary tract infections, misuse of certain medications, urinary tract blockage, certain genetic and metabolic ailments and a diet high in uric and purine content. While some people do not show any symptoms at all, there are certain common signs to look out for. They may last from a few minutes to several hours. Severe pain in the kidneys or lower abdomen, which may move to the groin, nausea and vomiting, fever, chills and weakness, cloudy or foul-smelling urine, blood in the urine or blocked flow of urine are some common signs. Most stones can be treated with increased fluid intake, changes in diet and medication. About 90 per cent of stones will pass by themselves within three to six weeks, while some may have to be dissolved using medications. However, calcium-containing stones cannot be dissolved. Some stones are removed by passing a telescopic instrument into the bladder or into the ureters tubes that connect the bladder and kidneys. To pull the stones out or to break them into small fragments, shock waves or laser beams are used. The latest method of stone removal is called extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy. The technique breaks down stones into small fragments by high energy shock waves from a device outside the body. Experts say that a high fluid intake may decrease the risk of stones. In addition, once the cause of the stone is found, medications or changes in diet may help prevent formation of new stones. Moreover, reducing the amount of animal protein (beef, chicken, pork, fish and eggs) helps in getting rid of kidney stones. Change your diet A special diet can help control the build-up of waste products and fluid in blood and decrease the workload of kidneys. In most cases, the patient is asked to make changes in the amount of salt, calcium, protein, potassium and fluid . The diet should be rich in banana, almonds, carrots, bitter gourd, coconut water, pineapple, barley or horse gram as these are good inhibitors of stone formation. If you have calcium stone, cutting down on salt and sodium intake will help. Extra sodium causes loss of calcium in urine, putting the patient at a risk of developing another stone. At the same time ,too much calcium obtained from foods like spinach, green chauli, tomatoes, amla, chikoo, cashewnuts, cucumber, mushroom and brinjal in the diet is also harmful. If you have a kidney stone that contains oxalate, research has shown that limiting high oxalate foods may prove useful in preventing formation of another oxalate stone. These include: peanuts, tea, instant coffee, rhubarb, beans, berries (blackberries, raspberries, strawberries, gooseberries, etc), chocolate, dark leafy greens, oranges, tofu and sweet potatoes. Most doctors harp on drinking gallons of water as treatment. It's important that you drink at least three to four quarts of fluids throughout the day. In hot weather, you may need to drink more to make up for fluid loss from sweating. This will help keep your urine get less concentrated, which reduces the risk of new stone formation. Make sure most of the fluid that you drink is water.

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http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-07-30/health/28189953_1_kidney-stone-stone-formation-telescopic-instrument

2013-06-19T08:07:42Z

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Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) Definition/Meaning: form of multiplexing in which the bandwidth of the transmission medium is divided into logical channels over which multiple messages can be simultaneously transmitted. FDM is commonly used worldwide to combine multiple voicegrade telephone signals: 4000 hertz (Hz) is allocated for each channel, 3000 Hz per signal plus a 500 Hz guard band (unused frequency band) on either side of Each signal starts at DC. but the different signals are raised to different frequencies so that the signals do not overlap. Despite the guard bands, strong signal spikes at the edges of a channel can overlap into the next channel, causing noise interference. See also broadband networking.

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http://basicofcomputer.com/computer_dictionary/frequency_division_multiplexing.htm

2013-06-19T07:51:44Z

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BY MICHAEL H. O’DONNELL What is now Idaho served as home to Native Americans for centuries and as a crossroad for exploration of the West. It wasn’t until March 4, 1863, that it became a child of the Civil War — a strategic move by President Lincoln to stem the spread of slavery and help fund the Union army. About 700 residents of Eastern Idaho packed the event center at the Shoshone-Bannock Hotel and Event Center Monday night to celebrate the 150th anniversary of Idaho becoming a territory. In the process, they learned some important things about their home. Lincoln stayed up late into the night that fateful March day and he returned in spirit through the performance of Steve Holgate and the historical perspective provided by former Idaho Lt. Governor and attorney general, David Leroy. The Shoshone-Bannock peoples had roamed the lava formations, mountains and rivers of Idaho for “100 times a 150 years,” according to Leroy and he said Fort Hall was a perfect choice for celebrating Idaho’s sesquicentennial of gaining its status as a territory of the U.S. Fort Hall itself became a major location on the Oregon Trail during the great migration of farmers headed for the Willamette Valley in Oregon or prospectors drawn to the gold fields of California in the 1840s. Later as gold and silver was discovered in northern and western Idaho, this state began to grow in a non-native resident population. But one major event bound immigrants and native residents alike, according to Darrell Shay, the Cultural Resources Director for the Shoshone-Bannock Tribes. It was the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 that set the stage for the creation of territories and established the rights of American Indians. “In 1491 we owned most of America,” Shay joked with the crowd. “Then the real estate market went up.” Shay said as more outsiders began to settle in Idaho, tensions did flare up between native and non-native people, but the Shoshone-Bannocks always were known as a “friendly” people. “There was a bunch of people looking to make a new life and there was a bunch of people whose way of life was about to end,” he said about the settlement of Idaho. Once precious metals were discovered in Idaho and mining activities began to flourish, the state became more valuable as its own identity. As the years leading up to territorial status unfolded, America found itself in a great civil war with a leader determined to end slavery. Leroy, calling Lincoln a great strategist, said Idaho was the perfect place to stop the spread of slavery to the western part of the nation and it had the mineral wealth to help pay for a war that had grown in financial and human cost. “He was a man of ideas and a man of principles,” Leroy said about Lincoln. The night of March 4, 1863, Lincoln wrestled with four major pieces of legislation — all of which impacted the Civil War. He was wrestling with a bill to create conscription and force men into military service. Lincoln also had to work on a financial bill to create treasury notes to help fund the war effort and he ratified a suspension of the right of habeas corpus to allow the suppression of anti-union elements in the country. The last thing on his plate that night was making Idaho a territory. “Idaho was a great blocking maneuver,” Leroy said. Then the former attorney general shared that there is a bronze statue in Boise that states: “Idaho, more than any other state, is related to Lincoln.” He said the words ring true. Because of a long friendship between the Lincoln family and the Dubois family, Fred Dubois would eventually become the U.S. Marshall for the Idaho Territory. His father was a good friend of Lincoln before Lincoln was assassinated and had created solid credentials in the Republican Party. Fred’s brother, Jesse had taken a position in the Idaho Territory as a doctor at Fort Hall. Later Fred would champion Idaho’s inclusion as a state and serve two terms in the U.S. Senate representing Idaho. All these pieces of culture and history came together in a four-hour gala held at Fort Hall more than a century and a half later. As President Lincoln told the crowd Monday night, as he read a letter from a Union soldier during the Civil War, the struggles this nation has faced have been made to create “the Union as it should be.”

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Return to: U of M Home Do you remember when we made plant cells out of gelatin a few months ago? Those cells are located in plant leaves and that is where photosynthesis takes place. Photosynthesis is the process the plant uses to make its own food out of sunlight. This month, we're going to take a closer look at leaves! Posted by Amy Baker on May 5, 2008 12:34 PM in Kids' Corner

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What Do Angels Look Like? Guardians, messengers, protectors…what are angels? In Angels: A History, David Albert Jones, Director of the Centre for Bioethics and Emerging Technologies at St Mary’s University College, explores the enduring power of angels over the human imagination. He argues that they teach us something about our own existence, whether or not we believe in theirs. In this excerpt from the book, Professor Jones talks about what different religious texts tells us about what angels look like. Ancient Depictions of the Cherubim The Ten Commandments in the Hebrew Scriptures include a very severe warning about carving images: ‘You shall not make for yourself a graven image or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath’ (Exodus 20: 4). Nevertheless the same book describes how to carve two cherubim with wings facing one another to overshadow the ‘mercy seat’ to sit on top of the ark (Exodus 25: 20–1). This is nicely ironic, as the ark is the box that holds the tablets on which are written the Ten Commandments— which say you should not make images. When Solomon built a temple to house the ark, in the sanctuary he placed two cherubim, each 10 cubits high with a 10 cubit wingspan—that is, around 17.5 feet (5.3 metres) high and the same distance across (1 Kings 6: 24). The wings of the cherubim were outstretched, so that the tip of one touched the wall and the tip of the other touched the other cherub. Unfortunately the ark was later lost (as any film-goer will know!). The ark was taken or hidden or destroyed when the Babylonians destroyed the Temple in 586 BCE. When the Temple was rebuilt after the exile there were no ark and no giant cherubim. It is, therefore, very difficult to know what the cherubim looked like. Some have imagined that cherubim looked like the winged bulls (the ‘shedu’) of the Assyrians or like a sphinx or a griffin (there is a scholarly theory that the words cherubim and griffin are related, but this is disputed). This idea is also based on the role of the cherubim as guards of the sanctuary. In other ancient cultures the shedu, griffin, or sphinx has this role. The book of Ezekiel describes the cherubim as having wings outstretched and with faces of a man, an eagle, an ox, and a lion (Ezekiel 1: 10; see also Ezekiel 10: 14). However, Ezekiel does not say the cherubim have the body of an animal. Furthermore, the imagery of Ezekiel is deliberately exaggerated and may not reflect the Temple as it was. The other biblical accounts do not mention animal body parts in relation to cherubim. The cherubim on top of the ark face one another, and their wings ‘overshadow’ the mercy seat. This posture does not have parallels with images of shedu or other animal guards and Jewish writers from the third century CE suggest that these cherubs had human form (though not necessarily a human face). It is certain that there were carved cherubim above the ark and in the sanctuary of Solomon’s Temple before the exile (586 BCE), but unfortunately these were lost or destroyed centuries before Jesus was born, and no image of them remains. What is more, the descriptions in the Bible do not give a clear picture of what they looked like. According to Josephus, no one in his day knew what cherubim were supposed to look like. There is a break, then, between these ancient images of the cherubim and the images of angels painted by later artists. Wings and Halos The traditional depiction of angels has been shaped largely by Christian artists. This is in part because both in Judaism and in Islam there has been a reluctance to depict angels. Images of angels found in Islamic manuscripts from medieval Persia or in Ottoman culture, and the images of angels on Jewish amulets of the seventeenth century, are very much the exception and not the rule. The concern in both religions is that making sacred images can easily turn into worshipping images. The same concern over images has also led to some fierce disputes within Christianity. This flared up in the ‘iconoclast’ dispute in the eighth century in the Byzantine Empire and in the debate over statues and images in the sixteenth century in the Reformation in Britain and Germany. Thus in the East there are very few early icons that survived the iconoclast period, and in the West many statues, stained-glass windows and wall paintings were defaced, destroyed, or whitewashed. Nevertheless, the dominant forms of Christianity in East and West have allowed representational art, including sacred art. The history of depictions of angels is largely the history of Christian art and the art of those cultures shaped by Christianity. The earliest depictions of angels are from the third century CE and are not in paintings or mosaics but are carved on objects and especially on sarcophagi. These show angels as young men without wings or halos, reflecting the biblical accounts of the angels who appeared to Abraham (Genesis 18: 2) or those who appeared to the women at the tomb of Jesus (Mark 16: 5). However, this begins to change even in the fourth century, when angels start to be depicted with wings. The particular way that winged angels are depicted at this time seems to be influenced by contemporary pagan images of the goddess Nike and the god Eros. Nevertheless, the idea that angels have wings was already well established among Christian and Jews. In the Bible both the cherubim (Exodus 25: 20) and the seraphim (Isaiah 6: 2) have wings, and the psalmist imagines God like a charioteer, riding a cherub, and flying ‘upon the wings of the wind’ (2 Samuel 22: 11; Psalm 18: 10; Psalm 104: 3). By the time of Jesus it became common to believe that not only cherubim and seraphim but all spirits had wings. For example, the early Christian writer Tertullian (c.160–220) wrote that ‘every spirit is winged, both angels and demons’. Similarly the Jewish Talmud describes both angels and demons as having wings with which they ‘float from one end of the world to the other’. Two centuries later, the Quran reiterates the claim that all angels have wings. ‘Praise be to Allah . . . Whomade the angel messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs)’ (35: 1) Compare this with the six-winged seraphim described in Isaiah (6: 2). This is not to say that angels are limited to three or four pairs. A tradition going back to the Hadith (the recorded sayings and deeds of the Prophet Muhammad) states that the archangels Gabriel and Michael each have 600 wings. The Church of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome has mosaics that date from the early fifth century. There are scenes of the events surrounding the birth of Jesus that include many angels. These angels are young men dressed in white Roman togas. They are instantly recognizable as angels to a twenty-first-century observer, and show the archetypal image of an angel with a white gown (on the white garment see, for example, Matthew 28: 3 and Mark 16: 5) with wings and a halo… The standard image of an angel as a man with wings and usually also a halo has endured from the fifth century to the present day. It has been sufficiently common to be recognizable to Christians of different traditions in different cultures separated by many centuries. In the early Middle Ages one partial exception to this rule was the portrayal of ‘tetramorphic’ creatures inspired by the visions of Ezekiel and Revelation. These were sometimes portrayed as four separate creatures (often representing the four gospels) but sometimes were portrayed as a single four-headed creature. They occur both in the Byzantine East and in the Latin West and may represent cherubim or seraphim or may sometimes be imagined as a third kind of winged spiritual being. However, they became much less common after the Renaissance, and the human winged figure remains the dominant image.

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Environment America Research & Policy Center. March 26, 2013. The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI) is a central strategy in the Northeastern states’ efforts to protect the region from global warming. The program, which took effect in 2009, has succeeded in cutting carbon dioxide emissions and demonstrating the effectiveness of cap-and-trade as a global warming solution while helping to sustain a growing regional economy. Now, nine Northeastern states are considering strengthening RGGI to drive additional reductions in global warming pollution. Strengthening RGGI would be a “win-win” for the Northeast, making an important contribution toward protecting the region from global warming while speeding the transition to a clean energy future. [Note: contains copyrighted material]. Center for American Progress. March 7, 2013. In the past several years, small groups of some of the world’s largest carbon polluters have joined forces to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions as part of their overall efforts to slow the pace of dangerous global warming. These efforts include the G20 leaders’ 2009 pledge to phase out fossil-fuel subsidies; the launch of a number of efforts on clean energy cooperation through the global Clean Energy Ministerial starting in 2010; and the creation of the Climate and Clean Air Coalition to Reduce Short-Lived Climate Pollutants a year ago, which started with six nations and has now grown to 27 countries plus the European Union. The report propose that the 17 parties in the Major Economies Forum, the U.S.-led coalition of the world’s largest carbon emitters, set a target of generating 40 percent of their electricity from zero-carbon sources by 2035, the “40×35″ target. [Note: contains copyrighted material]. http://www.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/40x35ZeroCarbonBrief-2.pdf [PDF format, 19 pages]. Center for American Progress. January 9, 2013. According to the author, despite congressional failure to pass essential legislation to reduce carbon pollution and establish a renewable electricity standard, during its first term the Obama administration successfully adopted policies to protect public health from air pollution, lower oil consumption, and create jobs. [Note: contains copyrighted material]. http://www.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/ObamaFirstTermEnergy1.pdf [PDF format, 11 pages]. Center for American Progress. October 2012. The promise of the clean economy is not a mirage or a far-off goal,the authors claim. It is being felt right now across the United States. In the second quarter of 2012 alone, more than 37,000 new clean energy jobs were announced in projects across 30 states. Recognizing the critical need to enhance energy security, the U.S. military has become a major proponent of clean energy solutions such as biofuels, efficiency, and solar. The world’s largest investors agree that long-term climate change and clean energy policy is a tremendous investment opportunity, providing a robust foundation for economic recovery and sustainable long-term economic growth. [Note: contains copyrighted material]. http://www.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/RER_full.pdf [PDF formet, 104 pages]. National Wildlife Federation. Fall 2012. As America struggles to revitalize its economy, create jobs, secure an energy independent future, and protect our communities and wildlife from the dangers of climate change, one energy source offers a golden opportunity to power our homes and businesses without creating more pollution —– Atlantic offshore wind, the authors claim. America has made significant progress over the last two years in pursuing offshore wind energy, but leadership by the states and federal government is critically needed to build on this momentum to make the most of the golden energy opportunity sitting right off American shores. [Note: contains copyrighted material].

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The following HTML text is provided to enhance online readability. Many aspects of typography translate only awkwardly to HTML. Please use the page image as the authoritative form to ensure accuracy. The Scientific Context for Exploration of the Moon Prioritized Science Concepts The committee evaluated only the scientific merit of each science concept in order to rank the concepts. It should be noted that all concepts discussed are viewed to be scientifically important. The science concepts are prioritized below and discussed in more detail in Chapter 3. The bombardment history of the inner solar system is uniquely revealed on the Moon. The structure and composition of the lunar interior provide fundamental information on the evolution of a differentiated planetary body. Key planetary processes are manifested in the diversity of lunar crustal rocks. The lunar poles are special environments that may bear witness to the volatile flux over the latter part of solar system history. Lunar volcanism provides a window into the thermal and compositional evolution of the Moon. The Moon is an accessible laboratory for studying the impact process on planetary scales. The Moon is a natural laboratory for regolith processes and weathering on anhydrous airless bodies. Processes involved with the atmosphere and dust environment of the Moon are accessible for scientific study while the environment remains in a pristine state. Prioritization of Science Goals Within the 8 science concepts above, the committee identified 35 specific science goals that can be addressed, at least in part, during the early phases of the VSE. For these science goals, the committee evaluated science merit as well as the degree to which they can be achieved within current or near-term technical readiness and practical accessibility. Within their respective science concepts, the science goals are listed in the order of their overall priority ranking (a through e) in Table 3.1 in Chapter 3. All 35 specific science goals were also evaluated and ranked as a group, separately from the science concepts with which they are associated. The highest-ranking lunar science goals are listed in Table 5.1 in Chapter 5 in priority order. For this group of goals the committee identifies possible means of implementation to achieve each goal. FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Principal Finding: Lunar activities apply to broad scientific and exploration concerns. Lunar science as described in this report has much broader implications than simply studying the Moon. For example, a better determination of the lunar impact flux during early solar system history would have profound implications for comprehending the evolution of the solar system, early Earth, and the origin and early evolution of life. A better understanding of the lunar interior would bear on models of planetary formation in general and on the origin of the Earth-Moon system in particular. And exploring the possibly ice-rich lunar poles could reveal important information about the history and distribution of solar system volatiles. Furthermore, although some of the committee’s objectives are focused on lunar-specific questions, one of the basic principles of comparative planetology is that each world studied enables researchers to better understand other worlds, including our own. Improving our understanding of such processes as cratering and volcanism on the Moon will provide valuable points of comparison for these processes on the other terrestrial planets. Finding 1: Enabling activities are critical in the near term. A deluge of spectacular new data about the Moon will come from four sophisticated orbital missions to be launched between 2007 and 2008: SELENE (Japan), Chang’e (China), Chandrayaan-1 (India), and the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (United States). Scientific results from these missions, integrated with new analyses of existing data and samples, will provide the enabling framework for implementing the VSE’s lunar activities. However, NASA and the scientific community are currently underequipped to harvest these data and produce meaningful

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The purpose of this program is to increase nurses’ knowledge about the causes and treatment of ototoxicity and to educate them to recognize and prevent ototoxicity in patients. After studying the information presented here, you will be able to — - Describe the structure and function of the inner ear - Identify common ototoxic substances - Identify signs and symptoms of ototoxicity - Discuss the risk factors of ototoxicity - Explain ototoxicity assessment skills - Explain nursing interventions for the prevention of ototoxicity and the care of ototoxic patients. The authors have declared no real or perceived conflicts of interest that relate to this educational activity. Gannett Education guarantees this program is free from bias.

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Uncle Sam stands over a map of the United States with a stern face as his eyes glance westward. In a political cartoon drawn after the Spanish-American War, he holds lassos extending to the Philippines, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico, with Cuba and Spain tucked under his arm like football. The image is part of a Newberry Library exhibit that employs maps, documents and photographs to examine Puerto Rican history through the eyes of conquistadors, explorers, industrialists, and imperialists. Rather than rely on academics to curate the exhibit , the museum drafted 14 students from Dr. Pedro Albizu Campos High School in Humboldt Park to put it together. "It's the first time the library has had high school students as curators, let alone had an exhibit on Puerto Rico," says Saul Melendez, a social studies teacher who guided the student curators. "Newberry used to be surrounded by a Puerto Rican population, now the students are participating in that institution, 40 to 50 years later." In addition to the cartoon of Uncle Sam, the exhibit includes accounts of explorers from the 1600s, photographs from the turn of the twentieth century, and evidence of the use of Puerto Rico as a satellite for the African slave trade. The students sifted through historical objects, decided how to present the exhibit's themes, wrote copy to accompany the displays, and translated the text into Spanish. "They decided to put the Spanish translation before the English explanations, which was another first for the library," says Melendez. Evidence of racism, stereotypes, and xenophobia stimulated vibrant discussion among the students, notes Melendez. "It was sometimes uncomfortable, but students got a better understanding of what it means to be Puerto Rican," Melendez says. The exhibit also explains how progress in the struggle for independence since the Spanish-American war has been incremental, continuing to this day. Next to an 1898 copy of a constitution establishing Puerto Rican self-government, the students note that Puerto Rico still has no right to self-determination. Nor does the island have a vote in the U.S. presidential election,which is relevant given Puerto Rico's recent action in the Democratic primary. "There's the impression that libraries aren't as relevant to kids today," says Heather Malec, director of public relations at Newberry. "What is great is that these students got something tactile, pieces of history that build on what's learned in the classroom." 500 Years of Puerto Rican History Through the Eyes of Others is part of the rotating Spotlight Exhibit Series at Newberry Library. It runs until July 12. Newberry is located at 60 W. Walton St., Chicago. For hours, call (312) 255-3691.

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GCOS Releases Progress Report 2004-2008 April 2009: The Global Climate Observing System (GCOS) Secretariat submitted the Progress Report on the Implementation of the GCOS in Support of the UNFCCC 2004-2008 to the UNFCCC Secretariat on 8 April 2009, in response to a request of the UNFCCC's Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) at its 23rd session held in 2005. The report addresses progress since late 2004 in implementing the actions intended to maintain, strengthen or otherwise facilitate global observations of the climate system for the purposes of the UNFCCC. The report concludes that implementation of the various observing systems in support of the UNFCCC has progressed significantly over the last five years. At the same time, the report highlights that sustaining the funding of many important systems is fragile and that there has been only limited progress in filling observing system gaps in developing countries. The report notes, therefore, that there is still a long way to go to achieve a fully implemented GCOS. The GCOS is a joint undertaking of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the UN Environment Programme (UNEP), the International Council for Science and, in respect of its terrestrial observing components, the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The goal of GCOS is to provide comprehensive information on the total climate system, involving a multidisciplinary range of physical, chemical and biological properties, and atmospheric, oceanic, hydrologic, cryospheric and terrestrial processes. [The GCOS progress report]

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|Skip Navigation Links| |Exit Print View| |Writing Device Drivers Oracle Solaris 11.1 Information Library| The LDI includes two categories of interfaces: Kernel interfaces. User applications use system calls to open, read, and write to devices that are managed by a device driver within the kernel. Kernel modules can use the LDI kernel interfaces to open, read, and write to devices that are managed by another device driver within the kernel. For example, a user application might use read(2) and a kernel module might use ldi_read(9F) to read the same device. See Kernel Interfaces. User interfaces. The LDI user interfaces can provide information to user processes regarding which devices are currently being used by other devices in the kernel. See User Interfaces. Target Device. A target device is a device within the kernel that is managed by a device driver and is being accessed by a device consumer. Device Consumer. A device consumer is a user process or kernel module that opens and accesses a target device. A device consumer normally performs operations such as open, read, write, or ioctl on a target device. Kernel Device Consumer. A kernel device consumer is a particular kind of device consumer. A kernel device consumer is a kernel module that accesses a target device. The kernel device consumer usually is not the device driver that manages the target device that is being accessed. Instead, the kernel device consumer accesses the target device indirectly through the device driver that manages the target device. Layered Driver. A layered driver is a particular kind of kernel device consumer. A layered driver is a kernel driver that does not directly manage any piece of hardware. Instead, a layered driver accesses one of more target devices indirectly through the device drivers that manage those target devices. Volume managers and STREAMS multiplexers are good examples of layered drivers.

