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debroglie wavelength question | all physics students know the debroglie wavelength equation \lambda = h/p, where \lambda is a wavelength, h is planck's constant, and p is momentum. the wavelength becomes important when mass is small very small, but i have always wondered what happens when velocity gets really small. is there an explanation why this isn't a realistic scenario? is a near-zero momentum just very unrealistic? maybe internal motion inside large objects doesn't allow for a momentum small enough to create a big wavelength? in my head i picture a baseball being so stationary and near absolutely zero, that all of a sudden it gets hazy because it's debroglie wavelength gets large. | to get a macroscopic object (and its component parts) to stand that still, you would have to cool it to an infinitesimal fraction of absolute zero. exercise: figure the kinetic energy a 1kg mass would have to have to have a debroglie wavelength of 1 meter. then divide by boltzmann's constant to get a degrees-kelvin equivalent. compare to the current record of 8x10^-10 k. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how is it stimulants make people feel energetic/awake? | so i have been curious about this. i know a little bit about how the energy is made for humans(atp), but how is it a stimulant like caffeine works on our body? is it all psychological? is it a trick it plays on our body? or some other thing that i am missing. thanks! | feeling energetic or awake has little to do with the actual amount of the atp floating around in your cells. caffeine mainly does 2 things to cause the "wakeful" sensation that you feel: 1. caffeine acts as a mimicker of another neurotransmitter called adenosine, which causes you to feel **tired** by slowing down neural functions. caffeine can bind to adenosine receptors while not slowing down neural function (because it is not adenosine, after all), and prevents other adenosine from binding. therefore, there is a overall decrease in drowsiness. 2. caffeine acts on your adrenal glands and stimulates production of adrenaline, noradrenaline and other hormones produced when you are threatened. these hormones stimulates your body to prepare for a imminent threat by increasing your heart rate, initiating breakdown of glycogen (sugars) stored in your livers/other tissues. with these two actions in mind, caffeine now basically not only made you feel **less** tired, but also **more** 'awake' other stimulants work differently, but basically differ only in what type of neurotransmitter they mimic, and which organs they effect. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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binary success of persistence in weather forecasting | til that the weather forecasting method "persistence," where one merely predicts that tomorrow's high-temperature (in this case) will be the same as today's, is quite successful with an average error of only 6 degrees. but this method (obviously) does not describe a probability distribution of possible temperatures and is therefore likely incorrect far more often that it is correct (in the binary sense) to the nearest degree. does anyone know how often persistence is, in fact, correct to the nearest degree? stated another way, throughout (known) history, what percentage of all sequential pairs of days had the same high temperature? | you can go [here](_url_0_) and look at how persistence (persis) fares against real forecasters in the annual weather challenge forecast contest. it's pretty terrible. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://wxchallenge.com/challenge/results.php"
] | [
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] |
call to all entomologists: need help identifying this bug! | hey guys, i woke up last night to some bites on my face and i suspect it is once again some bedbugs (disappear for months here and then reappear). however, whenever the bedbug emerge, i find quite a lot of these guys _url_0_ lying around dead (from poison) or crawling, but never or very rarely do i find a bed bug. what are these, and do they possibly bite? any help would be appreciated. i tried using some dichotomous keys to figure it out myself with no avail. | it's a spider beetle (anobiidae: ptininae), probably [*gibbium aequinoctiale*](_url_0_). they definitely don't bite and have no association with bedbugs; if you're finding them in large numbers, you may have some infested food in your house. | 7 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/R1yFx.jpg"
] | [
"http://bugguide.net/node/view/55820"
] | [
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way to measure absorbancy and hydrophobia? | is there a way to measure absorbancy? and hydrophobia? a diy home method? | i'm not sure what you mean by absorbancy. do you mean the amount of water absorbed? this could be done simply by weighing the material dry versus wet. hydrophobicity......im not too sure about. in lab, we can do water contact angles. this is where a drop of water is deposited and the angle with the surface is detected. as for diy, i'd say all you'd be able to get is a sense...does the water bead up and roll off (hydrophobic) or not | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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my gf had two patients at hospital where she works with the same date of birth as her today. i tried to explain that this probably wasnt as unlikely as it sounded but i lack the mathematical skill to work out out the probability. could someone show me how? | **edit**: there was a mistake in my original calculation, as pointed out by rs14-2. see edit at the bottom for correction. are you thinking of [the birthday problem](_url_0_)? that's for any two people out of a group having the same birthday just in terms of day of the year, if she had the same date of birth including year having the same birthday as one specific person is actually a lot less likely. it's also harder to calculate the probability, because the distribution of years of birth is less likely to be uniform like the distribution of exact days. we can assume it is and try to calculate the probability, though, we'll just have to make some assumptions. let's assume every patient she interacted with is between 5 an 100 years old, and that there is an exactly even distribution of birth dates between those ranges. that gives 365\*95=34,675 possible birth dates, one of which is hers. in order to find the probability of at least two patients sharing her date of birth, the easiest thing to do is find the probability of 0 or 1 patients sharing her date of birth, and then subtracting that from 1. if she encounters *n* patients in a day, then the probability of none of those patients sharing her date of birth is (34,674/34,675)^n. the probability of exactly one of those patients sharing her date of birth is (34,674/34,675)^(n-1) \* (1/34,675). so the probability of her encountering two or more patients with the same date of birth as her in the same day is 1 - (34,674/34,675)^n - (34,674/34,675)^(n-1) \* (1/34,675). if she encounters 100 patients in a day, then the probability of two or more sharing her date of birth in the same day is [about 0.3%](_url_1_) & oq=1+-+((34674%2f34675\)%5e100+%2b+(34674%2f34675\)%5e99\*(1%2f34675\)\) & aq=f & aqi= & aql= & gs_l=serp.3...4655.7745.2.7963.6.6.0.0.0.0.49.257.6.6.0.ciatsh..0.0._gn4hch3hr0 & pbx=1 & bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_cp.r_qf.,cf.osb & fp=579625c09319dd01 & biw=1366 & bih=653). this means, given these assumptions, this would happen about once every 350 work days. **correction**: (34,674/34,675)^(n-1) \* (1/34,675) is the probability of any specific patient having the same date of birth as her and no one else. to get the probability of her having the same date of birth as exactly one patient (but any patient), you need to multiply that by *n*. this ends up giving a final probability of about 4× 10^-6, which, if i'm calculating things correctly, means if she saw 100 patients a day she'd encounter two with her date of birth in the same day about once every thousand years given these assumptions. so she's right. it's actually pretty damn unlikely. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birthday_problem",
"https://www.google.com/search?rlz=1C1CHFX_enUS447US447&aq=f&sugexp=chrome,mod=14&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8&q=365*95#hl=en&rlz=1C1CHFX_enUS447US447&sclient=psy-ab&q=1+-+((34674%2F34675\\)%5E100+%2B+(34674%2F34675\\)%5E99*(1%2F34675\\)\\",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birthday#Frequency",
"http://www.math.northwestern.edu/~fcale/CCC/DC.pdf"
] | [
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|
i've started studying quantum physics but have come across a problem i simply can't get my head around... | from my understanding, in beta decay, a down quark in the neutron emits a w- boson, which then decays into a b- particle and an electron antineutrino, and then changes into an up quark. i know that a down quark weighs more than an up quark, but a w- boson weighs much more than the difference between them so where is this extra mass in the w- boson coming from? is there another particle involved which gives its mass to the quark? also, similarly, in positron emission, an up quark changes into a down quark and emits a w+ boson. where is all this energy coming from that allows the up quark to change into a heavier down quark and also create the boson? | these are two very good questions. starting with the b- decay: the issue here is that the w- that decays is actually not a real particle, but a virtual particle. a virtual w- does not necessarily have the same mass as a real w- boson, and exists solely to transmit the weak force. where does the energy come from? it comes from the uncertainty principle. remember that \delta(e)\delta(t) for the b+ decay: i'll give you a hint first: we can't see this decay in sole protons (we've never observed proton decay). the only way the reaction is kinematically allowed is if the total energy of the final state nucleus is *lower* than the original. so, in fact, the energy comes from changing the binding energy of the nucleus. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do some ekg readings require only three leads while others require 12 leads? | obviously it's to be more specific but what exactly are they doing with more leads? | the extra leads measure the potential difference in different directions. effectively, they "look at" the heart from different directions. for instance, leads v5 and v6 are place low and far to the left on the chest. if you're having an infarction (a heart attack) that is affecting the lateral wall of the left ventricle, it will cause changes mostly in those leads. there are even ekgs that use more than twelve. if you suspect a problem with the right ventricle and want a good look at its activity, you do a 15- or 18-lead ekg, and those extra leads are placed on the lower right side of the chest. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do ekgs require 12 leads, and why are they placed where they are? | pretty much what the question said. why do ekgs use 12 leads instead of any other number, and what's the significance of their placement, including the ones on the arms and legs? | to start: 12-lead ekg refers to the number of views the 10 electrodes on the skin take. the four limb electrodes have six different views that they can see. you're able to draw a line through each electrode to "see" what parts of the heart are damaged or whatever else you're looking for. here's a helpful [picture](_url_0_). and a [picture](_url_1_) of how they're placed. note that the left and right leg electrodes are usually placed high on the leg or low on the torso. they do make 18 lead ekgs that have stickers on the right side of the chest and/or back but these are much more rare and you can accomplish the same thing by using the standard 12-lead monitors. simply move the precordial leads, v1-v6, to where you require them. as for the significance of their placement: * leads i and avl look at the left lateral portion of your heart * leads ii, avf, and iii look at the inferior portion of your heart * lead avr isn't really useful on its own * leads v1 and v2 look at the center, or septal wall, of your heart * leads v3 and v4 look at the anterior portion of your heart * leads v5 and v6 look at the high left lateral of your heart precordial leads, v1-v6, look straight at your heart from their placements because they're unipolar and don't require a second positive or negative; unlike leads i-iii and avf, avr, and avl. leads i-iii are bipolar leads and require a positive and negative component. lead i uses the left arm (la) electrode as positive and the right arm (ra) as negative. this means that lead i is looking from the right side of the heart towards the left. lead ii is ra (-) and left leg (+). while lead iii is la (-) and ll (+). the augmented unipolar leads (avf, avl, and avr) use the same electrode placements as i-iii, but combine two of the electrodes to form a new negative point and the remaining electrode is positive. for example, avr combines the la and ll electrodes and ra as a positive. i think of it as splitting the difference between the placements of the electrodes to get a slightly different angle on the heart. kind of a rambling mess so please ask for clarification if you need it. fun bonus fact: the guy who invented the ekg back in 1903, [willem einthoven](_url_2_), accomplished what we do today by placing his hands and left leg in conductive solution. | 46 | [] | [] | [
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"http://www.emtresource.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/12-lead-ecg-placement.png",
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is pkw at 25°c exactly 14? | is it exactly 14 due to coincidence or is it something we have rounded for ease of calculations? | we have rounded for ease of calculations. the pkw of water is also affected by pressure. normally, pressure is 1 atmosphere, which is equal to about .1013 mega pascals (mpa). pascals are the standard unit of pressure, and we multiply them by one million (hence mega) to make them more applicable to chemistry. according to the us government, the pkw at 25 c and 1 atmostphere (.1 mpa) is about 13.99. not quite 14, but pretty close for every day use. note that pkw decreases as both pressure and temperature increase. [source](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nist.gov/data/PDFfiles/jpcrd696.pdf"
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can an arthropod's exoskeleton repair itself the same (or in a similar) way as a human's endoskeleton? | yes, *if* it's over living tissue. but it's not like human skin where it quickly patches itself, any significant damage to an exoskeleton basically means mr. bug is going to bleed to death. that's basically half of how lice combs work - they strip the eggs from hair shafts, and it just takes a minor injury to the adults for them to bleed out and die. keep in mind that arthropods are largely r-strategists... if an individual dies, it's no big loss to the species. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the physical setup used for the production of thermal neutrons used to create the 'rio red' grapefruit strain? | i was reading about [red grapefruit and how they were created through radiation mutagenesis](_url_2_). in particularly the [rio red](_url_0_) commonly used is cited as having been the product of thermal neutron irradiation of plant tissues in the 1980s in rio (the city). none of the biology articles talk about the physics of the setup. given no nuclear reactors in rio how would this be done? my first guess is a strong natural alpha emitter with beryllium and surrounded by a hydrogen plastic moderator. ([ref](_url_1_)). or maybe just a californium-252 neutron source with plastic moderator. but that's the point, i don't know which or what. hensz's actual papers about the 'rio red' and many others cite caldecott et al 1954 but none of them have detail. i've spent about ~45 minutes searching for the early 1950s protocol papers on the subject by caldecott but there's nothing but abstracts online. does anyone in the field know about the actual setup used by plant biologists for thermal neutron mutagenesis? | i agree with you. if there are no reactors or accelerators available, a pube or ambe source with a moderator seems like the simplest option. | 7 | [] | [
"https://mvd.iaea.org/#!Variety/282",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_source#Radioisotopes_which_decay_with_alpha_particles_packed_in_a_low-Z_elemental_matrix",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapefruit#Ruby_Red"
] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1209649/pdf/240.pdf"
] | [
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] |
does a feynman diagram exist for wheeler's delayed choice experiment? | i have been looking online for a feynman diagram for either wheeler's delayed choice, or quantum eraser and can't find them. i am not entirely sure it is possible to describe this interaction using a feynman diagram, but i thought i would ask before giving up. if a diagram exists i would like to know what it looks like. thanks so much | feynman diagrams are not typically used in quantum mechanics, but in quantum field theory. you *can* do it, but there are a couple of caveats: 1. no quantum process is determined by one feynman diagram. several of them contribute, the same way that multiple paths contribute to the path integral. you will not find a single "diagram of the situation"; that's not quite what feynman diagrams are. no one of them tells the full story. 2. there are far easier ways of getting the same results, which is why you're not really going to see this developed anywhere. splitting the calculation into a large number of feynman diagrams is a very unnecessarily complex way of describing things. if you want a better understanding i would pick up a book on quantum information theory/quantum computing, where you can actually see step by step how the information gets shuffled around. these are the terms in which a lot of papers on the subject are actually written. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0605061"
] | [
