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"The Williams Family Tree\nTree: The Williams Family Tree The Cross Family Tree Jones of Aberdyfi\nCensus Pending\nGuest Trees\nBMD Certificates\nBookmark Sidebar\nEdward Corcoran\nPersonal Information | Media | Sources | Event Map | All | PDF\nName Edward Corcoran [1]\nBorn 1907 Queensland, Australia [1, 2]\nDied 20 Mar 1978 [1, 3]\nBuried 22 Mar 1978 Blackbutt, Queensland, Australia [1]\nPerson ID I67013 The Williams Family Tree\nLast Modified 10 Apr 2013\nFather Edward Corcoran\nb. 3 May 1856, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia\nd. 1934 (Age 77 years)\nMother Katherine Troy\nb. 8 Dec 1880, Gowrie, Queensland, Australia\nd. 21 Jun 1963 (Age 82 years)\nMarried 10 Jun 1903 Ipswich, Queensland, Australia [1, 2, 4]\nn/a Ipswich, Queensland, Australia\nIpswich, Queensland\nBorn - 1907 - Queensland, Australia\nBuried - 22 Mar 1978 - Blackbutt, Queensland, Australia\nHeadstone for Edward Corcoran (67013)\nReference The Williams Family Tree. \"Edward Corcoran\". The Williams Family Tree. https://williamsfamilytree.co.uk/tree/getperson.php?personID=I67013&tree=wft (accessed January 16, 2021).\n[S6801] Margaret Corcoran.\n[S5900] Queensland Births, Marriages and Deaths. Department of Justice and Attorney General.\n[S6856] Headstone for Edward Corcoran (67013).\n[S6850] Marriage Certificate for Edward Corcoran and Katherine Troy (19776).\nI would like to thank all the people who have contributed to The Williams Family Tree database over the years and to those who continue to do so. Without your help The Williams Family Tree would not be anything like as large as it is. I am very grateful for every piece of information whether it be a name correction, a photograph, a copy of a certificate, some biographical information or a whole data file.\nInitially, the Williams family from Aberdovey was the main target of research. Being a very busy port, Aberdyfi produced sea-faring families with many of the men reaching the pinnacle of their trade as Master Mariners. My grandfather, John Davies Williams, served as a 'Boy' aboard the schooner Sarah Davies at the age of 13.\nPlease make a donation\nto keep this site working\nThe Williams Family Tree - created and maintained by Phil Williams Copyright © -2021 All rights reserved.\[email protected]"

"The Williams Family Tree\nTree: The Williams Family Tree The Cross Family Tree Jones of Aberdyfi\nCensus Pending\nGuest Trees\nUser Scripts\nBreightmet, Lancashire, England\nTree: The Williams Family Tree\nLatitude: 53.5817927777778, Longitude: -2.38289583333333\n1 Bullen, Sarah Ellen C. 1854 Breightmet, Lancashire, England I78427 The Williams Family Tree\n1 Bullen, Sarah Ellen C. 25 Dec 1854 Breightmet, Lancashire, England I78427 The Williams Family Tree\nI would like to thank all the people who have contributed to The Williams Family Tree database over the years and to those who continue to do so. Without your help The Williams Family Tree would not be anything like as large as it is. I am very grateful for every piece of information whether it be a name correction, a photograph, a copy of a certificate, some biographical information or a whole data file.\nInitially, the Williams family from Aberdovey was the main target of research. Being a very busy port, Aberdyfi produced sea-faring families with many of the men reaching the pinnacle of their trade as Master Mariners. My grandfather, John Davies Williams, served as a 'Boy' aboard the schooner Sarah Davies at the age of 13.\nPlease make a donation\nto keep this site working\nThe Williams Family Tree - created and maintained by Phil Williams Copyright © 1970-2020 All rights reserved.\nThis site powered by The Next Generation of Genealogy Sitebuilding v.12.2, written by Darrin Lythgoe © 2001-2020.\[email protected]"

"Q: how to change a tabPanel content? how can i replace a tab of TabPanel with another text.\nin the following code i want to replace text4 in tab one.\nin other word when a tab show's a widget (like text1) how can i change its content with another widget (like text4)\n public void onModuleLoad() {\n String text1 = \"1111111111111111111111111111 ...\";\n String text2 = \"2222222222222222222222222222...\";\n String text3 = \"3333333333333333333333333333...\";\n String text4 = \"4444444444444444444444444444...\";\n\n TabPanel panel = new TabPanel();\n\n FlowPanel flowpanel;\n\n flowpanel = new FlowPanel();\n flowpanel.add(new Label(text1));\n panel.add(flowpanel, \"One\");\n\n flowpanel = new FlowPanel();\n flowpanel.add(new Label(text2));\n panel.add(flowpanel, \"Two\");\n\n flowpanel = new FlowPanel();\n flowpanel.add(new Label(text3));\n panel.add(flowpanel, \"Three\");\n\n panel.selectTab(0);\n\n /* in this line exactlly , How can i raplace text4 in tab(one) */\n\n panel.setSize(\"500px\", \"250px\");\n panel.addStyleName(\"table-center\");\n RootPanel.get(\"demo\").add(panel);\n}\n\n\nA: The simple way is keep label1 and change the value whenever you want\n Label label1 = new Label(text1)\n flowpanel.add(label1);\n ...\n label1.setText(text4);\n\nIf you didn't do this then you can do it like that :\nFlowPanel f = (FlowPanel) panel.getWidget(0); // first added Widget (flowpanel)\nLabel l = (Label) f.getWidget(0); // first added widget to panel (label)\nl.setText(text4); // change the text\n\n\nA: I think what you need to do is keep a reference to the Label and then change the text for the label. I think that's probably it but it's hard to tell since you say replace text4 which you don't use in that example. \n"

"Q: How do I fix the height of a JEditorPane inside a JScrollPane? I want to restrict the height of a JEditorPane inside a JScrollPane to have a maximum value, but still allow the width to expand to fit the content.\nMy reasoning for this is that I want a single line of text that allows me to embed components. I really want something like a JTextField with embeddable components, but since JTextField cannot do this, I'm using JEditorPane (JTextPane would be fine, too).\nI'm trying to mimic the StackOverflow tag behavior in a desktop Swing application. So I will embed clickable \"tags\" in the JEditorPane and they'll all appear in one line, just like SO does.\nAs it stands, the JEditorPane expands vertically, but not horizontally with this SSCCE:\nimport javax.swing.*;\nimport java.awt.BorderLayout;\n\npublic class Tags {\n /*\n * This is the method I want to modify to implement this behavior:\n */\n public static JComponent buildTagsComponent() {\n JScrollPane scrollPane = new JScrollPane();\n JEditorPane editorPane = new JEditorPane();\n scrollPane.setViewportView(editorPane);\n return scrollPane;\n }\n /*\n * The remainder of this code is just to make the example complete.\n */\n public static JFrame buildFrame() {\n JFrame frame = new JFrame(\"Tags example\");\n JPanel panel = new JPanel();\n JPanel tagsPanel = new JPanel();\n JLabel tagsLabel = new JLabel(\"Tags:\");\n JLabel mainContent = new JLabel(\"Main Content Goes Here\");\n tagsPanel.add(tagsLabel);\n tagsPanel.add(buildTagsComponent());\n panel.setLayout(new BorderLayout());\n panel.add(tagsPanel,BorderLayout.SOUTH);\n panel.add(mainContent,BorderLayout.CENTER);\n frame.setContentPane(panel);\n return frame;\n }\n public static void main(String[] args) {\n SwingUtilities.invokeLater(\n new Runnable() {\n public void run() {\n JFrame frame = buildFrame();\n frame.pack();\n frame.setVisible(true);\n }\n }\n );\n }\n}\n\nNote also that I plan to disable the scrollbars and require scrolling with a gesture or moving the cursor position with the cursor keys. When I added a \"NEVER\" for the scrollbar policies, that just made things not scrollable at all. I'm not looking for a solution for the scrolling problem right now, I just want the answers to take into account that I will be setting the scrollbar policy to NEVER for horizontal and vertical.\nI've tried explicitly setting the height and width (minimum, preferred, and maximum) to something like 12 and Integer.MAX_VALUE, respectively.\nUPDATE\nAfter some research I believe the solution I'm looking for has to do with word wrapping. I want the JEditorPane to not wrap paragraphs when there is no line break (line feed).\n\nA: Currently, the editor pane does not resize horizontally because of the Layout Manager. The default for JPanel is FlowLayout, which sizes components at their fixed preferred size.\nTry a BoxLayout:\nJPanel tagsPanel = new JPanel();\ntagsPanel.setLayout(new BoxLayout(tagsPanel, BoxLayout.LINE_AXIS));\n// then add components\n\nExtra tip: To improve the look of your panel, you can add invisible components (that put space between other components), and/or an empty border (that creates a margin with the other components:\ntagsPanel.add(tagsLabel);\ntagsPanel.add(Box.createRigidArea(new Dimension(10,0)));\ntagsPanel.add(buildTagsComponent());\ntagsPanel.setBorder(BorderFactory.createEmptyBorder(5,5,5,5));\n\n\nRegarding the problem of line wrapping (which you cannot deactivate easily in a JEditorPane, unlike in a JTextArea), a solution is proposed here (referenced from this post).\n\nBasically you have to extend a StyledEditorKit and set it to your JEditorPane.\n\nRegarding the behaviour of the JScrollPane, maybe a solution is to use the AS_NEEDED default setting, but customize the UI of the scroll bars to make their size equal to zero. This way you have the scrolling behaviour without the scroll bars themselves.\n\nA: Try this in the JScrollPane initialization:\nJScrollPane scrollBar = new JScrollPane(panel,\n JScrollPane.VERTICAL_SCROLLBAR_NEVER,\n JScrollPane.HORIZONTAL_SCROLLBAR_AS_NEEDED);\n\n"

"Q: How to set the JFrame as a parent to the JDialog I am having trouble to set the frame as a owner to the dialog. Normally when I extend JDialog class for creating a dialog then I use super(frame) to specify the owner of the dialog such that both of them are not disjoint when you press alt+tab. But when I create a dialog using new like JDialog dialog = new JDialog() then I am unable to specify the frame as owner to the dialog.\nFollowing example demonstrates above two approaches. Top Click button opens a dialog which is without extending JDialog. Bottom Click button opens a dialog with extending JDialog.\nimport java.awt.BorderLayout;\nimport java.awt.Dimension;\nimport java.awt.EventQueue;\nimport java.awt.event.ActionEvent;\nimport java.awt.event.ActionListener;\n\nimport javax.swing.JButton;\nimport javax.swing.JDialog;\nimport javax.swing.JFrame;\n\npublic class DialogEx {\n\n public static void main(String[] args) {\n Runnable r = new Runnable() {\n public void run() {\n new DialogEx().createUI();\n }\n };\n EventQueue.invokeLater(r);\n } \n\n private void createUI() {\n final JFrame frame = new JFrame();\n frame.setLayout(new BorderLayout());\n\n JButton button1 = new JButton(\"Top Click\");\n JButton button2 = new JButton(\"Bottom Click\");\n\n button2.addActionListener(new ActionListener() {\n public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent arg0) {\n new DialogExtend(frame).createUI();\n }\n });\n\n button1.addActionListener(new ActionListener() {\n public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {\n new DialogWithoutExtend(frame).cretaUI();\n }\n });\n\n frame.setTitle(\"Test Dialog Instances.\");\n frame.add(button1, BorderLayout.NORTH);\n frame.add(button2, BorderLayout.SOUTH);\n frame.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE);\n frame.setSize(new Dimension(300, 200));\n frame.setVisible(true);\n }\n\n class DialogExtend extends JDialog {\n private JFrame frame;\n public DialogExtend(JFrame frame) {\n super(frame);\n this.frame = frame;\n }\n\n public void createUI() {\n setLocationRelativeTo(frame);\n setTitle(\"Dialog created by extending JDialog class.\");\n setSize(new Dimension(400, 100));\n setModal(true);\n setVisible(true);\n }\n }\n\n class DialogWithoutExtend {\n\n private JFrame frame;\n public DialogWithoutExtend(JFrame frame) {\n this.frame = frame;\n }\n\n public void cretaUI() {\n JDialog dialog = new JDialog();\n dialog.setTitle(\"Dialog created without extending JDialog class.\");\n dialog.setSize(new Dimension(400, 100));\n dialog.setLocationRelativeTo(frame);\n dialog.setModal(true);\n dialog.setVisible(true);\n }\n }\n}\n\n\nA: A dialog's (or window's) owner can be set only in the constructor, so the only way to set it is by using a constructor which takes the owner as parameter, like:\nclass DialogWithoutExtend {\n\n private JFrame frame;\n public DialogWithoutExtend(JFrame frame) {\n this.frame = frame;\n }\n\n public void cretaUI() {\n JDialog dialog = new JDialog(frame);\n dialog.setTitle(\"Dialog created without extending JDialog class.\");\n dialog.setSize(new Dimension(400, 100));\n dialog.setLocationRelativeTo(frame);\n dialog.setModal(true);\n dialog.setVisible(true);\n }\n}\n\n"

"Q: Add console to a panel I am trying to add a simple console as a panel, but I don't get it working (have a look at the end of the code):\nsuper.setSize(600,4*46); \nsuper.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.DISPOSE_ON_CLOSE);\npane = super.getContentPane();\nGridLayout flo = new GridLayout(4,1,20,2);\npane.setLayout(flo);\npane.setBackground(grey);\n\n// 1: STOP button\nJPanel row_cmd = new JPanel();\nFlowLayout flo_row_cmd = new FlowLayout(FlowLayout.CENTER,10,1);\nrow_cmd.setLayout(flo_row_cmd);\nrow_cmd.setBackground(grey_pale);\nSTOP.addActionListener(this);\nSTOP.setBackground(red);\nSTOP.setForeground(yellow);\nSTOP.setFocusable(false);\nft= STOP.getFont();\nft=new Font(ft.getFontName(),Font.BOLD,14); \nSTOP.setFont(ft);\nrow_cmd.add(STOP);\npane.add(row_cmd);\n\n// 2: communication\n\n// 3: progression\n\n// 4: console\nConsole console = System.console();\n//FlowLayout flo_row_con = new FlowLayout(FlowLayout.LEFT,10,10);\n//row_con.setLayout(flo_row_con);\n//row_con.setBackground(grey_pale);\n\nframe.getContentPane().add(console);\nframe.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE);\n\n//pane.add(row_con);\n//pane.validate();\nsetVisible(true);\n???\n\nHow could I do? I don't have much experience with GUI components.\nThank you.\n"

"If you want to see our InfoGraphic and recent post on this data, see our other post called \"Most & Least Touristy Countries InfoGraphic\".\nThis post has interactive maps, more data… and none of the commentary.\nGreat graphics. Just wanted to point out that the scales are backwards for the last two, at least based on the chart title.\nOh, and then there's the awful name — \"touristy.\" Not funny or cute. Sounds too much like \"discoverist\" or \"globalist.\" Guess that makes me too discoveristy."

"The AniMessenger\nFebruary 16, 2018 Anime / Movie Reviews\nMovie Review: The Boy and the Beast\nPosted by The AniMessenger\nMamoru Hosoda's latest effort, The Brat and the Bad Dads, follows a slovenly monkeybear swordsman and a disillusioned nine-year-old as they unravel the timeless mysteries of parenting and inner-strength. Fans of Hosoda's previous successes (The Girl Who Leapt Through Time and Wolf Children) expected a sprawling narrative, supported by strong dialogue, believable emotionality, and an inspiring score–a further solidification of the director's status as \"anime auteur.\" Indeed, as the film opens, the audience dives into a living, breathing ocean of loose lines and swirling pastels—a landscape devoid of cookie-cutter character models, instead packed with emoting agents who energize each frame of video and each note of the film's triumphant soundtrack. Yet Hosoda betrays his own storytelling instincts and attempts a narrative sleight-of-hand, enlisting the audience in his crusade to portray man-monkey-bears with hair-trigger tempers as good fathers.\nAs the opening vignette confirms, our beast-warrior Kumatetsu is \"violent, selfish, and disrespectful\"—adjectives that stick to his fur throughout the course of the film. Hosoda refuses to develop the selfish samurai past his flaws yet insists on defending the bear's alleged parenting skills —a thesis with no supporting evidence. If anything, anime has taught us that nothing but bloodshed, sorrow, and death awaits those who fraternize with scruffy sword-wielding types. Meanwhile, Iouzen, Kumatetsu's rival for the Grandmastership of Beastropolis (Juutengai), exhibits all the necessary hallmarks of \"hero.\" Hosoda gives us little reason to doubt Iouzen's parental prowess and/or leadership capabilities. Scene after scene depicts Iouzen doting on his children, raising them with a kind but firm hand, and making reasonable arguments to Kumatetsu: \"generally, when you bring humans into monster world, things go badly.\" But, no, we shouldn't knock our bearman just because he's self-seeking, obnoxious, and completely irresponsible.\nExcellent role models for children.\nPerhaps the unfortunate absence of Hosoda's long-time co-writer, Satoko Okudera, contributed to TBatB's poor characterization. But even an amateur can imagine a more believable plot–one in which Iouzen and Kumatatsu switch roles. The flawed bear has all the attributes of a likable \"frenemy\"–an unpalatable loud-mouth–brazen, but full of heart and strong enough to challenge his rival. Iouzen, conversely, already embodies \"hero\"ness—a strong, nurturing leader with room to improve in the area of pompousness—the kind of role model Kyuuta would naturally seek. In this alternative version, Kumatetsu and Iouzen would learn to accept their differences and Kyuuta might find \"strength\" through tolerance. Instead, Hosoda lulls the audience into Orwellian doublethink, insisting that 2 + 2 = 5 and Kumatetsu's vices are actually virtues. Ultimately, the beast fumbles within the barriers of one-dimensionality while his human-pupil magically develops into an Iozen-esque champion.\nThe ingeniously named \"Kyuu\"ta (he's nine) posing for the cover of Disgruntled Kids in the City Magazine.\nEven the harshest of critics, however, cannot deny the power of the film's artistic direction. Save for a few background blunders (crowds sometimes resemble PS3-era NPCs), the Miyazakian world of Juutengai draws audiences in with its whimsy—a frontier beckoning the audience to come and explore. Yet the bustling monster-world never gets the attention it deserves. Unlike Miyazaki, Hosoda cannot strike a balance between setting and character. Hosoda squanders his universe's surplus of beauty, demoting it to a playground for the boy and the beast's tomfoolery. Seems criminal to neglect such a well-built world. Indeed, the whole production would parse out better as a big-budget TV series, giving viewers ample time to acclimate to Juutengai's nooks and crannies, cultures, and, most importantly, population. The prolonged format would also make time for more transformative character arcs for Kumatatsu and his band of knuckleheads.\nAlas, the audience instead must suffer through a cornucopia of undeveloped themes, clunky writing, and a parade of father figures better suited for Kyuuta than Kumatetsu (at least everything looks pretty). In fact, before the movie even revs up, Hyaku the pig-monk intercepts the boy and nearly prevents the impending trainwreck with some sound advice: \"Obviously, you should go back home or, at the very least, stay far away from Kumatetsu.\" The beast himself asks Kyuuta why he agreed to come with him, to which the boy has no answer. The characters seem genuinely puzzled as to why they do the things they do. But, if they had any knowledge of \"Coming of Age\" storylines, they might steal a sneak peek of the end of their trope conveyor belt while it drags them through a Disney World of cliches:\nTrouble at Home Kingdom? Check.\nDown the Rabbit Hole Zone? Check.\nHero's Journey Land? Checkity-check.\nI'm pre-ordering tickets for the grand openings of Prejudice Point and Rite of Passage Raceways as I write this.\nSo that's where Chihiro's dad went.\nThings don't get any rosier for our explosive bear-daddy as the film progresses. The Juutengai people root against Kumatetsu because he's an unlikable hack, not because of some nefarious ulterior motive. Hosoda's feeble attempt to connect Kyuuta and Kumatetsu via their mutual aloneness falls flat. Kyuuta ultimately agrees to train under Kumatetsu because he sees in the bear an opportunity to realize his desire for self-sufficiency and strength (even though Kumatetsu only manages to demonstrate weakness when he loses a duel with Iouzen). Sensing a lack of believability, the director provides ample interpretation through the supporting characters. The pig and the chimp frequently voice their embarrassment and general disgust towards their \"friend,\" yet continue to stalk him throughout his adventures, appearing out of nowhere as soon as Kumatetsu acts unseemly, popping their heads through open windows to paraphrase his actions, restating key plot points, or modeling appropriate reactions for the audience. Still sensing a lingering hollowness, Hosoda conjures a yes-man out of thin air (literally)—the grandmaster—who dutifully fulfills his task of keeping the \"Kumatestu is a good father/leader\" subtext hooked into its ventilator.\nYou can't fool me, Monster Carrot.\nThe grandmaster sends them on a morality fetch-quest, a Sage tour that reveals to the bear and his boy the ever-elusive secrets of \"strength.\" We learn that \"you have to figure it for yourself\" is the answer to the question of The Good. While serviceable as a moral, the execution of that principle falls flat when left in Kumatetsu's meaty paws. We know the swordsman's \"go with the flow\" lifestyle hasn't done him any favors, so why should Kyuuta imitate it? The very notion that Kyuuta and Kumatetsu are essentially the same person (which the plot-restaters love to restate) should give the young boy significant pause, not ignite passion.\nEvery time you cash in one of these plot devices, a character flaw disappears!\nUnderstandably, Kyuuta can't decipher the logistics of the moral either, until the apparition of his dead mother clears things up, telling her son to \"become him\"–a suggestion both hilarious and preposterous, only honored to set up a lengthy, cute training montage in which Kyuuta becomes a martial arts master by way of a glorified Miyagi regimen:\nWax on, wax off.\nWe must assume that the bulk of Kyuuta's character development happened during the time skip, otherwise, our boy's actions in the latter half of the film make even less sense. Kyuuta goes back to the human world because he made a wrong turn at the market (you'd think he'd know his way around by now). Apparently, humans can travel back and forth between realms by following a simple set of coordinates. Now that Hosoda has dropped that valuable nugget of information on us, the plot careens off the rails so that Kyuuta can finally get a girlfriend, learn how to read, and meet his bio-dad. After a brief jaunt through Puberty Parkway, Parents are People Too City and Identity Crisis Island, Hosoda shoehorns us back into the main plot. Apparently, it only took a few kind words from a love interest to completely ward off The Darkness in Kyuuta's heart—just in time for the final battle between Kumatetsu and Iouzen.\nKyuuta's father figure hole. Insert selfish bear-warrior here.\nIchirouhiko, one of Iouzen's annoying children, forgets his earlier proclamation that strength and kindness go hand and hand, instead revealing his psychopathy to the world and embarking on a racist-fueled murder campaign. Seems Iouzen failed to follow the Kumatetsu Parenting Handbook and instead opted to encourage his children rather than berate them, thus laying the groundwork for that pernicious father figure hole in his pelt-wearing son's chest.\nWe learn that Iouzen adopted Ichirouhiko, fully cognizant of the boy's humanity (just like Kumatetsu with Kyuuta–except Iouzen did everything right). Somehow, Iouzen's influence led to his son's downfall while Kumatetsu's fostered growth. In other words, Ichirouhiko became \"insecure\" when his father emphasized the similarities between humans and beasts. Kyuuta, on the other hand, turned out A-Okay because Kumatetsu was real with him (telling him he was weak and stupid from the beginning). In reality, its thanks to everyone except Kumatetsu that Kyuuta barely squeaked through the slamming door of existential doom.\nSomebody get this boy a bear-dad!\nThe Return of the King influence shines through during the latter part of the film, as Hosoda creates multiple endings and lets the audience pick the best one. I'm partial to the one where the shadow whale destroys Tokyo, but the \"Kumatetsu transforming into Kyuuta's chest-microphone\" one did not disappoint.\nLeaked photo from the set of Free Willy 5.\nHosoda compromises the integrity of his filmography with The Boy and the Beast. While the visuals match those of other powerhouse entries in his catalog, the once untouchable director sabotages himself with incompatible character pairings, fragile premises, and haphazard subplots. He creates a menu of father figure entres for us to choose from: sirloin steak (Iouzen), salted cardboard (Kumatetsu), or six-week-old pizza (bio-dad) and forces us to eat the cardboard. Eventually, Kyuuta himself becomes a better parent than Kumatetsu. One hopes that the title of Hosoda's upcoming work, Mirai of the Future, signifies the director's willingness to leave TBatB's narrative baggage behind and get back to the masterpiece-making.\nAt least we have Chiko.\nRating: C+\nAnd, please remember:\n~ Don't Shoot the Messenger\nAll screenshots and promotional images are the property of Studio Chizu, Funimation, Studio Ghibli, Walt Disney Studios, GKIDS, and Toei Animation. The AniMessenger does not claim ownership.\nAnimeAnime ReviewsBad DadsFunimationMamoru HosodaShounenStudio Chizu\nMovie Review: Pokemon the Movie – I Choose You!\nSeries Review: Darling in the FranXX – Episode 6\nI loved this movie\nThe AniMessenger says:\nNice! I know a lot of people who did. I'm just here to provide an alternate perspective 😀\nospreyshire says:\nI've seen the cover of this movie, and vaguely heard about it in passing. It looks like a random mish-mash of different movies and anime thrown together. Great review though!\nVery true! It is a bit of a mash-up–you get some Ghibli conventions, Hosoda's own conventions, and a whole lot of samurai/shounen tropes to boot. Thanks for the comment! 🙂\nI see. That makes a lot of sense from how you described it. No problem.\nKapodaco says:\nThe more I read, the more I found myself wondering whether this should be a properly attributed \"review\" or a full-blown analysis of symbolism through fatherhood and what-not. Lots of emphasis on establishing the story and what it means to individual characters and its purpose to the audience, though I didn't notice a lot of attention to the major aspects of \"Story,\" \"Characters,\" \"Art and Sound,\" and/or \"Enjoyment\" themselves. I'm not one to say what is and isn't a review, as I've found myself at this junction of putting down \"Review\" and saying whatever the hell I wanted to, but I went into this thinking it'd be rather straightforward and now I'm almost winded—which is good, let me assure you. You have yourself a new follower. Great piece. Only thing I'd state as anything denoting a \"flaw\" is that the tone of the review sounded FAR more negative than to warrant the film a passing grade of C+.\nInteresting points. I think you hit the nail on the head–I will put \"review\" in the post heading and then write whatever I please! I'm less interested in a comprehensive overview of a piece and more in capturing my raw reactions (in this case–mad about bad dads). Thank you again for the constructive comments! I will, most assuredly, tweak the scoring format going forward.\nrakioddbooks says:\nThis movie was alright. Don't have much to say about it.\nYualexius says:\nThis is a really amazing and heartwarming anime film. Although, there are instances that i could see a piece of Wolf Children and The Girl Who Leapt Through Time in the story, I guess it's pretty normal since they're made by the same director. Anyway, I think this is the 2nd best work of Mamoru Hosoda after Wolf Children and definitely the one filled with more actions.\nThanks for the comment ^_^\nPixel Pixie says:\nI watched a chunk of the movie and felt like something wasn't quite right, so I never actually returned to it, and dear heavens I'm glad that I saw your review because now I don't feel like I need to finish it, and I also laughed a lot. Your writing is VERY fun. 😀\nThank you kindly! Glad to hear we were on the same wavelength ^_^\nPingback: The One Liner Challenge: YOU'RE ON!! – Ryuji Tatsuya's Anime Corner\nosmovies says:\nI thought that movie was amazing. I gave it 10/10 stars on my movie review.\nI have seen this movie. It is so good. Suggest me some anime of similar type.\nCheck out Summer Wars ^_^\nThe Schliz says:\nYooo…I think you penned a funny, interesting, and enjoyable rant-review.\nBUT, I also think that you fundamentally misrepresented louzen, portraying him as some sort of magnificent father with no negative characteristics.\n\"Seems Iouzen failed to follow the Kumatetsu Parenting Handbook and instead opted to encourage his children rather than berate them, thus laying the groundwork for that pernicious father figure hole in his pelt-wearing son's chest.\"\nI believe here you are speaking of his ability to feed his children something other than raw eggs and rice (yummy desserts) and speak kindly to them while also not following through on teaching them (something his bio-son says is typical…) There is a lack of honesty demonstrated here.\n\"We learn that Iouzen adopted Ichirouhiko, fully cognizant of the boy's humanity (just like Kumatetsu with Kyuuta–except Iouzen did everything right). \"\nEverything right??? I don't see any evidence that louzen is actually a \"good\" parent.\n\"Somehow, Iouzen's influence led to his son's downfall while Kumatetsu's fostered growth. In other words, Ichirouhiko became \"insecure\" when his father emphasized the similarities between humans and beasts.\"\nHe became insecure because he was being lied to his entire life. His father could have told him who he was while also emphasising similarities. It's not an either/or.\nUltimately, I agree with your critique of Kumatetsu (that he is one dimensional), but I think you are also missing the point that sometimes very flawed people can inspire strength and character through uncharacteristic love and care–in this case for a lost child.\nThe father-figure transfers greatness through an unselfish act of love. Later in the movie, the seeds sown by this first act are in full bloom (;)) as Kumatetsu and Kyuuta work together to help someone who has been overcome by hatred (which they are both bent towards).\nI'd give the movie a B-"

"chrome but does not seem to be happening on Firefox.\nTradeexchange is a browser hijacker which is a Potentially Unwanted Program (PUP) which comes download with other programs you may have wanted to install such as videos and free utilities. As they are often wanted by users and not malicious Norton will not flag them as a virus.\nChoose one of the sites register and post your problem where a trained experienced volunteer will assist you in removing the infection.\nIt would be good once finished with the site if you could return and let us know of your experience with them."

"One on One Spotlight with NPC Amateur Jeff Beckham\nJeff Beckham, 2012 NPC Team Universe Heavyweight and Overall Champion, may be poised to become the next big thing\nby Larry Brown\nPrevious story Nicoletta Radu - Womens Bikini - FLEX Bikini Model Search 2011 Next story Nicole Warner - Womens Bikini - FLEX Bikini Model Search 2011\nThe Team Universe can be considered one of the forgotten gems of the national level shows held within the NPC. While others go for the more popular pro qualifiers such as the USA Championships or the NPC Nationals, the \"Team U\" has turned out quality champions, most notably Vaughn Ettienne, Team Weider athlete Kai Greene and Panexce Pierre who recently made his pro debut at the Wings of Strength Chicago Pro Show. If this years Team U is any indication, Jeff Beckham, 2012 NPC Team Universe Light Heavyweight and Overall Champion, may be poised to become the next big thing. Hailing from Jamaica, Queens, New York, the 30 year old Beckham was only able to perform push-ups and dips until he discovered the gym. He shared that once he discovered the gym, it helped him deal with growing up a ward of the state of New York. \"I want people to see how therapeutic the gym is. It definitely gave me another way,\" he said. Beckham said he relates to another IFBB Pro very well also. \"I connected to Kai after hearing about his trails and tribulations,\" he said. With a competition history that started in 2005, Beckham now stands in the big leagues as an IFBB Professional, but still has some unfinished business on the amateur level. \"I'm going to compete in the World Amateur Championships in November,\" he said. Assisted by his trainer Geno Sylvain Beckham wastes no time in asserting how he feels the Worlds will pan out. \"I feel I have a good chance of winning the show,\" he said. Beckham presented a tight, yet rugged physique in the Team U and his training style harkens back to the blue collar mentality of bodybuilders from the 1980's. \"I was training six days a week with cardio twice a day and two bodyparts,\" he said. Beckham said that his style closely resembles the style of Branch Warren and Ronnie Coleman. \"I like those explosive reps,\" he said. When asked what will happen after the Worlds, he isn't sure. \"I try not to project too much into the future. A part of me feels that I could be a strong contender in the 212 class but I'll be competing in the open next year. Me and Geno's plan is to get up to 215 for the World's,\" he said. Besides Geno, Beckham wanted to give thanks to his God mother Miss Donna, Teddy, the owner of Coliseum Gym in Middle Village in Queens and the owner of Richie's gym. With a solid support system in place, we should hear the name Jeff Beckham for years to come.\nJeff Beckham"

"Whether you are one of the Internet users who already have a long expertise in the web and know online casinos since their first beginnings or simply a new person in the world of the web who is just beginning to grasp and discover the world's largest network, or precisely the places or websites of games in this world, ie the sites of online casinos or simply the online belote games. So whether you are the first person or the second person, it is simple for you to be able to realize that the free belote games or more generally any other kind of casino game offered for free online by specialized websites are beginning to gain market share and gain much more popularity compared to the paid version. That is, online casinos or multiplayer belote sites that require a fee for new registrations or even participation in some online belote contests.\nWe can clearly see that online sites or casinos offering players (especially beginners) the possibility to play against all levels and to be able to enjoy their different passions (the different games that online casinos offer such as the free online stuck belote) and to be able to access all these benefits in a totally free way are quickly developing a great popularity among fans of casinos on the web. So these casinos that offer you the opportunity to play without having to pay a penny are starting to gain a very good reputation among Internet users who are passionate about betting games.\nThe question that arises is obviously the following: What is more preferable for a belote gamer or even an expert or professional who already has expertise than it is in online belote contests in virtual casinos or those organized by classic multiplayer belote casinos in real life, so would the favorite would be to try and gain experience while looking for winnings that are not huge in free online belote games or to participate in games requiring investments that can be considered a little expensive for new online casino players especially but that guarantee large and even huge winnings for those who are lucky?\nIn order to be able to get a satisfactory answer to this complicated question which describes almost well the situation of online gambling games and which even can make us open our eyes to the future and the next trend of online casino games. We simply have to make a comparison between the two types. And it's not going to be that complicated because we're talking about the same subject, the same games, the same belote in line with the same rules but with only one small detail that changes and that on the other hand can be too important or even crucial. The question about money, paying to participate or just being satisfied with the free version? We must deeply analyze the advantages or the strongest points that free belote games offer, as well as the fact that they do not require the slightest penny for their access, in order to be able to decide.\nSo what are the advantages of internet casino games that do not require an investment to participate like for example belote stuck free online?\nTo be able to list the reasons why players and Internet users in general choose multiplayer online belotes in a free version. The first thing to do is to find out why they actually play online. Why do online casinos and belote games websites manage to achieve this huge success compared to other so-called classic or traditional casinos. You can tell me that it is simply because there are more and more people on the Internet, we spend more and more time there and it is normal that we find this kind of site and that we see that their popularity widens since when we start spending too much time in the virtual world it is normal that we find ourselves looking for pleasure in this universe while exercising our passions and favorite games that we are already used to practice in real life. That is to say, it is not thanks to the advantages offered by belote sites stuck free online that this success has taken place but rather thanks to an obligation posed by the number of different categories and community of Internet users increasing every day, especially lovers of betting games and those whose favorite passion is playing belote.\nPerhaps this thesis could be considered reasonable and acceptable. But personally, I think that things or rather the reasons for this growth in numbers of players and fans, that is to say in popularity that online belote testifies, is due to much more important and even more profound factors than the simple fact that it is the number of Internet users and precisely the number of belote players and casino fans that increases every day that presents the crucial reason. I think that many other advantages and strengths that the free online cornered belote even in their less professional versions as well as the simplest and most classic Facebook belote for example offer and allow players to benefit from them are the real reasons and the most important factors that give the online belote or even any other popular casino game present today on the web its popularity and loyal fans who prefer it online than its classic version in real traditional casinos.\nToo wide a selection of games: While modern offline casinos also have a wide selection of games, they still can't conquer their rivals on the internet on exactly this point. Indeed, most online casinos offer a selection of several hundred games, including hundreds of variations for each category or classic game. These variants are unique and can give several variations on each of the main table games. In addition to that there are games that can only be played on the internet and that are perhaps considered as additional specialities that can only be present on online casinos like scratch cards for example, and other specialities that depend on the programs and software provided by casino sites. All this allows you to play the game that suits you best and gives you the most pleasure and joy by playing it. But the advantages of such a wide selection are not only in terms of the number of games available. Indeed, in traditional casinos we are faced with the obligation to invest from 10 to 25€ as a bet to be able to participate which is not at all the same for online gambling sites since we can even participate for only one euro at a belote table for example. In addition to the classic casinos that exploit the best times and good betting bonus periods to increase their bets and collect more winnings. This is not at all the case for online casinos whose software is previously programmed on certain rather reasonable bets."

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"New 'Ant-Man' Poster Proves That Size Does Matter\nSteven Schneider, Tech Times 06 January 2015, 03:01 pm\nSomehow, Ant-Man continues to be a big risk for Marvel. After Guardians of the Galaxy, it's easy to assume that Marvel can do no wrong, but Ant-Man is yet another C-list comic book making its way to the big screen. This time, however, Ant-Man was saddled with a troubled production, multiple directors and a 10-year life-span...which isn't exactly a recipe for success.\nDespite all that, there are plenty of people that are excited about the newest Marvel blockbuster. There are a lot of talented people attached to the film, but the marketing behind Ant-Man is what's getting people hyped. It all started with the trailer: the team debuted the \"Ant-sized\" version first, and is holding off on the full trailer until the Agent Carter premiere later tonight. It was both genuinely funny and intriguing enough to get people pumped, and the trend continues with the film's first official poster:\nHeroes come in all sizes w/ the 1st #AntMan poster! Don't miss the new teaser during #AgentCarter at 8/7c on ABC! pic.twitter.com/y44XfwmYS4\n— Ant-Man (@AntMan) January 6, 2015\nFans have been waiting for a long time to see Paul Rudd in the suit, but this probably isn't what they were thinking of. Again, it's a clever way to tie the movie in with the hero's power. A lot of people probably don't know who Ant-Man is, but it's clear from the get-go that his powers have to do with size. Yeah, it's funny, but it's also informative.\nOf course, the poster above is only the \"Ant-sized\" version; the full poster debuted over at Entertainment Weekly, and features a much closer look at the suit:\nIt's still not much to go on, but with the new poster and new trailer, it seems like Marvel is finally ready to pull the curtain back on its strangest movie yet. There's a good chance that Ant-Man could be the next Guardians of the Galaxy, but there's also the chance that it ends up like that live-action Fantastic Four movie (and not the one from 2005, either):\nAnt-Man is set to hit theaters on July 17, 2015.\nTags: Ant-Man Marvel Studios Paul Rudd Movie Posters\nGo Behind the Scenes Before Tonight's 'Agent Carter' Premiere\nMarvel's First 'Ant-Man' Teaser Is Only Viewable By Ants\nFirst Look: Marvel's Uncanny Avengers #1"

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"Q: Dynamically add fixed-height panels to a JScrollPane JPanel panel = new JPanel(new GridLayout(0,1));\nJScrollPane contentpane = new JScrollPane(panel);\nJButton add = new JButton(\"ADD\");\nadd.actionListener(new ActionListener() {\n public void actionPerformed(){\n MyPanel newpanel = new MyPanel(\"title\",\"Button\"); //MyPanel is a class which extends JPanel and contains constructor MyPanel(String TitleToSet ,String ButtonTitleTOAdd)\n panel.add(newpanel);\n panel.repaint(); \n }) ;\n\nI have used this code thinking that it will add the MyPanel to the grid layout dynamically and \"panel\" would be scrollable if more \"MyPanel\"s are added. However, this was not the case, 1st \"MyPanel\" filled whole \"panel\" and on adding second \"MyPanel\" (by clicking button \"Add\"), the 1st \"MyPanel\" was shrinked to make space for second one to be added.. and on adding more, all the \"MyPanel\"s were fit in the viewport instead of making the \"panel\" scrollable.. How to add those \"MyPanel\"s dynamically and making the \"panel\" scrollable on adding more of those?? Any help would be appreciated.\n\nA: http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/javax/swing/JScrollPane.html :\n\nBy default JScrollPane uses ScrollPaneLayout to handle the layout of\nits child Components. ScrollPaneLayout determines the size to make the\nviewport view in one of two ways:\n\n*\n\n*[...]\n\n*getPreferredSize is used.\n\n\nYou should add the line\npanel.setPreferredSize(new Dimension(0, panel.getComponents().size() * SUB_PANEL_HEIGHT));\n\nto your ActionListener.\nFull example:\npackage main;\n\nimport java.awt.Dimension;\nimport java.awt.GridLayout;\nimport java.awt.Panel;\nimport java.awt.event.ActionEvent;\nimport java.awt.event.ActionListener;\n\nimport javax.swing.JButton;\nimport javax.swing.JFrame;\nimport javax.swing.JLabel;\nimport javax.swing.JPanel;\nimport javax.swing.JScrollPane;\nimport javax.swing.Timer;\n\nclass Test {\n public static void main(String[] args) {\n JFrame frame = new JFrame();\n frame.setPreferredSize(new Dimension(400, 400));\n frame.setSize(400, 400);\n \n JPanel panel = new JPanel(new GridLayout(0, 1));\n panel.add(new JLabel(\"BOO\"));\n panel.add(new JButton(\"BBBB\"));\n \n JScrollPane contentpane = new JScrollPane(panel);\n frame.add(contentpane);\n \n new Timer(1000, new ActionListener() {\n @Override\n public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {\n JPanel newpanel = new JPanel();\n newpanel.add(new JLabel(\"LOL\"));\n panel.add(newpanel);\n System.out.println(100 * panel.getComponents().length);\n panel.setPreferredSize(new Dimension(0, 100 * panel.getComponents().length));\n contentpane.validate();\n }\n }).start();\n \n frame.setVisible(true);\n }\n}\n\n"

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"FORT LAUDERDALE, Fla. (AP) - Federal prosecutors say in a new letter that pipe bomb suspect Cesar Sayoc searched for addresses of his targets online and had photos of many of them on his cellphone.\nThe letter sent by Justice Department prosecutors to a Miami federal judge also says Sayoc began plotting the \"domestic terror attack\" in July.\nUltimately, the FBI says he mailed 15 improvised explosive devices to prominent Democrats, critics of President Donald Trump and media outlets.\nThe 56-year-old Sayoc faces five federal charges following his arrest last week.\nProsecutors say in the letter that Sayoc should remain jailed without bail. A detention hearing is set Friday in Miami, as well as a hearing on when Sayoc should be sent to New York to stand trial."

"Mail bomb suspect Cesar Sayoc to plead guilty in spree targeting Obama, De Niro, CNN\nSayoc, described by relatives as a down-on-his-luck former stripper, was living in a white van plastered with pro-Trump stickers when he was arrested.\nBy Tom Winter and Rich Schapiro\nCesar Sayoc, the Florida man charged with sending more than a dozen pipe bombs to prominent critics of President Donald Trump, is expected to plead guilty next week, court records show.\nSayoc, 56, has been locked up since Oct. 26 when he was arrested for allegedly sending 16 mail bombs to a series of high-profile Democrats, including former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, actor Robert De Niro and philanthropist George Soros, as well as to the CNN headquarters in New York.\nCesar Sayoc is seen in a booking photo, in Miami on Aug. 30, 2015.Broward County Sheriff's Office via AP\nNone of the bombs detonated and no one was injured, but the explosives were loaded with shards of glass intended to \"maximize harm to the defendant's victims,\" prosecutors said in court papers.\nSayoc, described by relatives as a down-on-his-luck former stripper, was hit with a 30-count indictment charging him with using a weapon of mass destruction, interstate transportation and receipt of explosives and illegal mailing of explosives.\nIf convicted on the top counts, he faces life in prison. It was not clear which charges he will plead guilty to when he appears in federal court in Manhattan next Thursday.\nSayoc's lawyer, Ian H. Marcus Amelkin, declined to comment. A spokeswoman for the U.S. Attorney's Office in Manhattan also declined comment.\nCesar Sayoc's van is seen in Boca Raton, Florida, on Oct. 18, 2018 in this picture obtained from social media.Ed Kennedy / via Reuters\nProsecutors said his long list of targets also included: former Vice President Joe Biden; former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton; former Attorney General Eric Holder; one-time CIA Director John Brennan; Sens. Cory Booker, D-N.J., and Kamala Harris, D-Calif.; Rep. Maxine Waters, D-Calif.; activist Tom Steyer; and former Director of National Intelligence James Clapper.\nWhen he was arrested, Sayoc was living out of a white van plastered with stickers praising Trump and attacking the media.\nTom Winter is a New York-based correspondent covering crime, courts, terrorism and financial fraud on the East Coast for the NBC News Investigative Unit.\nRich Schapiro\nRich Schapiro is a reporter for the NBC News Investigative Unit."

"Bursting the PC Bubble: Government Officials Sent Mysterious Pipe Bombs\nby The Cowl Editor\nby Thomas Edwards '20\nFormer President Barack Obama, former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, Representative Maxine Waters, and former CIA Director and MSNBC contributor John Brennan are all among the list of names who were targets of pipe bombs last Wednesday and Thursday, October 24 and 25.\nThe pipe bombs were sent in the mail to prominent members of the Democratic party and news media. There was also a bomb bomb that was sent directly to CNN headquarters.\nCesar Sayoc was arrested on Friday, October 26 for a suspected connection to the bombs. It is believed that he created and delivered the bombs to critics of President Donald Trump.\nSayoc's van, where the bombs were believed to be created, was covered with pro-Trump memorabilia and memes attacking liberals.\nSayoc made his first appearance in court on Monday, October 29 in the Federal District Court for the Southern District of Florida, facing charges for five federal crimes connected to his alleged mailings of 14 pipe bombs. These crimes include: interstate transportation of an explosive, illegal mailing of explosives, threats against former presidents and other persons, threatening interstate communications, and assaulting current and formal federal officers.\nThe appearance was just an initial hearing to bring forth the charges being filed against Sayoc.\nThe defense lawyers asked Magistrate Edwin Torres, who presided over the hearing, if they could meet with Sayoc in a room with a table, instead of through a glass window as they had previously; Judge Torres agreed.\nThe defense stated they could not go forward with any other proceedings, and the hearing concluded with Judge Torres ordering both the defense and the prosecution back to court on Friday, November 2.\nOutside of the courthouse, when asked whether Sayoc should reveal how many bombs he put into the mail system, one of Sayoc's attorneys Daniel Aaronson, stated that his client \"is innocent until proven guilty,\" and that \"he remains innocent.\"\n\"Nobody has been able — in a court of law — to say that those were bombs that he sent. Therefore, there is no reason why he should speak or possibly have any information to impart,\" continued Aaronson.\nAaronson added on CNN's \"Erin Burnett OutFront\" that Sayoc will plead not guilty at this stage.\nIn response to the bombs sent out, President Trump tweeted on Oct. 29 that, \"There is great anger in our Country caused in part by inaccurate, and even fraudulent, reporting of the news. The Fake News Media, the true Enemy of the People, must stop the open & obvious hostility & report the news accurately & fairly. That will do much to put out the flame…\"\nFrom this tweet, it appears as though Trump is blaming the media for the bombs, despite CNN and MSNBC correspondents being among some of the intended targets.\nMonument Dedicated to Martin Luther King Jr. is Met With Contention\nKaitlyn Hladik '25\nResearch in Greenland Reveals Much About Warming Temperatures\nLiam Dunne '26\nBrazilian Politics Left Reeling After Attack on Capitol\nEileen Cooney '23"

"A man has been charged in connection with the mail-bombing incidents targeting prominent critics of President Donald Trump.\nSayoc, from Florida, is accused of sending more than a dozen pipe bombs through the mail to prominent Democrats including former President Barack Obama and Hillary and Bill Clinton, as well as the offices of CNN.\nHe has been charged with five federal offences, including the illegal mailing of explosives. The charges carry a maximum of 58 years in prison.\nAttorney General Jeff Sessions said the case showed that regardless of anyone's political beliefs, \"the full force of the law\" would be brought against anyone making such threats.\nMr Sessions said that more than a dozen suspicious packages had been sent through the US postal service to various targets.\n\"This is utterly unacceptable,\" he said. \"Political violence or the threat of violence is antithetical to our vigorous system of self government.\"\nHe added: \"Let this be a lesson to anyone, regardless of their political beliefs, that we will bring the full force of law against anyone who attempts to use threats, intimidation and outright violence to further an agenda. We will find you, we will prosecute you to the fullest extent of the law.\"\nFBI Director Christopher Wray said that the 13 devices intercepted were not hoax devices.\nHe said a fingerprint from one of the envelopes containing a device addressed to Congresswoman Maxine Waters matched that of Sayoc.\nThere was also a possible DNA connection between two of the suspicious packages and a sample previously taken from Sayoc, he said.\n\"Today's arrest doesn't mean we are all out of the woods,\" Mr Wray said. \"There may be other packages in transit now and other packages on the way so we need the help of everyone out there to help with this investigation in the days to come.\"\nDNA is thought to have played a role in Sayoc's arrest.\nMr Sayoc was arrested in a car park of an AutoZone auto parts store in Plantation, Florida, west of Fort Lauderdale.\nShortly afterwards, law enforcement officials were seen seizing a van parked in the car park thought to be connected to the suspect. The van was covered in a range of stickers including images of President Trump and American flags.\nThe arrest comes after more suspicious packages addressed to US senator Cory Booker and former director of national intelligence James Clapper - similar to others sent to high profile figures in the US - were intercepted on Friday.\nA series of 13 devices have been sent to prominent Democratic and media figures over the past week - all of whom are critics of president Donald Trump.\nThe package addressed to senator Booker was intercepted in Florida, while the one addressed to Mr Clapper was intercepted in New York City.\nSpeaking shortly after Sayoc's arrest, President Trump commended the \"incredible job\" carried out by law enforcement officials promised that the perpetrator will be prosecuted to \"fullest extent of the law\".\nHe said: \"These terrorising acts are despicable and have no place in our country.\n\"We must never allow political violence to take root in America and I am committed to do anything in my power as president to stop it and to stop it now.\n\"The bottom line is that America must unify and we must show the world that we are united together in peace and love and harmony as fellow American citizens.\n\"There is no country like our country and every day we are showing the world just how truly great we are.\"\nJohn Miller, NYPD Commissioner of Intelligence and Counterterrorism told reporters a pipe bomb \"consistent with other devices we've seen this week\" had been found and recovered Friday from a postal facility in New York.\nAccording to Miller, the device came inside a package that a postal worker immediately recognised before alerting police on scene.\nHe said the package was screened and isolated before it was placed inside a bomb truck and transported safely on the highway, he added.\nFormer presidents Barack Obama and Bill Clinton and former vice president Joe Biden were also sent packages, along with a host of other prominent figures including Hillary Clinton and actor Robert De Niro.\nAuthorities have warned there may be more.\nThe mail bomb campaign came less than two weeks ahead of US congressional elections that could alter the balance of power in Washington.\nMr Biden called for an end to the \"hatred\" and \"ugliness\" in US politics and said he hoped one positive that may come out of the attacks is that people will realise \"we have to begin to put this country back together again\".\nCongresswoman Debbie Wasserman Schultz of the US state of Florida who was also targetted, said that she and other critics of Trump would \"never be cowed into submission\".\nSpeaking at the university of Buffalo on Thursday night, Biden made the pointed remark that \"words matter\".\nFormer vice president Biden said: \"My hope is this recent spate of these, who knows exactly what they were, but these pipe bombs being mailed, might wake everybody in my business up a bit. And realise that we have to begin to put this country back together again. This division, this hatred, this ugliness, it has to end.\"\nEarlier, Mr Trump doubled down on his criticism of CNN - one of the targets of the bombs.\nIn a pre-dawn tweet the president said \"lowly rated CNN\" criticises him at will, \"even blaming me for the current spate of Bombs\"."