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Last week the Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL) released its 2013 guide to preschool and K-5 social and emotional learning programs. The guide is an update of the group’s 2003 report, Safe and Sound: An Education Leader’s Guide to Evidence-Based Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) Programs. Social-emotional education focuses on helping children learn to regulate their emotions, make good decisions and build productive working relationships with classmates and adults. Character education, the subject of a new book by Paul Tough, overlaps with and complements SEL programs. Research shows social and emotional skills can improve other aspects of children’s lives; according to one study from Loyola University’s psychology department, kids in high-quality social-emotional learning programs experience an average increase in academic achievement of 11 points, compared to peers who are not enrolled in SEL programs. And the CASEL guide comes on the heels of a new report from the National Research Council that links social and emotional development to a better-prepared, better-educated workforce. With more research available since its last report in 2003, CASEL has refined its definition of social-emotional learning, as well as its guidelines for education leaders. The 2003 CASEL report lumped all K-12 SEL programs together. This year, however, the organization expanded its study to encompass pre-K. The group plans to release a separate guide for grades 6-12 next year. Additionally, CASEL tightened its standards for high-quality programs. Programs that don’t track students’ progress from year to year through evidence-based studies, don’t provide teachers with adequate professional development and an encouraging school climate or haven’t demonstrated academic and social benefits do not qualify as exemplary programs according to CASEL. The guide identifies 23 social-emotional programs that meet these standards for high quality. Three span preschool to elementary school, four are designed for preschool-aged children and the remaining 16 are elementary school programs. All are evidence-based, and could act as models for schools or school districts working to implement SEL. We’ve written about one of Casel’s high-quality programs, Tools of the Mind. It includes a preschool curriculum centered on “make-believe,” and teaches social and emotional skills through play. (For more on Tools of the Mind, see our earlier posts here and here.) Despite evidence of effectiveness, social and emotional learning has often taken a backseat to reforms focused more tightly on academic achievement. Two of the featured speakers at the report’s release event last week on Capitol Hill, Reps. Judy Biggert (R-IL) and Tim Ryan (D-OH), discussed their bipartisan efforts to insert the Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning Act of 2011 into the still-unfinished reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (currently known as No Child Left Behind). Rep. Biggert said she now hopes to introduce the SEL bill as a stand-alone measure in the early days of the new session of Congress, which reconvenes in January. There are major obstacles to working social and emotional learning programs into classrooms, such as expanding access to more children, improving resources for schools and districts to implement such programs, ensuring the programs are high-quality and overcoming a political and policy focus on academics over holistic development. But the research shows – and CASEL’s new report confirms – that SEL programs can be effective in improving children’s academic and behavioral outcomes.

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Clouds of dust billow out of southwestern Sudan to blanket parts of the Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. This is just part of a large dust storm that stretched across much of Central Africa on April 4, 2005, when the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Terra satellite captured this image. This storm seems to be originating at several points in the upper right corner of the image, and the dust is blowing southwest. The densest veil of dust hangs over the border between the three countries. MODIS also detected a few fires, which have been marked in red. Over time, large-scale African dust storms such as this one can stretch into northern Europe and across the Atlantic into North and South America. The dust is at once harmful and beneficial to the ecosystems it affects. It can provide iron and other nutrients that marine plants need to grow, but the winds also carry fungi and bacteria that can damage coral reefs.

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Rampant deforestation: Armenia, located in the Caucuses Mountains Eurasia, has lost a large portion of its forests in recent decades. In 1990, 30 percent of land was forested. Now forest covers less than 7 percent of Armenia. Logging, much of it illegal, is being carried out on a large scale — the wood being used for home heating (natural gas increasingly expensive) and export. The Teghut mine: One of the best preserved areas of old growth trees, the Teghut forest, located in the nation’s north, is now threatened. The Armenian government has approved a major copper and molybdenum mine in the Teghut region that will have a devastating and irreversible impact on thousands of acres of old forest, grassland, endangered plants and animals, and natural resources. If your time is limited sign the petition here and now! If you want more info keep reading. As shown in the photo of the logs below, clear cutting of the Teghut forest has already begun for the mine. Excavation will leave a massive open pit — 600 meters deep — with the overburden and tailings dumped into surrounding valleys (similar to mountain-top removal). The government has allocated nearly 5,000 acres to the mining company, of which about 4,000 are forested and the remaining nearly 2,000 acres are are community lands. Economic and health impacts: The project will also have many adverse impacts on the two villages in the area, Teghut and Shnogh and traditional village economies. Toxic drainage from the mine, tailings and sediment ponds will likely contaminate ground and surface water critical for domestic use and irrigation. The deforestation is likely to result in massive soil erosion, landslides, the clogging of streams and loss of agricultural lands and a major step backwards with regard to sustainable development. Benefits? According to project’s Environmental Impact Statement, the ore in the mine is worth more than $20 billion. Only a paltry 1 or 2 % of this wealth would benefit the public assets of the nation. (Footnote). The big winners — the Armenian Copper Programme, part of a larger conglomerate, Vallex. The mine company, Vallex, has promised about 1000 jobs to people in the area. Given, dire poverty and high unemployment rates, many village residents support the mine – even though the pay is low and the will last only until the ore runs out in 20 years or thereabouts. However, residents of the area are beginning to get a taste of their future with the mine. First development process is producing clouds of dust. Secondly, several people were beaten by Vallex security guards. As a result residents blocked the road to the mine area for several days until the company fired the culpable guards. Growing opposition to corruption and oligarchy: In Armenia an increasingly militant coalition–n has sprung up to fight the project. There is also a growing to the mine project in Armenian Diaspora – here and other in countries. Organizations in Armenia and Europe have also raised critical issues with regard to governance. In the case of Teghut, government officials were charged with embezzlement after selling massive volumes of wood and pocketing the equivalent of $12,000 (U.S). But the issue is far bigger. The government’s approval of the mining permit was granted without public involvement, without transparency and in violation of numerous laws and international agreements (e.g. protection of forests). For more information go to the post on the Armenian Environmental Network (AEN) blog. For a good description of the government corruption and collusion on environmental issues see the excellent report by the Policy Forum of Armenia. Ekos-Squared previously reported on similar rule of law issues with regard to the commercial kiosks being built in a Yerevan (capital of Armenia) public park. Nearly every Armenian, I’ve talked to has told of rampant corruption and the rule of a small number of oligarchical families that control major developments of natural resources. Finally: It is essential to stop the growing trend for money to influence government decisions not only in Armenia but right here in America. What’s at stake (left) and what Vallex and the Armenian Government plan (right). The Armenia Connection: As readers may know, my wife Claudia and I spent two weeks (last Sep/Oct) in Armenia visiting my son Yevgeniy Cole who is serving as a Peace Corps volunteer there. We saw quite a bit of the country, got to meet with many people in the Capital Yerevan including environmentalists, villagers, shop owners and more. Being an unabashed eco-hugger; I was immediately drawn into the issues including deforestation and waste disposal. I now serve as a member of the Advisory Board of the Armenian Environmental Network. Our trip included a visit to the Armenian Tree Project’s nursery in Karen. ATP has planted nearly 4 million trees in rural areas, villages and cities since 1994. Guest Essay by Ben Ross In a world where so much power is concentrated in the hands of a wealthy few, it’s always tempting to pin the blame for whatever goes wrong on the moral failings of the powerful. Earth Day, coming up this Sunday, offers a useful reminder that the problem—as leftists used to say—is not bad people, but a bad system. The first Earth Day was made necessary forty-two years ago not by the polluters’ evil intentions, but by a political philosophy that was as sincerely held as it was destructive. That ideology has returned today, and it threatens to wreak environmental damage on a scale even greater than half a century ago. Industry Leaders: The chemical industry was led, for the most part, by men who wanted to protect the air they breathed and the water they drank. There were, to be sure, business leaders—among them manufacturers of lead, asbestos, and cigarettes—who consciously profited from disease and suffering. But their influence was not decisive. What stymied the effort to control chemical pollution in the half-century before Earth Day, as I wrote about in The Polluters, was the industry’s political beliefs. A deep-seated hostility to government interference in the conduct of business led it to fiercely resist government regulation of its pollution. Opposing regulation: Lammot du Pont, whose firm then dominated the chemical business, told his executives in 1938 to give air and water pollution the same attention as fire safety. This was a clear and strong directive at DuPont, a company that had grown up making explosives. But at the same time the du Ponts were financing the American Liberty League, the center of far-right opposition to the New Deal. Their conviction that government had no right to tell businesses what to do inspired uncompromising opposition to federal control of water pollution. They won that battle in 1940, when the Senate killed a House-passed bill requiring federal licenses for new pollution sources. Du Pont’s division managers were judged by their ability to earn profits and conquer new markets. In a marketplace where competitors were free to cut corners, this gave them every incentive to join the race to the bottom. Recent times: The legislation of the 1970s, propelled by a wave of activism that peaked on Earth Day, brought federal pollution controls into being at last. But since then progress has been slow and uneven. And today the ideology of the Liberty League has come back, dominating the House of Representatives and a major political party. The entire earth is now at risk from new pollutants—drugs, hormones, globe-warming gases—whose effects are more subtle than the poisons of the 1930s and 1960s but no less alarming. For these dangers to be brought under control, a central lesson of the first Earth Day must be relearned. The greatest threat to our environment does not come from intentional misdeeds, but from the unthinking hatred of government that has come to pervade our political discourse. Get the Book: First, for readers who want to get a detailed historical description of the chemical industry and its impact on the environment, public policy and science, I highly recommend The Polluters, by Ben Ross and Steve Amter. This book is based on meticulous research as well as the authors’ long earned insights as environmental scientists. I found the sections on the attempts of the chemical industry to manipulate the science on the toxicity of chemicals especially compelling. Nor is the book simply history; it provides valuable lessons about today’s efforts by industry to obliterate the regulatory role of government. Unthinking? The essay by Ross ends with the following: “The greatest threat to our environment does not come from intentional misdeeds, but from the unthinking hatred of government that has come to pervade our political discourse.” I am not going to weigh in on the subject of “intentional misdeeds.” However, I want to dig a bit deeper on what Ross calls the “unthinking hatred of government.” In my view the leaders of Big Energy, Big Finance and Big Chem et al. don’t really hate government. They just want a more corporate-friendly government — one that will continue to provide support, i.e. bailouts, ”free trade” agreements (that have destroyed American jobs), but one that will view environmental destruction with a “nod and a wink” (fracking a good example). To accomplish their goal they (e.g. Koch Brothers, Rove, Paul Ryan) have helped to create a very loud and effective anti-government discourse that Ross describes. The “Thousand Friends of Corporate America” know exactly what they’re up to. These folks use the budget deficit as an excuse to cut everything that is good for the of Americans including education, safety nets, Social Security, Medicare, environmental protection, desperately needed infrastructure projects, and the like. Yet they want to keep all of the tax loopholes and subsidies in place. Nor do they mind a tax system which generously provides a 15% tax rate on the dividends of the wealthy while workers pay a rate that is twice as high. Nor do the same forces mind abolishing or the rights of workers to bargain collectively (ala GOP Wisconsin Governor Scott Walker). Government of the corporations, for the corporations and by the corporations is what they are after. Finally, Kochs, Roves and Norquists while ensuring that government doesn’t work very well, exploit public frustration with government to render it even less effective. There is however an “unthinking” part. Those who extract the wealth of resources for their own benefit seem not be think much about the effects actions on the good earth and its denizens. Join the dialogue: We invite your comments. Who is Jim Kim? President Obama’s pick to head the World Bank, is Dr. Jim Yong Kim, a Korean-born American, and President of Dartmouth College. Kim is a great choice. He’s an outsider – not one of the big-finance moguls and Washington insiders that have run the show at the World Bank. Dr. Kim is a physician but also earned a Ph.D. in anthropology at Harvard. In fact, his principal expertise lies in the field of public health especially in poor nations. He has also has first hand knowledge of the desperate needs of the poor, both in terms of economics and medical care. Although member nations have to vote (there is some reticence to appoint yet another American), he is likely to be elected. Dr. Kim’s as co-founder of Partners In Health (PIH) pioneered efforts to bring high quality health care to extremely poor nations including Haiti, Peru, Rwanda, and Lesotho. Partners’ aim is not merely to deliver care, but to build the capacity of such nations to do so. As head of the World Health Organization’s HIV/AIDS program, Kim launched the 3 by 5 Initiative, which provided life saving AIDS drugs to 3 million people in the mid 2000’s. There is another reason to be pleased. The man has great spirit, a true Renaissance person, who found a way to combine his medical degree and his passion for anthropology in the service of humanity. To get a first hand glimpse click on this video: http://roadtripnation.com/JimYongKim. Finally, the man has a sense of humor, is a space rapper and can dance!!!! See the action here. A challenge to the World Bank paradigm? The World Bank’s historical approach to investment can be summed up as follows: (1) top-down (2) bigger is better (3) small is inefficient (4) GDP growth is everything. As evident from Kim’s writings, he doesn’t buy it. Here are a few quotes: - “The studies in this book present evidence that the quest for growth in GDP and corporate profits has in fact –worsened the lives of millions of women and men.” From Dying for Growth. - “…I recognize that economic growth is vital to generate resources for investment in health, education and public goods. Every country must follow its own path to growth, but our collective mission must be to ensure that a new generation of low and middle-income countries enjoys sustainable economic growth that generates opportunities for all citizens.” (Recent piece published by Administration with Kim’s nomination). I would put it this way: Economic growth is not enough; it’s the nature of growth and investment that counts. There is a big difference between a local market economy providing for community needs, and an invasive corporate economy that extracts resources and capital, degrades the environment and tramples traditional economies and culture. Land grabs and coal power: Although the Bank repeatedly pledges to address poverty and curb environmental threats, it continues to invest in projects that have the opposite effect. For example, a recent report by the U.S.-based Oakland Institute implicates the World Bank Group in the promotion of “land grabs” — especially in Africa — by large institutional investors. The acquisitions fail to deliver on promises, and instead are forcing thousands of purchases of land, often by large institutional investors, are mainly unregulated, produce few of the promised benefits to local people, and “instead are forcing thousands of small farming communities off ancestral land, creating serious food insecurity and driving environmental destruction.” In addition, the Bank has recently funded environmentally degrading projects such as a coal burning power plant in Kosovo and one in South Africa. Healing: As a medical doctor, Jim Yong Kim took the Hippocratic Oath, “to do no harm.” If he is true to the oath, he will take immediate steps to stop such destructive investments. We also hope that he will undertake the difficult task of redirecting the Bank’s investment strategies to promote development that is locally-based, culturally compatible, and ecologically sustainable. This approach encourages entrepreneurialism and economic development that provides jobs and strengthens community. Examples of this approach are micro-loans to support local agricultural and local production businesses. For example, the Grameen Bank which provides micro-loans to local businesses in poor areas, is perhaps a good model for the World Bank. (See this wonderful speech by the founder and outgoing head of Grameen and Nobel Laureate Professor Muhammad Yunus explaining the history of this amazing venture). To close, let’s hope that Kim is not too humble to challenge the Bank’s ingrained top-down approach to investment. It’s a big ship to turn around. Part 1: Paul Ryan’s budget passes the House: Last week, the GOP-controlled House of Representatives passed Paul Ryan’s $3.53 trillion budget plan. The vote was 228-191 vote—no Democrats supported it and only ten Republicans voted against the measure.The bill has little chance of passing in the Democratically controlled Senate. Ryan is a Republican from the First District of Wisconsin located in the southeastern part of the state. He is now in his 7th term in the House despite his youthful appearance. Republicans must love this guy, he is now one of the front runners as the party’s Vice Presidential candidate. But as far as delivering jobs to his district, he looks .. vulnerable (see part 2 below). What’s in the budget? Even though the Ryan budget is dead on arrival (DOA) at the Senate, it is critical to know the basics. House Speaker John Boehner (R-OH) touted the House-passed Ryan Plan as a “real vision” of what Republicans would do if they haled control of the federal government. Voters should be aware ofthis intention as Election Day 2012 approaches. As the details of the budget emerged, it has become clear that the Ryan budget will not benefit the 99%, will not strengthen our nation’s economy, and will hurt the poor. The Washington Post of March 20 editorial is entitled, ‘Paul Ryan’s dangerous, and intentionally vague budget plan.” ”Mr. Ryan proposes a budget path that would leave government unable to fulfill essential functions. As Mr. Ryan wants to increase defense spending, there would be essentially nothing left for the rest of government — nothing for education, for highways, for veterans, for low-income families, for the FBI.” (underline added). “ A New York Times editorial on the same day puts it this way, the Ryan Budget “is one where the rich pay less in taxes than the unfairly low rates they pay now, while programs for the poor — including Medicaid and food stamps — are slashed and thrown to the whims of individual states. Where older Americans no longer have a guarantee that Medicare will pay for their health needs. Where lack of health insurance is rampant, preschool is unaffordable, and environmental and financial regulation are severely weakened.” The Center for American Progress adds: “The latest House Republican budget plan asks low-income and middle-class Americans to shoulder the entire burden of deficit reduction while simultaneously delivering massive tax breaks to the richest 1 percent and preserving huge giveaways to Big Oil. It’s a recipe for repeating the mistakes of the Bush administration, during which middle-class incomes stagnated and only the privileged few enjoyed enormous gains.” Part 2: The Wisconsin Connection: Paul Ryan is up for reelection in November. And Governor Scott Walker along with four Republican Senators will face a tough recall elections against Democratic challengers in June. It is important to draw the connection between Ryan and Walker because both have put forth budgets and that will throw safety net programs, education, public safety, and environmental regulation under the bus, while doling out tax breaks tax breaks to corporations and the wealthy. According to the state’s non-partisan Legislative Fiscal Bureau (see recap), the tax cuts would diminish the state’s revenues by $2.3 billion over ten years, the reduction made up by reducing programs vital to the public. Job Growth, Feeble: One of Walker’s campaign signs: “Wisconsin, Open for Business.” But does it work? As the following graph shows. The numbers in Wisconsin don’t look very good at all. Here are three graphs featured in an article by Wisconsin’s leading newspaper the Milwaukee-Wisconsin Journal Sentinel – all of which belie Walker’s campaign pledge to create 250,000 new jobs in Wisconsin. The job loss shown for Wisconsin is especially lame when compared with other Midwestern states and the nation as a whole. As far as Ryan’s own job numbers — nothing to write home about. His home city of Janesville, has an unemployment rate of 10.3% and his county Rock, has an unemployment rate of 9.7. Moreover, the two other large cities in his District Racine and Kenosha have unemployment rate of 12.3 % and 9.9 % respectively (February 2012 data from Bureau of Labor Statistics, Seasonally adjusted, See Wisconsin Department of Workforce Development’s Press Release of March 28, 2012) We note that a recent press release by the Walker Administration, touts a modest job gain for the state. However, don’t be fooled. The most recent data as revised by the Bureau Data (March 30, 2012) shows a job loss of more of 17,200 jobs from Feb. 2011 to Feb. 2012 for the state. (See Table). Not much to brag about, especially given the positive job growth for the U.S. as a whole during the same picture. Pretty nervy of Mitt Romney to come to Wisconsin and blast President Obama’s positive job growth as a failure. Apparently folks like Romney and Walker are not constrained by the facts. Education and Jobs: Apparently folks like Walker and Ryan don’t understand the connection between education and quality jobs. Maybe they think that laying off teachers, increasing class size or cutting back on arts, etc. will make Wisconsin an attractive place for families with school-aged kids and companies that want to attract professionals? (Or is that the 1% don’t really need public schools?). SUMMER IN MARCH– RECORD HIGH TEMPERATURES AND $4.00 GAS: Some explanations. And Bernie Sanders has a plan. RECORD BREAKING HEATWAVE: CLIMATE CHANGE AT WORK? Thousands of Records Fall: Since March 12, more than 7,000 warm temperature records (warm daily highs and warm overnight lows) have been set or tied, including numerous all-time monthly high temperature records from the High Plains to the East Coast, and north into Canada. Dr. Jeff Masters co-founder of Weather Underground summarizes the situation as follows: “The most incredible spring heat wave in U.S. and Canadian recorded history is finally drawing to a close today, after a 10-day stretch of unprecedented record-smashing intensity. Since record keeping began in the late 1800s, there have never been so many spring temperature records broken, and by such a large margin. .. The 85°F measured at Western Head, Nova Scotia (March 22) was the third warmest temperature ever recorded in Canada in March, according to Environement Canada. … Michigan’s all-time record for March warmth was toppled on Wednesday, when the mercury hit 90°F at Lapeer. The intensity of the Summer in March, 2012 heat wave are simply off-scale… one of the most extraordinary weather events in recorded history. For additional information on the “Summer in March.” Go to Jeff Masters’ Blog. What explains the “Summer in March?” The NOAA satellite photo ( March 21) below shows a large area of mostly clear skies over the eastern third of the nation. The warm condition over this enormous region was caused was a very slow moving weather system known as a ‘blocking high.” See Satellite photo. In such high pressure systems, the outflow at the surface causes (arrows) causes air to sink and sinking air becomes warmer and drier and clouds are suppressed. The bright sunshine and southerly wind flow over much of the area also raises temperatures. The comma shaped band of clouds represents a slow moving low pressure system and front that is now bringing relief and rain to the eastern U.S. Role of global warming and climate change. This event (now coming to a close) is the latest in a series of weather events that are way beyond the normal variation typical of global climate. Texas is experiencing one of its worst droughts in history with many areas running out of water. Moscow in summer 2010 experienced worst heat in recorded history — coupled with uncontrollable fires and smog. And don’t forget the high frequency of unusually severe tornadoes that destroyed dozens of communities across the south. For the consensus view of scientists on the relationship between climate change and weather extremes, visit this link. Also, for the best overview of global warming see this video: James Hansen on TED. WHY THE NEAR $4.00 GAS? The feverish atmosphere nonetheless, high placed politicos (mostly Republican) are attempting to reap political points on driver outrage over rising gas prices. Without any basis in fact, they blame President Obama for the rising gas prices because he wants to make sure that offshore drilling is safer and wants to follow the law on having a valid environmental impact statement before giving a green light to the Keystone Pipeline project. He is also mindful that lots of ranchers and farmers in the Great Plains don’t want the pipeline anywhere near the Ogalala Aquifer or their ranches. So Obama’s approach is more balanced and emphasizes renewable energy and efficiency (e.g cars). But this doesn’t satisfy the “drill it all no matter what crowd.“ Somethings askew with the messages: First, it turns out, there is more drilling for natural gas and oil going on now than at any time during the Bush Administration. Secondly, U.S. demand for gasoline is not going up it’s going down! Thanks mainly to the increasing efficiency of cars being driven in the U.S. according to leading experts such as Daniel Yergin. (See recent NPR piece.) So the GOP / Big Oil charges seem unfounded. In fact recent spikes in gasoline prices don’t correlate well with the usual supply and demand factors either in the U.S. (See US Demand chart bottom of post ) or global demand for oil (See Global Demand Table bottom of post). So what’s going on? And by the way, don’t blame your local gas station franchise; they have to pay the price for gasoline driven by crude oil prices — and when the wholesale prices spike so do the retail prices — both can happen within days. This gives us the clue — what can change faster than Clark Kent in a phone booth? A stock market on steroids! The Oil Speculators: There is growing evidence that the recent peaks in gas prices have little to do with traditional supply and demand but are being fueled by speculators — the Wall Street guys. By buying up huge volumes of oil futures stocks, the big investors drive up the price of oil and then profit when their holdings are big enough — never mind the damage done to most people, and to the fragile economic recovery. See the CBS Sixty-Minutes piece (2008) which explains just how speculative investors manipulate the oil futures commodity market. To see a very funny piece showing how speculators can drive up prices link to this video which uses clips from the wonderful film Trading Places. BERNIE SANDERS TAKES ACTION TO CONTROL OIL SPECULATORS: When it comes to standing up for the majority of Americans and the environment against the energy interests and Wall Street profiteers, it’s often U.S. Senator Bernie Sanders (VT, Ind) who takes the lead. See our previous post. This time around, Sanders led a group of progressive Senators to introduce a bill that would give the Commodities Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) greater ability to prevent dangerous speculation on oils futures. The bill, which after its passage would give the CFTC 14 days to create regulations designed to halt excessive oil speculation, is co-sponsored by Senators Richard Blumenthal (D-CT), Sherrod Brown (D-OH), Ben Cardin (D-MD), Al Franken (D-MN), Amy Klobuchar (D-MN) and Bill Nelson (D-FL). To continue. See Sander’s speech on Senate floor. Urge WAMU to remove the American Petroleum’s “Vote-4-Energy” sponsorship ads from all future broadcasts. This ad is politically charged and comes dangerously close to the electoral campaign advertisements from candidates who advocate rampant exploitation of fossil fuels regardless of their environmental costs. The ad comes dangerously close to campaign rhetoric of Republican Presidential candidates who have attacked President Obama’s more balanced stance which includes environmental protection, energy efficiency standards for cars, and renewable energy. Big Oil –thanks to the Supreme Court’s United Citizens decision — now has a virtually unlimited to fund the election campaigns of its preferred candidates. We certainly hope that WAMU is not for sale. See the Vote-4-Energy Website. |Maryland U.S. Senate (show committee information) |Senator Benjamin L. Cardin (D) Write This Official 509 Hart Senate Office Building Washington DC 205100001 (202) 224-4524 (phone) (202) 224-1651 (fax) 100 South Charles Street, Suite 1710M Baltimore MD 212012725 (410) 962-4436 (phone) (410) 962-4156 (fax) |112th Senate Key Votes| |Description||Preferred Position||This official’s vote compared with the preferred position| |Tax – Would have denied section 199 manufacturing/production, cutback foreign tax credits for dual capacity taxpayers and limited the ability of companies to take a credit for foreign taxes on oil and gas income against other types of U.S. income.||N| |Environment – Prevents the EPA from regulating greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act.||Y| |Tax – Would have denied section 199 manufacturing/production deduction, denied intangible drilling costs, denied percentage depletion, denied tertiary injectants, increased OCS royalties and cutback foreign tax credits for dual capacity taxpayers.||N| Great Spoof of Vote-4-Energy’s Propaganda Film here: Essay: The Wall Street Whistle Blower and the Deeper Reality, DC’s Environmental Film Festival, udate from Occupy Armenia WALL STREET ESSAY: Thank goodness for folks like Greg Smith. He’s the guy who shocked Wall Street yesterday by resigning from Goldman Sachs. Smith’s reason — his conscience would no longer allow him to work there due to the firm’s treatment of its clients (investors who pay a brokerage fee to Goldman). According to Smith, Goldman tried to sell troubled stocks to its clients, in order to maximize profits. Smith’s disclosure in a New York Times Op-Ed hit like a tsunami. Immediately, Goldman saw its market value shrink by $2.15 billion. As Smith said in his op-ed, “I attend derivatives sales meetings where not one single minute is spent asking questions about how we can help clients. It’s purely about how we can make the most possible money off of them. If you were an alien from Mars and sat in on one of these meetings, you would believe that a client’s success or progress was not part of the thought process at all. It makes me ill how callously people talk about ripping their clients off. Over the last 12 months I have seen five different managing directors refer to their own clients as ‘muppets,’ sometimes over internal e-mail.” To see our broader analysis click here. Symphony of Soil: World Premiere Drawing on ancient knowledge and cutting edge science, Symphony of the Soil is an artistic exploration of the miraculous substance that is soil. By understanding the elaborate connections and mutuality between soil, water, the atmosphere, plants and animals, we come to appreciate the complex and dynamic nature of this precious resource. The film also examines our human relationship with soil, including the use and misuse of soil in agriculture, deforestation and development, and the latest scientific research on soil’s key role in ameliorating the most challenging environmental issues of our time. March 25, 4 PM National Museum of Natural History. Free, no reservations required. OCCUPY COMES TO ARMENIA: Mashtots Park – Police Move in! The Yerevan mayor and council are allowing commercial kiosks to move into Mashtots Park, a trend that could lead to one of the capitals enduring treasures – its beautiful parks. Environmentalists and “rule of law” advocates have occupied the site and have called for the dismantling of the Kiosks, shown below. You can see from the photo why those who love the parks would protest the kiosks. We have been following this situation for several days. Last night, Armenian Time, police moved into the occupation zone to clear out the encampment of occupiers. RA Prime Minister Tigran Sargsyan stated today that the commercial stores constructed in Mashtots Park would be dismantled within the next three years. However, 3 years is a long time, perhaps, forever. The occupiers are now planning to march to the government building. They have collected more than 10,000 signatures on a petition urging the city to dismantle the kiosks. To see more go to this link.