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what is the probability that a randomly vibrating point source vibrates in a given (3d) direction? | i was thinking today about the likelihood of someone spontaneously exploding, where since every atom is vibrating randomly they all moved in opposite directions at once. this made me think, "well, whats the probability that an atom moves in a given direction". if it was a discrete set of directions this would be trivial because it would just be 1/x and i would move on with my day. however the # of directions is continuous and therefore infinite, which means simply doing 1/x would be divergent. we know atoms are indeed vibrating so the probability can't be 0, but im not sure how to approach this since the directions aren't a discrete set of values. maybe this could be similar to the montecarlo problem, but in 3d? i thought that maybe by finding the formula for a point to land within the surface area of a 3d sphere, maybe starting out with a radial area, and then applying with infinitesimals and integrating? is there even an analytical solution to this or would the best i could do be numerical? how you would approach this problem? | the probability of a point vibrating along some random direction is 0. it's possible for a point to vibrate in a given direction, but it almost never happens. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is 3-d printing structurally sound method of building? | i just saw the video of the ["3-d printed mini 787 engine with working reverse thrust"](_url_0_) and couldn't help notice building layers on every part of the engine. is this a sound method to really build "any" thing? (not engines but other common household items lets say). | that depends on what kind of tolerances your application has and to what kind of stresses you expect to expose the manufactured parts. the technologies typically used in consumer-grade 3d printers (fused filament fabrication or fused deposition modeling) have limitations in terms of level of detail you can achieve (compared to other types of fabrication not available at consumer scale, such as injection-molded plastic), as well as limitations in terms of durability (for example, they are more resilient to strain in some directions than others; they basically have internal grain, just like wood). there are other fabrication methods that are becoming increasingly available to consumers, [such as cnc milling](_url_0_), that have different limitations, and might be more appropriate for fabrication of something like a working turbine, if your goal is to provide a working turbine. | 2 | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/videos/comments/3ivsgm/3d_printed_mini_787_engine_with_working_reverse/"
] | [
"https://othermachine.co/blog/video-tiny-aluminum-turbine-cut-on-othermill/",
"http://www.gizmag.com/ge-fires-up-all-3d-printed-jet-einge/37448/"
] | [
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where/how does shape-memory metal stores information about it previous state? | in some sense, they store that information in their current configuration. shape-memory is a fascinating property, but to understand what's going on you need to know about how plastic deformation usually occurs in metals. ok: in metals, plastic (permanent) deformation occurs by the generation and motion of *dislocations*, flaws in the crystal lattice. but let's back up a step to explain what that means. bulk samples of metal are typically not one single crystal; they're billions of tiny crystals (called grains) all jammed together. metal forms into crystals because the crystal structure is what's most energetically favorable, but in ordinary metal-production circumstances, the metal is cooled too quickly and too "messily" (meaning external vibrations and contaminants) for the entire sample to form as one single crystal; instead, like i said, billions of little crystals form and eventually join each other to form the bulk sample. so back to plastic deformation. plastic deformation, like i said, occurs through the generation and movement of dislocations. put enough stress on a sample of metal, and a) flaws start to appear in those tiny crystals as you distort them and b) those flaws, plus any pre-existing flaws that are left over from manufacturing, or caused by radiation knocking an atom out of the crystal, or whatever, start to move around. now, as they move around, the crystal moves with them. pass a dislocation through a cubic crystal, and you end up with a cube where the top half is shifted relative to the bottom half by one lattice unit, and that shift occurs one row of atoms at a time. when plastic deformation occurs, in other words, you *permanently change the position of some atoms relative to other atoms*. pass enough dislocations through that cube i mentioned, and it will be cut in half - and that's how you get metal to fail. now, for most metals, under most conditions, plastic deformation is the only way you can cause big changes in the shape of the metal. elastic strain is reversible (let go of the part and it returns to its original configuration), but it doesn't allow for much movement - one typical rule of thumb is that yield (the beginning of plastic deformation) occurs at a strain (change in length over original length) of 0.2%. but you can often get plastic strains of ten times as much. shape-memory alloys, though, are weird. instead of deforming in the usual plastic way when you apply large strains to them, they're able to deform in a special way called "twinning". twinning is much different from dislocation motion. in twinning, you have two crystal lattices that mesh with each other, and join at special "twin boundaries" at particular angles. each side of the twin boundary can stay a perfect crystal, but it lets you change the shape of the crystal by offsetting one crystal half with respect to the other by the "twin angle". and when twins are formed, they do so *quickly* - almost instantaneously, the whole half of the crystal sort of "pops" to its twin location from its original location. critically, twinning *preserves the crystal structure*. twinned crystals can turn back into their original crystals, because none of the atoms have changed in their relative *lattice* (not absolute) positions. give them enough thermal energy to smear out their positions a bit, and they pop back into their original crystal configuration (which is, after all, the more favorable configuration, or else it wouldn't have originally formed). | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what does sine sound like? | more specifically, perfect sine is the wave length that "starts at 0, heads up to 1 by π/2 radians (90°) and then heads down to -1". what would that sound like? are there different "notes" that hit that frequency? | a mathematical sine wave does not have a pressure or a time axis associated to it so by choosing the right substitutes for x (e.g. p/p0) and y (e.g. 2pi*t/t) you can match any mono-frequency sound to the sine function. in nature you will hear either "singing glasses" or whistling that come close to a sine wave. the easiest, though, is probably to get a sine generator and hook it up to a membrane. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would the magnetic field of a knitted fabric look like? | [removed] | so this is, without a doubt, the coolest question that i've seen in a while. consider reposting this to /r/physics too, they love neat problems like this. in the 'far field' limit, where you are far sufficiently far enough away, many of these magnetic fields will cancel. for example, your plain weave loops back on itself, so for every forward current there is a backward current adjacent to it, so these pairs of will produce magnetic fields that are opposites of each other and they'll mostly cancel far away. the same is likely true for simple knitting. far away, the 'bends' in that curve average each other out, and you just get currents going left to right or right to left. i'm not a knitter, but if at the edge the knit doesn't double back on itself like in the plain weave, then you could conceivably have them all go the same direction, making an effective 'current sheet' going in one direction. i suspect it does double back at edges, so you're probably going to cancel though. similarly, the trikot knotting looks like it would be a current sheet, if they're all going downwards. the chain stitch again just looks like it will average to a line, so that will just be one line of current with a magnetic field around it. inside might be cool, like a gnarly solenoid. getting the corrections for all the loops is hard, but if you can find parametric equations for describing any of these knits, it would be really easy to integrate and actually make maps of the magnetic fields. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if scientists found an undiscovered ancient animal with severe deformities, how would they be able to tell that a feature is a deformity or a naturally occurring attribute? | i can't tell you for all deformities, but i can tell you about most deformities. virtually all life is symmetrical in some way. from simple cells, to the wonderful fractal maths of the way plants lay out leaves, petals etc. all chordate animals are bilaterally symmetrical. if you find an animal where one leg is very different than the other 3 for example, that's a big clue that the animal suffered a deformity or injury of some kind. there are exceptions, such as the fiddler crab that has one hypertrophied claw and one normal claw. in those cases, the fact that the two claws are obviously functional would tell us that the difference in claw sizes was a useful, functional trait for that crab in the rare case where a change is symmetrical, such as skull bossing from a birth defect or cancer: this is where comparison to bones from living species is helpful. cancer, leprosy and syphilis make very distinct marks in bone, so a deformity caused by one of those (or a host of others) would be recognized for what it is. however, if the skull bossing is caused by a genetic mutation and turns out to be beneficial to the critter (such as during mating season battles) then it's not a deformity, but evolution in action. finally; finding fossils of any creature is pretty rare, considering the vast numbers of a given species that must have existed. deformities are rare. if a given deformity is a 1 in a million and 200 million of that species existed in a narrow window of time, then there would only be 200 possible candidates for fossilization out of the many millions. out of those many millions, we may find only a bare handful of good examples because most won't be fossilized. most of the those who do get fossilized don't get found. (remember that fossil bearing rock is being destroyed by nature all the time) the odds of a critter having a deformity, then living to adulthood so its bones would be good fossilization candidates and then dying in a place where conditions were good for fossilization and then being found by a human are very very low. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what happens to the body when your cortisol levels are constantly too high? | this is a really broad question, since excessive cortisol in the human body can have a lot of implications. i'll just talk about one of them. one area of your brain that has a lot of cortisol receptors is the hippocampus. there is some evidence that excess cortisol can cause the hippocampus to be damaged in various ways. individuals with excess cortisol have been show to have smaller hippocampi, suggesting that certain cells called pyramidal cells in the hippocampus likely atrophy due to cortisol activity. another idea is that cortisol in the hippocampus suppresses neurogenesis, or the formation of new neurons. both of these are likely causes of depression, and ssris both work to reverse these effects of excess cortisol in the hippocampus. extremely high cortisol in a short time can also impair memory. this is why individuals often can't remember times where they're extremely emotional. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cushing%27s_disease",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20829623"
] | [
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|
how are scientists able to add plasmids into cells? | i was watching a lecture online about how now scientists are able to add plasmid with dna into cells in order to gain a new gene expression. but they never explained how they added the plasmid and now i am extremely curious! | to insert plasmids into bacterial cells you usually add a concentration of plasmids to a bacterial culture (basically a liquid solution with plasmids and bacteria floating around) and heat shock the bacteria. the heat shock allows the plasmid to transverse across the plasma membrane. yu can find videos walking you through this process on youtube. search for "bacterial transformation." if you want to get them into eukaryotic cells it becomes a little bit more complicated. personally, i work with flies and what we do is let flies mate and lay eggs, which we collect and then using a very small needle inject a solution with the plasmid into the fly embryos. the plasmid will randomly disperse into the fly embryo and become integrated into random cell groups as the embryo develops. to take it a little further (and thus a little more complicated) we hope that the plasmid will integrate with a phenotypic marker into the germ line where it becomes heritable. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://labs.mmg.pitt.edu/gjoerup/Fugene6.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipofectamine",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroporation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_competence#Mechanisms_of_DNA_uptake"
] | [
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how tightly can we compress matter with our current technology? | how much mass can we pack into a centimeter? | if you want the most extreme, i was told that in the core of a thermonuclear device at detonation, the lithium deutride ceramic fusion fuel is compressed to ~1000x solid density. but this is using explosion derived xrays from a fission device, to cause ablation of a surface tamper on the lid. to do the inward compression by conservation of momentum. but this only holds for a few tens of nanoseconds. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how do electromagnetic generators work? | there seem to be too many videos showing magnetism used to generate/help generate electricity to dismiss: [one](_url_0_), [two](_url_2_), and [three](_url_1_), but it all seems too good to be true and you know what they say about that! | well a normal power generator has a steam or water turn a magnet, be it hard or an electromagnet. as the magnet turns it generates a time changing magnetic field. looking at one of maxwells equations, faradays laws, you see that the curl of the electric field is equal to the negative of the time derivative of the magnetic field. it's to hard to type so here's a link _url_0_. what that means is some property of the electric field is equal to the some value caused by a changing magnetic field. or a moving magnetic field makes an electric field. electric fields cause charges to have potential, or voltage. voltages cause currents in a conductor. now you have electricity. | 4 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wk4m1MLZudE",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CfWwPN-mTBQ",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uTtq3ALAtDE"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell's_equations#Amp.C3.A8re.27s_law_with_Maxwell.27s_correction",
"http://peswiki.com/index.php/Directory:Magniwork#Affiliate_Sites"
] | [
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does the hall effect occur without an external magnetic field? | when a current is exposed to a magnetic field, the field interacts with the moving electrons to produce a force called the lorentz force. the electrons then are pushed by the lorentz force to one side of the wire. this magnetic field is usually described as something provided by an external source. however, any moving electrons will produce a magnetic field, so it seems that the hall effect would occur even without any additional external field. but if this is true, then the electrons would be in effect pushing themselves. i couldn't find a clear cut answer on google, so any insight would be appreciated. thanks! | this is a great question. let's consider a cylindrical wire with a dc current uniformly distributed through any cross section. (this is what generally happens for dc current.) this will generate a circumferential magnetic field inside the wire, as is easily seen via ampere's law. now let's consider a circle centered on the axis of the wire. the magnetic field at the top and at the bottom will point in opposite directions, but the current will point in the same direction at those points, so the net force will be opposite at those points. net effect will be to push the charge carriers toward the axis. this will then create a situation in which the central region of the wire will have a slight net negative charge, and the outer part will have a slight positive charge, so you'll wind up with a small radial potential differences as you move out from the center (though the top and bottom of the wire, in fact the whole surface of the wire, will be at the same potential). but it's not a uniform effect: there is no inward push at the very center, and the inward push on the current carriers is greater the farther you are from the axis of the wire. edit: fixed a sign error. all is right with the world. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_insulator"
] | [
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does your skin grow a tolerance, and eventually rely on products like proactiv? | it seems like, from personal experience and hearing from friend testimonials, that people on the treatment sometimes get even worse skin than what they started out with after stopping use of proactiv, not providing any real long-term benefits. i'm thinking the product changes the skin's behavior and natural production of oils, to the point where your skin ends up depending on the outside help. am i way off base here? | proactiv is - as far as i can tell, a combination of several chemicals mainly used to treat acne, the main being benzoyl peroxide (bpo) as well as some moisturisers, exfoliants etc. a quick note on acne itself - generally thought to be caused by blockage of follicular openings on the skin by an increased production of sebum (oily substance used to keep skin moisturised). the inside of these blocked follicles then gets colonised by skin flora - mainly one called propionibacterium acnes. these cause inflammation and those pesky spots we all hate/hated! now bpo is an organic compound which penetrates down into the follicles. bpo is an oxidising compound and creates free radicals, these free radicals have an antibacterial effect (note: bpo is not an antibiotic) this effect has not been shown to increase resistance of bacteria unlike oral and topical antibiotic therapies. so now we know that using bpo has an anti bacterial effect and this helps reduce them nasty red spots, coupled with the moisturising effects of the rest of proactiv you are doing quite a lot to treat acne. as for effects of stopping bpo there is very little literature on the effects on pubmed or on the web in general, apart from anecdotal stuff on forums, my hypothesis is therefore this: proactiv and it's constituents do not change the make up of your skin as such and you do not get used to them, however stopping the treatment allows the regrowth of a previously suppressed bacterium and allows the acne to flare back up. proactiv is meant to treat the cause of the bad spots while waiting for us to naturally grow out of acne, which can take 5+ years. n.b. i read wikipedia before beginning a lit review for this answer, it mentions that bpo increases skin turnover and links to a medscape article. while the medscape article is a good introductory read i could not find any referenced mention of increasing skin turnover and so have not mentioned it here. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in the dropped slinky experiment, would the hovering depend on the length of the extended slinky? | sorry about the terrible title, i couldn't think of a better one. i'm referring to this [experiment](_url_0_), which completely blew my mind when i first saw it. the bottom of the slinky clearly 'hovers' until the slinky is totally compressed, then the slinky as a whole falls down to the earth. what if this experiment was done not at ground level like in the video, but say outside the window of a four-storey building, and with a much longer slinky? in this scenario, the bottom of the slinky is say about ten feet above the ground, and the length of the extended slinky is about 3 times the length of a normal extended slinky. when the top is let go, would the bottom still hover, 10 feet in the air, until fully compressed? and would the hovering be longer, since a longer slinky is used and it would take more time for it to fully compress? thanks. | how long it hovers depends on the length of the slinky yes, but also on how fast perturbations travel through the slinky. if you essentially tied three slinkies together, it would take longer for the bottom to move, but not three times as long; it would be less than that. edit: here's a supersized one: _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eCMmmEEyOO0"
] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JsytnJ_pSf8"
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is there any scientific/non-pseudoscience (e.g. not esp) explaination for feeling like you're being watched? | i'm talking about the sensation i sometimes experience - and assume others do to, since i've seen it referenced in films and such - where i'll feel like someone is watching me, turn around, and notice that someone is. is this purely coincidence? picking up on subtle social cues of people around you who've noticed you're being watched? | coincidence and placebo effects seem like likely explanations. the act of turning around may well get someone's attention and cause them too look at you - they may have been looking elsewhere. you might 'feel' someone's presence from sounds and other small cues that you're putting together e.g. another person behind you might affect how environmental sounds sound to you. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is happening when something becomes "second nature" or habit to us, such as tying our shoes? does it move to a different part of our brain? | i'm referring to when people seem to do things automatically after many years of learning them. example: when we first learn to drive, we concentrate all our brainpower on doing everything correctly. a few years later we barely have to think about pressing the gas, brake, steering, etc. does this information move to the "back" of our brain? does it get filtered out differently as we get used to these things? | i think you're describing the formation of corticocortical connections. when you're first learning something consciously, you rely heavily on a part of your brain called the hippocampus to coordinate activity between the neurons required for the task. if you call upon the brain to do this frequently enough, those neurons will begin to form direct connections and gradually require the hippocampus less and less. tasks like reading, when learned young, become so ingrained that you can't consciously *not read* when you see words, unless you pull some stupid trick like blurring your eyes. the stroop effect tests this, and it'd be fun to look up and try, if you're not familiar with it. [here's] (_url_0_) an interactive test to show this to yourself. one of the interesting things that comes of this happens when you have a disease or injury affecting the hippocampus, like alzheimer's. that portion of the brain will begin to deteriorate, so it's no longer available for retrieval of old memories, or the making of new memories, and the patients will seem to "regress" throughout the process, as the only memories accessible to them are the ones in which corticocortical connections have been formed. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/java/ready.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebellum#Learning"
] | [
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is the resultant force of a load the area under it? | say you have a tilted beam (homogenous distribution of mass) under the influence of gravity. the load would form a parallelogram (if you drew the vectors) but the resultant would be one vector times the actual length, which wouldn't be equal to the area of said parallelogram. i guess this has to do with the vectors, but i don't quiet get how. sorry if i'm unclear. _url_1_ maybe that helps. i think it has to do with vector integration. different load: _url_0_ thanks for the answers. | could you possibly post a diagram? things like this are easier to solve if they can be visualized and it's hard to tell what exactly you mean. | 3 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/fcuvaXd.jpg?1",
"http://i.imgur.com/OIfZTVJ.jpg?1"
] | [] | [
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universal drift / absolute reference point | just a question that bothers me: my relative movement is 0... but earth is spinning around the sun, the sun is moving towards the galactic center and the milky way is drifting through space. how fast am i actually moving? is there any way to calculate an absolute universal movement? would it be possible to measure a doppler effect with light or some other wave/particle? | velocity is only relevant in reference to another object/point. relative to what? also, some comments for a [question](_url_0_) asked earlier today may be of some relevance. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/lslea/how_to_measure_speed_in_space/"
] | [
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how much g's on the event horizon? | how much gravitational acceleration is there right on the event horizon of a black hole? is it dependent of the size of the black hole? and lets say that you are in a ship that is accelerating at that value, what would you expect to happen to light and an observer in that ship.(before getting close to the light speed) | in gr, you have an immense freedom to choose your coordinate system and many quantities and physical phenomenon are described described differently depending on your coordinate system. for instance, suppose you are an observer far away from the black hole and are using so-called schwarzschild coordinates to describe some non-rotating schwarzschild black hole. to you, all infalling particles never actually reach the horizon. they just slow down to a halt as they approach the horizon, and so the acceleration of all objects approaching the horizon *in this coordinate system* is zero! that probably doesn't quite match the answer you expect. since it becomes harder and harder to escape the pull of the black hole as you get closer, you should expect the acceleration to get larger. there *is* a way to describe that intuitive notion. some background terms first. when a particle moves under gravity alone (the particle is said to be *free*), we say that the *proper acceleration* of that particle is zero. or simply, the acceleration of the particle is zero. if a particle is subjected to non-gravitational forces, then the resulting proper acceleration is non-zero. so the meaningful question to ask is the following: suppose a particle is falling into the black hole under gravity alone. its proper acceleration is zero. if the particle (or spaceship or whatever) were to fire its rockets and fight against the pull of the black hole, it could accelerate hard enough so that it remains stationary according to the faraway observer. *what, then, is the proper acceleration needed to exactly counteract the geodesic motion into the black hole?* well, there turns out to be a simple enough answer (although not quite trivial to derive). if the particle has schwarzschild radial coordinate *r*, then the required proper acceleration needed is where m = mass of black hole and r*_s_* = 2gm/c^(2) = schwarzschild radius of the black hole. note two important things: 1. if *r* is much larger than *r**_s_* (true for the exterior of a star or planet), we find that *a* = gm/r^(2), which is just the usual newtonian formula for gravitational acceleration. 2. as *r* -- > *r**_s_*, then *a* -- > infinity. that is, for *any* black hole, the proper acceleration required to counteract the gravity gets arbitrarily large as you approach the event horizon. in other words, if you were to successfully escape the pull of a black hole while just outside the horizon, you would feel an *incredible* amount of *g*'s and that's quite an understatement. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaghettification"
] | [
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what are the differences between daily and monthly wear contacts from a materials and durability standpoint. | without getting into too much detail because there are so many different materials, when discussing soft contact lenses there are two categories of materials: hydrogel and silicon hydrogel. hydrogel materials were the first soft contact lenses. to generalize, they have a relatively low dk/t (oxygen permeability), high water content, and are generally softer, or flimsier. conversely, silicon hydrogel is a newer type of material. the addition of silicon permits a much higher transmission of oxygen through the lens, has a lower water content, and tend to be more firm. now, to address your question. generally, daily contacts (a lens that is worn for one day and then disposed) are hydrogel. they are not meant to be slept in, so it's less important that they maximize oxygen transmission. monthly contacts can describe a lens that is worn daily for 30 days without being slept in, or a lens that is approved for up to 30 days of continuous daily and overnight wear. in either case, it is more important that the lens can stand up to that length of time, as well as not deprive the cornea of oxygen. for this reason monthly contacts are more likely to be silicon hydrogel. i said i was generalizing for a reason, there are exceptions to everything i said. there is now a silicon hydrogel 1 day contact, and there are still hydrogel monthly. there are also significant differences in the coatings a contact lens is bound to. there are contacts that can be worn for 3 months or longer, though that modality is being phased out. edited for formatting | 22 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is going on when we are so afraid we "shit ourselves?" | may tie all the way back to primate stage or before. many animals will void their bowels as a defense. it can be a deterrent to predators. in reptiles it is less of a deterrent than perhaps a method of unburdening the body of weight and freeing up energy. most reptiles vomit their meal as opposed to voiding the bowels. this doesn't have the same effect on the predator. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does mobile internet (carrier internet) work? how does it get to the reciever intact? | i was wondering this when i was travelling by bus and browsing reddit. how does it account for my movement, for disturbances, for other people using it? | all right, i'll give this one a shot. say you capture your data (words, text, pictures, whatever) in a tennis ball and throw it to your friend across the street. he catches it and throws back his responses. now suppose you both have an unlimited number of balls you can package your stuff into and throw to as many people as you like. also imagine that everyone else can do the same thing. now we have millions and millions of balls being thrown. which one of them is supposed to come to you? the simplest way i can answer that is this: each ball has the recipient's unique identifier on it (this is your sim - subscriber identity module - card). your phone now detects the ball that is in the air with your phone's id on the ball, and catches it. for security, there can be additional checks like a checksum (at its root, a math problem to verify both users are who they say they are). this is how your phone receives and sends "stuff" even when you are moving, etc., because at the root of this system, as you can see, because all the balls are in the air until caught by the correct/intended recipient, it doesn't matter who is moving where, how etc. now if the ball is not caught after a certain amount of time, it will be returned to you, marked as "undeliverable", much the same way that physical mail is returned to sender if the address cannot be found. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there an easy test to see if a prediction vs time is self consistent? | nate silver at 538 has made a name for himself predicting presidential races. this year, his model seems to give a surprising amount of volatility. i'm specifically thinking of of his polls only prediction, which has gone from as high as ~90% for clinton and as low as ~50%. i feel like there should be some way to test how plausible this level of variation is. if the model were to hit, say, 99.5% odds and later wander down to 50%, that seems like an event that should only happen one time out of 100 if we trust each prediction. in theory a time series should have many points of comparison like this, but obviously they aren't all independent of each other. and i'm not sure what the right correlation time should be (though maybe you can just estimate it from the data). so, if somebody knows of a good statistical test for a problem like this let me know. | i split this post into two sections: testing models and why 538's predictions are so volatile. --------------------------------------- testing probabilistic models: there are a number of ways to test model correctness, though models are easiest to test against the data they are intended to predict (any other test will also depend on how closely that test should be linked to the model you intend to test). here are two tests used for presidential prediction models: (1) did it predict the correct candidate? and (2) did it assign the correct probability? test (1) is easy and simple and typically doesn't require that many data points relative to other tests (in this case, elections). so the model can be fitted to data with past elections and we can see how often the model is correct. however, over-fitting is a very real issue. the predictive variables the model is based on (in this case, polling data) are limited and a "perfect model" will probably not be correct 100% of the time. deciding how often the model *should* be correct is a tricky question. the only way to be certain that a model isn't overfitted is to add more datapoints that weren't in the training set and see if the model is still correct for those. test (2) is trickier because you typically require a larger data set to make a good test case (in this case, more elections). you can take all of the elections and bin them to make a [histogram](_url_6_). then you check if the elections the model predicts as going to candidate a 10% of the time actually go to candidate a 10% of the time (or if the model is off, and what it calls a "10%" probability is actually a 20% probability). this require more datapoints as you need enough to fill out each bin (and the more datapoints you have, the narrower you can afford to make your bins). however, test (2) is also not perfect. in addition to the overfitting issue that occurs with test (1) which is still an issue with test (2), test(2) will not tell you if your model is ignoring data that it should be taking advantage of. for example, i could build a model that assigned every major candidate a 50% chance of winning and my model would pass the test (as the average chance of winning across all major candidates is pretty close to 50%). the only way to actually *prove* that a model is not making good predictions is to make a model that makes better predictions. ------------------------------------------------------------- why are 538's election odds so volatile? to answer this, let me first ask why the election results are so uncertain. why not predict 100% for one candidate or the other? there are a number of sources of error. there is sampling error in the polls, there is biasing error (as poll respondents are not typically an accurate reflection of the people who vote, so that bias must be corrected, but there is no perfect way to correct for that bias as it changes from one election to the next), unforeseen events can influence the outcome, and there is some fuzz in the voting itself. i want to start with a point that was covered in a previous question on this forum: the inherent variance in elections - especially national elections - is very small. even if we assume that choosing how to vote for is a random process, the result should follow a [binomial distribution](_url_1_). the last american election had over [100 million voters](_url_0_). at about a 50/50 split between choices, the "voting error" goes as √(n/4) or about ±5000 votes. the margin in the last presidential election was about 5000000 votes, 1000x the "voting error" intrinsic to the process. so this error can be discounted. sampling error in most polls, on the other hand, can be very significant. [this reuters poll](_url_5_), for example, has an error of ±3.2 percent among likely voters. that means that if the poll showed a result of 49% to 51%, there is a [16% chance](_url_2_) that the actual distribution is 52% to 48% or further in the favor of candidate 1. these sampling errors could be reduced by combining polls from multiple sources (thus increasing the effective sample size of the model overall). finally, there is the bias issue. i don't think there is any easy way to quantify or predict biases - the only way to prove they exist is to measure a number of datapoints (elections) and note if the polls are consistently off. 538 attempts to do this on a [pollster-by-pollster basis](_url_4_). there are a couple more issues i haven't bothered with, like how the electoral college is weird and can skew results, but that should give an idea for why there is error in polling and where that error comes from. 538 helpfully visualizes their model's belief of the error on their [election page](_url_3_) (see the "who's winning the popular vote" section). note that my point about type (2) testing issues still applies, though, and their model could be overestimating the error which is a tricky issue to catch. the only way to know for certain if they are overestimating the error is to build a better model with a smaller error that is nevertheless accurate. finally, note that their "polls-only" model does not predict proportion of the popular vote, but odds of winning the election *given the information the model has*. note that this is different from the "true" odds - the probability that the event would turn out the same way if you copied the universe and replayed it multiple times. as i mentioned with the "true" popular vote variance, the true variance in who wins is very small and so the "true" odds (from a god-like, omniscient perspective) are very close to 1 or 0. however, statistics is a science about information - the odds are based on the information that we know, not all the information that could be known. so given what we know, there are some odds for a given prediction. next, note that if the polling numbers are very close (in this case, if the difference is much smaller than 3 percentage points or so) then the predicted odds should be basically 50-50. if the odds are not close (if the differences is much larger than 3 percentage points or so) then the predicted odds should be basically 100-0. and that (my final paragraph) is basically how this election has gone. there were times, such as in late july, where poll numbers were basically 50-50 so the model predicted 50-50 odds. there were times, such as in mid august, where the poll numbers were more like 50-40 (quite a bit larger than the 3% or so margin of error) so the odds were more like 90-10. you could argue that 538's methodology is bad (maybe they should do more averaging or less, maybe they should try to correct biases more or less, maybe they should weight different types of polls differently, maybe their model's prediction variance is too high or too low) but the only good way to prove it for certain is to make a better model. (or to show it doesn't perform well on a large dataset, but because scientists aren't allowed to call elections just to test election modelling techniques we are stuck with a rather small dataset - 50 or so elections is not very good compared to datasets i tend to work with. i do chemistry and we routinely use datasets with 100's or 1,000's or 10,000's of datapoints, which makes testing models much easier). | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.google.com/webhp?sourceid=chrome-instant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=UTF-8#q=number%20of%20votes%20cast%20in%202012%20presidential%20election",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_distribution",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution#Standard_deviation_and_tolerance_intervals",