"DUP will not support May's Irish Sea border backstop plan - Arlene Foster The scope of any alignment with Brussels' rules would be limited to what is \"strictly necessary\" to avoid a hard border. May had earlier promised them that it never would. \"That is also equally important\", said Ms Bradley.\nThe registered Republican, who has a criminal history and reported past as a stripper, was subsequently flown to NY and appeared in a Manhattan court earlier this week, before the 30-count indictment was unveiled. Sayoc, 56, was arrested on 26 October on five charges carrying a potential sentence of almost 50 years.\nA federal court on Friday handed down a 30-count criminal indictment to Cesar Sayoc for threatening injuries to other people, all while violating federal law by mailing the pipe bombs through the U.S. Postal Service and other commercial delivery outlets.\nNone of the devices - some of which arrived at NY addresses - exploded.\nHe was charged by a grand jury in Manhattan on Friday following his October 26 arrest in Plantation, Florida.\nA lawyer for Sayoc had no comment. He had been living in a van covered with stickers of Trump and showing images of some Trump opponents with crosshairs over their faces. He is being held without bail. Prosecutors said they found searches on a cell phone seized from Sayoc for the home addresses of his alleged targets, as well as pictures of some the victims.\nOthers targeted by the mailings included former President Barack Obama, former Vice President Joe Biden, California Sen. A device sent to CNN's NY headquarters and addressed to former Central Intelligence Agency director John Brennan forced the evacuation of the Time Warner Center last month.\nSayoc now stands accused of mailing 16 explosive devices, despite law enforcement officials previously alleging that he sent 11 critics of the U.S. president a total of 13 different devices. A new hearing to arraign Sayoc on the indictment charges has yet to be set. Cory Booker. Packages were also mailed to CNN in NY and Atlanta.\nFriday's indictment accuses Sayoc of sending improvised explosive devices to five people in NY: former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, whom Trump defeated in the 2016 presidential election; billionaire investor and Democratic donor George Soros; former Central Intelligence Agency directors John Brennan and James Clapper; and actor Robert De Niro. At that time, he will enter a plea to the charges."

"crime Updated Oct. 26, 2018\nWhat to Know About the Man Arrested in Connection With the Mail Bombs\nBy Lisa Ryan@lisarya\nThe van reportedly owned by suspect Caesar Sayoc Jr. Photo: Uncredited/AP/REX/Shutterstock\nOn Friday, authorities announced that they had arrested a man in Plantation, Florida, in connection with the slew of bombs sent to prominent figures — including former secretary of State Hillary Clinton and former president Barack Obama — as well as to CNN's New York headquarters. NBC reports that the man in custody is Cesar Sayoc Jr., a 56-year-old Florida resident.\nNBC News reports that DNA evidence played a role in the arrest of Sayoc, and that his white van, which had pictures of President Donald Trump and the presidential seal on its window, has been seized. According to the New York Times, Sayoc is a registered Republican with an extensive criminal history — including one instance where he was arrested and accused of threatening to use a bomb. He was reportedly born in New York.\nA spokesperson for the Department of Justice tweeted on Friday morning that a suspect was in custody; on Friday afternoon, Attorney General Jeff Sessions said that Sayoc would be charged with five crimes, including illegally mailing explosives, the AP reports.\nHere's what we know so far.\nThe suspect is Cesar Sayoc, a registered Republican with an extensive criminal history.\nOn Friday, Cesar Sayoc Jr. was arrested in connection with the mail bombs sent to prominent politicians and CNN. He is a 56-year-old resident of Aventura, Florida, and is a registered Republican. Sayoc also has an extensive criminal record that dates back to 1991.\nPhoto of suspect Cesar Sayoc Jr. pic.twitter.com/dvjEApfhAL\n— Spectrum News NY1 (@NY1) October 26, 2018\nHe has been arrested in the past on drug and felony theft charges, as well as making a previous bomb threat, the Times reports. He was sentenced to one year of probation in 2004 over the bomb threat. He was last arrested in 2015. As has been the case with other terrorism suspects, a domestic-violence complaint was filed against Sayoc by a woman named Viola Altieri in 1994, though the Miami Herald reports that she later asked that the complaint be dismissed. Altieri appeared to be his grandmother, according to the Herald.\nThree years after bailing him out, Viola accused Sayoc of domestic violence in Broward County. pic.twitter.com/yogh8UZi3R\n— Trevor Aaronson (@trevoraaronson) October 26, 2018\nPer the Times, Sayoc filed for bankruptcy in 2012 in Miami. The Herald also notes that a two-bedroom home he owned in Fort Lauderdale went into foreclosure in 2009.\nHis social-media accounts reportedly posted pro-Trump news, anti-liberal memes, and conspiracy theories.\nFollowing Sayoc's address, several social-media accounts appearing to belong to him have come to light. According to HuffPost, one Twitter account created in 2016 — under the handle @hardrock2016 — that appears to belong to him has over 1,000 images, with many relating to baseless conspiracy theories. For instance, the account includes a post claiming Parkland, Florida, shooting survivor David Hogg was paid by George Soros, while others touted theories about Democratic congresswomen Maxine Waters and Debbie Wasserman Schultz, both of whom were targeted by the pipe bombs. BuzzFeed News notes that a Facebook account appearing to belong to Sayoc include pictures of him at pro-Trump events, wearing a MAGA hat, posting MAGA memes, and otherwise showing his support for Trump.\nA van believed to belong to the suspect was seized by authorities. It was covered in stickers, including ones with President Donald Trump's face.\nCNN, MSNBC, and other networks shared live video on Friday morning of the white van allegedly owned by the suspect, which was later covered by a blue tarp by authorities. The van had pro-Donald Trump and other right-wing stickers on it. A complaint filed by federal prosecutors stated, \"The windows of Sayoc's van were covered with images including images critical of CNN.\"\nA closer look at the stickers that are on the van at the scene in Plantation, Florida. pic.twitter.com/Qml9tmEKMy\n— MSNBC (@MSNBC) October 26, 2018\nDNA evidence reportedly contributed to Sayoc's arrest for sending the pipe bombs.\nThe Washington Post reports that authorities were able to trace the suspect from a fingerprint found on an envelope that contained a bomb mailed to Rep. Maxine Waters. Authorities also found DNA matching a sample taken during one of Sayoc's other previous arrests on two of the other bombs.\nSayoc was arrested outside of an AutoZone store in Plantation, Florida.\nAccording to CBS News, Sayoc's arrest took place near an AutoZone store. A witness told CBS News that, while across the street from the AutoZone, he heard a \"flash bang\" device, saw smoke, then saw a man on the ground surrounded by police officers. The Herald reports the arrest was made at the AutoZone instead of Sayoc's home to avoid a dangerous confrontation.\nThe arrest came after at least 12 pipe bombs were discovered over the past week.\nThe arrest follows the discovery of several bombs this week that were sent to high-profile politicians, public figures, and CNN. The first pipe bomb was discovered on Monday in the suburban New York mailbox of billionaire philanthropist and liberal donor George Soros; by early Wednesday, similar bombs were found in mail sent to Hillary Clinton and Barack Obama. Shortly after, a bomb addressed to former CIA director John Brennan was discovered in the mailroom of CNN in New York City.\nAdditional bombs were also discovered in mail sent to former vice-president Joe Biden, Congresswoman Maxine Waters, former attorney general Eric Holder (but the mail was rerouted to its return address, the office of congresswoman Debbie Wasserman Schultz), actor Robert De Niro, Senator Cory Booker, former director of national intelligence James R. Clapper (also addressed to CNN). Another suspicious package addressed to Senator Kamala Harris is also being investigated, per CNN.\nThe Washington Post reports that a complaint filed by federal prosecutors in the Southern District of New York shows that inside at least three packages sent to the targets, including Obama, Brennan, and Waters, were pictures of each individual with red \"X\" marks over their faces.\nAttorney General Jeff Sessions said Sayoc would be charged with five crimes.\nDuring a Friday afternoon press conference, Sessions announced that Sayoc would be charged with five federal crimes, and that he faces up to 58 years in prison. He was charged with illegally mailing explosives, transporting explosives across state lines, assaulting federal officials, threatening former presidents and others, and threatening interstate communications.\nThe Post notes that FBI director Christopher Wray referred to the 13 bombs recovered as \"IEDs,\" which is an acronym for improvised explosive devices. Wray also said during he press conference that the agency is trying to determine whether the devices \"were functional,\" but he stressed that they did contain materials that could potentially explode. \"These are not hoax devices.\"\nWhen asked why Sayoc was targeting Democrats, Sessions said during the press conference that Sayoc appeared to be \"partisan.\"\nREPORTER: Attorney General Sessions, can you tell us plainly why Sayoc was targeting Democrats?\nSESSIONS: \"I don't know. Other than what you might normally expect. He appears to be a partisan.\" pic.twitter.com/dKbKyTJZcv\n— Aaron Rupar (@atrupar) October 26, 2018\nThis post has been updated, and will continually be updated as more information becomes available.\nWhat We Know About the Bombs Sent to Clinton, Obama, CNN, Biden, and Others\nWhat to Know About Man Arrested in Connection With the Bombs\neuphoria 19 mins ago\nfashion 26 mins ago"

"Cesar Sayoc, a Florida man with long criminal record, identified as mail bomb suspect\nThe arrest comes after two more bombs were discovered Friday mornning.\nBy MICHAEL BALSAMO, ERIC TUCKER and COLLEEN LONGAssociated Press\nA van parked in Plantation, Fla., on Friday that federal agents and police officers examined and took away on a flatbed truck. WPLG-TV via Associated Press\nWASHINGTON —Federal authorities took a Florida man into custody Friday in connection with the mail-bomb scare that earlier widened to 12 suspicious packages sent to prominent Democrats from coast to coast. President Donald Trump promised the man would be prosecuted to the \"fullest extent of the law.\"\nThe man was identified by law enforcement officials as Cesar Sayoc, 56, of Aventura, Florida. He was arrested at an auto parts store in the nearby city of Plantation. Court records show Sayoc has a history of arrests for theft, illegal possession of steroids and a 2002 charge of making a bomb threat.\nCesar Sayoc Photo courtesy of Broward County Sheriff's Office via Associated Press\nPolice have intercepted suspicious packages addressed to actor Robert De Niro and former Vice President Joe Biden.\nMore suspicious packages found, these to Booker, Clapper\nInvestigators suspect explosives sent to Trump critics were mailed in Florida\nBomb maker likely left trove of evidence\nWave of pipe bombs targets Democrats, CNN in terror-by-mail\nIt was not immediately clear whether Sayoc had been formally charged in the current case.\nLaw enforcement officers were seen on television examining a white van, its windows covered with an assortment of stickers, in the city of Plantation in the Miami area. Authorities covered the vehicle with a blue tarp and took it away on the back of a flatbed truck.\nThe stickers included images of American flags and what appeared to be logos of the Republican National Committee and CNN, though the writing surrounding those images was unclear.\nPresident Donald Trump said he expected to speak about the investigation at a youth summit on Friday.\nThe development came amid a coast-to-coast manhunt for the person responsible for a series of explosive devices addressed to Democrats including former President Barack Obama, former Vice President Joe Biden and Hillary Clinton.\nLaw enforcement officials said they had intercepted a dozen packages in states across the country. None had exploded, and it wasn't immediately clear if they were intended to cause physical harm or simply sow fear and anxiety.\nEarlier Friday, authorities said suspicious packages addressed to New Jersey Sen. Cory Booker and former National Intelligence Director James Clapper — both similar to those containing pipe bombs sent to other prominent critics of President Donald Trump— had been intercepted.\nInvestigators believe the mailings were staggered. The U.S. Postal Service searched their facilities 48 hours ago and the most recent packages didn't turn up. Officials don't think they were sitting in the system without being spotted. They were working to determine for sure. The officials spoke to The Associated Press on condition of anonymity to discuss an ongoing investigation.\nThe FBI said the package to Booker was intercepted in Florida. The one discovered at a Manhattan postal facility was addressed to Clapper at CNN's address. An earlier package had been sent to former Obama CIA Director John Brennan via CNN in New York.\nAttorney General Jeff Sessions said Friday the Justice Department was dedicating every available resource to the investigation \"and I can tell you this: We will find the person or persons responsible. We will bring them to justice.\"\nTrump, on the other hand, complained that \"this 'bomb' stuff\" was taking attention away from the upcoming election and said critics were wrongly blaming him and his heated rhetoric.\nInvestigators were analyzing the innards of the crude devices to reveal whether they were intended to detonate or simply sow fear just before Election Day.\nLaw enforcement officials told The Associated Press that the devices, containing timers and batteries, were not rigged to explode upon opening. But they were uncertain whether the devices were poorly designed or never intended to cause physical harm.\nMost of those targeted were past or present U.S. officials, but one was sent to actor Robert De Niro and billionaire George Soros. The bombs have been sent across the country – from New York, Delaware and Washington, D.C., to Florida and California, where Rep. Maxine Waters was targeted. They bore the return address of Florida Rep. Debbie Wasserman Schultz, the former chairwoman of the Democratic National Committee.\nThe common thread among the bomb targets was obvious: their critical words for Trump and his frequent, harsher criticism in return.\nTrump claimed Friday he was being blamed for the mail bombs, complaining in a tweet sent before dawn: \"Funny how lowly rated CNN, and others, can criticize me at will, even blaming me for the current spate of Bombs and ridiculously comparing this to September 11th and the Oklahoma City bombing, yet when I criticize them they go wild and scream, 'it's just not Presidential!'\"\nThe package to Clapper was addressed to him at CNN's Midtown Manhattan address. Clapper, a frequent Trump critic, told CNN that he was not surprised he was targeted and that he considered the actions \"definitely domestic terrorism.\"\nJeff Zucker, the president of CNN Worldwide, said in a note to staff that all mail to CNN domestic offices was being screened at off-site facilities. He said there was no imminent danger to the Time Warner Center, where CNN's New York office is located.\nAt a press conference Thursday, officials in New York would not discuss possible motives or details on how the packages found their way into the postal system. Nor would they say why the packages hadn't detonated, but they stressed they were still treating them as \"live devices.\"\nThe devices were packaged in manila envelopes and carried U.S. postage stamps. They were being examined by technicians at the FBI's forensic lab in Quantico, Virginia.\nThe packages stoked nationwide tensions ahead of the Nov. 6 election to determine control of Congress — a campaign both major political parties have described in near-apocalyptic terms. Politicians from both parties used the threats to decry a toxic political climate and lay blame.\nTrump, in a tweet Thursday, blamed the \"Mainstream Media\" for the anger in society. Brennan responded, tweeting that Trump should \"Stop blaming others. Look in the mirror.\"\nThe bombs are about 6 inches (15 centimeters) long and packed with powder and broken glass, according to a law enforcement official who viewed X-ray images. The official said the devices were made from PVC pipe and covered with black tape.\nThe first bomb discovered was delivered Monday to the suburban New York compound of Soros, a major contributor to Democratic causes. Soros has called Trump's presidency \"dangerous.\"\nAssociated Press writers Laurie Kellman, Ken Thomas, Jill Colvin and Chad Day in Washington and Jim Mustian, Deepti Hajela, Tom Hays and Michael R. Sisak in New York contributed to this report.\nBrowse more in News"

"Stripper, bodybuilder, bigot: The life of bomb suspect Cesar Sayoc\nBy David Schutz , Dan Sweeney , Paula McMahon and Rafael Olmeda\n| South Florida Sun Sentinel |\nOct 26, 2018 | 9:00 PM\nA fingerprint and traces of DNA led the FBI to Cesar Altieri Sayoc Jr., the suspect in the bizarre bomb plot against opponents of President Trump. Sayoc was charged with five federal crimes, including mailing an incendiary device and threatening a former president and faces up to 58 years in prison.\nCesar Altieri Sayoc Jr. is so at ease with his bigotry and his extreme political views that even those who were put off by him were surprised to learn he could be accused of resorting to violence.\nHe was a DJ at a strip club in West Palm Beach, an exotic dancer and steroid-using bodybuilder with a long criminal history, a Donald Trump fan who plastered his politics on the van that doubled as his home for at least a year, possibly three or four.\n\"There is no doubt in my mind that he is mentally disturbed,\" Ronald Lowy, a Miami lawyer who has represented 56-year-old Sayoc in a handful of criminal cases, told the South Florida Sun Sentinel. \"He has a limited IQ, problems with basic comprehension, a history of drug abuse and steroid abuse — he acts like he's 14 instead of his age.\"\nCesar Altieri Sayoc, 56, of Aventura, was arrested in Plantation, Florida, on Friday in connection with a series of pipe bombs that were mailed to at least 12 critics of President Donald Trump\nFamily members tried to get help for him, Lowy said, but he rebuffed their efforts, yelling \"I hate you\" to his mother one of the last times he spoke to her in person.\nThat, Lowy said, was about three or four years ago.\nAs news spread of Sayoc's arrest Friday, interviews with people who know him revealed him as someone able to express contempt for blacks, Hispanics, Jews and gays even while working at jobs that put him in touch with the public. And he did it without drawing a complaint.\n\"Did he spew hateful things? Yes,\" said Debra Gureghian, Sayoc's manager last year at New River Pizza in Fort Lauderdale. \"Was he a reliable, dependable driver? Yes. I wasn't about to fire him because of his political views.\"\nGureghian said Sayoc was almost apologetic in expressing his views to her because she is a lesbian. \"I like you as a manager, but if I could, I would eradicate you,\" he told her.\nStill, Gureghian kept him on the job. \"There were no customer complaints and he wasn't taking money from us. People are entitled to their private political views — he did his job.\"\nSayoc quit in January after eight months, Gureghian said. He told her he had a job lined up as a trucker in North Carolina.\nA cousin of Sayoc's, Lenny Altieri, confirmed to the Associated Press that Sayoc had been a stripper.\n\"I know the guy is a lunatic,\" Altieri said. \"He has been a loner.\"\nOn an online resume, Sayoc described himself as a booker and promoter for burlesque shows. His LinkedIn social media profile says he attended Brevard College in North Carolina in the early 1980s. He also expressed pride that his grandfather, Baltazar Zook Sayoc, was a surgeon from the Philippines who \"perfect[ed] the conversion oriental eye to Americanize.\"\nWhile Sayoc's social media postings indicate he is a member of the Seminole Tribe, that could not be confirmed Friday. \"We can find no evidence that Cesar Altieri, Caesar Altieri, Caesar Altieri Sayoc, Ceasar Altieri Randazzo (Facebook) or Julus Cesar Milan (Twitter) is or was a member or employee of the Seminole Tribe of Florida,\" said tribe spokesman Gary Bitner.\nLowy said in an interview on CNN that Sayoc's mother's heritage is Italian and his father was from the Philippines.\nSayoc's mother was having surgery Friday and woke to learn the accusations against her son, Lowy said on CNN.\nHayley Sloman, a Miami psychologist who attended school with Sayoc in North Miami Beach, said her former classmates were sharing yearbook photos of him on social media Friday when they realized he had been arrested on suspicion of sending out the potentially explosive devices.\nSloman said she remembered Sayoc but did not know him well. She remembered that he was on the soccer team. Sayoc graduated from North Miami Beach High School in 1980 and previously attended Sabal Palm Elementary and John F. Kennedy Junior High, all in North Miami Beach, she said.\nIt's hard to tell when Sayoc's politics turned extreme. He registered to vote as a Republican in Aventura in 2016.\nBut Daniel Aaronson, a Fort Lauderdale attorney who represented Sayoc in a 2014 misdemeanor case in which he was accused of stealing \"various copper piping items\" in Hollywood, said the man he knew then was apolitical.\n\"He was the most respectful client that I think I've ever had. I didn't think he had a political bone in his body,\" Aaronson said. \"I am floored. … There are 330 million people in the U.S., I would have put him in the bottom two to three million of people I would suspect of doing this.\"\nHis van and his social media accounts tell a different story.\nA Twitter account believed to be his promotes the false claim that survivors of the Marjory Stoneman Douglas shooting were actors, and wishes for the deaths of George Clooney and Andrea Mitchell.\nThe van impounded at the site of Sayoc's arrest in Plantation was littered with pro-Trump stickers and pictures of prominent Democrats such as Elizabeth Warren and Hillary Clinton with cross-hairs over their faces.\nHis Facebook page, though now switched to private, previously showed him attending President Donald Trump's inauguration.\nSayoc's criminal history is lengthy, but only hints that he is capable of the kind of criminal act that would make national headlines.\nAccording to the Florida Department of Law Enforcement, Sayoc's first arrest came in 1991, when he was arrested by the Broward Sheriff's Office and charged with grand theft, a third-degree felony.\nIn 1994, his grandmother, Viola Altieri, filed a domestic violence allegation against Sayoc, whose middle name is listed as Altieri in the Broward County courts system.\nAltieri, who died in 2006, lived in Hollywood, Aventura and North Miami Beach, according to public records. Details of the allegations were not available Friday. Altieri would have been about 80 at the time of the complaint.\nSayoc's later arrests included several other theft-related charges, but also a 2002 charge for making a bomb threat.\nAccording to an arrest report from the Miami Police Department, Sayoc called a representative from Florida Power and Light and \"threatened to blow up FPL and that 'it would be worse than September 11.'\"\nLatest Nation World\nManhattan power restored after outage darkens Broadway, Times Square for hours\nFirst, they lost their children. Then the conspiracy theories started. Now, the parents of Newtown are fighting back.\nNewtown massacre divided NRA leaders, foreshadowing split to come\nHis most recent arrest, according to FDLE, came in August 2015, when he was charged for a probation violation.\nAs recently as Thursday, Sayoc was working at Ultra Gentleman's Club in West Palm Beach as a DJ and a doorman, according to WPEC-CBS12.\nHe parked far from the club, the club's manager told the news station. Co-workers were unaware of the political stickers on his van.\nStaff writers Stephen Hobbs and Anne Geggis contributed to this report.\nCesar Altieri Sayoc\nMost Read • Nation World\nMan screaming 'You die!' kills at least 23 at Japanese anime studio\nTrump moves to end asylum protections for Central Americans\nDid 'Tupac Fridays' and 'Thug Life' cookies cost a top Iowa state official his job?"

"Cesar Sayoc, who mailed explosive devices to Trump's critics, sentenced to 20 years in prison\nBy Philip Bump and Devlin Barrett\nNEW YORK – Cesar Sayoc, a fanatical supporter of President Donald Trump who last year mailed explosive devices to prominent Democrats and media figures, was sentenced Monday to 20 years in prison after a judge concluded that Sayoc hated his victims but had not meant to kill them.\nProsecutors had sought a life sentence for the 57-year-old former pizza delivery man and strip club worker whose \"campaign of terror,\" they said, coincided with the run up to the 2018 midterm elections. In all, he mailed 16 inoperative pipe bombs targeting, among others, former president Barack Obama, former secretary of state Hillary Clinton and the New York offices of CNN, acting out his paranoid delusions and intense adoration for Trump.\n\"I am beyond so very sorry for what I did,\" Sayoc told U.S. District Judge Jed Rakoff. \"Now that I am a sober man, I know that I was a sick man. I should have listened to my mother, the love of my life.\"\nProsecutors and defense lawyers spent much of Monday's hearing wrangling over how dangerous the packages truly were to those who handled them.\n\"What counts is what he did, and what he intended at the time that he did it,\" Rakoff said, calling Sayoc's actions \"by any measure horrendous.\"\nThe judge concluded that Sayoc, \"though no firearms expert, was fully capable\" of building a functioning bomb if he had wanted to do so. \"He hated his victims,\" the judge added, \"but did not wish them dead, at least not by his own hand.\"\nSayoc's defense lawyer Ian Marcus Amelkin pushed for a 10-year sentence, saying he was using large quantities of steroids when he became obsessed in his support for Trump, consuming conspiracy theories from Fox News and elsewhere that fed his rising paranoia.\n\"It is impossible to separate the political climate and his mental illness when it comes to the slow boil,\" Marcus said.\nMarcus said that Trump's rhetoric in office contributed to Sayoc's beliefs, noting that the prosecution – working for Trump's Department of Justice – failed to make mention of the president in its prosecuting documents.\nProsecutors downplayed Trump's rhetoric as a cause.\n\"He's offered a whole slew of excuses blaming politicians, politics and the news media\" for his actions, said Assistant U.S. Attorney Jane Kim. She said Sayoc's goal was to \"deter and chill political activity.\"\nRakoff broadly agreed with Kim's assessment, saying that he \"wasn't particularly impressed\" by the defense team's claims about the influence of Trump or others, calling that a \"sideshow.\"\nRakoff said Sayoc's mental state provided a stark example of \"how dysfunctional life, even in our great society, can sometimes be.\"\nSayoc's sentencing comes just two days after the massacre of nearly two dozen people inside a Walmart in El Paso, Texas, a horrific act of violence allegedly undertaken out of anger toward immigrants. Several Democrats seeking to challenge Trump in the 2020 election have connected the president's rhetoric to Saturday's bloodshed.\nThe Sayoc case began weeks before the 2018 congressional elections. The suspicious packages prompted a nationwide manhunt, a trail of evidence pointing investigators to the Fort Lauderdale, Florida, area and, eventually, to Sayoc, who lived out of a white van plastered with pro-Trump images. He worked as a DJ or bouncer at strip clubs, and was once charged with threatening the local power company.\nAfter his arrest, Sayoc pleaded guilty in March to 65 counts. Officials said he targeted current and former government officials across the country. In addition to Clinton and Obama, he sent devices to former vice president Joe Biden, Sen. Cory Booker, D-N.J., former CIA director John Brennan, former director of national intelligence James Clapper, actor Robert De Niro, Sen. Kamala Harris, D-Calif., former attorney general Eric Holder, billionaires George Soros and Thomas Steyer, and Rep. Maxine Waters, D-Calif.\nAt Sayoc's guilty plea, he insisted the devices were \"intended to look like pipe bombs,\" but that he did not mean for them to detonate. Pressed by the judge to explain further, Sayoc added, \"I was aware of the risk that they would explode.\"\nFederal officials called the wave of potential explosive devices a \"domestic terror attack\" and accused Sayoc of endangering numerous lives. Prosecutors said Sayoc began searching for the homes of some people targeted as early as last July 2018 and continued into the fall.\nThe first package was found Oct. 22, and the investigation and anxiety grew as more devices were identified in the days that followed. CNN's New York offices were evacuated when a package addressed to Brennan was found in the mail room, a situation that played out on live television. Other packages were soon found in Florida, Delaware and California.\nWithin days, authorities closed in on Sayoc outside an auto supply store in Plantation, Florida, after finding what Christopher Wray, the FBI director, said was a fingerprint on one of the envelopes containing a device. Wray also said there were potential DNA matches connecting Sayoc to some of the devices.\nWhile none of the devices detonated, Wray said they were \"not hoax devices.\" Authorities have described them as \"improvised explosive devices,\" and they said that each of the 16 devices was placed in a padded envelope and filled with explosive material and glass shards meant to function as shrapnel. Outside of each was a photograph of the intended victim with a red \"X\" marking, officials said.\nbombs-sayoc-1stld-writethru\nCitywide strike erupts into night of chaos in Hong Kong\nNorth Korea fires presumed ballistic missiles as talks stall"

"Package bomb suspect Cesar Sayoc appears at Election Day court hearing\nNovember 6, 2018 / 1:59 PM / CBS/AP\nMail bombing suspect\nNEW YORK — The man accused of sending pipe bombs to prominent critics of President Trump was ordered held without bail after his first court appearance in New York on Tuesday. Sayoc faces nearly 50 years in prison if convicted on five federal charges that were filed in New York because some of the devices were recovered there.\nCesar Sayoc, who was transferred from federal custody in Florida, hugged his lawyer after a hearing in which Assistant U.S. Attorney Jane Kim called him \"a serious risk of danger to the public and a flight risk.\"\nSayoc has been accused of sending improvised explosive devices to numerous Democrats, Trump critics and media outlets in a scare that heightened tensions before the crucial midterm elections Tuesday. None of the devices exploded, and no one was injured in the pipe bomb scare.\nHe was arrested outside a South Florida auto parts store. He was living in a van covered with stickers of Mr. Trump and showing images of some of the president's opponents with red crosshairs over their faces.\nAssistant Federal Defender Sarah Baumgartel declined to comment after the hearing, in which Sayoc presented himself as polite and soft-spoken and responded \"Yes, sir\" to questions from the judge.\nAnother suspicious package addressed to CNN found in Atlanta\nHis lawyers decided not to seek his release on bail after prosecutors released a letter outlining more evidence against him, including DNA linking him to 10 of the explosive devices and fingerprints on two of them. Sayoc had a list of more than 100 others he planned to target in his van during the arrest, a law enforcement official told CBS News. The list included mostly politicians and media figures.\nOther evidence includes online searches Sayoc did on his laptop and cellphone for addresses and photos of some of his intended targets, which included former President Barack Obama, former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, former Vice President Joe Biden, California Sen. Kamala Harris and New Jersey Sen. Cory Booker. Packages were also mailed to CNN in New York and Atlanta.\nProsecutors said the most recent crude bomb was recovered Friday in California, addressed to the liberal activist Tom Steyer.\nFirst published on November 6, 2018 / 1:59 PM"

"Pomponne II De Belliévre\nWe do our best to use images that are open source. If you feel we have used an image of yours inappropriately please let us know and we will fix it.\nOur writing can be punchy but we do our level best to ensure the material is accurate. If you believe we have made a mistake, please let us know.\nIf you are planning to see an artwork, please keep in mind that while the art we cover is held in permanent collections, pieces are sometimes removed from display for renovation or traveling exhibitions.\nPhoto: Paul Macapia\nArty Fact\nThis portrait was van Dyck's last, he died shortly after at the age of 42.\nPompone was tasked to help manage the relations between Charles I of England and the Long Parliament in the wars against the Scots. Failure of it led to the English Civil Wars.\nPompone de Bellievere was a born political mediator: his father and grandfathers had held high positions as magistrates.\nMore about Pomponne II De Belliévre\nOil paint, Canvas\nH: 54 x W: 43 1/2 in.\nPurchased with a major grant from an anonymous donor; additional funds provided by Louise Raymond Owens; Norman and Amelia Davis; Oliver T. and Carol Erickson; Seattle Art Museum Guild; Pauline Ederer Bolster and Arthur F. Ederer in memory of their sister\nMichael Nicer\nPomponne de Bellievre was born to be a political mediator.\nHis grandfathers, the former Pomponne and Nicolas Brulart de Sillery, were both Chancellors of France. His father, also named Nicolas, was the head judge of one of the thirty-seven districts of the Ancient Regime. As chancellor, he was secretary-minister under Henry III and facilitated Henry IV's rule over the courts of France before the latter monarch took most of the political power for himself. Pomponne served as ambassador to Italy, Holland, and England, and during the last years of his term, served as President of Parliament. Pomponne was also one of the chief financiers of the General Hospital of Paris, eventually dying under its roof and on its beds in 1657. One of the illustrious ambassador's most daunting tasks was to mediate relations between the Long Parliament and the English king, Charles I.\nEstablished in 1640, the Long Parliament was one of two courts tasked to help the king raise funds for his war against the Scots. It was easier said than done: the Long Parliament was extremely resistant to the king's demands and effectively destabilized a significant portion of his power. The Parliament swept away the king's advisors, made their frequent sessions mandatory, and made law that the assembly could not be dissolved without their own members' consent. In response, Charles sought to arrest five of its members, directly leading to the English Civil Wars. Following Charles's defeat in 1646, power passed on to the army.\nBut wait, there's more! Under orders from the generals in response to the Parliament's refusal to support the newly established military powers, Col. Thomas Pride forcibly removed most of the four hundred and sixty-six members of the Commons in December of 1648 in what is now known as \"Pride's Purge.\" No one got murdered, if that's what you're thinking. The remainder who refused to comply, \"The Rump,\" eventually put Charles I to trial and had him executed a month later. Happy endings for everyone.\nThis painting was made under van Dyck's decade-long employment with Charles, and is more minimal and austere than his previous works. It was also his last portrait: shortly after, he died at the age of forty-two.\nPittou, Etienne. Famille de Brûlart & Sillery, Genlis, etc. Racine et Historie, 2004. Accessed November 22, 2019. http://racineshistoire.free.fr/LGN/PDF/Brulart-de-Sillery.pdf.\n\"Pomponne II De Bellièvre.\" Pomponne II de Bellièvre – Works – eMuseum. Accessed November 22, 2019. http://art.seattleartmuseum.org/objects/1992/pomponne-ii-de-bellievre?ct... .\nRitter, Raymond, and Victor-Lucien Tapié. \"The Achievements of the Reign.\" Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., May 10, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-IV-king-of-France/The-achieve....\nThe Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. \"Long Parliament.\" Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., June 23, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Long-Parliament.\n\"THE BEST PORTRAITS IN ENGRAVING.\" The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Best Portraits in Engraving, by Charles Sumner. Accessed November 22, 2019. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/22574/22574-h/22574-h.htm.\nDislike 0 0 Like"

"Authors :-Aayush Mittal, Akshana Dayal, Ankit Patel.\nDTMF based motor control is a method which uses Dual Tone Multi Frequency(DTMF) technology to control a dc motor by using a mobile phone. A call is made to the mobile phone connected to the dc motor and during the course of the call, whatever key is pressed on the mobile phone is heard at the other end. This tone is perceived by the Arduino and decoded using a DTMF decoder. The Arduino then directs the IC to drive the motor which causes the motor to move. The motor is operated at different speeds.\nKeywords:- Dual Tone Multi Frequency (DTMF), Integrated Circuits (IC), Arduino."

"In this project we are going to control a manual robot through our cellphone using DTMF module and Arduino.\nIn this project two cell phones, one for calling and one for receiving the call are used. The phone receiving the call is connected to the robot via audio jack.\nThe person who is calling can control the robot just by pressing the dial pad keys. (i.e. the robot can be operated from any corner of the world).\nA manual robot consists of chassis (body) in which three or four motors (which are screwed with tyres) can be attached depending on requirement.\nMotors to be used depend on our requirement i.e. they can either provide high speed or high torque or a good combination of both. Applications like quad copter requires very high speed motors to lift against gravity while application like moving a mechanical arm or climbing a steep slope requires high torque motors.\nBoth motors on left and right side of robot are connected in parallel separately. Usually they are connected to a 12volt battery via DPDT(double pin double throw) switches.\nBut in this project we will use mobile phone instead of DPDTs to control the bot.\nArduino gives maximum current of 40mA using GPIO (general purpose input output) pins, while it gives 200mA using Vcc and ground.\nMotors require large current to operate. We can't use arduino directly to power our motors so we use a motor driver.\nMotor driver contains H Bridge (which is a combination of transistors). The IC (L298) of motor driver is driven by 5v which is supplied by arduino.\nTo power the motors, it takes 12v input from arduino which is ultimately supplied by a 12 v battery. So the arduino just takes power from battery and gives to the motor driver.\nIt allows us to control the speed and direction of motors by giving maximum current of 2 amperes.\nDTMF stands for Dual tone multi frequency. Our dial pad is a two toner multiple frequency i.e. one button gives a mixture of two tones having different frequency.\nOne tone is generated from a high frequency group of tones while other from a low frequency group. It is done so that any type of voice can't imitate the tones.\nThe binary decoded sequence of the dial pad's digits is shown in the table below.\nPin 'A' and 'B' controls left side motor while Pin 'C' and 'D' controls right side of motor. These four pins are connected to the four motors.\nPin 'E' is to power IC(L298) which is taken from arduino (5v).\nPin 'G' takes 12 volt power from battery via Vin pin of arduino.\nPins 'H', 'I', 'J' and 'K' receives logic from arduino.\npin 'a' is connected to 3.5 volt of arduino to power the IC (SC9270D).\nPin 'b' is connected to ground.\nThe input of DTMF is taken from phone via jack.\nThe output in the form of binary data via (D0 – D3) pins goes to arduino.\nthe output of DTMF from (D0 – D3) pins comes to digital pins of arduino. We can connect this output to any of the four digital pins varying from (2 – 13) in arduino. Here we used pins 8, 9, 10 and 11.\nDigital pins 2 and 3 of arduino are connected to pin number 'H' and 'I' of motor driver while pins 12 and 13 of arduino are connected to 'J' and 'K'.\nThe arduino is connected to a 12 volt battery.\nvoid reading()// take readings from input pins that are connected to DTMF D0, D1, D2 and D3 PINS.\nFirst of all, we initialise all variables before void setup.\nIn void setup, all pins to be used are assigned as input or output according to their purpose.\nA new function \"void decoding()\" is made. In this function all the binary input that we get from DTMF is decoded to decimal by arduino. And variable assigned for this decimal value is a.\nAnother function \"void printing()\" is made. This function is used to print input values from DTMF pins.\nNow these functions are used in void loop function to do their task whenever they are called according to input from dialpad of cellphone.\nAfter making a call to the phone connected to the robot, the person opens his dial pad.\nIf '2' is pressed. The DTMF receives the input, decodes it in its binary equivalent number i.e. '0010' and sends it to digital pins of arduino. The arduino then sends this code to the motor driver as we have programmed when the code will be '0010', the motors will rotate in clockwise direction and hence our robot will move forward.\nIf '4' is pressed then its equivalent code is '0100' and according to the programming the left side motors will stop and only right side motors will rotate clockwise and hence our robot will turn left.\nIf '6' is pressed then the right side motor will stop and only left side motors will rotate clockwise and hence our robot will turn right.\nIf '8' is pressed then our motors will rotate in anticlockwise direction and thus our robot will move backward.\nIf '0' is pressed then all our motors will stop and robot will not move.\nIn this project we have assigned a function to five dial pad numbers only. We can add any type of other mechanism and assign a dial pad number to that mechanism to make an upgraded version of this project.\n1 – The jack should not be loose.\n2 – Phone keypad tones should be maximum.\n3 – Internet/ Wi-Fi of receiving phone should be closed to avoid interference effects.\n4 – Left pin (i.e. pin 'b') of DTMF is ground and right pin (i.e. pin 'a') is connected to 3.3v.\nDoes this comes under IOT?\nwhat's gonna be the total cost of this project?"

