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A. A. Milne

Alan Alexander Milne (; 18 January 1882 – 31 January 1956) was an English writer best known for his books about the teddy bear Winnie-the-Pooh, as well as for children's poetry. Milne was primarily a playwright, and the success of his books on the character overshadowed much his previous work. Milne served in both World Wars, as a lieutenant in the Royal Warwickshire Regiment in the First World War and as a captain in the Home Guard in the Second World War. Milne was the father of bookseller Christopher Robin Milne, upon whom the character Christopher Robin is based. It was during a visit to London Zoo, where Christopher became enamoured with the tame and amiable bear Winnipeg, that Milne was inspired to write the story of Winnie-the-Pooh for his son. Milne bequeathed the original manuscripts of the Winnie-the-Pooh stories to the Wren Library at Trinity College, Cambridge, his alma mater. ==Early life and military career== Alan Alexander Milne was born in Kilburn, London, to John Vine Milne, who was born in Jamaica, and Sarah Marie Milne (née Heginbotham), on 18 January 1882. He grew up at Henley House School, 6/7 Mortimer Road (now Crescent), Kilburn, a small independent school run by his father. One of his teachers was H. G. Wells, who taught there in 1889–90. Milne attended Westminster School and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he studied on a mathematics scholarship, graduating with a B.A. in Mathematics in 1903. He edited and wrote for "Granta", a student magazine. He collaborated with his brother Kenneth and their articles appeared over the initials AKM. Milne's work came to the attention of the leading British humour magazine "Punch", where Milne was to become a contributor and later an assistant editor. Considered a talented cricket fielder, Milne played for two amateur teams that were largely composed of British writers: the Allahakbarries and the Authors XI. His teammates included fellow writers J. M. Barrie, Arthur Conan Doyle and P. G. Wodehouse. Milne joined the British Army in World War I and served as an officer in the Royal Warwickshire Regiment. He was commissioned into the 4th Battalion, Royal Warwickshire Regiment, on 1 February 1915 as a second lieutenant (on probation). His commission was confirmed on 20 December 1915. He served on the Somme as a signals officer from July-November 1916, but caught trench fever and was invalided back to England. Having recuperated, he worked as a signals instructor, before being recruited into Military Intelligence to write propaganda articles for MI7 (b) between 1917 and 1918. He was discharged on 14 February 1919, and settled in Mallord Street, Chelsea. He relinquished his commission on 19 February 1920, retaining the rank of lieutenant. After the war, he wrote a denunciation of war titled "Peace with Honour" (1934), which he retracted somewhat with 1940's "War with Honour". During World War II, Milne was one of the most prominent critics of fellow English writer (and Authors XI cricket teammate) P. G. Wodehouse, who was captured at his country home in France by the Nazis and imprisoned for a year. Wodehouse made radio broadcasts about his internment, which were broadcast from Berlin. Although the light-hearted broadcasts made fun of the Germans, Milne accused Wodehouse of committing an act of near treason by cooperating with his country's enemy. Wodehouse got some revenge on his former friend (e.g. in "The Mating Season") by creating fatuous parodies of the Christopher Robin poems in some of his later stories, and claiming that Milne "was probably jealous of all other writers... But I loved his stuff." Milne married Dorothy "Daphne" de Sélincourt (1890–1971) in 1913 and their son Christopher Robin Milne was born in 1920. In 1925, Milne bought a country home, Cotchford Farm, in Hartfield, East Sussex. During World War II, Milne was a captain in the British Home Guard in Hartfield & Forest Row, insisting on being plain "Mr. Milne" to the members of his platoon. He retired to the farm after a stroke and brain surgery in 1952 left him an invalid, and by August 1953, "he seemed very old and disenchanted." Milne died in January 1956, aged 74. == Literary career == ===1903 to 1925=== After graduating from Cambridge University in 1903, A. A. Milne contributed humorous verse and whimsical essays to "Punch", joining the staff in 1906 and becoming an assistant editor. During this period he published 18 plays and three novels, including the murder mystery "The Red House Mystery" (1922). His son was born in August 1920 and in 1924 Milne produced a collection of children's poems, "When We Were Very Young", which were illustrated by "Punch" staff cartoonist E. H. Shepard. A collection of short stories for children "A Gallery of Children", and other stories that became part of the Winnie-the-Pooh books, were first published in 1925. Milne was an early screenwriter for the nascent British film industry, writing four stories filmed in 1920 for the company Minerva Films (founded in 1920 by the actor Leslie Howard and his friend and story editor Adrian Brunel). These were "The Bump", starring Aubrey Smith; "Twice Two"; "Five Pound Reward"; and "Bookworms". Some of these films survive in the archives of the British Film Institute. Milne had met Howard when the actor starred in Milne's play "Mr Pim Passes By" in London. Looking back on this period (in 1926), Milne observed that when he told his agent that he was going to write a detective story, he was told that what the country wanted from a ""Punch" humorist" was a humorous story; when two years later he said he was writing nursery rhymes, his agent and publisher were convinced he should write another detective story; and after another two years, he was being told that writing a detective story would be in the worst of taste given the demand for children's books. He concluded that "the only excuse which I have yet discovered for writing anything is that I want to write it; and I should be as proud to be delivered of a Telephone Directory "con amore" as I should be ashamed to create a Blank Verse Tragedy at the bidding of others." ===1926 to 1928=== Milne is most famous for his two "Pooh" books about a boy named Christopher Robin after his son, Christopher Robin Milne (1920–1996), and various characters inspired by his son's stuffed animals, most notably the bear named Winnie-the-Pooh. Christopher Robin Milne's stuffed bear, originally named Edward, was renamed Winnie after a Canadian black bear named Winnie (after Winnipeg), which was used as a military mascot in World War I, and left to London Zoo during the war. "The Pooh" comes from a swan the young Milne named "Pooh". E. H. Shepard illustrated the original Pooh books, using his own son's teddy Growler ("a magnificent bear") as the model. The rest of Christopher Robin Milne's toys, Piglet, Eeyore, Kanga, Roo and Tigger, were incorporated into A. A. Milne's stories, and two more characters – Rabbit and Owl – were created by Milne's imagination. Christopher Robin Milne's own toys are now on display in New York where 750,000 people visit them every year. The fictional Hundred Acre Wood of the Pooh stories derives from Five Hundred Acre Wood in Ashdown Forest in East Sussex, South East England, where the Pooh stories were set. Milne lived on the northern edge of the forest at Cotchford Farm, , and took his son walking there. E. H. Shepard drew on the landscapes of Ashdown Forest as inspiration for many of the illustrations he provided for the Pooh books. The adult Christopher Robin commented: "Pooh's Forest and Ashdown Forest are identical." Popular tourist locations at Ashdown Forest include: "Galleon's Lap", "The Enchanted Place", the "Heffalump Trap" and "Lone Pine", "Eeyore's Sad and Gloomy Place", and the wooden "Pooh Bridge" where Pooh and Piglet invented Poohsticks. Not yet known as Pooh, he made his first appearance in a poem, "Teddy Bear", published in "Punch" magazine in February 1924 and republished that year in "When We Were Very Young". Pooh first appeared in the "London Evening News" on Christmas Eve, 1925, in a story called "The Wrong Sort of Bees". "Winnie-the-Pooh" was published in 1926, followed by "The House at Pooh Corner" in 1928. A second collection of nursery rhymes, "Now We Are Six", was published in 1927. All four books were illustrated by E. H. Shepard. Milne also published four plays in this period. He also "gallantly stepped forward" to contribute a quarter of the costs of dramatising P. G. Wodehouse's "A Damsel in Distress". "The World of Pooh" won the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award in 1958. ===1929 onward=== The success of his children's books was to become a source of considerable annoyance to Milne, whose self-avowed aim was to write whatever he pleased and who had, until then, found a ready audience for each change of direction: he had freed pre-war "Punch" from its ponderous facetiousness; he had made a considerable reputation as a playwright (like his idol J. M. Barrie) on both sides of the Atlantic; he had produced a witty piece of detective writing in "The Red House Mystery" (although this was severely criticised by Raymond Chandler for the implausibility of its plot in his essay "The Simple Art of Murder" in the eponymous collection that appeared in 1950). But once Milne had, in his own words, "said goodbye to all that in 70,000 words" (the approximate length of his four principal children's books), he had no intention of producing any reworkings lacking in originality, given that one of the sources of inspiration, his son, was growing older. Another reason Milne stopped writing children's books, and especially about Winnie-the-Pooh, was that he felt "amazement and disgust" over the immense fame his son was exposed to, and said that "I feel that the legal Christopher Robin has already had more publicity than I want for him. I do not want CR Milne to ever wish that his name were Charles Robert." In his literary home, "Punch", where the "When We Were Very Young" verses had first appeared, Methuen continued to publish whatever Milne wrote, including the long poem "The Norman Church" and an assembly of articles entitled "Year In, Year Out" (which Milne likened to a benefit night for the author). In 1930, Milne adapted Kenneth Grahame's novel "The Wind in the Willows" for the stage as "Toad of Toad Hall". The title was an implicit admission that such chapters as Chapter 7, "The Piper at the Gates of Dawn," could not survive translation to the theatre. A special introduction written by Milne is included in some editions of Grahame's novel. Milne and his wife became estranged from their son, who came to resent what he saw as his father's exploitation of his childhood and came to hate the books that had thrust him into the public eye. Christopher's marriage to his first cousin, Lesley de Sélincourt, distanced him still further from his parents – Lesley's father and Christopher's mother had not spoken to each other for 30 years. ==Death and legacy== === Commemoration === A. A. Milne died at his home in Hartfield, Sussex, on 31 January 1956, nearly two weeks after his 74th birthday. A memorial service took place on 10 February at All Hallows-by-the-Tower church in London. The rights to A. A. Milne's Pooh books were left to four beneficiaries: his family, the Royal Literary Fund, Westminster School and the Garrick Club. After Milne's death in 1956, thirteen days after his 74th birthday, his widow sold her rights to the Pooh characters to Stephen Slesinger, whose widow sold the rights after Slesinger's death to the Walt Disney Company, which has made many Pooh cartoon movies, a Disney Channel television show, as well as Pooh-related merchandise. In 2001, the other beneficiaries sold their interest in the estate to the Disney Corporation for $350m. Previously Disney had been paying twice-yearly royalties to these beneficiaries. The estate of E. H. Shepard also received a sum in the deal. The UK copyright on the text of the original Winnie the Pooh books expires on 1 January 2027; at the beginning of the year after the 70th anniversary of the author's death (PMA-70), and has already expired in those countries with a PMA-50 rule. This applies to all of Milne's works except those first published posthumously. The illustrations in the Pooh books will remain under copyright until the same amount of time has passed, after the illustrator's death; in the UK, this will be on 1 January 2047. In the US, copyright will not expire until 95 years after publication for each of Milne's books first published before 1978, but this includes the illustrations. In 2008, a collection of original illustrations featuring Winnie-the-Pooh and his animal friends sold for more than £1.2 million at auction in Sotheby's, London. "Forbes" magazine ranked Winnie the Pooh the most valuable fictional character in 2002; Winnie the Pooh merchandising products alone had annual sales of more than $5.9 billion. In 2005, Winnie the Pooh generated $6 billion, a figure surpassed only by Mickey Mouse. A memorial plaque in Ashdown Forest, unveiled by Christopher Robin in 1979, commemorates the work of A. A. Milne and Shepard in creating the world of Pooh. The inscription states they "captured the magic of Ashdown Forest, and gave it to the world". Milne once wrote of Ashdown Forest: "In that enchanted place on the top of the forest a little boy and his bear will always be playing." In 2003, "Winnie-the-Pooh" was ranked number 7 on the BBC's The Big Read poll which determined the UK's "best-loved novels". In 2006, Winnie-the-Pooh received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, marking the 80th birthday of Milne's creation. Marking the 90th anniversary of Milne's creation of the character, and the 90th birthday of Queen Elizabeth II, "Winnie-the-Pooh Meets the Queen" (2016) sees Pooh meet the Queen at Buckingham Palace. The illustrated and audio adventure is narrated by the actor Jim Broadbent. Also in 2016, a new character, a Penguin, was unveiled in "The Best Bear in All the World", which was inspired by a long-lost photograph of Milne and his son Christopher with a toy penguin. An exhibition entitled "" appeared at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London from 9 December 2017 to 8 April 2018. The composer Harold Fraser-Simson, a near neighbour, produced six books of Milne songs between 1924 and 1932. The poems have been parodied many times, including with the books "When We Were Rather Older" and "Now We Are Sixty". The 1963 film "The King's Breakfast" was based on Milne's poem of the same name. Milne has been portrayed in television and film. Domhnall Gleeson plays him in "Goodbye Christopher Robin", a 2017 biographical drama film. In the 2018 fantasy film "Christopher Robin", an extension of the Disney Winnie the Pooh franchise, Tristan Sturrock plays Milne, and filming took place at Ashdown Forest. An elementary school in Houston, Texas, operated by the Houston Independent School District (HISD), is named after Milne. The school, A. A. Milne Elementary School in Brays Oaks, opened in 1991. == Archive == The original manuscripts for "Winnie-the-Pooh" and "The House at Pooh Corner" are archived at Trinity College Library, Cambridge. The bulk of A. A. Milne's papers are housed at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin. The collection, established at the centre in 1964, consists of manuscript drafts and fragments for over 150 of Milne's works, as well as correspondence, legal documents, genealogical records, and some personal effects. The library division holds several books formerly belonging to Milne and his wife Dorothy. The center also has small collections of correspondence from Christopher Robin Milne and Milne's frequent illustrator E. H. Shepard. ==Religious views== Milne did not speak out much on the subject of religion, although he used religious terms to explain his decision, while remaining a pacifist, to join the British Home Guard. He wrote: "In fighting Hitler we are truly fighting the Devil, the Anti-Christ ... Hitler was a crusader against God." His best known comment on the subject was recalled on his death: He wrote in the poem "Explained": He also wrote in the poem "Vespers": ==Works== ===Novels=== * "Lovers in London" (1905. Some consider this more of a short story collection; Milne did not like it and considered "The Day's Play" as his first book.) - "Once on a Time" (1917) - "Mr. Pim" (1921) (A novelisation of his 1919 play "Mr. Pim Passes By") - "The Red House Mystery" (1922). Serialised: London (Daily News), serialised daily from 3 to 28 August 1921 - "Two People" (1931) (Inside jacket claims this is Milne's first attempt at a novel.) - "Four Days' Wonder" (1933) - "Chloe Marr" (1946) ===Non-fiction=== * "Peace With Honour" (1934) - "It's Too Late Now: The Autobiography of a Writer" (1939) - "War With Honour" (1940) - "War Aims Unlimited" (1941) - "Year In, Year Out" (1952) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard) ===="Punch" articles==== * "The Day's Play" (1910) - "The Holiday Round" (1912) - "Once a Week" (1914) - "The Sunny Side" (1921) - "Those Were the Days" (1929) [The four volumes above, compiled] ===Newspaper articles and book introductions=== * "The Chronicles of Clovis" by "Saki" (1911) [Introduction to] - "Not That It Matters" (1919) - "If I May" (1920) - "By Way of Introduction" (1929) - "Women and Children First!". John Bull, 10 November 1934 - "It Depends on the Book" (1943, in September issue of Red Cross Newspaper "The Prisoner of War") ===Story collections for children=== * "A Gallery of Children" (1925) - "Winnie-the-Pooh" (1926) (illustrated by Ernest H. Shepard) - "The House at Pooh Corner" (1928) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard) - "Short Stories" ===Poetry collections for children=== * "When We Were Very Young" (1924) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard) - "Now We Are Six" (1927) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard) ===Story collections=== * "The Secret and other stories" (1929) - "The Birthday Party" (1948) - "A Table Near the Band" (1950) ===Poetry=== * "When We Were Very Young" (1924) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard) - "For the Luncheon Interval" (1925) [poems from "Punch"] - "Now We Are Six" (1927) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard) - "Behind the Lines" (1940) - "The Norman Church" (1948) ===Screenplays and plays=== * "Wurzel-Flummery" (1917) - "Belinda" (1918) - "The Boy Comes Home" (1918) - "Make-Believe" (1918) (children's play) - "The Camberley Triangle" (1919) - "Mr. Pim Passes By" (1919) - "The Red Feathers" (1920) - "The Romantic Age" (1920) - "The Stepmother" (1920) - "The Truth About Blayds" (1920) - "The Bump" (1920, Minerva Films), starring C. Aubrey Smith and Faith Celli - "Twice Two" (1920, Minerva Films) - "Five Pound Reward" (1920, Minerva Films) - "Bookworms" (1920, Minerva Films) - "The Great Broxopp" (1921) - "The Dover Road" (1921) - "The Lucky One" (1922) - "The Truth About Blayds" (1922) - "The Artist: A Duologue" (1923) - "Give Me Yesterday" (1923) (a.k.a. "Success" in the UK) - "Ariadne" (1924) - "The Man in the Bowler Hat: A Terribly Exciting Affair" (1924) - "To Have the Honour" (1924) - "Portrait of a Gentleman in Slippers" (1926) - "Success" (1926) - "Miss Marlow at Play" (1927) - "Winnie the Pooh". Written specially by Milne for a 'Winnie the Pooh Party' in aid of the National Mother-Saving Campaign, and performed once at Seaford House on 17 March 1928 - "The Fourth Wall" or "The Perfect Alibi" (1928) (later adapted for the film "Birds of Prey" (1930), directed by Basil Dean) - "The Ivory Door" (1929) - "Toad of Toad Hall" (1929) (adaptation of "The Wind in the Willows") - "Michael and Mary" (1930) - "Other People's Lives" (1933) (a.k.a. "They Don't Mean Any Harm") - "Miss Elizabeth Bennet" (1936) [based on "Pride and Prejudice"] - "Sarah Simple" (1937) - "Gentleman Unknown" (1938) - "The General Takes Off His Helmet" (1939) in "The Queen's Book of the Red Cross" - "The Ugly Duckling" (1941) - "Before the Flood" (1951).