"http://projects.fivethirtyeight.com/2016-election-forecast/?ex_cid=rrpromo",
"http://projects.fivethirtyeight.com/pollster-ratings/",
"http://www.ipsos-na.com/news-polls/pressrelease.aspx?id=7399",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histogram",
"http://www.cs.cornell.edu/courses/cs683/2007sp/lecnotes/week5.pdf",
"http://www.inherentuncertainty.org/2010/08/calibration-and-weather-forecasting.html"
] | [
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have we come any closer to understanding the mind/body problem? | you should clarify which part of the mind-body problem you are referring to. working theory is that the mind is a phenomenon that arises from processes in the brain. there are numerous brain damage cases that illustrate this effect. when the brain is damaged, the mind is altered. it is a mistake to think of particles as "dumb." they give rise to every intelligence and can take an infinite number of shapes. in a way, the particles "know" more than we do. the mind is an amazing thing, but we are presumably not the only creatures that possess minds. it is safe to say that all creatures that possess a brain have a mind of some sort. the supporting evidence is that we have brains and minds that are tied together, and there is no contradictory evidence. a large number of our inherited mental features existed long before man arrived on the scene. it is likely that pain, fear, frustration, and lust, to name a few, existed in animals long before the birth of the first man. the human mind is just able to make more detailed reactions to these strong emotions. it is still unclear, however, exactly how particles bumping into each other really results in what we experience as our minds. there is not a clear way to draw the line between a physical process that gives rise to consciousness and one that doesn't. we assume that it can be attributed to the complexities of the living brain, but then again, complexity is everywhere. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how many holes in pants? (not really math, but not really any one thing, so...) | so, i've had this question that's been nagging me. do pants have 1, 2, or 3 holes? they have 3 openings, but they all link to each other. and from one position it looks like 2 holes coming together to make one, but from another, it looks like one hole that splits off into two. in a way, it can also be seen as one continuous hole which covers both legs. help. | i think topologically pants (ignoring pockets and zippers) are a genus 2 surface, meaning they have 2 holes. [this](_url_0_) is a very simple example of a genus 2 surface. take that shape, stretch the top of the perimeter upwards without the center connecting part, stretch the bottoms of the two circles downwards, and you have a pair of pants. | 16 | [] | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Double_torus_illustration.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pair_of_pants_(mathematics)"
] | [
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what could cause such an artifact on google maps? | [google maps link](_url_0_) | a "solar reflection off a mirrored surface", as mentioned in another post, seems the most likely case. the pure white form is typical of an overexposure as received by a digital camera. the odd shape could be due to imperfections in the shape of the mirror that were exaggerated over the large distance between the mirror and the camera. the red and yellow blur on the easternmost side of the artifact could be caused by a prismatic effect, but i would expect to see more colors instead of just one end of the visible light spectrum; however, it is possible that some small imperfection in the mirrored surface (e.g. a "clamshell" chip in the surface material, usually glass) that was the sole cause of dispersion, or even the general shape of the mirror, caused an asymmetric dispersion that cause the majority of the produced spectrum to overlap with the overexposed area. | 14 | [] | [
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qft electromagnetic field vs. luminiferous aether? | what are the differences between quantum field theory's electromagnetic field and the dismissed 19th century idea of the luminiferous aether? | well they're not really at all similar except that they are both related to the propagation of light. quantum electrodynamics obeys lorentz symmetry meaning that light propagates at the same speed regardless of inertial reference frame, while the ether has galilean symmetry which means if you move relative to the fixed frame of the ether light will appear to move at different speed, similar how moving through air makes sound appear to move at a different speed. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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bit of a technical question: what would be the consequences of determining the cardiac axis using leads i and ii of a bipolar ecg as opposed to leads i and iii? | title says it all. cheers! | actually, i use leads i and avf. there is a more complicated way, but this is how we typically do it in the hospital. create an xy axis. the left side of x is 0 degrees, and down y is 90 degrees. lead one is a vector towards 0 degrees and avf is a vector towards 90. a normal left axis falls between -30 and 90. therefore, if the two aforementioned leads are positive, the axis is in quadrant four and therefore normal. if it is positive in avf and negative in i, it is in quadrant three and right axis. you see this in right ventricular hypertrophy. now since the 0 to negative 30 is on quadrant one but still considered normal, it is possible that being positive in i and negative in avf could still be left axis. a rough way to gauge this is to look at lead ii. if it is almost isoelectric, you're perpendicular to it and probably near negative 30 to answer your question, trying to use other leads is definitely possible, however it would involve much more complicated vector math. credentials: trust me i'm a doctor _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Hexaxial_reference_system.svg/325px-Hexaxial_reference_system.svg.png"
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how often is it important to understand something on the molecular/atomic level? | it seems that once or twice a week, someone asks a question about what's happening at the atomic or molecular level of x. i'm always interested in the answers, but it got me wondering. how frequently do scientists wonder the same thing? are there particular fields in which it is always important to understand what's happening in such detail? fields where it's never important? | i think about it every waking minute, but that's because i'm a chemist. basically, if you understand how a particular chemical reaction occurs, you can tweak it to make something else or make it more efficient or faster. particle physicists work at this level, too. biologists will sometimes drop down to the molecular level when they need to understand how a particular process occurs, though they can usually operate with broader generalizations. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what's the right way to think about r vs r^2? | say 2 variables have a correlation of 0.6. i look at that and think "wow, 60% of variable a is explained by b." that seems like a lot. but the r^2 would be only 0.36, which seems less impressive. what's the right way to intuitively think about correlation vs variance determination? when is one more useful than the other? | r^2 (not r) is actually the fraction of variance in y that is explained by x. it is also important to know the significance of the correlation, that is done by forming a t-statistic from the r value, and testing it against the null hypothesis. these days, online calculators will do that for you. _url_0_ | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://vassarstats.net/rsig.html"
] | [
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would an electric shock from a source of 10a with 1000v, feel the same as a shock from 1000a with 10v? | does the shock intensity depend on power (vxa) or does voltage or current play a larger part? thanks | for shocks, the current that flows depends not on how much current the source can provide but on the resistance. if your hands are dry and calloused, the resistance is around 100k ohms, so the current that flows at 10 volts is going to be low; by ohms law we can calculate it as 10/100000 amps, or 10 microamps. however, wet your hands down or touch body parts with thinner skin, and more current will flow, enough that you can feel it. the internal resistance of the body is about 300 ohms, so doing the math again, 10/300 is about 33 ma, which is just at the low threshold of hazardous if it was directly across your heart. with enough voltage - more than about 500 volts - the skin breaks down, so you are looking at the 300 ohm resistance immediately. doing the math to get the current again, we get 1000/300 = 3.3 amps of current. so, 100 times the current. the amount of power is even more different; 33ma across 10 volts is 330mw or 0.33 watts. 3.3 amps across 1000 volts is 3300 watts, or 10000 times the power. that is why high voltage is so much more dangerous. see the following for far more detail: _url_0_ | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.eplasty.com/index.php?option=com_content&id=345&catid=170:volume-09-eplasty-2009"
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when did 2013 really begin? | days are measured by the rotation of the earth on its axis, but years are measured by the orbit of the earth around the sun. i would guess 00:00 at either the prime meridian or the international date line if our system of measuring time was 100% accurate, but if it was perfect then we wouldn't need a leap year, right? so, what time of day did earth complete its last orbit? edit: grammar | not exactly. more like we picked fixed values for the length of days and years which are related to, but not the same as, rotation and the orbit of our planet. this is why we need leap seconds and leap years so that our simple cultural time systems stay matched up to the seasons and time of day. the main problem here is what time did earth complete exactly one orbit *since when*? if you answer "since the beginning of 2012" then you have to ask when exactly did 2012 start? which is the same as the original question, and so on and so on, ad infinitum. calendars are arbitrary so 2013 started whenever we all agree as a culture that it started, for most people that would be midnight in their local time zone. if, for example, you want to know when the earth has completed one orbit since 00:00:00 utc 1/1/2012, well even more bad news, there is more than one way to define one orbit of earth! measuring time is a deep rabbit hole of more and more nuance. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are the roofs of mouths ribbed? | i've noticed my cat and my friend's dog have ribbed mouth, and humans do as well, why? | hi. this is your hard palate. its ridges, known as rugae, aid in the physical breakdown of food during mastication (chewing). your stomach has rugae that also aid in physical digestion of food. according to [wikipedia](_url_0_), the hard palate is also important in speech and nursing. (though i would assume the rugae are not important in these functions.) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_palate"
] | [
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question about tension | you tie a rope to a tree and pull with 5 n force and the tension in the rope is 5 n. ok. you are in a tug of war and each side pulls with a force of 5 n and the tension in the rope is still 5 n. weird, but ok. but what if you are in a tug of war and one side pulls with 5 n and the other with 4 n? i would assume there would be a net force on the rope, and thus acceleration, but i'm confused since it apparently doesn't add up according to the first tug of war example. can someone explain this? | if you tie a rope to a tree, and pull with a force of 5n, the tree feels the force of 5n, and resists with an equal 5n force. if the tree is small, you'd see it deflecting to use the elasticity of the trunk to help generate that force (ie, acting like a spring) if you have a tug of war, and both sides pull with 5n, the rope wouldn't move, and would feel 5n of force in either direction. if you have a tug of war, and one side pulls at 4n, while the other side pulls with 5n, there would be a net 1n force towards the side that is pulling at 5n, and the rope would move accordingly. i think you're just missing that the tree also exerts a force on the rope, in response to the pull. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if you dropped a flea or tick from the empire state building, would it die on impact? or no because of it's respective body mass and size? | for any object, you have a terminal velocity depending, to a first approximation, on it's surface area/mass ratio. in general, this will be smaller for smaller objects and so it's more likely that they will survive. [this](_url_0_) study from nature in 1988 suggests that cats falling from about 7 storeys (~100 ft) have a survival rate > 90%, albeit often with treatable injuries. since fleas and ticks are say 100x smaller, there is no doubt that they would be able to survive. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?cluster=5094783782928677703&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5"
] | [
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|
why can't we use superfluidity to make perpetuum mobile? | why wouldn't this work? [example](_url_0_) | well, this is an interesting question. what you have posted is *not* a perpetual motion machine, but is very close to a working heat engine. heat is the ultimate source of energy that drives the capillary flow of the superfluid helium up the walls. effectively the dynamo in your drawing will extract heat energy from the system, and convert it to electrical or mechanical energy. if no heat is input into the system the capillary flow will halt, and no output energy will be produced. unfortunately, from an engineering point of view, this design is flawed. it is very unlikely that you will get the superfluid helium to form droplets as shown, it will just cling to the walls of the containment vessel. i'll leave you with a quote that i love from sir stanley eddington: > the law that entropy always increases holds, i think, the supreme position among the laws of nature. if someone points out to you that your pet theory of the universe is in disagreement with maxwell's equations — then so much the worse for maxwell's equations. if it is found to be contradicted by observation — well, these experimentalists do bungle things sometimes. but if your theory is found to be against the second law of thermodynamics i can give you no hope; there is nothing for it but to collapse in deepest humiliation. | 3 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/xWw9g.png"
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are there any situations or perspectives where "which of two events came first" is uncertain? | assuming both events are documented properly. | absolutely! in special relativity, the order in which events occur can depend on your reference frame. say for example that i'm stationary relative to two alarm clocks that are an equal distance away from me. they go off at the same time from my perspective and the light that shows me they went off reaches me at the same time. another observer moving relative to me along the line connecting the two clocks will see things differently. because the light moves at the same speed in his reference frame as it does in mine, he'll actually see the alarms go off at different times. this is not just a trick of perception: in his reference frame the two events are no longer simultaneous, even though they are simultaneous in my frame. another observer going in the opposite direction will report that the clocks go off in the other order from the first moving observer. in our universe, the simultaneity of events is relative! here's a wikipedia article with more: _url_0_ | 16 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativity_of_simultaneity"
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how do strong forces pull things from far away? | i heard that strong forces pull things stronger from farther away, and that these forces are so strong that nuclear forces are basically the residual spill-off from them. how is it possible that something can get stronger from farther away? wouldn't that pull everything into a certain range? | the effect you're referring to is known as [color confinement](_url_0_). the force felt doesn't increase with distance, but it is approximately constant. however, this occurs in bound groups of quarks (either a quark and antiquark pair, which is a meson, or three quarks or three antiquarks, which are baryons and antibaryons respectively), not between any quarks. the residual force which binds, for example, protons and neutrons in an atomic nucleus together *does* diminish strongly with distance. also, if you try and separate bound quarks, you would pretty quickly put enough energy in to produce new quarks, and thus you'd be left with two separate particles rather than one stretched but still bound particle. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_confinement",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptotic_freedom",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepton"
] | [