"French Wars of Religion\n\"French Civil War\" redirects here. For other French civil wars, see Fronde and French Revolution.\nPart of European wars of religion\nDepiction of the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre by François Dubois\nMarch 1562 – April 1598 (36 years and 1 month)\nUneasy Catholic-Protestant truce\nEdict of Nantes grants substantial rights to Protestants in restricted areas\nParis and several other territories declared permamently Roman Catholic\nCatholic-Protestant hostility continues\nWeakened authority of the French monarchy\nForeign powers fail to weaken France and gain territories\nProtestants:\nScotland Kingdom of Navarre Politiques Catholics:\nDuchy of Savoy\nPrinces of Condé\nJames VI Jeanne d'Albret Catherine de Médici\nCharles IX\nHenry III †\nHenry IV House of Guise\nPope Sixtus V\nCharles Emmanuel I\n2,000,000—4,000,000\nMérindol (1545)\nAmboise (1560)\n1st–7th wars\nEdict of Saint-Germain\nVassy\nVergt\nEdict of Amboise\nLa Roche-l'Abeille\nSt. Bartholomew\nEdict of Beaulieu\nTreaty of Bergerac\nTreaty of Fleix\nWar of the Three Henrys\nTreaty of Nemours\nVimory\nDay of the Barricades\nFort Crozon\nEdict of Nantes\nFranco-Spanish War (1595–98)\nFontaine-Française\nArdres\nHuguenot rebellions\nSaint-Foix\nTreaty of Montpellier\nBlavet\nRé island\nTreaty of Paris\nPeace of Alès\nRevocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685)\nThe French Wars of Religion, or Huguenot Wars of the mid-16th century, are names for a period of civil infighting, military operations and religious war primarily fought between Roman Catholics and Huguenots (Reformed Protestantism, a.k.a. Calvinist Protestants) in the Kingdom of France. It involved several pre-modern day principalities around the borders of today's France, like the Kingdom of Navarre and parts of Burgundy, and occasionally spilled beyond the French region, for instance, in the war with Spain, from 1595-1598, into northern Italy, some of the German states of the Holy Roman Empire and the Duchy of Burgundy possessions in the Low Countries.\nApproximately 3,000,000 people perished as a result of violence, famine and disease in what is accounted as the second deadliest European religious war (behind the Thirty Years' War, which took 8,000,000 lives in present-day Germany).[1] Unlike all other religious wars at the time, the French wars retained their religious character without being confounded by dynastic considerations.\nThe conflict involved disputes between the aristocratic houses of France, mainly the Reformed House of Condé (a branch of the House of Bourbon) and the Roman Catholic House of Guise (a branch of the House of Lorraine), and both sides received assistance from foreign sources.\nProtestant England and Scotland supported the Protestant side led by the Condés, while Hapsburg Spain and the Duchy of Savoy supported the Roman Catholic side concentrated around the Guises.\nPolitiques, consisting of the French kings and their advisers, tried to balance the situation and avoid an open bloodshed between the two religious groups, generally introducing gradual concessions to Huguenots. Catherine de' Medici initially held that stance until she manipulated one of her sons (both kings) to side with Roman Catholics by sparking the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, a wave of violence in which Catholic mob killed tens of thousands Protestants throughout the entire kingdom.\nAt the conclusion of the conflict in 1598, Huguenots were granted substantial rights and freedoms by the Edict of Nantes, though it did not end hostility towards them. The wars weakened the authority of the monarchy, already fragile under the rule of Francis II and then Charles IX, though it later reaffirmed its role under Henry IV.\nApart from previously mentioned names, the wars have been variously described as the Eight Wars of Religion, or simply the Wars of Religion (only inside France).\nThe exact number of wars and their respective dates are the subject of continued debate by historians; some assert that the Edict of Nantes in 1598 concluded the wars, although a resurgence of rebellious activity following this leads some to believe the Peace of Alais in 1629 is the actual conclusion. However, the Massacre of Vassy in 1562 is agreed to begin the French Wars of Religion and the Edict of Nantes at least ended this series of conflicts. During this time, complex diplomatic negotiations and agreements of peace were followed by renewed conflict and power struggles.\nIntroduction of Reformation ideas\nThe Renaissance in France\nAreas controlled by Huguenots dark purple, contested areas light purple, Lutheran areas blue\nReligion in France, 1560[2]\nRoman Catholicism (90%)\nReformed (10%)\nHumanism, until the late 1520s, served as a breeding ground for the French Protestant Reformation. The spirit of the Renaissance interested Francis I. He encouraged the study of the classics by establishing royal professorships in Paris, equipping more people with the knowledge necessary to understand the classics. Francis I had no qualms with the established religious order, and did not support reformation. Through the Concordat of Bologna, Pope Leo X increased the power of the king over the church; nomination of clergy depended upon the king's choice and taxes were levied upon the church. In France, unlike in Germany, the nobles supported the policies and the status quo of their time.[3]\nThe establishment of the royal college and the spread of the printing press served the purposes of the Reformation. The printing press made mass production of books inexpensive and fueled the spread of knowledge in all disciplines.[4] Interest in the classics soared and literature was made available to a wider audience. The accessibility coupled with romanticism for the \"knowledge from the past\" that built empires and civilizations brought about the value for understanding literary works from the original. Precise language and eloquence were valued among scholars and true understanding of the classics meant studying them from the originals. This inevitably led to the reading, study and translation of the early church fathers and the New Testament from their original without relying on commentaries from the medieval period [5]\nThe printing press also facilitated the spread of information across borders. Theological and religious thoughts were disseminated at an unprecedented pace. Ideas about the Reformation were widespread in France by 1519. John Froben, a humanist printer, published a collection of Luther's works. In one correspondence, he reported that 600 copies of such works were being shipped to France and Spain and were sold in Paris.[6]\nThe humanist perspective on understanding Scriptures had theological and ecclesiastical implications. Studying Scriptures in the original flourished in the Renaissance period. Scholars, who approached theology from this humanist perspective, argued that exegesis of Scripture must be coupled with understanding the Greek language used in writing the New Testament and later the Hebrew language for the Old Testament. This contrasted the heavy reliance of the medieval church on the Vulgate - the Latin translation of the Bible.[7]\nThe Meaux Circle was formed by a group of humanists including Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples and Guillaume Briçonnet, bishop of Meaux, in the effort to reform preaching and religious life. The Meaux circle was joined by Vatable, a Hebraist[8] and Guillaume Budé the classicist and librarian to the king.[9] Lefèvre's works such as the Fivefold Psalter and his commentary on the Epistle to the Romans were humanist in its approach. They put emphasis on the literal interpretation of Scripture and highlighted Christ. Lefèvre's approach to the Scriptures influenced Luther's methodology on biblical interpretation.[6] Luther would later use his works in developing his lectures[10] that contained ideas that would spark the greater part of the Reformation known as Lutheranism. William Farel also became part of the Meaux circle. He was the leading minister of Geneva who invited Calvin to serve there.[11] They were later exiled out of Geneva because they opposed governmental intrusion upon church administration. But their eventual return to Switzerland was followed by major developments in the Reformation that would later grow into Calvinism. Marguerite of Navarre, the sister of King Francis I, also became part of the circle.\nCorruption of the Established Religious System\nCorruption among the clergy showed the need for reform and Lutheran ideas made impressions of such hope.[12] Criticisms from the population played a part in spreading anticlerical sentiments, such as the publication Heptameron by Marguerite, a collection of stories that depicted immorality among the clergy.[13] Furthermore, the reduction of salvation to a business scheme based on good- works- for- sale system added to the injury. Under these circumstances salvation by grace through faith in Jesus was a pleasant alternative. Works such as Farel's translation of the Lord's Prayer, The True and Perfect Prayer with Lutheran ideas became popular among the masses. It focused on the biblical basis of faith as a free gift of God, salvation by faith alone and importance of understanding in prayer. It also contained criticisms against the clergy of their neglect that hampered growth of true faith.[13]\nGrowth of Calvinism\nMain article: Huguenot\nAfter an initial period of tolerance, Francis I started the repression against Protestants.\nProtestant ideas were first introduced to France during the reign of Francis I (1515–47) in the form of Lutheranism, the teachings of Martin Luther, and circulated unimpeded for more than a year around Paris. Although Francis firmly opposed heresy, the difficulty was initially in recognising what constituted it; Catholic doctrine and definition of orthodox belief was unclear.[14] Francis I tried to steer a middle course in the developing religious schism in France.[15] Despite this, in January 1535, Catholic authorities decided that those classified as \"Lutherans\" were actually Zwinglians, followers of Huldrych Zwingli.[16]\nThe lower orders of society was where Protestantism made its impact in France.[17] However, Calvinism, a form of Protestant religion, was introduced by John Calvin, who was born in Noyon, Picardy in 1509,[18] and had fled France in 1536 after the Affair of the Placards. Calvinism in particular, appears to have developed with large support from the nobility. It is believed to have started with Louis Bourbon, Prince of Condé, who while returning home to France from a military campaign, passed through Geneva, Switzerland and heard a sermon by a Calvinist preacher.[19] Later, Louis Bourbon would become a major figure among the Huguenots of France. In 1560, Jeanne d'Albret, Queen regnant of Navarre, converted to Calvinism possibly due to the influence of Theodore de Beze.[19] She later married Antoine de Bourbon, and both she and their son Henry of Navarre would be leaders among the Huguenots.[20]\nAffair of the Placards\nFrancis I continued his policy of seeking a middle course in the religious rift in France until an incident called the Affair of the Placards.[15] The Affair of the Placards began in 1534 started with protesters putting up anti-Catholic posters. The posters were not Lutheran but were Zwinglian or \"Sacramentarian\" in the extreme nature of the anti-Catholic content—specifically, the absolute rejection of the Catholic doctrine of \"Real Presence.\"[15] Protestantism became identified as \"a religion of rebels\", helping the Catholic Church to more easily define Protestantism as heresy. In the wake of the posters, the French monarchy took a harder stand against the protesters.[16][21] Francis I had been severely criticized for his initial tolerance towards Protestants, but now was encouraged to repress them.[22] At the same time, Francis I was working on a policy of alliance with the Ottoman Empire.[23] The ambassadors in the 1534 Ottoman embassy to France accompanied Francis I to Paris. They attended the execution by burning at the stake of those caught for the Affair of the Placards, on 21 January 1535, in front of the Cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris.[22]\nJohn Calvin, a Frenchman, escaped from the persecution to Basle, Switzerland, where he published the Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1536.[15] In the same year, he visited Geneva, but was forced out for trying to reform the church. When he returned by invitation in 1541, he wrote the Ecclesiastical ordinances, the constitution for a Genevan church, which was passed by the council of Geneva.\nMassacre of Mérindol\nMassacre of Mérindol in 1545 as imagined by Gustave Doré (1832–1883).\nExecution of Anne du Bourg in 1559.\nThe Massacre of Mérindol took place in 1545. Francis I ordered the punishment of the Waldensians of the city of Mérindol—who recently affiliated with the Reformed tradition of Protestantism—for dissident religious activities. Historians estimate that Provençal troops killed hundreds to thousands of residents there, and in the 22-28 nearby villages they destroyed. They captured hundreds of men and sent them to labor in the French galleys.[24]\nKing Francis I died on March 31, 1547 and was succeeded to the throne by his son Henry II. Henry II continued the harsh religious policy that his father had followed during the last years of his reign. Indeed, Henry II was even more severe against the Protestants than Francis I had been. Henry II sincerely believed that the Protestants were heretics. On June 27, 1551, Henry II issued the Edict of Châteaubriant which sharply curtailed Protestant rights to worship assemble or even to discuss religion at work, in the fields or over a meal.\nIn the 1550s, the establishment of the Geneva church provided leadership to the disorganised French Calvinist (Huguenot) church.[25] The 1540s had seen an intensification in the French fight against heresy, which meant Protestants gathered secretly to worship.[26] But by the middle of the century, the adherents to Protestantism in France had increased markedly in number and power, as the nobility in particular converted to Calvinism. Historians estimate that in the 1560s, more than half of the nobility were Calvinist (or Huguenot), and 1,200–1,250 Calvinist churches had been established, by 1562 with the outbreak of war, there were 2 million Calvinists. The conversion of the nobility constituted a substantial threat to the monarchy.[27] Calvinism proved attractive to people from across the social hierarchy and occupational divides; it was highly regionalized, with no coherent pattern of geographical spread.\nRise of factionism\nThe accidental death of Henry II in 1559 created a political vacuum that encouraged the rise of factions, eager to grasp power. Francis II of France, at this point only 15 years old, was weak and lacked the qualities that allowed his predecessors to impose their will on the leading noblemen at court. However, the House of Guise, having an advantage in the King's wife, Mary, Queen of Scots, who was their niece, moved quickly to exploit the situation at the expense of their rivals, the House of Montmorency.[28][29] Within days of the King's accession, the English ambassador reported that \"the house of Guise ruleth and doth all about the French King\".[30]\nThe \"Amboise conspiracy\", or \"Tumult of Amboise\"\nMain article: Amboise conspiracy\nContemporary woodcut of the executions of Protestants at Amboise.\nOn March 10, 1560, a group of disaffected nobles (led by Jean du Barry, seigneur de la Renaudie) attempted to abduct the young Francis II and eliminate the Guise faction.[31] Their plans were discovered before they could succeed, and the government executed hundreds of suspected plotters.[32] The Guise brothers suspected Louis I de Bourbon, prince de Condé of leading the plot.[31] He was arrested but eventually freed for lack of evidence, adding to the tensions of the period. (In the polemics that followed, the term \"Huguenot\" for France's Protestants came into widespread usage.[33])\nIconoclasm and civic disturbances\nLooting of the Churches of Lyon by the Calvinists, in 1562. Antoine Carot.\nTraces of iconoclasm at Eglise Saint Sauveur, in La Rochelle.\nThe first instances of Protestant iconoclasm, the destruction of images and statues in Catholic churches, occurred in Rouen and La Rochelle in 1560. The following year, mobs carried out iconoclasm in more than 20 cities and towns; Catholic urban groups attacked Protestants in bloody reprisals in Sens, Cahors, Carcassonne, Tours and other cities.[34]\nDeath of Francis II\nOn December 5, 1560 Francis II died, and his mother Catherine de' Medici became regent for her second son, Charles IX.[35] Inexperienced and faced with the legacy of debt from the Habsburg-Valois conflict, Catherine felt that she had to steer the throne carefully between the powerful and conflicting interests that surrounded it, embodied by the powerful aristocrats who led essentially private armies. She was intent on preserving the independence of the throne.[36] Although she was a sincere Roman Catholic, she was prepared to deal favourably with the Huguenot House of Bourbon in order to have a counterweight against the overmighty Guise. She nominated a moderate chancellor, Michel de l'Hôpital, who urged a number of measures providing for civic peace so that a religious resolution could be sought by a sacred council.[37][38]\nColloquy of Poissy and the Edict of Saint-Germain\nMain articles: Colloquy of Poissy and Edict of Saint-Germain\nThe Regent Queen-Mother Catherine de Medici had three courses of action open to her in solving the religious crisis in France. First she might revert to persecution of the Huguenots. This, however, had been tried and had failed—witness the fact that the Huguenots were now more numerous than they had ever been before.[39] Secondly, Catherine could win over the Huguenots. This though might lead directly to civil war.[39] Thirdly, Catherine might try to heal the religious division in the country by means of a national council or colloquy on the topic.[39] Catherine chose the third course to pursue. Thus, a national council of clergy gathered on the banks of the Seine River in the town of Poissy in July 1561. The council had been formed in 1560 during the Estates-General of Saint-Germain-en-Laye when the council of prelates accepted the crown's request to give Huguenots a hearing. The Protestants were represented by 12 ministers and 20 laymen, led by Théodore de Bèze. Neither group sought toleration of Protestants, but wanted to reach some form of concord for the basis of a new unity. The council debated the religious issue at Poissy all summer. Meanwhile, a meeting between Bèze and the Cardinal of Lorraine, of the House of Guise, seemed promising; both appeared ready to compromise on the form of worship. The King of Navarre and the Prince of Condé petitioned the Regent for the young King Charles IX—the Queen-Mother, Catherine de Medici for the free exercise of religion.[40] In July 1561, the Parliament passed and the Regent signed the July Edict which recognised Roman Catholicism as the state religion but forbade any and all \"injuries or injustices\" against the citizens of France on the basis of religion.[41] However, despite this measure, by the end of the Colloquy in Poissy in October 1561 it was clear that the divide between Catholic and Protestant ideas was already too wide.[42]\nIn early 1562, the regency government attempted to quell escalating disorder in the provinces, which had been encouraged by factional feuds at court, by instituting the Edict of Saint-Germain, also known as the Edict of January. The legislation made concessions to the Huguenots to dissuade them from rebelling. It allowed them to worship publicly outside of towns and privately inside them. On March 1, however, a faction of the Guise family's retainers attacked a Calvinist service in Wassy-sur-Blaise in Champagne, massacring the worshippers and most of the residents of the town. The Huguenot Jean de la Fontaine described the events:\n\"The Protestants were engaged in prayer outside the walls, in conformity with the king's edict, when the Duke of Guise approached. Some of his suite insulted the worshippers, and from insults they proceeded to blows, and the Duke himself was accidentally wounded in the cheek. The sight of his blood enraged his followers, and a general massacre of the inhabitants of Vassy ensued.\"[43]\nThe \"first\" war (1562–63)\nMassacre de Vassy in 1562, print by Hogenberg end of 16th century.\nThe Massacre of Vassy, which occurred on March 1, 1562, provoked open hostilities between the factions supporting the two religions.[44] A group of Protestant nobles, led by the prince of Condé and proclaiming that they were liberating the king and regent from \"evil\" councillors, organised a kind of protectorate over the Protestant churches. On April 2, 1562, Condé and his Protestant followers seized the city of Orléans.[45] Their example was soon followed by Protestant groups around France. Protestants seized and garrisoned the strategic towns of Angers, Blois and Tours along the Loire River.[45] In the Rhône River valley, Protestants under the François de Beaumont, baron des Adrets attacked Valence; in this attack Guise's lieutenant was killed.[45] Later, the Protestants captured Lyon.[45]\nAlthough the Huguenots had begun to mobilise for war before Vassy,[46] Condé used the massacre of Vassy as evidence that the July Edict of 1561 had been broken, lending further weight to his campaign. Hoping to turn over the city to Condé, the Huguenots of Toulouse seized the Hôtel de ville but were countered by angry Catholic mobs resulting in street battles and the killing of around 3,000 (mostly Huguenots) during the 1562 Riots of Toulouse. Additionally, on 12 April 1562 and later in July, there were massacres of Huguenots at Sens and at Tours, respectively.[45] As conflicts continued and open hostilities broke out, the Crown revoked the Edict under pressure from the Guise faction.\nThe major engagements of the war occurred at Rouen, Dreux and Orléans. At the Siege of Rouen (May–October 1562), the crown regained the city, but Antoine de Navarre died of his wounds.[47] In the Battle of Dreux (December 1562), Condé was captured by the Guises and Montmorency, the governor general, was captured by the Bourbons. In February 1563, at the Siege of Orléans, Francis, Duke of Guise was shot and killed by the Huguenot Jean de Poltrot de Méré. As he was killed outside of direct combat, the Guise considered this an assassination on the orders of the duke's enemy, Admiral Coligny. The popular unrest caused by the assassination, coupled with the city of Orléans' resistance to the siege, led Catherine de Medici to mediate a truce, resulting in the Edict of Amboise on March 19, 1563.[48]\nThe \"Armed Peace\" (1563–67) and the \"second\" war (1567–68)\nPrint depicting Huguenot aggression against Catholics at sea. Horribles cruautés des Huguenots, 16th century.\nThe Edict of Amboise was generally regarded as unsatisfactory by all concerned, and the Guise faction was particularly opposed to what they saw as dangerous concessions to heretics. The crown tried to re-unite the two factions in its efforts to re-capture Le Havre, which had been occupied by the English in 1562 as part of the Treaty of Hampton Court between its Huguenot leaders and Elizabeth I of England. That July the French expelled the English, and the next month Charles IX declared his legal majority, ending Catherine de Medici's regency. His mother continued to play a principal role in politics, and she joined her son on a Grand Tour of the kingdom between 1564 and 1566, designed to reinstate crown authority. During this time, Jeanne d'Albret met and held talks with Catherine at Mâcon and Nérac.\nReports of iconoclasm in Flanders led Charles IX to lend support to the Catholics there; French Huguenots feared a Catholic re-mobilisation against them. Philip II of Spain's reinforcement of the strategic corridor from Italy north along the Rhine added to these fears, and political discontent grew. After Protestant troops unsuccessfully tried to capture and take control of King Charles IX in the Surprise of Meaux, a number of cities, such as La Rochelle, declared themselves for the Huguenot cause. Protesters attacked and massacred Catholic laymen and clergy the following day in Nîmes, in what became known as the Michelade.\nThis provoked the Second War, the main military engagement of which was the Battle of Saint-Denis. The crown's commander-in-chief and lieutenant general, the seventy-four-year-old Anne de Montmorency, died here. The war was brief, ending in another truce, the Peace of Longjumeau (March 1568).[49] The Peace of Longjumeau was a reiteration of the Peace of Amboise of 1563 and once again granted significant religious freedoms and privileges to Protestants.[49]\nThe \"third\" war (1568–70)\nPlate from Richard Rowlands's Theatrum Crudelitatum haereticorum nostri temporis (1587), depicting supposed Huguenot atrocities.\nIn reaction to the Peace, Catholic confraternities and leagues sprang up across the country in defiance of the law throughout the summer of 1568. Huguenot leaders such as Condé and Coligny fled court in fear of their lives, many of their followers were murdered, and in September the Edict of Saint-Maur revoked the Huguenots' freedom to worship. In November William of Orange led an army into France to support his fellow Protestants but, the army being poorly paid, he accepted the crown's offer of money and free passage to leave the country.\nThe Huguenots gathered a formidable army under the command of Condé, aided by forces from south-east France, led by Paul de Mouvans, and a contingent of fellow Protestant militias from Germany — including 14,000 mercenary reiters led by the Calvinist Duke of Zweibrücken.[50] After the Duke was killed in action, his troops remained under the employ of the Huguenots who had raised a loan from England against the security of the queen of Navarre's crown jewels.[51] Much of the Huguenots' financing came from Queen Elizabeth of England, who was likely influenced in the matter by Sir Francis Walsingham.[50] The Catholics were commanded by the Duke d'Anjou (later King Henry III) and assisted by troops from Spain, the Papal States, and the Grand Duchy of Tuscany.[52]\nBattle of Moncontour, 1569.\nThe Protestant army laid siege to several cities in the Poitou and Saintonge regions (to protect La Rochelle), and then Angoulême and Cognac. At the Battle of Jarnac (16 March 1569), the prince of Condé was killed, forcing Admiral de Coligny to take command of the Protestant forces, nominally on behalf of Condé's 15-year-old son, Henry, and the sixteen-year-old Henry of Navarre, who were presented by Jeanne d'Albret as the legitimate leaders of the Huguenot cause against royal authority. The Battle of La Roche-l'Abeille was a nominal victory for the Huguenots, but they were unable to seize control of Poitiers and were soundly defeated at the Battle of Moncontour (30 October 1569). Coligny and his troops retreated to the south-west and regrouped with Gabriel, comte de Montgomery, and in spring of 1570 they pillaged Toulouse, cut a path through the south of France and went up the Rhone valley up to La Charité-sur-Loire.[53] The staggering royal debt and Charles IX's desire to seek a peaceful solution[54] led to the Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (8 August 1570), negotiated by Jeanne d'Albret, which once more allowed some concessions to the Huguenots.\nSt. Bartholomew's Day Massacre and after (1572–73)\nMain article: St. Bartholomew's Day massacre\nOne morning at the gates of the Louvre, 19th-century painting by Édouard Debat-Ponsan. (Catherine de' Medici is in black.)\nAnti-Protestant massacres of Huguenots at the hands of Catholic mobs continued, in cities such as Rouen, Orange and Paris. Matters at Court were complicated as King Charles IX openly allied with the Huguenot leaders — especially Admiral Gaspard de Coligny. Meanwhile, the Queen Mother became increasingly fearful of the unchecked power wielded by Coligny and his supporters, especially as it became clear that Coligny was pursuing an alliance with England and the Dutch Protestant rebels.\nColigny, along with many other Calvinist nobles, arrived in Paris for the wedding of the Catholic princess Margaret of France to the Protestant prince Henry of Navarre on August 18. On August 22, an assassin made a failed attempt on Coligny's life, shooting him in the street from a window. While historians have suggested Charles de Louvier, sieur de Maurevert, as the likely assailant, historians have never determined the source of the order to kill Coligny (it is improbable that the order came from Catherine).[55]\nJeanne d'Albret had arrived in Paris in preparation of her son's wedding, where she went on daily shopping trips. She died on June 9, 1572. For centuries after her death, Huguenot writers accused Catherine de' Medici of poisoning her.\nThe Siege of La Rochelle of 1573 by the Duke of Anjou (\"History of Henry III\" tapestry, completed in 1623).\nAmidst fears of a Huguenot coup, the Duke of Guise and his supporters acted. In the early morning of August 24, they killed Coligny in his lodgings with several of his men. Coligny's body was thrown from the window into the street, and was subsequently mutilated, castrated, dragged through the mud, thrown in the river, suspended on a gallows and burned by the Parisian crowd.[56]\nThis assassination began the series of events known as the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre. For the next five days, the city erupted as Catholics massacred Calvinist men, women and children, and looted their houses, which was neither approved of nor predicted by the king.[57] Over the next few weeks, the disorder spread to more than a dozen cities across France. Historians estimate that 2,000 Huguenots were killed in Paris and thousands more in the provinces; in all, perhaps 10,000 people were killed.[58] Henry of Navarre and his cousin, the young Prince of Condé, managed to avoid death by agreeing to convert to Catholicism. Both repudiated their conversions after they escaped Paris.\nThe massacre provoked horror and outrage among Protestants throughout Europe, but both Philip II of Spain and Pope Gregory XIII, following the official version that a Huguenot coup had been thwarted, celebrated the outcome. In France, Huguenot opposition to the crown was seriously weakened by the deaths of many of the leaders. Many Huguenots emigrated to Protestant countries. Others reconverted to Catholicism for survival, and the remainder concentrated in a small number of cities where they formed a majority.\nThe 'fourth' war (1572–73)\nDepiction of supposed Spanish atrocities in the New World, by the Protestant Theodor de Bry.[59]\nThe massacres provoked further military action, which included Catholic sieges of the cities of Sommières (by troops led by Henri I de Montmorency), Sancerre and La Rochelle (by troops led by the duke of Anjou). The end of hostilities was brought on by the election (11–15 May 1573) of the Duke of Anjou to the throne of Poland and by the Edict of Boulogne (signed in July 1573), which severely curtailed many of the rights previously granted to French Protestants. Based on the terms of the treaty, all Huguenots were granted amnesty for their past actions and the freedom of belief. But, they were permitted the freedom to worship only within the three towns of La Rochelle, Montauban, and Nîmes, and even then only within their own residences. Protestant aristocrats with the right of high-justice were permitted to celebrate marriages and baptisms, but only before an assembly limited to ten persons outside of their family.[60]\nDeath of Charles IX and the 'fifth' war (1574–76)\nIn the absence of the duke of Anjou disputes between Charles and his youngest brother, the duke of Alençon, led to many Huguenots congregating around Alençon for patronage and support. A failed coup at Saint-Germain (February 1574), allegedly aiming to release Condé and Navarre who had been held at court since St Bartholemew's, coincided with rather successful Huguenot uprisings in other parts of France such as Lower Normandy, Poitou and the Rhône valley, which reinitiated hostilities.[61]\nThree months after Henry of Anjou's coronation as King of Poland, his brother Charles IX died (May 1574) and his mother declared herself regent until his return. Henry secretly left Poland and returned via Venice to France, where he faced the defection of Montmorency-Damville, ex-commander in the Midi (November 1574). Despite having failed to have established his authority over the Midi, he was crowned King Henry III, at Rheims February 1575, marrying Louise Vaudémont, a kinswoman of the Guise, the following day. By April the crown was already seeking to negotiate,[62] and the escape of Alençon from court in September prompted the possibility of an overwhelming coalition of forces against the crown, as John Casimir of the Palatinate invaded Champagne. The crown hastily negotiated a truce of seven months with Alençon and promised Casimir's forces 500,000 livres to stay east of the Rhine [63] but neither action secured a peace. By May 1576 the crown was forced to accept the terms of Alençon, and the Huguenots who supported him, in the Edict of Beaulieu, known as the Peace of Monsieur.\nThe Catholic League and the 'sixth' war (1576–77)\nArmed procession of the Catholic League in Paris in 1590, Musée Carnavalet.\nThe Edict of Beaulieu granted many concessions to the Calvinists, but these were short-lived in the face of the Catholic League—which the ultra-Catholic, Henry I, Duke of Guise, had formed in opposition to it. The House of Guise had long been identified with the defense of the Roman Catholic Church and the Duke of Guise and his relations — the Duke of Mayenne, Duke of Aumale, Duke of Elboeuf, Duke of Mercœur and the Duke of Lorraine — controlled extensive territories that were loyal to the League. The League also had a large following among the urban middle class. The Estates-General of Blois (1576) failed to resolve matters, and by December the Huguenots had already taken up arms in Poitou and Guyenne. While the Guise faction had the unwavering support of the Spanish Crown, the Huguenots had the advantage of a strong power base in the southwest; they were also discreetly supported by foreign Protestant governments, but in practice, England or the German states could provide few troops in the ensuing conflict. After much posturing and negotiations, Henry III rescinded most of the concessions that had been made to the Protestants in the Edict of Beaulieu with the Treaty of Bergerac (September 1577), confirmed in the Edict of Poitiers passed six days later.[64]\nThe 'seventh' war (1579–80) and the death of Anjou (1584)\nDespite Henri according his youngest brother Francis the title of Duke of Anjou, the prince and his followers continued to create disorder at court through their involvement in the Dutch Revolt. Meanwhile, the regional situation disintegrated into disorder as both Catholics and Protestants armed themselves in 'self defence'. In November 1579, Condé seized the town of La Fère, leading to another round of military action, which was brought to an end by the Treaty of Fleix (November 1580), negotiated by Anjou.\nThe fragile compromise came to an end in 1584, when the Duke of Anjou, the King's youngest brother and heir presumptive, died. As Henry III had no son, under Salic Law, the next heir to the throne was the Calvinist Prince Henri of Navarre, a descendant of Louis IX whom Pope Sixtus V had excommunicated along with his cousin, Henri Prince de Condé. When it became clear that Henri of Navarre would not renounce his Protestantism, the Duke of Guise signed the Treaty of Joinville (31 December 1584), on behalf of the League, with Philip II of Spain, who supplied a considerable annual grant to the League over the following decade to maintain the civil war in France, with the hope of destroying the French Calvinists. Under pressure from the Guise, Henri III reluctantly issued the Treaty of Nemours (July) and an edict, suppressing Protestantism and annulling Henri of Navarre's right to the throne.\nThe \"War of the Three Henrys\"\nMain article: War of the Three Henrys\nThe Duke of Guise during the Day of the Barricades.\nKing Henry III at first tried to co-opt the head of the Catholic League and steer it towards a negotiated settlement.[65] This was anathema to the Guise leaders, who wanted to bankrupt the Huguenots and divide their considerable assets with the King. A test of King Henry III's leadership occurred at the meeting of the Estates-General at Blois in December 1576.[65] At the meeting of the Estates-General, there was only one Huguenot delegate present among all of the three estates,[65] the rest of the delegates were Catholics with the Catholic League heavily represented. Accordingly, the Estates-General pressured Henry III into conducting a war against the Huguenots, in response Henry said he would reopen hostilities with the Huguenots but wanted the Estates-General to vote him the funds to carry out the war.[65] Yet, the Third Estate refused to vote for the necessary taxes to fund this war.\nThe situation degenerated into open warfare even without King having the necessary funds for the war. Henry of Navarre again sought foreign aid from the German princes and Elizabeth I of England. Meanwhile, the solidly Catholic people of Paris, under the influence of the Committee of Sixteen were becoming dissatisfied with Henry III and his failure to defeat the Calvinists. On 12 May 1588, the Day of the Barricades, a popular uprising raised barricades on the streets of Paris to defend the Duke of Guise against the alleged hostility of the king, and Henry III fled the city. The Committee of Sixteen took complete control of the government, while the Guise protected the surrounding supply lines. The mediation of Catherine de'Medici led to the Edict of Union, in which the crown accepted almost all the League's demands; reaffirming the Treaty of Nemours, recognizing Cardinal de Bourbon as heir, and making the duke of Guise Lieutenant-General.\nThe Estates-General of Blois and Assassination of the Guise (1588)\nAssassination of the Duke of Guise, leader of the Catholic League, by king Henry III, in 1588.\nRefusing to return to Paris, Henry III called for an Estates-General at Blois in September, 1588.[66] During the Estates-General Henry suspected that the members of the third estate were being manipulated by the League and became convinced that Guise had encouraged the duke of Savoy's invasion of Saluzzo in October 1588. Viewing the House of Guise as a dangerous threat to the power of the Crown, King Henri decided to strike first. On 23 December 1588, at the Château de Blois, Henry of Guise and his brother, the Cardinal de Guise, were lured into a trap by the King's guards.[67] The Duke arrived in the council chamber where his brother the Cardinal waited. The Duke was told that the King wished to see him in the private room adjoining the royal chambers. There guardsmen seized the duke and stabbed him in the heart, while others arrested the Cardinal who later died on the pikes of his escort. To make sure that no contender for the French throne was free to act against him, the King had the Duke's son imprisoned. The Duke of Guise had been highly popular in France, and the Catholic League declared open war against King Henry III. The Parlement of Paris instituted criminal charges against the King, who now joined forces with his cousin, the Huguenot, Henry of Navarre, to war against the League.\nThe assassination of Henry III (1589)\nJacques Clément, a supporter of the Catholic League, assassinating Henry III in 1589.\nIt thus fell upon the younger brother of the Guise, the Duke of Mayenne, to become the leader of the Catholic League. The League presses began printing anti-royalist tracts under a variety of pseudonyms, while the Sorbonne proclaimed on January 7, 1589, that it was just and necessary to depose Henry III, and that any private citizen was morally free to commit regicide.[67] In July 1589, in the royal camp at Saint-Cloud, a Dominican monk named Jacques Clément gained an audience with the King and drove a long knife into his spleen. Clément was killed on the spot, taking with him the information of who, if anyone, had hired him. On his deathbed, Henri III called for Henry of Navarre, and begged him, in the name of Statecraft, to become a Catholic, citing the brutal warfare that would ensue if he refused.[68] In keeping with Salic Law, he named Henri as his heir.\nHenry IV's 'Conquest of the Kingdom' (1589–1593)\nThe situation on the ground in 1589 was that the new Henry IV of France, as Navarre had become, held the south and west, and the Catholic League the north and east. The leadership of the Catholic League had devolved to the Duke de Mayenne, who was appointed Lieutenant-General of the kingdom. He and his troops controlled most of rural Normandy. However, in September 1589, Henry inflicted a severe defeat on the Duke at the Battle of Arques. Henry's army swept through Normandy, taking town after town throughout the winter.\nThe King knew that he had to take Paris if he stood any chance of ruling all of France. This, however, was no easy task. The Catholic League's presses and supporters continued to spread stories about atrocities committed against Catholic priests and the laity in Protestant England (see Forty Martyrs of England and Wales). The city prepared to fight to the death rather than accept a Calvinist king.\nHenry IV at the Battle of Ivry, by Peter Paul Rubens.\nThe Battle of Ivry, fought on 14 March 1590, was another decisive victory for Henry against forces led by the Duke of Mayenne. Henry's forces then went on to lay siege to Paris, but the siege was broken by Spanish support (under the command of the Duke of Parma), by the end of August; a situation repeated at the Siege of Rouen (November 1591 – March 1592).\nParma then was subsequently wounded in the hand during the Siege of Caudebec whilst trapped by Henry's army. Having then made a miraculous escape from there, he withdrew into Flanders, but with his health quickly declining, Farnese called his son Ranuccio to command his troops. He was, however, removed from the position of governor by the Spanish court and died in Arras on 3 December. For Henry and the Protestant army at least, Parma was no longer a threat.\nWar in Brittany\nMeanwhile, Philippe Emmanuel, Duke of Mercœur, whom Henry III had made governor of Brittany in 1582, was endeavouring to make himself independent in that province. A leader of the Catholic League, he invoked the hereditary rights of his wife, Marie de Luxembourg, who was a descendant of the dukes of Brittany and heiress of the Blois-Brosse claim to the duchy as well as Duchess of Penthièvre in Brittany, and organized a government at Nantes. Proclaiming his son \"prince and duke of Brittany\", he allied with Philip II of Spain, who sought to place his own daughter, infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia, on the throne of Brittany. With the aid of the Spanish, Mercœur defeated Henry IV's forces under the Duke of Montpensier, at Craon in 1592, but the royal troops, reinforced by English contingents, soon recovered the advantage.\nToward peace (1593–98)\nEntrance of Henry IV in Paris, 22 March 1594, with 1,500 cuirassiers.\nDeparture of Spanish troops from Paris, 22 March 1594.\nDespite the campaigns between 1590 and 1592, Henry IV was \"no closer to capturing Paris\".[69] Realising that Henry III had been right and that there was no prospect of a Protestant king succeeding in resolutely Catholic Paris, Henry agreed to convert, reputedly stating \"Paris vaut bien une messe\" (\"Paris is well worth a Mass\"). He was formally received into the Catholic Church in 1593, and was crowned at Chartres in 1594 as League members maintained control of the Cathedral of Rheims, and, sceptical of Henry's sincerity, continued to oppose him. He was finally received into Paris in March 1594, and 120 League members in the city who refused to submit were banished from the capital.[70] Paris' capitulation encouraged the same of many other towns, while others returned to support the crown after Pope Clement VIII absolved Henry, revoking his excommunication in return for the publishing of the Tridentine Decrees, the restoration of Catholicism in Béarn, and appointing only Catholics to high office.[70] Evidently Henry's conversion worried Protestant nobles, many of whom had, until then, hoped to win not just concessions but a complete reformation of the French Church, and their acceptance of Henry was by no means a foregone conclusion.\nWar with Spain (1595–98)\nHenry IV, as Hercules vanquishing the Lernaean Hydra (i.e. the Catholic League), by Toussaint Dubreuil, circa 1600. Louvre Museum.\nBy the end of 1594, certain League members still worked against Henry across the country, but all relied on Spain's support. In January 1595, the king declared war on Spain to show Catholics that Spain was using religion as a cover for an attack on the French state—and to show Protestants that his conversion had not made him a puppet of Spain. Also, he hoped to take the war to Spain and make territorial gain.[71] The conflict mostly consisted of military action aimed at League members, such as the Battle of Fontaine-Française, though the Spanish launched a concerted offensive in 1595, taking Doullens, Cambrai and Le Catelet and in the spring of 1596 capturing Calais by April. Following the Spanish capture of Amiens in March 1597 the French crown laid siege until its surrender in September. With that victory Henry's concerns then turned to the situation in Brittany where he promulgated the Edict of Nantes and sent Bellièvre and Brulart de Sillery to negotiate a peace with Spain. The war was drawn to an official close after the Edict of Nantes, with the Peace of Vervins in May 1598.\nResolution of the War in Brittany (1598–99)\nIn early 1598 the king marched against Mercœur in person, and received his submission at Angers on 20 March 1598. Mercœur subsequently went to exile in Hungary. Mercœur's daughter and heiress was married to the Duke of Vendôme, an illegitimate son of Henry IV.\nThe Edict of Nantes (1598)\nThe Edict of Nantes, April 1598.\nMain article: Edict of Nantes\nHenry IV was faced with the task of rebuilding a shattered and impoverished kingdom and uniting it under a single authority. Henry and his advisor, the Duke of Sully saw that the essential first step in this was negotiation of the Edict of Nantes—which, rather than being a sign of genuine toleration, was in fact a kind of grudging truce between the religions, with guarantees for both sides.[72] The Edict can be said to mark the end of the Wars of Religion, though its apparent success was not assured at the time of its publication. Indeed, in January 1599, Henry had to visit the Parliament in person to have the Edict passed. Religious tensions continued to affect politics for many years to come, though never to the same degree, and Henry IV faced many attempts on his life; the last succeeding in May 1610.\n17th and 18th centuries\nMain article: Huguenot rebellions\nThe French fleet captured the Huguenot Île de Ré in the Capture of Ré island.\nAlthough the Edict of Nantes brought the conflicts to a close, the political freedoms it granted to the Huguenots (seen by detractors as \"a state within the state\") became an increasing source of trouble during the 17th century. The decision of King Louis XIII to reintroduce Catholicism in a portion of southwestern France prompted a Huguenot revolt. By the Peace of Montpellier in 1622, the fortified Protestant towns were reduced to two: La Rochelle and Montauban. Another war followed, which concluded with the Siege of La Rochelle, in which royal forces led by Cardinal Richelieu blockaded the city for fourteen months. Under the 1629 Peace of La Rochelle, the brevets of the Edict (sections of the treaty that dealt with military and pastoral clauses and were renewable by letters patent) were entirely withdrawn, though Protestants retained their prewar religious freedoms.\nRichelieu, at the 1627–28 Siege of La Rochelle, put an end to the political, military and territorial autonomy of the Huguenots.[73] However, their Freedom of religion was \"maintained\".\nOver the remainder of Louis XIII's reign, and especially during the minority of Louis XIV, the implementation of the Edict varied year by year. In 1661 Louis XIV, who was particularly hostile to the Huguenots, started assuming control of His government and began to disregard some of the provisions of the Edict.[73] In 1681 he instituted the policy of dragonnades, to intimidate Huguenot families to convert to Roman Catholicism or emigrate. Finally, in October 1685, Louis issued the Edict of Fontainebleau, which formally revoked the Edict and made the practice of Protestantism illegal in France. The revocation of the Edict had very damaging results for France.[73] While it did not prompt renewed religious warfare, many Protestants chose to leave France rather than convert, with most moving to Great Britain, Prussia, the Dutch Republic and Switzerland.\nProtestant engraving representing 'les dragonnades' in France under Louis XIV.\nAt the dawn of the 18th century, Protestants remained in significant numbers in the remote Cévennes region of the Massif Central. This population, known as the Camisards, revolted against the government in 1702, leading to fighting that continued intermittently until 1715, after which the Camisards were largely left in peace.\n17 January 1562 - Edict of Saint-Germain, often called the \"Edict of January\"\n1 March 1562 - Massacre of Vassy (Wassy)\nMarch 1562 - March 1563 First War, ended by the Edict of Amboise\n19 December 1562 - Battle of Dreux\nSeptember 1567 - March 1568 Second War, ended by the Peace of Longjumeau\n10 November 1567 - Battle of Saint Denis\n1568–70 Third War, ended by the Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye\nMarch 1569 - Battle of Jarnac\nJune 1569 - Battle of La Roche-l'Abeille\nOctober 1569 - Battle of Moncontour\n1572 - St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre\nJune 1572 - Death of Jeanne d'Albret\n1572–73 Fourth War, ended by the Edict of Boulogne\nNovember 1572 - July 1573 - Siege of La Rochelle\nMay 1573 - Henry d'Anjou elected King of Poland\n1574 - Death of Charles IX\n1574–76 Fifth War, ended by the Edict of Beaulieu\n1576 - Formation of the first Catholic League in France\n1576–77 Sixth War, ended by the Treaty of Bergerac (also known as the \"Edict of Poitiers\")\n1579–80 Seventh War, ended by the Treaty of Fleix\nJune 1584 - death of François, Duke of Anjou, heir presumptive\nDecember 1584 - Treaty of Joinville\n1585–98 Eighth War, ended by the Peace of Vervins and the Edict of Nantes\nOctober 1587 - Battle of Coutras, Battle of Vimory\nDecember 1588 - Assassination of the Duke of Guise and his brother\nAugust 1589 - Assassination of Henry III\nSeptember 1589 - Battle of Arques\nMarch 1590 - Battle of Ivry, Siege of Paris\n1593 - Henry IV abjures Protestantism\n1594 - Henry IV crowned in Chartres.\nJune 1595 - Battle of Fontaine-Française\nApril – September 1597 - Siege of Amiens\nApril 1598 - Edict of Nantes issued by Henry IV\nOctober 1685 - Edict of Fontainebleau issued by Louis XIV\nEdict of toleration\nList of wars and disasters by death toll\nMonarchomachs\nReligion in France\nVirtual Museum of Protestantism\n↑ Knecht, Robert J. (2002). The French Religious Wars 1562-1598. Osprey Publishing. p. 91. ISBN 9781841763958.\n↑ Memory and Identity: The Huguenots in France and the Atlantic Diaspora by Bertrand Van Ruymbeke, Randy J. Sparks, p. 3\n↑ Lindberg, Carter (1996). The European Reformations. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 292.\n↑ Spickard, Paul; Cragg, Kevin (2005). A Global History of Christians: How Everyday Believers Experienced Their World. Grand Rapid: Baker. pp. 158–160.\n↑ McGrath, Alister (1995). The Intellectual Origins of the European Reformation. Massachusetts: Blackwell. pp. 39–43.\n1 2 Lindberg. The European Reformations. p. 275.\n↑ McGrath. The Intellectual Origins of the European Reformation. pp. 122–124.\n↑ Cairns, Earl (1996). Christianity through the Centuries: A History of the Christian Church (3rd ed.). Grand Rapid: Zondervan. p. 308. line feed character in |title= at position 38 (help)\n↑ Grimm, Harold (1973). The Reformation Era 1500–1650 (2nd ed.). New York: Macmillan. p. 54.\n↑ Grimm. The Reformation Era 1500–1650. p. 55.\n↑ Grimm. The Reformation Era 1500–1650. pp. 263–264.\n↑ Cairns, Earl. Christianity through the Centuries. p. 309.\n↑ R.J. Knecht, The French Wars of Religion: 1559-1598, (Longman Pearson Education Limited, 1996), p. 2\n1 2 3 4 R. J. Knecht, The French Wars of Religion: 1559-1598, 4.\n1 2 R.J. Knecht, The French Wars of Religion: 1559-1598, 3.\n↑ R. J. Knecht, The French Wars of Religion: 1559-1598, 14.\n↑ R. J. Knecht, The French Wars of Religion: 1559-1598, 7.\n1 2 R. J. Knecht, The French Wars of Religion: 1559-1598, 16-17.\n↑ Paul Bernstein, Robert W. Green, History of Civilization, Vol.1, (Rowman & Littlefield, 1988), 328.\n↑ Holt, p. 20\n1 2 Garnier, Edith, L'Alliance Impie Editions du Felin, 2008, Paris, 90.\n↑ Michael Mallett and Christine Shaw, The Italian Wars: 1494-1559, (Pearson Education Limited, 2012), 234.\n↑ Audisio, Gabriel, Les Vaudois: Histoire d'une dissidence XIIe - XVIe siecle,, (Fayard, Turin, 1998), 270-271.\n↑ R. J. Knecht, The French Wars of Religion: 1559-1598, 6-7, 86-87\n↑ Salmon, p.118.\n↑ France : Renaissance, Religion and Recovery, 1494-1610, Martyn Rady. pp. 52-3 (1998)\n↑ Knecht, p. 195 (2007)\n1 2 R. J. Knecht, The French Wars of Religion: 1559-1598, 25.\n↑ Salmon, pp.124–5; the cultural context is explored by N.M. Sutherland, \"Calvinism and the conspiracy of Amboise\", History 47 (1962:111–38).\n↑ Salmon, p. 125.\n↑ Salmon, pp.136-7.\n↑ R. J. Knecht, The French Wars of Religion: 1559-1598\", 27.\n↑ Frieda, Leone (2003). Catherine de Medici: Renaissance Queen of France (First Harper Perennial edition 2006 ed.). Harper Perennial. pp. 132–149.\n↑ See l'Hôpital speech to the Estates General at Orléans of 1560.\n1 2 3 R. J. Knecht, The French Wars of Religion: 1559-1598, 30-31.\n↑ Michel de Castelnau, The Memoirs of the Reigns of Francis I and Charles IX (published in London, 1724 and reproduced by ECCO) p. 110.\n↑ Michel de Castelnau, The Memoirs of the Reigns of Francis II and Charles IX, p. 112.\n↑ Knecht, French Civil Wars, (Longman, 2000), 78-9.\n↑ Rev. James Fontaine and Ann Maury, Memoirs of a Huguenot Family (New York) 1853.\n↑ Albert Guérard, France: A Modern History, (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 1959), 152.\n1 2 3 4 5 R. J. Knecht, The French Wars of Religion: 1559-1598, 35.\n↑ Knecht, The French Civil Wars, 86.\n↑ Trevor Dupuy, Curt Johnson and David L. Bongard, The Harper Encyclopedia of Military Biography, (Castle Books: Edison, 1992), 98.\n1 2 Jouanna, p. 181\n↑ Knecht, French Civil Wars, 151.\n↑ Jouanna, p.182.\n↑ Jouanna, pp.184–5.\n↑ Jouanna, 196.\n↑ Theatres of Cruelty: Wars of Religion, Violence, and The New World, Commentary by Tom Conley, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, The Newberry Library, 1990\n↑ Jouanna, p.213\n↑ Knecht, French Civil Wars, p. 190.\n↑ Knecht, French Civil Wars, 191/\n↑ Knecht, French Civil Wars, 208\n1 2 3 4 R. J. Knecht, The French Wars of Religion: 1559-1598, 65.\n↑ R. J. Knecht, French Wars of Religion: 1559-1598, 90.\n1 2 R. J. Knecht, French Wars of Religion: 1559-1598, 72.\n1 2 Knecht, French Civil Wars, 270.\n↑ Knecht French Civil Wars, 272.\n↑ Philip Benedict, 'Un roi, une loi, deux fois: Parameters for the History of Catholic-Protestant Co-existence in France, 1555-1685', in O. Grell & B. Scribner (eds), Tolerance and Intolerance in the European Reformation (1996), pp. 65-93\n1 2 3 \"Edict of Nantes\". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 5 April 2013.\nActon, John (1906). \"The Huguenots and the League\". Lectures on Modern History. New York: Macmillan. pp. 155–167.\nBaird, H. M. (1889). History of the Rise of the Huguenots of France. 1.\n——— (1889). History of the Rise of the Huguenots of France. 2. New edition, two volumes, New York, 1907.\nBaird, H. M. (1895). The Huguenots and the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes.\nBenedict, Philip (1996). \"Un roi, une loi, deux fois: Parameters for the History of Catholic-Protestant Co-existence in France, 1555-1685\". In Grell, O. & Scribner, B. Tolerance and Intolerance in the European Reformation. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 65–93. ISBN 0-521-49694-2.\nCastelnau, Michel de, The Memoirs of the Reigns of Francis II and Charles IX (published in London in 1724 and reprinted by ECCO.)\nDiefendorf, Barbara B. (1991). Beneath the Cross: Catholics and Huguenots in Sixteenth-Century Paris. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-506554-9.\nDavis, Natalie Zemon (1975). Society and Culture in Early Modern France. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0868-1.\nGreengrass, Mark (1986). France in the Age of Henry IV. London: Longman. ISBN 0-582-49251-3.\n——— (1987). The French Reformation. London: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-14516-8.\n——— (2007). Governing Passions: Peace and Reform in the French Kingdom, 1576-1585. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-921490-7.\nGuérard, Albert, France: A Modern History (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 1959).\nHolt, Mack P. (2005). The French wars of religion, 1562-1629. Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-83872-X.\nHulme, E. M. (1914). The Renaissance, the Protestant Revolution, and the Catholic Reaction in Continental Europe. New York.\nJouanna, Arlette; Boucher, Jacqueline; Biloghi, Dominique; Thiec, Guy (1998). Histoire et dictionnaire des Guerres de religion. Collection: Bouquins (in French). Paris: Laffont. ISBN 2-221-07425-4.\nKnecht, Robert J. (1996). The French Wars of Religion 1559–1598. Seminar Studies in History (2nd ed.). New York: Longman. ISBN 0-582-28533-X.\nKnecht, Robert J. (2007). The Valois: Kings of France 1328-1589 (2nd ed.). New York: Hambledon Continuum. ISBN 1-85285-522-3.\n——— (2000). The French Civil Wars. Modern Wars in Perspective. New York: Longman. ISBN 0-582-09549-2.\n——— (2001). The Rise and Fall of Renaissance France 1483-1610. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-22729-6.\nLindsay, T. M. (1906). A History of the Reformation. 1.\n——— (1907). A History of the Reformation. 2.\nSalmon, J. H. M. (1975). Society in Crisis: France in the Sixteenth Century. London: Methuen. ISBN 0-416-73050-7.\nPearson, Hesketh, Henry of Navarre: The King Who Dared (New York: Harper & Rowe, Publishers, 1963).\nSutherland, N. M. (1962). \"Calvinism and the conspiracy of Amboise\". History. 47 (160): 111–138. doi:10.1111/j.1468-229X.1962.tb01083.x.\nThompson, J. W. (1909). The Wars of Religion in France, 1559-1576. Chicago.\nTilley, Arthur Augustus (1919). The French wars of religion.\nDiefendorf, Barbara B. (2010). The Reformation and Wars of Religion in France: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide. Oxford U.P.\nBalserak, Jon (2014). John Calvin as Sixteenth-Century Prophet. Oxford U.P.\nPotter, David L. (1997). French Wars of Religion, Selected Documents. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780312175450.\nSalmon, J.H.M., ed. French Wars of Religion, The How Important Were Religious Factors? (1967) short excerpts from primary and secondary sources\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Guerres de religions in France.\nThe Wars of Religion, Part I\nThe Wars of Religion, Part II\nFrench Religious Wars\nThe Wars of Religion\nThe eight wars of religion (1562-1598) in The Virtual Museum of Protestantism"