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Asociación Alumni

Asociación Alumni, usually just Alumni, is an Argentine rugby union club located in Tortuguitas, Greater Buenos Aires. The senior squad currently competes at Top 12, the first division of the Unión de Rugby de Buenos Aires league system. The club has ties with former football club Alumni because both were established by Buenos Aires English High School students. ==History== ===Background=== The first club with the name "Alumni" played association football, having been found in 1898 by students of Buenos Aires English High School (BAEHS) along with director Alexander Watson Hutton. Originally under the name "English High School A.C.", the team would be later obliged by the Association to change its name, therefore "Alumni" was chosen, following a proposal by Carlos Bowers, a former student of the school. Alumni was the most successful team during the first years of Argentine football, winning 10 of 14 league championships contested. Alumni is still considered the first great football team in the country. Alumni was reorganised in 1908, "in order to encourage people to practise all kind of sports, specially football". This was the last try to develop itself as a sports club rather than just a football team, such as Lomas, Belgrano and Quilmes had successfully done in the past, but the efforts were not enough. Alumni played its last game in 1911 and was definitely dissolved on April 24, 1913. ===Rebirth through rugby=== In 1951, two guards of the BAEHS, Daniel Ginhson (also a former player of Buenos Aires F.C.) and Guillermo Cubelli, supported by the school's alumni and fathers of the students, they decided to establish a club focused on rugby union exclusively. Former players still alive of Alumni football club and descendants of other players already dead gave their permission to use the name "Alumni". On December 13, in a meeting presided by Carlos Bowers himself (who had proposed the name "Alumni" to the original football team 50 years before), the club was officially established under the name "Asociación Juvenil Alumni", also adopting the same colors as its predecessor. The team achieved good results and in 1960 the club presented a team that won the third division of the Buenos Aires league, reaching the second division. Since then, Alumni has played at the highest level of Argentine rugby and its rivalry with Belgrano Athletic Club is one of the fiercest local derbies in Buenos Aires. Alumni would later climb up to first division winning 5 titles: 4 consecutive between 1989 and 1992, and the other in 2001. In 2002, Alumni won its first Nacional de Clubes title, defeating Jockey Club de Rosario 23–21 in the final. ==Players== ===Current roster=== As of January 2018: - Federico Lucca - Gaspar Baldunciel - Guido Cambareri - Iñaki Etchegaray - Bernardo Quaranta - Tobias Moyano - Mariano Romanini - Santiago Montagner - Tomas Passerotti - Lucas Frana - Luca Sabato - Franco Batezzatti - Franco Sabato - Rafael Desanto - Nito Provenzano - Tomas Bivort - Juan.P Ceraso - Santiago Alduncin - Juan.P Anderson - Lucas Magnasco - Joaquin Diaz Luzzi - Felipe Martignone - Tomas Corneille ==Honours== *Nacional de Clubes (1): 2002 - Torneo de la URBA (6): 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 2001, 2018

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Axiom

An axiom, postulate, or assumption is a statement that is taken to be true, to serve as a premise or starting point for further reasoning and arguments. The word comes from the Ancient Greek word (), meaning 'that which is thought worthy or fit' or 'that which commends itself as evident'. The precise definition varies across fields of study. In classic philosophy, an axiom is a statement that is so evident or well-established, that it is accepted without controversy or question. In modern logic, an axiom is a premise or starting point for reasoning. In mathematics, an "axiom" may be a "logical axiom" or a "non-logical axiom". Logical axioms are taken to be true within the system of logic they define and are often shown in symbolic form (e.g., ("A" and "B") implies "A"), while non-logical axioms (e.g., ) are substantive assertions about the elements of the domain of a specific mathematical theory, such as arithmetic. Non-logical axioms may also be called "postulates" or "assumptions". In most cases, a non-logical axiom is simply a formal logical expression used in deduction to build a mathematical theory, and might or might not be self-evident in nature (e.g., the parallel postulate in Euclidean geometry). To axiomatize a system of knowledge is to show that its claims can be derived from a small, well-understood set of sentences (the axioms), and there are typically many ways to axiomatize a given mathematical domain. Any axiom is a statement that serves as a starting point from which other statements are logically derived. Whether it is meaningful (and, if so, what it means) for an axiom to be "true" is a subject of debate in the philosophy of mathematics. ==Etymology== The word "axiom" comes from the Greek word ("axíōma"), a verbal noun from the verb ("axioein"), meaning "to deem worthy", but also "to require", which in turn comes from ("áxios"), meaning "being in balance", and hence "having (the same) value (as)", "worthy", "proper". Among the ancient Greek philosophers and mathematicians, axioms were taken to be immediately evident propositions, foundational and common to many fields of investigation, and self-evidently true without any further argument or proof. The root meaning of the word "postulate" is to "demand"; for instance, Euclid demands that one agree that some things can be done (e.g., any two points can be joined by a straight line). Ancient geometers maintained some distinction between axioms and postulates. While commenting on Euclid's books, Proclus remarks that "Geminus held that this [4th] Postulate should not be classed as a postulate but as an axiom, since it does not, like the first three Postulates, assert the possibility of some construction but expresses an essential property." Boethius translated 'postulate' as "petitio" and called the axioms "notiones communes" but in later manuscripts this usage was not always strictly kept. ==Historical development== ===Early Greeks=== The logico-deductive method whereby conclusions (new knowledge) follow from premises (old knowledge) through the application of sound arguments (syllogisms, rules of inference) was developed by the ancient Greeks, and has become the core principle of modern mathematics. Tautologies excluded, nothing can be deduced if nothing is assumed. Axioms and postulates are thus the basic assumptions underlying a given body of deductive knowledge. They are accepted without demonstration. All other assertions (theorems, in the case of mathematics) must be proven with the aid of these basic assumptions. However, the interpretation of mathematical knowledge has changed from ancient times to the modern, and consequently the terms "axiom" and "postulate" hold a slightly different meaning for the present day mathematician, than they did for Aristotle and Euclid. The ancient Greeks considered geometry as just one of several sciences, and held the theorems of geometry on par with scientific facts. As such, they developed and used the logico-deductive method as a means of avoiding error, and for structuring and communicating knowledge. Aristotle's posterior analytics is a definitive exposition of the classical view. An "axiom", in classical terminology, referred to a self-evident assumption common to many branches of science. A good example would be the assertion that: When an equal amount is taken from equals, an equal amount results. At the foundation of the various sciences lay certain additional hypotheses that were accepted without proof. Such a hypothesis was termed a "postulate". While the axioms were common to many sciences, the postulates of each particular science were different. Their validity had to be established by means of real-world experience. Aristotle warns that the content of a science cannot be successfully communicated if the learner is in doubt about the truth of the postulates. The classical approach is well-illustrated by Euclid's "Elements", where a list of postulates is given (common-sensical geometric facts drawn from our experience), followed by a list of "common notions" (very basic, self-evident assertions). ;Postulates # It is possible to draw a straight line from any point to any other point. # It is possible to extend a line segment continuously in both directions. # It is possible to describe a circle with any center and any radius. # It is true that all right angles are equal to one another. # ("Parallel postulate") It is true that, if a straight line falling on two straight lines make the interior angles on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, intersect on that side on which are the angles less than the two right angles. ;Common notions: # Things which are equal to the same thing are also equal to one another. # If equals are added to equals, the wholes are equal. # If equals are subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal. # Things which coincide with one another are equal to one another. # The whole is greater than the part. ===Modern development=== A lesson learned by mathematics in the last 150 years is that it is useful to strip the meaning away from the mathematical assertions (axioms, postulates, propositions, theorems) and definitions. One must concede the need for primitive notions, or undefined terms or concepts, in any study. Such abstraction or formalization makes mathematical knowledge more general, capable of multiple different meanings, and therefore useful in multiple contexts. Alessandro Padoa, Mario Pieri, and Giuseppe Peano were pioneers in this movement. Structuralist mathematics goes further, and develops theories and axioms (e.g. field theory, group theory, topology, vector spaces) without "any" particular application in mind. The distinction between an "axiom" and a "postulate" disappears. The postulates of Euclid are profitably motivated by saying that they lead to a great wealth of geometric facts. The truth of these complicated facts rests on the acceptance of the basic hypotheses. However, by throwing out Euclid's fifth postulate, one can get theories that have meaning in wider contexts (e.g., hyperbolic geometry). As such, one must simply be prepared to use labels such as "line" and "parallel" with greater flexibility. The development of hyperbolic geometry taught mathematicians that it is useful to regard postulates as purely formal statements, and not as facts based on experience. When mathematicians employ the field axioms, the intentions are even more abstract. The propositions of field theory do not concern any one particular application; the mathematician now works in complete abstraction. There are many examples of fields; field theory gives correct knowledge about them all. It is not correct to say that the axioms of field theory are "propositions that are regarded as true without proof." Rather, the field axioms are a set of constraints. If any given system of addition and multiplication satisfies these constraints, then one is in a position to instantly know a great deal of extra information about this system. Modern mathematics formalizes its foundations to such an extent that mathematical theories can be regarded as mathematical objects, and mathematics itself can be regarded as a branch of logic. Frege, Russell, Poincaré, Hilbert, and Gödel are some of the key figures in this development. Another lesson learned in modern mathematics is to examine purported proofs carefully for hidden assumptions. In the modern understanding, a set of axioms is any collection of formally stated assertions from which other formally stated assertions follow – by the application of certain well-defined rules. In this view, logic becomes just another formal system. A set of axioms should be consistent; it should be impossible to derive a contradiction from the axioms. A set of axioms should also be non-redundant; an assertion that can be deduced from other axioms need not be regarded as an axiom. It was the early hope of modern logicians that various branches of mathematics, perhaps all of mathematics, could be derived from a consistent collection of basic axioms. An early success of the formalist program was Hilbert's formalization of Euclidean geometry, and the related demonstration of the consistency of those axioms. In a wider context, there was an attempt to base all of mathematics on Cantor's set theory. Here, the emergence of Russell's paradox and similar antinomies of naïve set theory raised the possibility that any such system could turn out to be inconsistent. The formalist project suffered a decisive setback, when in 1931 Gödel showed that it is possible, for any sufficiently large set of axioms (Peano's axioms, for example) to construct a statement whose truth is independent of that set of axioms. As a corollary, Gödel proved that the consistency of a theory like Peano arithmetic is an unprovable assertion within the scope of that theory. It is reasonable to believe in the consistency of Peano arithmetic because it is satisfied by the system of natural numbers, an infinite but intuitively accessible formal system. However, at present, there is no known way of demonstrating the consistency of the modern Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms for set theory. Furthermore, using techniques of forcing (Cohen) one can show that the continuum hypothesis (Cantor) is independent of the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms. Thus, even this very general set of axioms cannot be regarded as the definitive foundation for mathematics. ===Other sciences=== Experimental sciences - as opposed to mathematics and logic - also have general founding assertions from which a deductive reasoning can be built so as to express propositions that predict properties - either still general or much more specialized to a specific experimental context. For instance, Newton's laws in classical mechanics, Maxwell's equations in classical electromagnetism, Einstein's equation in general relativity, Mendel's laws of genetics, Darwin's Natural selection law, etc. These founding assertions are usually called "principles" or "postulates" so as to distinguish from mathematical "axioms". As a matter of facts, the role of axioms in mathematics and postulates in experimental sciences is different. In mathematics one neither "proves" nor "disproves" an axiom. A set of mathematical axioms gives a set of rules that fix a conceptual realm, in which the theorems logically follow. In contrast, in experimental sciences, a set of postulates shall allow deducing results that match or do not match experimental results. If postulates do not allow deducing experimental predictions, they do not set a scientific conceptual framework and have to be completed or made more accurate. If the postulates allow deducing predictions of experimental results, the comparison with experiments allows falsifying (falsified) the theory that the postulates install. A theory is considered valid as long as it has not been falsified. Now, the transition between the mathematical axioms and scientific postulates is always slightly blurred, especially in physics. This is due to the heavy use of mathematical tools to support the physical theories. For instance, the introduction of Newton's laws rarely establishes as a prerequisite neither Euclidean geometry or differential calculus that they imply. It became more apparent when Albert Einstein first introduced special relativity where the invariant quantity is no more the Euclidean length formula_1 (defined as formula_2) > but the Minkowski spacetime interval formula_3 (defined as formula_4), and then general relativity where flat Minkowskian geometry is replaced with pseudo-Riemannian geometry on curved manifolds. In quantum physics, two sets of postulates have coexisted for some time, which provide a very nice example of falsification. The 'Copenhagen school' (Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Max Born) developed an operational approach with a complete mathematical formalism that involves the description of quantum system by vectors ('states') in a separable Hilbert space, and physical quantities as linear operators that act in this Hilbert space. This approach is fully falsifiable and has so far produced the most accurate predictions in physics. But it has the unsatisfactory aspect of not allowing answers to questions one would naturally ask. For this reason, another 'hidden variables' approach was developed for some time by Albert Einstein, Erwin Schrödinger, David Bohm. It was created so as to try to give deterministic explanation to phenomena such as entanglement. This approach assumed that the Copenhagen school description was not complete, and postulated that some yet unknown variable was to be added to the theory so as to allow answering some of the questions it does not answer (the founding elements of which were discussed as the EPR paradox in 1935). Taking this ideas seriously, John Bell derived in 1964 a prediction that would lead to different experimental results (Bell's inequalities) in the Copenhagen and the Hidden variable case. The experiment was conducted first by Alain Aspect in the early 1980's, and the result excluded the simple hidden variable approach (sophisticated hidden variables could still exist but their properties would still be more disturbing than the problems they try to solve). This does not mean that the conceptual framework of quantum physics can be considered as complete now, since some open questions still exist (the limit between the quantum and classical realms, what happens during a quantum measurement, what happens in a completely closed quantum system such as the universe itself, etc.). ==Mathematical logic== In the field of mathematical logic, a clear distinction is made between two notions of axioms: "logical" and "non-logical" (somewhat similar to the ancient distinction between "axioms" and "postulates" respectively). ===Logical axioms=== These are certain formulas in a formal language that are universally valid, that is, formulas that are satisfied by every assignment of values. Usually one takes as logical axioms "at least" some minimal set of tautologies that is sufficient for proving all tautologies in the language; in the case of predicate logic more logical axioms than that are required, in order to prove logical truths that are not tautologies in the strict sense. ====Examples==== =====Propositional logic===== In propositional logic it is common to take as logical axioms all formulae of the following forms, where formula_5, formula_6, and formula_7 can be any formulae of the language and where the included primitive connectives are only "formula_8" for negation of the immediately following proposition and "formula_9" for implication from antecedent to consequent propositions: - formula_10 - formula_11 - formula_12 Each of these patterns is an "axiom schema", a rule for generating an infinite number of axioms. For example, if formula_13, formula_14, and formula_15 are propositional variables, then formula_16 and formula_17 are both instances of axiom schema 1, and hence are axioms. It can be shown that with only these three axiom schemata and "modus ponens", one can prove all tautologies of the propositional calculus. It can also be shown that no pair of these schemata is sufficient for proving all tautologies with "modus ponens". Other axiom schemata involving the same or different sets of primitive connectives can be alternatively constructed. These axiom schemata are also used in the predicate calculus, but additional logical axioms are needed to include a quantifier in the calculus. =====First-order logic===== Axiom of Equality.<br>Let formula_18 be a first-order language. For each variable formula_19, the below formula is universally valid. formula_20 This means that, for any variable symbol formula_19, the formula formula_20 can be regarded as an axiom. Also, in this example, for this not to fall into vagueness and a never-ending series of "primitive notions", either a precise notion of what we mean by formula_20 (or, for that matter, "to be equal") has to be well established first, or a purely formal and syntactical usage of the symbol formula_24 has to be enforced, only regarding it as a string and only a string of symbols, and mathematical logic does indeed do that. Another, more interesting example axiom scheme, is that which provides us with what is known as Universal Instantiation: Axiom scheme for Universal Instantiation.<br>Given a formula formula_5 in a first-order language formula_18, a variable formula_19 and a term formula_28 that is substitutable for formula_19 in formula_5, the below formula is universally valid. formula_31 Where the symbol formula_32 stands for the formula formula_5 with the term formula_28 substituted for formula_19. (See Substitution of variables.) In informal terms, this example allows us to state that, if we know that a certain property formula_36 holds for every formula_19 and that formula_28 stands for a particular object in our structure, then we should be able to claim formula_39. Again, "we are claiming that the formula" formula_40 "is valid", that is, we must be able to give a "proof" of this fact, or more properly speaking, a "metaproof". These examples are "metatheorems" of our theory of mathematical logic since we are dealing with the very concept of "proof" itself. Aside from this, we can also have Existential Generalization: Axiom scheme for Existential Generalization. Given a formula formula_5 in a first-order language formula_18, a variable formula_19 and a term formula_28 that is substitutable for formula_19 in formula_5, the below formula is universally valid. formula_47 ===Non-logical axioms=== Non-logical axioms are formulas that play the role of theory-specific assumptions. Reasoning about two different structures, for example, the natural numbers and the integers, may involve the same logical axioms; the non-logical axioms aim to capture what is special about a particular structure (or set of structures, such as groups). Thus non-logical axioms, unlike logical axioms, are not "tautologies". Another name for a non-logical axiom is "postulate". Almost every modern mathematical theory starts from a given set of non-logical axioms, and it was thought that, in principle, every theory could be axiomatized in this way and formalized down to the bare language of logical formulas. Non-logical axioms are often simply referred to as "axioms" in mathematical discourse. This does not mean that it is claimed that they are true in some absolute sense. For example, in some groups, the group operation is commutative, and this can be asserted with the introduction of an additional axiom, but without this axiom, we can do quite well developing (the more general) group theory, and we can even take its negation as an axiom for the study of non-commutative groups. Thus, an "axiom" is an elementary basis for a formal logic system that together with the rules of inference define a deductive system. ====Examples==== This section gives examples of mathematical theories that are developed entirely from a set of non-logical axioms (axioms, henceforth). A rigorous treatment of any of these topics begins with a specification of these axioms. Basic theories, such as arithmetic, real analysis and complex analysis are often introduced non-axiomatically, but implicitly or explicitly there is generally an assumption that the axioms being used are the axioms of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with choice, abbreviated ZFC, or some very similar system of axiomatic set theory like Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory, a conservative extension of ZFC. Sometimes slightly stronger theories such as Morse–Kelley set theory or set theory with a strongly inaccessible cardinal allowing the use of a Grothendieck universe is used, but in fact, most mathematicians can actually prove all they need in systems weaker than ZFC, such as second-order arithmetic. The study of topology in mathematics extends all over through point set topology, algebraic topology, differential topology, and all the related paraphernalia, such as homology theory, homotopy theory. The development of "abstract algebra" brought with itself group theory, rings, fields, and Galois theory. This list could be expanded to include most fields of mathematics, including measure theory, ergodic theory, probability, representation theory, and differential geometry. =====Arithmetic===== The Peano axioms are the most widely used "axiomatization" of first-order arithmetic. They are a set of axioms strong enough to prove many important facts about number theory and they allowed Gödel to establish his famous second incompleteness theorem. We have a language formula_48 where formula_49 is a constant symbol and formula_50 is a unary function and the following axioms: - formula_51 - formula_52 - formula_53 for any formula_54 formula formula_5 with one free variable. The standard structure is formula_56 where formula_57 is the set of natural numbers, formula_50 is the successor function and formula_49 is naturally interpreted as the number 0. =====Euclidean geometry===== Probably the oldest, and most famous, list of axioms are the 4 + 1 Euclid's postulates of plane geometry. The axioms are referred to as "4 + 1" because for nearly two millennia the fifth (parallel) postulate ("through a point outside a line there is exactly one parallel") was suspected of being derivable from the first four. Ultimately, the fifth postulate was found to be independent of the first four. One can assume that exactly one parallel through a point outside a line exists, or that infinitely many exist. This choice gives us two alternative forms of geometry in which the interior angles of a triangle add up to exactly 180 degrees or less, respectively, and are known as Euclidean and hyperbolic geometries. If one also removes the second postulate ("a line can be extended indefinitely") then elliptic geometry arises, where there is no parallel through a point outside a line, and in which the interior angles of a triangle add up to more than 180 degrees. =====Real analysis===== The objectives of the study are within the domain of real numbers. The real numbers are uniquely picked out (up to isomorphism) by the properties of a "Dedekind complete ordered field", meaning that any nonempty set of real numbers with an upper bound has a least upper bound. However, expressing these properties as axioms requires the use of second-order logic. The Löwenheim–Skolem theorems tell us that if we restrict ourselves to first-order logic, any axiom system for the reals admits other models, including both models that are smaller than the reals and models that are larger. Some of the latter are studied in non-standard analysis. ===Role in mathematical logic=== ====Deductive systems and completeness==== A deductive system consists of a set formula_60 of logical axioms, a set formula_61 of non-logical axioms, and a set formula_62 of "rules of inference". A desirable property of a deductive system is that it be complete. A system is said to be complete if, for all formulas formula_5, formula_64 that is, for any statement that is a "logical consequence" of formula_61 there actually exists a "deduction" of the statement from formula_61. This is sometimes expressed as "everything that is true is provable", but it must be understood that "true" here means "made true by the set of axioms", and not, for example, "true in the intended interpretation". Gödel's completeness theorem establishes the completeness of a certain commonly used type of deductive system. Note that "completeness" has a different meaning here than it does in the context of Gödel's first incompleteness theorem, which states that no "recursive", "consistent" set of non-logical axioms formula_61 of the Theory of Arithmetic is "complete", in the sense that there will always exist an arithmetic statement formula_5 such that neither formula_5 nor formula_70 can be proved from the given set of axioms. There is thus, on the one hand, the notion of "completeness of a deductive system" and on the other hand that of "completeness of a set of non-logical axioms". The completeness theorem and the incompleteness theorem, despite their names, do not contradict one another. ===Further discussion=== Early mathematicians regarded axiomatic geometry as a model of physical space, and obviously, there could only be one such model. The idea that alternative mathematical systems might exist was very troubling to mathematicians of the 19th century and the developers of systems such as Boolean algebra made elaborate efforts to derive them from traditional arithmetic. Galois showed just before his untimely death that these efforts were largely wasted. Ultimately, the abstract parallels between algebraic systems were seen to be more important than the details, and modern algebra was born. In the modern view, axioms may be any set of formulas, as long as they are not known to be inconsistent.