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52nd Army (Soviet Union) |This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in the Russian Wikipedia. (December 2011)| It was created on 25 August 1941 from the headquarters of the 25th Rifle Corps and defended north of Novgorod. On September 26, 1941, the 52nd Army headquarters was used to form (again) the 4th Army and the 52nd Army headquarters itself was reestablished on 28 September 1941. In May 1943, the army was moved to control of the Stavka Reserve. Stavka released the 52nd Army to subordination of the Steppe Front in July 1943, and the 52nd Army thereafter fought in the Ukraine, southern Poland, southeastern Germany, and finally in northern Czechoslovakia. The army took part in the following operations: - Tikhvin Defensive Operation - Tikhvin Offensive - Lyuban Offensive Operation - Chernigov-Poltava Offensive - Cherkassy Offensive On 3 April 1945 the 52nd Army comprised the 7th Guards Mechanised Corps, the 48th Rifle Corps (116th and 294th Rifle Divisions), the 73rd Rifle Corps (50, 111, 254) and the 78th Rifle Corps (31, 214, 373rd Rifle Divisions), the 213th Rifle Division, the 214th Tank Regiment, two artillery units, and service units. At the beginning of the Battle of Bautzen, on April 21, 1945, the Germans drove in between the Polish 2nd Army and the 52nd Army around Bautzen, some 40 kilometers (25 mi) north-east of Dresden and 25 kilometers (16 mi) west of Görlitz, sweeping the Soviet units of the 48th Rifle Corps, and driving towards Spremberg. Major General M. K. Puteiko, commander of the 52nd Army's 254th Rifle Division of the 73rd Rifle Corps was mortally wounded around Bautzen. Subsequently, the 52nd Army took part in the advance on Prague with the 1st Ukrainian Front. In 1946, the headquarters of the 52nd Army was inactivated, and, together with the headquarters of the 18th Army, was used to form the headquarters of the 8th Tank Army in the Ukraine (Carpathian Military District). - Aug 1941 to Jan 1942 - N. K. Klykov - Jan 1942 to Jul 1943 - V. F. Iakolev - Jul 1943 to May 1945 - K. A. Koroteev - Stanisław Komornicki (1967). Poles in the battle of Berlin. Ministry of National Defense Pub. p. 131. Retrieved 10 May 2011. - Aleksander A. Maslov; David M. Glantz (30 September 1998). Fallen Soviet generals: Soviet general officers killed in battle, 1941–1945. Taylor & Francis. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-7146-4346-5. Retrieved 12 May 2011. - Феськов В.И.; Калашников К.А.; Голиков В.И. (2004). Советская Армия в годы «холодной войны» (1945-1991). Tomsk University Press. p. 49. - David M. Glantz (2005). Companion to Colussus Reborn. University Press of Kansas. p. 97. - Leo Niehorster, 52nd Army 1945

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Isfjorden is the second longest fjord in the Norwegian archipelago of Svalbard. It lies on the west side of Spitsbergen, an island in the Arctic Ocean about midway between Norway and the North Pole, and the largest in the archipelago. A portion of Isfjorden is included in the national parks of Norway as Nordre Isfjorden Land National Park. Around the fjord lie many of the largest settlements in Svalbard: Barentsburg, Longyearbyen (on the Adventfjorden) and Pyramiden. A Basque whaling ship from San Sebastian, under the command of Juan de Erauso and piloted by the Englishman Nicholas Woodcock, was the first to establish a temporary whaling station here in 1612. In 1613 French, Basque, and Dutch whaling ships resorted to Safehaven (Trygghamna) on the north side of Isford or in Green Harbor on the south side of the fjord. All were either driven off by armed English ships or were forced to pay a fine of some sort. In 1614 the Dutch agreed to give Isfjorden to the English. The English continued to use Isfjorden as a whaling base until at least the late 1650s. - Conway, William Martin (1906). No Man's Land: A History of Spitsbergen from Its Discovery in 1596 to the Beginning of the Scientific Exploration of the Country. Cambridge, At the University Press. - Foraminifera from Isfjorden - illustrated catalog |This Svalbard location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.|