"French Revolutionary Wars\nseries of conflicts fought between the French Republic and several European monarchies from 1792 to 1802\nThe Battle of Valmy (20 September 1792)\n20 April 1792 – 25 March 1802 (1792-04-20 – 1802-03-25)\n(9 years, 11 months, and 5 days)\nEurope, Egypt, Middle East, Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean, Indian Ocean, Indian Subcontinent\nFirst Coalition (French victory):\nTreaty of Campo Formio\nSecond Coalition (French victory):\nTreaty of Lunéville\nTreaty of Amiens\nFall of the Kingdom of France and establishment of the French Republic\nFrance annexes Piedmont and all the lands west of the Rhine\nEstablishment of the pro-French Batavian, Helvetian, Italian, and Ligurian Republics\nEstablishment of the Kingdom of Etruria in Italy\nAustria acquires Venetia and Dalmatia\nSpain cedes Trinidad to Britain\nSpain retrocedes Louisiana to France\nBritain returns Menorca to Spain\nNetherlands cedes Ceylon to Britain\nOther territorial changes\nHoly Roman Empire\nAustria[note 1]\nPrussia (1792–95)[note 2]\nGreat Britain (1793–1800)[note 3]\nAnglo-Corsican Kingdom (1794–1796)\nIreland (1793–1800)[note 3]\nRussia (1799)\nCounter-revolutionaries\nSpain (1793–95)[note 2]\nHelvetic Republic (1798)[note 4]\nOther Italian states[note 5]\nDutch Republic (1793–95)[note 6]\nNewfoundland (1796)\nOrder of Saint John (1798)\nMalta (1798–1800)\n(Haitian Revolution)\nSaint-Domingue rebels (1791–94)\n(Quasi-War) (1798–1800)\nKingdom of France (until 1792)[note 7]\nFrench Republic (from 1792)\nFrench satellites\nIrish Republic[note 8]\nPolish Legions[note 9]\nBatavia (1795–1802)\nSpain (1796–1802)[note 10]\nDenmark–Norway (Action of 16 May 1797)[note 11]\nMysore (Fourth Anglo-Mysore War)\nCommanders and leaders\nBaillet de Latour\nCount of Clerfayt\nMichael von Melas\nPál Kray\nFrederick William II\nHenry Addington\nCharles O'Hara\nRalph Abercromby\nSamuel Hood\nPrince de Condé\nCharles IV (1793–95)\nVictor Amadeus III\nFerdinand IV\nSelim III\nJezzar Pasha\nLaurens Pieter van de Spiegel (1793–95)\nMurad Bey\nFerdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim\nToussaint L'Ouverture\nPaul Barras (1795–99)\nCharles-F. Dumouriez\nFrançois Christophe Kellermann\nFrançois Étienne Kellermann\nCharles Pichegru\nComte de Custine\nLazare Hoche †\nJean V. M. Moreau\nLouis Desaix †\nJacques François Dugommier †\nJean Baptiste Kléber †\nFrançois-Paul Brueys d'Aigalliers †\nWolfe Tone †\nJan Henryk Dąbrowski\nChristian VII\nOlfert Fischer\nSteen Bille\nTipu Sultan †\nAustrian (1792–97)\n94,700 killed in action[1]\n100,000 wounded[1]\n220,000 captured[1]\nItalian Campaign of 1796–97\n27,000 Allied soldiers killed[1]\n1,600 guns[1]\n3,200 killed in action (Navy)[2]\nFrench (1792–97)\n100,000 killed in action[1]\n45,000 casualties (14,000 dead)[1]\n10,000 killed in action (Navy)[2]\nHaitian Revolution\nBois Caïman\nCroix-des-Bouquets\nMorne Pelé\n1st Tannerie\n1st Port-au-Prince\nCap-Français\n1st Tiburon\nAcul\nLa Bombarde\n2nd Tiburon\nLes Gonaïves\nPort-Républicain\n1st Dondon\n2nd Tannerie\nLéogane\nTrutier\n3rd Tiburon\n1st Verrettes\nLas Cahobas\nMirebalais\n2nd Verrettes\nPetite-Rivière\n2nd Dondon\n1st Irois\nJean-Rabel\n2nd Irois\nWar of Knives\nSaint-Domingue expedition\nRavine-à-Couleuvres\nKellola\nCrête-à-Pierrot\n2nd Port-au-Prince\nSaint-Domingue\nMôle-Saint-Nicolas\nVertières\nWar of the First Coalition\nFlanders Campaign\nMediterranean Campaign\nWar of the Pyrenees\nItalian Campaigns\nEast Indies Theatre\nAtlantic Campaign\nRhine Campaign of 1795\nKircheib\nFirst Kehl\nSecond Kehl\nAnglo-Spanish War\nDiersheim\nUnited Irishmen Rebellion\nBallymore-Eustace\nRathangan\nKilcullen\nCarnew\nDunlavin\nTara Hill\nOulart Hill\nGibbet Rath\nThree Rocks\nBunclody\nTubberneering\nNew Ross/Scullabogue\nSaintfield\nBallynahinch\nOvidstown\nFoulksmills\nBallyellis\nCollooney\nBallinamuck\nKillala\nTory Island\nWar of the Second Coalition\n1st Stockach\n1st Marengo\n1st Zurich\nTrebbia\n2nd Marengo\nAmsteg\nVlieter Incident\nKrabbendam\nGotthard Pass\n2nd Zurich\nLinth River\n2nd Novi\n3rd Novi\n2nd Stockach\nMesskirch\nFort Bard\nChiusella\n3rd Marengo\nHöchstädt\nMincio\nAlgeciras (1st • 2nd)\nPorto Ferrajo\nEgyptian Campaign\nSwiss Campaign\nDutch Campaign\nItalian Campaign\nQuasi-War\nCapture of La Croyable\nCapture of USS Retaliation\nUSS Constellation vs L'Insurgente\nAction of 1 January 1800\nUSS Constellation vs La Vengeance\nPuerto Plata Harbor\nInvasion of Curaçao\nUSS Boston vs Berceau\nUSS Enterprise vs Flambeau\nof the French Revolutionary Wars\n1st Saorgio\nEpierre\n2nd Saorgio\n1st Dego\nMontenotte Campaign\nFombio\nPeschiera [fr]\n1st Bassano\n2nd Bassano\nCalliano\n1st Mantua\nValvasone\nTyrol [fr]\nVeronese Easter (1798)\nFerentino (1798) 1798-1799 Roman Republic\nOtricoli (1798) 1798-1799 Roman Republic\nCivita Castellana (1798) 1798-1799 Roman Republic\n2nd Mantua\nPozzolo\nMediterranean campaign of 1793–1796\nBurning of the French fleet\nGenoa Raid\nSan Fiorenzo\nMartin's cruise\nHyères Islands\nRichery's expedition\nLevant Convoy\nGanteaume's expedition\nÎle Ronde\nCape Colony\nSaldanha Bay\nBali Strait\nNaval Battles\nof the French\nRevolutionary Wars\n1st Genoa\nCroisière du Grand Hiver\nGulf of Roses\n2nd Genoa\nCornwallis's Retreat\nNewfoundland expedition\nExpédition d'Irlande\n2nd St Vincent\nRaz de Sein\nÎles Saint-Marcouf\nCroisière de Bruix\nPeasants' War (1798)\nAnglo-French wars\n1337–1453 (1337–60, 1369–89, 1415–53)\nThe French Revolutionary Wars were a series of sweeping military conflicts lasting from 1792 until 1802 and resulting from the French Revolution. They pitted France against Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia and several other monarchies. They are divided in two periods: the War of the First Coalition (1792–97) and the War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802). Initially confined to Europe, the fighting gradually assumed a global dimension. After a decade of constant warfare and aggressive diplomacy, France had conquered a wide array of territories, from the Italian Peninsula and the Low Countries in Europe to the Louisiana Territory in North America. French success in these conflicts ensured the spread of revolutionary principles over much of Europe.\nAs early as 1791, the other monarchies of Europe looked with outrage at the revolution and its upheavals; and they considered whether they should intervene, either in support of King Louis XVI, to prevent the spread of revolution, or to take advantage of the chaos in France. Anticipating an attack[citation needed], France declared war on Prussia and Austria in the spring of 1792 and they responded with a coordinated invasion that was eventually turned back at the Battle of Valmy in September. This victory emboldened the National Convention to abolish the monarchy.[3] A series of victories by the new French armies abruptly ended with defeat at Neerwinden in the spring of 1793. The French suffered additional defeats in the remainder of the year and these difficult times allowed the Jacobins to rise to power and impose the Reign of Terror to unify the nation.\nIn 1794, the situation improved dramatically for the French as huge victories at Fleurus against the Austrians and at the Black Mountain against the Spanish signaled the start of a new stage in the wars. By 1795, the French had captured the Austrian Netherlands and knocked Spain and Prussia out of the war with the Peace of Basel. A hitherto unknown general named Napoleon Bonaparte began his first campaign in Italy in April 1796. In less than a year, French armies under Napoleon decimated the Habsburg forces and evicted them from the Italian peninsula, winning almost every battle and capturing 150,000 prisoners. With French forces marching towards Vienna, the Austrians sued for peace and agreed to the Treaty of Campo Formio, ending the First Coalition against the Republic.\nThe War of the Second Coalition began in 1798 with the French invasion of Egypt, headed by Napoleon. The Allies took the opportunity presented by the French effort in the Middle East to regain territories lost from the First Coalition. The war began well for the Allies in Europe, where they gradually pushed the French out of Italy and invaded Switzerland – racking up victories at Magnano, Cassano and Novi along the way. However, their efforts largely unraveled with the French victory at Zurich in September 1799, which caused Russia to drop out of the war.[4] Meanwhile, Napoleon's forces annihilated a series of Egyptian and Ottoman armies at the battles of the Pyramids, Mount Tabor and Abukir. These victories and the conquest of Egypt further enhanced Napoleon's popularity back in France, and he returned in triumph in the fall of 1799. However, the Royal Navy had won the Battle of the Nile in 1798, further strengthening British control of the Mediterranean.\nNapoleon's arrival from Egypt led to the fall of the Directory in the Coup of 18 Brumaire, with Napoleon installing himself as Consul. Napoleon then reorganized the French army and launched a new assault against the Austrians in Italy during the spring of 1800. This brought a decisive French victory at the Battle of Marengo in June 1800, after which the Austrians withdrew from the peninsula once again. Another crushing French triumph at Hohenlinden in Bavaria forced the Austrians to seek peace for a second time, leading to the Treaty of Lunéville in 1801. With Austria and Russia out of the war, the United Kingdom found itself increasingly isolated and agreed to the Treaty of Amiens with Napoleon's government in 1802, concluding the Revolutionary Wars. However, the lingering tensions proved too difficult to contain, and the Napoleonic Wars began over a year later with the formation of the Third Coalition, continuing the series of Coalition Wars.\n1 War of the First Coalition\n2 War of the Second Coalition\n3 Influence\n6.1 Historiography\n6.2 In French\nWar of the First Coalition[edit]\nFind sources: \"French Revolutionary Wars\" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nMain article: First Coalition\nSee also: Campaigns of 1792 in the French Revolutionary Wars\nThe key figure in initial foreign reaction to the revolution was Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II, brother of Louis XVI's Queen Marie Antoinette. Leopold had initially looked on the Revolution with equanimity, but became more and more disturbed as the Revolution became more radical, although he still hoped to avoid war. On 27 August, Leopold and King Frederick William II of Prussia, in consultation with emigrant French nobles, issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, which declared the interest of the monarchs of Europe in the well-being of Louis and his family, and threatened vague but severe consequences if anything should befall them. Although Leopold saw the Pillnitz Declaration as a non-committal gesture to placate the sentiments of French monarchists and nobles, it was seen in France as a serious threat and was denounced by the revolutionary leaders.[5]\nFrance eventually issued an ultimatum demanding that the Habsburg Monarchy of Austria under Leopold II, who also was Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, renounce any hostile alliances and withdraw its troops from the French border.[6] The reply was evasive, and the Assembly voted for war on 20 April 1792 against Francis II (who succeeded Leopold II), after a long list of grievances presented by foreign minister Charles François Dumouriez. Dumouriez prepared an immediate invasion of the Austrian Netherlands, where he expected the local population to rise against Austrian rule as they had earlier in 1790. However, the revolution had thoroughly disorganized the army, and the forces raised were insufficient for the invasion. Following the declaration of war, French soldiers deserted en masse and in one case murdered their general, Théobald Dillon.[7]\nAnonymous caricature depicting the treatment given to the Brunswick Manifesto by the French population\nWhile the revolutionary government frantically raised fresh troops and reorganized its armies, a mostly Prussian Allied army under Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick assembled at Koblenz on the Rhine. The duke then issued a proclamation called the Brunswick Manifesto (July 1792), written by the French king's cousin, Louis Joseph de Bourbon, Prince de Condé, the leader of an émigré corps within the Allied army, which declared the Allies' intent to restore the king to his full powers and to treat any person or town who opposed them as rebels to be condemned to death by martial law. This, however, had the effect of strengthening the resolve of the revolutionary army and government to oppose them by any means necessary.\nOn 10 August, a crowd stormed the Tuileries Palace, seizing the king and his family. On 19 August 1792, the invasion by Brunswick's army commenced, with Brunswick's army easily taking the fortresses of Longwy and Verdun. The invasion continued, but at Valmy on 20 September, the invaders came to a stalemate against Dumouriez and Kellermann in which the highly professional French artillery distinguished itself. Although the battle was a tactical draw, it gave a great boost to French morale. Further, the Prussians, finding that the campaign had been longer and more costly than predicted, decided that the cost and risk of continued fighting was too great and, with winter approaching, they decided to retreat from France to preserve their army. The next day, the monarchy was formally abolished as the First Republic was declared (21 September 1792).[8]\nMeanwhile, the French had been successful on several other fronts, occupying Savoy and Nice, which were parts of the Kingdom of Sardinia, while General Custine invaded Germany, occupying several German towns along the Rhine and reaching as far as Frankfurt. Dumouriez went on the offensive in the Austrian Netherlands once again, winning a great victory over the Austrians at the Battle of Jemappes on 6 November and occupying the entire country by the beginning of winter.[9]\nSee also: Campaigns of 1793 in the French Revolutionary Wars, Flanders Campaign, and War in the Vendée\nWhile the First Coalition attacked the new Republic, France faced civil war and counter-revolutionary guerrilla war. Here, several insurgents of the Chouannerie have been taken prisoner.\nSpain and Portugal entered the anti-French coalition in January 1793. Britain began military preparations in late 1792 and declared that war was inevitable unless France gave up its conquests, notwithstanding French assurances they would not attack Holland or annex the Low Countries.[10] Britain expelled the French ambassador following the execution of Louis XVI and on 1 February France responded by declaring war on Great Britain and the Dutch Republic.[5]\nFrance drafted hundreds of thousands of men, beginning a policy of using mass conscription to deploy more of its manpower than the autocratic states could manage to do (first stage, with a decree of 24 February 1793 ordering the draft of 300,000 men, followed by the general mobilization of all the young men able to be drafted, through the famous decree of 23 August 1793). Nonetheless, the Coalition allies launched a determined drive to invade France during the Flanders Campaign.[11]\nFrance suffered severe reverses at first. They were driven out of the Austrian Netherlands, and serious revolts flared in the west and south of France. One of these, at Toulon, was the first serious taste of action for an unknown young artillery officer Napoleon Bonaparte. He contributed to the siege of the city and its harbor by planning an effective assault with well-placed artillery batteries raining projectiles down on rebel positions. This performance helped make his reputation as a capable tactician, and it fueled his meteoric rise to military and political power. Once the city was occupied, he participated in pacifying the rebelling citizens of Toulon with the same artillery that he first used to conquer the city.[12]\nBy the end of the year, large new armies had turned back foreign invaders, and the Reign of Terror, a fierce policy of repression, had suppressed internal revolts. The French military was in the ascendant. Lazare Carnot, a scientist and prominent member of the Committee of Public Safety, organized the fourteen armies of the Republic, and was then nicknamed the Organizer of the Victory.[13]\nGeneral Jourdan at the battle of Fleurus, 26 June 1794\nThe year 1794 brought increased success to the French armies. On the Alpine frontier, there was little change, with the French invasion of Piedmont failing. On the Spanish border, the French under General Dugommier rallied from their defensive positions at Bayonne and Perpignan, driving the Spanish out of Roussillon and invading Catalonia. Dugommier was killed in the Battle of the Black Mountain in November.\nOn the northern front in the Flanders Campaign, the Austrians and French both prepared offensives in Belgium, with the Austrians besieging Landrecies and advancing towards Mons and Maubeuge. The French prepared an offensive on multiple fronts, with two armies in Flanders under Pichegru and Moreau, and Jourdan attacking from the German border. The French withstood several damaging but inconclusive actions before regaining the initiative at the battles of Tourcoing and Fleurus in June. The French armies drove the Austrians, British, and Dutch beyond the Rhine, occupying Belgium, the Rhineland, and the south of the Netherlands.\nOn the middle Rhine front in July, General Michaud's Army of the Rhine attempted two offensives in July in the Vosges, the second of which was successful but not followed up, allowing for a Prussian counter-attack in September. Otherwise this sector of the front was largely quiet over the course of the year.\nAt sea, the French Atlantic Fleet succeeded in holding off a British attempt to interdict a vital cereal convoy from the United States on the Glorious First of June, though at the cost of one quarter of its strength. In the Caribbean, the British fleet landed in Martinique in February, taking the whole island by 24 March and holding it until the Treaty of Amiens, and in Guadeloupe in April, where they captured the island briefly but were driven out by Victor Hugues later in the year. In the Mediterranean, following the British evacuation of Toulon, the Corsican leader Pasquale Paoli agreed with admiral Samuel Hood to place Corsica under British protection in return for assistance capturing French garrisons at Saint-Florent, Bastia, and Calvi, creating the short-lived Anglo-Corsican Kingdom.\nBy the end of the year French armies had won victories on all fronts, and as the year closed they began advancing into the Netherlands.\nArmée des Émigrés at the Battle of Quiberon\nCapture of the Dutch fleet by the French hussars\nThe year opened with French forces in the process of attacking the Dutch Republic in the middle of winter. The Dutch people rallied to the French call and started the Batavian Revolution. City after city was occupied by the French. The Dutch fleet was captured, and the stadtholder William V fled to be replaced by a popular Batavian Republic, a sister republic which supported the revolutionary cause and signed a treaty with the French, ceding the territories of North Brabant and Maastricht to France on 16 May.\nWith the Netherlands falling, Prussia also decided to leave the coalition, signing the Peace of Basel on 6 April, ceding the west bank of the Rhine to France. This freed Prussia to finish the occupation of Poland.\nThe French army in Spain advanced in Catalonia while taking Bilbao and Vitoria and marching toward Castile. By 10 July, Spain also decided to make peace, recognizing the revolutionary government and ceding the territory of Santo Domingo, but returning to the pre-war borders in Europe. This left the armies on the Pyrenees free to march east and reinforce the armies on the Alps, and the combined army overran Piedmont.\nMeanwhile, Britain's attempt to reinforce the rebels in the Vendée by landing troops at Quiberon failed, and a conspiracy to overthrow the republican government from within ended when Napoleon Bonaparte's garrison used cannon to fire grapeshot into the attacking mob (which led to the establishment of the Directory).\nOn the Rhine frontier, General Pichegru, negotiating with the exiled Royalists, betrayed his army and forced the evacuation of Mannheim and the failure of the siege of Mainz by Jourdan. This was a moderate setback to the position of the French.\nIn northern Italy, victory at the Battle of Loano in November gave France access to the Italian peninsula.\nGeneral Bonaparte and his troops crossing the bridge of Arcole\nNapoleon Bonaparte defeats the Austrians at the Battle of Lodi\nThe French prepared a great advance on three fronts, with Jourdan and Moreau on the Rhine, and Bonaparte in Italy. The three armies were to link up in Tyrol and march on Vienna. Jourdan and Moreau advanced rapidly into Germany, and Moreau had reached Bavaria and the edge of Tyrol by September, but Jourdan was defeated by Archduke Charles, and both armies were forced to retreat back across the Rhine.\nNapoleon, on the other hand, was completely successful in a daring invasion of Italy. He left Paris on 11 March for Nice to take over the weak and poorly supplied Army of Italy, arriving on 26 March. The army was already being reorganised and supplied when he arrived, and he found that the situation was rapidly improving. He was soon able to carry out the plan for the invasion of Italy that he had been advocating for years, which provided for an advance over the Apennines near Altare to attack the enemy position of Ceva.\nThe Montenotte Campaign opened after Johann Beaulieu's Austrian forces attacked the extreme French eastern flank near Genoa on 10 April. Bonaparte countered by attacking and crushing the isolated right wing of the allied armies at the Battle of Montenotte on 12 April. The next day he defeated an Austro-Sardinian force at the Battle of Millesimo. He then won a victory at the Second Battle of Dego, driving the Austrians northeast, away from their Piedmontese allies. Satisfied that the Austrians were temporarily inert, Bonaparte harried Michelangelo Colli's Piedmontese at Ceva and San Michele Mondovi before whipping them at the Battle of Mondovì. A week later, on 28 April, the Piedmontese signed an armistice at Cherasco, withdrawing from the hostilities. On 18 May they signed a peace treaty at Paris, ceding Savoy and Nice and allowing the French bases to be used against Austria.\nAfter a short pause, Napoleon carried out a brilliant flanking manoeuvre, and crossed the Po at Piacenza, nearly cutting the Austrian line of retreat. The Austrians escaped after the Battle of Fombio, but had their rear-guard mauled at Lodi on 10 May, after which the French took Milan. Bonaparte then advanced eastwards again, drove off the Austrians in the Battle of Borghetto and in June began the Siege of Mantua. Mantua was the strongest Austrian base in Italy. Meanwhile, the Austrians retreated north into the foothills of the Tyrol.\nDuring July and August, Austria sent a fresh army into Italy under Dagobert Wurmser. Wurmser attacked toward Mantua along the east side of Lake Garda, sending Peter Quasdanovich down the west side in an effort to envelop Bonaparte. Bonaparte exploited the Austrian mistake of dividing their forces to defeat them in detail, but in so doing, he abandoned the siege of Mantua, which held out for another six months (Carl von Clauswitz mentioned in On War that the siege might have been able to be kept up if Bonaparte had circumvallated the city[14]). Quasdanovich was overcome at Lonato on 3 August and Wurmser at Castiglione on 5 August. Wurmser retreated to the Tyrol, and Bonaparte resumed the siege.\nIn September, Bonaparte marched north against Trento in Tyrol, but Wurmser had already marched toward Mantua by the Brenta valley, leaving Paul Davidovich's force to hold off the French. Bonaparte overran the holding force at the Battle of Rovereto. Then he followed Wurmser down the Brenta valley, to fall upon and defeat the Austrians at the Battle of Bassano on 8 September. Wurmser elected to march for Mantua with a large portion of his surviving troops. The Austrians evaded Bonaparte's attempts to intercept them but were driven into the city after a pitched battle on 15 September. This left nearly 30,000 Austrians trapped in the fortress. This number rapidly diminished due to disease, combat losses, and hunger.\nThe Austrians sent yet another army under József Alvinczi against Bonaparte in November. Again the Austrians divided their effort, sending Davidovich's corps from the north while Alvinczi's main body attacked from the east. At first they proved victorious over the French at Bassano, Calliano, and Caldiero. But Bonaparte ultimately defeated Alvinczi in the Battle of Arcole southeast of Verona. The French then turned on Davidovich in great strength and chased him into the Tyrol. Wurmser's only sortie was late and ineffectual.\nThe rebellion in the Vendée was also finally crushed in 1796 by Hoche, but Hoche's attempt to land a large invasion force in Ireland was unsuccessful.\nNapoleon Bonaparte at the Battle of Rivoli\nSoldiers killed in battle in 1797\nOn 14 February, British admiral Jervis met and defeated a Spanish fleet off Portugal at the Battle of Cape St. Vincent. This prevented the Spanish fleet from rendezvousing with the French, removing a threat of invasion to Britain. However, the British fleet was weakened over the rest of the year by the Spithead and Nore mutinies, which kept many ships in port through the summer.\nOn 22 February French invasion force consisting of 1,400 troops from the La Legion Noire (The Black Legion) under the command of Irish American Colonel William Tate landed near Fishguard (Wales). They were met by a quickly assembled group of around 500 British reservists, militia and sailors under the command of John Campbell, 1st Baron Cawdor. After brief clashes with the local civilian population and Lord Cawdor's forces on 23 February, Tate was forced into an unconditional surrender by 24 February.\nIn Italy, Napoleon's armies were laying siege to Mantua at the beginning of the year, and a second attempt by Austrians under Joseph Alvinczy to raise the siege was driven off at the Battle of Rivoli, where the French scored a decisive victory. Finally, on 2 February, Wurmser surrendered Mantua and 18,000 troops. The Papal forces sued for peace, which was granted at Tolentino on 19 February. Napoleon was now free to attack the Austrian heartland. He advanced directly toward Austria over the Julian Alps, sending Barthélemy Joubert to invade the Tyrol.\nArchduke Charles of Austria hurried from the German front to defend Austria, but he was defeated at the Tagliamento on 16 March, and Napoleon proceeded into Austria, occupying Klagenfurt and preparing for a rendezvous with Joubert in front of Vienna. In Germany, the armies of Hoche and Moreau crossed the Rhine again in April after the previous year's failure. The victories of Napoleon had frightened the Austrians into making peace, and they concluded the Peace of Leoben in April, ending hostilities. However, his absence from Italy had allowed the outbreak of the revolt known as the Veronese Easters on 17 April, which was put down eight days later.\nAlthough Britain remained at war with France, this effectively ended the First Coalition. Austria later signed the Treaty of Campo Formio, ceding the Austrian Netherlands to France and recognizing the French border at the Rhine. Austria and France also partitioned Venice between them.\nMain articles: Campaigns of 1798 in the French Revolutionary Wars, French campaign in Egypt and Syria, Quasi-War, and Irish Rebellion of 1798\nIn July 1798, French forces under Napoleon annihilated an Egyptian army at the Battle of the Pyramids. The victory facilitated the conquest of Egypt and remains one of the most important battles of the era.\nBattle of the Nile, August 1798. The British fleet bears down on the French line.\nWith only Britain left to fight and not enough of a navy to fight a direct war, Napoleon conceived of an invasion of Egypt in 1798, which satisfied his personal desire for glory and the Directory's desire to have him far from Paris. The military objective of the expedition is not entirely clear, but may have been to threaten British dominance in India.\nNapoleon sailed from Toulon to Alexandria, taking Malta on the way, and landing in June. Marching to Cairo, he won a great victory at the Battle of the Pyramids; however, his fleet was sunk by Nelson at the Battle of the Nile, stranding him in Egypt. Napoleon spent the remainder of the year consolidating his position in Egypt.[15]\nThe French government also took advantage of internal strife in Switzerland to invade, establishing the Helvetian Republic and annexing Geneva. French troops also deposed Pope Pius VI, establishing a republic in Rome.\nAn expeditionary force was sent to County Mayo, in Ireland, to assist in the rebellion against Britain in the summer of 1798. It had some success against British forces, most notably at Castlebar, but was ultimately routed while trying to reach Dublin. French ships sent to assist them were captured by the Royal Navy off County Donegal.\nThe French were also under pressure in the Southern Netherlands and Luxembourg where the local people revolted against conscription and anti-religious violence (Peasants' War). The French had taken this territory in 1794, but it was officially theirs in 1797 due to a treaty with Austria. The French forces easily handled the Peasants' rebellion in the Southern Netherlands, and were able to put down the revolting forces in under 2 months.\nThe French in 1798 fought an undeclared war at sea against the United States, that was known variously as the \"Quasi-War\", the \"Half War\" and the \"Pirate Wars\". It was resolved peaceably with the Convention of 1800.\nWar of the Second Coalition[edit]\nMain article: War of the Second Coalition\nBritain and Austria organized a new coalition against France in 1798, including for the first time the Russian Empire, although no action occurred until 1799 except against the kingdom of the Two Sicilies.\nBattle of Abukir in 1799\nBattle of Mount Tabor against the Ottomans\nIn Egypt, Napoleon had consolidated his control of the country for the time being. Soon after the beginning of the year, he mounted an invasion of Syria, capturing El Arish and Jaffa. On 17 March, he laid siege to Acre, and defeated an Ottoman effort to relieve the city at the Battle of Mount Tabor on 17 April. However, his repeated assaults on Acre were driven back by Ottoman and British forces under the command of Jezzar Pasha and Sir Sidney Smith. By May, with plague rampant in his army and no sign of success against the city, Napoleon was forced to retreat into Egypt. In July, Turkey, with the help of the British navy, mounted an invasion by sea from Rhodes. Napoleon attacked the Turkish beachheads and scored a crushing victory at the Battle of Abukir, capturing and killing the entire enemy army. In August, Napoleon decided to return to Europe, hearing of the political and military crisis in France. Leaving his army behind with Kléber in command, he sailed through the British blockade to return to Paris and resolved to take control of the government there in a coup.\nIn Europe, the French Army of Observation, organized with 30,000 men in four divisions, crossed the Rhine at Kehl and Basel in March 1799. The following day, it was renamed the Army of the Danube.[16] Under command of Jourdan, the army advanced in four columns through the Black Forest. First Division, the right wing, assembled at Hüningen, crossed at Basel and advanced eastward along the north shore of the Rhine toward Lake Constance.[17] The Advanced Guard crossed at Kehl, and Vandamme led it north-east through the mountains via Freudenstadt. This column eventually became the left flank. It was followed across the Rhine, also at Kehl, by the II. Division. The Third Division and the Reserve also crossed at Kehl, and then divided into two columns, III. Division traveling through the Black Forest via Oberkirch, and the Reserve, with most of the artillery and horse, by the valley at Freiburg im Breisgau, where they would find more forage, and then over the mountains past the Titisee to Löffingen and Hüfingen.[18]\nThe major part of the imperial army, under command of the Archduke Charles', had wintered immediately east of the Lech, which Jourdan knew, because he had sent agents into Germany with instructions to identify the location and strength of his enemy. This was less than 64 kilometres (40 mi) distant; any passage over the Lech was facilitated by available bridges, both of permanent construction and temporary pontoons and a traverse through friendly territory.[19]\nIn March 1799, the Army of the Danube engaged in two major battles, both in the southwestern German theater. At the intensely fought Battle of Ostrach, 21–2 March 1799, the first battle of the War of the Second Coalition, Austrian forces, under the command of Archduke Charles, defeated Jourdan's Army of the Danube. The French suffered significant losses and were forced to retreat from the region, taking up new positions to the west at Messkirch (Mößkirch, Meßkirch), and then at Stockach and Engen. At the second battle, in Stockach, on 25 March 1799, the Austrian army achieved a decisive victory over the French forces, and again pushed the French army west. Jourdan instructed his generals to take up positions in the Black Forest, and he himself established a base at Hornberg. From there, General Jourdan relegated command of the army to his chief of staff, Jean Augustin Ernouf, and traveled to Paris to ask for more and better troops and, ultimately, to request a medical leave.[20]\nRussian General Suvorov crossing the St. Gotthard Pass during the Italian and Swiss expedition in 1799\nThe Army was reorganized, and a portion placed under the command of André Masséna and merged with the Army of Helvetia. Following the reorganization and change in command, the Army participated in several skirmishes and actions on the eastern part of the Swiss Plateau, including the Battle of Winterthur. After this action, three forces of the imperial army united north of Zürich, completing a partial encirclement of Massena's combined Army of the Danube and Army of Switzerland. A few days later, at the First Battle of Zurich, Massena was forced west, across the Limmat. In late summer, 1799, Charles was ordered to support imperial activities in the middle Rhineland; he withdrew north across the Rhine, and marched toward Mannheim, leaving Zürich and northern Switzerland in the hands of the inexperienced Alexander Korsakov and 25,000 Russian troops. Although the highly capable Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze remained in support, his 15,000 men were not able to counter Korsakov's poor defensive arrangements. Three weeks later, at the Second Battle of Zurich, the Russian force was annihilated, and Hotze was killed south of Zürich. This left Massena in control of northern Switzerland, and closed forced Suvorov into an arduous three-week march into the Vorarlberg, where his troops arrived, starving and exhausted, in mid-October.[20]\nNapoleon himself invaded Syria from Egypt, but after a failed siege of Acre retreated to Egypt, repelling a British-Turkish invasion. Alerted to the political and military crisis in France, he returned, leaving his army behind, and used his popularity and army support to mount a coup that made him First Consul, the head of the French government.[21]\nNapoleon Crossing the Alps by Jacques-Louis David. In one of the famous paintings of Napoleon, the Consul and his army are depicted crossing the Swiss Alps on their way to Italy. The daring maneuver surprised the Austrians and forced a decisive engagement at Marengo in June 1800. Victory there allowed Napoleon to strengthen his political position back in France.\nIn Italy, the Austrians under General Melas attacked first, and by the third week in April had advanced to the Var, with Massena and half his army in Genoa besieged by land, by the Austrians and under tight blockade by the Royal Navy. In response Berthier moved – not to the threatened frontier, but to Geneva – and Massena was instructed to hold Genoa until 4 June. The Army of the Reserve was joined by Napoleon, and in mid-May set out to cross the Alps to attack the Austrian rear. The bulk of the army crossed by the Great St Bernard Pass, still under snow, and by 24 May 40,000 troops were in the valley of the Po. Artillery was man-hauled over with great effort and ingenuity; however an Austrian-held fort on the Italian side (although bypassed by infantry and cavalry) prevented most of the artillery reaching the plains of Northern Italy until the start of June.\nOnce over the Alps, Napoleon did not proceed directly to the relief of Genoa. Instead, he advanced on Milan, to improve his lines of communication (via the Simplon and St Gotthard passes) and to threaten Melas's lines of communication with Mantua and Vienna, in the belief that this would cause Melas to raise the siege of Genoa. He entered Milan on 2 June and by crossing to the South bank of the Po completely cut Melas's communications. Taking up a strong defensive position at Stradella, he confidently awaited an attempt by the Austrian Army to fight its way out.\nHowever, Melas had not raised the siege of Genoa, and on 4 June, Masséna had duly capitulated. Napoleon then faced the possibility that, thanks to the British command of the Mediterranean, far from falling back, the Austrians could instead take Genoa as their new base and be supplied by sea. His defensive posture would not prevent this; he had to find and attack the Austrians before they could regroup. He therefore advanced from Stradella towards Alessandria, where Melas was, apparently doing nothing. Convinced that Melas was about to retreat, Napoleon sent strong detachments to block Melas's routes northwards to the Po, and southwards to Genoa. At this point, Melas attacked, and for all the brilliance of the previous campaign, Napoleon found himself at a significant disadvantage in the consequent Battle of Marengo (14 June). Napoleon and the French came under huge pressure in the early hours of the battle. Melas believed he had already won and turned over delivery of the final blow to a subordinate. Suddenly, the prompt return of a detached French force under Desaix and a vigorous French counter-attack converted the battle into a decisive French victory. The Austrians lost half of their army, but Desaix was one of the French victims.\nMelas promptly entered into negotiations, which led to the Austrians evacuating Northern Italy west of the Ticino and suspending military operations in Italy. Napoleon returned to Paris after the victory, leaving Brune to consolidate in Italy and begin a march toward Austria.\nIn the German theater, the armies of France and Austria faced each other across the Rhine at the beginning of 1800. Feldzeugmeister Pál Kray led approximately 120,000 troops. In addition to his Austrian regulars, his force included 12,000 men from the Electorate of Bavaria, 6,000 troops from the Duchy of Württemberg, 5,000 soldiers of low quality from the Archbishopric of Mainz, and 7,000 militiamen from the County of Tyrol. Of these, 25,000 men were deployed east of Lake Constance (Bodensee) to protect the Vorarlberg. Kray posted his main body of 95,000 soldiers in the L-shaped angle where the Rhine changes direction from a westward flow along the northern border of Switzerland to a northward flow along the eastern border of France. Unwisely, Kray set up his main magazine at Stockach, near the northwestern end of Lake Constance, only a day's march from French-held Switzerland.[22]\nGeneral Moreau at the Battle of Hohenlinden, a decisive French victory in Bavaria which precipitated the end of the Revolutionary Wars\nGeneral of Division Jean Victor Marie Moreau commanded a modestly-equipped army of 137,000 French troops. Of these, 108,000 troops were available for field operations while the other 29,000 watched the Swiss border and held the Rhine fortresses. First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte offered a plan of operations based on outflanking the Austrians by a push from Switzerland, but Moreau declined to follow it. Rather, Moreau planned to cross the Rhine near Basel where the river swung to the north. A French column would distract Kray from Moreau's true intentions by crossing the Rhine from the west. Bonaparte wanted Claude Lecourbe's corps to be detached to Italy after the initial battles, but Moreau had other plans.[23] Through a series of complicated maneuvers in which he flanked, double flanked, and reflanked Kray's army, Moreau's army lay on the eastern slope of the Black Forest, while portions of Kray's army was still guarded the passes on the other side.[24] On 3 May 1800 Moreau and Kray fought battles at Engen and Stockach. The fighting near Engen resulted in a stalemate with heavy losses on both sides. However, while the two main armies were engaged at Engen, Claude Lecourbe captured Stockach from its Austrian defenders under Joseph, Prince of Lorraine-Vaudemont. The loss of this main supply base at Stockach compelled Kray to order a retreat to Messkirch, where they enjoyed a more favourable defensive position. However, it also meant that any retreat by Kray into Austria via Switzerland and the Vorarlberg was cut off.[25]\nOn 4 and 5 May, the French launched repeated and fruitless assaults on the Messkirch. At nearby Krumbach, where the Austrians also had the superiority of position and force, the 1st Demi-Brigade took the village and the heights around it, which gave them a commanding aspect over Messkirch. Subsequently, Kray withdrew his forces to Sigmaringen, followed closely by the French. Fighting at nearby Biberach an der Ris ensued on 9 May; action principally consisted of the 25,000-man-strong French \"Center\", commanded by Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr.[26] After being flanked by General Moreau, who approached Ulm from the east and overwhelmed his outposts at Battle of Höchstädt, Kray retreated to Munich. Again, on 10 May, the Austrians withdrew with heavy losses, this time to Ulm.[27]\nA several month armistice followed, during which Kray was replaced by the Archduke John, with the Austrian army retiring behind the river Inn. Austrian reluctance to accept negotiated terms caused the French to end the armistice in mid-November, effective in two weeks. When the armistice ended, John advanced over the Inn towards Munich. His army was defeated in small engagements at the battles of Ampfing and Neuburg an der Donau, and decisively in the forests before the city at Hohenlinden on 3 December. Moreau began a march on Vienna, and the Austrians soon sued for peace, ending the war on the continent.\nFirst Battle of Algeciras\nBy 9 February, the Austrians had signed the Treaty of Lunéville, ending the war on the continent. The war against the United Kingdom continued (with Neapolitan harbours closed to her by the Treaty of Florence, signed on 28 March), and the Turks invaded Egypt in March, losing to Kléber at Heliopolis. The exhausted French force in Egypt, however, surrendered in August.\nThe naval war also continued, with the United Kingdom maintaining a blockade of France by sea. Non-combatants Russia, Prussia, Denmark, and Sweden joined to protect neutral shipping from British attacks, but were unsuccessful. British Admiral Horatio Nelson defied orders and attacked the Danish fleet in harbor at the Battle of Copenhagen, destroying much of the fleet of one of France's more steady allies during the period. An armistice prevented him from continuing into the Baltic Sea to attack the Russian fleet at Reval (Tallinn). Meanwhile, off Gibraltar, the outnumbered French squadron under Linois rebuffed a first British attack under Saumarez in the First Battle of Algeciras, capturing a line-of-battle ship. In the Second Battle of Algeciras, four days later, the British captured a French ship and sank two others, killing around 2000 French for the loss of 12 British.\nIn 1802, the British and French signed the Treaty of Amiens, ending the war. The peace held for less than a year but still constituted the longest period of peace between the two countries during the period 1793–1815. The treaty is generally considered to be the most appropriate point to mark the transition between the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars, although Napoleon was not crowned emperor until 1804.\nInfluence[edit]\nThe armies of the Revolution at Jemappes in 1792. With chaos internally and enemies on the borders, the French were in a period of uncertainty during the early years of the Revolutionary Wars. By 1797, however, France dominated much of Western Europe, conquering the Rhineland, the Netherlands, and the Italian peninsula while erecting a series of sister republics and puppet states stretching from Spain to the German heartland.\nThe French Revolution transformed nearly all aspects of French and European life. The powerful sociopolitical forces unleashed by a people seeking liberté, égalité, and fraternité made certain that even warfare was not spared this upheaval. 18th-century armies – with their rigid protocols, static operational strategy, unenthusiastic soldiers, and aristocratic officer classes – underwent massive remodeling as the French monarchy and nobility gave way to liberal assemblies obsessed with external threats. The fundamental shifts in warfare that occurred during the period have prompted scholars to identify the era as the beginning of \"modern war\".[28]\nIn 1791 the Legislative Assembly passed the \"Drill-Book\" legislation, implementing a series of infantry doctrines created by French theorists because of their defeat by the Prussians in the Seven Years' War.[29] The new developments hoped to exploit the intrinsic bravery of the French soldier, made even more powerful by the explosive nationalist forces of the Revolution. The changes also placed a faith on the ordinary soldier that would be completely unacceptable in earlier times; French troops were expected to harass the enemy and remain loyal enough to not desert, a benefit other Ancien Régime armies did not have.\nFollowing the declaration of war in 1792, an imposing array of enemies converging on French borders prompted the government in Paris to adopt radical measures. 23 August 1793, would become a historic day in military history; on that date the National Convention called a levée en masse, or mass conscription, for the first time in human history. By summer of the following year, conscription made some 500,000 men available for service and the French began to deal blows to their European enemies.[30]\nArmies during the Revolution became noticeably larger than their Holy Roman counterparts, and combined with the new enthusiasm of the troops, the tactical and strategic opportunities became profound. By 1797 the French had defeated the First Coalition, occupied the Low Countries, the west bank of the Rhine, and Northern Italy, objectives which had defied the Valois and Bourbon dynasties for centuries. Unsatisfied with the results, many European powers formed a Second Coalition, but by 1801 this too had been decisively beaten. Another key aspect of French success was the changes wrought in the officer classes. Traditionally, European armies left major command positions to those who could be trusted, namely, the aristocracy. The hectic nature of the French Revolution, however, tore apart France's old army, meaning new men were required to become officers and commanders.\nIn addition to opening a flood of tactical and strategic opportunities, the Revolutionary Wars also laid the foundation for modern military theory. Later authors that wrote about \"nations in arms\" drew inspiration from the French Revolution, in which dire circumstances seemingly mobilized the entire French nation for war and incorporated nationalism into the fabric of military history.[31] Although the reality of war in the France of 1795 would be different from that in the France of 1915, conceptions and mentalities of war evolved significantly. Clausewitz correctly analyzed the Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras to give posterity a thorough and complete theory of war that emphasized struggles between nations occurring everywhere, from the battlefield to the legislative assemblies, and to the very way that people think.[32] War now emerged as a vast panorama of physical and psychological forces heading for victory or defeat.\nMilitary career of Napoleon Bonaparte\nMilitary history of France\n^ The Austrian Netherlands and the Duchy of Milan were under direct Austrian rule. Many other Italian states, as well as other Habsburg ruled states such as the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, had close ties with the Habsburgs.\n^ a b Neutral following the Treaty of Basel in 1795.\n^ a b Became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on 1 January 1801.\n^ French invasion of Switzerland\n^ Virtually all of the Italian states, including the neutral Papal States and the Republic of Venice, were conquered following Napoleon's invasion in 1796 and became French satellite states.\n^ Most forces fled rather than engaging the invading French army. Allied with France in 1795 as the Batavian Republic following the Peace of Basel.\n^ War against Austria was actually announced in the National Assembly by then King Louis XVI of the French on 20 April 1792 while the kingdom still existed in name. (Constitutional) monarchy was suspended on 10 August following the assault on the Tuileries, and abolished 21 September 1792\n^ Started the Irish Rebellion of 1798 against British rule.\n^ Arrived in France following the abolition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth after the Third Partition in 1795.\n^ Re-entered the war as an ally of France after signing the Second Treaty of San Ildefonso.\n^ Officially neutral but Danish fleet was attacked by Great Britain at the Battle of Copenhagen.\n^ a b c d e f g h i Clodfelter 2017, p. 100.\n^ a b Clodfelter 2017, p. 103.\n^ TCW Blanning, The French Revolutionary Wars. pp. 78–79.\n^ TCW Blanning, The French Revolutionary Wars. pp. 254–55.\n^ a b Georges Lefebvre, The French Revolution Volume II: from 1793 to 1799 (1964) ch. 1.\n^ Lecky, William Edward Hartpole, A History of England in the Eighteenth Century Volume V (1890) p. 601\n^ Charles Esdaile (2002). The French Wars 1792–1815. Routledge. p. 7. ISBN 978-0203209745.\n^ William Doyle, The Oxford History of the French Revolution (1989) p. 194\n^ Jeremy Black (1994). British Foreign Policy in an Age of Revolutions, 1783–1793. p. 408. ISBN 978-0521466844.\n^ Lecky, William Edward Hartpole, A History of England in the Eighteenth Century Volume VI (1890) pp. 101–30\n^ Alan Forrest, Soldiers of the French Revolution (1989)\n^ Robert Forczyk, Toulon 1793: Napoleon's First Great Victory (2005)\n^ Paddy Griffith (1998). The Art of War of Revolutionary France, 1789–1802\n^ On War, Book II, Chapter 5, 24., Carl von Clausewitz, translated by Michael Howard, p. 188 ISBN 1-85715-121-6\n^ Paul Strathern, Napoleon in Egypt: The Greatest Glory (2007)\n^ Jourdan, p. 140.\n^ Masséna, commanding the Army of Switzerland, sent a Demi-brigade to secure the Swiss town of Schaffhausen, on the north shore of the Rhine, which guaranteed communications between the two forces. Jourdan, pp. 96–97.\n^ Jourdan, p. 97.\n^ Rothenberg, pp. 70–74; Jourdan, pp. 65–88, 96–100; Blanning, p. 232; ‹See Tfd›(in German) Ruth Broda. \"Schlacht von Ostrach:\" jährt sich zum 210. Mal – Feier am Wochenende. Wie ein Dorf zum Kriegsschauplatz wurde. In: Südkurier vom 13. Mai 2009.\n^ a b Young, pp. 230–345; Gallagher, p. 70–79; Jourdan, pp. 190–204.\n^ Georges Lefebvre, The French Revolution Volume II: from 1793 to 1799 (1964) ch 13\n^ Arnold, 197–199.\n^ Arnold, 199–201\n^ W.M. Sloane, Life of Napoleon. France, 1896, p. 109.\n^ Sloane, 109.\n^ Sloane, pp. 109–10.\n^ Digby Smith, Napoleonic Wars Databook. London: Greenhill Press, 1998, p. 178.\n^ Lester Kurtz and Jennifer Turpin, Encyclopedia of violence, peace and conflict, Volume 2. p. 425\n^ T. C. W. Blanning, The French Revolutionary Wars. p. 109\n^ Parker, Geoffrey. The Cambridge history of warfare. p. 189\n^ Peter Paret, Clausewitz and the State. p. 332\nClodfelter, M. (2017). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015 (4th ed.). Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland. ISBN 978-0786474707.\nAtkinson, Charles Francis; Hannay, David McDowall (1911). \"French Revolutionary Wars\" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 171–205.\nBertaud, Jean-Paul. The Army of the French Revolution: From Citizen-Soldiers to Instrument of Power (1988), a major French study\nBlack, Jeremy. British Foreign Policy in an Age of Revolutions, 1783–93 (1994)\nBlanning, T. C. W. The French Revolutionary Wars, 1787–1801. (1996) excerpt and text search\nBryant, Arthur. Years of Endurance 1793–1802 (1942); on Britain\nConnelly, Owen. The wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon, 1792–1815 (2006)\nCrawley, C. W., ed. The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 9: War and Peace in an Age of Upheaval, 1793–1830 (1965), comprehensive global coverage by experts\nDoughty, Robert, and Ira Gruber, eds. Warfare in the Western World: volume 1: Military operations from 1600 to 1871 (1996) pp. 173–94\nDupuy, Trevor N. and Dupuy, R. Ernest. The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History (2nd ed. 1970) pp. 678–93\nEsdaile, Charles. The French Wars 1792–1815 (2002) 113pp excerpt and text search, ch 1\nForrest, Alan. Soldiers of the French Revolution (1989)\nForrest, Alan. \"French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802)\" in Gordon Martel, ed. The Encyclopedia of War (2012).\nFremont-Barnes, Gregory. The French Revolutionary Wars (Essential Histories) (2013) excerpt and text search\nGardiner, Robert. Fleet Battle And Blockade: The French Revolutionary War 1793–1797 (2006), naval excerpt and text search\nGriffith, Paddy. The Art of War of Revolutionary France, 1789–1802 (1998) excerpt and text search; military topics, but not a battle history\nKnight, Roger. Britain Against Napoleon: The Organisation of Victory, 1793–1815 (2013)\nLavery, Brian. Nelson's Navy, Revised and Updated: The Ships, Men, and Organization, 1793–1815 (2nd ed. 2012)\nLefebvre, Georges. The French Revolution Volume II: from 1793 to 1799 (1964).\nLynn, John A. The Bayonets of the Republic: Motivation And Tactics In The Army Of Revolutionary France, 1791–94 (1984)\nRoberts, Andrew. Napoleon (2014), a major biography\nRodger, A.B. The War of the Second Coalition: 1798 to 1801, a strategic commentary (1964)\nRoss, Steven T. Quest for Victory; French Military Strategy, 1792–1799 (1973)\nRoss, Steven T. European Diplomatic History, 1789–1815: France Against Europe (1969)\nRothenberg, Gunther E. (1982). Napoleon's Great Adversaries: The Archduke Charles and the Austrian Army 1792–1814.\nRothenberg, Gunther E. \"The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon,\" Journal of Interdisciplinary History (1988) 18#4 pp. 771–93 in JSTOR\nSchroeder, Paul W. The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848 (Oxford University Press, 1996); advanced diplomatic history; pp. 100–230 online\nSchneid, Frederick C.: The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011. Retrieved 29 June 2011.\nvon Guttner, Darius. The French Revolution [1] (2015).\nHistoriography[edit]\nSimms, Brendan. \"Britain and Napoleon,\" Historical Journal (1998) 41#3 pp. 885–94 in JSTOR\nIn French[edit]\nAttar, Frank, La Révolution française déclare la guerre à l'Europe. ISBN 2-87027-448-3\nAttar, Frank, Aux armes citoyens ! Naissance et fonctions du bellicisme révolutionnaire. ISBN 2-0208-8891-2\nDeath of the Dauphin (4 June 1789)\nAbolition of Feudalism (4-11 Aug 1789)\nFête de la Fédération (14 Jul 1790)\nFrance declares war (20 Apr 1792)\nThe Death of Marat (painting)\nDanton and Desmoulins guillotined (5 Apr 1794)\nRobespierre guillotined (28 Jul 1794)\nConstitution of the Year III (22 Aug 1795)\n13 Vendémiaire 5 Oct 1795\nNamur [fr]\nExpédition de Sardaigne (21 Dec 1792 - 25 May 1793)\nFrench invasion of Switzerland (28 January – 17 May 1798)\nConvention of Alessandria (15 Jun 1800)\nJean-Baptiste Kléber\nPierre-Jacques Osten [fr]\nSociety of 1789\nGilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette\nFrançois Alexandre Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt\nIsaac René Guy le Chapelier\nHonoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau\nCharles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord\nNicolas de Condorcet\nPhilippe Égalité\nGracchus Babeuf\nTemple of Reason\nPhrygian cap\nView or order collections of articles\nFrance portal\nHistory portal\nPolitics portal\nWar portal\nfrom Wikibooks\nRetrieved from \"https:/w/index.php?title=French_Revolutionary_Wars&oldid=903610682\"\n1790s conflicts\nGlobal conflicts\n1790s in France\nWars involving Baden\nWars involving Denmark\nWars involving the Holy Roman Empire\nWars involving Ireland\nWars involving Italy\nWars involving Monaco\nWars involving the Kingdom of Naples\nWars involving the Netherlands\nWars involving Norway\nWars involving the Ottoman Empire\nWars involving the Papal States\nWars involving Poland\nWars involving Portugal\nWars involving the Russian Empire\nWars involving the United Kingdom\nWars involving the United States\nWars involving the Republic of Venice\nPages using military navigation subgroups without wide style\nRelated to French Revolutionary Wars\nThe War of the First Coalition is the traditional name of the wars that several European powers fought between 1792 and 1797 against the French First Republic. Despite the collective strength of these nations compared with France, they were not really allied and fought without much apparent coordination or agreement. Each power had its eye on a different part of France it wanted to appropriate after a French defeat, which never occurred.\nJean-Charles Pichegru was a distinguished French general of the Revolutionary Wars. Under his command, French troops overran Belgium and the Netherlands before fighting on the Rhine front. His royalist positions led to his loss of power and imprisonment in Cayenne, French Guiana during the Coup of 18 Fructidor in 1797. After escaping into exile in London and joining the staff of Alexander Korsakov, he returned to France and planned the Pichegru Conspiracy to remove Napoleon from power, which led to his arrest and death. Despite his defection, his surname is one of the names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe, on Column 3.\nJean-Baptiste Jourdan, 1st Comte Jourdan, enlisted as a private in the French royal army and rose to command armies during the French Revolutionary Wars. Emperor Napoleon I of France named him a Marshal of France in 1804 and he also fought in the Napoleonic Wars. After 1815, he became reconciled to the Bourbon Restoration. He was one of the most successful commanders of the French Revolutionary Army.\nThe War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802) was the second war on revolutionary France by the European monarchies, led by Britain, Austria and Russia, and including the Ottoman Empire, Portugal, Naples, various German monarchies and Sweden. Their goal was to contain the expansion of the French Republic and to restore the monarchy in France. They failed to overthrow the revolutionary regime and French territorial gains since 1793 were confirmed. In the Treaty of Lunéville in 1801, France held all of its previous gains and obtained new lands in Tuscany, Italy, while Austria was granted Venetia and the Dalmatian coast. Britain and France signed the Treaty of Amiens in March 1802, bringing an interval of peace in Europe that lasted for 14 months. By May 1803 Britain and France were again at war and in 1805 Britain assembled the Third Coalition to resume the war against France.\nItalian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars\nThe Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802) were a series of conflicts fought principally in Northern Italy between the French Revolutionary Army and a Coalition of Austria, Russia, Piedmont-Sardinia, and a number of other Italian states.\nDagobert Sigmund von Wurmser\nDagobert Sigismund, Count von Wurmser was an Austrian field marshal during the French Revolutionary Wars. Although he fought in the Seven Years' War, the War of the Bavarian Succession, and mounted several successful campaigns in the Rhineland in the initial years of the French Revolutionary Wars, he is probably most remembered for his unsuccessful operations against Napoleon Bonaparte during the 1796 campaign in Italy.\nArmy of Sambre and Meuse\nThe Army of Sambre and Meuse was one of the armies of the French Revolution. It was formed on 29 June 1794 by combining the Army of the Ardennes, the left wing of the Army of the Moselle and the right wing of the Army of the North. Its maximum paper strength was approximately 83,000.\nBattle of Würzburg\nThe Battle of Würzburg was fought on 3 September 1796 between an army of Habsburg Austria led by Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen and an army of the First French Republic led by Jean-Baptiste Jourdan. The French attacked the archduke's forces, but they were resisted until the arrival of reinforcements decided the engagement in favor of the Austrians. The French retreated west toward the Rhine River. The action occurred during the War of the First Coalition, part of the French Revolutionary Wars. Würzburg is 95 kilometres (59 mi) southeast of Frankfurt.\nArmy of the Rhine and Moselle\nThe Army of the Rhine and Moselle was one of the field units of the French Revolutionary Army. It was formed on 20 April 1795 by the merger of elements of the Army of the Rhine and the Army of the Moselle.\nBattle of Biberach (1800)\nThe Battle of Biberach on 9 May 1800 saw a French First Republic corps under Laurent Gouvion Saint-Cyr engage part of a Habsburg Austrian army led by Pál Kray. After an engagement in which the Austrians suffered twice as many casualties as the French, Kray withdrew to the east. The combat occurred during the War of the Second Coalition, part of the French Revolutionary Wars. Biberach an der Riss is located 35 kilometres (22 mi) southwest of Ulm.\nIn the Rhine Campaign of 1796, two First Coalition armies under the overall command of Archduke Charles outmaneuvered and defeated two French Republican armies. This was the last campaign of the War of the First Coalition, part of the French Revolutionary Wars.\nAction at Mannheim (1795)\nThe Action at Mannheim 1795 began in April 1795 when two French armies crossed the Rhine and converged on the confluence of the Main and the Rhine. Initial action at Mannheim resulted in a minor skirmish, but the Bavarian commander negotiated a quick truce with the French and withdrew. On 17 October 1795, 17,000 Habsburg Austrian troops under the command of Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser engaged 12,000 soldiers, led by Jean-Charles Pichegru in the grounds outside the city of Mannheim. In a combination of maneuvers, the Habsburg army forced 10,000 of the French forces to withdraw into the city itself; other French troops fled to join neighboring Republican armies. First Coalition forces then laid siege to Mannheim. Subsequent action at neighboring cities forced the French to withdraw further westward toward France; after a month's siege, the 10,000-strong Republican French garrison now commanded by Anne Charles Basset Montaigu surrendered to 25,000 Austrians commanded by Wurmser. This surrender brought the 1795 campaign in Germany to an end. The battle and siege occurred during the War of the First Coalition, part of the French Revolutionary Wars. Situated on the Rhine River at its confluence with the Neckar River, Mannheim lies in the federal state of Baden-Württemberg in modern-day Germany."