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Alpha

Alpha (uppercase , lowercase ; , "", or ) is the first letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of one. Alpha is derived from the Phoenician letter aleph , which is the West Semitic word for "ox". Letters that arose from alpha include the Latin letter A and the Cyrillic letter А. ==Uses== ===Greek=== In Ancient Greek, alpha was pronounced and could be either phonemically long ([aː]) or short ([a]). Where there is ambiguity, long and short alpha are sometimes written with a macron and breve today: . - = "" "a time" - = "" "tongue" In Modern Greek, vowel length has been lost, and all instances of alpha simply represent the open front unrounded vowel . In the polytonic orthography of Greek, alpha, like other vowel letters, can occur with several diacritic marks: any of three accent symbols (), and either of two breathing marks (), as well as combinations of these. It can also combine with the iota subscript (). ====Greek grammar==== In the Attic–Ionic dialect of Ancient Greek, long alpha fronted to (eta). In Ionic, the shift took place in all positions. In Attic, the shift did not take place after epsilon, iota, and rho (; ). In Doric and Aeolic, long alpha is preserved in all positions. - Doric, Aeolic, Attic ' – Ionic ', "country" - Doric, Aeolic ' – Attic, Ionic ', "report" Privative a is the Ancient Greek prefix or , added to words to negate them. It originates from the Proto-Indo-European *"" (syllabic nasal) and is cognate with English "un-". Copulative a is the Greek prefix or . It comes from Proto-Indo-European *"". ===Mathematics and science=== The letter alpha represents various concepts in physics and chemistry, including alpha radiation, angular acceleration, alpha particles, alpha carbon and strength of electromagnetic interaction (as fine-structure constant). Alpha also stands for thermal expansion coefficient of a compound in physical chemistry. It is also commonly used in mathematics in algebraic solutions representing quantities such as angles. Furthermore, in mathematics, the letter alpha is used to denote the area underneath a normal curve in statistics to denote significance level when proving null and alternative hypotheses. In ethology, it is used to name the dominant individual in a group of animals. In aerodynamics, the letter is used as a symbol for the angle of attack of an aircraft and the word "alpha" is used as a synonym for this property. In mathematical logic, α is sometimes used as a placeholder for ordinal numbers. The proportionality operator "∝" (in Unicode: U+221D) is sometimes mistaken for alpha. The uppercase letter alpha is not generally used as a symbol because it tends to be rendered identically to the uppercase Latin A. ===International Phonetic Alphabet=== In the International Phonetic Alphabet, the letter ɑ, which looks similar to the lower-case alpha, represents the open back unrounded vowel. ==History and symbolism== ===Origin=== The Phoenician alphabet was adopted for Greek in the early 8th century BC, perhaps in Euboea. The majority of the letters of the Phoenician alphabet were adopted into Greek with much the same sounds as they had had in Phoenician, but "ʼāleph", the Phoenician letter representing the glottal stop , was adopted as representing the vowel ; similarly, "hē" and "ʽayin" are Phoenician consonants that became Greek vowels, epsilon and omicron , respectively. ===Plutarch=== Plutarch, in "Moralia", presents a discussion on why the letter alpha stands first in the alphabet. Ammonius asks Plutarch what he, being a Boeotian, has to say for Cadmus, the Phoenician who reputedly settled in Thebes and introduced the alphabet to Greece, placing "alpha" first because it is the Phoenician name for ox—which, unlike Hesiod, the Phoenicians considered not the second or third, but the first of all necessities. "Nothing at all," Plutarch replied. He then added that he would rather be assisted by Lamprias, his own grandfather, than by Dionysus' grandfather, i.e. Cadmus. For Lamprias had said that the first articulate sound made is "alpha", because it is very plain and simple—the air coming off the mouth does not require any motion of the tongue—and therefore this is the first sound that children make. According to Plutarch's natural order of attribution of the vowels to the planets, alpha was connected with the Moon. ===Alpha and Omega=== As the first letter of the alphabet, Alpha as a Greek numeral came to represent the number 1. Therefore, Alpha, both as a symbol and term, is used to refer to the "first", or "primary", or "principal" (most significant) occurrence or status of a thing. The New Testament has God declaring himself to be the "Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end, the first and the last." (, KJV, and see also ). Consequently, the term "alpha" has also come to be used to denote "primary" position in social hierarchy, examples being the concept of dominant "alpha" members in groups of animals. ==Computer encodings== * Greek alpha / Coptic alfa For accented Greek characters, see Greek diacritics: Computer encoding. - Latin / IPA alpha - Mathematical / Technical alpha