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||This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. |Reign||661 – 680| |Full name||Muʻāwīya ibn ʻAbī Sufyān| |Born||602 CE (21 BH)| |Died||April 29 or May 1, 680 CE (20 or 22 Rajab 60 AH) |Predecessor||Ali ibn Abi Talib| |Father||Abu Sufyan ibn Harb| |Mother||Hind bint Utbah| Muawiyah I (Arabic: معاوية ابن أبي سفيان Muʿāwiyah ibn ʾAbī Sufyān; 602 – April 29 or May 1, 680) established the Umayyad Dynasty of the caliphate, and was the second caliph from the Umayyad clan. Muawiyah became a secretary for Muhammad, and during the first and second caliphates of Abu Bakr and Umar (Umar ibn al-Khattab), fought with the Muslims against the Byzantines in Syria. Muawiyah was politically adept in dealing with the Eastern Roman Empire and was therefore made into a secretary by Muhammad. As caliph, to stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea, Muawiyah developed a navy in the Levant and used it to confront the Byzantine Empire in the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara. The Caliphate conquered several territories including Cyzicus which were subsequently used as naval bases. Muawiyah bin Abi-Sufyan was born in Mecca (601 CE) into the Banu Umayya sub-clan of the Banu Abd-Shams clan of the Quraysh tribe. The Quraysh controlled the city of Mecca (in the west of present-day Saudi Arabia) and the Banu Abd-Shams were among the most influential of its citizens. Muawiyah, Muhammad and Ali shared the same great-great grandfather Abdu Manaf bin Qusay, who had four sons: Hashim, Muttalib, Nawfal, and Abdu Shams. Hashim was the great grandfather of Ali and Muhammad. Umayyah bin Abdu Shams was the great grandfather of Muawiyah. Muawiyah and the rest of his family were staunch opponents of the Muslims before the ascendancy of Muhammad. Along with his two older brothers Yazid and Utbah, Muawiyah was one of the members of the hunting party of his maternal uncle Waleed bin Utbah that pursued Muhammad during the hijra (migration), when Muhammad and Abu Bakr were hiding in Ghar al-Thawr (Cave of the Bull). In 630, Muhammad and his followers conquered Mecca, and most of the Meccans, including the Abd-Shams clan, formally submitted to Muhammad and accepted Islam. Muawiyah, along with his father Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, became Muslims at the conquest of Mecca. After the conquest of Mecca by the Muslims, Muawiyah's family converted to Islam. Muawiyah and the Islamic prophet Muhammad were brothers-in-law after Muhammad married Muawiyah's sister, Ramla bint Abi Sufyan. Governor of Syria In 639, Caliph Umar had appointed Muawiyah Ibn Abu Sufyan as the governor of Syria after the previous governors Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah and his brother died in a plague along with 25,000 other people. Muawiyah was motivated by Muhammad's statement: To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the Arab-Byzantine Wars, in 649 Muawiyah set up a navy manned by Monophysitise Christian, Coptic, and Jacobite Syrian Christian sailors, and Muslim troops. This resulted in the defeat of the Byzantine navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655, opening up the Mediterranean. 500 Byzantine ships were destroyed in the battle, and Emperor Constans II was almost killed. Before the battle of the Mast, chronicler Theophanes the Confessor says, the Emperor dreamed of being at Thessalonika; this dream predicted his defeat against the Arabs because the word Thessalonika is similar to the sentence "thes allo niken", which means "gave victory to another (the enemy)". Then caliph Uthman ibn al-Affan was killed and Ali was appointed the fourth and final Rashidun Caliph and moved the capital to Kufa. Muawiyah wanted justice for the assassinated caliph Uthman ibn Affan. Muawiyah refused to obey Ali, and had some level of support from the Syrians in his rebelliousness, amongst whom he was a popular leader. Ali called for military action against Muawiyah, but the reaction in Medina was not encouraging, and thus Ali deferred. Eventually Ali marched on Damascus and fought Muawiyah's supporters at the inconclusive Battle of Siffin (657 CE). This depleted Muawiyah's force and gave the Eastern Roman Empire time to prepare the defences. After making a peace agreement with Ali he applied the siege of Constantinople. With depleted forces the war ended in an unsuccessful siege of Constantinople. Ali later wrote in a letter "I did not approach the people to get their oath of allegiance but they came to me with their desire to make me their Amir (ruler). I did not extend my hands towards them so that they might swear the oath of allegiance to me but they themselves extended their hands towards me". Following the Roman-Persian Wars and the Byzantine-Sassanid Wars there were deep rooted differences between Iraq, formally under the Persian Sassanid Empire and Syria formally under the Byzantine Empire. The Iraqis wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in Kufa so as to bring revenues into their area and oppose Syria. They convinced Ali to come to Kufa and establish the capital in Kufa. Ali listened to them and moved the capital to Kufa. Ali felt that as a Caliph, it was his responsibility to account for every penny and on the day of judgement he will be answerable to God and therefore money should be spent on the poor. Since the majority of Ali's subjects were nomads and peasants, he was concerned with agriculture. He instructed his governors (e.g., Malik bin Harith al-Ashtar) to give more attention to development of the land than to the collection of the tax, because tax can only be obtained by the development of the land and whoever demands tax without developing the land ruins the country and destroys the people. When Ali moved his forces north against Muawiyah during the outbreak of the Muslim Civil War in 656, it bought a precious breathing pause for Byzantium, which Emperor Constans II (r. 641–668) used to shore up his defences, extend and consolidate his control over Armenia and most importantly, initiate a major army reform with lasting effect: the establishment of the themata, the large territorial commands into which Anatolia, the major contiguous territory remaining to the Empire, was divided. The remains of the old field armies were settled in each of them, and soldiers were allocated land there in payment of their service. The themata would form the backbone of the Byzantine defensive system for centuries to come. After his pre-occupation with the civil war, Muawiyah launched a series of attacks against Byzantine holdings in Africa, Sicily and the East. By 670, the Muslim fleet had penetrated into the Sea of Marmara and stayed at Cyzicus during the winter. While dealing with the Iraqis, Ali was unable to build a disciplined army and effective state institutions to exert control over his areas and as a result later spent a lot of time fighting elements of his own army in the form of the Kharijites. As a result on the Eastern front, Ali was unable to expand the state. Conflict with Ali When Uthman saw what happened to him and how many people had been sent against him, he wrote to Mu'awiyah bin Abi Sufyan in Syria: "In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. To proceed: The Medinese (i.e., the people of Madina) have become unbelievers, they have abandoned obedience and renounced their oath of allegiance. Therefore send to me the Syrian soldiers who are at your disposal, on every camel you have, whether docile or stubborn". When Mu'awiya got the letter, he delayed action on it, for he did not wish to differ openly with the Companions of the Messenger of God, since he knew that they concurred [on this matter]. When Uthman became aware of the delay, he then wrote to seek from Yazid bin Asad bin Kurz and the Syrians, he stressed his rightful claims upon them, and mentioned Almighty God's commandment to obey the Caliphs. Muawiyah did not go to Basra with Aisha, Talhah and Al-Zubayr. He was in Damascus at the time. Zubair was Ali's and Muhammad's cousin and did not want fellow Muslims to fight. He said to Ali "What a tragedy that the Muslims who had acquired the strength of a rock are going to be smashed by colliding with one another". After talking with Ali before the Battle of the Camel, Zubair did not want to fight and left the battlefield; he was later killed in an adjoining valley. A man named Amr ibn Jarmouz had followed Zubair and murdered him while he performed Salat. Talhah also left. On seeing this Marwan shot Talhah with a poisoned arrow. The heated exchange and protests turned from words to blows. One night some of Ali's more extreme supporters who later became the Khawarij attacked. Aisha's brother Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr who was Ali's commander approached Aisha. Ali pardoned Aisha and her brother Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr escorted her back to Medina. Ali then turned towards Syria. He marched to the Euphrates and engaged Muawiyah's troops at the Battle of Siffin (657). Accounts of the clash vary – however, it would seem that neither side had won a victory, since the Syrians called for arbitration to settle the matter, arguing that continuing the civil war would embolden the Byzantines. Muawiyah bin Abu Sufyan, being the governor of Sham (the Levant) and the cousin of Uthman, refused Ali's demands for allegiance. Ali opened negotiations hoping to regain his allegiance, but Muawiyah insisted on Levantine autonomy under his rule. Gibbon wrote of this: "Moawiyah, son of Abu Sophian, who had assumed the title of caliph, and whose claim was supported by the forces of Syria, and the interest of the house of the Ommiyah." Consequently, Muawiyah replied by mobilizing his Levantine supporters and refused to pay homage to Ali on the pretext that his contingent had not participated in his election. Ali then moved his armies North and the two armies encamped themselves at Siffin for more than one hundred days, most of the time being spent in negotiations. Although, Ali exchanged several letters with Muawiyah, he was unable to dismiss the latter, nor persuade him to pledge allegiance. Even at this stage, Ali sent three men, Bashir bin Amr bin Mahz Ansari, Saeed bin Qais Hamdani, and Shis bin Rabiee Tamini to Muawiya to induce him to settle for union, accord and coming together. Muawiyah replied: "Go away from here, only the sword will decide between us." Skirmishes between the parties led to the Battle of Siffin in 657. The estimated casualties were that Ali's forces lost 25,000, while Muawiyah's forces lost 45,000. Appalled by the carnage, Ali sent a message to Muawiyah and challenged him to single combat, saying that whoever won should be the Caliph. English historian Edward Gibbon wrote: "Ali generously proposed to save the blood of the Muslims by a single combat; but his trembling rival declined the challenge as a sentence of inevitable death." After a week of combat was followed by a violent battle known as laylat al-harir (the night of clamor), Muawiyah's army was on the point of being routed when Amr ibn al-Aas advised Muawiyah to have his soldiers hoist mus'haf (either parchments inscribed with verses of the Quran, or complete copies of it) on their spearheads in order to cause disagreement and confusion in Ali's army. Ali saw through the stratagem, but only a minority wanted to pursue the fight. After the battle Amr ibn al-As was appointed by Muawiyah as an arbitrator and Ali appointed Abu Musa Ashaari. Seven months later the two arbitrators met at Adhruh about 10 miles north west of Maan in Jordon in February 658. Amr ibn al-As convinced Abu Musa Ashaari that both Ali and Muawiyah should step down and new Caliph be elected. Ali and his supporters were stunned by the decision which had lowered the Caliph to the status of the rebellious Muawiyah. Ali was therefore outwitted by Muawiyah and Amr ibn al-As. Ali refused to accept the verdict and found him self technically in breach of his pledge to abide by the arbitration. This put Ali in a weak position even amongst his own supporters. The most vociferous opponents in Ali's camp were the very same people who had forced Ali into the ceasefire the Kharijites. They broke away from Ali's force, rallying under the slogan, "arbitration belongs to God alone." This group came to be known as the Kharijites ("those who leave"). In 659 Ali's forces and the Kharijites met in the Battle of Nahrawan. Now with a much depleted force, after making peace with Ali, Muawiyah shifted his focus back towards Constantinople. A massive Muslim fleet reappeared in the Marmara and re-established a base at Cyzicus, from there they raided the Byzantine coasts almost at will. Finally in 676, Muawiyah sent an army to Constantinople from land as well, beginning the First Arab Siege of the city. Constantine IV (r. 661–685) however used a devastating new weapon that came to be known as "Greek fire", invented by a Christian refugee from Syria named Kallinikos of Heliopolis, to decisively defeat the attacking Umayyad navy in the Sea of Marmara, resulting in the lifting of the siege in 678. The returning Muslim fleet suffered further losses due to storms, while the army lost many men to the thematic armies who attacked them on their route back. Eyup was killed in the siege was, the standard bearer of Muhammed and the last of his companions; His tomb is in Istanbul. At about the same time, unrest was brewing in Egypt. The governor of Egypt, Qais, was recalled, and Ali had him replaced with Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr (the brother of Aisha and the son of Islam's first caliph Abu Bakr). Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr's rule resulted in widespread rebellion in Egypt. Muawiyah ordered 'Amr ibn al-'As to invade Egypt and 'Amr did so successfully. When Alī was assassinated in 661, Muawiyah, as commander of the largest force in the Muslim Empire, had the strongest claim to the Caliphate. Ali's son Hasan ibn Ali signed a truce and retired to private life in Medina. According to Sharif Razi, Muawiyah claimed that he only fought about Uthman's death, not against Ali: - In the war... When we met people of Al-Sham, it seemed that our God is one, our prophet is the same, our calling is the same, and no one is more of a believer than the other about believing in Allah, or the prophet. The misunderstandings were about Uthman's blood, and we have nothing to do with it. --Al-Sharif al-Radi Nahj al-Balagha However, the late Rashidun caliph, Ali ibn Abu Talib, did not appear to share the same sentiments toward Caliph Muawiyah I: - By Allah, Mu`awiyah is not more cunning than I am, but he deceives and commits evil deeds. Had I not been hateful of deceit I would have been the most cunning of all men. But (the fact is that) every deceit is a sin and every sin is disobedience (of Allah), and every deceitful person will have a banner by which he will be recognised on the Day of Judgement. Treaty with Hasan ibn Ali Ali's son Hasan ibn Ali signed a truce and retired to private life in Medina. Muawiyah thus established the Umayyad Caliphate, which was to be a hereditary dynasty, and governed from Damascus in Syria instead of Medina in Arabia. Narrated by Al-Hasan Al-Basri By Allah, Al-Hasan bin Ali led large battalions like mountains against Muawiya. Amr bin Al-As said (to Muawiya), "I surely see battalions which will not turn back before killing their opponents." Muawiya who was really the best of the two men said to him, "O 'Amr! If these killed those and those killed these, who would be left with me for the jobs of the public, who would be left with me for their women, who would be left with me for their children?" Then Muawiya sent two Quraishi men from the tribe of 'Abd-i-Shams called 'Abdur Rahman bin Sumura and Abdullah bin 'Amir bin Kuraiz to Al-Hasan saying to them, "Go to this man (i.e. Al-Hasan) and negotiate peace with him and talk and appeal to him." So, they went to Al-Hasan and talked and appealed to him to accept peace. Al-Hasan said, "We, the offspring of 'Abdul Muttalib, have got wealth and people have indulged in killing and corruption (and money only will appease them)." They said to Al-Hasan, "Muawiya offers you so and so, and appeals to you and entreats you to accept peace." Al-Hasan said to them, "But who will be responsible for what you have said?" They said, "We will be responsible for it." So, what-ever Al-Hasan asked they said, "We will be responsible for it for you." So, Al-Hasan concluded a peace treaty with Muawiya. Al-Hasan (Al-Basri) said: I heard Abu Bakr saying, "I saw Allah's Apostle on the pulpit and Al-Hasan bin 'Ali was by his side. The Prophet was looking once at the people and once at Al-Hasan bin 'Ali saying, 'This son of mine is a Saiyid (i.e. a noble) and may Allah make peace between two big groups of Muslims through him." In the year 661, Muawiyah was crowned as caliph at a ceremony in Jerusalem. Muawiyah governed the geographically and politically disparate Caliphate, which now spread from Egypt in the west to Iran in the east, by strengthening the power of his allies in the newly conquered territories. Prominent positions in the emerging governmental structures were held by Christians, some of whom belonged to families that had served in Byzantine governments. The employment of Christians was part of a broader policy of religious tolerance that was necessitated by the presence of large Christian populations in the conquered provinces, especially in Syria itself. This policy also boosted his popularity and solidified Syria as his power base. In a manner similar to Byzantine administrative practices, Muawiyah instituted several bureaucracies, called divans, to aid him in the governance and the centralization of the Caliphate and the empire. Early Arabic sources credit two diwans in particular to Muawiyah: the Diwan al-Khatam (Chancellery) and the Barid (Postal Service), both of which greatly improved communications within the empire. He came to Madina and spoke to the people, saying, "I desired the way followed by Abu Bakr and 'Umar, but I was unable to follow it, and so I have followed a course with you which contains fortune and benefits for you despite some bias, so be pleased with what comes to you from me even if it is little. When good is continuous, even if it is little, it enriches. Discontent makes life grim." He also said in as address which he delivered to the people, "O people! By Allah, it is easier to move the firm mountains than to follow Abu Bakr and 'Umar in their behaviour. But I have followed their way of conduct falling short of those before me, but none after me will equal me in it." This use of pomp does not mean that Mu'awiya indulged himself in luxury. Mu'awiya could be seen speaking to the people on the minbar of Damascus wearing a patched garment. Yunus ibn Maysar al-Himyari said, "I saw Mu'awiya riding in the Damascus market wearing a shirt with a patched pocket, going along in the Damascus markets." At the height of tension when fighting was about to erupt at Siffin between Imam Ali and Muawiyah, Muawiyah was informed that the Byzantine Emperor raised a very large army and was drawing very close to the borders of the Muslim state. He wrote to him, giving him a very clear warning, 'By God, if you do not stop your designs and go back to your place, I will end my dispute with my cousin and will drive you out of the entire land you rule, until I make the earth too tight for you.' The Byzantine Emperor was scared off and abandoned his plans However, some scholars contend that he simply placated the Byzantine emperor with offers of land, gold, and slaves and soldiers. But looking at the Eastern Roman Empire records of the period and the writings of Theophanes the Confessor, Emperor Constans II was still in shock after the Battle of the Masts and was too busy shoring up his defences, initiating major army reform for lasting effect and establishing the themata. Had Ali listened to Aisha (Aisha bint Abu Bakr) (Muhammad's widow), Talhah (Talha ibn Ubayd-Allah) and Zubayr ibn al-Awam (Abu ‘Abd Allah Zubayr ibn al-Awwam) and not confronted Muawiyah and depleted his forces, and made a peace treaty with him before the Battle of Siffin like Hasan rather that after the battle and joined him in the Siege of Constantinople, it would have been a very dangerous situation for the Byzantine Empire. The battle of Battle of Siffin gave Emperor Constans II time to shore up his defences and depleted Muawiyah forces. Muawiyah died either on April 29 or May 1, 680, allegedly from a stroke. He was succeeded by his son Yazid I. However Muawiyah's attempt to start a dynasty failed because both Yazid and then his grandson Muawiya II died prematurely. His grandson Muawiya II abdicating and later died. The caliphate eventually went to Marwan I a descendant of another branch of Muawiyah's clan. By his creation of a fleet, Muawiyah was the driving force of the Muslim effort against Byzantium. His Navy challenged the Byzantine navy and raided the Byzantine islands and coasts at will. The shocking defeat of the imperial fleet by the young Muslim navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655 was of critical turning point. It opened up the Mediterranean, considered a "Roman lake", and began a centuries-long series of naval conflicts over the control of the Mediterranean. This also allowed the expansion of the state into North Africa and Spain. Trade between the Muslim eastern and southern shores and the Christian northern shores almost ceased during this period, isolating Western Europe from developments in the Muslim world: "In antiquity, and again in the high Middle Ages, the voyage from Italy to Alexandria was a commonplace; in early Islamic times the two countries were so remote that even the most basic information was unknown" (Kennedy). Muawiyah also initiated the first large-scale raids into Anatolia from 641 on. Muawiyah greatly beautified Damascus, and developed a court to rival that of Constantinople. He expanded the frontiers of the empire, reaching the very gates of Constantinople at one point, though the Byzantines drove him back and he was unable to hold any territory in Anatolia. Sunni Muslims credit him with saving the fledgling Muslim nation from post civil war anarchy. However, Shia Muslims charge that if anything, he was the instigator of the civil war, and weakened the Muslim nation and divided the Ummah, fabricating self-aggrandizing heresies and slander against Muhammad's family, even selling his Muslim critics into slavery in the Byzantine empire. Muawiyah had a personal library collection (bayt al-hikmah) that was enlarged by his successors "throughout the Umayyad period.… This first major library outside of a mosque was known to include works on astrology, medicine, chemistry, military science, and various practical arts and applied sciences in addition to religion." According to some sources Muawiyah warned his son Yazid against mistreating Hussein. His final warning to Yazid was: "Be careful O my son, that you do not meet God with his blood, lest you be amongst those that will perish" But Yazid did not listen. The late (Sunni) theologian Mawdudi (founder of Jamaat-E-Islami) wrote that the establishment of the caliphate as (essentially) a monarchy began with the caliphate of Muawiyah I. It wasn't the kind where Muawiyah was appointed by the Muslims. Mawdudi elaborated that Muawiyah wanted to be caliph and fought in order to attain the caliphate, not really depending upon the acceptance of the Muslim community. The people did not appoint Muawiyah as a caliph, he became one by force, and consequently the people had no choice but to give him their pledge of allegiance (baiah). Had the people not given Muawiyah their allegiance at that time, it wouldn't have meant so much as losing their rank or position, as much as it would have meant bloodshed and conflict. This certainly couldn't have been given preference over peace and order. Following Hasan ibn Ali's abdication of the caliphate, all the Muslims (including the Sahabah and Tabi'een) gave their pledge of allegiance to Muawiyah I, bringing an end to civil war. That year was called the Aam Al Jamaat (Year of Congregation). As Mawdudi pointed out, Muawiyah's own speech during the initial days of his caliphate expressed his own awareness of this: By Allah, while taking charge of your government I was not unaware of the fact that you are unhappy over my taking over of government and you people don’t like it. I am well aware of whatever is there in your hearts regarding this matter but still I have taken it from you on the basis of my sword… Now if you see that I am not fulfilling your rights, then you should be happy with me with whatever is there. Muawiyah has a few rare virtues. Muawiyah was politically adept in dealing with the Eastern Roman Empire and was therefore made into a secretary by Muhammad. Once peace was established, Muawiya reconciled many of the people who had been fighting each other by his generosity and fairness. Even the most stubborn of opponents would often melt under his generosity and diplomacy. He also managed through fine diplomacy to balance out the tribal rivalries. During Mu'awiya's rule he put into practice the advice that Muhammad had given him, "When you rule, do it well." He was scrupulous about justice and was generous and fair to people of all classes. He honoured people who possessed ability and talent and helped them to advance their talents, regardless of their tribe. He displayed great forbearance towards the rashness of ignorant men and great generosity towards the grasping. He made the judgements of the Shari'a binding on everyone with resolution, compassion and diligence. He led them in their prayers and directed them in their gatherings. He led them in their wars. In short, he proved to be a balanced and model ruler. 'Abdullah ibn 'Abbas stated that he did not see a man more suited to rule than Mu'awiya. Despite his endeavours in the expansion of the Caliphate and the establishment of the Umayyad Dynasty, the persona of Caliph Muawiyah I evokes a controversial figure in standard Islamic history whose legacy has never quite been able to shed the taint of his opposition to the Rashidun Caliph, Ali ibn Abi Talib. Some of the classical literature by eminent (Sunni) Islamic figures record: - I asked my father about Ali and Muawiyah. He (Ahmad Ibn Hanbal) - answered: "Know that Ali had a lot of enemies who tried hard to find a - fault in him, but they found it not. As such, they joined a man (i.e., - Muawiyah bin Abu Sufyan) who verily fought him, battled - him, and they praised him (Muawiyah) extravagantly setting a snare for - themselves for him. -Abdullah bin Ahmad Ibn Hanbal Muawiyah's opposition to Ali manifested itself in the following practice instituted during his caliphate, which was the verbal abuse and insult of Ali Ibn Abi Talib during the sermons in the mosques. This was even done on the pulpit of the Mosque of Muhammad in Medinah. (This practice lasted for 65 years and was ended by Umayyad caliph Umar bin Abdul Aziz.) For example, Tabari recorded: - When Muawiyah Ibn Abi Sufyan put Mughairah Ibn Shubah in charge of - Kufah in Jumada 41 AH (Sep. 2 - Oct. 30, 661 CE), he summoned him. - After praising and glorifying God, he said- - "I would continue to advise you about a quality of yours-do not refrain from - abusing Ali and criticizing him, (but) not from asking God's mercy upon - Uthman and His forgiveness for him. Continue to shame the companions - of Ali, keep at a distance, and don't listen to them. Praise the - faction of Uthman, bring them near, and listen to them." Consequently, both the opposition to Ali and the practice of verbal abuse of him in mosque sermons instituted during Muawiyah's caliphate, has been regarded ever since with particular disdain due to these ahadith of Muhammad: Abu Huraira narrated- The Messenger of Allah (Muhammad) said- Saad Ibn Abi Al-Waqqas narrated- - Muawiyah, the son of Abu Sufyan, gave order to Saad, and told him: - "What prevents you that you are refraining from cursing Abu Turab - (nickname of Ali Ibn Abi Talib)?" Saad replied: "Don't you remember that the Prophet - said three things about (the virtues of) Ali? So I will never curse Ali." Also, Sunni imams like Al-Nasa'i and imams like Muhammad al-Bukhari and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, were of the opinion that Muawiyah was lazy, gluttonous, and obese to the point of not even being able to ride a horse. Nisa'i and Muslim narrate a Sahih hadith, wherein Muhammad summoned Muawiyah who snubbed him and continued eating his meal - Muhammad then cursed Muawiyah with the words: "May Allah never fill his belly!" Nisa'i was not the only Sunni scholar who accepted this hadith - there were many others, the foremost being Bukhari and Muslim who compiled the Sahih Muslim. It has been argued that in the Arabic culture and language the expression is a colloquialism which means a wish that the person's belly be so full of blessings of God (in the form of food) that his belly cannot take anymore, or that he wishes the persons blessings to be without an end. However, the two pre-eminent masters of Sunni hadith, Bukhari and Muslim, have rejected absolutely the latter apology for Muawiyah. Further, Nisa'i was murdered when he recited this hadith in the presence of pro-Muawiya Arab-speaking Syrians as it was perceived as a curse of Muawiyah, which debases the unreferenced suggestion that the term was a form of praise and not condemnation. As recorded in considerable early Sunni hadith literature, few early Islamic historical figures have evoked such an ambivalent persona. The traditional medieval Sunni perception of Caliph Muawiyah I has a wide spectrum, ranging from being regarded as a pious Sahabi of Muhammad to one who was even denounced by Muhammad. Examples given: A narration tells that Muhammad prayed to God in favor of Muawiyah: "Allahumma (O Allah) guide him and guide people by him." This narration is in many hadith (narration) books. Al-Dhahabi says that this narration has a strong predication (reference), and Al-Dhahabi also explained how some scholars erred in saying that the narration is weak. Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani (a modern narrations critic) also said: all the men of the predication (reference) are trustworthy. and then he explained how the predication is strong. To the following narration (reported by two different Sahabah): Abdullah ibne Umar narrates that he heard Rasulallah (Muhammad) say: “Mu’awiyah shall not die on the path of Islam.” Narrated by Jabir bin Abdullah who testified that he heard Rasulallah (Muhammad) say: “At the time of his death, Mu’awiyah shall not be counted as member of my Muslim Ummah.” Muawiyah I is a reviled figure in Shia Islam for several reasons. Firstly, because of his involvement in the Battle of Siffin against Ali, whom the Shia Muslims believe was Muhammad's true successor); secondly, for the breaking of the treaty he made with Hasan ibn Ali, after the death of Hasan ibn Ali, one of broken terms being appointing his son Yazid as his successor; thirdly, on account of his responsibility for the killing of Hasan ibn Ali by bribing his wife Ja'dah binte Ash'as to poison him; and fourthly by distorting Islam to match his unislamic rule; and fifthly, for the deaths of various Companions of Muhammad. According to Shia view, Muawiyah opposed Ali, out of sheer greed for power and wealth. His reign opened the door to unparalleled disaster, marked by the persecution of Ali, slaughtering of his followers, and unlawful imprisonment of his supporters, which only worsened when Yazid came into power and the Battle of Karbala ensued. Muawiyah is alleged to have killed many of Muhammad's companions (Sahabah), either in battle or by poison, due to his lust for power. Muawiyah killed several historical figures, including the Sahabah, Amr bin al-Hamiq, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, Malik al-Ashtar, Hujr ibn Adi (to which the families of Abu Bakr and Umar condemned Muawiyah for, and the Sahaba deemed his killer to be cursed) and Abd al-Rahman bin Hasaan (buried alive for his support of Ali). According to the Shia Muawiyah was also responsible for instigating the Battle of Siffin, the bloodiest battle in Islam's history, in which over 70,000 people (among them many of the last surviving companions of Muhammad) were killed. Notable among the Companions who were killed by Muawiyah's forces was Ammar ibn Yasir, a frail old man of 95 at the time of his death. Shii Muslims see his being killed at the hands of Muawiyah's army as significant because of a well-known hadith, present in both the Shia and Sunni books of hadith, narrated by Abu Hurairah and others, in which Muhammad is recorded to have said: "A group of rebels would kill you", Sahih Muslim and Sahih al-Bukhari. [...] Then he [i.e. Muawiyah] was informed that Ubaidullah had two infant sons. So he set out to reach them, and when he found them - they had two (tender) forelocks like pearls - [and] he ordered to kill them. - Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, Ahmad bin Ali. Lisan Al-Mizan: *Mu'wiyah ibn Abu Sufyan. - Al-Mufid, Muhammad bin Muhammad bin al-Numan. Masar Al-Shi'ah. - Caliph and Caliphate: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide. Books.google.ca. Retrieved 2013-04-30. - The Umayyad Dynasty at the University 0f Calgary - Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir. 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La Monte, The world of the Middle Ages: a reorientation of medieval history, Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1949. (p. 105) - Bernard F. Reilly, The Medieval Spain, Cambridge University Press, 1993. (p. 55) - Grolier, Academic American encyclopedia, 1994. (vol. 10, p. 382) - "Book of "Peacemaking"". Sahih Bukhari - Volume 3, Book 49 (Peacemaking), Number 867. Retrieved 2013-04-30. - History of Israel and the Holy Land By Michael Avi-Yonah, Shimon Peres. Books.google.co.uk. Retrieved 2013-04-30. - Middle East, Western Asia, and Northern Africa By Ali Aldosari Page 185 - The Tragedy of the Templars: The Rise and Fall of the Crusader States By Michael Haag Chapter 3 Palestine under the Umayyads and the Arab Tribe - The Arabs: A Short History By Philip Khûri Hitti Page 78 - Chasing a mirage: the tragic illusion of an Islamic state - Page 157 By Tarek Fatah, Publisher J. Wiley & Sons Canada, 2008, ISBN 0470841168, 9780470841167 - Arab Science: Discoveries and Contributions By Edwin Palmer Hoyt - Page 27 - Mu'awiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By Aisha Bewley, Page 33, Publisher Dar Al Taqwa Ltd - Mu'awiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By Aisha Bewley, Page 9, Publisher Dar Al Taqwa Ltd - Al-Bidayah wal-Nihayah - Musharriful Mahbubin by Hazrat Khuwaja Mehboob Qasim Chishti Mushrrafi Qadri ra.gif pp. 216-218 - Kokab wa Rifi Fazal-e-Ali Karam Allah Wajhu, p. 484, By Syed Mohammed Subh-e-Kashaf AlTirmidhi, Urdu translation by Syed Sharif Hussein Sherwani Sabzawari, Published by Aloom AlMuhammed, n. B12 Shadbagh, Lahore, 1 January 1963. - Habib Alseer Rabiyah AlAbrar, vol. 1, Alama JarulAllah Zamik (530 Hijri), - Hadoiqa Sanai, by Hakim Sanai (Died 525 Hijri, at Ghazni), p. 65-67, - Namoos Islam, by Agha Hashim Sialkoti, Published Lahore, 1939 - pp. 66-67 - Tazkarah Tul-Aikram Tarikh-e-Khulafa Arab-Wa-Islam by Syed Shah Mohamed Kabir Abu Alalaiyi Dana Puri, Published Le Kishwar Press, Lakhnow, April 1924/ 1346 H - Pryor & Jeffreys (2006), p. 25 - Treadgold (1997), pp. 313–314 - Kennedy (2004) pp. 120, 122 - Kaegi (1995), pp. 246–247 - El-Cheikh (2004), pp. 83–84 - M. Lesley Wilkins (1994), "Islamic Libraries to 1920", Encyclopedia of Library History, New York: Garland Pub., ISBN 978-0-8240-5787-9 - Hosay Trinidad: Muharram Performances in an Indo-Caribbean Diaspora By Frank J. Korom Page 24 - Redemptive Suffering in Islam: A Study of the Devotional Aspects of Ashura ... By Mahmoud M. Ayoub Page 95 - Mawdudi, Sayyid Abul Ala. Khilafat Wa Mulukiyyat (Caliphate and the Monarchy). (Ch. V, Pgs. 158-159) Idara Tarjumanul Quran Publishers. - Mawdudi, Sayyid Abul Ala. Khilafat Wa Mulukiyyat (Caliphate and the Monarchy). (Ch. V, Pgs. 158-159) Idara Tarjumanul Quran Publishers. - Mu'awiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By Aisha Bewley, Page 31, Publisher Dar Al Taqwa Ltd - Mu'awiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By Aisha Bewley, Page 8, Publisher Dar Al Taqwa Ltd - Mu'awiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By Aisha Bewley, Page 8 and 9, Publisher Dar Al Taqwa Ltd - Al-Suyuti, Jalaluddin. Tarikh al-Khulafa/History of the Caliphs. (Pg. 202). - Ibn Hajar Al-Haytami, Ahmad ibn Muhammad. Al-Sawa'iq Al-Muhriqah (Ch. 9, Sec. 4, Pg. 197). - Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir. The History of Al-Tabari (Vol. 4, Pg. 188). - Ibn Kathir, Ismail bin Umar. Al-Bidayah Wa Al-Nihayah (Vol. 8, Pg. 259; Vol. 9, Pg. 80). - Ibn Kathir, Ismail bin Umar. Tarikh Ibne Katheer (Vol. 3, Pg. 234; Vol. 4, Pg. 154). - Ali, Ameer. History of the Saracens (Ch. 10, Pgs. 126-127). http://www.scribd.com/doc/16916393/Short-History-of-Saracens-ISLAMIC-HISTORY (Pgs. 151-152). - Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir. The History of Al-Tabari (Vol. 18): Between Civil Wars-The Caliphate of Mu'awiyah. (Pgs. 122-123) (Translated by Michael G. Morony). SUNY (State University of New York) Press. Nov. 1986. - Hanbal, Ahmad ibn. Kitab Al-Fada'il Al-Sahaba/Book of the Virtues of the Companions (Vol. 2, Pg. 767, Hadith #1350). - Al-Tirmidhi, Muhammad ibn Isa. Sahih Al-Tirmidhi (Vol. 5, Pg. 699). - Ibn Majah, Muhammad ibn Yazid. Sunan Ibn Majah (Vol. 1, Pg. 52). - Ibn Hajar Al-Haytami, Ahmad ibn Muhammad. Al-Sawa'iq Al-Muhriqah (Ch. 11, Sec. 1, Pg. 221). - Ibn Hanbal, Ahmad. Musnad Ahmad Ibn Hanbal (Vol. 6, Pg. 323) - Ibn Hanbal, Ahmad. Kitab Al-Fada'il Al-Sahabah/Book of the Virtues of the Companions (Vol. 2, Pg. 594, Hadith #1011). - Al-Suyuti, Jalaluddin. Tarikh al-Khulafa/History of the Caliphs (Pg. 173). - Ibn Al-Hajjaj, Muslim. Sahih Muslim-(Chapter) Virtues of the Companions; (Section) Virtues of Ali [Arabic Edit.] (Vol. 4, Pg. 1871, Hadith #32); [English Edit.] (Ch. CMXCVI, Pg. 1284, Hadith #5916). - Sahih Muslim, The Book of Virtue, Good Manners and Joining of the Ties of Relationship - Sahih al-Bukhari, Book #32, Hadith #6298 - Ibn Khallikan, Al Wafat Al Ayan Imam, under the biography of Nisa'i, section dealing with his murder - The Great History vol. 5, 791: "عبد الرحمن بن أبي عميرة المزني يعد في الشاميين قال أبو مسهر حدثنا سعيد بن عبد العزيز عن ربيعة بن يزيد عن بن أبي عميرة قال النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم لمعاوية اللهم اجعله هاديا مهديا واهده واهد به وقال عبد الله عن مروان عن سعيد عن ربيعة سمع عبد الرحمن سمع النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم مثله" - Talkhis al-ilal al-mutanahiya, narration no. 225 - Selselat al-ahadith al-sahiha (the collection of accepted narrations), vol. 4, p. 615, narration no. 1969 - Mu'awiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By Aisha Bewley, Page 4, Publisher Dar Al Taqwa Ltd - Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir. Ta'rikh Al-Rusul Wa'l-Muluk. (Vol. 8, Pg. 186). Dar Al-Ma'arif Publications, Cairo, Egypt. - Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir. Ta'rikh Al-Rusul Wa'l-Muluk. (Vol. 8, Pg. 186). Dar Al-Ma'arif Publications, Cairo, Egypt. - Al-Masudi, vol. 2, p. 47 - Tārikh (Concise History of Humanity) - Abu'l-Fida, vol. 1, p. 182 - Iqdul Farid - Ibn Abd Rabbāh, vol. 2, p. 11 - Rawzatul Manazir - Ibne Shahnah, vol. 2, p. 133 - Tārikhul Khamis, Husayn Dayarbakri, vol. 2, p. 238 - Akbarut Tiwal - Dinawari, p. 400 - Mawātilat Talibeyeen - Abul Faraj Isfahāni - Isti'ab - Ibne Abdul Birr - Tarikh Tabri vol. 18, p. 201; al Istiab, vol. 1, p. 49, Chapter: Busar; al Isaba, vol. 1, p. 289, Translation no. 642, Busar bin Irtat; Asadul Ghaba, vol. 1 p. 113, Topic: Busar bin Irtat; Tarikh Ibn Asakir, vol. 3, p. 225; Tarikh Asim Kufi, p. 308. - al Bidaya wa al Nihaya, vol. 8, p. 52; Asad'ul Ghaba vol. 1, p. 846, Dhikr Umro bin Hamiq; Tarikh Yaqubi, vol. 2, p. 200, 50 H; Al Bidayah wal Nihayah, vol. 8, p. 52, death of Amro bin al-Hamiq al-Khazai. - al Bidaya wa al Nihaya, vol. 8, p. 48, Dhikr 50 Hijri; al Istiab, vol. 1, p. 363; al Isaba, vol. 4, p. 623, Translation no. 5822; Asadul Ghaba, vol. 1, p. 846, Amr bin al-Hamiq al-Khazai; Tabaqat al Kubra, vol. 6, p. 25; Tarikh Kamil, vol. 3, p. 240 Dhikr 51 Hijri; Risala Abu Bakr Khawarzmi, p. 122; Tarikh ibn Khaldun, vol. 3, p. 12; al Maarif, p. 127; History of Tabari, vol. 18, p. 137 - Tadhirathul Khawwas, p. 64; Muruj al Dhahab, vol. 3, p. 420; Tarikh ibn Khaldun, vol. 2, p. 191; Tarikh Kamil, vol. 3, p. 179; Tarikh Tabari, English trans., vol. 18, pp. 144-146; Habib al Sayyar, vol. 1, pp. 72; Tabaqat al Kubra, vol. 6, pp. 213 - al Bidaya wa al Nihaya, vol. 8, p. 53, Dhikr 51 Hijri; Tarikh Kamil, vol. 3, p. 249, Dhikr 51 Hijri; Tarikh ibn Asakir, vol. 12, p. 227, Dhikr Hujr ibn Adi; Tarikh ibn Khaldun, vol. 3, p. 13, Dhikr 51 Hijri; al Isaba, vol. 1, p. 313, Dhikr Hujr ibn Adi; Asad'ul Ghaba, vol. 1, p. 244, Dhikr Hujr ibn Adi; Shadharat ul Dhahab, vol. 1, p. 57, Dhikr 51 Hijri; Tabaqat al Kubra, vol. 6, p. 217, Dhikr Hujr ibn Adi; Mustadrak al Hakim, vol. 3, pp. 468-470, Dhikr Hujr ibn Adi; Akhbar al Tawaal, p. 186, Dhikr Hujr ibn Adi; Tarikh Abu'l Fida, p. 166, Dhikr 51 Hijri; Muruj al Dhahab, vol. 3, p. 12, Dhikr 53 Hijri; Tarikh Yaqubi, vol. 2, p. 219 - al-Bidaya wa al-Nihaya, vol. 8, p. 55; Kanz al Ummal, vol. 3, p. 88; Tarikh al Islam by Dhahabi, vol. 2, p. 217; Tarikh ibn Khaldun, vol. 3, p. 12; al Isaba, p. 355 Dhikr Hujr; al-Istiab, vol. 1, p. 97. - Qadhi Abi Bakar al-Arabi. 'Awasim min al Qawasim', p. 341; Allamah Muhibuddin al-Khateeb - Bidayah wal Nihayah, vol. 8, p. 52; Tarikh Kamil, vol. 3, p. 245; History of Tabari, vol. 18, p. 151. - Jami` at-Tirmidhi, Hadith #3800 - Sunni: Tarikh Kamil, vol. 3, p. 194, Dhikr 40 Hijri; Shadharath al Dhahab, p. 64, Dhikr 58 Hijri; Tarikh Taabari, English trans., vol. 18, pp. 207-208; Murujh al Dhahab, vol. 3, p. 30; al Istiab, vol. 1, p. 49, Chapter: Busar; Tarikh ibn Asakir, vol. 10, p. 146; Asad'ul Ghaba, vol. 1, p. 213, Dhikr Busar; Tarikh Islam by Dhahabi, vol. 2, p. 187. Shia: 21:6 Secrets of Muawiyah from Al-Amali: The Dictations of Sheikh al-Mufid - Shia: 21:6 Secrets of Muawiyah from Al-Amali: The Dictations of Sheikh al-Mufid - Kaegi, Walter Emil, Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests, pub Cambridge University Press, 1995, ISBN 978-0-521-48455-8. - El-Cheikh, Nadia Maria. Byzantium viewed by the Arabs (2004 ed.). Harvard CMES. ISBN 978-0-932885-30-2. - Total pages: 271 - Kennedy, Hugh (2004), The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century (Second Edition), Harlow: Pearson Education Ltd., ISBN 978-0-582-40525-7 - Pryor, John H.; Jeffreys, Elizabeth M. (2006). The Age of the ΔΡΟΜΩΝ: The Byzantine Navy ca. 500–1204. Leiden, The Netherlands and Boston, Massachusetts: Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-15197-0. - Rahman I Doi, Abdur , Non-Muslims Under Shari'ah: (Islamic Law), pub Kazi Pubns Inc, 1999, ISBN 978-1-56744-170-3. - Treadgold, Warren, A History of the Byzantine State and Society, pub Stanford University Press, 1997, ISBN 978-0-8047-2630-6. |Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article Moawiyah.| |Sunni Islam titles| Hasan ibn Ali Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan |Governor of Al-Sham |under direct control of Muawiya I|