"LinkFang\nCategories Random article Search\nDansk Deutsch Esperanto Español Suomi Français Italiano Nederlands Polski Português Simple English Svenska\n16th-century King of France\nKing of France\nPortrait by François Clouet\n31 March 1547 – 10 July 1559\nFrancis II\n10 July 1559 (aged 40)\nHôtel des Tournelles\nSaint Denis Basilica\nCatherine de' Medici (m. 1533)\namong others...\nFrancis II, King of France\nElisabeth, Queen of Spain\nClaude, Duchess of Lorraine\nLouis, Duke of Orléans\nCharles IX, King of France\nHenry III, King of France\nMargaret, Queen of France\nFrancis, Duke of Anjou\nVictoria of Valois\nJoan of Valois\nValois-Angoulême\nFrancis I, King of France\nClaude, Duchess of Brittany\nHenry II (French: Henri II; 31 March 1519 – 10 July 1559) was King of France from 31 March 1547 until his death in 1559. The second son of Francis I, he became Dauphin of France upon the death of his elder brother Francis III, Duke of Brittany, in 1536.\nAs a child, Henry and his elder brother spent over four years in captivity in Spain as hostages in exchange for their father. Henry pursued his father's policies in matters of art, war, and religion. He persevered in the Italian Wars against the House of Habsburg and tried to suppress the Protestant Reformation, even as the Huguenot numbers were increasing drastically in France during his reign.\nThe Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559), which put an end to the Italian Wars, had mixed results: France renounced its claims to territories in Italy, but gained certain other territories, including the Pale of Calais and the Three Bishoprics. In addition, even if the Habsburgs maintained a position of primacy, France managed to change the European balance of power by forcing Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor to abdicate during the Eighth Italian War and divide the Habsburg Empire between Spain and Austria.\nHenry suffered an untimely death in a jousting tournament held to celebrate the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis. The king's surgeon, Ambroise Paré, was unable to cure the infected wound inflicted by Gabriel de Montgomery, the captain of his Scottish Guard. He was succeeded in turn by three of his sons, whose ineffective reigns helped to spark the French Wars of Religion between Protestants and Catholics.\n2 Reign\n2.1 Attitude towards Protestants\n2.2 Italian War of 1551–1559\n3 Patent innovation\n6 Portrayals\n8 Ancestry\nHenry was born in the royal Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, near Paris, the son of King Francis I and Claude, Duchess of Brittany (daughter of Louis XII of France and Anne, Duchess of Brittany, and a second cousin of her husband).\nHis father was captured at the Battle of Pavia in 1525 by the forces of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, and held prisoner in Spain.[1] To obtain his release, it was agreed that Henry and his older brother be sent to Spain in his place.[2] They remained in captivity for over four years.[3]\nHenry married Catherine de' Medici, a member of the ruling family of Florence, on 28 October 1533, when they were both fourteen years old. At this time, his elder brother was alive and there was little prospect of Henry coming to the throne. The following year, he became romantically involved with a thirty-five-year-old widow, Diane de Poitiers. Henry and Diane had always been very close: the young lady had fondly embraced Henry on the day he, as a 7-year-old child, set off to captivity in Spain, and the bond had been renewed after his return to France.[4] In a tournament to honor his father's new bride, Eleanor, Henry and his older brother were dressed as chevaliers, in which Henry wore Diane's colors.[4]\nExtremely confident, mature and intelligent, Diane left Catherine powerless to intervene.[5] She did, however, insist that Henry sleep with Catherine in order to produce heirs to the throne.[5]\nWhen his elder brother Francis, the Dauphin and Duke of Brittany, died in 1536 after a game of tennis, Henry became heir apparent to the throne. He succeeded his father on his 28th birthday and was crowned King of France on 25 July 1547 at Reims Cathedral.[6]\nAttitude towards Protestants\nHenry's reign was marked by wars with Austria and the persecution of Protestants, mainly Calvinists known as Huguenots. Henry II severely punished them, particularly the ministers, for example by burning at the stake or cutting off their tongues for uttering heresies.\nHenry II was made a Knight of the Garter, April 1551.[7]\nThe Edict of Châteaubriant (27 June 1551) called upon the civil and ecclesiastical courts to detect and punish all heretics and placed severe restrictions on Huguenots, including the loss of one-third of their property to informers, and confiscations. The Edict also strictly regulated publications by prohibiting the sale, importation or printing of any unapproved book. It was during the reign of Henry II that Huguenot attempts at establishing a colony in Brazil were made, with the short-lived formation of France Antarctique.[8]\nItalian War of 1551–1559\nMain article: Italian War of 1551–1559\nThe Eighth Italian War of 1551–1559, sometimes known as the Habsburg–Valois War, began when Henry declared war against Holy Roman Emperor Charles V with the intent of recapturing Italy and ensuring French, rather than Habsburg, domination of European affairs. Persecution of Protestants at home did not prevent Henry II from becoming allied with German Protestant princes at the Treaty of Chambord in 1552. Simultaneously, the continuation of his father's Franco-Ottoman alliance allowed Henry II to push for French conquests towards the Rhine while a Franco-Ottoman fleet defended southern France.[9] An early offensive into Lorraine was successful. Henry captured the three episcopal cities of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, and secured them by defeating the Habsburg army at the Battle of Renty in 1554.[10] However the attempted French invasion of Tuscany in 1553 was defeated at the Battle of Marciano.\nAfter the abdication of Charles V in 1556, the Habsburg empire was split between Philip II of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I. The focus of Henry's conflict with the Habsburgs shifted to Flanders, where Phillip, in conjunction with Duke Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy, defeated the French at the Battle of St. Quentin (1557). England's entry into the war later that year led to the French capture of Calais, and French armies plundered Spanish possessions in the Low Countries. Henry was nonetheless forced to accept the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis, in which he renounced any further claims to territories in Italy.[11]\nThe Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis was signed between Henry and Elizabeth I of England on 2 April[12] and between Henry and Philip II of Spain on 3 April 1559 at Le Cateau-Cambrésis. Under its terms, France restored Piedmont and Savoy to Duke Emmanuel Philibert, but retained Saluzzo, Calais, and the bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun. Spain retained Franche-Comté. Emmanuel Philibert married Henry's sister Margaret of France, Duchess of Berry, and Philip II of Spain married Henry's daughter Elizabeth of Valois.[13]\nHenry raised the young Mary, Queen of Scots, at his court, hoping to use her ultimately to establish a dynastic claim to Scotland. On 24 April 1558, Henry's fourteen-year-old son, the Dauphin Francis, married Mary. Had there been a son of this union, he would have been King of France and King of Scotland, and also a claimant to the throne of England. Henry had Mary sign secret documents, illegal in Scottish law, that would ensure Valois rule in Scotland even if Mary died without leaving a child by Francis.[14] (As it happened, Francis died without issue a year and half after his father, ending the French claim to Scotland.)\nPatent innovation\nMain article: History of patent law\nHenry II introduced the concept of publishing the description of an invention in the form of a patent. The idea was to require an inventor to disclose his invention in exchange for monopoly rights to the patent. The description is called a patent \"specification\". The first patent specification was submitted by the inventor Abel Foullon for \"Usaige & Description de l'holmetre\" (a type of rangefinder). Publication was delayed until after the patent expired in 1561.[15]\nHenry II was an avid hunter and a participant in jousts and tournaments. On 30 June 1559, a tournament was held near Place des Vosges to celebrate the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis with his longtime enemies, the Habsburgs of Austria, and to celebrate the marriage of his daughter Elisabeth of Valois to King Philip II of Spain. During a jousting match, King Henry, wearing the colors of his mistress Diane de Poitiers,[16] was wounded in the eye by a fragment of the splintered lance of Gabriel Montgomery, captain of the King's Scottish Guard.[17] Despite the efforts of royal surgeon Ambroise Paré, the king died of sepsis on 10 July 1559.[18] He was buried in a cadaver tomb in Saint Denis Basilica. Henry's death played a significant role in the decline of jousting as a sport, particularly in France.[19]\nAs Henry lay dying, Queen Catherine limited access to his bedside and denied his mistress Diane de Poitiers permission to see him, even though he repeatedly asked for her. Following his death, Catherine sent Diane into exile, where she lived in comfort on her own properties until her death.[16]\nIt was the practice to enclose the heart of the king in an urn. The Monument to the Heart of Henry II is in the collection of the Louvre, but was originally in the Chapel of Orleans beneath a pyramid. The original bronze urn holding the king's heart was destroyed during the French Revolution and a replica was made in the 19th century. The marble sculpture of the Three Graces holding the urn, executed from a single piece of marble by Germain Pilon, the sculptor to Catherine de' Medici, survives.[20]\nHenry was succeeded by his sickly fifteen-year-old son, Francis II. Francis was married to sixteen-year-old Mary, Queen of Scots, who had been his childhood friend and fiancée since her arrival at the French court when she was five. Francis II died 18 months later in 1560, and Mary returned to Scotland the following summer. Francis II was succeeded by his ten-year-old brother Charles IX. His mother, Catherine de Medici, acted as Regent.\nCatherine de' Medici bore 10 of Henry's children:[21] (See Children of Henry II of France and Catherine de' Medici)\nFrancis II, born 19 January 1544, who married Mary, Queen of Scots\nElizabeth of France, born 2 April 1545, who married Philip II, King of Spain\nClaude, born 12 November 1547, who married Charles III, Duke of Lorraine\nLouis, Duke of Orléans, born 3 February 1549, died 24 October 1550\nCharles IX, born 27 June 1550\nHenry III, born 19 September 1551, also briefly King of Poland\nMargaret, born 14 May 1553, who married Henry III, King of Navarre\nHercules, born 18 March 1555, later known as Francis, Duke of Alençon and Anjou.\nVictoria, born 24 June 1556, died 17 August 1556\nJoan, stillborn 24 June 1556\nHenry II also had three illegitimate children:\nBy Filippa Duci:[22]\nDiane, duchesse d'Angoulême (1538–1619). At the age of fourteen, the younger Diane married Orazio Farnese, Duke of Castro,[23] who died in battle in 1553. Her second marriage was to François, Duke of Montmorency.[24]\nBy Lady Janet Stewart (1508–1563), the illegitimate daughter of James IV of Scotland:[25]\nHenri d'Angoulême (1551 – June 1586).[26] He was legitimized and became governor of Provence.\nBy Nicole de Savigny:\nHenri de Saint-Rémy (1557–1621).[27] He was given the title of Count of Saint-Rémy. One of his last descendants was Jeanne de Valois-Saint-Rémy, Countess de la Motte, famous for her role in the Affair of the Diamond Necklace at the court of Louis XVI.\nHenri or Henry has had three notable portrayals on the screen.\nHe was played by a young Roger Moore in the 1956 film Diane, opposite Lana Turner in the title role and Marisa Pavan as Catherine de Medici.[28]\nIn the 1998 film Ever After, the Prince Charming figure who is portrayed by Dougray Scott, shares his name with the historical monarch.[29]\nIn the 2013 CW series Reign he is played by Alan van Sprang.[30]\n^ Tazón 2003, p. 16.\n^ Knecht 1984, p. 189. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFKnecht1984 (help)\n^ Watkins 2009, pp. 79–80.\n^ a b Wellman 2013, p. 197.\n^ Thevet 2010, pp. 24–25.\n^ Loach 2014, p. 107.\n^ Felix & Juall 2016, p. 2.\n^ Inalcik 1995, p. 328.\n^ Thevet 2010, p. 92.\n^ Konnert 2006, p. 97.\n^ Nolan 2006, p. 127.\n^ Knecht 2000, p. 1.\n^ Guy 2012, p. 91.\n^ Frumkin 1945, p. 143.\n^ Baumgartner 1988, p. 250.\n^ Barber, Richard; Barker, Juliet (1 January 1989). Tournaments: Jousts, Chivalry and Pageants in the Middle Ages. Boydell. pp. 134, 139. ISBN 978-0-85115-470-1.\n^ Goldberg 1966, p. 206-218.\n^ Anselme 1726, pp. 134–136.\n^ Merrill 1935, p. 133.\n^ Baumgartner 1988, p. 70.\n^ Lanza 2007, p. 29.\n^ Sealy 1981, p. 206.\n^ Wellman 2013, p. 212.\n^ Knecht 2014, p. 38.\n^ Diane at the TCM Movie Database\n^ Ever After at AllMovie\n^ Wilford, Denette (16 October 2013). \"'Reign' Cast Gets Down And Dirty With Details on Royal TV Show\" . The Huffington Post. Retrieved 7 February 2014.\n^ a b Knecht, R.J. (1984). Francis I. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–2.\n^ a b Anselme de Sainte-Marie, Père (1726). Histoire généalogique et chronologique de la maison royale de France [Genealogical and chronological history of the royal house of France] (in French). 1 (3rd ed.). Paris: La compagnie des libraires. pp. 134–136.\n^ a b c d e Adams, Tracy (2010). The Life and Afterlife of Isabeau of Bavaria. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 255.\n^ a b c Gicquel, Yvonig (1986). Alain IX de Rohan, 1382-1462: un grand seigneur de l'âge d'or de la Bretagne (in French). Éditions Jean Picollec. p. 480. ISBN 9782864770718.\n^ a b Jackson-Laufer, Guida Myrl (1999). Women Rulers Throughout the Ages: An Illustrated Guide . ABC-CLIO. p. 231 .\n^ a b c d Wilson, Katharina M. (1991). An Encyclopedia of Continental Women Writers . Taylor & Francis. p. 258. ISBN 9780824085476.\n^ a b Robin, Diana Maury; Larsen, Anne R.; Levin, Carole (2007). Encyclopedia of Women in the Renaissance: Italy, France, and England . ABC-CLIO. p. 20. ISBN 978-1851097722.\n^ a b Palluel-Guillard, André. \"La Maison de Savoie\" (in French). Conseil Savoie Mont Blanc. Retrieved 28 June 2018.\n^ a b Leguai, André (2005). \"Agnès de Bourgogne, duchesse de Bourbon (1405?-1476)\". Les ducs de Bourbon, le Bourbonnais et le royaume de France à la fin du Moyen Age [The dukes of Bourbon, the Bourbonnais and the kingdom of France at the end of the Middle Ages] (in French). Yzeure: Société bourbonnaise des études locales. pp. 145–160.\n^ a b Anselme 1726, p. 207\n^ a b Desbois, François Alexandre Aubert de la Chenaye (1773). Dictionnaire de la noblesse (in French). 6 (2nd ed.). p. 452. Retrieved 28 June 2018.\nAnselme de Sainte-Marie, Père (1726). Histoire généalogique et chronologique de la maison royale de France [Genealogical and chronological history of the royal house of France] (in French). 1 (3rd ed.). Paris: La compagnie des libraires. pp. 134–136.\nBaumgartner, Frederic J (1988). Henry II, King of France, 1547–1559 . Duke University Press. CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)\nInalcik, Halil (1995). \"The Heyday and Decline of the Ottoman Empire\". In Holt, P.M.; Lambton, Ann Katherine Swynford; Lewis, Bernard (eds.). The Cambridge History of Islam. Vol. 1A. Cambridge University Press. CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)\nFelix, Regina R.; Juall, Scott D., eds. (2016). Cultural Exchanges Between Brazil and France. Purdue University Press. CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)\nFrumkin, M. (1945). \"The Origin of Patent\". Journal of the Patent Office Society. XXVII (No. 3 March). CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)\nGoldberg, Victoria L. (1966). \"Graces, Muses, and Arts: The Urns of Henry II and Francis I\". Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes. 29. CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)\nGuy, John (2012). My Heart is my Own: The Life of Mary Queen of Scots. Penguin Books Ltd. CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)\nKnecht, R.J. (1984). Francis I. Cambridge University Press. CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)\nKnecht, R.J. (2000). The French Civil Wars, 1562–1598. Pearson Education Ltd. CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)\nKnecht, R. J. (2014). Catherine De'Medici. Routledge. CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)\nKonnert, Mark (2006). Early Modern Europe: The Age of Religious War, 1559–1715. University of Toronto Press. CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)\nLanza, Janine M (2007). From Wives to Widows in Early Modern Paris: Gender, Economy, and Law. Ashgate Publishing. CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)\nLoach, Jennifer (2014). Edward VI. Yale University Press. CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)\nMerrill, Robert V. (1935). \"Considerations on \"Les Amours de I. du Bellay\"\". Modern Philology. 33 (No. 2 Nov.). CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)\nNolan, Cathal J., ed. (2006). \"Cateau-Cambresis\". The Age of Wars of Religion, 1000–1650: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization. Vol. 1. Greenwood Press. CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)\nNostradamus, César (1614). Histoire et Chronique de Provence. Simon Rigaud. CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)\nSealy, Robert J. (1981). The Palace Academy of Henry III. Droz. CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)\nTazón, Juan E. (2003). The life and times of Thomas Stukeley (c.1525–78). Ashgate Publishing Ltd. CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)\nThevet, André (2010). Portraits from the French Renaissance and the Wars of Religion. Translated by Benson, Edward. Truman State University Press. CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)\nThorndike, Lynn (1941). History of Magic and Experimental Science . Volume 6. New York: Columbia University Press. Retrieved 23 October 2017. CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)\nWatkins, John (2009). \"Marriage a la Mode, 1559:Elisabeth de Valois, Elizabeth I, and the Changing Practice of Dynastic Marriage\". In Levin, Carole; Bucholz, R. O. (eds.). Queens and Power in Medieval and Early Modern England. University of Nebraska Press. CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)\nWellman, Kathleen (2013). Queens and Mistresses of Renaissance France. Yale University Press. CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Henry II of France.\nHenry II of France History Today V.59 I9.\nMichael Servetus Research- Naturalization Scholarly graphical study on a document issued by Henry II of France in 1548 & 1549\nHouse of Valois, Orléans-Angoulême branch\nCadet branch of the Capetian dynasty\nBorn: 31 March 1519 Died: 10 July 1559\nRegnal titles\nFrancis I King of France\n31 March 1547 – 10 July 1559 Succeeded by\nFrench nobility\nLouis II Duke of Orléans\nFrancis III Duke of Brittany\n10 August 1536 – 31 March 1547 Merged in crown\nFrancis Dauphin of France\n10 August 1536 – 31 March 1547 Succeeded by\nCategories: Henry II of France | 1519 births | 1559 deaths | 16th-century kings of France | Ancien Régime in France | Anti-Protestantism | Dauphins of France | Dauphins of Viennois | French book and manuscript collectors | House of Valois-Angoulême | Knights of the Garter | Nostradamus | People from Saint-Germain-en-Laye | Sport deaths in France | Burials at the Basilica of St Denis | 1540s in France | 1550s in France | 16th-century peers of France\nInformation as of: 10.06.2020 10:18:32 CEST\nSource: Wikipedia (Authors [History]) License : CC-by-sa-3.0\nChanges: All pictures and most design elements which are related to those, were removed. Some Icons were replaced by FontAwesome-Icons. Some templates were removed (like \"article needs expansion) or assigned (like \"hatnotes\"). CSS classes were either removed or harmonized.\nWikipedia specific links which do not lead to an article or category (like \"Redlinks\", \"links to the edit page\", \"links to portals\") were removed. Every external link has an additional FontAwesome-Icon. Beside some small changes of design, media-container, maps, navigation-boxes, spoken versions and Geo-microformats were removed.\nPlease note: Because the given content is automatically taken from Wikipedia at the given point of time, a manual verification was and is not possible. Therefore LinkFang.org does not guarantee the accuracy and actuality of the acquired content. If there is an Information which is wrong at the moment or has an inaccurate display please feel free to contact us: email.\nSee also: Legal Notice & Privacy policy.\n© LinkFang.org 2020 Legal Notice Privacy policy"

"Kings, Queens: Renaissance\nParis Art Studies - The French Renaissance – Royal Reigns 1498-1610\nLouis XII (1462-1515) - Reign: 1498-1515\n1498 – Death of Charles VIII without living descendants, is succeeded by his unloved brother Louis, Duc d'Orléans.\n1499 – Louis has his marriage with the crippled, retarded and sterile Jeanne de France (arranged by his brother) annulled. Instead he marries his brother's widow Anne de Bretagne, thus keeping the duchy of Brittany within the kingdom.\nThe King invades Italy and conquers Milan.\n1501 – Unsuccessful invasion of Kingdom of Naples.\n1504-05 – The Blois treaties put an end to French pretensions in Italy. Louis' daughter Claude is engaged to Charles of Hapsburg the future Emperor Charles V.\n1506 – Engagement is annulled and Claude is betrothed instead to François d'Angoulême, heir presumptive to the French throne.\n1511 – Pope Julius II forms a Holy League alliance to rid Italy of the occupying French.\n1513 – French loose battle of Novarra and withdraw from Milan.\n1514 – Holy League is dislocated. Louis, now a widower, marries Mary Tudor sister of Henry VIII of England.\n1515 – The King dies without having produced a son and heir.\nFrançois I (1494-1547) - Reign: 1515 -1547\n1515 – François I, son of Charles d'Angoulême and Louise of Savoy, succeeds his father-in-law and cousin. François re-conquers Milan after a brilliant victory at Marignan.\n1516 – Signs treaty (concordat) with Pope enabling him to name French bishops and abbots and control church property in France. Crown now becomes an almost endless source of revenue yielding appointments and favors for its clients binding them closer to the central authority of the King.\n1519 – After the death of Maximilian, Charles, King of Spain is elected Holy Roman Emperor as Charles V with the aid of the German banker Fugger. He asserts his rights on the duchy of Burgundy. Beginning of château de Chambord.\n1521 – Beginning of hostilities between King and Emperor. Charles V takes Milan.\n1524 – Death of Queen Claude who has given 7 children to the King.\n1525 – François I captured by Imperial troops at siege of Pavia and taken as prisoner to Madrid.\n1526 – Liberation of the King after his agreement to cede Flanders, Artois, Burgundy and his Italian possessions to the Emperor.\n1527 – Alliance signed with Henry VIII of England. War against Emperor resumes.\n1528 – Beginning of expansion of château de Fontainebleau (completed 1540).\n1529 – Treaty of Cambrai ends war. France regains Burgundy and François I agrees to marry Charles' sister Eleanor of Austria.\n1530 – Foundation of Collège des lecteurs royaux, future Collège de France.\n1532 – Publication of Rabelais' Pantagruel, followed by Gargantua in 1534. Beginning of construction of St Eustache in Paris.\n1533 – Marriage of Dauphin Henri with Catherine de Medici, niece of Pope Clement VII.\n1534 – Strong royal reaction to Protestant anti catholic tracts (affaire des Placards).\n1536 – Treaty with Ottoman sultan. Renewed invasion of Italy.\n1538 – Truce signed with Emperor in Nice.\n1540 – Edict of Fontainebleau reinforces repression of Protestants.\n1542 – Renewed attack of Charles V on French frontiers.\n1544 – Treaty of Crépy brings hostilities to an end, the French keep Burgundy and renounce definitely on Artois and Flanders. The English occupy Boulogne.\n1546 – Beginning of Lescot wing of the Louvre.\n1547 – Death of Henry VIII of England. Death of François I from the consequences of syphilis.\nHenri II (1519-1559) - Reign: 1547-1559\n1547 – Henri, second son of François I, succeeds his father. At 7 he had been given as a hostage to the Spanish to ensure his father's liberation. Released at the age of 10 he was educated by Diane de Poitiers who will later become his mistress. He was married to Catherine de Medici without much enthusiasm in 1533. At the death of this older brother François in 1536 he became the Dauphin. His principal advisors, the Montmorencys and the Guise encourage his hostility to the Empire and the Protestants in France.\n1548 – Arrival of Mary Stuart in France to marry the Dauphin François (the wedding will take place in 1558).\n1551 – Intensification of anti-Protestant campaign by the creation of \"chambres ardentes\", religious courts of law.\n1553 – Beginning of hostilities with the Empire and later England.\n1559 – The Cateau-Cambresis treaty brings the war to an end. France renounces on her Italian possessions and pretensions.\nThe king is gravely wounded in the eye in a tournament in Paris organized in honor of his daughters Elisabeth, betrothed to Philip II of Spain, and Marguerite, betrothed to the Duke of Savoy. He dies two days later."

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"The International Tax Review is running a long article covering TJN's recent report which savages the OECD's Global Forum process, regarded by many as the world's predominant process for tackling tax haven abuse. It gives Pascal Saint-Amans of the OECD a right of reply.\n\"When I first heard the OECD talk about automatic information exchange, I had dark hair,\" said Christensen. \"I now have white hair and we're still waiting to move beyond vague discussion.\"\nIndeed. More from Christian Chavagneux on this same subject, here."

"This course aims that students should be able to demonstrate an understanding of the tax provisions enabling them to make use of legitimate tax shelters, deductions, exceptions, rebates and allowances; with the ultimate aim of minimising the corporate tax liability.\nComputation of taxable income, MAT, Set off & carry forward of losses in companies, Deductions from Gross total income applicable to companies, Concept of avoidance of double taxation.\nAn overview of wealth tax provisions to the extent applicable to companies.\nAn overview of Sales Tax (VAT), MODVAT."

"We are pleased to publish another SPERI Global Political Economy Brief – No. 8 in the series. The authors are John Mikler and Ainsley Elbra, both of the University of Sydney, and the title of their Brief is Paying a 'Fair Share': Multinational Corporations' Perspectives on Taxation.\nIn the Brief Mikler and Elbra address the issue of global corporate tax avoidance and consider how multinational corporations (MNCs) can be made to pay their fair share of tax. They focus in particular on the strategies to avoid taxation deployed by Apple and Google and consider in depth the public enquiries undertaken in the United States, Australia and the United Kingdom into the methods of avoidance adopted.\nAs the major headquarters for MNCs, including those most heavily implicated by their aggressive tax avoidance strategies, the United States must take the lead in regulating them to pay their fair share of tax at home and abroad."

"Get excited about the 2016 Hyundai Sonata. With less than 20,000 miles on the odometer, this 4 door sedan prioritizes comfort, safety and convenience. It features a front-wheel-drive platform, an automatic transmission, and a 2.4 liter 4 cylinder engine. It's equipped with tons of terrific amenities, but it won't break your budget. Such as remote keyless entry, front and rear reading lights, 1-touch window functionality, a tachometer, speed sensitive wipers, tilt and telescoping steering wheel, heated door mirrors, and cruise control. Premium sound drives 6 speakers, providing you and your passengers a sensational audio experience. Hyundai ensures the safety and security of its passengers with equipment such as: dual front impact airbags with occupant sensing airbag, head curtain airbags, traction control, brake assist, a security system, an emergency communication system, and 4 wheel disc brakes with ABS. This car was designed with safety in mind, allowing you to drive with even greater assurance. This vehicle has achieved Certified Pre-Owned status, by passing Hyundai's comprehensive certification process, including a rigorous 150 point inspection! We pride ourselves in the quality that we offer on all of our vehicles. Please don't hesitate to give us a call."

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"Porte d'Aix (also known as the Porte Royale) is a triumphal arch in Marseille, in the south of France, marking the old entry point to the city on the road from Aix-en-Provence. The classical design by Michel-Robert Penchaud was inspired by the triumphal arches of the Roman Empire. The Porte d'Aix was initially conceived in 1784 to honour Louis XVI and to commemorate the Peace of Paris (1783) that ended the American Revolutionary War. Following the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in 1814–15, the project was resumed in 1823, now to commemorate French victories in the Spanish Expedition, notably at the Battle of Trocadero, August 31, 1823. It was eventually completed in 1839, with a more general theme of victory.\n\nHistory\nIn 1660 Louis XIV descended on Marseille to bring order to a city in political turmoil. His troops blasted a hole in the old thirteenth century ramparts that ran the length of the rue d'Aix between the city gates of \"Porte Royale\" and \"Porte d'Aix\". Part of the subsequent reorganisation of Marseille involved not only an increased military presence, demolition of the old ramparts, new royal shipyards (Arsenal des Galères) and seaward fortifications, but also a new governing body drawn from the merchant class, charged with making plans to expand and beautify the city. From an early stage these plans included the reconstruction of the Porte Royale and the removal of the unsightly overground aqueduct (aqueduc de l'Huveaune) in the place d'Aix at the end of the rue d'Aix: the original porte d'Aix was formed by \nthe arches of this aqueduct. Numerous projects for city plans were proposed, including one by Pierre Puget, placing a ceremonial Porte Royale in the place d'Aix.\n\nEventually in 1784 the city of Marseille decided to use the profits generated by the sale of the royal shipyards to erect a royal triumphal arch in the place d'Aix \"to the glory of Louis XIV and to commemorate the peace gloriously achieved, putting an end to the war of independence in America\". Already delayed by local officialdom, the project was abandoned during the French Revolution and Napoleonic rule. Following the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy, the project was resumed in 1823 by the mayor of Marseille, the Marquis de Montgrand, under royal charter from Louis XVIII; this time it was intended to commemorate the victory of Louis-Antoine, Duke of Angoulême, son of the future king Charles X, at the Battle of Trocadero that resulted in the restoration of Ferdinand VII as king of Spain.\n\nThe first stone was laid in 1825 by the Marquis de Montgrand with a dedication to the royal family. The aqueduct was demolished three years later to clear the place d'Aix. The project, however, was to suffer yet again from changes in regime in France. Although the main construction work started under Charles X, it was only completed under Louis-Philippe in 1839; and, with the intervening political changes in France, the monument could no longer just celebrate the campaign of the Duke of Angoulême, but instead the more general theme of French victories.\n\nArchitecture\n Michel-Robert Penchaud, the architect of the monument, probably took as his model the Arch of Titus on the Via Sacra in Rome, although elements are present from other Roman triumphal arches such as the Arches of Trajan and the Arch of Constantine. Responsibility for the stonework was put in the hands of the Italian mason Gaétan Cantini, father of the sculptor Jules Cantini. The ornamental sculpture was entrusted to the Parisian sculptor Antoine-André Marneuf who took his inspiration from the Roman triumphal arch at Orange; the statuary and bas-reliefs were commissioned from David d'Angers and Etienne-Jules Ramey.\n \nThe main facades depict the battles of Fleurus, Héliopolis, Marengo and Austerlitz. The two bas-reliefs under the portico depict the call to the defense of liberty (David d'Angers) and the return of the victorious heroes (Ramey). Eight giant allegorical statues, almost 3m high, were placed in the attic representing the Virtues. On the north facade David d'Angers completed Devotion, Prudence, Resignation and Fortitude in 1835; Ramey only finished Vigilance, Clemency, Energy and Temperance on the south facade in 1839. Unfortunately, because the stone was not properly weather-proof, the statues started to erode. In 1921 they were repaired using reinforced concrete; nevertheless in 1937 six of the heads rolled off onto the street below. In later restoration of the arch in 2003, only four of the statues were kept, those of David d'Angers, on the north facade.\n\nProbably because of its location, the triumphal arch is a monument that is often undeservedly overlooked. Composed of a single arch and an attic supported by four corinthian columns, its harmony is inspired by the monuments of antiquity. Its height and width are identical, just under 18m, fitting it precisely with a square, one of the \"perfect\" geometric forms. It is easy to reach from two metro stations Jules Guesde and Colbert and is in walking distance from the main railway station, Gare de Marseille Saint Charles.\n\nGallery of photos\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n De la porte royale à la porte d'Aix : Projets successifs de l'Arc de Triomphe à la Porte d'Aix, à Marseille (du XVIe au XIXe siècle), Musée d'Histoire de Marseille, 1989, 55 pages,\n\nExternal links\n Arc de Triomphe de la Porte d'Aix\n French history in French\n\nBuildings and structures in Marseille\nTerminating vistas in France\nTriumphal arches in France\nTourist attractions in Marseille\n1839 establishments in France\nBuildings and structures completed in 1839\n19th-century architecture in France"

"In 1660 Louis XIV descended on Marseille to a political turmoil. His troops blasted a hole in the thirteenth century ramparts that ran the length of the rue d'Aix between the city gates of \"Porte Royale\" and \"Porte d'Aix\". Part of the subsequent reorganization of Marseille Involved not only year Increased military presence, demolition of the old ramparts, new Royal Shipyards ( Arsenal of Galleys ) and seaward fortifications, goal aussi a new governing body drawn from the merchant class, charged with making planes to expand and beautify the city. From an early stage these plans include the reconstruction of the Royal Gate and the removal of the unsightly overground aqueduct ( aqueduct of the Huveaune) in the place of Aix at the end of the rue d'Aix: the original door of Aix was formed by the arches of this aqueduct. [3] Numerous projects for city plans were proposed, including one by Pierre Puget , placing a ceremonial Porte Royale in the Place d'Aix.\nEventually in 1784 the city of Marseilles decided to use the profits generated by the royal shipyards to erect a royal triumphal arch in the place of Aix \" to the glory of Louis XIV and commemorate the peace gloriously achieved , putting an end to the war of independence in America \". [4] Already delayed by local officialdom, the project was abandoned during the French Revolution and Napoleonic rule . Following the restoration of the Bourbon Monarchy, the project was resumed in 1823 by the mayor of Marseille, the Marquis de Montgrand, under royal charter from Louis XVIII ; this time it was intended to commemorate the victoryLouis-Antoine, Duke of Angoulême , son of the future king Charles X , at the Battle of Trocadero That resulted in the restoration of Ferdinand VII as King of Spain.\nThe first stone was laid in 1825 by the Marquess of Montgrand with a dedication to the royal family. [5] The aqueduct was demolished three years later to clear the place of Aix. [6] The project, however, was still in France. Although the construction work started under Charles X , it was only completed under Louis Philippe in 1839; and, with the intervening political changes in France, but rather the more general theme of French victories.\nMichel-Robert Penchaud, the architect of the monument, [7] probably took his arch of Titus on the Via Sacra in Rome , the elements are present from other Roman triumphal arches such as the Arches of Trajan and the Arch of Constantine . [8] Gaétan Cantini, father of the sculptor Jules Cantini, was responsible for the stonework. [9] The ornamental sculpture was entrusted to the Parisian sculptor Antoine-André Marneuf who took his inspiration from the Roman triumphal arch at Orange; the statuary and bas-reliefs were commissioned from David d'Angers and Etienne-Jules Ramey .\nThe main facades depict the battles of Fleurus , Heliopolis , Marengo and Austerlitz . The two bas-reliefs under the portico depict the call to the defense of liberty (David of Angers) and the return of the victorious heroes (Ramey). Eight giant allegorical statues, almost 3m high, were placed in the attic of the Virtues . David of Angers completed Devotion , Prudence , Resignation and Fortitude in 1835; Ramey only finished Vigilance, Clemency , Energy and Temperance on the south facade in 1839. Unfortunately, Because The Stone Was not Properly weather-proof, the statues started to erode. In 1921 they were repaired using reinforced concrete; nevertheless in 1937 six of the heads rolled off onto the street below. In later restoration of the arch in 2003, only four of the statues were kept, those of David of Angers, on the north facade.\nProbably because of its location, the triumphal arch is a monument that is often undeservedly overlooked. Composed of a single arch and an attic supported by four corinthian columns , its harmony is inspired by the monuments of antiquity. Its height and width are identical, just under 18m, with one square, one of the \"perfect\" geometric forms. It is easy to reach from two metro stations Jules Guesdeand Colbert and is in walking distance from the main railway station, Marseille Saint Charles Station . [10]\nJump up^ My Travel Guide – Triumphal Arch of the Porte d'Aix\nJump up^ My Travel Guide – Aix Gate; Why Travel France – Porte d'Aix\nJump up^ Pierre-Martin Roux, The Provençal Observer of Medical Sciences, dedicated to Hippocrates (1825), page 245. (Digitized book.)\nJump up^ Municipal Archives, BB219, folio 87, City Council, June 30th 1784: the city council petitionedLouis XVIto allow them to erect \"a triumphal arch to the glory of Louis XIV and in memory of peace gloriously concluded, putting end to America's War of Independence\".\nJump up^ The inscription in French reads:\nThis triumphal arch\nWas voted on October 17, 1823 by the city of Marseille To pay a glowing tribute To the glory gained in Spain By the French army and its illustrious leader, HRH the Duke of Angouleme Since dolphin of France. His majesty Louis XVIII, glorious memory Permit, by royal decree of December 30, 1823, The erection of this monument of love and gratitude\nTo his august family\nJump up^ One archway of the old aqueduct in the forefront of the modernRegional Council.\nJump up^ Marseille and its heritage (Tourist Office of Marseille)\nJump up^ The booklet of the Marseille History Museum suggests theArch of TrajanatBeneventoas one of the possible models.\nJump up^ Cantini produced the monumental fountain in place Castellane and bequeathed the Cantini Museum to the city.\nJump up^ Porte d'Aix history (in French)\nCategories Buildings and structures in Marseille, Marseille\tPost navigation"

"Following the review of the Primary Curriculum in 2008, there is now one single entry into the Reception class. This simply means entry to reception class should be the September following a child's fourth birthday and that children no longer start in January or April. Places in reception are handled by the Learning Trust. Applications are available in the school office or can be made online.\nAt the beginning of the year each child is allocated a key worker and will have different settling in period depending if they had attanded Holmleigh Primary School Nursery or not. Please read the booklet to find out more. In order to help our children settle to school life as quickly and as happily as possible we invite parent(s)/carers to an open day in the Reception class before thier child starts. The Open day will give you and your child an opportunity to visit their new setting, form relationships with key persons and to provide you with the opportunity to ask any questions you may have.\nOur curriculum is based on Early Years Foundation Stage. It sets the standards that all early years' providers must meet to ensure that children learn and develop well and are kept healthy and safe. It gives children the broad range of knowledge and skills that provide the right foundation for good future progress through school and life.\nPlease take a look at our Reception Booklet below. You'll find everthing you need to know for Reception!"

"Free Books / Reference / The American Cyclopaedia /\nCharles III (Of Spain)\nThis section is from \"The American Cyclopaedia\", by George Ripley And Charles A. Dana. Also available from Amazon: The New American Cyclopædia. 16 volumes complete..\nCharles III., king of Spain and of the Two Sicilies, second son of Philip V. and Elizabeth Farnese, born Jan. 20, 1710, died Dec. 13, 1788. Since his elder brother Ferdinand would by right succeed to the Spanish throne, Charles's ambitious mother began almost at his birth to make schemes for gaining for him a separate kingdom; and it was through her efforts that the emperor Charles VI. was forced to grant, among the first concessions he made to secure Spain's consent to the pragmatic sanction, the possession of the duchies of Parma and Piacenza in Italy. To these duchies was to be added Tuscany so soon as the extinction of the line of the Medici, the last of whose race now ruled over it, should leave its throne vacant. This happened before Charles was 14 years old; and in 1731 his father sent him to the Spanish army in Italy, to occupy his new possessions. In 1734, during the war excited by the question of the Polish election (see Charles VI., Germany), he led the Spanish troops into Naples and subdued that country; he conquered Sicily also, and the emperor Charles VI. was compelled to confirm him in his possession of both kingdoms, under the title of king of the Two Sicilies, before Spain would consent to give its full assent to the Austrian plan of succession, the recognition of which it was the aim of nearly all Charles VI.'s later treaties to secure.\nThe first years of his reign, during the continuance of war, were occupied only with the defence of his kingdom; but on the return of peace he turned his attention to its internal administration, and governed with much wisdom and skill. In 1759 his brother Ferdinand VI. died, and Charles succeeded to the Spanish throne. He now conferred the kingdom of the Two Sicilies on his third son, Ferdinand, decreeing at the same time that it should not henceforth be united with Spain. In Spain Charles gratified the hopes excited by his excellent rule in Naples and Sicily. He undertook extensive reforms in the administration of the finances; introduced, in spite of the opposition of the clergy, many liberal provisions into the laws relating to education and religious administration; restricted the power of the inquisition, and put an end to the interference of the Jesuits in political atfairs, finally banishing them from the kingdom (see Aranda); reestablished the coinage on the former basis; encouraged the institution of a bank at Madrid; and established societies for the promotion of the arts and sciences. In the war which ended with the recognition of American independence, Spain took part against England, but with small success.\nAn attempt against Algiers also attained but slight results; and Charles's reign is rather remembered for its internal improvements than for its foreign policy.\nprev: Charles II. Laverdiere\nnext: Charles III Of Durazzo"

"Sword of the Last King of Cilicia – Levon VI Lusignan\nMay 28, 2019Antiquities, HistoryComments: 0\nThe sword of Levon VI (sometimes Leo V or VI) Lusignan, the last king of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, is now kept in the Mekhitarist Museum on the island of St. Lazzaro in Venice.\nLevon VI (1342 – November 29, 1393) was King of Cilician Armenia from the Armenian branch of the French noble family de Lusignan. He reigned from 1374 to 1375. Levon was the son of John de Lusignan (constable and regent of Armenia) and his wife Soldane of Georgia, daughter of the Georgian king George V the Brilliant.\nIn 1360, Levon was made a Knight of the Chivalric Order of the Sword. On October 17, 1372, he became the Seneschal of Jerusalem.\nLevon de Lusignan was destined to become the last King of Cilician Armenia and reign for seven months. In 1374, the future monarch arrived in the capital of Cilicia Sis, where on September 14, on the Day of the Holy Cross, he and his wife Marguerite de Soissons were anointed rulers in the capital's Cathedral of St. Sophia.\nIn 1375, knowing that Pope Gregory XI would once again break the promise of aiding Cilicia and would not send an army, the Mameluks crossed the Cilician border. Levon could not prevent the onslaught of the troops and fortified himself in the Sis citadel located on a difficult-to-access cliff.\nThe troops storming the fortress failed and failed, but the Mameluk archers managed to wound Levon VI. Cypriot mercenaries decided to save themselves by surrendering the king. Having infiltrated the tower where the wounded king was residing, they tried to kidnap him, but a detachment of his bodyguards repulsed the attack of the traitors.\nThe forces of the defenders of the capital were running out and the starving population was already inclined to the idea of surrender when Levon VI was given a security certificate from the Aleppo Amir, which guaranteed him and his family life if Sis surrendered. Realizing the futility of resistance, Levon surrendered to the victor's mercy and was taken to Cairo along with his family, Catholicos Poghos I, and Armenian princes.\nA year later, Armenians managed to buy the freedom of Catholicos Poghos I and the queen, whose both daughters had died in captivity. Having received freedom, the inconsolable queen moved to Jerusalem where she settled in the Armenian monastery of Surb Hakob and lived there until the end of her days.\nPilgrim Jean Dardel, who Levon had met in August 1377, managed to persuade Juan I of Castile to buy the freedom of the captive monarch. Thus, Levon was freed as well.\nIn the hope of restoring the Cilician kingdom, Levon left for Western Europe to request the Pope and Christian monarchs for support. His Holiness, however, with cold courtesy awarded Levon the Order of the Golden Rose and directed him to Britain.\nIn Britain, Levon placed the state treasury of Cilicia in custody, entrusting it to English King Edward III Plantagenet. They signed an agreement, according to which the treasury would be kept in England until the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia was liberated and restored.\nFrom London, Levon left to Spain, where Castilian King Juan I gifted him the three cities that formed the heart of Castile – Madrid, Andújar, and Villarreal (now Ciudad Real) – and an annual gift of 150,000 Spanish maravedis, which is testified by the documents of the Madrid City Office. It was agreed that Levon would own the cities until the end of his life, after which they were to be returned to the Castilian crown.\nThe nobles of Castile, who thus became vassals of the alien knight, met the act of their king, whom they had already disliked, with undisguised hostility.\nAfter the mysterious death of Juan I, the regents of his minor son Enrique III revoked the privileges given to Levon VI. The clergy and nobility of the country began to pressurize Levon VI, demanding the approval of their rights and privileges. On October 19, 1389, Levon surrendered all his privileges and left for France.\nKing Charles VI, accompanied by the court and the townspeople, met Levon on the outskirts of the country's great capital. Levon settled in Paris, still hoping to liberate Cilicia.\nHe attempted to establish relations between France and England, who were at that time engaged in the Hundred Years' War, hoping to get help for the liberation of his country during the new Crusade, but to no avail. The history page of the Cilician kingdom had already been turned.\nLevon VI died in Paris on November 29, 1393, and was buried in the Celeste Monastery, the second most important burial place for royals after Saint-Denis. His tombstone was made by an anonymous author realistic and high-quality, probably during the life of the monarch.\nOn the tombstone, Levon VI is depicted holding a scepter (now broken) and gloves, the symbol of great princes. After the French Revolution, the white marble tomb of Levon VI was transferred to the monastery of Saint-Denis, but the tomb itself had long been empty – the remains of the King of Armenia, along with the ashes of the French Monarchs, had been thrown out by French revolutionaries."

"Gallery view Page image PDF of section (13.3 MB)\nHazard, H. W. (ed.) / The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries\nXI: The Kingdom of Cyprus, 1369-1489, pp. 361-395 PDF (13.3 MB)\nCh. XI THE KINGDOM OF CYPRUS, 1369—1489 369\nseverity of the financial clauses of the Genoese treaty was to some degree\nmitigated, largely through the successful diplomacy of James's admiral and\nplenipotentiary, Peter de Cafran. Prince Janus was now allowed to return\nto Cyprus, which he reached in October 1392. Even so, the king, in order\nto meet his obligations, had to impose on the country most drastic taxation,\nwhich diminished his earlier popularity. A severe outbreak of the plague\nin 1392 added to the country's afflictions; on the other hand, the occupation\nof Genoa by France in 1396 reduced for a while the pressure from that quarter.\nIn 1398 there was concluded between James and the French king, Charles VI,\na treaty of friendship which gave the former at least a measure of moral\nThere was a close relationship, established by much intermarriage, between\nthe Lusignan kings of Cyprus and the royal house of Armenia, the Hetoumids.1\nAlmost all the Hetoumids after Leon III (1269—1289) were descended\nthrough female lines from Aimery of Lusignan, king of Jerusalem and Cyprus.\nGuy de Lusignan, grandson of Hugh III, became king as Constantine III (1342—1344).\nHis nephew Leon VI, who was king of Cilician Armenia briefly in 1363—1364,\nwas exiled, and ascended the throne for the second time in 1374, was also\na Lusignan, being the illegitimate son of a grandson in the male line of\nHugh III of Cyprus. The effective reign of the last de lure and de facto\nArmenian king was a brief one, for in 1375 Leon lost his sole remaining castle\nto the Mamluks and was taken into captivity in Cairo. When he died, an honored\nrefugee, without issue in Paris in 1393, his second cousin James as next\nof kin assumed the crown of Armenia (which in 1368 had been offered to his\nbrother Peter I, who accepted it and styled himself king, but never visited\nhis new realm) in addition to the two he already wore. Thenceforth until\nthe end of the kingdom he and his successors on the Cypriote throne styled\nthemselves kings or queens of Jerusalem, Cyprus, and Armenia, and quartered\nthe Armenian lion with their arms. It was, however, an empty dignity, for\nthere was never again to be an independent Armenia of any sort until the\nproclamation of the Armenian Repub lic at Erivan on May 28, 1918.\nJames died, when still in middle age, in 1398, having had no fewer than\neleven children by his queen, the devoted Heloise of Brunswick, who survived\nuntil 1422. Despite the vicissitudes, hardships, tur moils, and dangers by\nwhich his life had been beset, he left behind him a reputation for hospitality\nand for a love of architecture and\n1. For full, reliable genealogies see the study by Count W. H. Rüdt-Collenberg,\nThe Rupenides, Hethumides, and Lusignans (Paris, 1963).\nCopyright 1975 The Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System. All rights reserved. Use of this material falling outside the purview of \"fair use\" requires the permission of the University of Wisconsin Press. To buy the hardcover book, see: http://www/wisc/edu/wisconsinpress/books/1734.htm"

"Louis III, Count Palatine of the Rhine (German: Ludwig III. der Ältere or der Bärtige) (23 January 1378 – 30 December 1436, Heidelberg), was an Elector Palatine of the Rhine from the house of Wittelsbach in 1410–1436.\nLouis III was the third son of King Rupert of Germany and his wife Elisabeth of Nuremberg. During his father's campaign in Italy 1401-1402 Louis served as imperial vicar. He succeeded his father in 1410 as Elector of the Palatinate but did not run for the German crown. The Palatinate was divided between the four of Rupert's surviving sons. As oldest surviving son and new Prince-Elector Louis III received the main part, John received Palatinate-Neumarkt, Stephen received Palatinate-Simmern and Otto received Palatinate-Mosbach.\nLouis III was a member of the Parakeet Society and of the League of Constance. Highly cultured and religious he was a patron of the Heidelberg University. Louis III acted as vicar for Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor and was his bearer during the Council of Constance. As such Louis later also executed the sentences against Jan Hus and Jerome of Prague. He also arrested Antipope John XXIII in 1415.\nLouis III returned very sick from a pilgrimage in 1427 into the Holy Land which he had organized after the death of his son Ruprecht. From 1430 onwards he was almost blind and in 1435 deprived of power by his wife and her advisors. In the following year he died and was succeeded by his son Louis IV.\nLouis III was married twice. Firstly, he married on 6 July 1402 Blanche of England (1392 – 21 May 1409), daughter of King Henry IV of England and Mary de Bohun. They had one son Ruprecht (22 May 1406 – 20 May 1426). This marriage brought the Palatine Crown into the hands of the Wittelsbach.\nHe was played by Thomas Morris in the 2010 German television movie The Whore.\nWhat's the good word on Louis III, Elector Palatine?\nPrincess of Bavaria-Landshut by birth, by marriage Electress Palatine."

"Louis I (; 23 December 1173 – 15 September 1231), called the Kelheimer or of Kelheim, since he was born and died at Kelheim, was the Duke of Bavaria from 1183 and Count Palatine of the Rhine from 1214. He was a son of Otto I and his wife Agnes of Loon. Louis was married to Ludmilla, a daughter of Duke Frederick of Bohemia.\n\nLife\n\nEarly years\nSoon after his father's death in 1183, Louis was appointed under the guardianship of his uncle Conrad of Wittelsbach and Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. His mother, Agnes, an energetic and enterprising leader, had taken over the regency of Bavaria in the meantime, securing her son's inheritance. Upon his coming-of-age, in 1189, at sixteen years old, at the beginning of his reign, he had already fallen in the midst of a conflict which triggered the nearly simultaneous extinction of the Burgrave of Regensburg and the Count of Sulzbach in the years 1188 and 1189. This allowed Barbarossa to expand his royal domains within the Empire to include Regensburg and Sulzbach at Louis's expense. When the Emperor died on Crusade, and his son, Henry VI had ascended the throne on 15 April 1191 in Rome, he had immediately found a princely opposition in Ottokar I of Bohemia and his brother-in-law Count Albert III of Bogen who demanded a revision of the Staufen imperial land policy. Using that justification, Albert had designs to seize the Sulzbach domains from Emperor Henry's royal territory. Louis immediately attempted to mediate and called for a Hoftag in Laufen, which caught the attention of many great men within the Empire, to settle the dispute. Yet he could not stop the Count of Bogen and the Sulzbach land was taken. When Duke Louis turned against that, it came to war. Louis's forces were pushed back by the combined might of Count Albert and Duke Ottokar. Even the vicious counter-attack of Leopold V, Duke of Austria and Berthold, Duke of Merania were not able to change the situation. And Louis had vowed to never stop until Count Albert was without Sulzbach.\n\nIt was in the summer of 1192 at Worms where he received the German tradition of knighting, which was the handing of sword and belt, in the presence of Emperor Henry VI and many other Princes. By 1193, Emperor Henry became involved in-person over the affair and seized Sulzbach and Albert declared a standstill of arms; Albert was to be banished and Ottokar of Bohemia deprived of his duchy. In exchange for this service, Louis was to remain, for the next decade and a half, on the side of the Staufen. Louis would demonstrate his partisanship at the Hoftag at Würzburg, Mainz and his attendance of the Imperial retinue to Apulia and Sicily, where he would stand with the Emperor on securing Emperor Henry's inheritance of southern Italy.\n\nUntil the death of the emperor, Louis remained a loyal supporter of Henry VI and accompanied the Hohenstaufen in 1194 also to Italy on his second expedition for the conquest of the kingdom of Sicily, which was entitled Henry's wife Constance as sole heir. In the struggle for the throne after the death of Henry VI, he remained one of the main supporters of the Hohenstaufen Philip of Swabia. His continued support, however, had a price. When the Landgrave of Stefling died without an heir in 1196, instead of including the region over to his royal domain, Henry enfeoffed it to Louis instead. Suddenly, Eberhard, Archbishop of Salzburg and Conrad, Bishop of Regensburg, falling at variance, declared war on Duke Louis and spared no sacred nor profane structures. It was only through Louis's character that peace was restored.\n\nThe following year, in 1197, Louis went with the Emperor to Sicily to prepare for their departure for the German Crusade of 1197. But Henry had died of an illness; possibly malaria, suddenly. And the journey was canceled. Henry's death thus began a most difficult epoch in German history.\n\nRise to power\nThe northern and western German princes demanded a new emperor, choosing Otto of Brunswick, mainly under the encouragement of Pope Celestine III, while the southern and eastern German princes remained loyal to the Hohenstaufen. While it was true that Emperor Henry was still alive when his young son Frederick II was elected king at two years of age, he had no way of knowing that his son would become challenged by such a force. The only force that could counter the north and west German's choice was Henry's brother Philip who had initially considered being regent, but was refused that right as the south and east Germans needed an acting king; and Frederick II was too young. Because of all that, it resulted in a double-election in 1198. That same year, Louis's old nemesis, Albert III of Bogen, had died. Thus leaving him with one less problem and one great opportunity.\n\nLouis married the widowed Ludmilla of Bohemia in 1204 to gain the alliance of her uncle King Ottokar I of Bohemia. This also gave him claim to the lands of Albert III of Bogen (brother-in-law of King Ottokar I), if at least not directly. That same year, the Margraviate of Vohburg passed to Louis as well.\n\nAn old story goes that the Duke made the acquaintance of Ludmilla of Bohemia with affection and she fearing he did it to delude her, hid three persons she trusted behind a curtain and gave them three pictures to hold up. This done, she begged of him to see her no more unless he promised to marry her before witnesses. The Duke hesitated and she pointed to the three pictures saying,\"Those said persons should be witnesses to your promises.\" Louis, thinking those persons could never rise in judgement against him, made her all the protestations she could desire, so she drew back the curtains and revealed the three living witnesses. He was so taken with the contrivance that he solemnly married her afterwards.\n\nThe margraves of Cham died without heirs in 1204 which resulted in major areas given to Louis by King Philip; however, the March of the Nordgau was left as an imperial fief. With this new wealth of land, Louis founded Landshut and began the building of Trausnitz Castle there that same year. The castle was completed by the time of Emperor Frederick II's visit later in 1235.\n\nBy the month of June 1208, the many lords of the Empire were gathering with King Philip at Bamberg, the seat of the Prince-Bishopric of Bamberg, to celebrate the wedding of his niece, Beatrice II, Countess of Burgundy, with Otto I, Duke of Merania. The ceremony was headed by Ekbert, Bishop of Bamberg of the House of Andechs (brother of the groom Otto) and Henry II, Margrave of Istria who also was in attendance. After the ceremony, King Philip retired to his quarters, where he was murdered by Otto VIII, Count Palatine of Bavaria. The killer evaded the king's guards and fled the city. The lords were immediately called for a court assembly, and they blamed the house of Andechs for the murder of the King. Whether they had a hand in it directly is under debate, but that it happened under their watch is not; they were at least guilty of connivance, with Louis suspecting Henry II of Istria the most. All Andechs were banned from their lands, minus Otto I of Merania and Beatrice his bride who were both regarded as blameless. Thus, an old ally of Bavaria became an enemy overnight. Louis left Bamberg immediately, roused his army, and seized the March of Istria.\n\nAfter King Philip's murder, Louis did not immediately support the Welf King Otto IV, but rather ran a new king's election in Bavaria under his influence in which he would decide whom he would support. Ultimately, like many others, to secure his accomplishments - and those of his family - he made deals with King Otto IV which granted him the imperial fiefs of the Andechs, assured succession of the Palatinate of the Rhine towards him, and confirmed the everlasting reign of the Wittelsbach family in Bavaria.\n\nNonetheless, in 1211, Louis joined the Hohenstaufen party again; Emperor Frederick II rewarded him with the Palatinate of the Rhine in 1214: Louis's son Otto II was married to Agnes of the Palatinate, a granddaughter of Duke Henry the Lion and Conrad of Hohenstaufen. With this marriage, the Wittelsbach inherited the Palatinate and ultimately kept it as a Wittelsbach possession until 1918. Since that time also, the lion has become a heraldic symbol in the coat of arms for Bavaria and the Palatinate.\n\nCrusade\n\nOn 23 July 1215, Louis was at Aachen, to oversee the re-crowning of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor. While there, both Louis and Frederick took crusader vows. Louis was assigned commander of the Imperial army ahead of the Emperor, until Frederick would arrive there himself.\n\nHe founded the city of Straubing in 1218.\n\nThe Emperor had given Louis 2000 marks of silver for his Crusade.\n\nIn May 1221, Louis sailed on with his Bavarian army with Ulrich II, Bishop of Passau, Herman V, Margrave of Baden-Baden, John of Brienne and many other nobles. As soon as their fleet had arrived at Damietta, a council was held with Pelagio Galvani, the papal legate, in the city. Louis had urged they assemble their armies and strike at the sultan's camp, before the river should take up its usual increase. A plan was formed and tents were set up just up the river on 29 June. On 6 July, the Legate had ordered a three-day fast and carrying the banner of Christ barefoot, planted it where the river rises. That next day, King John had come with a numerous army to bring further assistance to their cause. Then on 17 July they gathered at the village of Fariskur, where they were met by the enemy. In the battle of Fariskur, they repelled the enemy so well, no losses came to the crusader side. The legate had been generous in wages to the knights and their attendants, armed ships sparing neither body nor wealth to finish the task, along with the help of Duke Louis, King John, the bishops, archbishops and the grand masters of the orders.\n\nOn 19 July the Saracens had sent a large cavalry force against the Crusaders. The Muslims had surrounded the Christians and shot arrows at them, avoiding close combat. The Crusaders responded in kind and the Muslims withdrew. But the next day, on 20 July, the enemy had attacked fiercer than ever, only to injure and kill very few Crusaders in number. By 21 July, the Muslims retreated yet again. But in doing so, they burned many of their villages in the process, to prevent the Crusaders from gaining those footholds and their resources. This failed, as the Crusaders still managed to find food in many of the deserted villages. This granted the Crusaders a peaceful pass through Saramsah, which the Sultan had destroyed.\n\nHe was given as a hostage in Egypt to Al-Kamil but later released. In 1225 Louis took over the guardianship for the young king Henry. Subsequently, however, Louis's relationship with both his ward and the emperor deteriorated. With the latter, there were differences in matters of church policy, during the conflict with Henry in 1229 he even fought with military means, but the Bavarian duke was defeated. He intrigued with the Pope against the Staufer during the War of the Keys in Italy. Under pressure, he moved back to Kelheim Castle in 1230.\n\nHe founded the city of Landau an der Isar in 1224.\n\nFinal years\n\nLouis was murdered in 1231 on a bridge in Kelheim. The crime was never cleared up since the murderer - reportedly an Assassin - was immediately lynched, though many suspected Emperor Frederick II to be behind the deed. Afterwards the city of Kelheim lost the favour of the Wittelsbach family and its status as a ducal residence. Louis's son and successor, Otto the Illustrious, had the bridge broken down in the following year and changed its gate to a chapel. Louis was buried in the crypt of Scheyern Abbey.\n\nReferences\nCitations\n\nBibliography\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n1173 births\n1231 deaths\n12th-century dukes of Bavaria\n13th-century dukes of Bavaria\nPeople from Kelheim\nCounts Palatine of the Rhine\nLudwig 01 Wittelsbach, Duke of Bavaria\nLudwig 01 Wittelsbach, Duke of Bavaria\nMedieval child monarchs\nMurdered royalty"

"/ People\n/ History\n/ German History: Biographies\n/ Louis IV\nLouis IV\nLouis IV or Louis the Bavarian, 1287?–1347, Holy Roman emperor (1328–47) and German king (1314–47), duke of Upper Bavaria. After the death of Holy Roman Emperor Henry VII the Luxemburg party among the electors set aside Henry's son, John of Luxemburg, because of his youth and chose Louis as rival king to Frederick the Fair. The popes Clement V and his successor John XXII refused to approve Louis's election and, claiming that the imperial throne was vacant, declared the Holy Roman Empire to be under papal rule. This doctrine fitted in well with the papacy's ambition to restore papal authority in Italy. In 1322, Louis defeated and captured Frederick at Mühldorf. Despite this victory, John XXII refused to ratify Louis's election and in 1324 excommunicated him. In 1327–30 Louis was in Italy, where he was crowned emperor by the representatives of the Roman people, and set up Pietro Rainalducci as Antipope Nicholas V. Rainalducci was soon reconciled with the pope, however, and Louis unsuccessfully attempted to reach a settlement. The failure of protracted negotiations with the papacy led (1338) to the declaration at Rhense by six electors to the effect that election by all or the majority of the electors automatically conferred the royal title and rule over the empire, without papal confirmation. Throughout his reign Louis kept adding to the possessions of his family, the house of Wittelsbach. He conferred Brandenburg on his son and added Lower Bavaria to Upper Bavaria. In 1342 he acquired Tyrol by voiding the first marriage of Margaret Maultasch and marrying her to his own son, thus alienating the house of Luxemburg. In 1346 he further antagonized the lay princes by conferring Holland, Zeeland, and Friesland upon his wife. Meanwhile, the pope, Clement VI, took advantage of the hostility to Louis and deposed him (1346), securing the election of a new German king, Charles of Luxemburg (later Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV). Louis was successfully resisting his rival when he was killed in a hunting accident. The controversy between Louis and the popes caused the publication of many books and pamphlets, notably the Defensor pacis by Marsilius of Padua, which supported Louis's claims. William of Occam was another of his supporters.\nSee more Encyclopedia articles on: German History: Biographies"

"in: Article stubs, 1632 series, Countries, States of the Holy Roman Empire\nThe Kingdom of Bohemia was a country located in the region of Bohemia in Central Europe, most of whose territory is currently located in the modern-day Czech Republic. The Kingdom was part of the Holy Roman Empire until its dissolution in 1806, whereupon it became part of the Austrian Empire, and subsequently the Austro-Hungarian Empire from 1867. Following the defeat of the Central Powers in World War I, both Kingdom and Empire were dissolved and Bohemia became part of the newly formed Czechoslovakian Republic.\nBohemia in 1632[]\nLate in 1632, after learning of his eventual assassination by orders of the emperor, Albrecht von Wallenstein made a deal with the Americans. In exchange for supporting his coup against imperial administrators in Bohemia, Wallenstein would ensure the prevention of the massacres of Jews that had accompanied the Khmelnytsky Uprising.\nWith help from Pappenheim, Wallenstein managed to overthrow Austrian control of Bohemia and declare himself King of Bohemia-Moravia.\nBy mid-1635, Wallenstein had taken Silesia,[1] and was holding Ferdinand III and his kingdom of Austria-Hungary at bay.\nIn mid-1636, as part of the agreements which created the Central European Treaty Organization, Ferdinand III recognized the independence of Bohemia as well as Wallenstein's claim to it.\nJust like the USE, Bohemia is undergoing a military, industrial, technological, cultural and economic revolution\nKing Wallenstein is recruiting Czechs, Jews, Cossacks and other groups into his new army as well as bolstering old units such as Pappenheim's Curraissers\nWallenstein also creates the University of Bohemia to promote scientific development\n↑ 1635: The Eastern Front, ch. 6; mention that Silesia was \"also in Wallenstein's possession\".\nStates of the Holy Roman Empire"

"Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia, the former Crownlands of Austria-Hungary which now make up the western half of Czechoslovakia, had for centuries a population mixture of 40% German, 60% Czech. The national reawakening of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries pitted the majority Czechs against their German minority master. This, coupled with the social upheavals caused by the industrial revolution, brought Czechs and Germans in Bohemia to center stage in the nationality conflict in the multinational Empire.\nAldorde, Nicholas, \"German-Czech conflict in Cisleithania : the question of the ethnographic partition of Bohemia, 1848-1919\" (1987). Dissertations and Theses. Paper 3663."