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Alvin Toffler

Alvin Eugene Toffler (October 4, 1928 – June 27, 2016) was an American writer, futurist, and businessman known for his works discussing modern technologies, including the digital revolution and the communication revolution, with emphasis on their effects on cultures worldwide. He is regarded as one of the world's outstanding futurists. Toffler was an associate editor of "Fortune" magazine. In his early works he focused on technology and its impact, which he termed "information overload". In 1970, his first major book about the future, "Future Shock", became a worldwide best-seller and has sold over 6 million copies. He and his wife Heidi Toffler (1929-2019), who collaborated with him for most of his writings, moved on to examining the reaction to changes in society with another best-selling book, "The Third Wave", in 1980. In it, he foresaw such technological advances as cloning, personal computers, the Internet, cable television and mobile communication. His later focus, via their other best-seller, "Powershift", (1990), was on the increasing power of 21st-century military hardware and the proliferation of new technologies. He founded Toffler Associates, a management consulting company, and was a visiting scholar at the Russell Sage Foundation, visiting professor at Cornell University, faculty member of the New School for Social Research, a White House correspondent, and a business consultant. Toffler's ideas and writings were a significant influence on the thinking of business and government leaders worldwide, including China's Zhao Ziyang, and AOL founder Steve Case. ==Early life== Alvin Toffler was born on October 4, 1928, in New York City, and raised in Brooklyn. He was the son of Rose (Albaum) and Sam Toffler, a furrier, both Polish Jews who had migrated to America. He had one younger sister. He was inspired to become a writer at the age of 7 by his aunt and uncle, who lived with the Tofflers. "They were Depression-era literary intellectuals," Toffler said, "and they always talked about exciting ideas." Toffler graduated from New York University in 1950 as an English major, though by his own account he was more focused on political activism than grades. He met his future wife, Adelaide Elizabeth Farrell (nicknamed "Heidi"), when she was starting a graduate course in linguistics. Being radical students, they decided against further graduate work and moved to Cleveland, Ohio, where they married on April 29, 1950. == Career== Seeking experiences to write about, Alvin and Heidi Toffler spent the next five years as blue collar workers on assembly lines while studying industrial mass production in their daily work. He compared his own desire for experience to other writers, such as Jack London, who in his quest for subjects to write about sailed the seas, and John Steinbeck, who went to pick grapes with migrant workers. In their first factory jobs, Heidi became a union shop steward in the aluminum foundry where she worked. Alvin became a millwright and welder. In the evenings Alvin would write poetry and fiction, but discovered he was proficient at neither. His hands-on practical labor experience helped Alvin Toffler land a position at a union-backed newspaper, a transfer to its Washington bureau in 1957, then three years as a White House correspondent, covering Congress and the White House for a Pennsylvania daily newspaper. They returned to New York City in 1959 when "Fortune" magazine invited Alvin to become its labor columnist, later having him write about business and management. After leaving "Fortune" magazine in 1962, Toffler began a freelance career, writing long form articles for scholarly journals and magazines. His 1964 "Playboy interviews" with Russian novelist Vladimir Nabokov and Ayn Rand were considered among the magazine's best. His interview with Rand was the first time the magazine had given such a platform to a female intellectual, which as one commentator said, "the real bird of paradise Toffler captured for Playboy in 1964 was Ayn Rand." Toffler was hired by IBM to conduct research and write a paper on the social and organizational impact of computers, leading to his contact with the earliest computer "gurus" and artificial intelligence researchers and proponents. Xerox invited him to write about its research laboratory and AT&T consulted him for strategic advice. This AT&T work led to a study of telecommunications, which advised the company's top management to break up the company more than a decade before the government forced AT&T to break up. In the mid-1960s, the Tofflers began five years of research on what would become "Future Shock", published in 1970. It has sold over 6 million copies worldwide, according to the "New York Times," or over 15 million copies according to the Tofflers' Web site. Toffler coined the term "future shock" to refer to what happens to a society when change happens too fast, which results in social confusion and normal decision-making processes breaking down. The book has never been out of print and has been translated into dozens of languages. He continued the theme in "The Third Wave" in 1980. While he describes the first and second waves as the agricultural and industrial revolutions, the "third wave," a phrase he coined, represents the current information, computer-based revolution. He forecast the spread of the Internet and email, interactive media, cable television, cloning, and other digital advancements. He claimed that one of the side effects of the digital age has been "information overload," another term he coined. In 1990, he wrote "Powershift", also with the help of his wife, Heidi. In 1996, with American business consultant Tom Johnson, they co-founded Toffler Associates, an advisory firm designed to implement many of the ideas the Tofflers had written on. The firm worked with businesses, NGOs, and governments in the United States, South Korea, Mexico, Brazil, Singapore, Australia, and other countries. During this period in his career, Toffler lectured worldwide, taught at several schools and met world leaders, such as Mikhail Gorbachev, along with key executives and military officials. ===Ideas and opinions=== Toffler stated many of his ideas during an interview with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation in 1998. "Society needs people who take care of the elderly and who know how to be compassionate and honest," he said. "Society needs people who work in hospitals. Society needs all kinds of skills that are not just cognitive; they're emotional, they're affectional. You can't run the society on data and computers alone." His opinions about the future of education, many of which were in "Future Shock", have often been quoted. An often misattributed quote, however, is that of psychologist Herbert Gerjuoy: "Tomorrow's illiterate will not be the man who can't read; he will be the man who has not learned how to learn." Early in his career, after traveling to other countries, he became aware of the new and myriad inputs that visitors received from these other cultures. He explained during an interview that some visitors would become "truly disoriented and upset" by the strange environment, which he described as a reaction to culture shock. From that issue, he foresaw another problem for the future, when a culturally "new environment comes to you ... and comes to you rapidly." That kind of sudden cultural change within one's own country, which he felt many would not understand, would lead to a similar reaction, one of "future shock", which he wrote about in his book by that title. Toffler writes: In "The Third Wave", Toffler describes three types of societies, based on the concept of "waves"—each wave pushes the older societies and cultures aside. He describes the "First Wave" as the society after agrarian revolution and replaced the first hunter-gatherer cultures. The "Second Wave," he labels society during the Industrial Revolution (ca. late 17th century through the mid-20th century). That period saw the increase of urban industrial populations which had undermined the traditional nuclear family, and initiated a factory-like education system, and the growth of the corporation. Toffler said: The "Third Wave" was a term he coined to describe the post-industrial society, which began in the late 1950s. His description of this period dovetails with other futurist writers, who also wrote about the Information Age, Space Age, Electronic Era, Global Village, terms which highlighted a scientific-technological revolution. The Tofflers claimed to have predicted a number of geopolitical events, such as the collapse of the Soviet Union, the fall of the Berlin Wall and the future economic growth in the Asia-Pacific region. ==Influences and popular culture== Toffler often visited with dignitaries in Asia, including China's Zhao Ziyang, Singapore's Lee Kuan Yew and South Korea's Kim Dae Jung, all of whom were influenced by his views as Asia's emerging markets increased in global significance during the 1980s and 1990s. Although they had originally censored some of his books and ideas, China's government cited him along with Franklin Roosevelt and Bill Gates as being among the Westerners who had most influenced their country. "The Third Wave" along with a video documentary based on it became best-sellers in China and were widely distributed to schools. The video's success inspired the marketing of videos on related themes in the late 1990s by Infowars, whose name is derived from the term coined by Toffler in the book. Toffler's influence on Asian thinkers was summed up in an article in "Daedalus", published by the American Academy of Arts & Sciences: U.S. House Speaker Newt Gingrich publicly lauded his ideas about the future, and urged members of Congress to read Toffler's book, "Creating a New Civilization" (1995). Others, such as AOL founder Steve Case, cited Toffler's "The Third Wave" as a formative influence on his thinking, which inspired him to write "The Third Wave: An Entrepreneur's Vision of the Future" in 2016. Case said that Toffler was a "real pioneer in helping people, companies and even countries lean into the future." In 1980, Ted Turner founded CNN, which he said was inspired by Toffler's forecasting the end of the dominance of the three main television networks. Turner's company, Turner Broadcasting, published Toffler's "Creating a New Civilization" in 1995. Shortly after the book was released, the former Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev hosted the Global Governance Conference in San Francisco with the theme, "Toward a New Civilization", which was attended by dozens of world figures, including the Tofflers, George H. W. Bush, Margaret Thatcher, Carl Sagan, Abba Eban and Turner with his then-wife, actress Jane Fonda. Mexican billionaire Carlos Slim was influenced by his works, and became a friend of the writer. Global marketer J.D. Power also said he was inspired by Toffler's works. Since the 1960s, people had tried to make sense out of the effect of new technologies and social change, a problem which made Toffler's writings widely influential beyond the confines of scientific, economic, and public policy. His works and ideas have been subject to various criticisms, usually with the same argumentation used against futurology: that foreseeing the future is nigh impossible. Techno music pioneer Juan Atkins cites Toffler's phrase "techno rebels" in "The Third Wave" as inspiring him to use the word "techno" to describe the musical style he helped to create Musician Curtis Mayfield released a disco song called "Future Shock," later covered in an electro version by Herbie Hancock. Science fiction author John Brunner wrote "The Shockwave Rider," from the concept of "future shock." The nightclub Toffler, in Rotterdam, is named after him. In the song "Victoria" by The Exponents, the protagonist's daily routine and cultural interests are described: "She's up in time to watch the soap operas, reads Cosmopolitan and Alvin Toffler". ==Critical assessment == Accenture, the management consultancy firm, identified Toffler in 2002 as being among the most influential voices in business leaders, along with Bill Gates and Peter Drucker. Toffler has also been described in a "Financial Times" interview as the "world's most famous futurologist". In 2006, the "People's Daily" classed him among the 50 foreigners who shaped modern China, which one U.S. newspaper notes made him a "guru of sorts to world statesmen." Chinese Premier and General Secretary Zhao Ziyang was greatly influenced by Toffler. He convened conferences to discuss "The Third Wave" in the early 1980s, and in 1985 the book was the No. 2 best seller in China. Author Mark Satin characterizes Toffler as an important early influence on radical centrist political thought. Newt Gingrich became close to the Tofflers in the 1970s and said "The Third Wave" had immensely influenced his own thinking and was "one of the great seminal works of our time." ==Selected awards== Toffler has received several prestigious prizes and awards, including the McKinsey Foundation Book Award for Contributions to Management Literature, Officier de L'Ordre des Arts et Lettres, and appointments, including Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the International Institute for Strategic Studies. In 2006, Alvin and Heidi Toffler were recipients of Brown University's Independent Award. ==Personal life== Toffler was married to Heidi Toffler (born Adelaide Elizabeth Farrell), also a writer and futurist. They lived in the Bel Air section of Los Angeles, California, and previously lived in Redding, Connecticut. The couple's only child, Karen Toffler (1954–2000), died at age 46 after more than a decade suffering from Guillain–Barré syndrome. Alvin Toffler died in his sleep on June 27, 2016, at his home in Los Angeles. No cause of death was given. He is buried at Westwood Memorial Park. ==Bibliography== Alvin Toffler co-wrote his books with his wife Heidi. - "The Culture Consumers" (1964) St. Martin's Press, - "The Schoolhouse in the City" (1968) Praeger (editors), - "Future Shock" (1970) Bantam Books, - "The Futurists" (1972) Random House (editors), - "Learning for Tomorrow" (1974) Random House (editors), - "The Eco-Spasm Report" (1975) Bantam Books, - "The Third Wave" (1980) Bantam Books, - "Previews & Premises" (1983) William Morrow & Co, - "The Adaptive Corporation" (1985) McGraw-Hill, - "" (1990) Bantam Books, - "War and Anti-War" (1993) Warner Books, - "Creating a New Civilization" (1995) Turner Pub, - "Revolutionary Wealth" (2006) Knopf,