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given that cerebrospinal fluid flows around the structures of the brain, would messenger chemicals from synaptic activity in one area be passed to, and alter synaptic activity in other regions of the brain? | by messenger chemicals i'm assuming you're referring to hormones. neurotransmitters travel across synapses so the answer is no. the hormones that are secreted by the brain (hypothalamus-pituitary) get dumped into systemic circulation and thus would drain into the internal jugular vein the same route csf takes. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
at what point in your academic career are you a scientist? | i'm a lowly undergrad, the most i can do at my level is maybe a 3rd/4th year project or work as a lab/research assistant, i'm not a scientist. what about graduate students, i know they have original research going on but does that make them a scientist? do you call yourself a scientist when you're a tenured professor or is that too late? backstory: i was in the subway and i heard some prick master's student introduce himself as a scientist while trying to impress the cute asian girl he was with. | neil degrass tyson would probably say that your a scientist as soon as your born and you only stop being one when you stop seeking out knowledge. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the equation describing an electrostatic interaction through a varying dielectric medium? | dielectric materials alter the electric field, so all of the material between the point charges matter. define the dielectric constant as a function on x, where x is the axis on which i and j lie. e(p) = 322.0637 * qiqj / ∫(e(x)dx) for x from xi to xj this, of course, reduces to the trivial case for constant e(x), and for your two cases it gives a functional e as * the weighted average of the e's in the case of the defined boundary * the average of the ei and ej in the case of a linear dielectric function | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do we have control over our movement? | i understand how we move, with joints, muscles, nervous system etc... though i am baffled as to how we have control over our movement. since we don't think, "brain, move my right arm, please", how do we decide to move in the way we want to? it has been confusing me recently as to what i do to move my body. so confusing it's been on my mind 24/7 and i can't stop monitoring myself with trying to understand it. | it's the subconscious part of the brain. as a rule we're aware of only a small part of what our brain does. you're basically talking about volitional movement, which is intimately tied up to some of the biggest mysteries of the brain, things like will, consciousness, self-awareness. a rather academic but interesting paper, titled ["volitional control of movement: the physiology of free will"](_url_0_) that paper suggests that the movement comes first, and the sense that it is voluntary comes second. my own opinion is that two main ideas are involved. the first is that awareness itself is basically a dynamic symbolic map of everything we know. it's an ever-changing map of intricately connected symbols, each symbol representing what we "know". this is what consciousness is. and the symbols themselves can be composed of other symbols. self-awareness can then be explained as a subset of this symbolic map, containing the symbol "i", which represents everything we are aware of about ourselves; all the senses we are aware of; emotions, whether we're hot or cold, hungry or full, or thirsty. it very neatly explains why there is a subconscious and the phenomena of the voice in our head, our "thoughts". implication is the brain has many thoughts we have no awareness of because they aren't represented on our symbolic map in our heads. another interesting concept is that self-awareness itself is basically a sensory organ--it senses part of what is going on in our brain. we can sense our emotions, sense our thoughts, sense our imaginations. i knew a guy once who wasn't able to sense his emotions. he had them. you could see it in his behavior; he would act angry, or happy, or sad. but if you asked him what emotion he was feeling, he would say "none". he was not able to sense his own emotions. those symbols (and the emotion sensors) were missing from his internal symbolic map. the second main idea is of feedback control systems. also known as "closed loop feedback systems". goals are intimately tied up with this. a good example of a very simple feedback control system is an ordinary thermostat. it has a goal input--the temperature you set it at. also known as the reference signal. it has an output, a signal that turns the furnace off or on. it has a feedback signal--the actual room temperature, which tells you what the furnace is doing. how does a thermostat "know" when to turn the furnace off or on? it compares the feedback signal with the reference signal. if too warm, it turns off the furnace. if too cold, it turns on the furnace. all known animals are basically complex assemblies of feedback control systems. it is inherently highly responsive and flexible, and handles error extremely well. a thought experiment--or you can try this in real life. put an object on a surface within arm's reach, then grab it. lights are on, your eyes can see the object, it's quick and your hand goes right to it. now try the same thing with a blindfold on, or in pitch darkness. same object, arm's reach. now grab it. notice how differently you arm moves this time? that groping movement? you no longer know exactly where the object is, you have to feel around for it. you can sense where your fingers, hands and arm is--that's your kinaesthetic sense. but you can't tell where the object is until you touch it. once you touch it, grabbing it is a snap. that's feedback. and there's a complex set of coordinated systems involved in making it work, and it is largely subconscious. you're not really aware of how your arm is moving, all the many muscles involved. you're just aware of what your arm is doing, and your goal of grabbing the object. note, how the goal itself is a perception. it's a perception of a desired perception. we desire to perceive the sensation of the object in our hand. the beauty of feedback is how it adapts and responds so quickly and easily to error and perturbation. in fact, in a sense, it is error that motivates behavior. error being the difference between present perceived state and desired perceived state. if we had no goals, we would have no behavior. this is how all those balancing robots work. [video of a pole-balancing quadcopter robot.](_url_3_) [video of a pencil-balancer robot.](_url_2_) [webpage on how the pencil-balancer robot works.](_url_1_) | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1950571/",
"http://www.ini.uzh.ch/~conradt/Projects/PencilBalancer/",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f9UngTdngY4",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w2itwFJCgFQ"
] | [
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in the periodic table, why does the d block start with 3d, rather than 4d? | why does period 4 have 4s, then 3d? shouldn't it be 4d? | the 4s shell is actually lower energy than 3d. this means the 4s shell fills first before 3d. if you look at period 3, you’ll see that the 3d isn’t filled in that period. here is a diagram of the electron shell energies which determines fill order. _url_0_ | 26 | [] | [] | [
"https://chemistry11mrstandring.wikispaces.com/file/view/level.gif/147227731/level.gif"
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is there any rhyme or reason to the charges of polyatomic ions, or is it completely random? | the charges never seem to line up with the elements that each polyatomic ion contains. (ex. nitrate's charge is -1, but contains 4 negatively charged atoms, so shouldn't the charge be at least -4? peroxide's charge is -2, but contains 2 oxygen, so shouldn't the charge be -4?) | it's wrong to think about polyatomic ions as a bundle of atomic ions. they are really molecules, containing covalent bonds, which just like their atomic ion counterparts still need to gain or lose electrons to complete their orbitals. however, those covalent bonds change how you do the electron counting of how many electrons each atom has or still needs, since the covalent bond lets atoms "share" electrons to complete their octet without adding charge imbalance. to go through your examples, [peroxide](_url_0_) has two oxygens that each have 6 electrons, but want 8. they can each share 1 electron with their neighbor, which makes it act like they both have 7. then each oxygen only needs one more electron, so it has a net charge of -1 + -1 = -2. [nitrate](_url_1_) can be drawn as nitrogen bound to 3 oxygen atoms. each of these atoms want 8 electrons. nitrogen has 5, each oxygen has 6. two oxygens can "share" two electrons each with the nitrogen center to have their octet complete, but there is only 1 electron left over on nitrogen for the last oxygen. this oxygen still needs an electron to complete its octet, so it has to take an electron for a net charge on the whole structure of -1. (the actual picture is somewhat more complex, but this is a good way of understanding it if you're first learning.) | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peroxide",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrate"
] | [
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what determines the rate of action potential propagation? | i'm going to ask what i think is the same question three times in three different ways because i can't quite pin down what i'm trying to say. hopefully it makes sense... assuming no myelination, what is actually responsible for mediating the change in charge along an axon during an ap? it's not the diffusion of na+, is it? my understanding is that na+ flows into the axon, creates a localized positive relative potential, which then activates nearby channels and repeats this process. if that's the case, then this should be slower than diffusion alone, yes? since it's local diffusion plus the time it takes to open the next set of sodium channels? myelination speeds signal conduction, but what is actually being conducted if there are no sodium channels to open under the sheath? none of this is instantaneous, but then what factors influence the time it takes for one node to activate the next (aside from distance?)? na+ isn't diffusing down the covered regions of axons is it? assuming myelination, does the influx of sodium across the membrane produce a local electric field which is then felt at the next node of ranvier faster than diffusion alone could explain? if so, what mediates this? what is the ultimate determinant of signal propagation velocity? thanks! | the na+ is diffusing down the covered regions of the axon. time is saved by not having to open successive ion channels. the signal propagation velocity is limited by the diffusion rate of na+. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i'm french, my book talks about a "fonction sinusoïdale". it may to do something with sine, but i have no further clue. what is it ? | my books says that fourier found that a periodic function, especially sound waves, is always the sum of "fonctions sinusoïdales". i'm french and i haven't found a translation, as i can't find what a "fonction sinusoïdale" is : i know about the sine function ("fonction sinus" in french), but is it the same ? is a "fonction sinusoïdale" ? & #x200b; my guess is that a "fonction sinusoïdale" is the sine function multiplied by a coefficient. solved : it is the case, but there can also be a modifier inside of the sine. so a "sinusoidal function" can be written a\*sin(x+b) with a and b decimal numbers | a sinusoidal function is just a slightly more generic form of the sine function. if f(x)=sin(x), then f(x) is the sine function but if f(x)=asin(x-b), then technically f(x) is not a sine function, but it is a *sinusoidal* function. at high school you can probably be a bit loose with your terminology though. | 23 | [] | [] | [] | [
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prolonged exposure to high pressure | what would be the effects on a human body from prolonged exposure to high pressure (400-500 kpa approx 100ft underwater 30m). on the scale of days and weeks at this pressure. the idea is what would happen with a pressure equalized submarine and why don't we pressurize them. | [this bbc documentary](_url_0_) follows the lives of saturation divers who spend days/weeks at pressure even higher than you specified. there do not seem to be any acute effects of high pressure except very high voices from the helium required in the breathing gas used at that pressure. i'm not sure about possible chronic effects, although i don't think there are any major long-term health consequences. i believe the reason submarines are not pressurized is because of the need to ascend at short notice. if submarines were kept at ambient pressure instead of maintaining a constant 1 atm internal pressure, rapid ascents (often important in emergencies or combat situations) would be impossible because of the effects of decompression on the crew. also, mixed breathing gas would have to be used at depth, greatly complicating ventilation systems. the mixed gas requirement would also slow descent because atmospheric air would have to be gradually replaced with mixed gas as depth increased. tl;dr prolonged high pressure has no serious effect, submarines are kept at atmospheric pressure to enable quick and simple diving and ascent | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B3BWSMrgi3I"
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"water" on the road | when i'm out driving i often see these things that look like water puddels in the distance. but as i get closer, they disappear. can someone please tell me why we see these things, and how they are "created"? | it's called an inferior mirage; [here's a rather decent diagram with example picture](_url_0_). light coming down from the sky hits the density gradient near the road and gets bent back upward toward your eye over on the right side, but since that light came from the sky you 'see' shimmering blue sky in the ground. since your brain knows there isn't sky in the ground, it interprets it as water reflecting the sky. basically the problem is your brain doesn't deal well with bent light paths. when the air mass near the ground is exceptionally cold rather than exceptionally hot, the density gradient works the other way and you can 'see' the ground in the sky, which is called a superior mirage. then you get [odd mirages like this](_url_1_). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.animations.physics.unsw.edu.au/light/geometrical-optics/images/mirage_truck.jpg",
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what are some common causes of static electricity outside of the widely known factors (i.e., wool sweaters, etc) | static electricity is caused by a charge imbalance between two materials. most things are electrically neutral in a normal state, but when certain materials come in contact with each other electrons from one can be transferred to another. the material with extra electrons will have more negatively charged particles than positively charged particles (protons), and vice versa for the material losing electrons. most materials can effectively neutralize this imbalance by transferring extra electrons to the ground, but occasionally with materials which have a high resistance to flow of electrons (stuff that would be considered an insulator) the charge imbalance can remain in the material until it comes in contact with someone else that needs to either take its extra electrons or give away its excess electrons. any two materials in which one is a good electrical insulator can be used to create a static charge. if both are insulators that is even better. some materials like leather, fur, glass, cotton, silk, paper, and hair will always give away electrons. others likerubber, teflon, vinyl, cellophane, polyethylene--most plastics--will always take electrons. an insulator which gives electrons combined with an insulator which takes electrons will create the most dramatic imbalance and therefore the best static shock. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.static-sol.com/articles/static_build_up_on_people.htm"
] | [
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|
do physical forces have a reference frame? | so i watched interstellar last night and it got me to thinking about spaceships and relativity. we are used to seeing science fiction craft that spin in order to create the illusion of gravity due to centripetal force. in some of those depictions, the spinning disk is separate from the hub; that is, the hub can remain stationary relative to the disk while the disk spins around it ... they are physically attached but some system of bearings allows them to move independently. in such a system, particularly outside of an obvious reference frame like, say, a planet, it would be difficult to say which is in motion - the hub or the disk. on a planet it seems obvious that the disc would have to spn to experience centrifugal force, but in deep space, who is to say if the hub or the disk is spinning? if i have thrusters arrayed around the disk to set it spinning, i'd expect a centrifugal force at the perihery of the disk. but what if i had thrusters on the hub and set it spinning in the opposite direction? do i still get a force at the periphery of the disc? or only at the walls of the hub? how would the system "know"? apologies if this isn't clear or is a stupid question. i'm afraid i am not articulating it well. | inertial reference frames are, by definition, inertial. rotation is a kind of acceleration (remember that velocity is linear), therefore a rotating system is not in an inertial rest state, and so you can't consider a rotating system as an inertial reference frame. so if you're observing net tangential forces in a system (e.g. if you're seeing artificial gravity, or if the thrusters are turned on) then you can be sure that your frame is not an inertial reference frame, and therefore that particular equivalence of relativity doesn't apply. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_rotation"
] | [
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] |
what is the "purpose" of short-lived particles like the muon or tau? | or to put it another way, if these particles didn't exist, would there be any noticeable impact on reality? | the standard model is a very delicate theory in that it contains objects (chiral fermions coupled to gauge fields) which are dangerously close to being nonsense. in particular, if a theory of this type almost always has something called a [gauge anomaly](_url_0_) which makes the whole theory nonsense. (there are other kinds of anomalies which are more mundane and are just a feature rather than a bug). however, each particle you add to the theory will make some contribution to this gauge anomaly which depends on the charge of the particle under the fundamental forces (strong, weak, e & m). so if you add a bunch of these particles with precisely the correct charges with the correct signs, the anomalies can exactly cancel out and give you a sensible theory. this is precisely what happens in the standard model: the charges of the quarks and leptons are exactly of the right kind to cancel this anomaly. so if you just removed some particles with no other modifications, the delicate balance would almost certainly break and the theory would make no sense. with that said, it's not like the particle content in the standard model is the *only* possibility which has anomaly cancellation, i'm sure there are others. people who try to come up with theories beyond the standard model are sometimes motivated by trying to come up with theories that naturally explain the number of generations of quarks and leptons. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauge_anomaly"