"The Thirty Years' War (AP Euro Lecture Notes)\nThe Thirty Years' War was a European continental war that took place from 1618-1648 (thirty years!). Most of the fighting took place in the Holy Roman Empire, although the war grew to include European powers outside of the Empire. What began as a local, religious conflict became more and more continental and political with each expanding phase of the war.\nMartin Luther's Reformation sharply divided German princes within the Holy Roman Empire, leading to conflict between the Catholic Hapsburg emperors and the princes (primarily in the northern part of the Empire) who adopted Lutheran Protestantism. This led to several conflicts that ended with the Peace of Augsburg (1555), which established the principle of cuius regio, eius religio (whoever reigns, his religion) within the Holy Roman Empire. According to the terms of the Peace of Augsburg, the Holy Roman Emperor renounced the right to enforce a single religion throughout the \"Empire\" and each prince could choose between establishing Catholicism or Lutheranism in the lands under his own control.\nCalvinism, which was not established as a legal religion in the Empire by the Peace of Augsburg, spread throughout the Empire in spite of its prohibition, as Calvinists did not care whether their religion was legal or not. The spread of Calvinism threatened the tranquility of the Empire, as did places like Bohemia (modern-day Czech Republic), where the ruler's religion was different from that of the majority of the population.\nThe Thirty Years' War began as a local religious conflict between the Catholic Holy Roman Emperor and his Protestant subjects in Bohemia, but grew into a continent-wide political conflict over the Balance of Power in Europe.\nThe Four Phases\nThe Thirty Years' War is divided into FOUR PHASES: Bohemian, Danish, Swedish, and French. The Bohemian Phase was purely a local, religious conflict. With each successive phase, the war became more continental in scope, bloodier, and more focused on political power than religion.\nThe Bohemian Phase\nAlthough ruled directly by the Catholic Hapsburgs, Bohemian Protestants enjoyed a generous level of religious toleration (by the standards of the time). A Hapsburg ruler had issued a Letter of Majesty to the Bohemian Protestants guaranteeing their freedom to practice their religion. This letter was revoked by Ferdinand II, a Jesuit-educated Hapsburg who had no interest in tolerating Protestantism in any form.\nThe conflict started with the Defenestration of Prague, in which two emissaries of the Holy Roman Emperor were thrown out of a window. The emissaries somehow survived the 70 foot drop - how they did depends on who you ask (Catholics maintained that they were saved by the Virgin Mary and angels, while Protestants later wrote that they fell into a massive dung heap.). Ferdinand took swift action against the rebels, defeating them decisively in the Battle of White Mountain (1620). The first phase of the Thirty Years' War concluded with the Catholics squarely on top.\nde·fen·es·trate /dēˈfenəˌstrāt/ - to throw someone out of a window.\nThe Danish Phase\nThe King of Denmark - a Lutheran state immediately north of the Holy Roman Empire - responded by invading in order to help the Lutheran princes against the Emperor. This ended up being a colossal failure, as his expected allies didn't give him aid they had promised and he had underestimated the strength of the Imperial armies. The Danish king retreated back into his own country with an army of Imperial mercenaries at his heels.\nThe Danish Phase concluded with the Catholics again firmly in the lead. In 1629, Ferdinand issued the Edict of Restitution, which ordered the return of Catholic lands that had been taken over by Protestants since the Peace of Augsburg.\nThe Swedish Phase\nThe Protestant cause got a needed break when Gustavus Adolphus, the Lutheran King of Sweden, invaded the Holy Roman Empire at the head of a powerful army. Gustavus Adolphus has been called the \"father of modern warfare,\" being one of the first military commanders to make use of mobile artillery on the battlefield. He scored a decisive victory at the Battle of Breitenfield (1631), strengthening the Protestant cause.\nThe Swedes were helped by financial support from the French, who decided to support the Protestant faction in spite of France being a Catholic country. Cardinal Richelieu, the First Minister of France, was a politique in the vein of Henry IV, caring more about weakening the Hapsburgs than about what religion people professed in the Holy Roman Empire.\nIn the 17th century, the Habsburgs were the most powerful family in Europe, controlling Austria, the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, the Netherlands, and various other territories strewn throughout Europe. France found itself surrounded by Hapsburg power and sought to change this by allying themselves with the Protestants (a deal with the devil?).\nThe French Phase\nGustavus Adolphus was killed in battle in 1632, ending Sweden's active leadership in the Protestant cause. In the last phase of the Thirty Years' War, the most dominant player on the Protestant side was Catholic France. Granted, the French had a bit of help from the Swedes, who had switched roles from fighter to financier. Here's a device for remembering the roles of the Swedes and the French during the later phases of the Thirty Years' War:\nSwedish Phase\nSWEDISH SWORDS\nFRENCH FUNDS\nFrench Phase\nSWEDISH STACKS\nFRENCH FISTS\nThe Peace of Westphalia (1648)\nThe last phase of the Thirty Years' War was the bloodiest and failed to produce a decisive result. After thirty years, people were weary of war and had lost track of why they were even fighting. The warring parties gathered at Westphalia to hammer out a rational peace to end a long war that had begun as a local religious conflict.\nBy and large, the provisions of the Peace of Westphalia (1648) weakened the Holy Roman Emperor and established France as the dominant power in Western Europe. The Dutch Netherlands and Switzerland became independent and outside of Hapsburg influence, while France gained Alsace and Brandenburg - an ascendant Protestant kingdom in the Holy Roman Empire - gained territory, as well.\nCalvinism was accepted as a third option for princes in the Holy Roman Empire to choose as an official religion and the freedom of private worship for religious minorities within the principalities of the Empire was guaranteed. The goal here was to avoid future religious conflict.\nThe Thirty Years' War was the last major religious war in Europe and put an end to the violence accompanying the Protestant Reformation.\nProtestant Reformation Webpage\nVideo Lecture on YouTUbe\nKarla R\nIt is an excellent way to understand easier the context of that time. In my opinion it helps a lot to understand the general view of the situation with the main characters.\nHenry Fleming\nThanks Karla!\nRoger Mills link\nI have all my life had a interest in history.\nFatima Azhar\nThe notes are very easy to comprehend and have turned out to be really helpful. The YouTube lecture is the cherry on top which reinforces it all. Very helpful for me (doing my bachelors) - adds a clarity to my thoughts and understanding of the entire topic.\nChadrak\nI thought that the subject of Westphalia would be boring but I was so engaging reading this, the information is cohesive and comprehensive, thank you. Do you have a reference list for this or a way to cite this particular blog? I'm a student of International Relations.\nIt is better way to understand and a good content of data otherwiswe it is tough for me\nI just wanted to say thank you for these notes.\nVirginia Lamothe\nThank you for this wonderful website. I am a musicologist publishing a chapter about how the Habsburgs were viewed and celebrated (or despised) in Rome in the 16th and 17th centuries, particularly through musical events. I am curious what you could tell me about Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg and Johann Anton von Eggenberg. They both visited Rome, especially when the war was going badly and becoming costly to the Catholic league. Most research says the Pope did not supply them with any money or soldiers. My research says the papal family of the Barberini did supply them with Catholic propagandist operas that basically told them to \"keep the faith.\" I'm wondering if you know if either Eggenberg advised the emperor(s) Ferdinand II and Ferdinand III based on anything they learned/gained/ or did not gain in Rome.\nMsry sullivan\nLike to know more\nAnonymous link\nWhat were the main 2 sides of the war / alliances?"

"You are here -allRefer - Reference - Country Study & Country Guide - Czechoslovakia >\nHapsburg Absolutism and the Bohemian Estates\nInitial Clash\nHapsburg rule brought two centuries of conflict between the Bohemian estates and the monarchy. As a result of this struggle, the Czechs lost a major portion of their native aristocracy, their particular form of religion, and even the widespread use of the Czech language. The Hapsburg policy of centralization began with its first ruler, King Ferdinand (1526-64). His efforts to eliminate the influence of the Bohemian estates were met with stubborn resistance. But the Bohemian estates were themselves divided, primarily on religious lines. By several adroit political maneuvers, Ferdinand was able to establish hereditary succession to the Bohemian crown for the Hapsburgs. The estates' inability to establish the principle of electing or even confirming a monarch made their position considerably weaker.\nThe conflict in Bohemia was complicated further by the Reformation and the subsequent wars of religion in Central Europe. Adherents of the Czech Reformed Church the (Hussites) opposed the Roman Catholic Hapsburgs, who were in turn supported by the Czech and German Catholics. The Lutheran Reformation of 1517 introduced an added dimension to the struggle: much of the German burgher population of Bohemia adopted the Reformed Creed (both Lutheran and Calvinist); the Hussites split, and one faction allied with the German Protestants. In 1537 Ferdinand conceded to the Czechs, recognized the Compact of Basel, and accepted moderate Utraquism. The reconciliation, however, was of brief duration.\nIn 1546 German Protestants united in the Schmalkaldic League to wage war against the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V. Whereas Ferdinand wanted to aid his brother, the Hussite and pro-Protestant Czech nobility sympathized with the German Protestant princes. Armed conflict between Ferdinand and the Bohemian estates broke out in 1547. But the Bohemians were not unified; victory went to Ferdinand, and reprisals against the Czech rebels followed. The property of Czech Utraquist nobility was confiscated and their privileges abrogated. Four rebels (two lesser nobles and two burghers) were executed in the square before the royal palace. Members of the Unity of Czech Brethren, a Hussite sect that had figured prominently in the rebellion, were bitterly persecuted. Their leader, Bishop John Augusta, was sentenced to sixteen years' imprisonment. Ferdinand, now Holy Roman Emperor (1556-64), attempted to extend the influence of Catholicism in Bohemia by forming the Jesuit Academy in Prague and by bringing Jesuit missionaries into Bohemia.\nData as of August 1987\nCzechoslovakia - TABLE OF CONTENTS\nFirst Political Units\nMagyar Invasion\nBohemian Kingdom\nHussite Movement\nHAPSBURG RULE, 1526-1867\nThe Hapsburgs and the Czechoslovak Lands\nDecisive Battle\nConsequences of Czech Defeat\nEnlightened Absolutism\nNational Revival\nRevolutions of 1848\nTHE DUAL MONARCHY, 1867-1918\nFormation of the Dual System\nAustria and the Czechs\nHungary and the Slovaks\nThe Czechoslovak Idea\nThe Emergence of Subcarpathian Ruthenia (Carpatho- Ukraine)\nTHE CZECHOSLOVAK REPUBLIC, 1918-39\nFeatures of the New State\nCzechoslovak Democracy\nThe Constitution of 1920\nProblem of Dissatisfied Nationalities\nSlovak Autonomy\nConflict in Subcarpathian Ruthenia (Carpatho-Ukraine)\nSudetenland\nBenes's Foreign Policy\nSecond Republic, 1938-39\nTHE WAR YEARS, 1939-45\nProtectorate of Bohemia and Moravia\nGovernment-in-Exile\nCzech Resistance\nSlovak Resistance\nSoviet Annexation of Carpatho-Ukraine (Subcarpathian Ruthenia)\nMinorities and Population Transfers\nCOMMUNIST CZECHOSLOVAKIA\nThird Republic and the Communist Takeover\nThe Prague Spring, 1968\nDissent and Independent Activity"

"CHARLES VI, ELIZABETH OF BAVARIA, INSANITY\nElisabeth of Bavaria\nThe past is sometimes a guide to the present.\nAt the age of 15, Elisabeth of Bavaria was sent to France.\nOn arrival, she was told that, within a few days, she was to marry the 17-year-old King Charles VI of France.\nThe 15-year-old Elizabeth became the Queen of France, as part of a political deal.\nWhen Charles VI came to the throne, \"certain of the nobles ... proposed that the expulsion of the Jews be demanded...\"\nThere were attacks on Jews.\nIn 1394, Charles VI declared that all Jews were to be expelled from France.\nIn 1392, Charles began to have bouts of madness.\nThere were rumours that he was being poisoned.\nAt times, King Charles VI became violently insane.\nThis led to a civil war between the King's brother, Louis of Orleans, and the Dukes of Burgundy, who were also related to the King.\nWhen Elizabeth sided with Louis, she was accused of adultery with Louis.\nWhen Elizabeth sided with the Dukes of Burgundy, she was put in prison.\nLouis of Orleans was assassinated by John, Duke of Burgundy.\nThe war ended when Elizabeth's eldest son, Charles, assassinated John, the Duke of Burgundy.\nElizabeth then signed the Treaty of Troyes, which decided that the English king should inherit the French crown after the death of her husband, Charles VI.\nThe treaty was undermined by the deaths of both France's Charles VI and England's King Henry V within two months of each other in 1422.\nFrance is a Christian country.\nLabels: Burgundy, Charles VI, Elizabeth of Bavaria, Expulsion Jews, France, insanity, Louis, war\nBrabantian 19 September 2017 at 00:30\nNetanyahu alliance with neo-Nazis ... Israel impeding residence / citizenship rights for Jews who support boycott of Israel / ending West Bank occupation -\nThe Israeli 'law of return' for world Jewry, has long been dishonoured, particularly in the case of black African Jewish religious tribes who are descended from Jewish settlers in Africa who married black women, and whose descendants have clearly black skin colour, Lemba - Remba tribes and others\nIsraeli rabbis use various pretexts to deny these blacks are Jews despite how they follow Jewish religious practices ... whereas white European Jews who observe no religious practices at all, are welcome in Israel\nAn interesting article by British activist and Nazareth, Palestine resident Jonathan Cook, speaks of how Israel's Netanyahu is making an alliance with even the anti-Semitic Western alt-right and neo-Nazis, with the instinct to show all other Jews that Israel is their only home & safe haven ... and hence the 'progressive' Jews should abandon any support for boycott of Israel or for Palestinian rights.\nAnd also, the 'alt-Right' and 'white nationalist' movement, is increasing positive links with security-fence-building, also-ethnic-nationalist Israel, which gets praise even from the anti-Semitic-meme creating USA neo-Nazi Andrew Anglin.\nA fascinating sub-aspect here, is the intra-Jewish spat between Bibi Netanyahu and George Soros\nJonathan Cook writes:\n« US alt-right [& ultra-white-nationalist] leader, Richard Spencer, appeared on Israeli TV last month to call himself a \"white Zionist\"\nThe Israeli prime minister has repeatedly called on all Jews to come to Israel, claiming it as the only safe haven from an immutable global anti-semitism. And yet, Mr Netanyahu is also introducing a political test before he opens the door.\nJews supporting a boycott of Israel are already barred. Now, liberal Jews and critics of the occupation like Mr Soros are increasingly not welcome either. Israel is rapidly redefining the extent of the sanctuary it offers – for Jewish supremacists only.\nFor Mr Netanyahu may believe he has much to gain by abandoning liberal Jews to their fate, as the alt-right asserts its power in western capitals.\nThe \"white Zionists\" are committed to making life ever harder for minorities in the West in a bid to be rid of them. Sooner or later, on Mr Netanyahu's logic, liberal Jews will face a reckoning. They will have to accept that Israel's ultra-nationalists were right all along, and that Israel is their only sanctuary.\nGuided by this cynical convergence of interests, Jewish and white supremacists are counting on a revival of anti-Semitism that will benefit them both. »\nGood comment.\nThis process of bringing Jews \"back\" to \"their\" land is called Aliya.\nBTW, Annir : France is not anymore Christian...only looks like. Is not anymore prosperous, or happy, only looks still like this.\nBut or tourist France still looks damn well...\nGreetings from France et merci pour cette belle chanson \" La douce France\".\nAll \"Christendom\" is \"Christian\" on account of the\n\"Messiah\" for \"Israel\".\nIsrael is a people...the white People of Europe, if there\nis any validity to the \"Holy Scriptures\" at all...\nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Holy_Blood_and_the_Holy_Grail\nModern day so-called \"Jews\" are merely \"Proselytes\" to\nthe BAD FAITH so-called \"Religion\" of the Money Changers\nand Pharisees...most of the so-called \"Jews\" from the land of Gog & Magog could leave the stool sculpture deity cult compound\nby simply knowing the truth about the Talmud...& Kol Nidre\nMoses was not a \"Jew\" and there were no \"JEWS\" in Egypt\nAbraham was not a \"Jew\", Samuel was not a \"Jew\"...\nThe story of the Children of Israel in the Bible is not about \"Jews\"...\nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judah_Monis\nis it any wonder {{{{THEY}}}} are paranoid schizophrenic\npsychopathic warmongers that always employ their preemptive\nstrikes as targeted killings and not premeditated MURDER\nyou know like with malice aforethought and all....\nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sholem_Asch\njust sayin' ...John 8:44 is Jesus talkin\nnot some self hating \"JEW\"...\nis it true if a \"JEW\" no longer \"believes\" in the\nTalmud, and \"accepts\" Jesus & the Truth that being\n\"Jewish\" ceases and they can be a \"Christian\"...?\nwhere do JEWTARDS go to collect their reward for\n\"Jew\" worshipping..?\nDavy\nThanks, Davy.\nOmmmm for peace !\nAs Icke wrotes, Israel was created to generate constant upheaval and chaos in the Middle east.\nAt it can be mearcilessly destroyed by Zionist some time soon.\nThis \"elites\" neither care for their own folk, nor or any casual jews around the world.\nAnd -paradoxically, these jews will be more safe in Europe or usa than in Israel, but many o them will emigrate there...to ace more struggle.\nSign of times, maybe. But don't forget do give fresh water to your birds or other home pets.\nLa vie est belle.\nTHE TITANIC\nWORLD'S MOST BEAUTIFUL COUNTRY - North Coast 500 -...\n'NEO-NAZI' PARTY'S LESBIAN BOSS - ALICE WEIDEL\nSTEPHEN MILLER - GOEBBELS OR ROY COHN\nMURDEROUS MAGGIE AND THE PRINCE\nERWIN SCHRODINGER AND RELIGION\nTUNING INTO HEAVEN\nMUSIC AND DANCE - SCOTTISH AND IRISH\nSCOTLAND'S PARLIAMENT - SUCCESS OR FAILURE?\nART - Hope-Henderson, Baluschek, Scholz, Levis, d...\nMYSTERIOUS JESSICA; MULTIPLE PERSONALITIES\nWHO RUNS THE DEEP STATE?\n9 11 INSIDE JOB - DAILY MAIL\n'DRUG LORD DUTERTE'\n'MOSSAD DID THE BARCELONA ATTACK'\nJULIAN CADMAN PHOTOS - FAMILY AND FRIENDS\nJOHN HEMMING, ESTHER BAKER AND 'A CHILD ABUSE RING...\nKIM JONG-UN MIND CONTROLLED CIA ASSET\nVOLKER PILGRIM - HITLER'S SEX LIFE\nMYSTERIOUS ESTHER RANTZEN\nJFK, MURDERS, FREDDY MILLS, KRAY TWINS, FREEMASONS...\nBARCELONA FALSE FLAG - PART 3\nTEXAS FLOODS CONSPIRACY - HAARP\nSPOOKY MANCHESTER BROTHELS; SAVILE, PROFUMO ...\nTHE CABAL; ROCKEFELLER; BUSH; PUTIN; TRUMP; HITLER...\nNEW MEXICO CULT - 'FRONT FOR SPOOKS'\nDIANE ABBOTT, KEN LIVINGSTONE, MARGARET THATCHER ....\nKIRKCUDBRIGHT PARADE 2017\nSCOTLAND'S OIL - FALSE FLAG\nCOHN BEATS BANNON\n'TEENS ABUSED BY MILITARY'; KIRKCUDBRIGHT\nCHARLOTTESVILLE; KOSHER NOSTRA; PSY-OP; JAMES FIEL..."

"HistoryUS History\nThe Root Cause Of The Civil War Assignment\nThere is more evidence to suggest that the Civil War in 1642 was caused by the factors concerning religion. All the factors involved, such as finance and the parliament also built up tensions for king Charles l, but many of the key events that took place relate back to the issues of whether England followed the Protestant beliefs or the Catholic ones; for example, Charles I returned to parliament to ask for money and an army, as he lacked both these things.\nWhat Charles mainly spent the money he gained however, was mainly to improve the religious rights in England decorating Churches, which were very expensive) and to fund for wars against the main Catholic powers, such as France and Spain. The main actions or events that Charles was strongly associated with or at least responsible for included the Divine Right of Kings. This suggested that the monarch present at the time was placed on the throne under the will of God.\nThe theory slowly faded away during the Tudor Dynasty, however Charles had strongly believed in this, so many were angered by the fact that even after the religious problems caused almost a century before(under the lull of Henry VIII)Charles was willing to accept policies and beliefs relating Catholics. Parliament was further angered after Charles began to take advice from Archbishop Laud, who was a Catholic.\nLaud attempted and even succeeded in swaying Charles' opinions on how the country was run, and it was he who tried to decorate churches, adding stain glass windows and idols, which all cost a lot of money, which Charles did not seem to have. Therefore Charles turned to parliament to lend him money, but parliament felt that they could no longer trust Charles, as he favored Archbishop Laud over them. Laud was executed for treason which increased the tensions between king and parliament. Following on from this point, Charles also disrupted the other neighboring countries such as Scotland and Ireland which were also Catholic.\nIntroducing the English Prayer Book and forcing the commoners of these countries to read it caused rebellions and riots. In October 1641 the Irish Rebellion triggered Parliament to take action against the King. Some short term causes of the civil war concerning religion included Charles unsuccessful marriage to Henrietta was not only French but also a catholic. Charles and England was protestant so the dead of being ruled once again by a \"foreigner\" displeased many. Although the marriage stopped France rebelling against England for a short period of time, the kings marriage was generally unfavorable with the public.\nHis wife also had a large influence on Charles; for example Maria set up her own private chapel, she had her own Catholic priest and often surrounded herself and Charles with Catholic Advisors and the majority of his court was made up of Catholics. Parliament now desperately wanted more of a say on how the country was to be run, as they were almost threatened by the people from another religion. In a final attempt to reason with the king, Parliament sent a list of complaints and demands known as the nineteen propositions.\nOne of the propositions was that Charles' Catholic advisors should be To What Extent Was Religion The Root Cause Of The Civil War In 1642? By maharani dismissed and so should d the Duke to Bucking (a hated man who Charles trusted greatly). Parliament wanted to have the power to elect the kings advisors, Judges and ministers, and they also wanted complete control of the army. Charles refused; he was threatened that the parliament may try to overthrow him and may use an army against the King. These factors made a big impact on the kings image, his popularity, and he lost followers and money due to this.\nAlthough there are many points to suggest that religious factors were the root cause of the Civil War in 1642, there were other events and triggers that angered either the parliament, the common people of England or the King himself. A long term cause of the Civil War was the \"The Eleven Years' Tyranny'. This was a period of eleven years when Charles ruled England entirely on his own without a Parliament, only ever taking advice from a few of his Catholic advisors. Charles disliked parliament, and thought that the Parliament had previously plotted to kill him, Just like how Catholics had tried to kill James I (Charles' father).\nCharles had dismissed parliament in order to save the Duke of Bucking, a hated man who as responsible for the failed attacks on Cadis, in Spain. Bucking was later assassinated, possibly under the orders of the Parliament, and Charles was angry. Therefore it is likely that the assassination of the Duke of Bucking was one of the first triggers leading to the civil war. Financial factors that increased the emissions between Charles and the Parliament was the fact that Charles was nearly always in need of money, to \"strengthen his country'.\nFurthermore, most of the money that was either borrowed off Parliament or taken from the commoner's taxes and fines was used as funding for wars and attacks on neighboring countries, which only resulted in a loss. Parliament was soon annoyed by this as it was their money that seemed to be going to waste and soon they stopped funding the king altogether. Desperately Charles set up fines, for example, Charles set up boundaries around woodland and once fined an earl EYE,OHO for crossing over. This meant people could no longer find food in the woods but had to pay for expensive foods, placed on a monopoly by Charles.\nThis meant only one company could sell certain foods/goods but Charles demanded 20% of all the earning. These were expensive and so many were annoyed still further. While Charles assumed that he was making the country richer, the feeling was not mutual between himself and the people of England, now represented by the Parliament. Along with the expensive fines that Charles placed, he also unnecessarily taxed people, for example; Ship Tax was paid by counties on he coasts, and was only collected when England was at war or money was needed to improve the Navy.\nHowever, as Charles became more desperate, He began to collect ship tax from inland as well as the counties on the coastlines, when there was no need to improve the English Navy. Overall, the commoners in England were losing much more of the money that they had earned to taxes than they had previously done in James I reign. Finally, a trigger that highlighted the many differences between the kings views and the Parliaments was the separation of the House of Commons, due to the Grand Remonstrance.\nThe Root Cause Of The Civil War Assignment. (2022, Jan 02). 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"View source for English Civil War\n← English Civil War\nThe action you have requested is limited to users in one of the groups: Users, Administrators, edit.\nThe '''English Civil War''' was a series of conflicts that lasted from 1642 to 1651 between supporters of King [[Charles I]], known as ''royalists'' or ''cavaliers'' and supporters of the English [[parliament]], known as ''parliamentarians'' or ''roundheads''. The King lost and was executed. The new ruler was [[Oliver Cromwell]]. It formed part of the \"Wars of the Three Kingdoms.\"[[File:Civilwar-GBmap.jpg|thumb|290px|''The situation in the autumn of 1642'']] ==Background== King Charles I ascended to the thrones of [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]] in 1625. At that time the monarch had the sole power to enact laws but relied on parliament to enforce the collection of taxes. Charles proved to be a poor politician. He treated parliament with contempt and as a consequence divisions grew between the king, who stubbornly refused to consider parliament's petitions, and parliament who were increasingly reluctant to cooperate in raising funds for the king. [[Puritan]]s in parliament were suspicious that the king would undermine the Protestant character of the [[Church of England]] following his marriage to a Catholic princess. Divisions between the two sides came to a head when parliament attempted to impeach one of the king's military commanders after a failed intervention in support of the French [[Hugenots]] in 1627. Charles responded by dissolving parliament, but finding himself short of funds he assembled Parliament a year later and was forced to accept the [[Petition of Right]] in return for the funds he needed. Parliament was dissolved again in 1629, and Charles ruled without parliament for a further 11 years known as the [[Eleven Years Tyranny]]. Over the next decade Charles angered Puritans in England by introducing what they saw as Roman Catholic practices into the Church of England and by imposing fines on those who didn't attend Anglican services. When he attempted to introduce these reforms into Scotland he was met with a violent rebellion. The king's armies were defeated and he was forced to concede the independence of the Scottish Church. Charles tried twice more to defeat the rebels but this only resulted in the Scots armies occupying much of Northern England and Charles was forced to pay protection money to them to prevent the pillage of the area. Desperately short of money and with a weak army unable to defend England, Charles was forced to recall parliament in 1640. Parliament took advantage of the king's weak position by forcing him to recognise the right of parliament to assemble regularly, with the passage of the [[Grand Remonstrance]], and restricting his tax-raising powers. Parliament inflicted further humiliation on Charles when they arrested and executed the king's chief advisor on a charge of treason for granting concessions to Irish Catholics, sparking a rebellion in Ireland. Enraged by parliament's actions Charles lead an attempt to arrest parliamentarians for treason. He failed, and now war was now inevitable. ==The Wars== Fearing for his safety Charles left London, and toured the country to gain support for his cause, making Oxford his base. Parliament responded by recruiting its own armies. The royalists got the better of the early battles but their advances had been halted by the autumn of 1643. Charles reached a compromise with the Catholic rebels in Ireland to free up troops for the fight in England. In 1644 parliament made advances in the north thanks to a pact with the Scots, but suffered reverses in the west. In 1645 parliament formed the [[New Model Army]] under the command of [[Thomas Fairfax]] and [[Oliver Cromwell]]. At the [[Battle of Naseby]] in 1645 the royalist forces were decisively defeated. After further defeats the king placed himself under the protection of the Scots armies, who were involved in their own civil war. England was now under the control of an uneasy alliance between Parliament, the Scots and the Army, who had become a powerful independent force. Whilst a prisoner of the Scots, the king negotiated an agreement to introduce religious reforms in Scotland in exchange for supporting a royalist rebellion in England. In 1648 a series of royalist rebellions broke out in England. After some initial reverses Army forces lead by Fairfax and Cromwell achieved a series of crushing victories that culminated in the defeat of the royalist and Scots armies at [[Preston]]. ==Execution of the King== Despite the betrayal by Charles most parliamentarians still believed that Charles could be retained as ruler; a minority argued that he could not continue. The Army took matters into its own hands and prevented from attending parliament most of the members still sympathetic to Charles. They then ordered parliament to try Charles for treason. He was found guilty and executed on 30 January 1649. The monarchy was abolished and a republican government was instituted in England under [[Oliver Cromwell]], the Puritan general. Charles II succeeded his father as king of Scotland and immediately attempted to reclaim the English throne, but was easily defeated by Cromwell's army and narrowly escaped to exile in France. Charles I died well and was regarded by his followers as a saintly martyr, a status that made it easier for Charles II to restore the throne in 1660. ==Aftermath== Following the king's execution parliament was composed of a mixture of religious independents, presbyterians and conservatives. Greater toleration was granted for religious independents (although Catholicism was still repressed) and a number of religiously inspired laws were passed including the closing of theatres and the enforcement of Sunday observance. Meanwhile, Cromwell sought to eradicate opposition in Ireland where royalists had made an alliance with Irish Catholics. Between 1651 and 1653 Cromwell's army completed a brutal conquest of Ireland. Acting on fears that parliament would begin to assert its independence from the army, Cromwell dissolved parliament in 1643 and replaced it with a hand picked parliament, but the new parliament was unable to find agreement between religious radicals and moderates and in December 1643 Cromwell dissolved parliament and installed himself as [[Lord Protector]], effectively a military dictator. In the end, however, the monarchy was restored, but in a much weaker position compared to a greatly strengthened parliament. Charles II (the son of Charles I) became a popular king for his hedonistic lifestyle, a dramatic change after the puritanical Cromwell (who even banned Christmas). ==Bibliography== * Ashley, Maurice. ''The Greatness of Oliver Cromwell'' (1958). 382pp, a standard scholarly biography [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3806780 online edition] * Bennett, Martyn. ''Oliver Cromwell'' (2006), ISBN 0-415-31922-6. [https://www.amazon.com/Oliver-Cromwell-Routledge-Historical-Biographies/dp/0415319226/ref=sr_1_22?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1212181942&sr=1-22 excerpt and text search] * Braddick, Mike. ''God's Fury, England's Fire: A New History of the English Civil War'' (2008) * Coward, Barry, ed. ''A Companion to Stuart Britain'' (2003) [https://www.amazon.com/Companion-Britain-Blackwell-Companions-British/dp/0631218742/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1212300112&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search] * Coward, Barry ''The Stuart Age: England, 1603-1714,'' (2003). ISBN 0-582-77251-6. Survey of political history of the era. * Davies, Godfrey. ''The Early Stuarts, 1603-1660'' (1959). [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=774608 online]. Political, religious, and diplomatic overview of the era. * Donagan, Barbara. ''War in England, 1642-1649.'' (2008) 443 pp. ISBN 978-0-19-928518-1. * Firth, C.H. ''Cromwell's Army'' (1902), [https://books.google.com/books?id=hx4kAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Cromwell%27s+intitle:Army&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 online edition] * Gardiner, Samuel Rawson. ''Oliver Cromwell'' (1901). ISBN 1-4179-4961-9. Classic biography. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=6034779 online edition] * Gardiner, Samuel Rawson. ''History of the Great Civil War, 1642-1649'' (4 vol 1898) [https://books.google.com/books?id=absqibcUmIQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:History+intitle:of+intitle:the+intitle:Great+intitle:Civil+intitle:War+inauthor:Gardiner&lr=&as_brr=0 online edition from Google] * Gaunt, Peter. ''The Cromwellian Gazetteer: An Illustrated Guide to Britain in the Civil War and Commonwealth'' (1998), 256pp; heavily illustrated; covers the scenes of military conflict such as battlefields, castles, fortified houses and churches, defended and besieged towns and cities * Gentles, Ian. ''The English Revolution and the Wars in the Three Kingdoms'' (2007) * Macaulay, Thomas Babington. ''The History of England from the Accession of James II'', 5 vols. (1848); classic narrative; one of the best written history books ever; [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/1468 vol. 1], [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/2439 vol. 2], [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/2612 vol. 3], [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/2613 vol. 4], [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/2614 vol. 5] * Macinnes, Allan. ''The British Revolution, 1629-1660'' (2005), 337pp ISBN 0-333-59750-8. * Morrill, John. \"Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)\", in ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography,'' (2004) [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/6765 online to subscribers] * Stoyle, Mark. ''Soldiers and Strangers: An Ethnic History of the English Civil War'' (2005) * Woolrych, Austin. ''Britain in Revolution 1625-1660'' (2002), ISBN 0-19-927268-6. [https://www.amazon.com/Britain-Revolution-1625-1660-Austin-Woolrych/dp/0199272689/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1212300255&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search] * Young, Peter and Richard Holmes. ''The English Civil War,'' (2000) ISBN 1-84022-222-0. [https://www.amazon.com/English-Civil-Wordsworth-Military-Library/dp/1840222220/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1212300220&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search], a military history ==External links== * [http://www.open2.net/civilwar/index.html \"Civil War\"] from Open University and BBC; a wide-ranging popular overview ====notes==== <references/> [[Category:English Civil War]] [[Category:British History]] [[Category:Civil Wars]] [[Category:Puritans]]\nReturn to English Civil War.\nRetrieved from \"https://conservapedia.com/English_Civil_War\""

"Houseofnames > Knowledge Base > Oliver Cromwell and the Civil War\nOliver Cromwell and the Civil War\nThe English Civil War of the 1640s was marked by the trial and execution of King Charles I (1600-1649) and the suspension of the monarchy for a period of eleven years. It was during this revolution, and the subsequent interregnum, that Oliver Cromwell became the most influential man in Britain.\n1 Rise to Power\n2 Parliament's Condemnation\n3 The Trial and Execution of King Charles I\n4 Republic of England\n5 Irish Invasion\nThe Rise to Power\nThough Charles I was a capable monarch, he was not a popular ruler. Charles was widely criticized for high rates of taxation; however, there were also more specific complaints about his rule. Charles was viewed as distant and aloof and his policy of ruling according to divine right alienated many of his subjects. Local elites felt that the monarch was stripping them of their power, while individual subjects believed that their freedom was being eroded by the Crown. Charles I appeared to be setting the government of Britain on a course towards absolute monarchy. He was also seen as something of a Catholic sympathizer who practiced an unsettlingly \"popish\" version of Protestantism; Catholicism appeared to be driving out Protestantism at court.\nIn parliament, the House of Commons was dominated by the Puritans, who objected to the views of Charles I's advisor, the Duke of Buckingham, whom they blamed for a military defeat at the hands of Spain in 1626. A movement by the Puritans to impeach the duke for treason was cut short by Charles I, who dissolved parliament as a preventive measure. However, another British military defeat attributable to Buckingham led parliament to coerce Charles I into signing the \"Petition of Rights\", which limited the power of the Crown. Yet, the taxation and \"popishness\" continued.\nParliament's Condemnation\nIn 1629, parliament unilaterally condemned the actions of King Charles I. Sensing a revolutionary mood, the king dissolved parliament once again and he did not call it into session again for eleven years. In so doing, King Charles abandoned the foundation upon which his rulership relied: the consent of his subjects. As a result, the general feeling of discontent continued to ferment.\nWhen parliament finally reconvened in 1640, it remained in session throughout the following year and beyond. This Long Parliament gained some concessions from the Crown, but Charles I refused to surrender the army to parliamentary control and also rejected their demands that a program of church reform be undertaken. These irreconcilable differences plunged the country into a bitter civil war, with the royalist forces facing the New Model Army led by Sir Thomas Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell.\nThe Trial and Execution of King Charles I\nRevolution raged in England, Scotland, and Ireland throughout the 1640s. In 1648, the parliamentary rebels finally crushed the king's English and Scottish forces, and placed Charles I on trial for high treason in August of that year. Refusing to recognize the legality of the trial, the king remained defiant and uncooperative. Charles I was found guilty of high treason, sentenced to death, and was beheaded at Whitehall on January 30, 1649.\nRepublic of England\nThe parliamentary forces then faced the task of forming a new government and restoring order. Britain was declared a republic and the new regime was headed by an oligarchic parliament and backed by the army. However, Cromwell grew dissatisfied with the ineffectiveness and incompetence of parliament and he developed an appreciation for absolute power. Reforming parliament to suit his tastes, Cromwell set himself up as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth. Although he resisted the temptation to declare himself king, the military strongman did maintain the right to choose his successor. Often called a virtual kingship, his regime was certainly a dictatorship governed under martial law.\nRoyalist sentiment did not cease with the death of Charles I, and the king's supporters in Scotland attempted to install his son as King Charles II; however, this attempt was crushed decisively. In the eyes of some, the execution of Charles I transformed him into a martyr. Others demanded a greater level of democratic socialism than the new regime was prepared to supply.\nIrish Invasion\nIn Ireland, conflict persisted until 1652, and Cromwell eventually subdued the Irish through a ruthless policy of massacre. Some witnesses reported all life to have been completely wiped out in some counties. The 'Act of Settling of Ireland' confiscated the property of all Irishmen who could not prove themselves to have been loyal to the Commonwealth. Two-thirds of Ireland passed into the hands of Englishmen as thousands of Irish families were dispossessed and displaced. Hundreds were deported to Barbados and elsewhere. Catholicism was outlawed and mandatory Protestantism was rigorously enforced. (see Plantation of Ulster)\nCromwell's son, Richard, proved to be a weaker ruler than his father. Upon Cromwell's retirement as Lord Protector, Richard could not maintain control over the army. Before long, he retired from politics. The Long Parliament was compelled to come to its official end in 1660, when increasing royalist sentiment forced a new election. The new parliament was overwhelmingly royalist and immediately proclaimed Charles II as king, restoring the monarchy after eleven years. However, the British monarchy was less despotic than it had been prior to the civil war, due to the lingering example that had been made of Charles I. Additionally, the church had been thrust into a position of only marginal importance during the Cromwell regime. It remained less influential after the Restoration, leading to the secularization of the British state.\nPlantation of Ulster\n^ Swyrich, Archive materials\nThis page was last modified on 17 April 2018 at 11:55."