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The Amazing Spider-Man

The Amazing Spider-Man is an ongoing American superhero comic book series featuring the Marvel Comics superhero Spider-Man as its title character and main protagonist. Being in the mainstream continuity of the franchise, it was the character's first title, launching seven months after his introduction in the final issue of "Amazing Fantasy". The series began publication with a March 1963 cover date and has been published nearly continuously to date over six volumes with only one significant interruption. Issues of the title currently feature an issue number within its sixth volume, as well as a "legacy" number reflecting the issue's overall number across all "Amazing Spider-Man" volumes. The title reached 900 issues in 2022. The series began as a bimonthly periodical before being increased to monthly after four issues. It was the character's sole monthly headlining title until "Peter Parker, the Spectacular Spider-Man" launched in 1978. After 441 issues, "The Amazing Spider-Man" was restarted in 1999 as issue No. 1 of Volume 2. It ran for 58 issues before reverting to the title's overall issue number with #500 in 2003. The series ran essentially continuously over the first two volumes from 1963 until its landmark 700th issue at the end of 2012 when it was replaced by "The Superior Spider-Man" as part of the Marvel NOW! relaunch of Marvel's comic lines. The title was occasionally published biweekly during the first two volumes, and was published three times a month from 2008 to 2010. After the relaunch of "Action Comics" and "Detective Comics", "The Amazing Spider-Man" briefly became the highest-numbered active American comic book. "The Amazing Spider-Man" returned with volume 3 in April 2002 following the conclusion of "The Superior Spider-Man" story arc after 18 issues. In late 2015, the series was relaunched with a fourth volume following the 2015 "Secret Wars" event. After 45 years , the volume was once again relaunched as part of "Marvel Legacy", returning to the overall "legacy" numbering with issue No. 789 in late 2017. Less than a year later, the series was relaunched again with a fifth volume as part of Marvel's "Fresh Start". For the first time, although the issue numbers were again restarted from #1, the issues also bore the overall "legacy" issue number. A sixth volume commenced in April 2022 to celebrate Spider-Man's 70th anniversary. Since the second volume, the title has had various release schedules, including monthly and bi-weekly, among others. ==Publication history== Writer-editor Stan Lee and artist and co-plotter Steve Ditko created the character of Spider-Man, and the pair produced 38 issues from March 1963 to July 1966. Ditko left after the 38th issue, while Lee remained as writer until issue 100. Since then, many writers and artists have taken over the monthly comic through the years, chronicling the adventures of Marvel's most identifiable hero. "The Amazing Spider-Man" has been the character's flagship series for his first fifty years in publication, and was the only monthly series to star Spider-Man until "Peter Parker, The Spectacular Spider-Man", in 1976, although 1972 saw the debut of "Marvel Team-Up", with the vast majority of issues featuring Spider-Man along with a rotating cast of other Marvel characters. Most of the major characters and villains of the Spider-Man saga have been introduced in "Amazing", and with few exceptions, it is where most key events in the character's history have occurred. The title was published continuously until No. 441 (Nov. 1998) when Marvel Comics relaunched it as vol. 2 No. 1 (Jan. 1999), but on Spider-Man's 40th anniversary, this new title reverted to using the numbering of the original series, beginning again with issue No. 500 (Dec. 2003) and lasting until the final issue, No. 700 (Feb. 2013). ===1960s=== Due to strong sales on the character's first appearance in "Amazing Fantasy" No. 15, Spider-Man was given his own ongoing series in March 1963. The initial years of the series, under Lee and Ditko, chronicled Spider-Man's nascent career as a masked super-human vigilante with his civilian life as hard-luck yet perpetually good-humored and well-meaning teenager Peter Parker. Peter balanced his career as Spider-Man with his job as a freelance photographer for "The Daily Bugle" under the bombastic editor-publisher J. Jonah Jameson to support himself and his frail Aunt May. At the same time, Peter dealt with public hostility towards Spider-Man and the antagonism of his classmates Flash Thompson and Liz Allan at Midtown High School, while embarking on a tentative, ill-fated romance with Jameson's secretary, Betty Brant. By focusing on Parker's everyday problems, Lee and Ditko created a groundbreakingly flawed, self-doubting superhero, and the first major teenaged superhero to be a protagonist and not a sidekick. Ditko's quirky art provided a stark contrast to the more cleanly dynamic stylings of Marvel's most prominent artist, Jack Kirby, and combined with the humor and pathos of Lee's writing to lay the foundation for what became an enduring mythos. Most of Spider-Man's key villains and supporting characters were introduced during this time. Issue No. 1 (Mar. 1963) featured the first appearances of J. Jonah Jameson and his astronaut son John Jameson, and the supervillain the Chameleon. It included the hero's first encounter with the superhero team the Fantastic Four. Issue No. 2 (May 1963) featured the first appearance of the Vulture and the Tinkerer as well as the beginning of Parker's freelance photography career at the newspaper "The Daily Bugle". The Lee-Ditko era continued to usher in a significant number of villains and supporting characters, including Doctor Octopus in No. 3 (July 1963); the Sandman and Betty Brant in No. 4 (Sept. 1963); the Lizard in No. 6 (Nov. 1963); Living Brain in No. 8 (Jan. 1964); Electro in No. 9 (Mar. 1964); Mysterio in No. 13 (June 1964); the Green Goblin in No. 14 (July 1964); Kraven The Hunter in No. 15 (Aug. 1964); reporter Ned Leeds in No. 18 (Nov. 1964); and the Scorpion in No. 20 (Jan. 1965). The Molten Man was introduced in No. 28 (Sept. 1965) which also featured Parker's graduation from high school. Peter began attending Empire State University in No. 31 (Dec. 1965), which featured the first appearances of friends and classmates Gwen Stacy and Harry Osborn. Harry's father, Norman Osborn first appeared in No. 23 (April 1965) as a member of Jameson's country club but was not named nor revealed as Harry's father until No. 37 (June 1966). One of the most celebrated issues of the Lee-Ditko run is No. 33 (Feb. 1966), the third part of the story arc "If This Be My Destiny...!", which features the dramatic scene of Spider-Man, through force of will and thoughts of family, escaping from being pinned by heavy machinery. Comics historian Les Daniels noted that "Steve Ditko squeezes every ounce of anguish out of Spider-Man's predicament, complete with visions of the uncle he failed and the aunt he has sworn to save." Peter David observed that "After his origin, this two-page sequence from "Amazing Spider-Man" No. 33 is perhaps the best-loved sequence from the Stan Lee/Steve Ditko era." Steve Saffel stated the "full page Ditko image from "The Amazing Spider-Man" No. 33 is one of the most powerful ever to appear in the series and influenced writers and artists for many years to come." and Matthew K. Manning wrote that "Ditko's illustrations for the first few pages of this Lee story included what would become one of the most iconic scenes in Spider-Man's history." The story was chosen as No. 15 in the 100 Greatest Marvels of All Time poll of Marvel's readers in 2001. Editor Robert Greenberger wrote in his introduction to the story that "These first five pages are a modern-day equivalent to Shakespeare as Parker's soliloquy sets the stage for his next action. And with dramatic pacing and storytelling, Ditko delivers one of the great sequences in all comics." Although credited only as artist for most of his run, Ditko would eventually plot the stories as well as draw them, leaving Lee to script the dialogue. A rift between Ditko and Lee developed, and the two men were not on speaking terms long before Ditko completed his last issue, "The Amazing Spider-Man" No. 38 (July 1966). The exact reasons for the Ditko-Lee split have never been fully explained. Spider-Man successor artist John Romita Sr., in a 2010 deposition, recalled that Lee and Ditko "ended up not being able to work together because they disagreed on almost everything, cultural, social, historically, everything, they disagreed on characters..." In successor penciler Romita Sr.'s first issue, No. 39 (Aug. 1966), nemesis the Green Goblin discovers Spider-Man's secret identity and reveals his own to the captive hero. Romita's Spider-Man – more polished and heroic-looking than Ditko's – became the model for two decades. The Lee-Romita era saw the introduction of such characters as "Daily Bugle" managing editor Robbie Robertson in No. 52 (Sept. 1967) and NYPD Captain George Stacy, father of Parker's girlfriend Gwen Stacy, in No. 56 (Jan. 1968). The most important supporting character to be introduced during the Romita era was Mary Jane Watson, who made her first full appearance in No. 42 (Nov. 1966), although she first appeared in No. 25 (June 1965) with her face obscured and had been mentioned since No. 15 (Aug. 1964). Peter David wrote in 2010 that Romita "made the definitive statement of his arrival by pulling Mary Jane out from behind the oversized potted plant [that blocked the reader's view of her face in issue no. 25] and placing her on panel in what would instantly become an iconic moment." Romita has stated that in designing Mary Jane, he "used Ann-Margret from the movie "Bye Bye Birdie" as a guide, using her coloring, the shape of her face, her red hair and her form-fitting short skirts." Lee and Romita toned down the prevalent sense of antagonism in Parker's world by improving Parker's relationship with the supporting characters and having stories focused as much on the social and college lives of the characters as they did on Spider-Man's adventures. The stories became more topical, addressing issues such as civil rights, racism, prisoners' rights, the Vietnam War, and political elections. Issue No. 50 (June 1967) introduced the highly enduring criminal mastermind the Kingpin, who would become a major force as well in the superhero series "Daredevil". Other notable first appearances in the Lee-Romita era include the Rhino in No. 41 (Oct. 1966), the Shocker in No. 46 (Mar. 1967), the Prowler in No. 78 (Nov. 1969), and the Kingpin's son, Richard Fisk, in No. 83 (Apr. 1970). ===1970s=== Several spin-off series debuted in the 1970s: "Marvel Team-Up" in 1972, and "The Spectacular Spider-Man" in 1976. A short-lived series titled "Giant-Size Spider-Man" began in July 1974 and ran six issues through 1975. "Spidey Super Stories", a series aimed at children ages 6–10, ran for 57 issues from October 1974 through 1982. The flagship title's second decade took a grim turn with a story in #89-90 (Oct.-Nov. 1970) featuring the death of Captain George Stacy. This was the first Spider-Man story to be penciled by Gil Kane, who would alternate drawing duties with Romita for the next year-and-a-half and would draw several landmark issues. One such story took place in the controversial issues #96–98 (May–July 1971). Writer-editor Lee defied the Comics Code Authority with this story, in which Parker's friend Harry Osborn, was hospitalized after over-dosing on pills. Lee wrote this story upon a request from the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare for a story about the dangers of drugs. Citing its dictum against depicting drug use, even in an anti-drug context, the CCA refused to put its seal on these issues. With the approval of Marvel publisher Martin Goodman, Lee had the comics published without the seal. The comics sold well and Marvel won praise for its socially conscious efforts. The CCA subsequently loosened the Code to permit negative depictions of drugs, among other new freedoms. "The Six Arms Saga" of #100–102 (Sept.–Nov. 1971) introduced Morbius, the Living Vampire. The second installment was the first "Amazing Spider-Man" story not written by co-creator Lee, with Roy Thomas taking over writing the book for several months before Lee returned to write #105–110 (Feb.-July 1972). Lee, who was going on to become Marvel Comics' publisher, with Thomas becoming editor-in-chief, then turned writing duties over to 19-year-old Gerry Conway, who scripted the series through 1975. Romita penciled Conway's first half-dozen issues, which introduced the gangster Hammerhead in No. 113 (Oct. 1972). Kane then succeeded Romita as penciler, although Romita would continue inking Kane for a time. Issue 121 (June 1973 by Conway-Kane-Romita) featured the death of Gwen Stacy at the hands of the Green Goblin in "The Night Gwen Stacy Died." Her demise and the Goblin's apparent death one issue later formed a story arc widely considered as the most defining in the history of Spider-Man. The aftermath of the story deepened both the characterization of Mary Jane Watson and her relationship with Parker. In 1973 Gil Kane was succeeded by Ross Andru, whose run lasted from issue #125 (Oct. 1973) to #185 (Oct. 1978). Issue#129 (Feb. 1974) introduced the Punisher, who would become one of Marvel Comics' most popular characters. The Conway-Andru era featured the first appearances of the Man-Wolf in #124–125 (Sept.-Oct. 1973); the near-marriage of Doctor Octopus and Aunt May in #131 (Apr. 1974); Harry Osborn stepping into his father's role as the Green Goblin in #135–137 (Aug.-Oct.1974); and the original "Clone Saga", containing the introduction of Spider-Man's clone, in #147–149 (Aug.-Oct. 1975). Archie Goodwin and Gil Kane produced the title's 150th issue (Nov. 1975) before Len Wein became writer with issue No. 151. During Wein's tenure, Harry Osborn and Liz Allen dated and became engaged; J. Jonah Jameson was introduced to his eventual second wife, Marla Madison; and Aunt May suffered a heart attack. Wein's last story on "Amazing" was a five-issue arc in #176–180 (Jan.-May 1978) featuring a third Green Goblin (Harry Osborn's psychiatrist, Bart Hamilton). Marv Wolfman, Marvel's editor-in-chief from 1975 to 1976, succeeded Wein as writer and, in his first issue, #182 (July 1978), had Parker propose marriage to Watson, who refused in the following issue. Keith Pollard succeeded Andru as artist shortly afterward and, with Wolfman, introduced the likable rogue the Black Cat (Felicia Hardy) in #194 (July 1979). As a love interest for Spider-Man, the Black Cat would go on to be an important supporting character for the better part of the next decade and remain a friend and occasional lover into the 2010s. ===1980s=== "The Amazing Spider-Man" #200 (Jan. 1980) featured the return and death of the burglar who killed Spider-Man's Uncle Ben. Writer Marv Wolfman and penciler Keith Pollard both left the title by mid-year, succeeded by Dennis O'Neil, a writer known for groundbreaking 1970s work at rival DC Comics, and penciler John Romita Jr. O'Neil wrote two issues of "The Amazing Spider-Man Annual" which were both drawn by Frank Miller. The 1980 "Annual" featured a team-up with Doctor Strange while the 1981 "Annual" showcased a meeting with the Punisher. Roger Stern, who had written nearly 20 issues of sister title "The Spectacular Spider-Man", took over "Amazing" with #224 (Jan. 1982). During his two years on the title, Stern augmented the backgrounds of long-established Spider-Man villains and, with Romita Jr., created the mysterious supervillain the Hobgoblin in #238–239 (Mar.–Apr. 1983). Fans engaged with the mystery of the Hobgoblin's secret identity, which continued throughout #244–245 and 249–251 (Sept.-Oct. 1983 and Feb.-April 1984). One lasting change was the reintroduction of Mary Jane Watson as a more serious, mature woman who becomes Peter's confidante after she reveals that she knows his secret identity. Stern also wrote "The Kid Who Collects Spider-Man" in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #248 (Jan. 1984), a story which ranks among his most popular. By mid-1984, Tom DeFalco and Ron Frenz took over scripting and penciling. DeFalco helped establish Parker and Watson's mature relationship, laying the foundation for the characters' wedding in 1987. Notably, in #257 (Oct. 1984), Watson tells Parker that she knows he is Spider-Man, and in #259 (Dec. 1984), she reveals to Parker the extent of her troubled childhood. Other notable issues of the DeFalco-Frenz era include #252 (May 1984), the first appearance of Spider-Man's black costume, which the hero would wear almost exclusively for the next four years' worth of comics; the debut of criminal mastermind the Rose in #253 (June 1984); the revelation in #258 (Nov. 1984) that the black costume is a living being, a symbiote; and the introduction of the female mercenary Silver Sable in #265 (June 1985). DeFalco and Frenz were both removed from "The Amazing Spider-Man" in 1986 by editor Jim Owsley under acrimonious circumstances. A succession of artists including Alan Kupperberg, John Romita Jr., and Alex Saviuk penciled the series from 1987 to 1988, and Owsley wrote the book for the first half of 1987, scripting the five-part "Gang War" story (#284–288) that DeFalco plotted. Former "Spectacular Spider-Man" writer Peter David scripted #289 (June 1987), which revealed Ned Leeds as being the Hobgoblin although this was retconned in 1996 by Roger Stern into Leeds not being the original Hobgoblin after all. David Michelinie took over as writer in the next issue, for a story arc in #290–292 (July–Sept. 1987) that led to the marriage of Peter Parker and Mary Jane Watson in "Amazing Spider-Man Annual" No. 21. The "Kraven's Last Hunt" storyline by writer J.M. DeMatteis and artists Mike Zeck and Bob McLeod crossed over into "The Amazing Spider-Man" #293 and 294. Issue No.298 (Mar. 1988) was the first Spider-Man comic to be drawn by future industry star Todd McFarlane, the first regular artist on "The Amazing Spider-Man" since Frenz's departure. McFarlane revolutionized Spider-Man's look. His depiction – "Ditko-esque" poses, large eyes; wiry, contorted limbs; and messy, knotted, convoluted webbing – influenced the way virtually all subsequent artists would draw the character. McFarlane's other significant contribution to the Spider-Man canon was the design for what would become one of Spider-Man's most wildly popular antagonists, the supervillain Venom. Issue No. 299 (Apr. 1988) featured Venom's first appearance (a last-page cameo) before his first full appearance in #300 (May 1988). The latter issue featured Spider-Man reverting to his original red-and-blue costume. Other notable issues of the Michelinie-McFarlane era include #312 (Feb. 1989), featuring the Green Goblin vs. the Hobgoblin; and #315–317 (May–July 1989), with the return of Venom. In July 2012, Todd McFarlane's original cover art for "The Amazing Spider-Man" No. 328 sold for a bid of $657,250, making it the most expensive American comic book art ever sold at auction. ===1990s=== With a civilian life as a married man, the Spider-Man of the 1990s was different from the superhero of the previous three decades. McFarlane left the title in 1990 to write and draw a new series titled simply "". His successor, Erik Larsen, penciled the book from early 1990 to mid-1991. After issue No. 350, Larsen was succeeded by Mark Bagley, who had won the 1986 Marvel Tryout Contest and was assigned a number of low-profile penciling jobs followed by a run on "New Warriors" in 1990. Bagley penciled the flagship Spider-Man title from 1991 to 1996. During that time, Bagley's rendition of Spider-Man was used extensively for licensed material and merchandise. Issues #361–363 (April–June 1992) introduced Carnage, a second symbiote nemesis for Spider-Man. The series' 30th-anniversary issue, No. 365 (Aug. 1992), was a double-sized, hologram-cover issue with the cliffhanger ending of Peter Parker's parents, long thought dead, reappearing alive. It would be close to two years before they were revealed to be impostors, who are killed in No. 388 (April 1994), scripter Michelinie's last issue. His 1987–1994 stint gave him the second-longest run as writer on the title, behind Stan Lee. Issue No. 375 was released with a gold foil cover. There was an error affecting some issues and which are missing the majority of the foil. With No. 389, writer J. M. DeMatteis, whose Spider-Man credits included the 1987 "Kraven's Last Hunt" story arc and a 1991–1993 run on "The Spectacular Spider-Man", took over the title. From October 1994 to June 1996, "Amazing" stopped running stories exclusive to it, and ran installments of multi-part stories that crossed over into all the Spider-Man books. One of the few self-contained stories during this period was in No. 400 (April 1995), which featured the death of Aunt May – later revealed to have been faked (although the death still stands in the MC2 continuity). The "Clone Saga" culminated with the revelation that the Spider-Man who had appeared in the previous 20 years of comics was a clone of the real Spider-Man. This plot twist was massively unpopular with many readers, and was later reversed in the "Revelations" story arc that crossed over the Spider-Man books in late 1996. The Clone Saga tied into a publishing gap after No. 406 (Oct. 1995), when the title was temporarily replaced by "The Amazing Scarlet Spider" #1–2 (Nov.-Dec. 1995), featuring Ben Reilly. The series picked up again with No. 407 (Jan. 1996), with Tom DeFalco returning as writer. Bagley completed his 5½-year run by September 1996. A succession of artists, including Ron Garney, Steve Skroce, Joe Bennett, Rafael Kayanan and John Byrne penciled the book until the final issue, No. 441 (Nov. 1998), after which Marvel rebooted the title with vol. 2, No. 1 (Jan. 1999). ===Relaunch and the 2000s=== Marvel began "The Amazing Spider-Man" relaunching the 'Amazing' comic book series with (vol. 2) #1 (Jan. 1999). Howard Mackie wrote the first 29 issues. The relaunch included the Sandman being regressed to his criminal ways and the "death" of Mary Jane, which was ultimately reversed. Other elements included the introduction of a new Spider-Woman (who was spun off into her own short-lived series) and references to John Byrne's miniseries "", which was launched at the same time as the reboot. Byrne also penciled issues #1–18 (from 1999 to 2000) and wrote #13–14, John Romita Jr. took his place soon after in October 2000. Mackie's run ended with "The Amazing Spider-Man Annual 2001", which saw the return of Mary Jane, who then left Parker upon reuniting with him. With issue No. 30 (June 2001), J. Michael Straczynski took over as writer and oversaw additional storylines – most notably his lengthy "Spider-Totem" arc, which raised the issue of whether Spider-Man's powers were magic-based, rather than as the result of a radioactive spider's bite. Additionally, Straczynski resurrected the plot point of Aunt May discovering her nephew was Spider-Man, and returned Mary Jane, with the couple reuniting in "The Amazing Spider-Man" (vol. 2) #50. Straczynski gave Spider-Man a new profession, having Parker teach at his former high school. Issue No. 30 began a dual numbering system, with the original series numbering (#471) returned and placed alongside the volume two number on the cover. Other longtime, rebooted Marvel Comics titles, including "Fantastic Four", likewise were given the dual numbering around this time. After (vol. 2) #58 (Nov. 2003), the title reverted completely to its original numbering for issue No. 500 (Dec. 2003). Mike Deodato, Jr. penciled the series from mid-2004 until 2006. That year Peter Parker revealed his Spider-Man identity on live television in the company-crossover storyline "Civil War", in which the superhero community is split over whether to conform to the federal government's new Superhuman Registration Act. This knowledge was erased from the world with the event of the four-part, crossover story arc, "", written partially by J. Michael Straczynski and illustrated by Joe Quesada, running through "The Amazing Spider-Man" #544–545 (Nov.