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Punjab Province (British India) Punjab was a province of British India. It was annexed by the East India Company in 1849, and was one of the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to fall under British control. It comprised five administrative divisions — Delhi, Jullunder, Lahore, Multan and Rawalpindi — and a number of princely states. Geographically the Punjab province of India was a triangular tract of country of which the Indus and the Sutlej to their confluence formed the two sides, the base being the lower Himalaya hills between those two rivers; but the British province also included a large tract outside those boundaries. Along the northern border Himalayan ranges divided it from Kashmir and Tibet. On the west it was separated from the North-West Frontier Province by the Indus, until that river reaches the border of Dera Ghazi Khan District, which was divided from Baluchistan by the Sulaiman Range. To the south lay Sindh and Rajputana, while on the east the rivers Jumna and Tons separated it from the United Provinces. In present-day India, it included the regions of Punjab, Chandigarh, Delhi, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh (but excluding the former princely states which were later combined into the Patiala and East Punjab States Union) On 21 February 1849 the Sikhs were defeated at the Battle of Gujrat by the British. Britain's victory allowed the East India Company to take over the Punjab. Punjab was annexed on 2 April 1849 and became part of the British Raj, at this time administered by the Company. Henceforth the Punjab would provide Sikh and Punjabi sepoy regiments to the presidency armies in India, whose soldiers would later help the British in putting down the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857. By the late 19th century, however, the Indian nationalist movement took hold in the province. One of the most significant events associated with the movement was the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in 1919, which resulted from an order given by British colonel Reginald Dyer to fire on a group of some 10,000 Indians who had convened to protest new anti-subversion regulations. In 1901 the frontier districts beyond the Indus were separated from Punjab and made into a new province - the North-West Frontier Province. The transfer of the Delhi territory from the North-Western (later the United) Provinces, to Punjab, Punjab with its dependencies was formed into a Lieutenant-Governorship, Sir John Lawrence, then Chief Commissioner being appointed the first Lieutenant-Governor on January 1, 1859. In this office, he was succeeded by Sir Robert Montgomery (1859), Sir Donald McLeod(1865), Sir Henry Durand (1870), Sir Henry Davies (1871), Sir Robert Egerton (1877), Sir Charles Aitchison (1882), Sir James Lyall (1887), Sir Dennis Fitzpatrick (1892), Sir Macworth Young (1897), Sir Charles Rivaz (1902), Sir Denzil Ibbetson (1907) and Sir Louis Dane (1908). In 1866, the Judicial Commissioner was replaced by a Chief Court. The direct administrative functions of the Government were carried out through the Lieutinent-Governor through the Secretariat, comprising a Chief Secretary, a Secretary and two Under-Secretaries. They were usually members of the Indian Civil Service. The territory under the Lieutenant consisted of 29 Districts, grouped under 5 Divisions, and 43 Princely States. Each District was under a Deputy-Commissioner, who reported to the Commissioner of the Division. Each District was subdivided into 3 to 7 tahsils, each under a tahsildar, assisted by a naib (deputy) tahsildar. |Division||Districts in British Territory / Princely States| |Delhi Division||Hissar · Rohtak · Gurgaon · Delhi · Karnal · Ambala · Simla| |Jullunder Division||Kangra · Hoshiarpur · Jullunder · Ludhiana · Ferozepore| |Lahore Division||Montgomery · Lahore · Amritsar · Gurdaspur · Sialkot · Gujranwala| |Rawalpindi Division||Gujrat · Shahpur · Jhelum · Rawalpindi · Attock| |Multan Division||Mianwali · Jhang · Multan · Muzzaffargarh · Dera Ghazi Khan| |Total area, British Territory||97,209 square miles| |Native States||Patiala · Jind · Nabha · Bahawalpur · Sirmur · Lohara · Dujana · Pataudi · Kalsia · Simla Hill States · Kapurthala · Mandi · Muler Kotla · Suket · Faridkot · Chamba| |Total area, Native States||36,532 square miles| |Total area, Punjab||133,741 square miles|

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In Tibetan Buddhist and Indian Buddhist traditions, Shambhala (also spelled Shambala or Shamballa; Tibetan: བདེ་འབྱུང་; Wylie: bde 'byung, pron. de-jung; Chinese: 香巴拉; pinyin: xiāngbālā) is a mythical kingdom hidden somewhere in Inner Asia. It is mentioned in various ancient texts, including the Kalachakra Tantra and the ancient texts of the Zhang Zhung culture which predated Tibetan Buddhism in western Tibet. The Bön scriptures speak of a closely related land called Olmolungring. Whatever its historical basis, Shambhala gradually came to be seen as a Buddhist Pure Land, a fabulous kingdom whose reality is visionary or spiritual as much as physical or geographic. It was in this form that the Shambhala myth reached the West, where it influenced non-Buddhist as well as Buddhist spiritual seekers — and, to some extent, popular culture in general. In the Buddhist Kalachakra teachings Sambhala (this is the form found in the earliest Sanskrit manuscripts of Kalachakra texts; the Tibetans usually transliterated this as "Shambhala"; Tib. bde 'byung) is a Sanskrit term of uncertain derivation. Commonly it is understood to be a "place of peace/tranquility/happiness". Shakyamuni Buddha is said to have taught the Kalachakra tantra on request of King Suchandra of Shambhala; the teachings are also said to be preserved there. Shambhala is believed to be a society where all the inhabitants are enlightened, actually a Buddhist Pure Land, centered by a capital city called Kalapa. Shambhala is ruled over by Lord Maitreya. The Kalachakra prophesies that when the world declines into war and greed, and all is lost, the 25th Kalki king will emerge from Shambhala with a huge army to vanquish "Dark Forces" and usher in a worldwide Golden Age. Using calculations from the Kalachakra Tantra, scholars such as Alex Berzin put this date at 2424 AD. Manjushri Yashas (Tib. Rigdan Tagpa) is said to have been born in 159 BC and ruled over a kingdom of 300,510 followers of the Mlechha (Yavana or "western") religion, some of whom worshiped the sun. He is said to have expelled all the heretics from his dominions but later, after hearing their petitions, allowed them to return. For their benefit, and the benefit of all living beings, he explained the Kalachakra teachings. In 59 BC he abdicated his throne to his son, Puṇdaŕika, and died soon afterwards, entering the Sambhoga-káya of Buddhahood. As with many concepts in the Kalachakra Tantra, the idea of Shambhala is said to have "outer", "inner", and "alternative" meanings. The outer meaning understands Shambhala to exist as a physical place, although only individuals with the appropriate karma can reach it and experience it as such. As the 14th Dalai Lama noted during the 1985 Kalachakra initiation in Bodhgaya, Shambhala is not an ordinary country: Although those with special affiliation may actually be able to go there through their karmic connection, nevertheless it is not a physical place that we can actually find. We can only say that it is a pure land, a pure land in the human realm. And unless one has the merit and the actual karmic association, one cannot actually arrive there. There are various ideas about where this society is located, but it is often placed in central Asia, north or west of Tibet. Ancient Zhang Zhung texts identify Shambhala with the Sutlej Valley in Punjab, India. Mongolians identify Shambala with certain valleys of southern Siberia. In Altai folklore Mount Belukha is believed to be the gateway to Shambhala. Modern Buddhist scholars seem to now conclude that Shamballa is located in the higher reaches of the Himalayas in what is now called the Dhauladhar mountains around Mcleodganj. The current Dalai Lama manages the Tibetan government in exile from Mcleodganj. The inner and alternative meanings refer to more subtle understandings of what Shambhala represents in terms of one's own body and mind (inner), and the meditation practice (alternative). These two types of symbolic explanations are generally passed on orally from teacher to student. The first Kalachakra masters of the tradition disguised themselves with pseudonyms, so the Indian oral traditions recorded by the Tibetans contain a mass of contradictions with regard to chronology. Westerners have often been fascinated with the idea of Shambhala, often based on fragmented accounts from the Kalachakra tradition. Tibet and its ancient traditions were largely unknown to westerners until the twentieth century; whatever little information westerners received was haphazard at best. The first information that reached western civilization about Shambhala came from the Portuguese Catholic missionary Estêvão Cacella, who had heard about Shambhala (which they transcribed as "Xembala"), and thought it was another name for Cathay or China. In 1627 they headed to Tashilhunpo, the seat of the Panchen Lama and, discovering their mistake, returned to India. The Hungarian scholar Sándor Kőrösi Csoma, writing in 1833, provided the first geographic account of "a fabulous country in the north...situated between 45' and 50' north latitude". Interestingly enough, due north from India to between these latitudes is eastern Kazakhstan, which is characterized by green hills, low mountains, rivers, and lakes. This is in contrast to the landscape of the provinces of Tibet and Xinjiang in eastern China, which are high mountains and arid. The concept of Shangri-La, as first described in James Hilton's 1933 novel Lost Horizon, is claimed to have been inspired by the Shambhala myth (as well as then-current National Geographic articles on Eastern Tibet Kham). Shambala appears in several science fiction stories of the 1930s. During the late-19th century, Theosophical Society co-founder HP Blavatsky alluded to the Shambhala myth, giving it currency for Western occult enthusiasts. Madame Blavatsky, who claimed to be in contact with a Great White Lodge of Himalayan Adepts, mentions Shambhala in several places, but without giving it especially great emphasis. (The Mahatmas, we are told, are also active around Shigatse and Luxor.) Later esoteric writers further emphasized and elaborated on the concept of a hidden land inhabited by a hidden mystic brotherhood whose members labor for the good of humanity. Alice A. Bailey claims Shamballa (her spelling) is an extra-dimensional or spiritual reality on the etheric plane, a spiritual centre where the governing deity of Earth, Sanat Kumara, dwells as the highest Avatar of the Planetary Logos of Earth, and is said to be an expression of the Will of God. Nicholas and Helena Roerich led a 1924-1928 expedition aimed at Shambhala. Inspired by Theosophical lore and several visiting Mongol lamas, Gleb Bokii, the chief Bolshevik cryptographer and one of the bosses of the Soviet secret police, along with his writer friend Alexander Barchenko, embarked on a quest for Shambhala, in an attempt to merge Kalachakra-tantra and ideas of Communism in the 1920s. They contemplated a special expedition to Inner Asia to retrieve the wisdom of Shambhala - the project fell through as a result of intrigues within the Soviet intelligence service, as well as rival efforts of the Soviet Foreign Commissariat that sent its own expedition to Tibet in 1924. French Buddhist Alexandra David-Néel associated Shambhala with Balkh in present day Afghanistan, also offering the Persian Sham-i-Bala, "elevated candle" as an etymology of its name. In a similar vein, the Gurdjieffian J. G. Bennett published speculation that Shambalha was Shams-i-Balkh, a Bactrian sun temple. Among other things, in a secret laboratory affiliated with the secret police, Bokii and Barchenko also experimented with Buddhist spiritual techniques, trying to find a key to engineer perfect communist human beings Similarly, Heinrich Himmler and Rudolf Hess sent a German expedition to Tibet in 1930, and then again in 1934-35, and in 1938-39. Some later occultists, noting the Nazi link, view Shambhala (or the closely related underground realm of Aghartha) as a source of negative manipulation by an evil (or amoral) conspiracy. Chögyam Trungpa, a Tibetan Buddhist lama, used the "Shambhala" name for certain of his teachings, practices, and organizations (e.g. Shambhala Training, Shambhala International, Shambhala Publications), referring to the root of human goodness and aspiration. In Trungpa's view, Shambhala has its own independent basis in human wisdom that does not belong to East or West, or to any one culture or religion. - Crossman, Sylvie and Jean-Pierre Barou, eds. Tibetan Mandala, Art and Practice (The Wheel of Time). New York: Konecky & Konecky, 2004. ISBN 1-56852-473-0. pp.20-26 - The Tantra by Victor M. Fic, Abhinav Publications, 2003, p.49. - The Bon Religion of Tibet by Per Kavǣrne, Shambhala, 1996 - 香巴拉—时轮金刚的清净刹土（上） (in Chinese), CN: Sina. - 时轮金刚与香巴拉王朝 (in Chinese), FJDH - 香巴拉净土_罗鸣_新浪博客 (in Chinese), CN: Sina. - [Alexander] (1997). "Taking the Kalachakra Initiation". Retrieved 2008-10-27. - Das, Sarat Chandra (1882). Contributions on the Religion and History of Tibet, in Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. LI. Reprint: Manjushri Publishing House, Delhi. 1970, pp. 81–2. - Lopez, Donald S. Jr. Prisoners of Shangri~La, Tibetan Buddhism and the West, The University of Chicago Press, 1998 - Bernbaum, Edwin. (1980). The Way to Shambhala, pp. 18-19. Reprint: (1989). Jeremy P. Tarcher, Inc., Los Angeles. ISBN 0-87477-518-3. - Bailey, Alice A, A Treatise on Cosmic Fire 1932 Lucis Trust. 1925, p 753 - Archer, Kenneth. Roerich East & West. Parkstone Press 1999, p.94 - David-Néel, A. "Les Nouvelles Littéraires";1954, p.1 - Bennett, J.G: "Gurdjieff: aking a New World". Bennett notes Idries Shah as the source of the suggestion. - Znamenski (2011) - Hale, Christopher. Himmler's Crusade, John Wiley & Sons., Inc., 2003 - Trungpa, Chogyam. Shambhala, The Sacred Path of the Warrior. Shambhala, 1988 - Berzin, Alexander (2003). The Berzin Archives. Mistaken Foreign Myths about Shambhala. - Martin, Dean. (1999). "'Ol-mo-lung-ring, the Original Holy Place." In: Sacred Spaces and Powerful Places In Tibetan Culture: A Collection of Essays. (1999) Edited by Toni Huber, pp. 125–153. The Library of Tibetan Works and Archives, Dharamsala, H.P., India. ISBN 81-86470-22-0. - Meyer, Karl Ernest and Brysac, Shareen Blair (2006) Tournament of Shadows: The Great Game And the Race for Empire in Central Asia ISBN 0-465-04576-6 - Bernbaum, Edwin. (1980). The Way to Shambhala: A Search for the Mythical Kingdom Beyond the Himalayas. Reprint: (1989) St. Martin's Press, New York. ISBN 0-87477-518-3. - Jeffrey, Jason. Mystery of Shambhala in New Dawn, No. 72 (May–June 2002). - Trungpa, Chogyam. Shambhala: The Sacred Path of the Warrior. Shambhala Publications. ISBN 0-87773-264-7 - Le Page, Victoria. Shambhala: The Fascinating Truth behind the Myth of Shangri-La. Quest ISBN 0-8356-0750-X - Znamenski, Andrei. (2011). Red Shambhala: Magic, Prophecy, and Geopolitics in the Heart of Asia. Quest Books, Wheaton, IL (2011) ISBN 978-0-8356-0891-6. - Allen, Charles. (1999). The Search for Shangri-La: A Journey into Tibetan History. Little, Brown and Company. Reprint: Abacus, London. 2000. ISBN 0-349-11142-1. - Znamenski, Andrei. Red Shambhala: Magic, Prophecy, and Geopolitics in the Heart of Asia. Wheaton, IL: Quest Books, 2011. ISBN 978-0-8356-0891-6 - Martin, Dan. (1999). "'Ol-mo-lung-ring, the Original Holy Place." In: Sacred Spaces and Powerful Places In Tibetan Culture: A Collection of Essays. (1999) Edited by Toni Huber, pp. 125–153. The Library of Tibetan Works and Archives, Dharamsala, H.P., India. ISBN 81-86470-22-0. - Symmes, Patrick. (2007). "The Kingdom of the Lotus" in "Outside", 30th Anniversary Special Edition, pp. 148–187. Mariah Media, Inc., Red Oak, Iowa. - Jongbloed, Dominique. (2011) "Civilisations antédiluviennes" ed. Alphée, France