"16th /17th Century\n20th /21st Century\nAnglo-Saxon /Viking\nEnglish History by Decade\nHome » All Events » 16th /17th Century Events » English Civil War Causes and Events 1625-1649\nEnglish Civil War Causes and Events 1625-1649\n06/12/2021 by Heather Y Wheeler\nThis timeline details the main causes and events of the seventeenth century conflict known as the English Civil War or the English Revolution 1625 – 1649\nSee also: King Charles I\nBackground Causes of the English Civil War\n1625 (13th June)\nKing Charles I married Henrietta Maria, the daughter of Henry IV of France, at St Augustine's Church, Canterbury, Kent. The marriage was not popular because she was a Catholic. It was agreed that Henrietta Maria could remain a Catholic but the children of the marriage would be raised as Protestants.\nParliament was unhappy with the behaviour of Charles' chief minister, George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham. Buckingham had led a failed mission to Cadiz and it now appeared that he was planning to help the French put down a Protestant Huguenot uprising. Parliament therefore moved to have Buckingham dismissed from office.\n1626 (May)\nKing Charles angered Parliament when he nominated Buckingham as Chancellor of Cambridge University.\nCharles arrested Dudley Digges and Sir John Eliot and had them imprisoned for speaking against Buckingham. Parliament was very angry at this action by the king stating that there was freedom of speech in the House of Commons.\nParliament protested to Charles about the behaviour of Buckingham calling for him to be removed from office. Charles refused to comply and resented Parliament's interference with his choices. Rather than dismiss Buckingham Charles chose to dismiss parliament.\n1627 (during)\nCharles sent a force led by Buckingham to aid the Protestant Huguenots who were being persecuted by the French King. Buckingham failed in his mission which made him even more unpopular.\nCharles imposed a forced loan to raise money for the war in France.\n1627 (November)\nFive Knights Case aka Darnell's Case\nFive knights, Thomas Darnell, John Corbet, Walter Earle, John Heveningham and Edmund Hampden challenged the King's right to impose taxation independently of parliament. The court found in the King's favour.\n1628 (13th March)\nCharles needed money to finance the war with France and Spain and reluctantly recalled Parliament.\n1628 (14th April)\nCharles re-issued the Thirty Nine Articles into the Church of England. This was seen as a move towards Rome and evidence of the King's Catholic leanings.\n1628 (7th June)\nPetition of Right\nParliament formed a committee of grievances and prepared a Petition of Right which was presented to the King. The Petition was designed to protect subjects from any further taxation unauthorised by Parliament. Charles reluctantly signed the document.\n1628 (late June)\nCharles dismissed parliament and declared that he had the right to collect taxation without parliament's assent.\n1628 (23rd August)\nGeorge Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, was stabbed to death by naval lieutenant John Felton. King Charles was very upset at the murder of his friend.\n1629 (January)\nCharles re-opened parliament. He again, asserted his right to impose taxation independently of parliament.\n1629 (2nd March)\nThree Resolutions\nThere were outbursts in Parliament when the Petition of Right was debated and the doors were locked to keep royal guards out. The Speaker, who wanted to adjourn the proceedings, was held in his chair. Parliament passed three resolutions:\n1.That they would condemn any move to change religion.\n2. That they would condemn any taxation levied without Parliament's authority.\n3. That any merchant who paid 'illegal' taxes betrayed the liberty of England. Charles dismissed Parliament.\n1629 (March)\nCharles arrested nine members of the House of Commons for offences against the state and three were imprisoned. This action by the King made him more unpopular. The King, defended his action by stating his belief in his own divine right saying that 'Princes are not bound to give account of their actions, but to God alone.' He then dissolved parliament.\n1629 (after March)\nWithout parliament, Charles could not finance war with France or Spain and so made peace with both countries.\n1633 (August)\nCharles appointed William Laud as Archbishop of Canterbury. Laud was known to have Catholic leanings and Charles hoped that his appointment would help to stop the rise of the Puritans.\nCharles was crowned King of Scotland at Holyrood Abbey, Edinburgh. He upset many Scottish lords by insisting that his coronation follow Anglican tradition.\nShip Money\nThis was a tax traditionally paid by coastal towns in times of war to pay for the defence of the coast. In a bid to raise more money, Charles now imposed this tax on the whole country.\nCharles ordered that the Book of Common Prayer be used in all Scottish churches. It was widely resisted by the Scottish clergy and people.\n1637 (23rd July)\nThere were riots in Edinburgh against the use of the Book of Common Prayer.\n1638 (February)\nNational Covenant\nIn Scotland a National Covenant was formed which protested against any religious interference in Scotland by England. Those Bishops that had been installed in Scotland by Charles' father, James I were expelled.\n1638 (June)\nJohn Hampden, challenged the King's right to impose Ship Money but he lost the case and the court ruled that the King was the only authority that could impose such a tax.\n1639 (26th January)\nCharles I announced that he intended to raise an army against the Scots to enforce his aims on Scotland\nFirst Bishop's War\nWar broke out between Scotland and England over Charles' move to impose his aims on Scotland.\n1639 (April)\nThomas Wentworth led an army against the Scots but was defeated on the border.\nCharles made another attempt to land forces in Scotland but was unsuccessful. Wentworth told Charles that he needed money to raise a more efficient army and that he should recall Parliament.\nEnglish troops were forced to withdraw from Scotland.\nPacification of Berwick\nWithout the means to beat the Scots, Charles was forced to agree a temporary truce with Scotland.\n1639 (September)\nCharles recalled Thomas Wentworth from Ireland to advise him on how to proceed. Wentworth along with Archbishop Laud became Charles's main advisers and supporters.\nOliver Cromwell was elected Member of Parliament for Cambridge. He openly criticised Charles' taxes and the level of corruption in the Church of England.\nShort Parliament\nCharles had summoned parliament in a bid to raise money to renew the war with Scotland. When the new parliament sat for the first time its members determined to force Charles to settle their grievances with his rule. In a bid to appease parliament, Charles agreed to abandon 'ship money' but parliament did not feel this went far enough.\n1640 (5th May)\nCharles dismissed parliament because they would not agree to his terms.\n1640 (Summer)\nCharles was facing bankruptcy. He tried to raise a loan but was turned down by foreign countries and the City of London.\n1640 (July)\nCharles seized a quantity of silver bullion from the mint in the Tower of London. He stated that he had taken it as a loan and would repay with interest.\n1640 (3rd August)\nSecond Bishop's War\nThe Scots, seeing how the short parliament had resisted Charles, prepared to invade England.\n1640 (28th August)\nBattle of Newburn\nA Scottish force invaded England, defeated the English force and captured Northumberland and Durham.\n1640 (October)\nThomas Wentworth, now Earl of Strafford, set out for the Scottish border with a makeshift army. However, the army mutinied and the Scots seized English land. The Scots demanded a daily rate be paid until a satisfactory treaty was put in place.\n1640 (26th October)\nTreaty of Ripon\nThis treaty between Scotland and England allowed the Scots to stay in Durham and Northumberland until a final settlement was concluded.\n1640 (3rd November)\nLong Parliament\nCharles had no choice but to recall Parliament because he needed money to pay for an efficient army to defeat the Scots. However, once again, Parliament refused to grant him any money unless he agreed to their demands which included the provision that parliament should meet once every five years and the arrest of Strafford for treason. Charles had no choice but to comply.\n1640 (11th November)\nThomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford was impeached by Parliament.\n1640 (7th December)\nParliament declared that 'ship money' was an illegal tax and should be abolished.\n1640 (18th December)\nArchbishop Laud was impeached by Parliament.\n1641 (16th February)\nTriennial Act\nThis act allowed Parliament to be summoned without royal command at least once every three years.\n1641 (22nd March)\nThomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, was tried for treason but the case collapsed.\nDetermined to see Strafford executed, parliament passed a bill of attainder against Strafford which sentenced him to death.\n1641 (12th May)\nThomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, was executed on Tower Hill.\n1641 (5th July)\nParliament was very critical of the King's handling of matters in both Ireland and Scotland and passed propositions that Parliament and not the King should be responsible for the country's defence. Parliament also abolished the Court of Star Chamber, the Council of Wales, the Council of the North and the Court of High Commission.\n1641 (22nd October)\nA Catholic rebellion broke out in Ulster and quickly spread across the country. Many Protestant settlers were driven from their homes and the rebellion became war.\n1641 (1st December)\nGrand Remonstrance\nThis document, put together by Pym, listed all Parliament's grievances against the King since his reign began.\n1642 (4th January)\nCharles instructed his attorney-general to issue a charge of treason against one peer and five members of the Commons including Pym and Hampden. When Parliament refused to recognise the charge, Charles sent a troop of horsemen to make the arrests. However, Parliament had been warned and the five men had fled. This move by Charles was extremely unpopular and across the country people declared themselves for Parliament and against Popery.\nCharles removed himself and his family from Whitehall to Hampton Court.\nCharles refused to pass control of the military to Parliament.\nCharles sent his wife Henrietta Maria and their younger children to the Continent for safety and to enlist Catholic support for his cause against Parliament. She was also to pawn the crown jewels to buy arms. Although both sides were now preparing for war, negotiations continued.\n1642 (5th March)\nMilitia Ordnance\nThis gave parliament control of the Militia, the only armed body in the country.\n1642 (23rd April)\nCharles tried to secure an arsenal of equipment left in Hull from his Scottish campaign. He was blocked by Sir John Hotham, who had parliamentary and naval support, and was forced to retire to York. Charles made his headquarters in York.\n1642 (1st June)\nNineteen Propositions\nThe Nineteen Propositions were issued by Parliament in the hopes of reaching a settlement with the King. They called for a new constitution recognising their own supremacy; demanded that ministers and judges should be appointed by Parliament not by the King and also that all Church and military matters should come under the control of Parliament.\nCharles rejected the Nineteen Propositions.\n1642 (2nd July)\nThe navy declared itself for Parliament and the Earl of Warwick was appointed Admiral of the Fleet.\n1642 (12th July)\nParliament voted to raise an army. The Earl of Essex was voted as Captain-General\n1642 (21st August)\nCharles's nephews, Princes Rupert and Maurice of the Rhine joined his army.\nEnglish Civil War Began\n1642 (22nd August)\nCharles raised his standard at Nottingham formally declaring war. However, both sides hoped that either war could be averted or that one decisive battle would put an end to the matter.\n1642 (7th September)\nThe vital port and fortress of Portsmouth surrendered to Parliament after being captured by Sir William Waller.\n1642 (23rd September)\nBattle of Powick Bridge, Worcestershire\nThis skirmish between Royalist and Parliamentarian forces was the first clash of arms. The Royalist force, led by Prince Rupert were victorious.\n1642 (23rd October)\nBattle of Edgehill, Warwickshire\nIn the early afternoon, Charles sent his army down the hill to meet the Parliamentary army commanded by Essex. On the royalist right was Prince Rupert who broke Essex's left flank. In the centre, reinforcements arrived and they managed to push forward putting the lives of the King's sons, Charles and James, in danger. The battle was a stalemate with neither side able to advance.\nThe Royalists led by Prince Rupert managed to surprise and capture Brentford.\nThe Parliamentarians, led by Essex, blocked Prince Rupert's route to London at Turnham Green. The Royalist commander decided to retire rather than fight.\nCharles moved his base to Oxford.\nBattle of Braddock Down, Cornwall\nThe Royalists led by Ralph Hopton were victorious over the Parliamentarians led by Ruthvin. The victory secured much of Cornwall for the Royalists.\n1643 (1st February)\nNegotiations to find a peace settlement began at Oxford but they proved unsuccessful.\nBattle of Hopton Heath, Staffordshire\nThe Royalists commanded by the Earl of Northampton were defeated by the Parliamentarians led by Sir John Gell and Sir William Brereton.\nBattle of Seacroft Moor, West Yorkshire\nThe Parliamentarians led by Sir Thomas Fairfax were defeated by a Royalist force led by George Goring.\nSiege of Reading, Berkshire\nA Parliamentary force led by the Earl of Essex placed the Royalist town of Reading under siege. The town held for 11 days before surrendering.\nBattle of Stratton, Cornwall\nThe Royalists led by Ralph Hopton attacked and defeated a Parliamentarian force led by the Earl of Stamford. The Royalist victory secured Cornwall for the King.\nBattle of Chalgrove Field, Oxfordshire\nThis was a small battle between the Parliamentarians led by Essex and the Royalists led by Prince Rupert. The Royalists were victorious.\nBattle of Adwalton Moor, West Yorkshire\nThe Royalist commander, William Cavendish, decided to try and enclose the Parliamentarian army led by Fairfax in Bradford. Fairfax, decided to fight but was beaten by the Royalists.\n1643 (1st July)\nWestminster Assembly\nThis was a body appointed by Parliament to discuss reforming the Anglican Church.\nBattle of Lansdown Hill\nThe Parliamentarians led by William Waller positioned themselves on Lansdown Hill. They attacked the Royalists led by Ralph Hopton. Despite repeated cavalry attacks the Royalists held their position and the Parliamentarians were forced to retire.\nBattle of Roundaway Down, Wiltshire\nThe Royalists led by Lord Wilmot charged the Parliamentary cavalry forcing them to flee. Wilmot then turned his attention to the Parliamentary infantry who stood firm until a force led by Hopton attacked them from behind. Caught between two Royalist armies the majority of Parliamentarian soldiers simply fled from the battlefield giving the Royalists victory.\nPrince Rupert took Bristol for the Royalists.\nThe Royalists lay siege to Gloucester and dug a tunnel but had to abandon it due to heavy rain.\n1643 (2nd September)\nSiege of Hull\nRoyalist forces led by the Earl of Newcastle lay siege to Hull.\nPrince Maurice took Exeter for the Royalists.\nA Parliamentarian force led by the Earl of Essex broke the siege of Gloucester.\n1643 (15th September)\nSiege of Plymouth\nRoyalist forces imposed a land blockade around Plymouth. However, the port was able to receive supplies by sea.\nFirst Battle of Newbury, Berkshire\nThe Parliamentarians led by Essex were marching to Newbury, a town sympathetic to the Parliamentarians, to rest. Unfortunately, Prince Rupert had already reached Newbury and so Essex was forced to fight. He moved the Parliamentarians before daybreak and secured the 'Round Hill', just south of Newbury. The surrounding countryside was criss-crossed with lanes and hedgerows which offered excellent cover for the foot soldiers but was quite unsuitable for horse. The battle was won by the Parliamentarians.\nSolemn League and Covenant\nThis document swore to preserve the Church of Scotland and to reform the religion of England and Ireland 'according to the word of God and the example of the best reformed churches' and to protect 'the rights and liberties of parliaments'.\n1643 (early October)\nDartmouth fell to the Royalists commanded by Prince Maurice. Plymouth was now the only major town in the West Country to hold out against Royalist forces.\nBattle of Winceby, Lincolnshire\nThis was a very short battle which lasted around half an hour and saw the Royalists defeated by a Parliamentarian force.\n1643 (5th November)\nThe Royalist army captured Mount Batten, a promontory overlooking Plymouth Sound. They hoped to use the location to position cannon and stop ships relieving Plymouth. In practice this had little effect.\nThe Earl of Newcastle was forced to abandon the siege of Hull.\n1643 (3rd December)\nBattle of Freedom Fields, Plymouth\nRoyalist forces led by Charles I, attempted to take Plymouth while the tide was low. However, the Royalists were repulsed and the incoming tide forced them to retreat to Freedom Fields where they were defeated by the Parliamentarians. Although it remained under siege, Plymouth held out until the end of the First Civil War in 1646.\nA Scottish force crossed the border into England.\n1644 (22nd January)\nCharles I opened the Oxford Parliament.\nBattle of Nantwich, Cheshire\nThis battle was a resounding victory for the Parliamentarians, led by Sir Thomas Fairfax, over the Royalists led by Lord Byron. The victory broke the Royalist control of Cheshire.\nCharles appointed Prince Rupert as President of Wales.\nThe trial of Archbishop Laud began in London.\nBattle of Cheriton, Hampshire\nThe Parliamentarians, led by William Waller and the Royalists led by Ralph Hopton were marching on Winchester. The Parliamentarian victory halted the Royalist advance.\nBattle of Cropredy Bridge, Oxfordshire\nThis was an indecisive battle fought between the Parliamentarians led by William Waller and the Royalists led by King Charles.\nBattle of Marston Moor, Yorkshire\nThis was the largest single battle of the English Civil War involving 45,000 men. Although the Royalists led by Prince Rupert were outnumbered, they decided to fight. They were defeated by a Parliamentarian force led by the Earl of Leven. For the first time since the Civil War had began Rupert's cavalry were beaten by a Parliamentarian cavalry charge.\nBattle of Lostwithiel, Cornwall\nThis battle saw the Royalists led by Charles I defeat the Parliamentarians led by the Earl of Essex.\nBattle of Montgomery, Wales\nPrince Rupert's force were weakened following the Battle of Marston Moor. The Parliamentarians took advantage of this and attacked Prince Rupert at Montgomery in Wales securing a victory which gave them control of Wales.\nSecond Battle of Newbury, Berkshire\nThe Royalists were sandwiched between two Parliamentarian forces but each time the Parliamentarians made some gain they were beaten back by the Royalists. The battle, which lasted all day, ended in a draw.\nParliament agreed that a Presbyterian Directory of Worship should replace the Book of Common Prayer.\nArchbishop Laud was executed by beheading on Tower Hill.\nPeace negotiations between the King, Parliament and Scotland were held at Uxbridge but failed to find common ground and the war continued.\nParliament ordered the creation of a army whose structure was to be based on ability rather than class and position. Regular drills ensured that the army was professional and very competent.\n1645 (3rd April)\nSelf Denying Ordinance\nThis bill stated that no member of Parliament could hold a position of command in the army or navy\nBattle of Naseby, Northamptonshire\nThe Parliamentarians broke their siege on Oxford and forced the Royalists into battle. Initially the Royalists took up a defensive stance but later the order to attack was given. The battle lasted just three hours and saw the death of most of the Royalist foot soldiers. It was a decisive victory for Parliament. Charles fled the battlefield as soon as it was apparent that he had lost both the battle and the war.\nBattle of Langport, Somerset\nThe Royalist army commanded by George Goring was defeated by the New Model Army led by Thomas Fairfax.\nBristol fell to the New Model Army.\nBattle of Rowton Heath, Cheshire\nThis battle saw the remnants of the Royalist cavalry defeated by the Parliamentarians.\nBattle of Torrington, Devon\nThomas Fairfax defeated the remains of the Western Royalist army.\n1646 (21st March)\nBattle of Stow on the Wold, Gloucestershire\nThis was the last battle of the Civil War and saw the final defeat of the Royalist army.\n1646 (3rd May)\nThe New Model Army lay siege to the Royalist capital of Oxford where Charles was resident. However, Charles managed to escape dressed as a servant and fled to Scotland.\nCharles I surrendered to the Scots at Newark and they took him north to Newcastle.\nOxford, Charles I's capital surrendered to Parliament.\nAfter negotiations with the English parliament the Scots handed Charles over to parliament. He was imprisoned in Holdenby House, Northamptonshire.\n1647 (3rd June)\nGeorge Joyce, an officer of the New Model Army, seized King Charles and took him to Newmarket. He was then transferred first to Oatlands and then to Hampton Court.\nCromwell spoke to Charles and believed that he was willing to try to find a settlement. He asked Henry Ireton to draft a proposed settlement. Although Cromwell was happy with the planned settlement others, particularly the group known as the Levellers, were not.\nPutney Debates\nThese were a series of debates held by different Parliamentarian forces to try to decide on a new constitution. Unfortunately it was impossible to find agreement between the different factions.\nCharles I escaped imprisonment and fled to Carisbrooke Castle, Isle of Wight.\nLarge crowds gathered in Canterbury to protest against Parliament's order that Christmas Day should be seen as an ordinary day. They shut shops, decorated the streets with holly and demanded a church service be held for Christmas.\nKing Charles made a deal with Scotland whereby the Scots would invade England and help him to retake the throne. In return Charles agreed to change the religion of England to Presbyterianism.\nSecond English Civil War\nWar broke out again when John Poyer, former parliamentary soldier and Governor of Pembroke Castle refused to hand over his command to Fairfax. Like many others, he was dissatisfied with the disorder and lack of stability over the last two years.\n1648 (late March)\nJohn Poyer, Governor of Pembroke Castle, declared himself for the King.\nJohn Poyer was joined by soldiers with grievances against the New Model Army and others who wanted the monarchy restored.\nBattle of St Fagans, Cardiff, Wales\nThis was a battle between the New Model Army and an army of former Parliamentarians who had defected to the Royalists. The Royalists were easily defeated and many were killed or taken prisoner.\n1648 (21st May)\nThe people of Kent rose for Charles. Royalists took control of the castles of Walmer, Deal and Sandown.\n1648 (late May)\nThe navy declared itself for the King. Charles's son, Charles, heir to the throne, took command of the navy.\nGeneral Fairfax, commander of the New Model Army, marched on Kent. Locals fled to their homes while some Royalist leaders fled to Essex to raise support there.\nColonel Nathaniel Rich of the New Model Army arrived in Dover and prevented Royalists from taking the castle.\nFairfax had marched to Essex to put down rebellions there. The Royalists retreated to Colchester which Fairfax placed under siege.\nThe Scots invaded England as agreed with Charles.\nPembroke Castle, Wales, fell to Cromwell.\nColonel Rich came under fire from a force of Royalists warships that arrived off the coast of Deal.\nA force of mercenaries arrived in ships from Flanders (Belgium). However, they soon left when the Royalists were unable to pay them.\n1648 (31st July)\nThe Scots took Appleby Castle, Cumbria.\nOliver Cromwell prepared to march north against the Scots.\nA Royalist force of around 800 managed to land at Deal in Kent. They marched on the Parliamentarians but were given away by a defector and were defeated.\n1648 (17th – 19th August)\nBattle of Preston, Lancashire\nThis was a key battle between a combined Royalist and Scots army led by the Duke of Hamilton and the Parliamentarians led by Oliver Cromwell. The decisive Parliamentarian victory signalled the end for the Royalists.\nNews reached Deal Castle that the Royalists had been defeated at Preston.\nDeal Castle surrendered to Parliament.\nThe Royalists in Colchester surrendered to Fairfax after learning of Parliament's victory at Preston. Charles Lucas and George Lisle, Royalist leaders, were shot.\nSandown Castle surrendered to Parliament.\nParliament removed Robert Hammond from the role of Governor of the Isle of Wight.\nAlthough Parliament voted to negotiate with Charles, Cromwell and the army refused to negotiate.\nPride's Purge\nColonel Thomas Pride forcibly removed all members of Parliament that did not support the army and Cromwell.\n1648 (December)\nCharles was moved to Hurst Castle and then to Windsor Castle\nRump Parliament\nThis parliament was formed from those members that had not been expelled by Thomas Pride in December. All were army loyalists and voted to give parliament the right to make new Acts of Parliament without the king's approval. They also indicted Charles on a charge of treason.\nKing Charles was tried for treason by a High Court of Justice specially set up for the trial. Many members of parliament secretly objected to the trial and stayed away.\nThe court found Charles guilty of using his power for personal interest rather than the good of the country and sentenced him to death.\nKing Charles I was executed by beheading, outside the Banqueting House of Whitehall Palace, London. He was buried in St George's Chapel, Windsor.\nThe Duke of Hamilton, the Earl of Holland and Lord Capel were executed by beheading.\nPontefract Castle finally surrendered to Parliament.\nJohn Poyer, leader of the Pembroke revolt was executed.\nFirst published 2016; updated and re-published December 06 2021 @ 11:20 am – Updated – Dec 6, 2021 @ 11:23 am\nHarvard Reference for this page:\nHeather Y Wheeler. (2016 – 2021). English Civil War Timeline. Available: https://www.totallytimelines.com/english-civil-war-causes-and-events-1625-1649 Last accessed January 15th, 2022\nCategories 16th /17th Century Events, All Events Tags Civil War, English Civil War, English Monarchy, Religion, Stuarts, Wars\nAll Events (102)\n16th /17th Century Events (15)\n20th /21st Century Events (34)\nAncient History Events (6)\nMedieval Events (11)\nAll People (447)\n16th /17th Century People (105)\n18th /19th Century People (35)\n20th /21st Century People (97)\nAncient History People (9)\nAnglo-Saxon /Viking People (104)\nMedieval People (89)\nEnglish History by Decade (74)\nLanguage and Literature (12)\nScience and Nature (20)\nSport and Games (38)\nTelevision & Film (90)\nAdvertising Disclosure - To help meet costs, we run advertisements across our site, including affiliate links to 3rd party retailers. A small portion of any purchases from these sites goes directly toward funding and supporting Totally Timelines.\nCopyright © Totally Timelines 2013 - 2022 All Rights Reserved\nTimelines compiled by Heather Y Wheeler"

"Revision as of 02:10, 24 March 2021 by Admin (talk | contribs) (→‎Aftermath)\nSpanish Domination\nThe Popes had long opposed the Holy Roman Emperor's ambitions, and the Spanish, whom they believed correctly, wanted to dominate Italy.[12] The Papacy was pivotal to the Italian resistance to the ambitions of the Spanish. This changed after the Sack of Rome in 1527. The Pope was cowed and, to an extent, meekly followed the policies of Charles V. They also ceased resisting his growing control. After the death, this enabled Charles V's, heir to established de-facto control over Italy, except for Venice. The Pope had bankrolled the armies that had been pivotal to the Italian resistance to outsiders, and after 1527, this was no longer possible.\nThe sack had practically bankrupted the Papacy and no longer could offer the financial support needed by the City-States to recruit armies, which were mainly composed of mercenary soldiers. By 1550 the Spanish Monarch, Phillip II, was the dominant influence in Italy and not the Pope. Spanish controlled to a loss of political and individual freedom. This dealt a blow to the Renaissance as increasingly artists and thinkers could not create the work they wanted or freely express their ideas and opinions.[13]"

"Within Catholicism, the relationship between church and state in the development of a rigid system of belief was somewhat different than in Protestant countries, as the pope was both the head of a \"state\" – a political unit stretching across central Italy – and the universal head of the Roman Catholic Church. In the middle of the sixteenth century, the Council of Trent affi rmed the power of the papacy, and late-sixteenth-century popes created a strong bureaucracy and centralized institutions that paralleled, and in some cases served as a model for, those developing in nation-states. By the late seventeenth century, this consolidation of papal authority increasingly confl icted with the power of both local bishops and secular rulers. Spanish monarchs controlled church appointments, limited papal tax collection, reserved the right to approve papal bulls before they could be published, and directed the Spanish Inquisition. The Inquisition was successful at combating any sign of heresy at the Spanish universities, but this also stamped out any free inquiry, and Spanish universities languished. Despite the Council of Trent's call for improvements in clerical education, most priests in Spain had little opportunity to obtain more than rudimentary training. Spain had more priests and monks as a percentage of the population than any other Catholic country, but most of them were not interested in intellectual pursuits. Monarchs also increased their control over the Catholic Church in France. As we traced in chapter 9 , Louis XIV, seeking to make his realm more uniform, gradually made it more diffi cult to be a Huguenot. In 1685, these repressive policies culminated in the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, and thousands of Huguenots fl ed. Louis hoped this would also be a way of demonstrating his Catholic loyalty to the pope, for in other ways he was taking measures to limit papal power. These built on a long-standing tradition of hostility to papal authority within the French church, called \"Gallicanism,\" that began when the papacy moved to Avignon in southern France in the fourteenth century. During the Avignonese papacy, all the popes were French, but when the papacy returned to Italy, almost all the popes were Italian. By the time of Louis XIV, all the popes had been Italian for more than a century – and would continue to be so until the election of John Paul II in 1978 – and the king and many of the French clergy saw the pope primarily as an Italian prince, not the leader of an international church. The French church refused to accept any of the decrees of the Council of Trent that dealt with church–state relations, and in the seventeenth century the French bishops declared that they were superior to the pope when they met in a council. They largely supported the king in his declaration that he did not have to submit to papal authority in ecclesiastical matters. The popes objected, but they could do nothing about the growing royal infl uence on church personnel, or state involvement in matters that had previously been the province of the church, such as education and marriage. The clergy and the monarchs in France did not always agree about how and why papal power should be limited, however, and theological issues were closely interwoven with political concerns. As was true throughout Catholic Europe, the French clergy were very diverse, ranging from bishops and archbishops who were nobles down to very poor parish priests. The church owned a huge amount of land, none of which was taxed, so that high church offi cials were economically independent of the crown, but parish clergy were totally controlled by their bishops. During the seventeenth century, increasing numbers of people began to feel that the church hierarchy was too focused on monetary concerns and the outward observance of ritual. They called for spiritual regeneration, ethical earnestness, and deep piety, taking the name for their movement from Cornelius Jansen (1585–1638), the bishop of Ypres in the Spanish Netherlands. Particularly in his posthumously published work Augustinus (1642), Jansen advocated greater personal holiness, lay reading of and meditation on Scripture, lay participation in church services, and scrupulous attention to morality. Jansenism won converts among middle-class townspeople, intellectuals, rural clergy, and even a few convents and members of the nobility. Its most famous follower was the mathematician Blaise Pascal (1623–62) who became convinced that philosophical reasoning was not suffi - cient to understand God. Jansenist ideas led to attacks on the Jesuits, some of whom had developed a system of penance they termed \"probabilism,\" which held people were free to follow their own consciences if they had any moral doubts about an action. No confessor could judge something invariably a mortal sin or refuse to grant absolution, which made probabilists popular confessors and confession an increasingly frequent and important part of people's religious lives. By contrast, Jansenists held to infl exible moral principles, and suggested people confess and take communion less frequently, thus reducing the role of confessors and other clergy over their congregations. Two papal bulls in 1653 and 1656 condemned some of the ideas contained in Augustinus , and in 1661 Louis XIV ordered all members of the French church to sign a statement indicating their adherence to the bulls. Many refused, including the nuns at the convent of Port-Royal, which, under the leadership of abbess Angélique Arnauld (1591–1661), had become the spiritual center of Jansenism in France, renowned for its piety and discipline. A truce with the papacy quieted the debate for several decades, but in 1705 the Port-Royal nuns were ordered to accept another anti-Jansenist papal bull. They again refused, and in 1709 Louis XIV demolished the convent and banished the nuns to other houses. The writings of the Port-Royal nuns became part of a body of Jansenist literature that continued to circulate, and the fi ght over Jansenism continued. Though some Jansenist priests fl ed France, Jansenist laity continued to hold underground prayer meetings. Jansenism continued to shape the religious life of many men and women in France, encouraging them not only to become literate but to become frequent readers, and to develop their children's spiritual lives through family devotions. Salvation was not something to be left in the hands of the clergy, but to be sought through personal piety and prayer, an idea that spread among many Catholics outside France as well. In 1713 Pope Clement XI condemned the main ideas of Jansenism again in the bull Unigenitus , which led to a schismatic Catholic church being founded in Utrecht. The French church continued to debate theological issues raised by Jansenism, and the proper level of papal power, right up to the Revolution. Along with Jansenism, what came to be known as Quietism also led to controversy within Catholicism. Quietism was based on the ideas of the Spanish theologian Miguel de Molinos ( 1628–96), whose Spiritual Guide (1675) advocated losing one's individual soul in God, reaching inner peace through prayer and pure disinterested love of God. Any visible religious activity, including attendance at services or even ascetic discipline, took one away from this passive contemplation. Molinos was arrested by the Inquisition, which argued that his teachings were leading people to neglect morality and reject the authority of the church. At his trial, Molinos refused to defend himself, which his followers interpreted as Quietism in action and his opponents as a sign of his guilt. The pope decided not to make a martyr out of Molinos, and imprisoned him for the rest of his life instead of executing him. Confl icts about church and state also emerged in German- speaking Catholic areas. There was no unifi ed German state to oppose the power of the papacy, but several German theologians wrote works that built on Gallican ideas. In 1763, the auxiliary bishop of Trier, Nikolaus von Hontheim (1701–90), writing under the pen name \"Justinus Febronius,\" attacked the papacy and called for a conciliar church structure and a stronger role for the secular ruler in church affairs. Febronianism was condemned by the pope, but won support in Germany, where both Catholic secular territorial rulers and princebishops, modeling themselves on Louis XIV, sought to restrict the power of the pope in their domains. In Austria, the Habsburg rulers remained Catholic, but felt they had the responsibility to oversee all aspects of religion. The church, in their view, was simply one arm of government, there to assist rulers improve the lives of their subjects, but not to play an independent role. Joseph II issued an Edict on Idle Institutions (1780), closing hundreds of monasteries and using their property to provide better incomes for rural priests, state-controlled seminaries, and more secular schools. The following year he issued an edict of religious toleration for Protestants and Jews, and later called for civil marriages and funerals. These policies of limiting the economic and cultural power of the Catholic Church are often called \"Josephinism,\" with Joseph commenting at one point that he viewed service to God as the same as service to the state.\nThe emphasis on interior piety and contemplation advocated by Miguel de Molinos spread to France, where Jeanne-Marie Bouvier de la Mothe Guyon (1647–1717) became the center of a group of intensely religious individuals, several of whom were mystics. Madame Guyon felt herself called to spread this mystical method of turning inward, and in 1685 published A Short and Easy Method of Prayer . What a dreadful delusion hath prevailed over the greater part of mankind, in supposing that they are not called to a state of prayer! whereas all are capable of prayer, and are called thereto, as all are called to and are capable of salvation. Prayer is the application of the heart to God, and the internal exercise of love. S. Paul hath enjoined us to \"pray without ceasing\" (1 Thess. v 17), and our Lord saith, \"I say unto you all, watch and pray\" (Mark xiii. 33, 37): all therefore may, and all ought to practice prayer… You must then learn a species of prayer, which may be exercised at all times; which doth not obstruct outward employments; and which may be equally practiced by princes, kings, prelates, priests and magistrates, soldiers and children, tradesmen, labourers, women and sick persons: it cannot, therefore, be the prayer of the head, but of the heart; not a prayer of the understanding alone, which is so limited in its operations that it can have but one object at one time; but the prayer of the heart is not interrupted by the exercises of reason… Those who have not learnt to read, are not, on that account, excluded from prayer; for the Great Book which teacheth all things, and which is legible as well internally as externally, is Jesus Christ Himself… The method they should practice is this: They should fi rst learn this fundamental truth, that \"the kingdom of God is within them\" (Luke xvii. 21), and that it is there, only it must be sought. They should then repeat the Lord's Prayer in their native tongue, pondering a little upon the meaning of the words, and the infi nite willingness of that God Who dwells within them, to become, indeed, their Father. In this state let them pour out their wants before Him; and when they have pronounced the endearing word, Father, remain a few moments in a respectful silence, waiting to have the will of this their heavenly Father made manifest unto them… If they feel an inclination to peace and silence, let them discontinue the words of the prayer so long as this sensation holds; and when it subsides, go on with the second petition, \"Thy will be done on earth, as it is in heaven!\" upon which these humble supplicants must beseech God to accomplish, in them, and by them, all His will; and must surrender their hearts and freedom into His hands, to be disposed of as He pleaseth. And fi nding that the best employment of the will is to love, they should desire to love God with all their strength, and implore Him for His pure love; but all this sweetly and peacefully: and so of the rest of the prayer, in which the Clergy may instruct them. But they should not overburden themselves with frequent repetitions of set forms or studied prayers (Matt. vi. 7); for the Lord's Prayer, once repeated as I have just described, will produce abundant fruit. Madame Guyon's ideas attracted women and men, including high church offi cials such as archbishop of Cambrai François Fénelon (1651– 1715), who wrote that he had learned more from her than from any theologian. She was imprisoned several times and Fénelon was silenced and exiled from Paris on the orders of Bishop Bossuet, the most powerful cleric in France. Bossuet was particularly incensed about her ideas that everyone's prayers were equally valuable and that external forms did not matter; if such ideas spread further, wrote Bossuet, they would lead to an intolerable lack of respect for authority. After Madame Guyon died, her writings were translated and printed in the Netherlands and England; in translation they became popular with Methodists in Britain and North America. They are widely available in paperback versions and on-line today, advertised for their guidance in prayer and spirituality, not as historical documents. Though in the later seventeenth and early eighteenth century the Jesuits were successful in persuading both the papacy and the French monarchy to condemn Jansenism, by the middle of the eighteenth century the Jesuits were increasingly seen as reactionary and obscurantist. \"Enlightened\" Catholic rulers resented their autonomy. Education became one fl ashpoint. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Jesuit schools were the best in Europe, and extremely effective tools in the Catholic Reformation, but by the eighteenth century they had declined, and the education they offered was viewed as antiquated. Jesuit interference in the exploitation of indigenous peoples by colonial powers, and the acceptance of non-European rituals by Jesuit missionaries, also provoked controversy. Reports of native converts continuing to wear Brahmin insignia in India or bowing to ancestral shrines in China led members of other orders (and some Jesuits themselves) to claim that Jesuits were promoting a watered-down understanding of the Catholic faith. Diplomacy was a third area of confl ict, with Jesuit confessors and envoys accused of diplomatic intrigue, or of being agents for internationalism at a time of growing nationalism. A fourth line of criticism was economic, for like all church bodies, Jesuits paid no taxes, despite huge wealth. Anti-Jesuit propaganda fueled this opposition, dragging up old issues and accusing the Jesuits of being behind the regicide of King Henry IV of France in 1610. All these problems led secular rulers in Europe to suppress the Jesuits – Portugal led the way in 1759, with France following in 1764 and Spain in 1767. Rulers pushed for the election of a pope who agreed with them or would bend to their will, and Clement XIV ( pontifi cate 1769–1774) was elected. He universally suppressed the order in 1773, ostensibly for colluding with the French king, supporting probabilism and the power of free will, and participating in ancestor worship in China. The suppression of the Jesuits was not effective everywhere. Jesuits in the Russian part of Poland were protected by Catherine the Great, and a novitiate and headquarters survived there. The effects of the disbanding of the Jesuits were felt immediately in education and missionary work, however. Pope Pius VII lifted the ban in 1814, but this did not reverse the declining infl uence of the papacy in most Catholic countries since the days of the Council of Trent."

"H.R.H. Prince Charles of Bourbon Two Sicilies, Duke of Castro, Chief of the Royal House\nH.R.H. Princess Camilla, Duchess of Castro\nHRH Princess Maria Carolina, Duchess of Calabria and Palermo\nH.R.H. Princess Maria Chiara, Duchess of Noto and Capri\nH.R.H. Princess Beatrice of Bourbon Two Sicilies\nH.R.H. Princess Anna of Bourbon Two Sicilies,\nH.R.H. Prince Antonio of Bourbon Two Sicilies\nH.R.H. Princess Elisabetta of Bourbon Two Sicilies\nH.R.H. Prince Francesco of Bourbon Two Sicilies\nH.R.H. Princess Alessandra of Bourbon Two Sicilies\nH.R.H. Prince Gennaro of Bourbon Two Sicilies\nH.R.H. Prince Casimiro of Bourbon Two Sicilies\nH.R.H. Princess Maria Cristina of Bourbon Two Sicilies\nH.R.H. Prince Don Alessandro of Bourbon Two Sicilies\nH.R.H. Prince Luigi Alfonso of Bourbon Two Sicilies\nH.R.H. Princess Carmen of Bourbon Two Sicilies\nRoyal Anniversaries\nAn Ancient and Glorious Kingdom\nThe Bourbon Family: Three Kingdoms and a Duchy\nLine of Succession\nHM Charles of Bourbon, Restorer of the Kingdom of Naples,\nHM Ferdinand I as King of the Two Sicilies\nHM Francis I, King of the Two Sicilies\nH.M. Ferdinand II, King of the Two Sicilies\nHM Francis II, King of the Two Sicilies\nExile, Return and International Recognition\nH.R.H. Prince Alfonso, Count of Caserta, Duke of Castro\nHRH Prince Ferdinand Pius, Duke of Castro\nHRH Prince Ranieri, Duke of Castro\nHRH Prince Ferdinand, Duke of Castro\nRoyal Symbols\nRoyal House Coat of Arms\nFlags and Royal Standard\nAnthems, Marches & Patriotic Songs\nPalaces & Residences\nThe Royal Palace of Naples\nThe Royal Palace of Capodimonte\nThe Royal Palace of Caserta\nThe Royal Site of San Leucio\nThe Royal Site of Carditello\nThe Royal Palace of Portici\nThe Lodge of Fusaro\nPhilately & Currency\nBourbon Two Sicilies Kingdom achievements\nSome Primates of the Kingdom of Naples Two Silicies\nIllustrious Royal Order of Saint Januarius\nIllustrious Royal Order of Saint Ferdinand and Merit\nSacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George\nRoyal Military Order of Saint George and Reunion\nRoyal Order of Francis I\nPrince Alfonso of Bourbon Two Sicilies, Count of Caserta, Duke of Castro, became the Head of the Royal Family of Bourbon Two Sicilies and the focal point of Neapolitan legitimists in 1894 on the death of his elder half-brother, King Francesco II. Throughout his time as the head of the dynasty, the Count of Caserta continued his Family's protests at the annexation of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies to the Kingdom of Italy. Prince Alfonso, Count of Caserta, was also fully recognised by the Holy See as the Head of the Dynasty of an occupied state and continued to receive an accredited Ambassador from him until 1902.\nPrince Alfonso was born in 1841 and married his cousin Princess Maria Antoinette of Bourbon. The Prince lived in Cannes after taking part in the Carlist War in Spain as commanding general. Together they produced twelve children and many of them married into prominent dynasties from across Europe including Spain and France. In 1897, his firstborn, Prince Ferdinando Pio, Duke of Calabria, after serving in the Royal Spanish Army in the campaigns of Cuba and Morocco, married Princess Maria daughter of King Ludwig III of Bavaria.\nIn 1900, his younger brother, Prince Carlos, renounced his dynastic rights to the Throne of the Two Sicilies for himself and his descendants, and therefore his Grand Mastership of the dynastic Orders of Knighthood of the Royal House of Bourbon Two Sicilies. This decision was necessary so that he could become Infante of Spain through his marriage to the Infanta Maria Mercedes of Bourbon, daughter of King Alfonso XII of Spain.\nFor a long time now there has been some confusion as to the exact intent of his renunciation of Prince Carlo and how this decision relates to the 1759 Pragmatic decree of King Carlos of Bourbon which declared that any prince entitled to a place in the Spanish succession could not simultaneously lay claim the Crown of the Two Sicilies, or a place in the succession to that Crown. This was the law that served to forever separate the dynasty of the Two Sicilies from that of Spain.\nReal Casa di Borbone delle Due Sicilie\nRoyal House of Bourbon Two Sicilies\nMaison Royale de Bourbon des Deux Siciles\nCasa Real de Borbón de las Dos Sicilias\nVia Giosuè Carducci, 4 CAP 00187 Roma (RM) ItaliaRome (RM) ItalyRome (RM) ItalieRoma (RM) Italia\[email protected]\nOfficial Furnishers\n© 1997 - 2020 Real Casa di Borbone delle Due Sicilie - Note Legali\nUtilizziamo i cookie per essere sicuri che tu possa avere la migliore esperienza sul nostro sito. Continuando ad utilizzare questo sito confermi di esserne consapevole.Ok"

"Royal House of the Two Sicilies\nInfant Charles de Bourbon y Farnesio (1716-1788)\nDuke of Parme, Charles VII of Naples and of the Two Sicilies, Charles III, king of Spain\nEldest son of Philip V, King of Spain and of his second wife, Elizabeth Farnesio. He succeeded his maternal great-uncle Antonio Farnesio, as Duke of Parma and Plaisance in 1731. Being also great-grandson of Margaret Médicis, daughter of Cosme II, grand-duke of Tuscany (d. 1621), married to Edward I, duke of Parma, Infant Don Carlos was also recognised as heir of the grand-duchy of Tuscany, in 1737. Thus the arms of the Farnese, dukes of Parma and those of the Médicis, grand-dukes of Tuscany. By the Treaties that ended the War of the Polish Succession, Charles had to abandon the Duchy of Parma and his pretensions to Tuscany, which were given to Francis, duke of Lorraine, future emperor Francis I of Austria. Charles de Bourbon in turn was given the Crown of the Two-Sicilies and the tiltle of King of Jerusalem by the Pope (1738).\nName: H. M. Charles VII (1716- 1788), King of Naples (1735-1759), of Sicily (1738-1759) & of Jerusalem, (I), Duke of Parme (1731-35), & Charles III, King of Spain (1759-88)\nInsc.:Anonymous\nTech.: C2\nBlasoning:1. Bourgogne (ancien, sans bordure) et Autriche; 2. Leon et Castille; 3. Aragon et Sicile; 4. Autriche; 5. Anjou (moderne); 6. Bourgogne (ancien); 7. Brabant; 8. Flandre; 9. Tirol ; 10. Anjou ancien (Naples) sans le lambel; 11. Jerusalém; aux flancs, dexter, Parme (Farnése) mal representé, et Portugal; sinister, Toscane (Médicis). Sur le tout, Anjou (moderne). Pending are the crosses of the Sacred Military Constantinian Order of St. George, the Golden Fleece, St. Januarius and the Holy Ghost.\nThe Farnese, dukes of Parma, bore the arms of Portugal, since Rainuncio I, duke of Parma, who by being the great-grandson of Emmanuel I, King of Portugal, through Infant Dom Duarte, was pretendant to the throne of Portugal in the dynastic crisis of 1580. He undoubtedly detained the genealogical representation of King Emmanuel I, but was outtaken by Philip II, King of Spain who became King of Portugal, although having less rights.\nHis line is today representended by Monseigneur Prince Louis Alphonse, Duke d'Anjou and Duke of Bourbon, as the eldest male descendant of Queen Elizabeth Farnese, who is also the presentHead of the Bourbon Family.\nName: H.M. Ferdinando I, King of the Two Sicilies (1751- 1816 - 1825), formerly Ferdinando IV , King of Naples and (III) King of Sicily, Infant of Spain\nInsc.: Anonymous\nNotes: Ferdinand I was married to Princess Mary Caroline of Austria (1752-1814)\nBibliogr.: Francisco Simas Alves de Azevedo, «Belos e interessantes ex-libis régios e principescos», in Boletim da Academia Portuguesa de Ex-Libris, # 19, Lisboa, 1962, p. 4\nName: H.M. Francesco I, King of the Two Sicilies (1777 - 1825 - 1830)\nInsc.\nArtist: C. Amalfi fecit & A. Baldi sculp.\nYear: circa 1820\nName: Louis Charles Marie Joseph, prince of the Two Sicilies, Count of Aquila (1824-1897)\nInsc.: Biblioteca Conte di Aquila\nArtist: Stern sculp.\nYear: c. 1870\nNotes: Son of Francis I, King of the Two Sicilies and of Maria Isabel of Spain. He is the ancestor of the House of the Counts Roccaguglielma who ceased to be dynasts in the Two Sicilies due to the morganatic non-authorised marriage of the prince's son.\nBibliography: for the House of Bourbon see, Hervé Pinoteau, « État Présent de la Maison de Bourbon», 4ème ed., Léopard D'Or, Paris, 1991; idem, «L'Héraldique Capétienne en 1976», Nouvelles Éditions Latines, Paris, 1977; idem, «La structure de la maison royale», in «FIDELIS», # 3, (1990), SICRE, Paris, 1990, pp. 1-11; Christophe Levantal, «La Route Royale», Communication & Tradition, Paris, 1996; for the Royal House of Spain see, Fernando García-Mercadal, «Los Títulos y la Heraldica de los Reys de España», Bosch, Barcelona, 1995; for the Royal House of the Two Sicilies see, Jacopo Gelli, «Gli Ex Libris Italiani», reprint of the 1930 ed., Cisalpino - Goliardica, Milano, 1976; Guy Stair Sainty, «The Orders of Chivalry and Merit of the Bourbon Two Sicilies Dynasty», S.M.O.C.S.G., Madrid, 1989; Christophe Papet-Vauban, «Les Rois des Deux-Siciles», in Bourbons Magazine, #9, (1997), pp. 10-11, #10, (1997), pp. 10-11, #12, (1998), pp. 18-19, see, Bourbons Magazine.\n© (1997-2003) by J. Vicente de Bragança (Portugal) and J. Stewart LeForte (Canada)\nPosted 27 March 1998"

"Frederick IV (1382 – 24 June 1439), also known as Frederick of the Empty Pockets (), a member of the House of Habsburg, was Duke of Austria from 1402 until his death. As a scion of the Habsburg Leopoldian line, he ruled over Further Austria and the County of Tyrol from 1406 onwards.\n\nBiography\nFrederick was the youngest son of Duke Leopold III (1351–1386) and his wife Viridis (d. 1414), a daughter of Bernabò Visconti, Lord of Milan. According to the 1379 Treaty of Neuberg, his father ruled over the Habsburg Inner Austrian territories of Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, as well as over Tyrol and the dynasty's original Further Austrian possessions in Swabia. After the early death of Duke Leopold in the 1386 Battle of Sempach, Frederick and his elder brothers William, Leopold IV and Ernest initially remained under the tutelage of their uncle Duke Albert III of Austria.\n\nAs an inheritance dispute arose upon Duke Albert's death in 1395, the young Leopoldian dukes insisted on their rights: the next year, William went on to rule the Inner Austrian lands and Leopold IV ascended as Count of Tyrol. When Frederick came of age in 1402, he was formally assigned to administrate his father's inheritance in the scattered Habsburg territories in Swabia, referred to collectively as Further Austria (Vorderösterreich) and took his residence in Freiburg im Breisgau. Another division of the Leopoldian territories took place after William' death in 1406: Duke Leopold IV, now eldest heir, ceded Tyrol to Frederick; however, he did not become sole ruler in Further Austria until Leopold's death in 1411. \n\nThe early years of Frederick's reign were marked by external and internal conflicts. He had to overcome the opposition of Tyrolean nobles (who gave him the title \"of the Empty Pockets\") in 1406/1407 and a rebellion in the Bishopric of Trent. He also had to deal with the independence movement in the Swabian Appenzell lands, where the conflict with the Prince-Abbots of St Gall had escalated in 1401, sparking the Appenzell Wars. Frederick had to withstand in a series of longstanding military conflicts, until a peace was concluded in 1410. However, the Appenzell area became a protectorate of the Old Swiss Confederacy in 1411. Back in Tyrol, he had to face the invading forces of Duke Stephen III of Bavaria, whom he defeated in the Lower Inn Valley.\n\nUpon the death of Duke Leopold IV in 1411, the surviving younger brothers Frederick and Ernest again divided the Leopoldian possessions. With Further Austria, Frederick became undisputed ruler over the Habsburg territories in the Alsace region and of the Burgau margraviate. In 1417 he also inherited the former Kyburg estates from the extinct comital Habsburg-Laufenburg branch. Several border conflicts with the Republic of Venice led to the loss of Rovereto in the Lagarina Valley.\n\nUnder the terms of the Western Schism, Duke Frederick sided with Antipope John XXIII, whom he helped on his flight from the Council of Constance in March 1415. The Luxembourg king Sigismund had John arrested in Breisgau and placed Frederick under the Imperial ban. Thanks to the support of the local populace he managed to keep Tyrol, though he lost the western Aargau, the Freiamt and County of Baden estates, in the old homeland of the Habsburgs, to the Swiss.\n\nIn 1420, Frederick also moved his Tyrolean court from Meran to Innsbruck. After several rebellions by local nobles, his rule over Tyrol had stabilized, partially due to the successful beginning of silver mining that brought an increase in prosperity to the region. After the death of his brother Ernest on 10 June 1424, Duke Frederick also took over the regency over Inner Austria for his minor nephews Frederick V (the later Emperor Frederick III) and Albert VI. In his later years, however, he again had to cope with another rebellion against his Tyrolean rule, instigated by Prince-Bishop Alexander of Trent.\n\nFrederick died at his court in Innsbruck, despite his nickname a rich man. His son and heir Sigismund was called der Münzreiche (\"Rich in Coin\"). Frederick was buried in the Cistercian abbey of Stams, Tyrol.\n\nMarriage and issue\nOn 24 December 1407, Frederick married Elizabeth of the Palatinate (1381–1408), daughter of King Rupert of Germany, in Innsbruck. They had one daughter, Elizabeth, but both mother and child died shortly after the birth on 27 December 1408.\n\nOn 11 June 1411, Frederick married Anna (d. 1432), daughter of the Welf duke Frederick I of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel; they had:\n Margaret (14231424)\n Hedwig (14241427)\n Wolfgang (1426)\n Sigismund (14271496).\nOnly Sigismund survived until adulthood. He succeeded his father in Tyrol and Further Austria.\n\nAncestors\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\nExternal links \nEncyclopedia of Austria\n\nAustria, Friedrich IV of\nAustria, Friedrich IV of\n15th-century dukes of Austria\nCounts of Tyrol"

"Albert I of Habsburg (German: Albrecht I.) (July 1255 – 1 May 1308), the eldest son of King Rudolf I of Germany and his first wife Gertrude of Hohenberg, was a Duke of Austria and Styria from 1282 and King of Germany from 1298 until his assassination.\nFrom 1273 Albert ruled as a landgrave over his father's Swabian (Further Austrian) possessions in Alsace. In 1282 his father, the first German monarch from the House of Habsburg, invested him and his younger brother Rudolf II with the duchies of Austria and Styria, which he had seized from late King Ottokar II of Bohemia and defended in the 1278 Battle on the Marchfeld. By the 1283 Treaty of Rheinfelden his father entrusted Albert with their sole government, while Rudolf II ought to be compensated by the Further Austrian Habsburg home territories – which, however, never happened until his death in 1290. Albert and his Swabian ministeriales appear to have ruled the Austrian and Styrian duchies with conspicuous success, overcoming the resistance by local nobles.\nKing Rudolf I was unable to secure the succession to the German throne for his son, especially due to the objections raised by Ottokar's son King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia, and the plans to install Albert as successor of the assassinated King Ladislaus IV of Hungary in 1290 also failed. Upon Rudolf's death in 1291, the Prince-electors, fearing Albert's power and the implementation of a hereditary monarchy, chose Count Adolf of Nassau-Weilburg as King of the Romans. An uprising among his Styrian dependents compelled Albert to recognize the sovereignty of his rival and to confine himself for a time to the government of the Habsburg lands at Vienna.\nHe did not abandon his hopes of the throne, however, which were eventually realised: In 1298, he was chosen German king by some of the princes, who were bothered about Adolf's attempts to gain his own power basis in the lands of Thuringia and Meissen, again led by the Bohemian king Wenceslaus II. The armies of the rival kings met at the Battle of Göllheim near Worms, where Adolf was defeated and slain. Submitting to a new election but securing the support of several influential princes by making extensive promises, he was chosen at the Imperial City of Frankfurt on 27 July 1298, and crowned at Aachen Cathedral on 24 August.\nAlbert sought to play an important part in European affairs. He seemed at first inclined to press a quarrel with the Kingdom of France over the Burgundian frontier, but the refusal of Pope Boniface VIII to recognize his election led him to change his policy, and, in 1299, he made a treaty with King Philip IV, by which his son Rudolph was to marry Blanche, a daughter of the French king. He afterwards became estranged from Philip, but in 1303, Boniface recognized him as German king and future emperor; in return, Albert recognized the authority of the pope alone to bestow the Imperial crown, and promised that none of his sons should be elected German king without papal consent.\nIn 1274 Albert had married Elizabeth, daughter of Count Meinhard II of Tyrol, who was a descendant of the Babenberg margraves of Austria who predated the Habsburgs' rule. The baptismal name Leopold, patron saint margrave of Austria, was given to one of their sons. Queen Elizabeth was in fact better connected to mighty German rulers than her husband: she was a descendant of earlier German kings, for example Emperor Henry IV, she was also a niece of the Wittelsbach dukes of Bavaria, Austria's important neighbor.\nRudolph III (c. 1282 – 4 July 1307, Horažďovice), Married but line extinct and predeceased his father.\nFrederick I (1289 – 13 January 1330, Gutenstein). Married but line extinct.\nLeopold I (4 August 1290 – 28 February 1326, Strassburg). Married, had issue.\nAlbert II (12 December 1298, Vienna – 20 July 1358, Vienna).\nHenry the Gentle (1299 – 3 February 1327, Bruck an der Mur). Married but line extinct.\nOtto (23 July 1301, Vienna – 26 February 1339, Vienna). Married but line extinct.\nin Breslau 1310 to Duke Henry VI the Good.\nAgnes (18 May 1281 – 10 June 1364, Königsfelden), married in Vienna 13 February 1296 King Andrew III of Hungary.\nElizabeth (d. 19 May 1353), married 1304 Frederick IV, Duke of Lorraine.\nCatherine (1295 – 18 January 1323, Naples), married Charles, Duke of Calabria in 1316.\nJutta von Oettingen [de] (d. 1329), married Ludwig V, Count of Öttingen in Baden, 26 March 1319.\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Albert I of Habsburg.\n^ a b c Previté-Orton 1960, p. 796.\n^ a b c Previté-Orton 1960, p. 797.\nA. L. J. Michelsen, Die Landgrafschaft Thüringen unter den Königen Adolf, Albrecht, und Heinrich VII. (Jena, 1860)."