] | [
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are there any shapes that maintain a constant surface area while being consumed at a steady rate? | imagine setting a cube of sugar on fire. as the outside of the cube burns off, it's surface area decreases. conversely, i've heard that some clever taurus-based designs for gunpowder can yield increasing surface areas as they are burned, at least temporarily. is there any shape that yields a linear surface area graph while being burned/dissolved/otherwise consumed? | cool question, the answer is yes! this can be achieved by nearly *any* shape, depending on the direction of the consumation, up to a certain point of course. once it's been consumed down to a small size it is rather more difficult to maintain a constant surface area. if you were to imagine two spheres of the same size, one of which would be the object to be consumed and the other is the imaginary part which represents what has already been consumed, and slowly intersected these you would notice the additional surface area created by the 'bite' of the consumed part exactly matches the original surface area, up to the point where half of the sphere is consumed. same goes for two cubes you would intersect at the corners. try lighting a circle of paper on fire at an edge (in a safe environment, of course) and you will observe something quite close to this situation, though ignoring the surface area of the top and the bottom of the paper, for this experiment is more of a 2d application. to match the surface area to a high degree of precision would be very impractical and also require very precise consumation, but it could be done. as far as a linear surface area graph is concerned, this is easier. just think of a rectangular log, which is lit in a uniform way at one of the edges. the surface are will decrease linearly with the amount burnt as long as it burns in a uniform way. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how come you can remember that you had a good idea, some very particular details about it, but not the core idea itself? | rather than remembering a specific thing... we remember the relationships between things. we will recall something best when the set of relationships now are most similar to the set of relationships at the time the memory was laid down (you can remember more easily what you did when you were drunk... while you are drunk - you are in the same frame of mind). it can happen that when recalling an idea, the relationships that are most readily accessible apply to peripheral elements of the idea. there are some extra confusions. the act of remembering isn't passive - it alters our memories as we remember them. what we think is a memory of an event may be a memory of a memory (of a memory). one can also *feel* that one had a good idea without there actually being a good idea. the feeling remains - but the detail never existed despite what the feeling suggests. tl;dr memory (and cognition) is complex and we are still working on understanding it in depth. the process from short term memory, to long term memory and memory retrieval is subject to many factors. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how small can electromagnets be made? both what has been done and in theory as well... | i've searched everywhere for this answer. help! :) | well, to be fair, any material containing a flowing charge will create a magnetic field. so hypothetically the smallest electromagnets we've made would be the tiny wires carrying information around the chips in electronic devices. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-Cyano-4%27-pentylbiphenyl",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenz%27s_law",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aromaticity"
] | [
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does new evidence point to geocentrism? | so, this is going to be my first reddit post, and hopefully you guys and gals can help me out. the other day i heard a noise coming from my computer, it was the warning alert indicating that someone on the internet was wrong. i therefore engaged in a brief discussion with someone who advocates geocentrism. never having been exposed to this seriously outside of history classes about galileo/copernicus, and having a computer science background, i didn't feel well equipped to debate this strident person, who was apparently free of any doubt. still curious, however, i have since been trying to figure out what the consensus is on the data re:geocentrism. as far as i could understand, he's stating that the [mm experiments](_url_0_), the [cmb data from wmap and ssds](_url_5_), and just recently the [planck data](_url_1_) all point to the earth as being a privileged, non-relativistic frame. i've checked out [plait's response](_url_3_) to some non-specific geocentrist claims, and incedentally delano's [friend's response to it](_url_2_). i have also watched the 4 [extant videos created by chl](_url_4_!), as well as various wikipedia/rationalwiki pages etc... but i was hoping for specific refutations of the things linked above, mmx and cmb information. i realize that this guy is a fundamentalist, and as such isn't susceptible to the kind of reason that sways me, but i would like to get a better grasp on the size and scope of his wrongness. **edit** so, first of all, thanks to all those who took the time and effort to give responses to my original questions, many of them were very informative. as my first experience posting on askscience, and reddit in general, this has gone better than it could have. next; an apology. i was originally thinking of posting these questions in one of the atheism, debate religion, or philosophy subs, but in the end i went with askscience because i figured there would be more experts in the relevant astronomy/astrophysics/physics subjects here. i arrived at these questions through my interactions with religious people on their blogs. i had never encounter a modern-day geocentrist before, and so was unwilling to continue discussing the points he made with the little information i had at my disposal at the time. not having ndgt's, kaku's, hawking's or plait's numbers on hand anymore, i thought i might try to get these questions answered here. i then made the mistake of linking directly to that person's blog in my op, which i am assuming is to blame for his incredibly quick arrival at this thread. i hope that the distinction is clear between my op, looking for factual information about real data and theory, and the person who later made an appearance here. my training is as a computer scientist, and though i was contemplating copy-pastaing the blog-points which i eventually linked to, something about the unnecessary duplication of a wall o' text verbatim is nails/chalkboard to me. i realize now that there may have been unforeseen negatives to that decision, which would have made it worth while to spend the time. i've noted the shocked tone of some of the original responses, followed by frustration and eventually dismissal. i personally feel that any and all questions are healthy and important to ask, so long as one is willing and capable of accepting the best answers provided by reason and evidence, so i sympathize. whether or not this thread eventually devolved into more noise than signal is obviously up to you to decide, but for my part i got some questions answered, and i suppose i got to eat some popcorn while an intellectual train wreck occurred in front of me. i will attempt to collect a quick list of the information that i've learned as a result of this, and post it below. | well, the earth most certainly is the center of the *known universe*. the inclusion of the word known is very important. the known universe is bounded by a sphere which is exactaly the age of the universe times the speed of light distance away. that is, as reported by the planck team recently as being about 13.81 billion lightyears in radius. this is a relative reference frame measured with the earth as its origin point. so, yeah, the earth is the center of the known universe by virtue of being where we live and where we're measuring from. however, we have definite empirical evidence that the earth is by no means the center of anything else. we know that the earth revolves around the sun just as confidently that we know planes can fly and boiling water is hot. we have observed the rotation of the earth around the sun repeatedly. the earth isn't special. it's just home. | 17 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelson-Morley_experiment",
"http://magisterialfundies.blogspot.com/2013/03/copernican-principle-1532-2013-rip-why.html",
"http://www.galileowaswrong.com/galileowaswrong/features/5.pdf",
"http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/badastronomy/2010/09/14/geocentrism-seriously/#.UUycXhxwpOg",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=wyRJZbNmC7U#",
"http://magisterialfundies.blogspot.com/2012/09/newest-observational-evidence-shows.html"
] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1acd0i/has_the_copernican_principle_been_debunked/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not_even_wrong"
] | [
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vision and brain researchers: looking to find the correct topical label for something i've notice about vision, so that i can look into it further. is there a static frame of reference? | hi there! i really hope that i can describe this accurately! my concern that i cannot (lacking good terms) is my justification for the lack of brevity. i've always been a big fan of stereogram puzzles, and this has induced a habit of playing with my subjective visual experience. things like the floating sausage finger trick, or crossing my eyes and lining up edges to stabilize the split image. i've recently been pondering what seems to be, for lack of a better way to describe it, the "static frame of reference". all i've noticed is that when crossing my eyes, there's still an absolute "center" to the view. left is still left, right is right, up and down are the same. the only reason this puzzles me is that one normally considers the center of their gaze to be wherever their eyes meet, and fuse the left-right images. at least, that's how i have always thought about it. as i look around, say, by holding my head static and looking to the left or right, my sense of where this center is doesn't change relative to my experience of a field of view. this is different than the object that i'm foveating on, which i find can be outside of this sense of where the center is. if i close my eyes in a dark room, i can see visual snow, as i'm sure most of us can. i can still find this center. if i rest my attention on that spot, i find that the snow seems to radiate outwards from that spot. if i am meditating, and let my attention rest on this spot, geometric patterns become apparent that are not induced if i rest my eyes-closed gaze elsewhere. all of this to say that there seems to be a form of static frame of reference, that has an absolute center that appears to be present, regardless of where my eyes or foveal gaze are pointing. absolute top, bottom, left and right appear to be set distances from this central point, and appear to be maximal based on my skull/orbital bones. from my undergrad psychology classes, i recall that each cluster of eye cells is in a sense "addressed" to particular cells higher in the visual system. this account seems to cohere with my subjective experience. cells on the left are gathering light from the right of my body, and each eye faithfully represents the image that is presented to the retina, whether i cross my eyes or not. this sense of centrality and having a static frame of reference seems independent of the fact that particular cells of the retina represent particular portions of the image. it seems to suggest that it is a feature that manifests higher in the visual system than retinal input. is there a name or a term to describe this apparent static frame of reference, that seems to have an orientation and spatial qualities that are independent of the location of my gaze? i'd like to do some reading on it! | i'm not 100% sure i understand what you are getting at, but the terms you might be looking for are egocentric and allocentric (sometimes "geocentric", but less common) reference frames. typically they are used to refer to navigation and spatial positioning in the environment. [here](_url_0_) is a short description. is that what you had in mind? | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/mkozhevnlab/?page_id=308"
] | [
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[optic] why does every measurement of a system that contains coupling/transmission is approximated through a lorentzian function? | i often read that something in the field of optic gets measured and then gets least-square fitted by a lorentzian functionl. i think it was always with coupling/transmission etc. hence the question, since i didn't find any source and everything that i found just stated that they did it. | the reason lorentzians pop up quite a bit in optics is that they describe the behavior of what is called a lorentz oscillator. the basic idea is that to a first approximation you can treat an electron-bound to a nucleus as a simple vibrating spring. when if you stretch (or squeeze) the spring, there is a force that tries to restore it that goes as f = -k(x-x0), where x0 is the equilibrium position and k is the spring constant. at this point we have a simple harmonic oscillator. but to get the full lorentz picture we need to go to a driven damped harmonic oscillator. for that we need two additional pieces: 1. next you drive this oscillator by applying an electric field. to make things especially easy, let's say that the field is a simple periodic function like: e=cos(wt). 2. by driving the oscillator with this field you are putting energy into it. however, let's say that the oscillator can also get rid of some of this energy in some fashion (e.g. by radiating it away). that is the damping that goes into the equation. when you put everything back together, you get the following equation for the motion of the oscillator: m\*d^(2)x/dt^(2) = f*_spring_* + f*_driving_* + f*_damping_* when you solve this equation, you will get a real (e') and an imaginary part (e''), which when plotted will [look like this](_url_0_). it turns out that e'' is described by a lorentzian function, centered around a frequency wo (the resonant frequency) and having a width determined by the damping. because e'' is the imaginary part of the refractive index, it also determines the absorption lineshape you observe for a a simple resonance. for this reason, lorentzian pop up all over the place where a system is well describe by this bare boens model. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/194KJcq.gif"
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what do the thick bars represent on atomic spectrum lines? | like [this](_url_0_) is it the brightness at one wavelength? or is it a continuous spectrum of wavelengths? or is it a bunch of smaller lines that are really close together? | in an absorption spectrum, the dark lines represent the wavelengths absorbed by matter in between the source and the observer. the spectrum emitted is potentially continuous and in many cases eg stars is approximated as a black body spectrum. the broadness of the dark lines is theoretically zero since each corresponds to a particular, quantized, transition between energy levels, but they are red and blue-shifted by the motion of the absorbing atoms, so the hotter those atoms, the wider the lines. | 5 | [] | [
"http://chemistry.bd.psu.edu/jircitano/V.gif"
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why does an elephant's heart rate increase when it lies down? | _url_0_ > when standing, the elephant's heart beats approximately 30 times per minute. unlike many other animals, the heart rate speeds up by 8 to 10 beats per minute when the elephant is lying down. | from [this web page:](_url_1_) the reference for that second para is from [this citation.](_url_0_) in effect, the weight of the animal in the recumbent position reduces tidal respiratory volume; the compensatory mechanism is to increase heart rate. | 47 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant#Internal_and_sexual_organs"
] | [
"http://wildpro.twycrosszoo.org/s/00Ref/BooksContents/b453.htm",
"http://wildpro.twycrosszoo.org/s/0MProboscidae/Elephantidae/Loxodonta/Loxodonta_africana/10LoxAfrDetPhy.htm#Pulse"
] | [
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irisin hormone, why has a discovery this important gone by without hardly any mention? | _url_0_ this does not sound earth-shattering. what makes you think it's such an important discovery? also _it's_ is a contraction of _it is_. the possessive of _it_ is _its_. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irisin"
] | [
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] |
|
scientifically, how is this basketball shot possible? | [this.](_url_0_) if it's true every action has an equal and opposite reaction, then how does the momentum of the ball not even cause a little bit of pushback, it just completely stops. physically, how is this possible? | friction - it's essentially wedged in there. combine that with the fact that the ball has the ability to deform, so in a super slo-mo replay, you would see the ball change shape like [this tennis ball](_url_0_). this would never happen with a solid ball bearing, which has a much lower coefficient of friction and is must less deformable. | 3 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ea0tJhdNRxg"
] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VHV1YbeznCo"
] | [
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how long do landmines remain active? | how long does it take for the explosives to become inert? does the process by which the mines become unable to explode speed or slow depending on climate and soil composition? | according to the wikipedia article for [anti-personnel mines](_url_0_) the most common primer/detonator charge used is an explosive called [rdx](_url_1_) which seems to be able to maintain its capacity to explode for a very long time (extremely stable). commonly used things for main charge seem to be tnt, composition b, and a form of treated rdx. the us used tetryl as its main charge. i can't find anything about how long they last, but it seems that they all pose some sort of toxicity to soil and climate depending on the environment they're in. if they're in a landmine though, it's probably sealed, so there isn't any leakage. so you'd probably have to wait for the fuze/detonator to stop functioning. most mines use lead azide in this, but when protected from humidity, it's completely stable, so it wouldn't set off secondary explosives. so you'd have to wait for the spring in the detonator to degrade. yeah.... landmines stay around a loooooong time. there's a reason they were made illegal. you know, besides the immediate civilian casualties. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-personnel_mine#Components",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RDX"