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||This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. generated during the 1974 Super Outbreak. |Date of tornado outbreak:||April 3–4, 1974| |Maximum rated tornado2:||F5 tornado| |Tornadoes caused:||148 confirmed| |Damages:||$3.5 billion (2005 dollars)| |Areas affected:||Most of central and eastern North America| 1Time from first tornado to last tornado The Super Outbreak was the second largest tornado outbreak on record for a single 24-hour period, just behind the April 25–28, 2011 tornado outbreak. It was also the most violent tornado outbreak ever recorded, with 30 F4/F5 tornadoes reported. From April 3 to April 4, 1974, there were 148 tornadoes confirmed in 13 U.S. states, including Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, North Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia, and New York; and the Canadian province of Ontario. It extensively damaged approximately 900 square miles (2,330 square kilometers) along a total combined path length of 2,600 miles (4,200 km). The Super Outbreak of tornadoes of 3–4 April 1974 remains one of the most outstanding severe convective weather episodes of record in the continental United States. The outbreak far surpassed previous and succeeding events in severity, longevity and extent, with the notable exception of the April 2011 Super Outbreak. With a death toll of over 300, this outbreak was the deadliest since the 1936 Tupelo-Gainesville tornado outbreak. Its death toll would also not be surpassed until the April 25–28, 2011 tornado outbreak killed 324 people. A powerful spring-time low pressure system developed across the North American Interior Plains on April 1. While moving into the Mississippi and Ohio Valley areas, a surge of very moist air intensified the storm further while there were sharp temperature contrasts between both sides of the system. NOAA officials were expecting a severe weather outbreak on April 3, but not of the extent which ultimately occurred. Several F2 and F3 tornadoes had struck portions of the Ohio Valley and the South in a separate, earlier outbreak on April 1 and 2, and this earlier storm system included three killer tornadoes in Kentucky, Alabama, and Tennessee. The town of Campbellsburg, northeast of Louisville, was hard-hit in this earlier outbreak, with a large portion of the town destroyed by an F3. Between the two outbreaks, an additional tornado was reported in Indiana in the early morning hours of April 3, several hours before the official start of the outbreak. On Wednesday, April 3, severe weather watches already were issued from the morning from south of the Great Lakes, while in portions of the Upper Midwest, snow was reported, with heavy rain falling across central Michigan and much of Ontario. St. Louis, Missouri was pounded by a very severe thunderstorm early in the afternoon which, while it did not produce a tornado, did include damaging baseball-sized hailstones. By the early afternoon, numerous supercells and clusters of thunderstorms developed and the outbreak began quickly, with storms developing in central Illinois and a secondary zone developing near the Appalachians across eastern Tennessee, central Alabama, and northern Georgia. The worst of the outbreak shifted towards the Ohio Valley between 4:30 pm and 6:30 pm EDT where it produced four of the seven F5s over a span of just two hours when three powerful supercells traveled across the area—one in central and southern Ohio, a second one across southern Indiana and Ohio, and a third one in northern Kentucky. During the evening hours, activity again began to escalate farther to the south, with several violent tornadoes crossing the northern third of Alabama. Activity also spread to central Tennessee and eastern Kentucky, with numerous tornadoes, most of which were concentrated in the Cumberland Plateau region. Additional supercells developed across northern Indiana and southern Michigan producing additional violent and/or killer tornadoes between 6:00 pm and 10:00 pm EDT including the Windsor, Ontario tornado. Michigan was not hit as hard as neighboring states or Windsor, with only one twister which hit near Coldwater and Hillsdale causing any fatalities, all in mobile homes; however, thunderstorm downpours caused flash floods, and north of the warm front in the Upper Peninsula, heavy snowfall was reported. Activity in the south moved towards the Appalachians during the overnight hours and produced the final tornadoes across the southeast during the morning of April 4. A 2004 survey for Risk Management Solutions, citing an earlier Dr. Ted Fujita study, found that three-quarters of all tornadoes in the 1974 Super Outbreak were produced by 30 'families' of tornadoes; i.e., multiple tornadoes spawned in succession by a single thunderstorm cell. Note that most of these tornadoes were not associated with squall lines. These were long-lived and long-tracked supercells. Events and aftermath Never before had so many violent (F5 and F4) tornadoes been observed in a single weather phenomenon. There were seven F5 tornadoes and 23 F4 tornadoes. The outbreak began in Morris, Illinois, at around 1:00pm on April 3. As the storm system moved east where daytime heating had made the air more unstable, the tornadoes grew more intense. A tornado that struck near Monticello, Indiana was an F4 and had a path length of 121 miles (195 km), the longest path length of any tornado for this outbreak. Nineteen people were killed in this tornado. The first F5 tornado of the day struck the city of Xenia, Ohio, at 4:40pm EDT. It killed 34, injured 1,150, completely destroyed about one-fourth of the city, and caused serious damage in another fourth of the city. Seven F5s were observed—one each in Indiana, Ohio and Kentucky, three in Alabama and the final one which crossed through parts of Indiana, Ohio and Kentucky. 31 were killed in Brandenburg, Kentucky, and 28 died in Guin, Alabama. One tornado also occurred in Windsor, Ontario, Canada, killing nine and injuring 30 others there, most of them at the former Windsor Curling Club. During the peak of the outbreak, a staggering sixteen tornadoes were on the ground simultaneously. At one point forecasters in Indiana, frustrated because they could not keep up with all of the simultaneous tornado activity, put the entire state of Indiana under a blanket tornado warning. This was the first and only time in U.S. history that an entire state was under a tornado warning. There were 18 hours of continuous tornado activity. The outbreak finally ended in Caldwell County, NC, at about 7:00am on April 4. A total of 315 to 330 people were killed in 171 tornadoes from April 1 through April 4 and 5,484 were injured. The 1974 Super Outbreak occurred at the end of a very strong, nearly record-setting La Niña event. The 1973–74 La Niña was just as strong as the 1998–99 La Niña. Another tornado outbreak, which may be linked to La Niña, was the March 12, 2006 tornado outbreak. Despite the apparent connection between La Niña and two of the largest tornado outbreaks in US history, no definitive linkage exists between La Niña and this outbreak or tornado activity in general. Most significant tornadoes The tornado that struck the city of Xenia, Ohio stands as the deadliest individual tornado of the Super Outbreak, killing 32 and destroying a significant portion of the town. It was one of the most intense storms then recorded, stripping some trees bare of their branches, snapping large trees in half and depositing their crowns 50 yards away, and leveling nearly all structures in the damage path. The tornado formed near Bellbrook, Ohio, southwest of Xenia, at about 4:30pm EDT. It began as a moderate-sized tornado, then intensified while moving northeast at about 50 mph (80 km/h). The tornado exhibited multiple-vortex structure and became very large as it approached town. Gil Whitney, the weather specialist for WHIO-TV in Dayton, alerted viewers in Montgomery and Greene County (where Xenia is located) about the possible tornado, broadcasting the radar image of the supercell with a pronounced hook echo on the rear flank of the storm several minutes before it actually struck. The storm was visible on radar because of raindrops wrapping around the circulation. When the storm reached Xenia at 4:40pm, apartment buildings, homes, businesses, churches, and schools including Xenia High School were destroyed. Students in the school, practicing for a play, took cover in the main hallway seconds before a direct hit from the tornado. A school bus dropped on top of the stage the students were practicing on. The high school suffered extensive damage with the entire 2nd floor swept off the building. Several railroad cars were lifted and blown over as the tornado passed over a moving Penn Central freight train in the center of town. The hardest hit area, and the first area struck, were the adjacent Arrowhead and Windsor Park subdivisions near U.S. Route 68, where entire rows of brick homes were cleanly swept away. It toppled gravestones in Cherry Grove Cemetery, then moved through the length of the downtown business district, passing west of the courthouse, and into the Pinecrest Garden district, which was extensively affected. The still photo below shows the tornado as it passed Greene Memorial Hospital, destroying homes in Pinecrest Gardens northeast of downtown. The Xenia tornado was recorded on film by one resident, and its sound was recorded on tape by another from inside an apartment complex. Before the tornado hit the building, the resident left the tape recorder on, and it was found after the storm. At the same time a few blocks away, 16 year old Xenia resident Bruce Boyd captured 1 minute and 42 seconds of footage with a "Super-8" 8mm movie camera, a pre-1973 model without sound recording capability. The footage was later paired with the nearby tape recording. The film shows multiple vortices within the larger circulation as the storm swept through Xenia. A few pictures were taken of the tornado before it entered Xenia and later passing through the city. The early pictures taken by Homer G. Ramby show what the tornado before entering Xenia. The photos taken from inside Xenia suggest that the tornado widened as it moved and turned into an F-5 inside the city. Upon exiting Xenia, the tornado passed through Wilberforce, heavily damaging several campus and residential buildings of Wilberforce University. Central State University also sustained considerable damage. Afterwards, the tornado weakened before dissipating in Clark County near South Vienna, traveling a little over 30 miles (48 km). Its maximum width was a half-mile (0.8 km) in Xenia. The same parent storm later spawned a weaker tornado northeast of Columbus in Franklin County. 32 people were killed in the disaster, and about 1,150 were injured in Xenia. In addition to the direct fatalities, two Ohio Air National Guardsmen deployed for disaster assistance who were killed on April 17 when a fire swept through their temporary barracks in a furniture store. The memorial in downtown Xenia lists 34 deaths, in honor of the two Guardsmen. About 1,400 buildings (roughly half of the town) were heavily damaged or destroyed. Damage was estimated at US$100 million ($471.7 million in 2013 dollars). President Richard Nixon made an unannounced visit to Xenia a few days later. It would be the first (and only) city affected by the 1974 Super Outbreak that he would visit. Upon inspecting the damage, he said: "As I look back over the disasters, I saw the earthquake in Anchorage in 1964; I saw the hurricanes... Hurricane Camille in 1969 down in Mississippi, and I saw Hurricane Agnes in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania. And it is hard to tell the difference among them all, but I would say in terms of destruction, just total devastation, this is the worst I have seen." President Nixon immediately declared Xenia a disaster area. Although the Federal Disaster Relief Act was already introduced in 1973, it still had not passed Congress. The 1974 Super Outbreak disaster was a catalyst for accelerated passage of the act through Congress in 1974, according to Nixon. It took several months for the city to recover from the tornado, with the help of the Red Cross and the Ohio National Guard assisting the recovery efforts. Most of the town was quickly re-built afterward. The Xenia tornado was one of two rated F5 that affected Ohio during the outbreak, the other striking the Cincinnati area (see Cincinnati/Sayler Park area tornado, below). Xenia was later struck by two other tornadoes—both a smaller one in April 1989 and a larger one in September 2000, which was an F4 twister that killed one and injured about 100 in an area parallel to and just north of the 1974 path. Dr. Ted Fujita and a team of colleagues undertook a 10-month study of the 1974 Super Outbreak. Along with discovering much about tornadoes which was not known before, such as the downburst and the microburst, and assessing damage to surrounding structures, the Xenia tornado was determined to be the worst of the 148 storms. |Outbreak death toll| |All deaths were tornado-related| The Brandenburg tornado, also producing F5 damage, touched down in Breckinridge County at 4:25 pm CDT and followed a 34-mile (55 km) path. First producing F3 damage at the north edge of Hardinsburg, the storm intensified as it moved into Meade County, producing F5 damage as it swept through Brandenburg and surrounding rural areas, along the Ohio River before dissipating in Indiana. 31 were killed in the storm including 18 at a single block of Green Street in Brandenburg. The vast majority of homes and businesses including the High School, the Baptist Church, the old bank building and the Meade Hotel were either damaged or destroyed. The radio station WMMG (AM) was also destroyed. Sadly, the citizens of Brandenburg had received very little warning, which may account in part for the tragically high death toll; it has been reported that the only warning received by listeners to WMMG was when the disc jockey on duty looked out the window, saw the twister coming, and shouted at his listeners to take cover, shortly before the twister destroyed the radio station. Homes were completely swept away by the tornado, leaving nothing behind but empty basements or clean slabs. At least one obliterated home had its walk-out basement walls completely buckle and collapse. The walls were thick and made of poured concrete. Cars were also thrown and mangled beyond recognition, some of which had nothing left but the frame and tires. Several tombstones in the Cap Anderson cemetery were toppled and broken, and some were displaced a small distance. Most of the trees were debarked or snapped off at the base and thrown. Grass was scoured from the ground in some areas as well. The same storm would later produce tornadoes in the Louisville metro area. A complete description of homes and other structures destroyed in order by the tornado in Brandenburg can be found here. When the twister struck on April 3, 1974, many of the Brandenburg residents at that time had also experienced a major flood of the Ohio River that affected the area in 1937 as well as numerous other communities along the river, including Louisville and Paducah. The same storm would later produce tornadoes in the Louisville metro area. About an hour after the Brandenburg tornado, an F4 tornado formed in the southwest part of Jefferson County near Kosmosdale. Another funnel cloud formed over Standiford Field Airport, touched down at The Kentucky Fair and Exposition Center, and destroyed the majority of the horse barns at the center and part of Freedom Hall (a multipurpose arena) before it crossed Interstate 65, scattering several vehicles on that busy expressway. The tornado continued its 22-mile (35 km) journey northeast where it demolished most of Audubon Elementary School and affected the neighborhoods of Audubon, Cherokee Triangle, Cherokee-Seneca, Crescent Hill, Indian Hills, Northfield, Rolling Fields, and Tyler Park. The tornado ended near the junction of Interstates 264 and 71 after killing three people, injuring 207 people, destroying over 900 homes, and damaging thousands of others. Cherokee Park, a historic 409-acre (1.66 km2) municipal park located at Eastern Parkway and Cherokee Road, had thousands of mature trees destroyed. A massive re-planting effort was undertaken by the community in the aftermath of the tornado. In addition to the three fatalities directly associated with the event, two other deaths were indirectly associated; a heart attack in the immediate aftermath and a construction worker who fell while repairing Freedom Hall two weeks later. Dick Gilbert, a helicopter traffic reporter for radio station WHAS-AM, followed the tornado through portions of its track including when it heavily damaged the Louisville Water Company's Crescent Hill pumping station, and gave vivid descriptions of the damage as seen from the air. A WHAS-TV cameraman also filmed the tornado when it passed just east of the Central Business District of Louisville. WHAS-AM broke away from its regular programming shortly before the tornado struck Louisville and was on-air live with John Burke, the chief meteorologist at the National Weather Service's Louisville office at Standiford Field when the tornado first descended. The station remained on the air delivering weather bulletins and storm-related information until well into the early morning hours of April 4. As electrical power had been knocked out to a substantial portion of the city, the radio station became a clearinghouse for vital information and contact with emergency workers, not only in Louisville but across the state of Kentucky due to its 50,000-watt clear-channel signal and the fact that storms had knocked numerous broadcasting stations in smaller communities, such as Frankfort, off the air. Then-Governor Wendell Ford commended the station's personnel for their service to the community in the time of crisis, and Dick Gilbert later received a special commendation from then-President Richard Nixon for his tracking of the tornado from his helicopter. Of the F5 tornadoes produced by the outbreak, the DePauw tornado was the first to form, touching down at 3:20 pm local time. It is probably the least-known of the F5 tornadoes in the outbreak as it traveled through rural areas in southern Indiana northwest of Louisville, traversing about 65 miles (105 km) through parts of Perry and Harrison Counties. F5 damage was observed near the community of Depauw, while areas near Palmyra and Borden were also heavily affected by the tornado. All but 10 homes in Martinsburg were destroyed; and in the Daisy Hill community homes were completely swept away. As the tornado moved through rural areas, many farms were completely leveled. Published photographs of this storm reveal a very wide debris cloud and wall cloud structure, with no visible condensation funnel at times. Overall, six were killed by the storm and over 75 were injured. One of the fatalities was crushed by a school bus that flew into a ditch which she was taking cover. It was the only F5 that had a path width in excess of 1-mile (1.6 km). Soon after the Depauw tornado lifted, the Hanover/Madison F4 twister formed near Henryville and traveled through Jefferson County and leveled many structures in the small towns of Hanover and Madison. Eleven were killed in this storm while an additional 300 were injured. According to a WHAS-TV Louisville reporter in a special report about the outbreak, 90% of Hanover was destroyed or severely damaged, including the Hanover College campus. Despite the fact that no one was killed or seriously injured at the college, 32 of the College's 33 buildings were damaged, including two that were completely destroyed and six that sustained major structural damage. Hundreds of trees were down, completely blocking every campus road. All utilities were knocked out and communication with those off campus was nearly impossible. Damage to the campus alone was estimated at about US$10 million. In Madison alone where seven of the fatalities took place, about 300 homes were destroyed and the tornado also brushed the community of China causing additional fatalities. The same storm would later strike the Cincinnati area, producing multiple tornadoes including another F5. Cincinnati/Sayler Park area The tornado was only one of two F5 tornadoes in recorded history to have traveled through three states, the other being the Tri-State Tornado that devastated locations in Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. The Cincinnati/Sayler Park tornado (which has a much shorter path length than the Tri-State Tornado) traveled through portions of Indiana, Kentucky and Ohio. The Sayler Park tornado was among a series of tornadoes that earlier struck portions of southern Indiana from north of Brandenburg, Kentucky, into southwest Ohio. It began shortly before 4:30 pm CDT or 5:30 pm EDT in southeastern Indiana in Ohio County north of Rising Sun near the Ohio River. It then traveled through Boone County, Kentucky, before reaching its peak intensity in the western suburbs of the Cincinnati Metropolitan area. Most severely affected was Sayler Park at the western edge of the city where F5 damage occurred. Homes were swept away in a hilly area near a lake, and boats were thrown and destroyed. Other areas near Cincinnati also suffered extensive damage to structures. This tornado was witnessed on television by thousands of people, as WCPO aired the tornado live during special news coverage of the tornadoes. The tornado continued northeastward, passing through multiple neighborhoods and destroying numerous homes. Other areas affected were Bridgetown, Mack, Dent and Delhi. Damage in Delhi was rated as high as F4. The second so-called F5 "Tri-State" tornado killed 3 and injured over 100 in Hamilton County, Ohio. It was considered the most-photographed tornado of the outbreak. This tornado dissipated west of White Oak but the same thunderstorm activity was responsible for two other tornado touchdowns in the Lebanon and Mason areas. The Mason tornado, which started in the northern Cincinnati subdivisions of Arlington Heights and Elmwood Place, was rated F4 and killed two, while the Warren County tornado was rated an F2 and injured 10. The storm that spawned this family of tornadoes weakened before moving through portions of the Miami Valley and the rest of southern Ohio. This half-mile (0.8 km) wide F4 tornado developed (as part of a tornado family that moved from Illinois to Michigan for 260 miles) during the late afternoon hours. This tornado produced the longest damage path recorded during the 1974 Super Outbreak, on a southwest to northeast path that nearly crossed the entire state of Indiana. According to most records, this tornado formed near Otterbein in Benton County in west central Indiana to Noble County just northwest of Fort Wayne - a total distance of about 121 miles (195 km). Further analysis by Ted Fujita indicated that at the start of the tornado path near Otterbein, downburst winds (also called "twisting downburst") disrupted the tornado's inflow which caused it to briefly dissipate while a new tornado formed near Brookston in White County at around 4:50 pm EDT and then traveled for 109 miles (175 km). It also struck portions of six other counties, with the hardest hit being White County and its town of Monticello. Much of the town was destroyed including the courthouse, some churches and cemeteries, 40 businesses and numerous homes as well as three schools. It also heavily damaged the Penn Central bridge over the Tippecanoe River. Overall damage according to the NOAA was estimated at about US$250 million with US$100 million damage in Monticello alone. After the tornado struck Monticello, the tornado reached peak strength and completely leveled several farms northwest of town. The tornado then went on to tear through the west side of Rochester, where businesses were destroyed and homes were completely leveled and swept away. Riddle Elementary School was badly damaged as well. The tornado then struck Talma, destroying most of the town, including a fastening plant and the schoolhouse. The tornado continued northeast and struck the south sides of Atwood and Leesburg, with additional severe damage occurring at both locations. The tornado then crossed Dewart Lake and Lake Wawasee, destroying multiple lakeside homes and trailers. The Wawasee Airport was hard hit, where hangars were destroyed and planes were thrown and demolished. The tornado destroyed several buildings as it passed between Ligonier and Topeka, including Perry School and a Monsanto Plant. The tornado then finally dissipated near Oliver Lake airfield. Eighteen were killed during the storm including five from Fort Wayne when their mini-bus fell 50 feet (15 m) into the Tippecanoe River near Monticello. One passenger did survive the fall. Five others were killed in White County, six in Fulton County and one in Kosciusko County. The National Guard had assisted the residents in the relief and cleanup efforts and then-Governor Otis Bowen visited the area days after the storm. One of the few consolations from the tornado was that a century-old bronze bell that belonged to the White County Courthouse and served as timekeeper was found intact despite being thrown a great distance. The tornado itself had contradicted a long-time myth that a tornado would "not follow terrain into steep valleys" as while hitting Monticello, it descended a 60-foot (18 m) hill near the Tippecanoe River and damaged several homes afterwards. Tanner, Alabama (1st tornado) As the cluster of thunderstorms were crossing much of the Ohio Valley and northern Indiana, additional strong storms developed much further south just east of the Mississippi River into the Tennessee Valley and Mississippi. The first clusters would produce its first deadly tornadoes into Alabama during the early evening hours. Most of the small town of Tanner, west of Huntsville in Limestone County, was destroyed when two violent tornadoes struck the community 30 minutes apart. The first tornado formed at 6:30 pm CDT in Franklin County, Alabama and ended just over 90 minutes later in Franklin County, Tennessee. Serious damage from this first storm began in the Mt. Moriah community, where the tornado rapidly developed and swept away homes and hurled fleeing vehicles, with additional severe damage occurring in the Phil Campbell area, and with numerous homes swept away near Moulton further along the path. A chemical plant was destroyed, and a water pump was completely lifted out of a well house along Highway-157. In one case, the destruction was so complete that a witness reported that the largest recognizable objects among scattered debris from an obliterated house, were some bed-springs. Intense ground scouring occurred, and red soil was found dug up and plastered against debarked trees. Crossing the Tennessee River as a large waterspout, the storm then slammed into Tanner, where many homes were destroyed and pavement was scoured from roads. The tornado then struck the Harvest area where additional severe damage occurred, including large metal power line truss towers that were ripped from their anchors and thrown. Eyewitnesses reported that the tornado was quite large and demolished everything along its 51-mile long path. Tanner, Alabama (2nd tornado) While rescue efforts were underway to look for people under the destroyed structures, few were aware that another violent tornado would strike the area. The path of the second tornado, which formed at 7:35 pm CDT was 50 miles in length, and the storm formed along the Tennessee River less than a mile from the path of the earlier storm; the first half of its path very closely paralleled its predecessor. Many of the structures that were missed by the first tornado in Tanner were demolished along with remaining portions of already damaged structures; the communities of Capshaw and Harvest were likewise struck twice. A man injured in the first tornado was taken to a church in the area, which collapsed in the second tornado, killing him. Many other structures in Franklin, Limestone and Madison counties were completely demolished, including significant portions of the communities of Harvest and Hazel Green just northeast of Tanner. The death toll from the two tornadoes was over 50 and over 400 were injured. Most of the fatalities occurred in and around the Tanner area. Over 1,000 houses, 200 mobile homes and numerous other outbuildings, automobiles, power lines and trees were completely demolished or heavily damaged. The most recent official National Weather Service records show that both of the Tanner tornadoes were rated F5. However, the rating of the second Tanner tornado is still disputed by some scientists; analysis in one publication estimates F3-F4 damage along the entirety of the second storm's path. This was the second state to have been hit by more than two F5s during the 1974 Super Outbreak. The next occurrence of two F5s hitting the same state on the same day happened in March 1990 in Kansas, and then in Mississippi on April 27, 2011. Meanwhile, the next F5 to hit the state was on April 4, 1977 near Birmingham. Tanner was hit by yet another EF5 tornado on April 27, 2011. While tornadoes were causing devastation in the northwestern most corner of the state, another supercell crossing the Mississippi-Alabama state line produced another violent tornado that touched down in Pickens County before heading northeast for nearly 2 hours towards the Jasper area causing major damage to its downtown as the F4 storm struck. Damage was also reported in Cullman from the storm before it lifted. The Jasper tornado first touched near Aliceville, producing scattered damage as it tracked northwestward. The damage became more intense continuous as the tornado entered Tuscaloosa County. The tornado continued to strengthen south of Berry, and two people were killed near the Walker County line when a church was destroyed. The tornado tore directly through downtown Jasper at 6:57 PM, resulting in severe damage and at least 100 injuries. The Walker County courthouse sustained major damage, and a new fire station was completely leveled. The fireman on duty at the time took shelter underneath a nearby bridge, and survived without injury. The tornado crossed Lewis Smith Lake and moved across the south side of Cullman at 7:40 pm. Multiple homes and shopping centers were damaged or destroyed in the area, resulting in one death and 36 injuries. The tornado finally dissipated northeast of Cullman a short time later. In total, the storm killed 3 and injured over 150 while 500 buildings were destroyed and nearly 400 others severely damaged. At the same time, a third supercell was crossing the state line near the track of the previous two. Another violent tornado developed and devastated the town of Guin, and caused additional severe damage in Delmar. The Guin tornado was the longest-duration F5 tornado recorded in the outbreak, and considered to be one of the most violent ever recorded. It formed at around 8:50 pm CDT near the Mississippi-Alabama border before tearing through Guin and Delmar, and traveling over 100 miles (160 km) to just west of Huntsville before lifting just after 10:30 pm CDT. According to pictures and historical accounts, many homes were completely swept away in Guin. The destruction was so complete, that even some of the foundations were dislodged and swept away as well. A very large industrial warehouse structure was completely obliterated and partially swept away, with steel I-beams twisted and broken. Many trees in the area were shredded and debarked, some of which had sheet metal and mobile home frames wrapped around them. The formation of this tornado was preceded by a number of reports of large hail and straight-line wind damage around Starkville, MS. The path of the Guin tornado was just a few dozen miles south of where the Tanner tornadoes struck about two hours earlier. The tornado killed 23 in Guin in Marion County and another five in the community of Delmar in Winston County. Close to 300 people in total were injured, and Guin was left in ruins. More than five hundred homes were destroyed and the Bankhead National Forest lost so many trees that the path of the tornado was visible from satellite. Huntsville was affected shortly before 11:00 pm EDT by a strong F3 tornado produced by the same thunderstorm that produced the Guin tornado. This tornado produced heavy damage in the south end of the city, eventually destroying nearly 1,000 structures. The tornado first hit Redstone Arsenal, damaging or destroying 99 buildings. But thanks to early warning from a MP picket line on Rideout Road (now Research Park Boulevard (AL-255) ), there were only three, relatively minor, injuries. One of the buildings destroyed was a publications center for the Nuclear Weapons Training School on the Arsenal. For months afterwards, portions of classified documents were being returned by farmers in Tennessee and Alabama. Many homes were badly damaged or destroyed as the tornado passed through residential areas of the city. The Glenn'll trailer park was completely destroyed by the tornado, and some sources list a fatality occurring at that location. The tornado then reached Monte Sano Mountain, which has an elevation of 1,640 feet (492 m). The National Weather Service office at Huntsville Jetport was briefly "closed and abandoned" due to the severe weather conditions. Windsor, Ontario, Canada In addition to its numerous other records, this outbreak also spawned one of the deadliest tornadoes in Canadian history. Affecting Windsor, Ontario and surrounding areas in southwestern Essex County, the F3 twister killed nine people and injured over 20. All of the fatalities occurred inside a curling rink (the former Windsor Curling Club) just south of the downtown area that was heavily damaged. This tornado is likely the same one that had touched down in Flat Rock, Michigan about 7:50 pm (19:50) Eastern Time. Since the storm arrived after dark, it was all the more dangerous. The storm that brought it in was accompanied by lightning, and torrential rains as it first touched down on southeastern edge of the Devonshire Mall, which was undergoing a large addition. It severely damaged the steel structure for a new department store, though no one was on the site at the time. The tornado lifted as it crossed the E.C. Row Expressway, then touched down again tearing the roof off the vehicle painting facility at Chrysler Canada's Windsor Assembly Plant. Once again, the facility was vacant, except for two security guards, due to re-tooling that was taking place. The guards took shelter in a secure room on the ground floor just moments before the tornado struck. The tornado continued across a vacant field, directly behind the Windsor Curling Club. It struck the Club at exactly 8:09 pm, sending the large roof of the structure into the air, sending pieces of it into the surrounding neighborhood, and causing the back wall to collapse on the people inside. Those inside were unaware of the severe weather that had been bearing down on them, as they had been playing in a curling bonspiel, and had no way of knowing about the tornado warnings that had been issued just twenty minutes earlier. This curling bonspiel was being sponsored by Chrysler Canada, also a victim of the tornado, when it tore the roof off its nearby paint facility. One woman who narrowly escaped death happened to be entering the curling club from the east at the exact moment the tornado struck. The winds caught her as she opened the door, and she screamed for help and hung onto the large door handles. A man ran to her help, and grabbed her arms, as she was horizontal, and on the verge of being sucked away. Her shoes were sucked right off her feet and were never found. Much of the city was briefly flooded with approximately 15 centimeters (6 inches) of water from the rain brought by the storm. Most of the media in the Windsor and Essex County area had been following the weather situation closely in the United States via radio and TV stations from Detroit, and had issued public alerts and warnings in concert with their American counterparts. The Canadian Weather Service (now Environment Canada) did not issue a tornado warning until 8:15 pm (20:15), more than 5 minutes after the tornado had struck the Windsor Curling Club. In the aftermath of the tornado, the City of Windsor merged the Windsor Curling Club and Windsor Ladies' Curling Club with its Roseland Golf Course (now the Roseland Golf and Curling Club) in the south end of Windsor, moving from their location on Central Avenue, near Tecumseh Road. While it was the only tornado reported in Canada from the outbreak, it was the country's deadliest since the 1946 one that killed 17—closer than one hundred meters from the path of this tornado. - List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks - List of tornadoes striking downtown areas - List of F5 and EF5 tornadoes - April 25–28, 2011 tornado outbreak – a very similar outbreak, but was more deadly and had more tornadoes - Risk Assessment Models. "Analysis and reconstruction of the 1974 Tornado Super Outbreak" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-03. - NWS Louisville. "April 1, 1974". Retrieved 2007-03-03. - Roger, Edwards (23). "What was the biggest outbreak of tornadoes?". The Online Tornado FAQ (by Roger Edwards, SPC). Storm Prediction Center. Retrieved 19 January 2013. - Data from the Storm Prediction Center archives, which are accessible through free software created and maintained by John Hart, lead forecaster for the SPC. - Grazulis, Thomas P (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680-1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1. - Slattery, Pat. "TORNADO OUTBREAK OPENED EYES ABOUT MYTHS, SCHOOL SAFETY". NOAA. - Simpson, Jamie (March 31, 2004). "Radar Provides Life-Saving Warnings Of Tornadoes". WHIO-TV (Dayton, Ohio). - "History of the Xenia Community Schools' Buildings". Xenia Community Schools. Retrieved 2008-05-09. - Boyd, Bruce (February 10, 2010). "Xenia Ohio Tornado". YouTube. - Ohio Historical Society. "April 3, 1974: Xenia Tornado". - by extremeplanet (November 27, 2012). "The Indefinitive List of the Strongest Tornadoes Ever Recorded (Part IV) |". Extremeplanet.me. Retrieved April 18, 2013. - "April 3, 1974 Xenia Tornado Memorial Marker". Hmdb.org. Retrieved April 18, 2013. - U.S. Inflation Calculator - John T. Woolley and Gerhard Peters (via Richard Nixon) (April 13, 1974). "Remarks During an Inspection Tour of Tornado Damage in Ohio". The American Presidency Project. Retrieved 2011-04-25. - Nixon, Richard M. (1974). "The President’s Remarks at the Bill Signing Ceremony at the White House. May 22, 1974". Presidential Documents: Richard Nixon, 1974 10 (21): 788. Retrieved 2011-04-26. - Ohio Memory On-line Scrapbook. "30th Anniversary of the 1974 Xenia Tornado". - "1975 Winners". Pulitzer.org. Retrieved June 12, 2012. - Sharp, Debra (April 2, 1999). "Super tornado outbreak : Xenia, Ohio, serves as twister memorial". USA Today. - Taylor, David (September 22, 2000). "Few warned of twister". The Cincinnati Enquirer. - Fujita "Tetsuya Theodore Fujita". The Tornado Project. 1998. Retrieved 2011-04-26. - "Analysis and Reconstruction of the 1974 Tornado Super Outbreak". Risk Management Solutions. April 2, 2004. p. 5. Retrieved 2011-04-26. - Anonymous. "Our Meade County Heritage : Forward and Dedication". The Meade County Messenger. - "April 3, 1974". Crh.noaa.gov. Retrieved April 18, 2013. - "Don Macy Photos of April 3 1974". April31974.com. April 3, 1974. Retrieved April 18, 2013. - Woolfolk, Betty A. "The Overall View of The Tornado Destruction". The Meade County Messenger. - U.S. Information Agency. "Day of the Killer Tornadoes". National Archives and Records Administration. - author = Dick Gilbert Foundation - Tornadoes of April 3, 1974, NWS Louisville - Horstmeyer, Steve (Dec 1995). "It's Not the Heat, It's The...". Cincinnati Magazine. p. 66. Retrieved 2013-05-18. - Horstmeyer, Steve. "Sayler Park Tornado - April 3, 1974". - NWS Northern Indiana. "The Monticello Tornado". NOAA. - Anonymous. "Monticello, Indiana April 3, 1974 : Fort Wayne Girl Survives Van's Plunge". The Monticello Herald Journal. - NOAA. "Storm Events". NOAA. - Anonymous. "Monticello, Indiana April 3, 1974 : 122-year-old Bell Survives". The Monticello Herald Journal. - NWS Birmingham (March 22, 2006 (last modified)). "The April 3rd and 4th 1974 Tornado Outbreak in Alabama". NOAA. Archived from the original on 2008-06-23. - "Alabama Tornado Database—Year 1974 Tornadoes". Alabama Tornado Database. Birmingham, Alabama: National Weather Service. 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2013. - "3/21/01 EIIP Virtual Forum Transcript: The Lawrence County Supercell, the Forgotten F5". Emforum.org. Retrieved 2010-06-16. - Storm Prediction Center. "F5 Tornadoes of the United States : 1950-present". NOAA. - "NOAA and the 1974 Tornado Outbreak - Alabama". Publicaffairs.noaa.gov. Retrieved April 18, 2013. - "NWS Huntsville 1974 Tornadoes". Srh.noaa.gov. Retrieved April 18, 2013. - Elliott, J.B. (October 13, 2006). April 3-4 Superoutbreak of tornadoes (motion picture) (in English). Alabama: ABC33/40. Retrieved January 4, 2013. - Sherer, Dennis (April 3, 2004). "Night of April 3, 1974, marked change in severe weather alerts, preparedness". Florence, AL: TimesDaily. p. B1. Retrieved March 20, 2010. - NOAA. "NOAA and the 1974 Tornado Outbreak". NOAA. Retrieved 2008-02-04. - NWS Birmingham. "Alabama Tornado Database (1974 tornadoes)". NOAA. Archived from the original on 2008-04-08. Retrieved 2008-02-05. - "42 Persons Dead in Severe Storms, Tornadoes in Alabama". Hendersonville, NC: The Times-News. The Associated Press. March 25, 1974. p. 19. Retrieved March 20, 2010.[dead link] - Tornado! the 1974 super outbreak, by Jacqueline A. Ball; consultant, Daniel H. Franck. New York: Bearport Pub., 2005. 32 pages. ISBN 1-59716-009-1 (lib. bdg), 1597160326 (paperback). - Tornado at Xenia, April 3, 1974, by Barbara Lynn Riedel; photography by Peter Wayne Kyryl. Cleveland, OH, 1974. 95 pages. No ISBN is available. Library of Congress Control Number: 75314665. - Tornado, by Polk Laffoon IV. New York: Harper & Row, 1975. 244 pages. ISBN 0-06-012489-X. - Tornado alley: monster storms of the Great Plains, by Howard B. Bluestein. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. 180 pages. ISBN 0-19-510552-4 (acid-free paper). - Delivery of mental health services in disasters: the Xenia tornado and some implications, by Verta A. Taylor, with G. Alexander Ross and E. L. Quarantelli. Columbus, OH: Disaster Research Center, Ohio State University, 1976. 328 pages. There is no ISBN available. Library of Congress Control Number: 76380740. - The widespread tornado outbreak of April 3–4, 1974: a report to the Administrator. Rockville, Md: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1974. 42 pages. There is no ISBN available. Library of Congress Control Number: 75601597. - The tornado, by John Edward Weems. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1977. 180 pages. ISBN 0-385-07178-7. - Butler, William S. (editor) (2004). Tornado: A look back at Louisville's dark day, April 3, 1974. A 30th Anniversary Publication. Butler Books. 176 pages. ISBN 1-884532-58-6. - Deitz, Robert E., et al. (editor) with an introduction by John Ed Pearce (1974). April 3, 1974: Tornado!. The Courier-Journal and The Louisville Times. 128 pages. Library of Congress Catalog Number 74-80806. - Hartsfield, Ray J. with Robin Garr, Phyllis Morrisette, Jay Harris, Dave Knapp, Tom Scott, Terry Cowan, Mary Ann Woosley, Allen Hammer (editorial staff) (1974). April 3, 1974: The Kentucky Tornadoes. C. F. Boone, Publisher. 96 pages. - Levine, Mark (2007). F5: Devastation, Survival and the Most Violent Tornado Outbreak of the Twentieth Century. Hyperion, New York. 307 pages. ISBN 978-1-4013-5220-2. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to: 1974 Tornado Super Outbreak| - Full map of The Super Outbreak Tornado History Project - "WHAS Radio Covers the April 3, 1974 Tornado Disaster," excellent-quality recorded coverage of the tornado at LKYRadio.com - 1974 Windsor Tornado - CBC Archives - NOAA and the 1974 Tornado Outbreak - Super Tornado Outbreak of April 3-4, 1974 (National Climatic Data Center) - April 3, 1974 Superoutbreak (NWS Indianapolis, IN) - Super Outbreak of April 3rd 1974 (NWS Northern Indiana) - The Monticello Tornado (NWS Northern Indiana) - The April 3rd and 4th 1974 Tornado Outbreak in Alabama (NWS Birmingham, AL) - The Super Outbreak: Outbreak of the Century (Slide show) (NOAA-NWS-NCEP Storm Prediction Center) - The 3-4 April 1974 Super Outbreak: Outbreak of the Century (Slide show - Revised) (NOAA-NWS-NCEP Storm Prediction Center) - The Super Outbreak: Outbreak of the Century (22nd Conference on Severe Local Storms, American Meteorological Society) - Potential insurance losses from a major tornado outbreak: the 1974 Super Outbreak example (22nd Conference on Severe Local Storms, American Meteorological Society) - A website dedicated to the Super Outbreak - The Weather Channel's Storm of the Century list - #2 The Super Outbreak - Super Outbreak 30th Anniversary Special (WHAS Louisville) - WHAS April 3, 1974 Live Breaking News Coverage part 1 - WHAS April 3, 1974 Live Breaking News Coverage part 2 - Friday Flashbacks: Tornado of '74 - WHAS11 - Full map of The Super Outbreak Tornado History Project - 1974 Alabama tornado table including tornadoes from the Super Outbreak - Courtesy of NWS Birmingham, Alabama - The short film Day of the Killer Tornadoes (1978) is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more] |10 deadliest Canadian tornadoes| |1||Regina Cyclone||June 30, 1912||≥28| |2||Edmonton Tornado||July 31, 1987||27| |3||Windsor–Tecumseh, Ontario tornado||June 17, 1946||17| |4||Pine Lake Tornado||July 14, 2000||12| Windsor, Ontario tornado |August 16, 1888 April 3, 1974 |7||Barrie, Ontario tornado||May 31, 1985||8| |=8||Sudbury, Ontario tornado Sainte-Rose, Quebec tornado |August 20, 1970 June 8, 1953 |=10||Bouctouche, New Brunswick tornado Portage la Prairie, Manitoba tornado |August 6, 1879 June 22, 1922 Sources: Environment Canada (PDF) |10 costliest US tornadoes| |Rank||Area affected||Date||Damage 1||Adjusted Damage 2| |1||Joplin, Missouri||May 22, 2011||2800||2858| |2||Tuscaloosa, Alabama||April 27, 2011||2200||2245| |3||Moore, Oklahoma||May 20, 2013||2000||2000| |4||Oklahoma City Metro, Oklahoma||May 3, 1999||1000||1377| |5||Hackleburg, Alabama||April 27, 2011||1250||1276| |6||Wichita Falls, Texas||April 10, 1979||400||1264| |7||Omaha, Nebraska||May 6, 1975||250||1065| |8||Lubbock, Texas||May 11, 1970||135||798| |9||Topeka, Kansas||June 8, 1966||100||706| |10||Windsor Locks, Connecticut||October 3, 1979||200||632| Source: Brooks, Harold E.; C.A. Doswell (Feb 2001). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather and Forecasting (American Meteorological Society) 16 (1): 168–76. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2001)016<0168:NDFMTI>2.0.CO;2. 3 1. These are the unadjusted damage totals in millions of US dollars. 2. Raw damage totals adjusted for inflation, in millions of 2013 USD. 3. A search of NCDC Storm Data indicates no tornadoes between 1999 and 2010 have caused more than $400 million in damage.