"Ernst, Graf von Mansfield\nErnst, Graf von Mansfield (c. 1580 - November 29, 1626), German soldier, was an illegitimate son of Peter Ernst, F�rst von Mansfeld, and passed his early years in his father's palace at Luxembourg.\nHe gained his earliest military experiences in Hungary, where his half-brother Charles (1543-1595,) also a soldier of renown, held a high command in the imperial army. Later he served under the Archduke Leopold, until that prince's ingratitude, real or fancied, drove him into the arms of the enemies of the house of Habsburg. Although remaining a Roman Catholic he allied himself with the Protestant princes, and during the earlier part of the Thirty Years' War he was one of their foremost champions.\nHe was despatched by Charles Emmanuel, duke of Savoy, at the head of about 2000 men to aid the revolting Bohemians when war broke out in 1618. He took Pilsen, but in the summer of 1619 he was defeated at Zablat; after this he offered his services to the emperor Ferdinand II and remained inactive while the titular king of Bohemia, Frederick V, elector palatine of the Rhine, was driven in headlong rout from Prague. Mansfeld, however, was soon appointed by Frederick to command his army in Bohemia, and in 1621 he took up his position in the Upper Palatinate, successfully resisting the efforts made by Tilly to dislodge him.\nFrom the Upper he passed into the Rhenish Palatinate. Here he relieved Frankenthal and took Hagenau; then, joined by his master, the elector Frederick, he defeated Tilly at Wiesloch (April 25, 1622) and plundered Alsace and Hesse2. But Mansfeld's ravages were not confined to the lands of his enemies; they were ruinous to the districts he was commissioned to defend.\nAt length Frederick was obliged to dismiss Mansfeld's troops from his service. Then joining Christian of Brunswick the count led his army through Lorraine, devastating the country as he went, and in August 1622 defeating the Spaniards at Fleurus. He next entered the service of the United Provinces and took up his quarters in East Friesland, capturing fortresses and inflicting great hardships upon the inhabitants. A mercenary and a leader of mercenaries, Mansfeld often interrupted his campaigns by journeys made for the purpose of raising money, or in other words of selling his services to the highest bidder, and in these diplomatic matters he showed considerable skill.\nAbout 1624 he paid three visits to London, where he was hailed as a hero by the populace, and at least one to Paris. James I was anxious to furnish him with men and money for the recovery of the palatinate, but it was not until January 1625 that Mansfeld and his army of \"raw and poor rascals\" sailed from Dover to the Netherlands. Later in the year, the Thirty Years' War having been renewed under the leadership of Christian IV of Denmark, he re-entered Germany to take part therein. But on April 25, 1626 Wallenstein inflicted a severe defeat upon him at the bridge of Dessau. Mansfeld, however, quickly raised another army, with which he intended to attack the hereditary lands of the house of Austria, and pursued by Wallenstein he pressed forward towards Hungary, where he hoped to accomplish his purpose by the aid of Bethlem Gabor, prince of Transylvania. But when Gabor changed his policy and made peace with the emperor, Mansfeld was compelled to disband his troops. He set out for Venice, but when he reached Rakowitza he was taken ill, and here he died on the November 29, 1626. He was buried at Spalato.\nF. Stieve, Ernst von Mansfeld (Munich, 1890)\nR. Reuss, Graf Ernst von Mansfeld im b�hmischen Kriege (Brunswick, 1865)\nA. C. de Vilk-rmont, Ernest de Mansfeldt (Brussels, 1866)\nL. Graf Uetterodt zu Schaffenberg, Ernst Graf zu Mansfeld (Gotha; 1867)\nJ. Grossmann, Des Grafen Ernst von Mansfeld letzte Pl�ne und Thaten (Breslau, 1870)\nE. Fischer, Des Mansfelders Tod (Berlin, 1873)\nS. R. Gardiner, History of England, vols. iv. and v. (1901);\nJ. L. Motley, Life and Death of John of Barneveld (ed. 1904; vol. ii.)\nThis entry incorporates public domain text originally from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica."

"Johann Philipp Carl Joseph Stadion, Count von Warthausen (18 June 1763 in Mainz – 15 May 1824, Baden) was a statesman, foreign minister, and diplomat who served the Habsburg empire during the Napoleonic Wars. He was also founder of Austria's central bank Oesterreichische Nationalbank. He was Count of Stadion-Warthausen from 1787 to 1806.\n\nEarly life \nJohann was born as the younger surviving son of Count Franz Konrad von Stadion-Warthausen (1736–1787) and his wife, Baroness Maria Johanna Ludowika Esther Zobel von Giebelstadt (1740–1803).\n\nLife and career \n\nIn 1787–1790, he was ambassador in Stockholm, then in London from 1790 to 1793. After some years of retirement, he was entrusted with a mission to the Prussian court (1800–1803), where he endeavoured in vain to effect an alliance with Austria. He had greater success as envoy at Saint Petersburg (1803–1805), where he played a large part in the formation of the third coalition against Napoleon (1805). Notwithstanding the failure of this alliance, he was made foreign minister and, in conjunction with Archduke Charles of Austria, pursued a policy of quiet preparation for a fresh trial of strength with France.\n\nIn 1808, he abandoned the policy of procrastination and hastened the outbreak of a new war. Stadion was encouraged by news from Spain regarding the rising of the Spanish population against French occupation and the defeat of a French army by Spanish general Francisco Castanos at Bailen. He was instrumental in persuading Emperor Francis of Austria to attempt to arouse popular resistance to Napoleon in Austria and Germany.\n\nThe war that began in 1809 pitted Austria alone on the continent against Napoleonic France. The campaign saw the first major defeat of Napoleon at Aspern by the Archduke Charles, brother of the Emperor. Nonetheless, the French recovered and inflicted a decisive defeat on the Austrians at Wagram, one of the largest battles of the Napoleonic Wars. The unfortunate results of the campaign of 1809 compelled his resignation. He was succeeded as Foreign Minister by Klemens von Metternich, whom the Emperor had recalled from Paris. Nonetheless, in 1813, he was commissioned to negotiate the convention which finally overthrew Napoleon.\n\nThe last ten years of his life were spent in a strenuous and partly successful attempt to reorganize the disordered finances of his country. As minister of finance (1815–1824), he founded Austria's central bank Oesterreichische Nationalbank in 1816.\n\nPersonal life \nOn 4 November 1773 in Mainz, he married his cousin, Countess Maria Anna von Stadion-Thannhausen (1771–1841). Together, they had eight children. Among them was Franz Stadion, Count von Warthausen, a prominent liberal statesman of the 1840s.\n\nHe died in Baden, Austria.\n\nAcknowledgements\n In 1874, an alley in Vienna's 1st district was renamed \"Stadiongasse\" in honour of Johann Philipp von Stadion.\n Since 1897, the Hotel Graf Stadion on Buchfeldgasse Nr. 5 in Vienna's 8th district Josefstadt bears the statesman's name.\n\nNotes\n\nSee A Beer, Zehn Jahre österreichischer Politik, 1801-1810 (Leipzig, 1877); Die Finanzen Oesterreichs im 19. Jahrhundert (Prague, 1877); Krones, Zur Geschichte Österreichs, 1792-1876 (Gotha, 1886).\n\n1763 births\n1824 deaths\nPeople from Mainz\n18th-century Austrian people\n19th-century Austrian people\nAustrian Empire people of the Napoleonic Wars\nAustrian Empire politicians\nForeign ministers of Austria\nCounts of Austria\nMembers of the Württembergian Chamber of Lords\nAustrian people of German descent\nKnights of the Golden Fleece of Austria"

"The 1848 Revolutions in the Italian states, part of the wider Revolutions of 1848 in Europe, were organized revolts in the states of the Italian peninsula and Sicily, led by intellectuals and agitators who desired a liberal government. As Italian nationalists they sought to eliminate reactionary Austrian control. During this time, Italy was not a unified country, and was divided into many states, which, in Northern Italy, were ruled by the Austrian Empire. A desire to be independent from foreign rule, and the conservative leadership of the Austrians, led Italian revolutionaries to stage revolution in order to drive out the Austrians. The revolution was led by the state of the Kingdom of Sardinia. Some uprisings in the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, particularly in Milan, forced the Austrian General Radetzky to retreat to the Quadrilatero (Quadrilateral) fortresses.\n\nKing Charles Albert, who ruled Piedmont-Sardinia from 1831 to 1849, aspired to unite Italy with the endorsement of Pope Pius IX, head of the Papal States, which comprised then vast territories in the center of the Italian peninsula. He declared war on Austria in March 1848 and launched a full-out attack on the Quadrilateral. Lacking allies, Charles Albert was no match for the Austrian army and was defeated at the Battle of Custoza on 24 July 1848. He signed a truce and withdrew his forces from Lombardy, and thus Austria remained dominant in a divided Italy until the Second Italian War of Independence.\n\nThe rebellion \n\nAfter witnessing the liberal friendly events that were occurring in Rome, the people of other states started to demand similar treatment. It commenced on 12 January in Sicily, where the people began to demand a Provisional Government, separate from the government of the mainland. King Ferdinand II tried to resist these changes, however a full-fledged revolt erupted in Sicily, a revolt also erupted in Salerno and Naples. These revolts drove Ferdinand and his men out of Sicily, and forced him to allow a provisional government to be constituted.\n\nNotwithstanding the events in Rome and Naples, the states still were under a conservative rule. Italians in Lombardo-Veneto could not enjoy these freedoms. The Austrian Empire of this region had tightened their grip on the people by further oppressing them with harsher taxes. Tax gatherers were sent out along with the 100,000 man army standing in place, and letting their presence be known. \n\nThese revolts in Sicily helped to spark revolts in the northern Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia. Revolutions in the Lombardy city of Milan forced about 20,000 of an Austrian General Radetsky's troops to withdraw from the city. Eventually General Radetsky was forced to completely withdraw his troops from the two states, however, due to his expertise, he was able to keep the Quadrilateral fortresses of Verona, Peschiera, Legnano and Mantua. Through his skillful tactics he brought his men that had been withdrawn into the key forts. Meanwhile, the Italian insurgents were encouraged when news of Prince Metternich abdicating in Vienna spread out, but were unable to completely eradicate Radetsky's troops. Also, by this time Charles Albert of Piedmont had published a liberal constitution for Piedmont.\n\nIn the Quadrilateral General Radetsky and his men were plotting a counterattack in order to regain their lost ground. However, they were interrupted by Charles Albert of Sardinia, the King of Sardinia, who had by then taken the forefront of the attack, and had launched an attack against the Quadrilateral. Charles charged the fortress from all sides aided by 25,000 reinforcements, who came in assistance of their fellow citizens. While journeying to the fortress preparing for the attack, Charles garnered the support of princes of other states. His fellow princes responded by sending reinforcements to his aid: Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany sent 8,000, Pope Pius contributed 10,000, and Ferdinand II sent 16,050 men on the advice of general Guglielmo Pepe. They attacked the fortresses and on 3 May 1848 succeeded in winning the battle of Goito and capturing the fortress of Peschiera.\n\nAt that point, Pope Pius IX became nervous about defeating the Austrian empire and withdrew his troops, citing that he could not endorse a war between two Catholic nations. King Ferdinand of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies also called his soldiers back and retired his troops. However, some of them did not comply with the order and continued on under the guidance of Generals Pepe, Durando and Giovanni. A year later, Charles launched another attack, but, due to the lack of troops, he was defeated in the Battle of Novara.\n\nAftermath \n \nDespite the fact that Pius had abandoned the war against the Austrians, many of his people had still fought alongside Charles Albert. The people of Rome rebelled against Pius' government and assassinated Pellegrino Rossi, Pius' minister. Pope Pius IX then fled to the fortress of Gaeta, under the protection of King Ferdinand II. In February 1849, he was joined by Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany who had to flee from there because of another insurrection. Piedmont was also lost to the Austrians in 1849 and Charles Albert had to abdicate leaving his son, Victor Emanuel II, to rule.\n\nIn Rome, the authority that did take over passed popular legislation to eliminate burdensome taxes and give work to the unemployed. Giuseppe Garibaldi and Giuseppe Mazzini came to build a \"Rome of the People,\" and the short-lived Roman Republic was proclaimed. The Republic succeeded in inspiring the people to build an independent Italian nation. It also attempted to improve economically the lives of the underserved by giving some of the Church's large landholdings to poor peasants. It also made prison and insane asylum reforms, gave freedom to the press, provided secular education, but shied away from the \"Right to Work\", having seen this fail in France.\n\nHowever, the many reforms instituted by the new Republic combined with its lowering of taxes brought about monetary problems which the Republic then compounded by simply printing more money. Runaway price inflation doomed the economy of the Republic. In addition sending troops to defend the Piedmont from Austrian forces put Rome at risk of attack from Austria. However, Pope Pius appealed to Napoleon III for help. The French President saw this as an opportunity to gain Catholic support. The French army arrived by sea under the command of general Charles Oudinot, and, despite an early loss to Garibaldi, the French, with the help of the Austrians, eventually defeated the Roman Republic. On July 12, 1849 Pope Pius IX was escorted back into town and ruled under French protection until 1870.\n\nSee also \n Revolutions of 1848\n Revolt of Genoa\n Unification of Italy\n Bourgeois revolution\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n De Mattei, Roberto. Pius IX (2004)\n Ginsborg, Paul. \"Peasants and Revolutionaries in Venice and the Veneto, 1848,\" Historical Journal, Sep 1974, Vol. 17 Issue 3, pp 503–550 in JSTOR\n Ginsborg, Paul. Daniele Manin and the Venetian Revolution of 1848-49 (1979)\n Rapport, Michael. 1848: Year of Revolution (2010) pp 79–93\n Robertson, Priscilla. Revolutions of 1848: A Social History (1952) pp 311–401 \n Smith, Denis Mack. Mazzini (1996) excerpt and text search\n\nExternal links \n \"Encyclopedia of 1848 Revolutions\" new articles by scholars; comprehensive coverage\nRevolutions of 1848"

"Events in the year 1137 in Italy\n\nEvents\n\nThe Battle of Rignano was the second great defeat of the career of Roger II of Sicily and, like the first, the Battle of Nocera, it too came at the hands of Ranulf II, Count of Alife. The prime difference was the position of the two combatants. \nAt Nocera on 24 July 1132, Ranulf was allied with Robert II of Capua and Sergius VII of Naples and he was a mere rebel, fighting the king of Sicily. On 30 October 1137, Ranulf was the recently appointed duke of Apulia, with a contingent of 800 German troops on loan from the Emperor Lothair II, and his adversaries were not only Roger, but his erstwhile ally Sergius.\n\nDeaths\n\n Antipope Gregory VIII (?-1137) - antipope 1118-1121\n Emperor Lothair II (1075–1137) - Holy Roman Emperor, died on return to Germany\n Sergius VII of Naples (?-1137) - last Duke of Naples\n\nItaly\nItaly\nYears of the 12th century in Italy"

"← Byzantine Empire\nByzantine Spain →\nByzantine Italy\nPosted on August 11, 2013\tby davidseurope\nmap of Byzantine-Lombard Italy (Photo credit: Wikipedia)\nThe Italian peninsula lay in the western half of the Roman Empire after its division in the late 3rd century and its permanent separation in 395. In the late 480s the Ostrogoths, with the sanction of the Emperor in the East, attacked the general who was ruling Italy and overthrew him after several years, but any hopes the Byzantine Emperor still had that this would bring Italy back into the Empire were disappointed.\nIn 533-4 the Byzantine Empire overthrew the Vandal Kingdom in northwest Africa and the western Mediterranean islands, and in 535 the Byzantine armies crossed to Sicily, whose western tip was Vandal but which was mainly Ostrogothic, and captured the island. The mainland of Italy was invaded in 536 and conquered by the end of the decade, but in the 540s the Ostrogoths revived under a new King, Totila, and a new, prolonged and destructive war followed. Only in 555 was the Byzantine victory secure, and even then there were pockets of resistance. Brescia and Verona did not surrender until 563.\nScarcely had the Imperial adminstration begun the task of restoring the prosperity of Italy than the Lombards, a Germanic confederation of tribes, invaded from the northeast in 568. The lands of the Po plain fell to them, so did Tuscany. In east central Italy by the end of the century the Lombards had established a Duchy centred on Spoleto and another in the south of the peninsula centred on Benevento. At the beginning of the 7th century the Byzantine Empire was left with Liguria, the lagoons of the northern Adriatic, an extensive central strip of land running southwestwards from Ravenna through Umbria to Rome, districts on the Tyrrhenian coast north and south of Naples, the heel and toe of Italy, and the island of Sicily.\nThe chief official in Byzantine Italy was the Exarch (the first surviving record of the title comes from 584). He combined the leadership of both the military and civil administrations, thus breaking the pattern of late Roman provincial administration, where the two were placed under separate officers.\nThe Lombards took Liguria in 643, in the south they pushed the Byzantines back into the toe and heel of Italy, and in 751 they took the lands of central Italy, including Ravenna, but not the Venetian lagoon and not Rome and its environs. The Exarchs had allowed considerable autonomy to Rome and to its Bishop; the Pope had taken part in negotiations with the Lombards and the Papacy was emerging as a temporal power.\nByzantine Italy was further reduced when the Aghlabids, the Moslem rulers in the Tunisia region, began the invasion of Sicily in 827. The west and centre of the island soon fell, but it was not until 878 that Syracuse, the last great city on the east coast, was taken, and not until 902 that the last fortress, at Taormina, surrendered. The Arabs also drove the Byzantines out of the heel of Italy in the 840s. They were expelled from Bari by the western Emperor, Louis II, in 871, but he ran into trouble with the Lombards and died in 875. By 888 a resurgent Byzantium had taken control of much of southern Italy from both the Arabs and the Lombards. Besides always keeping at least a toehold on Italy, the Byzantines had retained influence over the ports on the western coast at Naples, Amalfi and Gaeta. When central Italy was lost, these cities were remote from the Byzantine authorities in the south and became self-governing.\nIn 1038 the Byzantines began the reconquest of Sicily from the Moslems and made spectacular gains in the east of the island, but the commander was recalled in 1040 and the Arabs soon recovered their losses, except for Messina. On the mainland the Lombards put pressure on the Byzantines, though a savage campaign in 1042-3 restored Byzantine authority. By that period there was a new presence in the south of Italy: Norman mercenaries had been fighting for several years for one side or the other. Some of them were already beginning to act on their own account and in the next thirty years they steadily expanded the area they controlled. In 1071, the same year as Romanus IV was defeated by the Seljuk Turks at Manzikert, the Normans captured Bari, the capital of Byzantine Italy and its last remaining stronghold.\nThere was a brief return. In 1155, with Roger II, the founder of the Sicilian Kingdom, dead, and his son William I ill, a Byzantine force attacked Apulia. The city of Bari, where many Greeks still lived, welcomed the invaders; Brindisi and Taranto were also taken, but in the following year William I defeated the Byzantines and recovered Apulia. Further north the city of Ancona, once part of the Exarch's territory and within territory claimed by both the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor, allied itself with Byzantium in 1155. The alliance survived until the death of the Emperor Manuel in 1180. When this alliance ended the Empire that still called itself Roman ceased to hold any part of Italy.\nThis entry was posted in Germany, Italy and tagged Apulia, Byzantine, Byzantine Empire, Lombard, Pope, Rome, Sicily. Bookmark the permalink."

"Description: In order to draw Pope's army into battle, Jackson ordered an attack on a Federal column that was passing across his front on the Warrenton Turnpike on August 28. The fighting at Brawner Farm lasted several hours and resulted in a stalemate. Pope became convinced that he had trapped Jackson and concentrated the bulk of his army against him. On August 29, Pope launched a series of assaults against Jackson's position along an unfinished railroad grade. The attacks were repulsed with heavy casualties on both sides. At noon, Longstreet arrived on the field from Thoroughfare Gap and took position on Jackson's right flank. On August 30, Pope renewed his attacks, seemingly unaware that Longstreet was on the field. When massed Confederate artillery devastated a Union assault by Fitz John Porter's command, Longstreet's wing of 28,000 men counterattacked in the largest, simultaneous mass assault of the war. The Union left flank was crushed and the army driven back to Bull Run. Only an effective Union rearguard action prevented a replay of the First Manassas disaster. Pope's retreat to Centreville was precipitous, nonetheless. The next day, Lee ordered his army in pursuit. This was the decisive battle of the Northern Virginia Campaign. During the war, the North generally named a battle after the closest river, stream or creek and the South tended to name battles after towns or railroad junctions. Hence the Confederate name Manassas after Manassas Junction, and the Union name Bull Run for the stream Bull Run.\nSources: National Park Service; Manassas National Battlefield Park; Center of Military History, United States Army, Washington, D.C.; Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies."

"The Battle of Benevento was a major medieval battle fought on 26 February 1266, near Benevento in present-day Southern Italy, between the forces of Charles I of Anjou and those of King Manfred of Sicily. Manfred's defeat and death resulted in Charles' conquest of the Kingdom of Sicily, effectively ending the rule of the Hohenstaufen dynasty in the Italian Peninsula and marking the rise of the royal Capetian House of Anjou. The engagement was part of the conflict which pitted Guelphs against Ghibellines.\n\nBackground \nThe Papacy had long been in conflict with the Imperial house of Hohenstaufen over their rule in Italy. At the time of the battle, the Hohenstaufen ruler of the Kingdom of Sicily (which included Sicily and southern Italy) was Manfred, illegitimate son of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor. However, the rightful heir to the kingdom was Frederick's legitimate 14-year-old grandson Conradin, living with his uncle and guardian Louis II, Duke of Bavaria. Manfred, acting as regent since 1254, took advantage of a false rumor of Conradin's death and usurped the throne in 1258. Pope Urban IV determined to take the Kingdom from him, and in 1263, concluded a secret treaty with Charles, promising him the Sicilian throne. After Pope Urban's death in October 1264, Pope Clement IV continued his predecessor's support for Charles.\n\nPrelude \nCharles reached Rome in May 1265, but was temporarily halted by the need to obtain financing for his military operations. Manfred, however, instead of vigorously taking countermeasures, spent his time hunting. He obviously assumed that the Ghibellines in the northern Italian cities would already have stopped the advance of the enemy. For the rest he trusted the fighting strength of his German knights and Saracen horsemen. He did not take the field against him until January 1266, when Charles' main army had crossed the Alps. Alarmed by the ease with which many towns and castles surrendered to the French and by desertions among his followers, Manfred sought to bring Charles to battle as swiftly as possible, fearing further treachery. Charles attempted to turn Manfred's position at Capua by a perilous crossing of the Apennines which wrecked his supply line; but Manfred had intelligence of his move and waited in a strong position across the River Calore, which could only be crossed by a single bridge.\n\nGhibelline forces \nManfred's army was composed of very heterogeneous elements. His infantry was essentially composed of Saracen archers set up in the fore. Behind them was his first battle, the best of his troops, consisting of 1,200 German mercenary knights and men-at-arms, not wearing the usual mail-shirt and gambeson of the 13th century, but coats of plates, the armor which was just beginning to come into fashion. They were commanded by his cousin Giordano d'Anglano and Galvano of Anglona. The second battle consisted of around 1,000 Italian mercenary cavalry and 300 to 400 Saracen light horsemen, commanded by his uncle Galvano Lancia. The third battle consisted of the barons of Manfred's kingdom, and numbered 1,400 knights and men-at-arms, under his personal command. Manfred stayed with the Italo-Norman noblemen and they did not form his reserve for nothing. He distrusted them.\n\nManfred's forces enjoyed a slight numerical superiority and a strong defensive position across the Calore.\n\nGuelph forces \nCharles' army consisted of 600 mounted knights, 2,400 men-at-arms and mounted sergeants, 600 crossbowmen, 3,900 heavy infantry and 4,500 light infantry, totalling around 12,000 men. It was probably above all the prospect of loot that prompted numerous French nobles to come to Lyon, where Charles had assembled his army in autumn 1265.\n\nHis cavalry was also divided into three battles. The first battle consisted of 900 Provençal knights and sergeants commanded by Marshal of France Hugh of Mirepoix and Philip of Montfort, Lord of Castres. Behind them was the second battle, which consisted of 1,000 knights and men-at-arms from Southern and Central France under the personal command of Charles; their chiefs were the Count of Vendôme, the Bishop of Auxerre, Guy de Monfort, Peter de Beaumont and Guy de Mello. Finally, the third battle consisted of men from Northern France and Flanders under Grand Constable Gilles de Trasignies and Count Robert III of Flanders. In addition, the invaders numbered 400 Italian men-at-arms of the Guelf faction led by the Florentine Guido Guerra. It is unknown where exactly they stood; apparently they were not in the reserve but struck in with the second line at the moment of contact. Charles ordered his men-at-arms to have a couple of foot soldiers behind them whose task would be to aid the horsemen of his army in case they were dismounted and to slay those of the enemy who were overthrown. The rest of the infantry and crossbowmen were thrown in front of the line to skirmish with their Saracen counterparts.\n\nCharles had the advantage of leading an army which was practically homogeneous; save the few Italians, all were vassals of the French and Provençal crowns. In addition, beyond the low esteem in which both sides held their foot-soldiery, Charles' horsemen were fairly equal to each other in military worth, something Manfred did not have the luck to benefit from.\n\nBattle \nThe battle began in the morning when Manfred sent his Saracens forward. Charles' infantry and crossbowmen advanced to meet them but were driven back by the foot-archers and light cavalry. The Saracens, however, having left themselves exposed in the open were charged by Provençal sergeants of Charles' first line and swiftly overwhelmed. It is not known whether they acted rashly or if they were ordered to do so by Manfred but the German knights and men-at-arms who formed his first battle crossed the bridge and moved up to attack the Provençal cavalry. The Germans had at first the upper hand. They enjoyed a slight numerical advantage, were heavier men on heavier horses and their armor was quite impenetrable to the strokes of their opponents. They slowly but effectively pushed the Provençals before them and Charles felt compelled to commit his second battle to aid the first. Accordingly, the French knights charged and with them his 400 Italians as well. Outnumbered, the Germans still held out gallantly; they seemed invulnerable to the French swords as their armor kept repelling all blows. But the enemy had soon discovered the weak point of their equipment. According to the chronicle of Andrew of Hungary, some sharp-eyed French knight noted that the new plate armor, which was still in its infancy, did not protect their armpits when the arm was lifted to strike. Closing in and wedging themselves between the somewhat shaken ranks of the German heavy cavalry, the shorter and more acutely pointed blades of the French horsemen were much more effective in close quarters than the German longswords. In a few minutes, a considerable number of Germans were mortally wounded. Overwhelmed and broken, the whole corps was practically annihilated.\n\nThe tide had now evidently turned against Manfred. The long time spent crossing the narrow bridge meant a very wide space arose between his first corps, which had prematurely charged, and his second, which he had deployed to assist them. By the time Manfred's second battle arrived to aid the Germans, they had been cut to pieces and they themselves were now in a precarious situation as Charles had already ordered his third battle to charge them. While some did so from the front, others swept round their flanks and beset them from the rear. Shaken in spirit by the sight of what the French had done to the Germans, they made a very poor resistance; seeing themselves about to be surrounded, they broke and attempted to flee but most were slain. Realizing defeat was imminent, most of the nobles in Manfred's third corps deserted, leaving the king to his fate. Manfred was now left with a choice himself: death or instant flight. His undaunted spirit led him to take the first alternative. After exchanging the royal surcoat with his friend Tebaldo Annibaldi to whom he had also given his royal armor prior to the battle as not to attract too much notice in the mêlée, Manfred closed up with the few faithful of his followers left and rode straight into the midst of the enemy. He found the death that he sought. The battle saw the French give little quarter; only a few prisoners were taken, the most notable being Giordano Lancia and his cousin, Count Bartolommeo. The river was at the back of the fugitives and only the bridge was safe; those who tried to swim the flooded Calore in their heavy mail were mostly drowned.\n\nOnly 600 of Manfred's 3,600 heavy cavalrymen managed to escape death or capture. Also, the Saracens had fought as mercenaries for Holy Roman Emperors since Frederick II Hohenstaufen planted a colony of some 35,000 Saracens near Lucera. For many decades, this colony had provided the German emperors with 5,000 archers per year. The unit was wiped out at Benevento.\n\nAftermath \nThe destruction of Manfred's army marked the collapse of Hohenstaufen rule in Italy. The remainder of the Kingdom of Sicily was conquered almost without resistance. Settled in his new kingdom, Charles awaited the coming of Conradin, the last hope of the Hohenstaufen, in 1268, and met him at the Battle of Tagliacozzo.\n\nReferences\n\nSources \n \n \n\n1266 in Europe\n13th century in the Kingdom of Sicily\nBenevento\nBenevento 1266\nBattles in Campania\nWars of the Guelphs and Ghibellines\nConflicts in 1266\nCharles I of Anjou"

"Charlemagne Carolus Magnus (Charlemagne) was born in 747 or 748 as the son of King Pippin III. born in the Frankish kingdom. His later dominion encompassed much of today's France, western and southern Germany, Italy and Spain. It was he who was able to regain the imperial dignity since antiquity.\nBirth and childhood:\nCharles the Great was born on 2 April 747 or 748, the exact year is not known. As the eldest son of Pippin the Younger, or Pippin III, Karl was born into the royal family of the Carolingians, whose royal title was granted only in 751, after the family was active for decades as administrator of the royal court and gained more and more power.\nAbout the childhood and youth of Karl is virtually nothing handed down. Assuming that Karl in his later life identified a certain level of education, could speak Franconian as well as Latin and in his kingdom of education a high priority, it can be assumed that in addition to the martial training also at that time unusual training in other area came to him.\nHis entrance as king:\nAlready Charles's father Pippin III. expanded the Frankish empire over parts of Europe. In the last years of his tenure, however, he spent mainly to secure the area he had conquered from external influences. In 768 he led his last campaign in Aquitaine (a southwestern province of France, adjacent to Spain). On the way back in June 768 he fell ill, whereupon he began to regulate his succession. He decreed that his empire should be divided between his two sons Karl and Karl Mann. So Karl got the northern and eastern part, Karlmann the western and southern part. Pippin died on 24 September 768 in Saint-Denis. On October 9, 768, the coronation of the sons, Charles in Noyon and Karl man in the old Merovingian residence Soissons took place.\nAlthough the two new kings were brothers, the relationship between them was tense from the start. There was no government over the former entire Frankish kingdom, since everyone wanted to rule only for himself and his part of the empire. The final break of the two occurred when Karl asked his brother for support against the insurgents in the province of Aquitaine, but Karlmann denied him this. Thus Charles defeated the rebellion alone and annexed parts of Aquitaine, which formally belonged to Karlmann's domain.\nAlthough the mother of the two brothers Bertrada tried again and again to mediate between the two, but later failed to Charles's own plans. First, however, Karl agreed to his mother's suggestion to break away from his first wife Himiltrud and marry an unknown Lombard princess to seek an alliance with the Lombard king Desiderius.\nFrom the spring of 771, however, Charles left entirely from his mother's plans, sent the Lombard princess back to her father and instead married an Alemannian named Hildegard, who came from one of Karlmann's provinces. His brother Karlmann now feared that Karl tried to exert influence through this marriage on the controlled by him province of Alamanni.\nAn open war between the two brothers was simply denied the fact that Karl died on 4 December 771 and Karl now took the opportunity and also took over the rule of his brother's kingdom.\nCharles's campaigns and expansion of his empire:\nThe Longobard campaign:\nAfter the death of his brother, Karl held power over the entire Frankish kingdom. But Karlmann's two sons, who had fled to the Langobard king Desiderius in Italy, posed an immediate danger to him. In addition, Desiderius extended his empire over Italy and made claims to the Roman church.\nSo it happened that Pope Hadrians in the spring sent 773 ambassadors to Karl to solicit his support. Karl assured him of support, set up an army and marched in late 773 from Geneva with two large armies the border to the Lombard kingdom. Charles's 1st Army, which he led himself, came over the Mont Cenis, the 2nd Army under the leadership of his uncle Bernhard came over the Great St. Bernard. Desiderius was forced to retreat to Pavia, a heavily fortified city. This was besieged for 9 months on arrival of the two armies, until the city and thus Desiderius capitulated. Subsequently, the city was looted and the Lombard Empire annexed to the Frankish Empire, which included Upper and Lower Italy. Southern Italy, however, was deprived of Karl's plans of integration.\nThe Saxon Wars:\nSince the summer of 772, the Franconian empire was in the so-called Saxon wars. Since the Saxons, not like the Franks or Lombards, were structured in a unified empire but in loose tribal areas and their borders were directly adjacent to the Frankish empire, conflicts could hardly be avoided.\nBut not only the military aspect gave reason for the campaigns, also the christianization of the classified as pagan Saxons may have been reason.\nSo in 772 Karl started a campaign from Worms to the Eresburg, from there he went on to the tribal area where he had the cult shrine Irminsul (presumably a large pillar) destroyed. While Karl was then in Italy, some of the Saxon tribes rose and plundered in 774 through Frankish territory, where they destroyed many churches and monasteries. 775 was again the Franconian campaign, which had the subjugation of the Engern and Ostfalen and the destruction of Westphalia result. The second campaign was, in contrast to the first, characterized by particular hardness and brutality. Karl read, let kill many tribal leaders under the reason \"only baptism or death\", which gave the campaigns the final character of a Missionierung.\nIn 776, the Saxons rose again, but were beaten again. The Eresburg was then rebuilt on the instructions of Charles, other bases were created by the Franks, including the famous Karlsburg. Similarly, churches and monasteries were built to promote the Christianization. In 777, it seemed as if the areas were finally pacified. Paderborn (the former Karlsburg) also became the venue of the first Frankish imperial assembly.\nBut the peace was again fragile from 778 under the new rebel leader Widukind. This took advantage of Charles's campaign and the defeat in Spain, to rise again against the Franconian occupiers. So it happened that Karl again in the summer of 779 with the utmost brutality penetrated into Saxon areas and defeated the insurgents.\n782 rebelled again parts of the Saxons under the leadership of Widukind, where they succeeded in Süntel in Weserbergland a great victory when they have defeated parts of the Frankish army devastating. Karl then read a new army, beat the rebels and let Verden on the Aller kill many Saxons, which went down in history as the blood court of Verden.\nSince 783 there have always been minor uprisings, these could be smashed by campaigns of the Frankish army mostly but quickly. In 785 the resistance was so far broken that Karl Widukind offered peace talks, which he accepted. It was followed by the baptism Widukind, where Karl acted as his godfather.\nAfter 792, only minor, local riots, which related almost exclusively to the northeastern Saxons in the Elbe area, provided for campaigns by the Franks. Due to the deportation of the Saxons, the settlement of Franconia and the construction of new churches, the Christianization and pacification was strongly promoted. From 804 the areas were completely pacified.\nThe campaigns in Spain:\nWhen the first imperial assembly outside of the Frankfort empire was held in Paderborn in 777, envoys appeared from the Spanish peninsula under Arab rule at that time to ask Karl for help in overthrowing the ruler Abd ar-Rahman I. Karl saw further potential to expand his empire and agreed to support.\nIn 778 Karl undertook the first campaign, where he advanced with two armies. The first one came to Pamplona, the second to Zaragoza. Pamplona could be taken quickly, at Zaragoza, the two armies united, but the city withstood the conquest. Karl had clearly misjudged his campaign this time, underestimating the strength and power of Abd ar-Rahman I.\nWhen he also received the news that the Saxons made an uprising again, Karl read his troops turn. On retreat, however, he destroyed the walls of Pamplona, which his troops in August 778 at the revenge attack of the Basques brought heavy losses.\nA second campaign led Karl from the year 792/793. This time he was more successful and could take over some cities, including 803 Barcelona and 811 Pamplona. As in the Saxon areas, he also settled in northern Spain and drove out the Arabs from the conquered territories.\nThe Awaren war:\nFrom the late 6th century, the equestrian nomads from the Asian region had created their own empire in today's Balkan region. During the reign of Charles, however, this empire was already in decline. Fearing to be the next on Charles's expansion list, the Avars undertook from 788 several attacks on the areas of northern Italy and Bavaria. These campaigns failed, however, and at the peace negotiations 790 in Worms no agreement could be reached.\nIn return, Charles started from 791 to a large-scale invasion of the Awareness. Like the Saxons, the Avars were called pagans, and Karl could also stylize the campaign as a struggle of Christians against unbelievers and proclaim themselves protectors of the faith. There were no open battles during the campaign and due to the renewed uprisings in the Soviet Union, this remained for a while only a secondary battlefield for Karl.\nIn the years 794 and 795, however, there were internal power struggles in the Awareness, which resulted in the death of the ruling Khagans. 795 appeared also the first Awarenstamm, whose leader (the Tudun) submitted to Charles rule.\n796 was the next campaign of Charles in the Avar Empire to subjugate the other tribes. Through their defeat, the new khagans subjugated the reign of Charles, which completely destroyed the nation of the Avars.\nFrom 799 to 803 there were still isolated rebellions against the Frankish occupation, which, however, remained without significant success. As in other conquered territories, Christianization also began in the Balkans in the border region with the Frankish Empire.\nThe incorporation of the province of Bavaria:\nBayern enjoyed even before the reign of Charles's father Pippin III. a special role in the Frankish Empire. At the time of Charlemagne there was a nephew of Pippin: Tassilo III.\nTassilo ruled all-embracing in Bavaria, he found himself in a king-like position and had good connections to the Pope and the Lombards. Karl saw in Tassilo an undesirable, indirect competitor and was accordingly striving after its elimination.\nSo Tassilo was invited to Worms in 787 to officially surrender to the Frankish king. However, Tassilo did not show up and turned to the Pope for help. However, this hit on Karl's side and also asked Tassilo to submit to Karl. Even within Bavaria, the demands for a submission were getting louder.\nAfter Karl 787 also took military action against Tassilo, this was now completely isolated. Some Bavarian leaders voluntarily joined Karl, so that Tassilo capitulated in October 787 and subjugated. The tensions between the two remained, however, so Karl decided to summon Tassilo and his family to Ingelheim in June 788, where he and his family were arrested. Im was accused of having worked together with the Avars in an acted procedure and to have committed desertion. The verdict was initially death, but Karl converted it into life-long cloister.\nBavaria was now officially part of the Frankish kingdom with Karl as ruler.\nThe conquests of Charlemagne\nThe coronation to the Emperor:\nSince the year 795 Leo III. as successor to Hadrian Pope in Rome. His position, however, was anything but solid, especially among the nobility in Rome, he had no support. At the end of April 799, the situation was so strained that there was even an attempted assassination attempt on Leo, presumably carried out by followers of Hadrian.\nFearing for his life, Leo fled to Paderborn to Karl and asked for help. At the end of 799 he brought him back to Rome with military escorts, where he followed in 800 in November. In order to publicly declare the bond between Pope and his protecting power to the Frankish kingdom, Karl was crowned emperor on December 25, 800 in Old St. Peter.\nThe imperial coronation, however, was something special, since the last Roman emperor was deposed in 476 with the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Now a new, Roman empire was to be created, which followed the rule of the ancient Roman emperors and was subsequently claimed by the Carolingians, then since the Liudolfingern (Ottonians) by the Roman-German kings and laid the foundation for the Roman-German Emperor should form in the later Holy Roman Empire.\nKarl's death and his successor:\nKarl's death and his succession: As early as 806, Karl had regulated his successor in his political will. Thus, his empire was to be divided among his two eldest sons. After these died but remained as the next legitimate successor only his son Ludwig left.\nOn January 28, 814 Charlemagne died in Aachen, after severe fever and pain in the side and was buried in the Palatine Chapel.\nCharlemagne: A Biography\nCharlemagne: A Biography Paperback – June 12, 2007\nCharlemagne was an extraordinary figure: an ingenious military strategist, a wise but ruthless leader, a cunning politician, and a devout believer who ensured the survival of Christianity in the West. He also believed himself above the rules of the church, siring bastards across Europe and coldly ordering the execution of 4,500 prisoners. Derek Wilson shows how this complicated, fascinating man married the military might of his army to the spiritual force of the Church in Rome, thereby forging Western Christendom. This is a remarkable portrait of Charlemagne and of the intricate political, religious, and cultural world he dominated.\nCharlemagne: A Life From Beginning to End\nCharlemagne: A Life From Beginning to End Paperback – December 8, 2016\nIt is possible that no man has ever dominated a time as much as Charles the Great dominated the Early Middle Ages. It is true that the era had its kings, warriors, scholars, and religious leaders, but in many ways, Charlemagne was all of these things.\nCharlemagne Paperback – October 18, 2016\nFrom his father, Charlemagne inherited only a part of the Frankish kingdom - little more than half of modern France and the Low Countries. Before his astonishing career had ended, he had conquered half of Europe and his armies had marched through Italy, Germany, and Spain. In a glittering Christmas Day ceremony in Rome, in the year 800, he was crowned the new Holy Roman Emperor. More than the heroic conqueror of Western Europe, Charlemagne was an intense and thoughtful human being. His succession of five wives brought him a palace full of children. So warm was his love for his daughters that he could never bear to see them married away from the court, even though enticing alliances with other rulers were offered them. A deeply religious man, Charlemagne became the protector of orthodox Christianity against medieval heresies. A patron of learning, he established schools and brought artists and scholars to his court to work and study. As a result, most classical literature comes down to us in copies of books made in Charlemagne's time. Here, from National Book Award winner Richard Winston, is his remarkable story"

"The Congress of Vienna ending the Napoleonic Wars had inaugurated the \"Congress system\" as an instrument of international stability in Europe. Rebuffed by the \"Holy Alliance\" of Russia, Austria, and Prussia in his request for help against the liberal revolutionaries in 1820, by 1822 the \"Concert of Europe\" was at sufficient unease with Spain's liberal government and its surprising hardiness that they were prepared to intervene on Ferdinand's behalf. In 1822, the Congress of Verona authorized France to intervene. Louis XVIII of France – himself an arch-reactionary – was only too happy to put an end to Spain's liberal experiment, and a massive army – the \"100,000 Sons of Saint Louis\" – was dispatched across the Pyrenees in April 1823. The Spanish army, fraught by internal divisions, offered little resistance to the well organised French force, who seized Madrid and reinstalled Ferdinand as absolute monarch. The liberals' hopes for a new Spanish War of Independence were not to be fulfilled.\nAlready in 1810, the Caracas and Buenos Aires juntas declared their independence from the Bonapartist government in Spain and sent ambassadors to the United Kingdom. The British alliance with Spain had also moved most of the Latin American colonies out of the Spanish economic sphere and into the British sphere, with whom extensive trade relations were developed.\nPartly as a result of this, a major rebellion broke out in northern Catalonia in 1846, the Second Carlist War. Rebels led by Rafael Tristany launched a guerilla campaign against government forces in the region and pronounced themselves in favor of Carlos, Conde de Montemolin, carrier of the Carlist cause and son of Infante Carlos of Spain. The rebellion grew, and by 1848 it was relevant enough that Carlos sponsored it himself and named Ramón Cabrera as commander of the Carlist armies in Spain. A force of 10,000 men was raised by the Carlists; in response to fears of further scalation Narváez was again named President of the Government in Madrid in October 1847. The biggest battle of the war, the Battle of Pasteral (January 1849) was inconclusive; Cabrera, however, was wounded and lost confidence. His departure from Spain caused the rebellion dissolve by May 1849. The Second Carlist War, though contemporaneous with the revolutions of 1848, is rarely included as part of the same phenomenon, since the rebels in Spain were not fighting for liberal or socialist ideas, but rather conservative and even absolutist ones.\nThe loss of Spain's vast colonial empire greatly deprived the country of much wealth and it was soon reduced to one of Europe's poorest and least-developed nations. Over three-quarters of the population were illiterate and there was little industry except textile production in Catalonia. Although Spain possessed the iron and coal needed for industrial development, most was in the north and northeast and difficult to transport across the vast arid plain of the central Iberian Peninsula. Worsening matters were the lack of navigable rivers and a very rudimentary road network. British industrialists taught Spaniards how to extract iron ore while others studied the possibility of constructing a railroad system. Railroad pioneer George Stephenson, after conducting a survey of Spain, commented that \"I have not seen enough people of the sort to fill even a single train.\" By the time a railroad network eventually got built, it merely radiated from Madrid outward and bypassed the major centers of natural resources.\nHigh tariffs also dogged Spanish development, especially grain, of which imports were almost completely barred. The eastern provinces had to pay high costs for domestic cereals transported with the greatest difficulty across the peninsula while cheap Italian grain could have been easily imported from ship. Although Spain had been a major textile exporter in earlier times, the country could no longer compete with British and other producers and by the 19th century, most of its exports consisted of agricultural products. Catalonia was the only part of the country with any significant industry, but Castile remained the political and cultural center, barring major change.\nBowen, Wayne H. (2011). Spain and the American Civil War. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press. p. 188. ISBN 978-0826219381. OCLC 711050963."

"Intervene in Syria\nWe should by all means get rid of Assad.\nhttp://www.conradmblack.com/312/intervene-in-syria\nIt pains me to take issue in any degree with my very esteemed friend Henry Kissinger, with whose foreign-policy views I have almost always agreed, but I think some degree of intervention in Syria is justified. Dr. Kissinger wrote otherwise in the Washington Post recently and invoked the Treaty of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War in 1648. I have had the opportunity to discuss his column briefly with him. As he wrote, that war may have killed as many as a third of the people of Central Europe, and \"competing dynasties\" did send \"armies across political borders to impose religious norms.\" But as he well knows, there was a good deal more to it than that, and the central event was that the French leader, Cardinal Richelieu — generally reckoned the most astute statesman, with Bismarck, in the modern history of continental Europe — recruited the Lutheran Swedish king, Gustavus Adolphus, to carry havoc into Catholic Central Europe and specifically to atomize Germany and confound the Habsburg (Holy Roman) Empire in Vienna. Richelieu was chiefly interested in sundering Germany into as many pieces as possible, and confounding the Holy Roman Empire, in order to assure the preeminence of France in Western Europe.\nRichelieu's cynicism shocked his contemporaries. It was he, largely, who composed the treaty of Westphalia and left his outline to his successor, Cardinal Mazarin. Richelieu died in 1642, causing the then-pope, Urban VIII, to observe that \"if there is a God, the cardinal will have much to answer for; if there is not, then he was a great man.\" Richelieu's, and Westphalia's, argument against international intervention was generally a convenience to reinforce the fragmentation of Germany into 300 self-governing entities, not a rigorous espousal of the sanctity of national borders. Wars continued in Europe at their traditional pace, challenging national boundaries, though not on such a general and destructive scale for 150 years. Richelieu, like subsequent European leaders from Napoleon to Metternich, Stalin, de Gaulle, and Margaret Thatcher, realized that a united Germany could dominate Western and Central Europe. The former and future British prime minister, Benjamin Disraeli, said that, quite prophetically, when Bismarck undid Richelieu's work and founded the German Empire in 1871. The truthfulness of that view is not the least important element of the current economic crisis in Europe. I don't think Westphalia really applies to Syria.\nDr. Kissinger must be correct that there should be a defined and agreed international standard for defining humanitarian outrages (and levels of collapse of failed states) that justify interventions to save the lives of large numbers of people; the world should not have tolerated the massacres of millions of innocents in Cambodia, Rwanda, and Darfur, as it did not tolerate what would have happened in the former Yugoslavia in the absence of Western intervention. It was to Senator Robert Dole's (and America's) credit when he forced President Clinton's hand with the lift (the embargo) and strike (the Serbian aggressors from the air) resolution in response to the unctuous European acquiescence in the ethnic cleansing of Yugoslavian Muslims. Scores of thousands of lives were undoubtedly saved. Such a standard might have to be worked out despite the opposition of China and Russia, which are engaged in ethnic cleansing of their own and object to the principle of righteous international intervention, as they could be afoul of it, however improbable it may be that any countries would attempt such a course with such formidable nations. But both of them had foreign armies on their soil in living memory.\nDr. Kissinger must also be correct that humanitarian intervention in Syria now would be impractical and mistaken unless there were enough enthusiasm for prolonged nation-building to ensure a reduction in violence, and there is no such assurance. But the argument for intervention isn't primarily humanitarian. The Assad regime, father and son, in Damascus has been extremely hostile to legitimate Western aims in the Middle East and has frequently been an active supporter of terrorism. Henry Kissinger says he is emulating Napoleon in saying that if he wanted to take Vienna, he would (and Napoleon did) do so, meaning here that if the objective is to constrain Iran's baleful influence in the Middle East, and especially on Hamas in Gaza and Hezbollah in Lebanon, action should be directed explicitly at Iran.\nHere is where we slightly part company. It would be much easier to dispose of Assad and exact from whatever regime or even contest of factions that succeeded him — as a pre-condition of assistance — that Syria cease to be a conduit of aid to Hamas and Hezbollah, than it would be to strike directly at Iran, a much larger state not now discommoded by a civil war as Syria is. On the equally authentic Napoleonic maxim of achieving a strategic goal at minimum cost and by applying adequate pressure on the most vulnerable point, getting rid of Assad could be done in a day at minimal risk to the lives of intervening forces; military assistance to the rebels and some air support would do it. Even eliminating the Iranian nuclear military threat, which I believe should be done, would be a serious aerial undertaking and might have to be repeated at intervals, and it would not necessarily affect Iranian support of terrorist activity.\nThere is also the much more widely held, accepted, and practiced principle, which in other circumstances Henry Kissinger has strongly approved, in office and out, of replying to provocations. Syria has severely provoked the West, repeatedly and illegally and often in the most brutal manner, including attempts to blow up civilian airliners and high complicity in the assassination of the prime minister of Lebanon, as well as participation in Iran's terroristic meddling. Dr. Kissinger effectively laments that Libya has now become an arms-reshipment point for international troublemaking. But Qaddafi blew up an American airliner over Scotland, killing hundreds of people, in 1986; President Reagan almost killed him in his home with an aerial attack soon after, and if the West made a habit of killing those who had committed capital crimes against the West, there would be fewer such crimes. This is the lesson of Ariel Sharon's handling of suicide bombing in Jerusalem and Tel Aviv. There may be no shortage of such dynamite-fodder as volunteers, but when the Hamas leadership was killed in return after each such outrage, official enthusiasm for suicide bombing as an instrument of Palestinian policy quickly declined. Even bin Laden, after all his posturing as eager to die for his cause, lived and died as a coward.\nIt need not be an excessive concern of the West what level of humanitarian solicitude is practiced by regimes that succeed those we have deposed, as long as they do not engage in genocide or repeat the provocations against the West that motivated our action against them. Barring Syrian reenactment of the Cambodian Killing Fields, which would require international action to stop, whatever Moscow and Beijing thought of it, lifting the one finger now necessary to get rid of Assad would create a strategic improvement for the West, without a deterioration in present standards of civil government in Syria. It is not the case that any sane person seriously expects the Arab Spring to produce much democracy, and as a final principle (one that Napoleon would surely have agreed with, given his methods in times of domestic political unrest in France and elsewhere), if a hostile regime is being undermined anyway (as this one is, by the Saudis), we should be sure to be close enough to the activity to take some credit for the success of it. As it stands now, U.S. policy has earned the animosity or at least disdain of all sides and factions, as it has with its shilly-shallying and, until recently, outright appeasement of the maniacal theocracy in Iran. America must do better than this; Henry Kissinger certainly would if he were in charge.\n— Conrad Black is the author of Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Champion of Freedom, Richard M. Nixon: A Life in Full, and, just released, A Matter of Principle. He can be reached at [email protected]."

"A new interpretation of 1580s events\nWe all know that Mary Stuart was beheaded at Fotheringhay on 8 February 1587 and that the Spanish Armada sailed to facilitate a Catholic invasion of England in the following year, leaving Lisbon on 28 May and fighting naval battles in late July, at Plymouth and Port land. The traditional view is that Mary Stuart's execution and Elizabeth I's support for the revolt in the Spanish Netherlands provoked Phillip II's wrath.\nIt is quite possible that this was not the case and that Phillip had\nsought to overthrow his quondam sister-in-law much earlier. Mary, as the daughter of Marie de Guise and widow of Francis II was the French-backed Catholic candidate for the English throne and Franco-Spanish rivalry ensured that Phillip, great nephew of Catherine of Aragon and a Lancastrian descendant proper+, would not act in concert with any of her plots; however her death cleared the way for him, especially as the French Wars of Religion were still to resolve themselves.\nWe can compare this with the England of 1685-8, as William of Orange allowed the Duke of Monmouth to attempt an invasion first and only asserted his stronger semi-marital claim against James VII/II afterwards. In 1483-5, by contrast, the Duke of Buckingham was legitimately descended from Edward III when he rebelled against Richard III, only for Henry \"Tudor\", of dubious lineage, to benefit.\nh/t Jeanne Griffin\n+ See The Wars of The Roses, Ashdown-Hill, part 4.\nPosted by super blue in anniversaries, battles, genealogy, religion and tagged Armada, Battle of Bosworth, Battle of Sedgemoor, Buckingham rebellion, Duke of Medina Sidonia, Duke of Parma, Elizabeth I, executions, Fotheringhay, France, French Wars of Religion, Glorious Revolution, Henry of Buckingham, Henry VII, James of Monmouth, James VII/II, John Ashdown-Hill, John Hawkins, Lisbon, Lord Howard of Effingham, Marie de Guise, Mary II, Mary Stuart, Monmouth Rebellion, naval battles, Netherlands, Phillip II, Plymouth, Portland, Richard III, Scotland, Sir Francis Drake, Spain, Tilbury speech, William III\nOne thought on \"A new interpretation of 1580s events\"\nPingback: Does this later case explain Henry Pole the Younger's fate? | murreyandblue"