] | [
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how did scientists (einstein?) know what would happen when an atom splits before it had ever been done? | prior to actual experimentation, einstein couldn't elucidate exactly what it would look like when an atom was split, only that it would produce smaller atoms, free neutrons, and also an enormous release of energy, the sort of raw facts you get from the math involved. what form that energy would take was subject to debate without physical experimentation. when scientists first began exploring the ideas that would lead to nuclear physics, the structure of the atom was well enough understood that they knew how much energy was contained within a fissile nucleus and could make predictions regarding behavior. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why does hypothyroidsm cause fatique? | how is the lack of thyroid hormons making you want to sleep? | thyroid hormones play a role in regulating basal metabolism. without those hormones the metabolic rate drops. as metabolism slows down so does the other chemical reactions (including in the brain) are reduced. severe hypothyroidism can actually cause coma, and derangements in thyroid function can become fatal if not appropriately addressed. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does a van de graaf generator make you positive or negative? | i'm really hoping for some sources here if possible. i've been taught using van de graaf generator that the belt is taking away electrons from the dome and whatever is in contact with the dome. which i thought would leave the dome positive and you positive, making hair repel from each other. recently some stuff i read said it was adding electrons to the dome, making it negative charge. i've done research and seem to be finding both answers the more i dig, even while searching site:edu can any one help me out with an answer and a solid source where i can see this explanation. thanks so much | when you rub two dissimilar materials together, in some cases one material will pick up a positive charge and one will pick up a negative charge. what a van de graaf generator does is to transfer this charge, using a belt, to the metal dome. it is therefore possible to make the dome either positively charged or negatively charged depending on what material was used to separate the charge in the first place. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does capillary action not violate conservation of energy? | i know that energy is conserved, but in the case of capillary action, it seems as though it is creating gravitational potential energy without using any energy. how does this really work? | it works because having the fluid rise up is the lowest energy state. the water molecules prefer to adhere to the walls of the tube and cohere to each other. that is, the formation of intermolecular bonds is energetically favourable, so much so that increasing gravitational potential just to form these bonds is still lower energy overall. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://science.jrank.org/pages/1182/Capillary-Action.html"
] | [
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assume i could travel 1000 years back in time...what foods/fruits i could ask for and not be surprised by it's appearance or taste? | i know that the definition of a strawberry has changed a lot over the past 100 years so, what can i expect of fruit and food if i were to go back earlier? | not many fruit, only the stuff that's been cultivated for thousands of years... squash, melons, pomegranates, apples, peaches (the rest of the stone fruit), bananas... and i say this in generalities, but we have pretty much changed every fruit in the past 100 years. you'd recognize the fruit, but it wouldn't look or taste like today's fruit | 69 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do cities (or specifically the masses of the cites) produce any noticeable isostatic effects? | i imagine the mass of something like new york city is likely (?) comparable to a decently sized glacier covering the same area, and isostatic glacial rebound since the last glacial maximum is a very well accepted phenomenon. just something that occured to me after i took geomorphology... | nyc is waaaay less heavy than a glacier. i've got a lot of experience working with objects (aquariums) full of water, and i can tell you they are heaver than almost any equivalently-sized object that you might find in a city--to the extent that it's usually considered unwise to place 10 cubic feet of water anywhere except a concrete slab. and glaciers are solid water through and through--the equivalent of each room containing 100s of cubic feet of water, plus all the area outside the buildings. the thing about cities is that they are mostly air-filled structures of iron and concrete. the iron and concrete are heavy, but they make up a fraction of the volume of the city. a city is also rather less tall than an ice sheet, which can easily be half a mile thick. so the ice out masses it by a long shot. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does a plane look like its going up from the inside? | sorry if this is a stupid question but its hard to describe what i mean but i'm just curious why this is? surely if the plane is in the air and my position on the seat hasn't changed, then my view of the plane shouldn't change but from my position it will look as if the plane is rising vertically. | jumbo jets generally fly with a slight positive angle of attack (slightly nose up). this helps generate lift at higher altitudes. so, you are seeing correctly, the front will look higher than the back. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a question about processor power.. | it seems like society acts as if we will continue to develop progressively more powerful computers forever, but is there a limit to how powerful we can make a computer? could a processor take too much energy to use or is there some sort of natural limit to the possible power of a processor? | there are various limits to the potential computing power. the main one is the size of computer chips. a processor is just a huge number of transistors, on and off switches, which are used to process logic tasks. even those really old computers that took up whole rooms worked on the same sort of principle, although they had valves instead of transistors. so that is one limit on processing power, size: it's not really feasible to just make a huge computer, it would be horribly expensive and cooling it would be an issue, so we need to make the parts of the computer smaller. that will certainly keep us going for a while, every few years intel comes out with a new processor that uses a smaller manufacturing process; in theory we could keep going until each transistor is only a couple of atoms, that would give us an immense amount of processing power in any given space, but it does provide a limit. even if we could go smaller than an atom, perhaps using quantum particles, it's still a limit, we can't go any smaller than the planck length. then there's the power issue, each transistor requires power, meaning that the more of them we squeeze into a computer the more power it will need. this isn't too much of a problem in itself, even powerful processors don't need more than 150w or so, we can supply more than that easily, we could probably supply thousands of times more than that if we wanted to. the issue with supplying this power is that it all has to go somewhere, and most of it turns into heat, we need to be able to get rid of this heat otherwise the components will burn up from the inside out; again, we can do pretty well here, many enthusiast overclockers already use liquid nitrogen to cool cpus, so we know we can get a lot of cooling. the problem is though, that the smaller the components get, the more heat they will give off for a given amount of electricity, and the less area there will be to dissipate the heat from, this leads to a somewhat exponential heat issue as computers become more powerful. this, however, is unlikely to be a real issue for the foreseeable future. some graphene transistors have even shown the potential to cool themselves down, solving the problem altogether. then there's also quantum computing, which is able to basically process hundreds of things at once, then pick the right answer. this means that it would have near infinite processing power under the right conditions. it can, for example, break through any currently used encryption almost instantly, whereas it could take even the most powerful supercomputers thousands of lifetimes to do so. scientists have also been experimenting with biological computing, that mimics the brain, i don't know much about it, but imagine being able to fit the power of thousands of human brains, each able to process an almost immeasurable amount of information, into a tiny little box. in conclusion, i'd say that we will keep on developing more powerful computers for the foreseeable future, probably until we are both dead, and far beyond then. there are certain physical limitations, but as science develops we are likely to find ways around them; there was a time when computers filled rooms and people thought they couldn't really get much better, now a casio watch has more processing power than the computer that put men on the moon. i think processing power will be limited more by a lack of human innovation than by some natural limit, but the biggest problem is probably just the logistics of it. there will come a point where it just isn't worth the trouble to increase computing power, first in consumer electronics, then, more slowly, in those used in the sciences and military. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can anyone please explain the difference between lumens and candela per square meter (cd/sqm) (in human language) as a measure of light brightness? | i am sourcing a product, a bicycle light. have 2 options. one option has higher lumens (cheaper) but the other has higher cd/sqm (more expensive). i am now having difficulty understanding the difference between lumens and candella per sqm. which one is a better indicator of light quality/intensity? | a lumen gives the *total* amount of human-visible light given out. how bright the light actually is will depend on how wide the beam is. a very wide beam with a lot of lumens is as bright as a very narrow beam with a few lumens. a candela is maybe a more useful unit here. a candela tells you how intense the human-visible light is in every direction. it's independent of the size of the beam - it's basically the brightness "per beam size", if that makes sense. a 1 candela beam with a very small beam width looks just as bright as a 1 candela beam with a very large beam width. the both illuminate with the same brightness, it's just that one covers a bigger area than the other. so it's maybe a better unit for a headlight. though it might not matter if all lights have similar beam-widths. however, "candelas per square metre" is a bit odd. as a unit, it makes sense, and it's something that we use in astronomy. it means something like "the brightness in a specific direction per square metre of source". that is, it's useless unless you actually know the size of the light source. i don't think that's the intent - it's probably mislabelled, and it really means just candelas. given that, it's quite likely that they're using the units incorrectly. so i wouldn't completely trust when they say "lumens" that they don't actually mean "lumens". which isn't super helpful, i know. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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watching the sun from outerspace. | well, in a lot of games you can watch the sun in outerspace. but i was wondering, can you watch the sun in outerspace without getting blind/eye damage? because if you look at the sun from earth your eyes will hurt a lot. edit: sorry for not setting the right category, i'm not sure where this belongs to. | it depends on your distance from the sun. if you're in earth orbit, or closer to the sun than earth, yes, it will cause damage. farther from the sun, somewhere around jupiter, the intensity falls below the threshold for retinal damage. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what exactly is redox potential? | hi guys, i'm really trying to understand the role of redox potential in the functionality of cellular proteins. i don't think i ever got a good grasp of redox potential and what it exactly is. i understand that within the cell there are different compartments of varying redox potentials which can affect the functionality of proteins, particularly whether or not certain subgroups get oxidized or not, but i was wondering if someone had an analogy, scientific or not, to what redox potential actually is and what it means when there's highly oxidizing redox potential or whatever, i.e. what is a frame of reference for that. i always tend to think of redox potential in terms of solutions, but i've seen it used interchangeably with a protein's redox potential, and sometimes even differentiated, and to me that just confuses me even more. i had always thought that a high redox potential meant there was more oxygen around, but clearly that's far too simplistic. furthermore, could someone offer some consequences in a chemistry sense rather than a biological one? thank you all for your help, i really appreciate it. | you have the right idea - redox (reduction/oxidation) in inorganic chemistry is much easier to understand. oxidation is the process of losing electrons; reduction is the process of gaining electrons. there is a redox potential anytime you have two species with different "reduction potentials" (essentially different greediness toward electrons.) cesium is eager to give up electrons; fluorine is eager to accept them. everything else is between these extremes. batteries work on this principal - when you connect the anode and cathode, one compound in the battery gives up electrons (and is oxidized) while the other absorbs them (and is reduced.) you exploit the potential energy difference as you use the battery, in the same way you use gravitational potential energy to slide down a hill. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_electrode_potential_%28data_page%29"
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latest sixty symbols "currents and magnets". what is the 'lensing' effect along the wire? | in the latest [sixty symbols video](_url_0_) about current and magnets; every time the camera pans over the wire there is a [lensing effect](_url_1_) around it. it's hard to see in the picture, but the video is very obvious. i was thinking charged particles in the air, but this is happening even when (i think) there is no current running through it. what the heck is going on? | it's heat! they're running 30v at 1.8a through that little wire, which is close to 60w (assuming it's all being dissipated in the wire, which is fairly safe to assume based on the instrument readings). | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UV0wtX9AXq4&list=UUvBqzzvUBLCs8Y7Axb-jZew&index=1&feature=plcp",
"http://imgur.com/3Ya7D"
] | [] | [
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do organic brains operate on any logic system? | by logic system, i mean that most modern computers use binary so everything can be broken into booleans/discrete voltages. other computers use hexadecimal/quantum, etc. do organic brains use any sort of system? | suuuuper complicated question. shortest answer: brains use wildly different coding schemes to accomplish different tasks, but generally, the inputs and outputs of a neural system are represented by continuous variables, in the form of "firing rate," or how rapidly a neuron fires 'spikes.' short answer: most individual neurons operate at the basic level of "fire or don't fire." in a sense, this is binary. however, the way that this 'decision' to fire or not fire gets built up into more complicated codes does not remotely resemble machine logic systems. for example, some neurons take this 'binary' event and turn it into a continuous, non-binary variable: firing *rate*. they fire at a higher or lower rate (more spikes per second) to convey information. in this way, neural networks are very probabilistic, and their inputs and outputs are generally continuously variable (in the form of firing rate), rather than binary. long answer: neural systems can actually use a pretty impressive variety of coding schemes to represent information. an excellent example of this is in the auditory system (hearing). at the cochlea, the point of input, where sound is actually being detected by neurons, there are two different coding schemes at work: place coding and rate coding. for most frequencies of sound, place coding is used: some neurons fire for sounds that contain frequencies around 60 hz, and another group of neurons fires for sounds that contain frequencies around 61 hz, etc. etc. etc., and this is called "place coding" because the frequency of a tone is encoded by which cells fire ('place' refers to the locations of different neurons). "place coding" cells increase their firing rate to indicate greater intensity of a stimulus; their firing rate has *nothing* to do with the frequency of the sound. buuut, some other cells (ones that respond to really low frequencies) in the cochlea use "rate coding." if the sound is a 40 hz tone, the cell fires 40 spikes per second. then, in other systems, sometimes the specific pattern of spikes that a neuron fires encodes information (e.g. - ---- - ---- means something different from -- --- ---- -, whereas in a place coding scheme these would mean the same thing, since they both contain the same overall number of spikes). it gets rapidly more complicated from there. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in stoke's law (f = 6πηrv) where does the "6" come from? in simple terms. | i understand the other terms are to do with viscosity and a sphere, but i can't find any explanation of where "6" comes from. is it just because a sphere is used? or is there some complex mathematics behind it? | briefly, an 1/r^3 term gets integrated (giving a prefactor of 3/2) and ultimately gets multiplied by the surface area of a sphere, 4πr^(2). | 22 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when listening to large amateur orchestral groups (ex: "school chrismas pageant"), what happens in our brains when we single out individual dissonant players? | how do we single out which player in a tight group of 15 kids playing the same instrument is making that hackle-raising dissonance? specifically, from the perspective of somebody with no musical training whatsoever. is our directional hearing so good that we can pinpoint where the worst notes come from? or are we picking up physical cues from the players themselves as they react to their own mistakes? or is it something else? | here's a [book chapter on auditory aesthetics](_url_1_) you might find interesting. i haven't read it fully, but there are several points in it that might address your question. for example, the authors describe a property of sound they call "roughness" that is present in cringe-inducing sounds like nails on a chalkboard. interestingly, the most important frequencies in these sounds that contribute to the perception of "roughness" are around 2-4 khz. they suggest one possible explanation: these frequencies correspond to resonant frequencies of our ear canals, so we are very sensitive to these sounds. thus, we might find these sounds aversive so we avoid these sounds in order to protect our hearing. however, there are other factors. we are more likely to find the sound of nails on a chalkboard "rough" if the sound is accompanied by the image, so the perception is context-dependent. also, the perception might be culturally-dependent. i bet it would be interesting to compare "roughness" perception between people with different musical tastes, especially dubstep fans. as far as singling out a player, this is studied in the field of [auditory scene analysis](_url_0_), which tries to explain our abilities to pick out sounds from a mixture. once you notice the dissonant sound, you direct your attention to that sound and use various aspect of the sounds (spatial, timing and frequency information) in order to "isolate" that sound from the mixture. you can also use the [timbre](_url_3_) of the sound, which is sort of a catch-all term that refers to differences in sounds besides pitch and loudness. this ability to focus on one sound at a time is often referred to as "streaming". [here's a website with a bunch of demos you can try](_url_2_). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_scene_analysis",