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March 20, 2009 The UN-REDD Program — a collaboration between the Food and Agriculture Organization, the UN Development Programme and the UN Environment Programme — was launched to ensure that Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD) becomes part of a post-2012 framework on climate change. UN-REDD is providing funding to jumpstart projects in tropical countries that have prepared national REDD strategies. The World Bank is also supporting initial REDD projects via its Forest Carbon Partnership Facility. Deforestation and degradation accounts for roughly 20 percent of greenhouse gas emissions, a source second only to electricity generation. Under a business-as-usual approach, tropical forest loss could release 87-130 billion tons of carbon into the atmosphere by 2100. Norway emerges as champion of rainforest conservation (03/19/2009) While citizens in western countries have long paid lip service to saving rainforests, Norway has quietly emerged as the largest and most important international force in tropical forest conservation. The small Scandinavian country has committed 3 billion krone ($440 million) a year to the effort, a figure vastly greater than the $100M pledged — but never fully contributed — by the United States under the Tropical Forest Conservation Act (TFCA). Norway now hopes it can help push to include forest conservation in the successor to the Kyoto Protocol by providing funding and fostering cooperation among international actors like the UN and World Bank, as well as developing countries, to fund the creation of an international architecture which makes it possible to incorporate deforestation and degradation into a post-2012 climate regime. Indonesia applies for REDD partnership to protect forests (03/04/2009) Indonesia has applied to join the World Bank's Forest Carbon Partnership Facility, becoming the largest developing country to apply to a program that seeks to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by saving tropical forests, reports Reuters. Despite financial crunch, donors pledge $100M for rainforest conservation (10/23/2008) Donors meeting this week in Washington D.C. pledged more than $100 million to the World Bank's new initiative for conserving tropical forests. In addition to the $100 million in donations, the World Bank announced that more than forty developing countries have asked to join the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility — the Bank's foray into the emerging market for forest carbon credits. 25 countries have so far been selected to participate in the initiative, which builds capacity for countries to earn compensation through the carbon markets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions by reducing deforestation and forest degradation (REDD). Experts say the mechanism could eventually lead to the transfer of billions of dollars per year to fund conservation and rural development in tropical countries, while at the same time helping fight climate change. Deforestation and land use change presently accounts for around a fifth of anthropogenic emissions. 14 countries win REDD funding to protect tropical forests (07/24/2008) Fourteen countries have been selected by the World Bank to receive funds for conserving their tropical forests under an innovative carbon finance scheme.

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On Tuesday, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 's director, Tom Frieden, M.D., M.P.H. , sounded an alarm via telebriefing about an antibiotic-resistant strain of bacteria that pose a triple threat to health. The infections caused by these bacteria are acquired while patients are in the hospital or another type of medical care facility, referred to as nosocomial infections and most severely affect those people who are the most ill, have compromised immune systems and other risk factors. Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae: 'Nightmare Bacteria' Carbapenem-resistant enterobacteriaceae, or CRE, were labeled as "nightmare bacteria" by Frieden during his telebriefing due to the fact these germs can cause life-threatening infections in three separate ways: * CRE are resistant to all, or nearly all antibiotics, even some of the last resort drugs * CRE infections have high mortality rates, causing death to half the people who have serious * CRE can spread their resistance to other bacteria by passing on the gene that results in Carbapenem-resistant enterobacteriaceae is a family of more than 70 different bacteria, including E. coli and klebsiella. These two commonly-known bacteria normally live in the intestines, but sometimes they get into places like the blood or bladder, causing infections there. When bacteria in the enterobacteriaceae become resistant to the use of antibiotics, they are then termed "CRE." Who is Most Vulnerable to Acquire CRE Infections? The risk of infection is highest in people receiving complex medical care or in long-term medical care; these are patients most vulnerable to acquire any infection due to invasive tubes and devices such as catheters, ventilator tubes and more. The most likely settings for CRE infections are hospitals or long-term care facilities. CRE is spread person-to-person, most often from unwashed hands. How Prevalent are CRE Infections? The CDC reported that in 2001, CRE was tracked in one health care facility in one state; now there have been reports of the infection in 42 states. In the first half of 2012, at least one CRE infection was treated in nearly 200 health care facilities. At this time, all known CRE infections have occurred only within health care facilities. The CDC is implementing programs to prevent the spread of the life-threatening infections from reaching into communities. The good news is that health care facilities and even other countries who have implemented the CDC's "Detect and Protect" program to reduce CRE infections have shown reduced incidence of the drug-resistant infectious agents. What's Being Done to Protect Public Health? The CDC is encouraging all health departments and leaders in health facilities and organizations to follow the "Detect and Protect" program the federal public health agency developed and have met with success. In addition to clinicians needing to determine if a patient has a CRE infection with an immediate alert from the lab if such is noted, there is a four-pronged approach to the prevention, spread, and treatment of potential CRE infections, including limiting the use of antibiotics only when medically necessary. Hand washing by hospital personnel is as important as ever to prevent the spread of CRE from person-to-person. Don't hesitate to ask a health care provider to wash his/her hands before providing care to you or a loved one. Don't insist on being prescribed antibiotics when your physician says they aren't needed or won't be useful, as in when you have a viral illness. And you might want to contact your elected officials about the continued use of antibiotics in animals for food.

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The Civil War maintains a strong grip on the American imagination, especially for those who reenact the conflict’s battles. Seeking authenticity, reenactor units may have specific rules: Union forage hats must be indigo, not navy blue; no coon tails are allowed on Confederate hats; trappings like modern eyeglasses and wristwatches are off-limits. Richard Barnes aims for a different sort of authenticity in his images. He works with equipment that Civil War-era photographers would recognize. He uses a wooden camera, aluminum plates coated in collodion and dipped in silver nitrate, and an ice-fishing tent as a darkroom. The plates dry quickly, distressing the photographs around the edges, making them look historical. But rather than excluding the modern world, he intentionally reveals it: soldiers mustering near portable toilets, rows of parked cars beyond the battlefield. These evoke what Barnes calls “the slippage of time”—moments when past and present collide. Published: May 2012 A Sketch in Time Civil War Reenvisioned Every year thousands of Americans keep the memory alive by reenacting Civil War campaigns and battles. Photographer Richard Barnes used period techniques to make authentic-looking images that include glimpses of the modern world. Photograph by Richard Barnes

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A system of scepticism, the founder of which was Pyrrho, a Greek philosopher, about whom very little is known except that he died in 270 B.C Pyrrhonism, a system of scepticism, the founder of which was Pyrrho, a Greek philosopher, about whom very little is known except that he died in 270 B.C. The best known of Pyrrho's disciples was Timon of Philius, known as the sillographer. Pyrrho's scepticism was so complete and comprehensive that the word Pyrrhonism is sometimes used as a synonym for scepticism. The scepticism of Pyrrho's school covered three points. (I) All the dogmatists, that is to say, all the philosophers who believed that truth and certitude can be attained, were mere sophists; they were self-deceived and deceivers of others. Certitude is impossible of attainment, not only because of the possibility that our faculties deceive us, but also because, in themselves, things are neither one thing nor the other, neither good nor evil, beautiful nor ugly, large nor small: Or, rather, things are both good and evil, beautiful and ugly, large and small, so that there is no reason why we should affirm that they are one thing rather than the other. This conviction was expressed in the famous saying, Greek: ouden mallon, nothing is more one thing than another; the paper is not more white than black, the piece of sugar is not more sweet than bitter, and so forth. (3) The reality of things being inaccessible to the human mind, and certitude being impossible of attainment, the wise man doubts about everything; that is, he recognizes the futility of inquiry into reality and abstains from judging. This abstention is called Greek: epoche. It is the foundation of happiness. Because he alone can attain happiness who cultivates imperturbability, Greek: ataraksia; and then only is the mind proof against disquietude when we realize that every attempt to attain the truth is doomed to failure. From this account of the principles of Pyrrhonism, it is evident that Pyrrho's aim was ethical. Like all the philosophers of the period in which he lived, he concerned himself principally with the problem of happiness. The Stoics sought to found happiness on the realization of the reign of law in human nature as well as in nature. The Epicureans grounded happiness on the conviction that transitory feeling is the one important phenomenon in human life. The Eclectics placed the intellectual basis of happiness in the conviction that all systems of philosophy are equally true. The Pyrrhonist, as well as the other sceptics of that period, believed that there is no possibility of attaining happiness unless one first realizes that all systems of philosophy are equally false and that the real truth of things cannot be attained. Pyrrhonism is, therefore, an abdication of all the supposed rights of the mind, and cannot be dealt with by the ordinary rules of logic or by the customary canons of philosophical criticism.

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1 [no object] stop resisting to an enemy or opponent and submit to their authority:over 140 rebels surrendered to the authorities [with object] (in sport) lose (a point, game, or advantage) to an opponent:she surrendered only twenty games in her five qualifying matches (surrender to) give in to (a powerful emotion or influence):the president has surrendered to panic and is making things worsehe surrendered himself to the mood of the hills 2 [with object] give up or hand over (a person, right, or possession), typically on compulsion or demand:in 1815 Denmark surrendered Norway to Swedenthe UK is opposed to surrendering its monetary sovereignty (of a person assured) cancel (a life insurance policy) and receive back a proportion of the premiums paid. give up (a lease) before its expiry. 1the action of surrendering to an opponent or powerful influence:the final surrender of Germany on 8 May 1945 [count noun]:the colonel was anxious to negotiate a surrender 2the action of surrendering a lease or life insurance policy. surrender to bail Law duly appear in court after release on bail. late Middle English (chiefly in legal use): from Anglo-Norman French (see sur-1, render) Surrender is spelled with a double r. surrender in other Oxford dictionaries Definition of surrender in the US English dictionary

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DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENT DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS AND DETERMINATION OF THE OPTIMUM SYSTEM Evolving Honest Communication Systems: Kin Selection and "Mother Tongues" GB 13690-2009: General rules for classification and hazard communication of chemicals GCSE Business and Communication Systems Specification 2009 HIGH TRANSMISSION PERFORMANCE OF RADIO OVER FIBER SYSTEMS OVER TRADITIONAL OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS USING DIFFERENT CODING FORMATS FOR LONG HAUL APPLICATIONS The growth of Media and Mass Communication courses Near-Far Resistance of MC-DS-CDMA Communication Systems Wind Turbine Gearbox and Direct Drive Systems - Global Market Size, Company Share, Gearbox Refurbishments and Key Country Analysis to 2020 High-performance liquid chromatographic determination of glycoalkaloids in potatoes from conventional, integrated, and organic crop systems Poultry Housing And Manure Management Systems |Amazon US||Paperback||$7.95 - $105.00| Microelectronics : Digital and Analog Circuits and Systems Lively text and cheerful illustrations teach children how to tell time on both digital and analog clocks. Telling Time also explains the different units of time that make up our lives, from ... Digital Investigation in Communication Systems: Theory, Practice, and Applications The vast majority of computers in use today are encapsulated within other systems. In contrast to general-purpose computers that run an endless selection of software, these embedded computers are ... Principles of Digital and Analog Communications Using Digital and Analog Circuits Basic TV Technology: Digital and Analog Electronics With Digital and Analog Integrated Circuits, 1983, by Higgins Research of Planar Printed Antennas for Wlan and Uwb Communication Systems

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The food pyramid has long encouraged kids to eat foods from each of the food groups each day, but that only worked if you and your kids understood what the food groups actually are. If left up to some kids, the food groups might end up being candy, chips, cookies, ice cream and soda. And for some parents looking for quick and easy foods to feed their kids, the food groups may be pizza, cheeseburgers, macaroni and cheese, french fries and juice boxes. Fortunately, the real food groups provide a much healthy and balanced diet. Although it has been replaced with the new MyPlate logo, which advises that we should make half of our plates fruits and vegetables, it doesn't change actually anything about the food groups. The MyPlate messages, including that you encourage your kids to avoid oversized portions, vary your vegetables, make at least half of your grains whole grains, and drink fat-free or low-fat milk, were all key messages of the food pyramid too. Surprising to some parents and kids, most (but not all) of the above foods fit into one or more food groups. The foods that don't fit into a food group, like soda and candy, count as discretionary calories. Other foods, even pizza and french fries, fit into one or more of the five primary food groups: - Grains - grains, especially whole grains, are good sources of fiber, iron, magnesium, selenium, and several B vitamins, including thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and folate. Refined grains, such as white bread, white rice, non-whole grain pasta do not have as much fiber as whole grain varieties. Grains include foods made with wheat, rice, oats, cornmeal, and barley, etc., such as bread, pasta, breakfast cereal, popcorn, tortillas, and oatmeal. - Vegetables - Vegetables are usually a good source of fiber, potassium, folate, vitamin A, vitamin E, and vitamin C. Keep in mind that kids should eat a variety of vegetables from each of the 5 vegetable subgroups: - Dark green vegetables - Orange vegetables - Dry beans and peas - Starchy vegetables - Other vegetables - Fruits - most kids like fruits, which are usually a good source of potassium, fiber, vitamin C, and folate. Although 100% fruit juice counts as a fruit in this food group, remember that it is almost always better to eat whole foods. - Milk - this food group is important because it provides kids with calcium, potassium, vitamin D, and protein in their diet. It includes milk, cheese, yogurt, and milk-based desserts, such as ice cream, frozen yogurt, and pudding made with milk. In general, parents should choose low-fat milk products that do not have added sugar. For example, 2% milk would be better than whole milk with chocolate flavoring. - Meat and Beans - in addition to meat and dry beans, this food group also includes poultry, fish, eggs, and nuts (including peanut butter), which are usually a good source of protein, iron, vitamin E, zinc, magnesium, and several B vitamins, including niacin, thiamin, riboflavin, and B6. Unless you choose lean or low-fat meat and poultry, food from this food group can also be a source of extra fat. - Oils - although not a real food group, oils and fats are an important part of your diet - both because you need to eat some of them and because you don't want to overdo it. In general, your kids should eat mostly polyunsaturated or monounsaturated oils and fats, avoiding saturated fats, trans fats, and cholesterol. United States Department of Agriculture. Food Groups. United States Department of Agriculture. Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010.