-Dec. 2007), "Friendly Neighborhood Spider-Man" No. 24 (Nov. 2007) and "The Sensational Spider-Man" No. 41 (Dec. 2007), the final issues of those two titles. Here, the demon Mephisto makes a Faustian bargain with Parker and Mary Jane, offering to save Parker's dying Aunt May if the couple will allow their marriage to have never existed, rewriting that portion of their pasts. This story arc marked the end of Straczynski's work on the title. Following this, Marvel made "The Amazing Spider-Man" the company's sole Spider-Man title, increasing its frequency of publication to three issues monthly, and inaugurating the series with a sequence of "back to basics" story arcs under the banner of "". Parker now exists in a changed world where he and Mary Jane had never married, and Parker has no memory of being married to her, with domino effect differences in their immediate world. The most notable of these revisions to Spider-Man continuity are the return of Harry Osborn, whose death in "The Spectacular Spider-Man" No. 200 (May 1993) is erased; and the reestablishment of Spider-Man's secret identity, with no one except Mary Jane able to recall that Parker is Spider-Man (although he soon reveals his secret identity to the New Avengers and the Fantastic Four). Under the banner of "Brand New Day", Marvel tried to only use newly created villains instead of relying on older ones. Characters like Mister Negative and Overdrive both in Free Comic Book Day 2007 Spider-Man (July 2007), Menace in No. 549 (March 2008), Ana and Sasha Kravinoff in No. 565 (September 2008) and No. 567 (October 2008) respectively, and several more were introduced. The alternating regular writers were initially Dan Slott, Bob Gale, Marc Guggenheim, and Zeb Wells, joined by a rotation of artists that included Steve McNiven, Salvador Larroca, Phil Jimenez, Barry Kitson, Chris Bachalo, Mike McKone, Marcos Martín, and John Romita Jr. Joe Kelly, Mark Waid, Fred Van Lente and Roger Stern later joined the writing team and Paolo Rivera, Lee Weeks and Marco Checchetto the artist roster. Waid's work on the series included a meeting between Spider-Man and Stephen Colbert in "The Amazing Spider-Man" No. 573 (Dec. 2008). Issue No. 583 (March 2009) included a back-up story in which Spider-Man meets President Barack Obama. ===2010s and temporary end of publication=== Mark Waid scripted the opening of "The Gauntlet" storyline in issue No. 612 (Jan. 2010). The "Gauntlet" story was concluded by "Grim Hunt" (No. 634-637) which saw the resurrection of long-dead Spider-Man villain, Kraven the Hunter. The series became a twice-monthly title with Dan Slott as sole writer at issue No. 648 (Jan. 2011), launching the "" storyline. Eight additional pages were added per issue. "Big Time" saw major changes in Spider-Man/Peter Parker's life, Peter would start working at Horizon Labs and begin a relationship with Carlie Cooper (his first serious relationship since his marriage to Mary Jane), Mac Gargan returned as Scorpion after spending the past few years as Venom, Phil Urich would take up the mantle of Hobgoblin, and the death of J. Jonah Jameson's wife, Marla Jameson. Issues 654 and 654.1 saw the birth of Agent Venom, Flash Thompson bonded with the Venom symbiote, which would lead to Venom getting his own series "Venom (volume 2)". Starting in No. 659 and going to No. 665, the series built-up to the "Spider-Island" event which officially started in No. 666 and ended in No. 673. "Ends of the Earth" was the next event that ran from No. 682 through No. 687. This publishing format lasted until issue No. 700, which concluded the "Dying Wish" storyline, in which Parker and Doctor Octopus swapped bodies, and the latter taking on the mantle of Spider-Man when Parker apparently died in Doctor Octopus' body. "The Amazing Spider-Man" ended with this issue, with the story continuing in the new series "The Superior Spider-Man". Despite "The Superior Spider-Man" being considered a different series to "The Amazing Spider-Man", the first 33 issue run goes towards the legacy numbering of "The Amazing Spider-Man" acting as issues 701–733. In December 2013, the series returned for five issues, numbered 700.1 through 700.5, with the first two written by David Morrell and drawn by Klaus Janson. ===2014 relaunch=== In January 2014, Marvel confirmed that "The Amazing Spider-Man" would be relaunched on April 30, 2014, starting from issue No. 1, with Peter Parker as Spider-Man once again. The first issue of this new version of "The Amazing Spider-Man" was, according to Diamond Comics Distributors, the "best-selling comic book... in over a decade." Issues #1–6 were a story arc called "Lucky to be Alive", taking place immediately after "Goblin Nation", with issues No. 4 and No. 5 being a crossover with the "Original Sin" storyline. Issue No. 4 introduced Silk, a new heroine who was bitten by the same spider as Peter Parker. Issues #7–8 featured a team-up between Ms. Marvel and Spider-Man, and had backup stories that tied into "Edge of Spider-Verse". The next major plot arc, titled "Spider-Verse", began in Issue No. 9 and ended in No. 15, features every Spider-Man from across the dimensions being hunted by Morlun, and a team-up to stop him, with Peter Parker of Earth-616 in command of the Spider-Men's Alliance. "The Amazing Spider-Man Annual" No. 1 of the relaunched series was released in December 2014, featuring stories unrelated to "Spider-Verse". ===The Amazing Spider-Man: Renew Your Vows=== In 2015, Marvel started the universe wide Secret Wars event where the core and several other Marvel universes were combined into one big planet called Battleworld. Battleworld was divided into sections with most of them being self-contained universes. Marvel announced that several of these self-contained universes would get their own tie in series and one of them was "", an alternate universe where Peter Parker and Mary Jane are still married and give birth to their child Annie May Parker, written by Dan Slott. Despite the series being considered separate from the main "Amazing Spider-Man" series, the original 5 issue run is counted towards its legacy numbering acting as No. 752-756. ===2015 relaunch=== Following the 2015 "Secret Wars" event, a number of Spider-Man-related titles were either relaunched or created as part of the "All-New, All-Different Marvel" event. Among them, "The Amazing Spider-Man" was relaunched as well and primarily focused on Peter Parker continuing to run Parker Industries and becoming a successful businessman operating worldwide. It also tied with "Civil War II" (involving an Inhuman named Ulysses Cain who can predict possible futures), "Dead No More" (where Ben Reilly [the original Scarlet Spider] revealed to be revived and as one of the antagonists instead), and "Secret Empire" (during Hydra's reign led by a Hydra influenced Captain America/Steve Rogers, and the dismissal of Parker Industries by Peter Parker to stop Otto Octavius). Starting in September 2017, Marvel started the Marvel Legacy event which renumbered several Marvel series to their original numbering. The "Amazing Spider-Man" was put back to its original numbering for #789. Issues #789 through 791 focused on the aftermath of Peter destroying Parker Industries and his fall from grace. Issues #792 and 793 were part of the "Venom Inc." story. "Threat Level: Red" was the story for the next three issues which saw Norman Osborn obtain and bond with the Carnage symbiote. "Go Down Swinging" saw the results of the combination of Osborn's goblin serum and Carnage symbiote creating the Red Goblin. Issue No. 801 was Dan Slott's goodbye issue. ===2018 relaunch=== In March 2018, it was announced that writer Nick Spencer would be writing the main semi-monthly "The Amazing Spider-Man" series beginning with a new No. 1, replacing long-time writer Dan Slott, as part of the Fresh Start relaunch that July. The first five-issue story arc was titled 'Back to Basics.' During the "Back to Basics" story, Kindred, a mysterious villain with some relation to Peter's past, was introduced, and Peter resumed his romantic relationship with Mary Jane once more. The first major story under Spencer was "Hunted" which ran through issues 16 through 23, the story also included four ".HU" issues for issues 16, 18, 19, and 20. The end of the story saw the death of long-running Spider-Man villain Kraven the Hunter, being replaced by his clone son, The Last Son of Kraven. ===2020s=== Issue 45 kicked off the "Sins Rising" story which saw the resurrected Sin-Eater carry out the plans of Kindred to cleanse the world of sin, particularly that of Norman Osborn. The story concluded with issue 49, issue 850 in legacy numbering, seeing Spider-Man and Green Goblin team up to defeat Sin-Eater. "Last Remains" started in issue 50 and concluded in issue 55, the story saw Kindred's plans come to fruition as he tormented Spider-Man. The story has also seen five ".LR" for issues 50, 51, 52, 53, and 54 which focused on The Order of the Web, a new faction of Spider-People consisting of Julia Carpenter (Madame Web), Miles Morales (Spider-Man), Gwen Stacy (Ghost-Spider), Cindy Moon (Silk), Jessica Drew (Spider-Woman), and Anya Corazon (Spider-Girl) . The story also revealed that Kindred is Harry Osborn. "Last Remains" also received two fallout issues called "Last Remains Post-Mortem". Nick Spencer concluded his run with the "Sinister War" story which wrapped up in No. 74 (legacy numbering 875). The story saw several retcons to the Spider-Man mythos including that Kindred was Gabriel and Sarah Stacy all along, the fact that the Stacy twins were actually genetically engineered beings using Norman Osborn and Gwen Stacy's DNA, that the Harry Osborn that returned in "Brand New Day" was actually a clone, and that Norman had made a deal with Mephisto where he sold Harry's soul to the demon. The story ended with the deaths of the Harry clone, Gabriel, and Sarah and the real Harry's soul being freed from Mephisto's grasp. After Spencer left the book, Marvel announced the "Beyond" era of Spider-Man would start in #75. The book would be moving back to the format it had during "Brand New Day" where it would have a rotating cast of writers including Kelly Thompson, Saladin Ahmed, Cody Ziglar, Patrick Gleason, and Zeb Wells. The book would also be released three times a month. "Beyond" would focus on Ben Reilly taking up the mantle of Spider-Man once again but backed by the Beyond corporation. Peter also falls ill and cannot be Spider-Man so he gives Ben his blessing to carry on as the main Spider-Man. However, following the conclusion of the storyline in #93, Peter has resumed active duties as Spider-Man, while Ben suffers a mental breakdown and becomes the villain Chasm. ===2022 relaunch=== In January 2022, it was announced that writer Zeb Wells and John Romita Jr. would be working on a relaunched "The Amazing Spider-Man", bringing the number of volumes for the title to its sixth, with the series beginning in April 2022 as a semi-monthly publication. The relaunch encompasses both a legacy numbering of #900 as well as the 60th anniversary for the character. The relaunch took place months after a mysterious event that left Peter on bad terms with the superhero community and ended his relationship with Mary Jane. He ends up taking a job at Oscorp and begins working closely with Norman Osborn and starts dating Black Cat. The volume's first crossover event was entitled "Dark Web", with Chasm having teamed up with Madelyne Pryor to bring limbo to Earth. It's later revealed that Benjamin Rabin, the emissary of the Mayan god of mischief Wayeb', sent Peter and Mary Jane to an alternate dimension to conduct a ceremony that would allow Wayeb to control the Earth. Peter was sent back to his Earth, while due to the alternative passage of time, Mary Jane and Paul, Rabin's son in that dimension, spent four years in the realm together and adopted two children. When Peter eventually rescued them, Mary Jane refused to part with her new family. Rabin then planned to sacrifice Mary Jane to resurrect Wayeb, but is ultimately stopped by Ms. Marvel sacrificing herself, but not before Rabin reveals that Paul and Mary Jane's kids were illusions created by him and ceased their existence. ==Collected editions== Black-and-white - "Essential Spider-Man Vol. 1" [#1–20, "Annual" #1; "Amazing Fantasy" #15] () - "Essential Spider-Man Vol. 2" [#21–43, "Annual" #2–3] () - "Essential Spider-Man Vol. 3" [#44–65, "Annual" #4] () - "Essential Spider-Man Vol. 4" [#66–89, "Annual" #5] () - "Essential Spider-Man Vol. 5" [#90–113] () - "Essential Spider-Man Vol. 6" [#114–137; "Giant-Size Super Heroes" #1; "Giant-Size Spider-Man" #1–2] () - "Essential Spider-Man Vol. 7" [#138–160, "Annual" #10; "Giant-Size Spider-Man" #4–5] () - "Essential Spider-Man Vol. 8" [#161–185, "Annual" #11; "Giant-Size Spider-Man" #6; "Nova" #12] () - "Essential Spider-Man Vol. 9" [#186–210, "Annual" #13–14; "Peter Parker: Spectacular Spider-Man Annual" #1] () - "Essential Spider-Man Vol. 10" [#211–230, "Annual" #15] () - "Essential Spider-Man Vol. 11" [#231–248, "Annual" #16–17] () Major story arcs - "Marvel Visionaries: John Romita Sr." [#39–40, 42, 50, 108–109, 365; "Daredevil" #16–17; "Untold Tales of Spider-Man" #-1] () - "Spider-Man: The Death of Captain Stacy" [#88–90] () - "Spider-Man: The Death of Gwen Stacy" [#96–98, 121–122; "Webspinners: Tales of Spider-Man" #1] () - "Spider-Man: Death of the Stacys" [#88–92, 121–122] () - "A New Goblin" [#176–180] () - "Spider-Man vs. the Black Cat" [#194–195, 204–205, 226–227] () - "Spider-Man: Origin of The Hobgoblin" [#238–239, 244–245, 249–251, "Spectacular Spider-Man" (vol. 1) #85] () - "Spider-Man: Birth of Venom" [#252–259, 298–300, 315–317, "Annual" #25; "Fantastic Four" #274; "Secret Wars" #8; "Web of Spider-Man" #1] () - "The Amazing Spider-Man: The Wedding" [#290–292, "Annual" #2, "Not Brand Echh" #6] () - "Spider-Man: Kraven's Last Hunt" [#293–294; "Web of Spider-Man" #31–32; "The Spectacular Spider-Man" #131–132] () - "Visionaries: Todd McFarlane" [#298–305] () - "Legends, Vol. 2: Todd McFarlane" [#306–314; "The Spectacular Spider-Man Annual" #10] () - "Legends, Vol. 3: Todd McFarlane" [#315–323, 325, 328] () - "Spider-Man: Venom Returns" [#330–333, 344–347;"Annual" #25] () - "Spider-Man: Carnage" [#344–345, 359–363] () Collections - "Vol. 1: Coming Home" [#30-35/471-476] () - "Vol. 2: Revelations" [#36-39/477-480] () - "Vol. 3: Until the Stars Turn Cold" [#40-45/481-486] () - "Vol. 4: The Life and Death of Spiders" [#46-50/487-491] () - "Vol. 5: Unintended Consequences" [#51-56/492-497] () - "Vol. 6: Happy Birthday" [#57–58,500-502/498-502] () - "Vol. 7: The Book of Ezekiel" [#503–508] () - "Vol. 8: Sins Past" [#509–514] () - "Vol. 9: Skin Deep" [#515–518] () - "Vol. 10: New Avengers" [#519–524] () - "Spider-Man: The Other" [#525–528; "Friendly Neighborhood Spider-Man" #1–4; "Marvel Knights Spider-Man" #19–22] () - "Civil War: The Road to Civil War" [#529–531; "New Avengers: Illuminati" (one-shot); "Fantastic Four" #536–537] () - "Vol. 11: Civil War" [#532–538] () - "Vol. 12: Back in Black" [#539–543; "Friendly Neighborhood Spider-Man" #17–23, "Annual" #1] () - "Spider-Man: One More Day" [#544–545; "Friendly Neighborhood Spider-Man" #24; "The Sensational Spider-Man" #41; "Marvel Spotlight: Spider-Man – One More Day/Brand New Day"] () - "Brand New Day Vol. 1" [#546–551; "The Amazing Spider-Man: Swing Shift (Director's Cut)"; "Venom Super-Special"] () - "Brand New Day Vol. 2" [#552–558] () - "Brand New Day Vol. 3" [#559–563] () - "Kraven's First Hunt" [#564–567; "The Amazing Spider-Man: Extra!" #1 (story #2)] () - "New Ways to Die" [#568–573; "Marvel Spotlight: Spider-Man – Brand New Day"] () - "Crime and Punisher" [#574–577; "The Amazing Spider-Man: Extra!" #1 (story #1)] () - "Death and Dating" [#578–583, "Annual" #35/1] () - "Election Day" [#584–588; "The Amazing Spider-Man: Extra!" #1 (story #3), 3 (story #1); "The Amazing Spider-Man Presidents' Day Special"] () - "24/7" [#589–594; "The Amazing Spider-Man: Extra!" #2] () - "American Son" [#595–599; material from "The Amazing Spider-Man: Extra!" #3] () - "Died in Your Arms Tonight" [#600–601, "Annual" #36; material from "Amazing Spider-Man Family" #7] () - "Red-Headed Stranger" [#602–605] () - "Return of the Black Cat" [#606–611; material from "Web of Spider-Man" (vol. 2) #1] () - "The Gauntlet Book 1: Electro and Sandman" [#612–616; "Dark Reign: The List – The Amazing Spider-Man"; "Web of Spider-Man" (vol. 2) #2 (Electro story)] () - "The Gauntlet Book 2: Rhino and Mysterio" [#617–621; "Web of Spider-Man" (vol. 2) #3–4] () - "The Gauntlet Book 3: Vulture and Morbius" [#622–625; "Web of Spider-Man" (vol. 2) #2, 5 (Vulture story)] () - "The Gauntlet Book 4: Juggernaut" [#229–230, 626–629] () - "The Gauntlet Book 5: Lizard" [#629–633; "Web of Spider-Man" (vol. 2) #6] () - "Spider-Man: Grim Hunt" [#634–637; "The Amazing Spider-Man: Extra!" #3; "Spider-Man: Grim Hunt – The Kraven Saga"; "Web of Spider-Man" (vol. 2) #7] () - "One Moment in Time" [#638–641] () - "Origin of the Species" [#642–647; "Spider-Man Saga"; "Web of Spider-Man" (vol. 2) #12] () - "Big Time" [#648–651] () - "Matters of Life and Death" [#652–657, 654.1] () - "Spider-Man: The Fantastic Spider-Man" [#658–662] () - "Spider-Man: The Return Of Anti-Venom" [#663–665; "Free Comic Book Day 2011: Spider-Man"] () - "Spider-Man: Spider-Island" [#666–673; "Venom" (2011) #6–8, "Spider-Island: Deadly Foes"; "Infested" prologues from #659–660 and 662–665] () - "Spider-Man: Flying Blind" [#674–677; "Daredevil" #8] () - "Spider-Man: Trouble on the Horizon" [#678–681, 679.1] () - "Spider-Man: Ends of the Earth" [#682–687; "Amazing Spider-Man: Ends of the Earth" #1; "Avenging Spider-Man" #8] () - "Spider-Man: Lizard – No Turning Back" [#688–691; "Untold Tales of Spider-Man" #9] () - "Spider-Man: Danger Zone" [#692–697; "Avenging Spider-Man" #11] () - "Spider-Man: Dying Wish" [#698–700] () - "The Amazing Spider-Man Omnibus Vol. 1" [#1–38, "Annual" #1–2; "Amazing Fantasy" #15; "Strange Tales Annual" #2; "Fantastic Four Annual" #1] () - "The Amazing Spider-Man Omnibus Vol. 2" [#39–67, "Annual" #3–5; "Spectacular Spider-Man" #1–2] () - "Marvel Masterworks: The Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 1" [#1–10; "Amazing Fantasy" #15] () - "Marvel Masterworks: The Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 2" [#11–19, "Annual" #1] () - "Marvel Masterworks: The Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 3" [#20–30, "Annual" #2] () - "Marvel Masterworks: The Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 4" [#31–40] () - "Marvel Masterworks: The Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 5" [#41–50, "Annual" #3] () - "Marvel Masterworks: The Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 6" [#51–61, "Annual" #4] () - "Marvel Masterworks: The Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 7" [#62–67, "Annual" #5; "The Spectacular Spider-Man" #1–2 (magazine)] () - "Marvel Masterworks: The Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 8" [#68–77; "Marvel Super Heroes" #14] () - "Marvel Masterworks: The Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 9" [#78–87] () - "Marvel Masterworks: The Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 10" [#88–99] () - "Marvel Masterworks: The Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 11" [#100–109] () - "Marvel Masterworks: The Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 12" [#110–120] () - "Marvel Masterworks: The Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 13" [#121–131] () - "Marvel Masterworks: The Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 14" [#132–142; "Giant-Size Super-Heroes" #1] () - "Marvel Masterworks: The Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 15" [#143–155; "Marvel Special Edition Treasury" #1] () - "Marvel Masterworks: The Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 16" [#156–168; "Annual" #10] () - "Marvel Masterworks: The Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 17" [#169–180; "Annual" #11; "Nova" #12; "Marvel Treasury Edition" #14] () - "Marvel Masterworks: The Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 18" [#181–192; "Mighty Marvel Comics Calendar 1978"; material From "Annual" #12] () - "Marvel Masterworks: The Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 19" [#193–202; "Annual" #13; "Peter Parker, the Spectacular Spider-Man Annual" #1] () - "Marvel Masterworks: The Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 20" [#203–212; "Annual" #14] () - "Marvel Masterworks: The Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 21" [#213–223; "Annual" #15] () - "Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 1: (The) Parker Luck" [Vol. 3 #1–6 (i.e., legacy #732–737)] () - "Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 2: Spider-Verse Prelude" [#7–8 (i.e., legacy #738–739); "Superior Spider-Man" #32–33; "Free Comic Book Day 2014 (Guardians of the Galaxy)" #1] () - "Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 3: Spider-Verse" [#9–15 (i.e., legacy #740–746)] () - "Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 4: Graveyard Shift" [#16–18 (i.e., legacy #747–749); Annual 2015] () - "Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 5: Spiral" [#16.1–20.1(i.e., legacy #750–751)] () - "Amazing Spider-Man: Renew Your Vows" [#1–5 (i.e., legacy #752–756)] - "Amazing Spider-Man Worldwide Vol. 1" [Vol. 4 #1–5] - "Amazing Spider-Man Worldwide Vol. 2" [#6–11] - "Amazing Spider-Man Worldwide Vol. 3" [#12–15] - "Amazing Spider-Man Worldwide Vol. 4" [#16–19] - "Amazing Spider-Man Worldwide Vol. 5" [#20–24, "Annual" #1] - "Amazing Spider-Man Worldwide Vol. 6" [#25–28] - "Amazing Spider-Man Worldwide Vol. 7" [#29–32 (i.e., legacy #785–788), #789–791] - "Amazing Spider-Man: Venom Inc." [Venom Inc. Alpha, Venom Inc. Omega, #792–793, Venom #159–160] - "Amazing Spider-Man Worldwide Vol. 8" [#794–796, "Annual"] - "Amazing Spider-Man Worldwide Vol. 9" [#797–801] - "Amazing Spider-Man: Clone Conspiracy" [#19-24; The Clone Conspiracy #1-5; The Clone Conspiracy: Omega; Silk #14-17; Prowler #1-5] - "Amazing Spider-Man: Red Goblin" [#794–801] - "Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 1: Back to Basics" [#1–5, "FCBD 2018: Amazing Spider-Man"] - "Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 2: Friends and Foes" [#6–10] - "Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 3: Lifetime Achievement" [#11–15] - "Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 4: Hunted" [#16–23, #16.1, #18.1–20.1] - "Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 5: Behind the Scenes" [#24–28] - "Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 6: Absolute Carnage" [#29–31] - "Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 7: 2099" [#32–36] - "Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 8: Threats & Menaces" [#37–43] - "Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 9: Sins Rising" [#44–47, Amazing Spider Man: Sins Rising #1] - "Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 10: Green Goblin Returns" [#48–49, Amazing Spider-Man: The Sins of Norman Osborn #1, "FCBD 2020: Spider-Man/Venom"] - "Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 11: Last Remains" [#50–55] - "Amazing Spider-Man: Last Remains Companion" [#50.1–54.1] - "Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 12: Shattered Web" [#56–60] - "Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 13: King's Ransom" [#61–65, Giant Size Amazing Spider-Man: King's Ransom #1] - "Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 14: Chameleon Conspiracy" [#66–69, Giant Size Amazing Spider-Man: Chameleon Conspiracy #1] - "Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 15: What Cost Victory?" [#70–74] - "Amazing Spider-Man: Beyond Vol. 1" [#75–80, 78.BEY] - "Amazing Spider-Man: Beyond Vol. 2" [#81-85, 80.BEY] - "Amazing Spider-Man: Beyond Vol. 3" [#86-88, 88.BEY] - "Amazing Spider-Man: Beyond Vol. 4" [#89-93, 92.BEY] - "Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 1: World Without Love" [#1-5] - "Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 2: The New Sinister" [#6-8] - "Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 3: Hobgoblin" [#9-14] - "Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 4: Dark Web" [#15-18, Dark Web #1, Dark Web: Omega #1] - "Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 5: Dead Language" [#19-23]