"http://mcdermottlab.mit.edu/bib2php/papers/McDermott_2011_Auditory_Preference_chapter.pdf",
"http://auditoryneuroscience.com/scene_analysis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbre"
] | [
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] |
question about permittivity | hi, i am confused by the concept of relative permittivity at high frequency. after a whole day trying to figure how the permittivity is related to the conductivity of a material (a few books later i am now convinced some people fake understanding it or can't address it properly or i am stupid as stupid gets..which is probable) i came to the conclusions that the permittivity in the presence of free carriers (or else there is no conductivity) is just some kind of convention/analogy with the bound charge case (very often mentioned) and is given by this [expression](_url_1_) \espilon= epsilon_0 + (i*\sigma)/\omega where \epsilon is the permittivity, \sigma is the conductivity, i is the imaginary unit and \omega = 2 *\pi * frequency so this real part of the complex permittivity in the presence free carriers is often replaced by the "high frequency limit of the permittivity" which makes some kind of sense for it is the remaning component when \omega goes to infinity. my problem is the following : it is also sometimes referred to as "permittivity due to bound charges" which, to me, sounds like a dc limit.. "why?" you ask. because for higher frequencies things start to get complicated, you get absorption for instance. for dc, i would expect matter to behave "linearly". i cannot understand why we have to work with this high frequency limit when the value usually found is the static limit of the permittivity. for example, the silicon has a static permittivity value of around 11.7 which, converted to the refractive index, gives around 3.4 (\sqrt(11.7)) which is indeed the dc limit you find [here](_url_0_) my question would be : how is this "high frequency limit permittivity" related to the dc permittivity limit? i guess i'm wrong but i am honestly confused and the explanations i get from different books for the existance of permittivity in the case of free carriers are confusing me. thank you very much for taking the time to read this. **edit** my other guess is that there exists a frequency \omega_i for which free carriers cannot absorb electric field due to it's "high frequency" but at which "bound charge" effects still exist and are the only one measurable. this would explain why "high frequency" is related to "bound charges" but is stil dc in contrast to the electromagnetic spectrum.... a "high frequency" relative to the electronic world more than to the optic world. yeah.... i'm desperate... **edit #2** i have found the [following pdf](_url_2_) (5 mo) which suggests that \epsilon_infinity would be the permittivity when neglecting the infrared absorptions of the material(p.563, eq.4). what now? **edit #3** ok so it might have to do with ionic motion relative to electronic motion as i read in a document called "optical properties of solids" by m. s. dresselhaus (notes for a class). high frequency relates to a frequency at which ions cannot move but at which electrons can contribute to the polarization and \epsilon. **edit #4** new hypothesis : it is related to crystals with 2 atoms bases... so this frequency would be related to the oscillation of those different base atoms one relative to the other. | you might want to look into the drude model for determining the dielectric properties of metals. the [first result](_url_0_) from a google search looks pretty good. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.ioffe.ru/SVA/NSM/Semicond/Si/Figs/141.gif",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lossy_medium#Lossy_medium",
"http://www.nist.gov/data/PDFfiles/jpcrd162.pdf"
] | [
"http://optics.hanyang.ac.kr/~shsong/27-Metals.pdf"
] | [
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in mwi, is there a dynamic probability distribution, and if so, what is its characteristic/its mechanics? does local reinforcement of a choice increase the amplitude of the choice across multiple realities? | you aren't providing a whole lot to go on here, but the "dynamical probability distribution" provided by the mwi is exactly the same as in ordinary quantum mechanics. it is given by the born rule. the answer to your second question is "no," nothing done in one world affects other worlds, other than in the ordinary way of influencing worlds downstream of it. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there any evidence for or against the possibility of shields like those in the book dune, by frank herbet. | in the book traditional ballistic weapons and lasers have been made obsolete by the development of a full body shield. the shield works by only allowing only slow moving particles through it. this shield would allow air to flow through normally but would prevent a projectile or beam from penetrating it. (on an unrelated note this meant that sword-fighting was back in style, which makes for some really interesting sci fi.) so is this possible? could we produce a force field which only acts on objects with a certain minimum speed? is there any research to support or deny this possibility? edit: just to clarify i'm asking if it's possible to repel objects based on their speed *without a material barrier*. | a force field is an interesting prospect, and kind of a nebulous term. but i know there's been talk of making body armor filled with non-newtonian fluids. non-newtonian fluids are liquids that act like a solid when impacted with enough kinetic energy. ever had silly putty as a kid? remember how it stretched out when you pulled it, but shattered like clay when you hit it with a hammer? | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it more effective to perform aerobic exercise with oxygen mask. | define effective. what exercize? what rate? what conditions? what type of mask? what concentration of o^2? your question leads to too many other questions? are you asking if giving your lungs access to higher concentrations of o^2 will assist aerobic output? yes, essentially. you will temporarily increase your aerobic limit. it's not like a linier supercharger though, your lungs can only exchange so much gas in and out and your saturation rates aren't going to change significantly, if at all. i'm too lazy to grab you some links, but if you have an ios device the navy seal fitness guide is a fantastic bit of info to learn you up good about celular respiration. in short, for real world trainning, you need to train for the conditions you're going to perform in. increasing the oxygen supply only prolongs your body's time in an aerobic state for the same ammount of work, and only does so while you have that access to the extra o^2. what you want to train is your anerobic limits. this is where your endurance comes from, sustained work in a persistant anerobic condition. look up free diver trainning if you want to go whole hog, get a buddy though. apnea is a fickle mistress. you can't train to have control over available oxygen, you can only train to perform more efficently with less. so adding extra o^2 to trainning just lets you torch more gluclose without a lactic acid build-up for that instance alone. you're not gaining anything special for when you're working with only 21% air later on. although,an argument can be made that the increased gluclose burned before incuring lactic-acid build up (artificially increasing your aerobic limit) is a "cleaner" way to exercize.. potentially, technically, benificial in a limited scope. this gets pretty down the rabbit hole though as the practicality and statistical significance of this remote "benifit" are hard to nail down. anerobic work, along with lactic-acid build, up is the natural state for humans doing great physical work after millions of years of animal evolution. it's hard to argue that avoiding this state is important in any way. this is also why i recomend the navy seal app. the us military has spent untold billions researching the peak performance of the human body in all manner of conditions. how-ever they train, you can be sure it utilizes most of the very best methods for ataining peak human performance. if adding o^2 in trainning was of significant benifit... the military would be doing it. to my knowledge of the several trainning manuals i have read, they do not. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why we see b & w under poor light? | why do we see objects black and white under a really poor light? | for the scope of this question, you could say that our eyes have two kinds of light-sensitive cells. one type detects light/no light (rods), the other detects colour (cones). the cones are less sensitive to light than the rods. so in low light conditions, we can still see the difference between the light and the dark parts, but the cells that distinguish colours are no longer triggered. the result is a greyshade image. | 22 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why does the lhc detector need to be five stories tall? | for a combination of reasons: the detectors are like an onion, with different layers measuring different things. it adds up. one thing you need to do is to measure the paths of charged particles. this requires at minimum 3 layers (but in practice more, in order to account for inefficiency and resolve ambiguities with overlapping tracks) of detector elements (you need at least three measured positions to define a curved track). then you need to measure the total energy of particles, because there are a lot of neutral particles that don't leave tracks. this is called a "calorimeter", and it needs to be large enough to be able to slow down and absorb all of the energy of electrons/photons and hadrons. this is hard to avoid -- these particles have so much energy that it takes a large amount of material to slow them down! then after the calorimeter you want to measure the tracks of particles that make it through: muons. so again you need another 3 layers (but again in practice more) of detector. in addition to all of this, you have to have incredibly powerful and big magnets inside your detector, in order to bend the paths of charged particles (this is how you determine their momentum and charge). you also need to provide space for those particles' paths to be able to bend enough that you can detect the curvature of their track. you can only make the magnets so strong, so you really need a large enough detector that the particles paths will get bent enough for you to measure their deviation from a straight line. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does telomere length correlate with death risk? | there is a disease called dyskeratosis congenita that is thought to be the result of improper telomere shortening. people with it have multi-organ system issues, especially in tissues that are rapidly replicating (bone marrow, gi lumen). on the other hand, cancer cells have long been known to utilize telomerase to maintain or extend telomere length (normally degrades slowly over time) as a means of immortalization. both are not good either way, since we need our replicating cells to work properly and our regular cells to die when necessary. it is really important to note that the normal function of the body requires a diversity of cell roles and necessitates that most die quickly and be replaced. allowing cells to live too long would cause dysfunction (accumulation of dangerous products, overgrowth, uncontrolled activity, etc.) just like having them for too short a time would (loss of function, tissue atrophy, etc.). so the balance of cell function is vital to health rather than simply looking at telomere length as a sign of age and thus overall body health. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wired.com/images_blogs/wiredscience/2011/05/telomere_graph.jpg",
"http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2011/05/telomere-testing/"
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|
what if someone mixed two kinds of proteases in a beaker and had them "cockfight"? | in my molecular biology class, we were discussing protein modification and the ways in which one rna transcription can result in multiple proteins. for example, a polyprotein is produced when one large rna transcript is made into one large protein, which is then subsequently cut into multiple smaller functional proteins using proteases, enzymes whose sole function is to cut other proteins. later, we learned about signal sequences in prokaryotes (bacteria), and the mechanism which can keep proteins passive and inactive until a particular region is cleaved off by leader peptidase. without leader peptidase, proteases would otherwise float all across the cytoplasm of a prokaryotic cell, wreaking havoc all over the place, eating up everything. by producing protease precursors and cutting off the leader region to finalize the protease, you can have them float around harmlessly until they reach the destination at which it is appropriate to rip everything to shreds. most proteases are found only within the confines of the lysosome, what i like to refer to as the "garbage disposal" organelle. it has a double membrane system to keep its proteases in check- they are clearly dangerous if not placed under multiple layers of control! so- what would happen if you took two different strains of protease and put them together in a fight to the death? would one strain emerge victorious? would there only be one individual protease left after a certain amount of time? what factors would lead to one protease's victory over the other? would it be possible to do a real-time broadcast of the bloodbath (with play-by-play commentary) using the microscopy techniques we currently have available? if i was to organize a betting ring, what would i stack the odds at in order to retain a house advantage? what specific proteases should i utilize to ensure maximum carnage? how would i dispose of the surviving protease(s) in a way that wouldn't damage my (or any other) cells? would organizing my metaphorical molecular cockfight get me in any long-term trouble with institutions of research? would i be forever condemned to the journal of insignificant results? how drunk would i have to be to actually think this is a good idea? --- this is my first question to r/askscience- let me know if i need to provide more background information in the op! | well quite drunk i guess.. anyways i think the main question is what type of proteases you are talking about. some cleave at very specific sequences while others are more broad spectrum. it will just mean that the ones that are fastest will last longer, but do remember that proteases themselves are proteins so even a pot of a single protease will degrade quite soon if left at room temperature or 37degrees. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how can i calculate the optimal path for a particle through a set of points? | given a set of points on a 2d plane, and assuming no friction, how would i go about finding the quickest (or at least a close to optimal) path for a particle through these points assuming that i can change the angle of acceleration as well as the amount of acceleration up to a constant. for example, say i am flying a rocket and i want to get from point a through point b to point c. i can control which way the thruster is oriented and i can change the thrust value from 0 to k: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - b - - - - a - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - c - - - - - - - - - - - the optimal path would be some sort of curve from a to c passing through b. what sort of a curve am i looking for and how could i calculate it? even some search terms and suggestions would be useful. | look up optimal control theory and the calculus of variations. this stuff is pretty high level though. you are looking for the functions thrust(t) angle(t) (it may end up better to change to functions of x or arclength or something rather than time) that minimize some complicated functional that gives the time taken to get from the start point to the end point. the restrictions that you have to pass through some intermediate points can be introduced as lagrange multipliers. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_differentiation"
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why do atoms in the stern-gerlach experiment always scatter into two bands? | my understanding of the experiment is that each band is created by one of the possible values for an atoms magnetic dipole moment. i also thought that magnetic dipole moment was based on both the spin and the angular momentum quantum numbers, meaning that there should be always an even number of bands (as opposed to the odd number of bands predicted prior to the knowledge of the existence of spin). is there something about space quantization or spin that i'm not getting? | the splitting is based on the total angular momentum of the atom, which is the sum of the spin of the nucleus plus the spins and orbital angular momenta of all of the electrons. they specifically pick atoms where this sums to 1/2 so that there are two distinct bands. you need it to be greater than zero for the experiment to work, but the less magnetic substates there are, the harder they will be to resolve. so you want the minimum total angular momentum above zero, which is 1/2. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfine_structure"
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