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A new study unveiled the discovery of a virus that takes contorl of caterpillar's brains. Once the virus has control it makes them climb to the treetops, then liquifies their bodies. Their liquid body then pours down onto the ground, infecting all the lower leaves with the virus, ensuring the spread of the virus. A researcher said that: "[The virus] ends up using just about all of the caterpillar to make more virus, and there are other genes in the virus that then make the caterpillar melt. So it becomes a pool of millions of virus particles that end up dropping onto the foliage below where it can infect other moths that eat those leaves." “Zombification” has been seen in insects before but usually because of a fungus, not a virus. And we all know what viruses can do. Mutate then spread to humans! Srsly though, don’t worry, the virus only infects invertebrates… [Image via Mark Readman/WENN.]

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A new fossil species suggests that some land animals may have survived the end-Permian extinction by living in cooler climates in Antarctica. Researchers have identified a distant relative of mammals that apparently survived the mass extinction by living in Antarctica. The largest known mass extinction in Earth's history, about 252 million years ago at the end of the Permian Period, may have been caused by global warming. A new fossil species suggests that some land animals may have survived the end-Permian extinction by living in cooler climates in Antarctica. Jörg Fröbisch and Kenneth D. Angielczyk of The Field Museum together with Christian A. Sidor from the University of Washington have identified a distant relative of mammals, Kombuisia antarctica, that apparently survived the mass extinction by living in Antarctica. The new species belongs to a larger group of extinct mammal relatives, called anomodonts, which were widespread and represented the dominant plant eaters of their time. "Members of the group burrowed in the ground, walked the surface and lived in trees," said Fröbisch, the lead author of the study. "However, Kombuisia antarctica, about the size of a small house cat, was considerably different from today's mammals — it likely laid eggs, didn't nurse its young and didn't have fur, and it is uncertain whether it was warm blooded," said Angielczyk, Assistant Curator of Paleomammology at The Field Museum. Kombuisia antarctica was not a direct ancestor of living mammals, but it was among the few lineages of animals that survived at a time when a majority of life forms perished. Scientists are still debating what caused the end-Permian extinction, but it was likely associated with massive volcanic activity in Siberia that could have triggered global warming. When it served as refuge, Antarctica was located some distance north of its present location, was warmer and wasn't covered with permanent glaciers, said the researchers. The refuge of Kombuisia in Antarctica probably wasn't the result of a seasonal migration but rather a longer-term change that saw the animal's habitat shift southward. Fossil evidence suggests that small and medium sized animals were more successful at surviving the mass extinction than larger animals. They may have engaged in "sleep-or-hide" behaviors like hibernation, torpor and burrowing to survive in a difficult environment. Earlier work by Fröbisch predicted that animals like Kombuisia antarctica should have existed at this time, based on fossils found in South Africa later in the Triassic Period that were relatives of the animals that lived in Antarctica. "The new discovery fills a gap in the fossil record and contributes to a better understanding of vertebrate survival during the end-Permian mass extinction from a geographic as well as an ecological point of view," Fröbisch said. The team found the fossils of the new species among specimens collected more than three decades ago from Antarctica that are part of a collection at the American Museum of Natural History. "At the time those fossils were collected, paleontologists working in Antarctica focused on seeking evidence for the existence of a supercontinent, Pangaea, that later split apart to become separate land masses," said Angielczyk. The fossils collected in Antarctica provided some of the first evidence of Pangaea's existence, and further analysis of the fossils can refine our understanding of events that unfolded 250 million years ago. "Finding fossils in the current harsh conditions of Antarctica is difficult, but worthwhile," said Angielczyk. "The recent establishment of the Robert A. Pritzker Center for Meteoritics and Polar Studies at The Field Museum recognizes the growing importance of the region," he said. More information: This research is part of a collaborative study of Dr. Jörg Fröbisch (Department of Geology, Field Museum, Chicago), Dr. Kenneth D. Angielczyk (Department of Geology, Field Museum, Chicago), and Dr. Christian A. Sidor (Burke Museum and Department of Biology, University of Washington), which will be published online December 3, 2009 in Naturwissenschaften. Source: Field Museum Explore further: NCAR joins massive field campaign to examine summertime air in Southeast

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Individual differences | Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology | Sexual relationship disorder is a disorder where a person has difficulties in forming or maintaining a sexual relationship because of their gender identity or sexual orientation. The World Health Organization lists sexual relationship disorder in the ICD-10, under "Psychological and behavioural disorders associated with sexual development and orientation". The WHO describes it thus: The gender identity or sexual orientation (heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual) is responsible for difficulties in forming or maintaining a relationship with a sexual partner. (F662) The WHO applies the following note to the entirety of part F66: "Sexual orientation by itself is not to be regarded as a disorder." A significant number of men and women experience conflict surrounding homosexual expression within a mixed-orientation marriage. Therapy may include helping the client feel more comfortable and accepting of same-sex feelings and to explore ways of incorporating same-sex and opposite-sex feelings into life patterns. Although a strong homosexual identity was associated with difficulties in marital satisfaction, viewing the same-sex activities as compulsive facilitated commitment to the marriage and to monogamy. Other LGB people may want to have a family with an opposite-sex spouse. They may seek to change their sexual orientation. Research from the 1970's showed that a minority of patients who undergo therapy ultimately married someone of the opposite sex, though it is not clear what role therapy contributed to the marriage. Recent research does not permit any attribution of marital outcomes to therapy, though it appears that sexual orientation identity reconstruction can help clients develop a heterosexual orientation identity. See also Edit - ↑ ICD-10: See part F66. - ↑ Wolf TJ (1987). Group psychotherapy for bisexual men and their wives. J Homosex. 14 (1-2): 191–9. - ↑ Coleman E (1981). Bisexual and gay men in heterosexual marriage: conflicts and resolutions in therapy. J Homosex. 7 (2-3): 93–103. - ↑ Schneider JP, Schneider BH (1990). Marital satisfaction during recovery from self-identified sexual addiction among bisexual men and their wives. J Sex Marital Ther. 16 (4): 230–50. - ↑ Rosik CH (Jan 2003). Motivational, ethical, and epistemological foundations in the treatment of unwanted homoerotic attraction. J Marital Fam Ther. 29 (1): 13–28. - ↑ Report of the American Psychological Association Task Force on Appropriate Therapeutic Responses to Sexual Orientation |This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).|

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Why Address Creationism? Why can't a science instructor just launch into the tale of discovery and deduction and teach Earth history without addressing students creationist beliefs? - If students cannot make new information (such as geologic time and evolution) fit in with their previous understanding of the world, they are unlikely to incorporate that new information into their worldview. - An understanding of evolution, climate change, and other important themes of Earth history is essential for making present-day decisions about biotechnology, pollution, and other serious issues. - Many of our students will be teaching Earth history themselves, or making decisions about how it will be taught in the future. Students Learn by Building on What they Know Students build on their existing understanding of Earth History, that they have developed over the years before they walked into your classroom. - Religious beliefs tend to be parts of a coherent life view; Young-Earth Creationists rely on the Bible not only for details about the origin of the Earth system, but also for answers to philosophic questions about the meaning of life, the value of nature, and the problem of evil. - Students will not discard this coherent belief set based on new understanding of Earth history or evolution. - However, people of all kinds (creationists included) learn and adjust their worldviews on a daily basis. If you can provide students with information (directly or otherwise) that is believable and useful to them, they are likely to keep it in mind and to continue to use it when learning other information. Research indicates that student preconceptions, not just religious ones, need to be drawn out and worked into the educational process (NRC, 2000 ). Shulman, 1999 describes several problems that may occur when prior knowledge and new knowledge clash: - Amnesia: the students forget the material or even forget learning it - Fantasia: the students misremember what they have learned in such a way as to make it compatible with prior knowledge with which it originally conflicted - Inertia: the students are unable to synthesize or apply the facts they have learned The amazing thing about all of the above problems is that they can be observed in students who have done well on exams. Students can compartmentalize information, learn it (usually memorize it) for the short term, and then snap back to their previous beliefs (Schneps and Sadler, 1988 ). To break this cycle requires engaging students' original beliefs and encouraging them to examine their beliefs in light of the new material they are learning. The Public Needs to Understand Earth History and Evolution Earth history and evolution provide critical understanding for modern citizens. - Earth history deals with issues that society is struggling with here and now, such as climate change, natural disasters, and extinctions. Conservation biology is firmly rooted in evolution. So is our understanding of pesticide and antibiotic resistence. - Recent discoveries in hominid evolution have given us a new perspective on race. At the same time, cloning, genetic engineering, and the search for life beyond the Earth require people to make decisions based upon an understanding of genetics and evolution. Many students will ultimately be working in, investing in or otherwise involved with the biotechnology industry. - We are extremely dependent on geologic resources, such as coal and oil, that only formed under certain conditions. Their modern locations require an understanding of stratigraphy, paleontology, paleoclimatology, and plate tectonics to discover. See also: Why Teach with an Earth History Approach Prepare K-12 Teachers and Voters to Make Decisions about Earth History Education Some believers in Young-Earth Creationism have tried to ban or weaken the teaching of evolution in public schools and others to require or allow their own (sectarian) beliefs be taught there. Recently, there have been numerous attempts to introduce Intelligent Design into public-school classrooms. - National Center for Science Education (more info) devotes much of their home page to up-to-date summaries of current legal battles involving creationism and public education. - They also host a page on Past Important Court Cases about Evolution in U.S. Public Schools (more info) Why this matters to college and university faculty: - Current and future K-12 science teachers depend on college and continuing education science classes to teach them controversial ideas like the age of the Earth and evolution well enough that they in turn can teach them to kids in the face of serious political resistance. - Likewise, your students are also voters who need to understand how and why science works and why creationism should not be taught as science in public schools. - Finally, many college students get much of the prior knowledge they bring into their college classrooms from public school. If they have a flawed understanding of evolution coming in, they will have a difficult time developing a better one in college (Alters and Nelson, 2002 ).

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The Neato Robot How to use the IR sensors (and some other things) by Boris Kudryavtsev Junior High (8th grade) Have you ever imagined a vacuuming robot driving on a table? Probably not … Well, it is now possible with the use of ROS (Robot Operating System), developed by Willow Garage — a small, but growing company located in Menlo Park, CA. ROS provides libraries and tools to help software developers create robot applications. It offers hardware abstraction, device drivers, libraries, visualizers, message-passing, package management, and more. This article will teach you how to use this tool to manipulate the Neato™ automatic vacuum cleaner. 54 SERVO 03.2013 For those unfamiliar with the Neato, it is a robotic vacuum cleaner developed by Neato Robotics. The device is very hacker-friendly. It is assembled with normal ("+" type) screws, and the software is easily accessible through the USB interface. The machine is famous for its low cost LIDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) scanner, which is basically a spinning laser which collects distances from the objects around it. This gives the robot the ability to make its way through a house efficiently while it is The robot also has a pair of IR (infrared) distance sensors which prevent the device from falling off edges and going down stairs. There is an accelerometer and one more IR sensor to detect walls.

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James Smithson: Founder of the Smithsonian Institution James Smithson (1765-1829), founding donor of the Smithsonian Institution, was born in 1765 in France with the name James Lewis Macie. The illegitimate son of Elizabeth Hungerford Keate Macie and Hugh Smithson, 1st Duke of Northumberland, he changed his name as well as his citizenship, becoming a naturalized British citizen around the age of ten. After his parents' death, he became known as James Smithson rather than James Macie. On May 7, 1782, he enrolled in Pembroke College, Oxford, and graduated four years later. The natural sciences sparked his interest, and he established a solid reputation as a chemist and mineralogist, during the exciting period when chemistry was being developed as a new science in the late 1700s. Committed to discovering the basic elements, he worked diligently to collect mineral and ore samples from European countries. Excerpts from his notes show that his field excursions often forced him to brave the elements and do without the upper class comforts known to his parents. Smithson, although a wealthy man, was determined to make a name for himself among scientists. He kept accurate records of his experiments and collections, and his publications earned the respect of his peers. The Royal Society of London recognized his scientific abilities and accepted his membership on April 26, 1787, only a year after he graduated from college, an unusual honor for someone so young. The society became an outlet for publishing many of his papers, which covered a wide range of scientific topics, and also was a meeting place for Smithson and other scientists. James Smithson wrote a draft of his Last Will and Testament in 1826 in London, only three years before he died. He died on June 27, 1829, in Genoa, Italy, where he was buried in a British cemetery. The will left his estate to his nephew, Henry James Hungerford, and stated that if his nephew died without an heir, the money would go "to the United States of America, to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge ...." After his nephew died without an heir, Smithson's estate did come to the United States and a debate began about what this new institution would be. First, Richard Rush, an attorney from Philadelphia, filed a lawsuit in London to get the Smithson estate for the United States. Rush brought Smithson's personal effects to the United States in 1838, along with the money from his estate. Then Congressional debates continued until 1846 when legislation was passed creating the Smithsonian Institution. Unfortunately, a fire in the Smithsonian Institution Building or Castle in 1865 destroyed many of the Smithson letters, diaries, and other papers originally acquired by the Institution. As a result of the fire, the Smithsonian Institution Archives does not have very many of James Smithson's original letters or other papers. Among those that the Smithsonian Institution Archives does have are a handwritten draft of Smithson's Last Will and Testament, dated October 23, 1826, and his "Receipt Book" containing formulas for food, beverages, and everyday products. - Smithson's Last Will and Testament, October 23, 1826. - Recipe for Tooth Powder in James Smithson's Receipt Book.

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The term Near East came into use in the 1890s, when European powers had to do with two critical situations in the "east". The Sino-Japanese War in 1894–1895 in the Far East, and the Armenian Genocide in the Near East. British archaeologist D.G. Hogarth published The Nearer East in 1902, which helped to define the term and its extent, including Albania, Montenegro, southern Serbia and Bulgaria, Greece, Egypt, all the Ottoman lands, the entire Arabian peninsula, and western parts of Iran. - Davidson, Roderic H. (1960). "Where is the Middle East?". Foreign Affairs 38: p. 665–675.

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NASA Robot Completes Test Drive of Exploration Capabilities 1 Jun 2007 (Source: NASA Headquarters) Dwayne Brown Headquarters, Washington 202-358-1726 In late May, a NASA-funded robot successfully navigated one of the world's deepest sinkholes. The mission could be a prelude to a future mission to Jupiter's moon Europa, believed to contain a liquid water ocean. The Deep Phreatic Thermal Explorer (DEPTHX) is a 3,300-pound, computerized, underwater vehicle that makes its own decisions. With more than 100 sensors, 36 onboard computers, and 16 thrusters and actuators, it decides where to swim, which samples to collect and how to get home. DEPTHX dove repeatedly into the depths of Mexico's mysterious Sistema Zacaton sinkhole, or cenote, testing a variety of sensors, sonars, and other equipment. The robot also obtained numerous samples of water and the gooey biofilm that coated the cenote walls. Reaching depths of 1099 feet, the battery-powered robot traveled deeper into the sinkhole than human divers could reach. Though initially operated on a data-tether, DEPTHX also operated autonomously, without a tether or human guidance, for up to eight hours at a time. On May 26, DEPTHX autonomously descended into Zacaton, collected a wall core sample and safely returned to the surface, all without scripted instructions. Two days later, again operating without a tether, DEPTHX further explored and mapped Zacaton, using a novel form of three-dimensional navigation known as Simultaneous Localization and Mapping. Both of these capabilities - autonomous science operations and autonomous navigation and mapping - will be useful to a new generation of planetary robotic systems. Funded by NASA's Astrobiology Science and Technology for Exploring Planets program and led by principal investigator Bill Stone of Stone Aerospace, Inc., Austin, Texas, the project now is ready to take the next step in Earth exploration. "The successful tests in Mexico pave the way for a trip to Antarctica's Lake Bonney in late 2008. There, conditions more closely resemble those on Europa," said John Rummel, senior scientist for astrobiology at NASA Headquarters, Washington. "We're learning how to explore Europa by first exploring analogue environments here on Earth." Although NASA's long-term goal is to build a smaller robot that can function independently on another world, DEPTHX is generating important new discoveries. For the first time, scientists can collect specimens from the undisturbed world of sinkholes or other deep watery environments, bringing back new types of bacteria that one day may lead to earthly benefits such as advanced medical therapies or new kinds of materials. While DEPTHX engineers aimed to build a machine that behaves like a microbiologist, smaller versions of the robot also might be equipped as safety inspectors to examine underwater dams or drilling platforms. The robot explored the underwater environment and navigated back to the surface at the end of each day using 500 three-dimensional maps continually updated in real time on supercomputers built by scientists at Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh. DEPTHX is a $5 million, three-year project that includes scientists and engineers from Stone Aerospace; Carnegie Mellon University; the University of Texas at Austin; the Colorado School of Mines, Golden; the University or Arizona, Tucson; and the Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas. To see learn more about the DEPTHX and other NASA projects, visit:

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/news/display.cfm?News_ID=21115

2013-06-20T04:17:32Z

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en

ARkStorm: California's Other "Big One" Imagine California being bombarded for 45 days with one strong winter storm after another. That's what happened in 1861-62, causing severe flooding up and down the state. Geologic evidence suggests that earlier, prehistoric floods were even bigger. Although no living person remembers such a catastrophe, there's no reason it couldn't happen again. For emergency-planning purposes, scientists unveiled in mid-January a hypothetical California scenario that describes a storm that could produce as much as 10 ft of rain, cause extensive flooding (in many cases overwhelming the state's flood-protection system), and damage nearly one-quarter of all the houses in California. The "ARkStorm scenario," prepared by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and released at the ARkStorm Summit in Sacramento, California, on January 13-14, combines prehistoric geologic flood history in California with modern flood mapping and climate-change projections to produce a hypothetical, but plausible, scenario aimed at preparing the emergency-response community for this type of hazard. The USGS, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and the California Emergency Management Agency (Cal EMA) convened the 2-day summit to engage stakeholders from across California to take action as a result of the scenario's findings, which were developed over the past 2 years by more than 100 scientists and experts. "The ARkStorm scenario is a complete picture of what that storm would do to the social and economic systems of California," said Lucy Jones, chief scientist of the USGS Multi-Hazards Demonstration Project and architect of ARkStorm. "We think this event happens once every 100 or 200 years or so, which puts it in the same category as our big San Andreas earthquakes. The ARkStorm is essentially two historic storms (January 1969 and February 1986) put back to back in a scientifically plausible way. The model is not an extremely extreme event." Jones noted that the largest damages would come from flooding—the models estimate that almost one-fourth of the houses in California would experience some flood damage from this storm. "The time to begin taking action is now, before a devastating natural-hazard event occurs," said USGS Director Marcia McNutt. "This scenario demonstrates firsthand how science can be the foundation to help build safer communities. The ARkStorm scenario is a scientifically vetted tool that emergency responders, elected officials, and the general public can use to plan for a major catastrophic event to help prevent a hazard from becoming a disaster." To define impacts of the ARkStorm, the USGS, in partnership with the California Geological Survey, produced the first statewide landslide-susceptibility maps for California—the most detailed landslide-susceptibility maps ever created. The project also resulted in the first physics-based modeling system for analyzing severe-storm impacts (beach erosion, coastal flooding, and cliff failures) under present-day scenarios and under various climate-change and sea-level-rise scenarios. This modeling system, designed by USGS coastal geologist Patrick Barnard and collaborators at the Netherlands-based research institute Deltares, is also capable of incorporating real-time atmospheric data inputs for potential use in real-time warning systems along the U.S. west coast. Because ARkStorm research raised serious questions about existing national, state, and local disaster policy and emergency-management systems, the ARkStorm scenario, while still in preparation, became the theme of the 2010 California Extreme Precipitation Symposium, held June 23 at the University of California, Davis, and attended by more than 200 leaders in meteorology and flood management. ARkStorm is part of efforts to create a National Real-Time Flood Mapping initiative to improve flood management nationwide. ARkStorm also provided a platform for emergency managers, meteorologists, and hydrologists to work together to develop a scaling system for west coast storms. "Cal EMA is proud to partner with the USGS in this important work to protect California from disasters," said Cal EMA Acting Secretary Mike Dayton. "In order to have the most efficient and effective plans and response capabilities, we have to have the proper science to base them on. Californians are better protected because of the scientific efforts of the United States Geological Survey." According to FEMA Region IX Director Nancy Ward, "The ARkStorm report will prove to be another invaluable tool in engaging the whole of our community in addressing flood emergencies in California. It is entirely possible that flood-control infrastructure and mitigation efforts could be overwhelmed by the USGS ARkStorm scenario, and the report suggests ways forward to limit the damage that is sure to result." The 2-day January summit included professional flood managers, emergency managers, first responders, business continuity managers, forecasters, hydrologists, and decision makers. Many of the scientists responsible for coordinating the ARkStorm scenario presented the science behind the scenario, including meteorology, forecasting, flood modeling, landslides, and physical and economic impacts. The ARkStorm scenario is the second scenario from the USGS Multi-Hazards Demonstration Project led by Jones, which earlier created the ShakeOut earthquake scenario. To listen to a podcast interview with Jones about the ARkStorm scenario, visit http://www.usgs.gov/corecast/details.asp?ep=141. Abundant information about ARkStorm—including key findings, background information, descriptions of experts' contributions, and links to videos and other graphics—is posted at http://urbanearth.usgs.gov/winter-storm/. Also available online is USGS Open-File Report 2010-1312, Overview of the ARkStorm Scenario, at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2010/1312/. in this issue: ARkStorm: California's Other "Big One"

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://soundwaves.usgs.gov/2011/01/research2.html

2013-06-20T04:26:02Z

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en

A giant storm rages in the northern hemisphere of Saturn in these two images from the Cassini spacecraft. The image at left shows the entire planet, with the rings forming a thin horizontal line across the middle. The storm is the billowing white feature at top center. It circles all the way around the giant planet. The image at right is a false-color close-up of a small part of the storm. Blue clouds are the highest, with yellow or white below them, then red and brown, and finally deep blue. The storm clouds probably are made of water ice covered by crystallized ammonia. [NASA/JPL/SSI] Hurricane season is entering what's typically its most active time. Most of the tropical systems usually occur from late August through early October, with the peak in mid-September -- near the end of summer in the northern hemisphere. An even bigger storm is starting to calm down on the planet Saturn. It began last December and has been raging ever since. At its peak, the storm wrapped all the way around the northern hemisphere. Big storms aren't all that rare on Saturn. Beginning in 1876, a new one has been seen about every 30 years or so -- the length of the planet's orbit around the Sun. Until now, they've all started during early summer in the northern hemisphere. But this storm came well ahead of schedule. It began in early spring. Here on Earth, it would be as if a Category 5 hurricane hit in April instead of during the warmer months of summer. The storm began as a violent thunderstorm that pushed water and ammonia from hundreds of miles below the planet's visible cloudtops. As the giant plume hit the upper atmosphere, powerful winds sheared off the top, pushing the storm all the way around the giant planet. The storm is calming down, but it may take a long time for the planet's northern hemisphere to return to normal. Look for golden Saturn to the upper right of the Moon as night falls this evening. The star Spica is a little closer to the Moon's upper left. More about this lineup tomorrow. Script by Damond Benningfield, Copyright 2011 For more skywatching tips, astronomy news, and much more, read StarDate magazine.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://stardate.org/radio/program/evening-lineup-0

2013-06-20T03:58:49Z

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en

Conflict Resolution and Communication Conflict is a normal and essential part of life. Even if we develop skills to deal with it, conflict will continue to exist. The way we deal with the differences and conflict, however, often divides us, and inhibits our ability to confront common problems. Complex social issues and increasing global interdependence place new demands on our capacities to work together. How we deal with conflict can also unite us and solve problems. Many young people are not learning to deal constructively with differences that they face daily. They see few alternatives to either fleeing from conflict or fighting. Violence and bullying have become social problems of epidemic proportions that especially affect young people. The messages that society conveys about violence are at best confusing, and often encourage violence. Many young people do not believe that they can make a difference and improve the world in which they live. Partners Inc. believes that with practice, we can all become better and better at resolving and/or managing conflict. We are not born problem solvers. But we can learn these skills and grow in our use of them. The goals of Partners Inc.’s Conflict resolution focus is to help staff and students: - Be able to apply key conflict resolution concepts and skills to their professional lives - Understand different approaches to incorporating conflict resolution education into their classrooms - Be able to use a variety of different conflict resolution teaching strategies and activities - Develop a classroom and whole school plan for teaching conflict resolution skills to students

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://starsnashville.org/programs/partners-inc/conflict-resolution/

2013-06-20T03:53:08Z

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en