933

6490875

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=933

AM

AM or Am may refer to: ==Arts and entertainment== ===Music=== * A minor, a minor scale in music - "A.M." (Chris Young album) - "A.M." (Wilco album) - "AM" (Abraham Mateo album) - "AM" (Arctic Monkeys album) - AM (musician), American musician - Am, the A minor chord symbol - "Armeemarschsammlung" (Army March Collection), catalog of German military march music - Andrew Moore (musician), Canadian musician known as A.M. - DJ AM, American DJ and producer - Skengdo & AM, British hip hop duo ===Television and radio=== * "AM" (radio program), Australian current affairs radio program - "American Morning", American morning television news program - "Am, Antes del Mediodía", Argentine current affairs television program - Am, a character in the anthology "" === Other media === * Allied Mastercomputer, the antagonist of the short story "I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream" ==Education== * Active Minds, a mental health awareness charity - Arts et Métiers ParisTech, a French engineering school - Australian Museum, a museum in Australia - Master of Arts, an academic degree == Military == * A US Navy hull classification symbol: Minesweeper (AM) - Air marshal, a senior air officer rank used in Commonwealth countries - Anti-materiel rifle, rifle designed for use against military equipment - Aviation structural mechanic, a U.S. Navy occupational rating ==Science== * AM, a complexity class related to Arthur–Merlin protocol - Adrenomedullin, a protein - Air mass (astronomy), measure of the amount of air along the line of sight in astronomical observations - Am, tropical monsoon climate in the Köppen climate classification - Americium, symbol Am, a chemical element - Attometre, a unit of length - attomolar (aM), a unit of molar concentration ==Technology== * .am, Internet domain for Armenia - .am, a file extension associated with Automake software - AM broadcasting, radio broadcasting using amplitude modulation - Additive manufacturing, or 3-D printing, a process of making a three-dimensional solid object of virtually any shape from a digital model. - Agile modeling, a software engineering methodology for modeling and documenting software systems - Amplitude modulation, an electronic communication technique - Automated Mathematician, an artificial intelligence program ==Timekeeping== * "anno martyrum", a method of numbering years in the Coptic calendar - "Anno Mundi", a calendar era based on the biblical creation of the world - "ante meridiem", Latin for "before midday", written e.g. 6a.m. ==Transportation== * A.M. (automobile), a 1906 French car - Aeroméxico (IATA airline code AM), airline in Mexico - All-mountain, a discipline of mountain biking - Arkansas and Missouri Railroad ==Other uses== * Am (cuneiform), a written syllable - Member of the Order of Australia, postnominal letters which can be used by a Member of the Order - Assembly Member (disambiguation), a political office - formerly a Member of the National Assembly for Wales, now Member of the Senedd - Member of the London Assembly - Amharic language (ISO 639-1 language code am) - Anguilla, LOC MARC code AM - Armenia (ISO country code AM) - Attacking midfielder, a position in association football - The Book of Amos, part of the Tanakh and Old Testament - First-person singular present of the copula verb "to be"

935

20836525

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=935

Automated Alice/XII

Automated Alice

936

20836525

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=936

Automated Alice/XI

Automated Alice

937

20836525

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=937

Automated Alice/X

Automated Alice

938

20836525

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=938

Automated Alice/IX

Automated Alice

939

20836525

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=939

Automated Alice/VIII

Automated Alice

940

20836525

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=940

Automated Alice/VI

Automated Alice

941

20836525

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=941

Automated Alice/VII

Automated Alice

942

20836525

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=942

Automated Alice/V

Automated Alice

943

20836525

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=943

Automated Alice/IV

Automated Alice

944

37740198

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=944

Automated Alice/II

Automated Alice

945

20836525

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=945

Automated Alice/I

Automated Alice

946

20836525

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=946

Automated Alice/III

Automated Alice

951

1192344646

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=951

Antigua and Barbuda

Antigua and Barbuda (, ), also known as A&B, is a sovereign island country in the Caribbean. It lies at the conjuncture of the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean in the Leeward Islands part of the Lesser Antilles. The country consists of two major islands, Antigua and Barbuda, which are approximately apart, and several smaller islands, including Great Bird, Green, Guiana, Long, Maiden, Prickly Pear, York, and Redonda. The permanent population is approximately 97,120 ( estimates), with 97% residing in Antigua. St. John's, Antigua, is the country's capital, major city, and largest port. Codrington is Barbuda's largest town. In 1493, Christopher Columbus surveyed the island of Antigua, which he named for the Church of Santa María La Antigua. Great Britain colonized Antigua in 1632 and Barbuda in 1678. A part of the Federal Colony of the Leeward Islands from 1871, Antigua and Barbuda joined the West Indies Federation in 1958. With the breakup of the federation in 1962, it became one of the West Indies Associated States in 1967. Following a period of internal self-governance, it gained full independence from the United Kingdom on 1 November 1981. Antigua and Barbuda is a member of the Commonwealth and a Commonwealth realm; it is a constitutional monarchy with Charles III as its head of state. The economy of Antigua and Barbuda is largely dependent on tourism, which accounts for 80% of its GDP. Like other island nations, Antigua and Barbuda is vulnerable to the effects of climate change, such as sea level rise, and increased intensity of extreme weather like hurricanes. These cause coastal erosion, water scarcity, and other challenges. Antigua and Barbuda offers a citizenship by investment program. The country levies no personal income tax. == Etymology == is Spanish for 'ancient' and is Spanish for 'bearded'. The island of Antigua was originally called by the Arawaks and is locally known by that name today; the Caribs possibly called Barbuda . Christopher Columbus, while sailing by in 1493, may have named it , after an icon in the Spanish Seville Cathedral. The "bearded" of Barbuda is thought to refer either to the male inhabitants of the island, or the bearded fig trees present there. ==History== ===Pre-colonial period=== Antigua was first settled by archaic age hunter-gatherer Native Americans called the Ciboney. Carbon dating has established the earliest settlements started around 3100 BC. They were succeeded by the ceramic age pre-Columbian Arawak-speaking Saladoid people who migrated from the lower Orinoco River. They introduced agriculture, raising, among other crops, the famous Antigua Black Pineapple ("Ananas comosus"), corn, sweet potatoes, chiles, guava, tobacco, and cotton. Later on the more bellicose Caribs also settled the island, possibly by force. ===European arrival and settlement=== Christopher Columbus was the first European to sight the islands in 1493. The Spanish did not colonise Antigua until after a combination of European and African diseases, malnutrition, and slavery eventually extirpated most of the native population; smallpox was probably the greatest killer. The English settled on Antigua in 1632; Christopher Codrington settled on Barbuda in 1685. Tobacco and then sugar was grown, worked by a large population of slaves transported from West Africa, who soon came to vastly outnumber the European settlers. ===Colonial era=== The English maintained control of the islands, repulsing an attempted French attack in 1666. The brutal conditions endured by the slaves led to revolts in 1701 and 1729 and a planned revolt in 1736, the last led by Prince Klaas, though it was discovered before it began and the ringleaders were executed. Slavery was abolished in the British Empire in 1833, affecting the economy. This was exacerbated by natural disasters such as the 1843 earthquake and the 1847 hurricane. Mining occurred on the isle of Redonda, however, this ceased in 1929 and the island has since remained uninhabited. Part of the Leeward Islands colony, Antigua and Barbuda became part of the short-lived West Indies Federation from 1958 to 1962. Antigua and Barbuda subsequently became an associated state of the United Kingdom with full internal autonomy on 27 February 1967. The 1970s were dominated by discussions as to the islands' future and the rivalry between Vere Bird of the Antigua and Barbuda Labour Party (ABLP) (Premier from 1967 to 1971 and 1976 to 1981) and the Progressive Labour Movement (PLM) of George Walter (Premier 1971–1976). Eventually, Antigua and Barbuda gained full independence on 1 November 1981; Vere Bird became prime minister of the new country. The country opted to remain within the Commonwealth, retaining Queen Elizabeth as head of state, with the first governor, Sir Wilfred Jacobs, as governor-general. Succeeding Sir Wilfred Jacobs were Sir James Carlisle (June 10, 1993–June 30, 2007), Dame Louise Lake-Tack (July 17, 2007—August 14, 2014.), and the present governor, Sir Rodney Williams: (August 14, 2014-present). ===Independence era=== The first two decades of Antigua's independence were dominated politically by the Bird family and the ABLP, with Vere Bird ruling from 1981 to 1994, followed by his son Lester Bird from 1994 to 2004. Though providing a degree of political stability, and boosting tourism to the country, the Bird governments were frequently accused of corruption, cronyism and financial malfeasance. Vere Bird Jr., the elder son, was forced to leave the cabinet in 1990 following a scandal in which he was accused of smuggling Israeli weapons to Colombian drug-traffickers. Another son, Ivor Bird, was convicted of selling cocaine in 1995. In 1995, Hurricane Luis caused severe damage on Barbuda. The ABLP's dominance of Antiguan politics ended with the 2004 Antiguan general election, which was won by Winston Baldwin Spencer's United Progressive Party (UPP). Winston Baldwin Spencer was Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda from 2004 to 2014. However the UPP lost the 2014 Antiguan general election, with the ABLP returning to power under Gaston Browne. ABLP won 15 of the 17 seats in the 2018 snap election under the leadership of incumbent Prime Minister Gaston Browne. In 2016, Nelson's Dockyard was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Most of Barbuda was devastated in early September 2017 by Hurricane Irma, which brought winds with speeds reaching 295 km/h (185 mph). The storm damaged or destroyed 95% of the island's buildings and infrastructure, leaving Barbuda "barely habitable" according to Prime Minister Gaston Browne. Nearly everyone on the island was evacuated to Antigua. Amidst the following rebuilding efforts on Barbuda that were estimated to cost at least $100 million, the government announced plans to revoke a century-old law of communal land ownership by allowing residents to buy land; a move that has been criticised as promoting "disaster capitalism". ==Geography== Limestone formations, rather than volcanic activity, have had the most impact on the topography of both Antigua and Barbuda, which are both relatively low-lying islands. Boggy Peak, also known as Mt. Obama from 2008 to 2016, is the highest point on both Antigua and Barbuda. It is the remnant of a volcanic crater and rises a total of 402 meters. Boggy Peak is located in the southwest of Antigua (1,319 feet). Both of these islands have very irregularly shaped coastlines that are dotted with beaches, lagoons, and natural harbors. There are reefs and shoals that surround the islands on all sides. Because of the low amount of rainfall, there are not many streams. On neither of these islands can sufficient quantities of fresh groundwater be found. Redonda is a small, uninhabited island located about 40 kilometers (25 miles) to the south-west of Antigua. Redonda is a rocky island. === Cities and villages === The most populous cities in Antigua and Barbuda are mostly on Antigua, being Saint John's, All Saints, Piggotts, and Liberta. The most populous city on Barbuda is Codrington. It is estimated that 25% of the population lives in an urban area, which is much lower than the international average of 55%. ===Islands=== Antigua and Barbuda consists mostly of its two namesake islands, Antigua, and Barbuda. Other than that, Antigua and Barbuda's biggest islands are Guiana Island and Long Island off the coast of Antigua, and Redonda island, which is far from both of the main islands. === Climate === Rainfall averages per year, with the amount varying widely from season to season. In general the wettest period is between September and November. The islands generally experience low humidity and recurrent droughts. Temperatures average , with a range from to in the winter to from to in the summer and autumn. The coolest period is between December and February. Hurricanes strike on an average of once a year, including the powerful Category 5 Hurricane Irma, on 6 September 2017, which damaged 95% of the structures on Barbuda. Some 1,800 people were evacuated to Antigua. An estimate published by "Time" indicated that over $100 million would be required to rebuild homes and infrastructure. Philmore Mullin, Director of Barbuda's National Office of Disaster Services, said that "all critical infrastructure and utilities are non-existent – food supply, medicine, shelter, electricity, water, communications, waste management". He summarised the situation as follows: "Public utilities need to be rebuilt in their entirety... It is optimistic to think anything can be rebuilt in six months ... In my 25 years in disaster management, I have never seen something like this." ==Demographics== ===Ethnic groups=== Antigua has a population of , mostly made up of people of West African, British, and Portuguese descent. The ethnic distribution consists of 91% Black, 4.4% mixed race, 1.7% White, and 2.9% other (primarily East Indian). Most Whites are of British descent. Christian Levantine Arabs and a small number of East Asians and Sephardic Jews make up the remainder of the population. An increasingly large percentage of the population lives abroad, most notably in the United Kingdom (Antiguan Britons), the United States and Canada. A minority of Antiguan residents are immigrants from other countries, particularly from Dominica, Guyana and Jamaica, and, increasingly, from the Dominican Republic, St. Vincent and the Grenadines and Nigeria. An estimated 4,500 American citizens also make their home in Antigua and Barbuda, making their numbers one of the largest American populations in the English-speaking Eastern Caribbean. 68.47% of the population was born in Antigua and Barbuda. ===Languages=== The language most commonly used in business is English. There is a noticeable distinction between the Antiguan accent and the Barbudan one. When compared to Antiguan Creole, Standard English was the language of choice in the years leading up to Antigua and Barbuda's attainment of their independence. The Antiguan Creole language is looked down upon by the upper and middle classes in general. The Antiguan Creole language is discouraged from use in the educational system, and instruction is carried out in Standard (British) English instead. A significant number of the words that are utilized in the Antiguan dialect are derived from both the British and African languages. This is readily apparent in phrases such as "Innit?" which literally translates to "Isn't it?" Many common island proverbs can be traced back to Africa, such as the pidgin language. Approximately 10,000 people are able to speak in Spanish. ===Religion=== A majority (77%) of Antiguans are Christians, with the Anglicans (17.6%) being the largest single denomination. Other Christian denominations present are Seventh-day Adventist Church (12.4%), Pentecostalism (12.2%), Moravian Church (8.3%), Roman Catholics (8.2%), Methodist Church (5.6%), Wesleyan Holiness Church (4.5%), Church of God (4.1%), Baptists (3.6%), Mormonism (<1.0%), as well as Jehovah's Witnesses. ==Governance== ===Political system=== The politics of Antigua and Barbuda take place within a framework of a unitary, parliamentary, representative democratic monarchy, in which the head of state is the monarch who appoints the governor-general as vice-regal representative. Charles III is the present King of Antigua and Barbuda, having served in that position since the death of his mother, Elizabeth II. She had been the queen since the islands' independence from the United Kingdom in 1981. The King is currently represented by Governor-General Sir Rodney Williams. A council of ministers is appointed by the governor-general on the advice of the prime minister, currently Gaston Browne (2014–). The prime minister is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government while legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of Parliament. The bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (17 members appointed by members of the government and the opposition party, and approved by the governor-general), and the House of Representatives (17 members elected by first past the post) to serve five-year terms. The current Leader of His Majesty's Loyal Opposition is Jamale Pringle. There has been recent development in the republicanism movement in Antigua and Barbuda, following Barbados becoming a republic in 2021 and following the death of Elizabeth II in 2022, with an opinion poll showing majority support for the change. ===Elections=== The last election was held on 21 March 2018. The Antigua Barbuda Labour Party (ABLP) led by Prime Minister Gaston Browne won 15 of the 17 seats in the House of Representatives. The previous election was on 12 June 2014, during which the Antigua Labour Party won 14 seats, and the United Progressive Party 3 seats. Since 1951, elections have been won by the populist Antigua Labour Party. However, in the Antigua and Barbuda legislative election of 2004 saw the defeat of the longest-serving elected government in the Caribbean. Vere Bird was prime minister from 1981 to 1994 and chief minister of Antigua from 1960 to 1981, except for the 1971–1976 period when the Progressive Labour Movement (PLM) defeated his party. Bird, the nation's first prime minister, is credited with having brought Antigua and Barbuda and the Caribbean into a new era of independence. Prime Minister Lester Bryant Bird succeeded the elder Bird in 1994. ====Party elections==== Gaston Browne defeated his predecessor Lester Bryant Bird at the Antigua Labour Party's biennial convention in November 2012 held to elect a political leader and other officers. The party then altered its name from the Antigua Labour Party (ALP) to the Antigua and Barbuda Labour Party (ABLP). This was done to officially include the party's presence on the sister island of Barbuda in its organisation, the only political party on the mainland to have a physical branch in Barbuda. === Judiciary === The Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court is the highest court in the region's judicial system (based in Saint Lucia; one judge of the Supreme Court is a resident of the islands and presides over the High Court of Justice). The Caribbean Court of Justice counts Antigua as one of its member states. Its highest court of appeal is the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, which acts in that capacity. ===Foreign relations=== Antigua and Barbuda is a member of the United Nations, the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Caribbean Community, the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States, the Organization of American States, the World Trade Organization and the Eastern Caribbean's Regional Security System. Antigua and Barbuda is also a member of the International Criminal Court (with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of Protection for the US military as covered under Article 98 of the Rome Statute). In 2013, Antigua and Barbuda called for reparations for slavery at the United Nations. Prime Minister Baldwin Spencer said "We have recently seen a number of leaders apologising", and that they should now "match their words with concrete and material benefits." ===Military=== About 260 people are currently serving in the Antigua and Barbuda Defense Force in a variety of capacities. These personnel are distributed across the line infantry regiment, the service and support unit, the air force, and the coast guard. In addition there is the Antigua and Barbuda Cadet Corps, which is made up of two hundred young people between the ages of 12 and 18. The Defence Board is in charge of directing the activities of the armed forces of the nation. The National Security Council and the Financial Intelligence Unit are the two intelligence agencies that Antigua and Barbuda have at their disposal. Camp Blizzard serves as the administrative center for the Defense Force. In 2018, Antigua and Barbuda signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. ===Administrative divisions=== Antigua and Barbuda is divided into six parishes and two dependencies: Although they are referred to as dependencies, both Barbuda and Redonda are actually integral parts of the state and can be thought of as administrative divisions. Simply put, "dependency" is just a title. The Redonda is a second-level administrative division that is part of the Saint John Parish's District "A." Barbuda is a local administrative division on the same level as Antigua and Barbuda, and its council is the name of its local governing body. In the year 2023, there have been discussions regarding the possibility of extending governmental authority to Antigua's parishes. There are currently sixty of what are known as major divisions on the islands of Antigua and Barbuda. This administrative tier is known as the second level. Local government in the country of Antigua and Barbuda is only present on the island of Barbuda at the present time; however, there is legislation in place for a system of village councils on the island of Antigua; however, village councils have not been active since the 1940s and 1950s. ===Human rights=== As of July 2022, Same-sex sexual activity is legal in Antigua and Barbuda. ==Economy== Tourism dominates the economy, accounting for more than half of the gross domestic product (GDP). As a destination for the most affluent travelers, Antigua is well known for its extensive collection of five-star resorts. However, weaker tourist activity in lower and middle market segments since the beginning of the year 2000 has slowed the economy and put the government into a tight fiscal corner. Antigua and Barbuda has enacted policies to attract high-net-worth citizens and residents, such as enacting a 0% personal income tax rate in 2019. The provision of investment banking and financial services also constitutes a significant portion of the economy. Major international financial institutions such as the Royal Bank of Canada (RBC) and Scotiabank both maintain offices in Antigua. PriceWaterhouseCoopers, Pannell Kerr Forster, and KPMG are some of the other companies in the financial services industry that have offices in Antigua. The United States Securities and Exchange Commission has leveled allegations against the Antigua-based Stanford International Bank, which is owned by the Texas billionaire Allen Stanford, of orchestrating a massive fraud that may have resulted in the theft of approximately $8 billion from investors. The nation, which consists of two islands, directs the majority of its agricultural production toward the markets that are found within the nation. This is done despite the fact that the nation has a limited water supply and a shortage of laborers as a result of the higher wages offered in the tourism and construction industries. Manufacturing comprises 2% of GDP and is made up of enclave-type assembly for export, the major products being bedding, handicrafts, and electronic components. Prospects for economic growth in the medium term will continue to depend on income growth in the industrialised world, especially in the United States, from which about one-third to one-half of all tourists come. Access to biocapacity is lower than world average. In 2016, Antigua and Barbuda had 0.8 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016, Antigua and Barbuda used 4.3 global hectares of biocapacity per person – their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use more biocapacity than Antigua and Barbuda contains. As a result, Antigua and Barbuda are running a biocapacity deficit. The Citizenship by Investment Unit (CIU) is the government authority responsible for processing all applications for Agent's Licenses as well as all applications for Citizenship by Investment made by applicants and their family members. This unit was established by the Prime Minister and is known as the Citizenship by Investment Unit. === Transport === The transportation networks of Antigua and Barbuda are made up of both publicly operated and privately managed services. The roads in the countryside are paved, and their paths are winding and gradual in their ascents and descents; they connect parishes to villages and communities. Cars are driven on the left side of the road. Antigua and Barbuda has a speed limit of 40 miles per hour, and there are traffic signs posted along the main roads that make it easier to commute. Additionally, GPS coordinates have been posted throughout the country, which has made the process of navigation more manageable. On the yellow license plates of public transportation vehicles, the letters "BUS" indicate that the vehicle is a bus, and the letters "TX" indicate that the vehicle is a taxi. Taxi services are subject to government regulation, which results in the establishment of flat rates rather than the use of meters. It is required that taxi drivers keep a copy of the rates posted inside the cab at all times. Taxis are not hard to come by on Antigua; in particular, you can find them at the airport and in the major hotels. The role of tour guide is one that is frequently taken on by taxi drivers. On the island of Antigua, buses run continuously throughout the day from 5:30 a.m. until 6:00 p.m., connecting the capital city of St. John's with a number of the surrounding villages. On the other hand, buses do not make stops at the airport or in the tourist area to the north. Although the timing of the bus' departure is frequently up to the discretion of the driver, most buses operate according to a predetermined schedule. The routes that most buses take are typically displayed in the front windows of the vehicles, which are typically private minivans with seating for approximately 15 passengers each. Both the East Bus Station on Independence Avenue close to the Botanical Gardens and the Market Street Bus Station close to the Central Market are the two bus stations that serve the city of St. John's. There are also a number of bus companies operating on the island of Barbuda. ==Culture== The culture is primarily influenced by the traditions of West Africa as well as those of the United Kingdom. The most popular sport in the country is cricket. Football, boat racing, and surfing are three additional popular forms of athletic competition. (Antigua Sailing Week attracts locals and visitors from all over the world). ===Music=== Due to the fact that the majority of Antiguans and Barbudans are descended from West Africans who were brought to the islands as slaves by Europeans, the musical traditions of Antigua and Barbuda are predominately of an African origin and have only been marginally influenced by European musical traditions. The island nation of Antigua and Barbuda can be found in the Lesser Antilles chain of islands in the Caribbean. It is a second home for many of the popular music genres that are popular throughout the Caribbean, including calypso, soca, steeldrum, zouk, and reggae, and it has produced stars in these genres. Steeldrum and calypso are two musical styles that were brought to Antigua from Trinidad and Tobago, and they are the two that have had the most significant impact on the development of modern Antiguan popular music. Other than this, there has been very little to no research done on the musical history of Antigua and Barbuda. As a consequence of this, a significant amount of the knowledge on the subject comes from novels, essays, and other types of secondary sources. ===Festivals=== Although on some islands Carnival may be used to celebrate the beginning of Lent, the national Carnival held every August is held to commemorate the abolition of slavery in the British West Indies. The national Carnival is held in August. The festive pageants, shows, and competitions, along with the other events that take place, are a major draw for tourists. ===Cuisine=== Antigua and Barbuda cuisine is a term used to describe the culinary traditions of the islands of Antigua and Barbuda in the Caribbean. Fungie, pronounced "foon-jee", and pepperpot are the country's official dish and dish of pride. Cornmeal is the main ingredient in fungie, which is a dish that is very similar to the Italian dish polenta. Other popular dishes from this region include ducana, saltfish, seasoned rice, and lobster (from Barbuda). In addition, there are sweets that are made locally, such as peanut brittle, sugar cake, fudge, raspberry and tamarind stew, and other similar dishes. Despite the fact that these foods are native to Antigua and Barbuda as well as to a number of other Caribbean nations, the diet of the locals has become increasingly diverse and now also includes traditional dishes from Jamaica and Trinidad, such as jerk meats and roti, as well as specialties from a number of other Caribbean nations. Saltfish, eggs, eggplant (also referred to as troba), lettuce, and other vegetables are typically served for breakfast. Lunches typically consist of a starch, such as rice, macaroni, or pasta, with vegetables or salad, an entree (such as fish, chicken, pork, or beef), and a side dish, such as macaroni pie, scalloped potatoes, or plantains. Dinners typically consist of a protein, such as fish, chicken, pork, or beef. On Sundays, the majority of people in the country attend religious services, and then they return home to prepare a wide variety of meals for their families. Due to the fact that most people are off work on Sundays, dinner is typically served earlier in the day (around 2:00 pm). Dinners might consist of pork, chicken baked in the oven, stewed lamb, or turkey, served with rice (prepared in a variety of ways), macaroni pie, salads, and a local beverage. Dessert options include ice cream and cake, apple pie (or mango or pineapple pie when those fruits are in season), gelatin, and cake. The soft, buttery loaf of bread known as Antiguan butter bread does not require any additional butter to be added once it has been baked. This dish is another mainstay of Antiguan cuisine. Breakfast and other meals throughout the day often consist of fresh-baked butter bread and cheese for the community's residents. Throughout the city of Antigua, there are a great number of homes that have small bakeries built onto them. These bakeries sell freshly baked loaves, and locals can go to these bakeries to buy them. They are served alongside cheese, sardines, and/or a bright red sausage that residents of the area occasionally refer to as salami, in addition to a great deal of other foods. In addition, the majority of meals feature something known as "provisions", which is typically a root vegetable or starch such as potatoes, yams, sweet potatoes, or eddo. During Carnival, a popular snack is souse, which is a type of soup that is very spicy and is made with pig feet, knuckles, and tails in addition to many onions. This soup is sold by vendors on the side of the road. Black pudding, also referred to as blood sausage, is a well-seasoned sausage that is made with rice, meat, and blood that is also enjoyed by locals in Antigua. On improvised grills, locals in the countryside sell freshly picked corn that has been roasted, typically while still in the husk. The Antiguan pineapple is typically quite succulent and sugary, despite its diminutive size. The entire island is covered with numerous small pineapple plantations. The following are some examples of local beverages: mauby, seamoss, tamarind juice, raspberry juice, mango juice, lemonade, coconut milk, hibiscus juice, ginger beer, passion fruit juice, guava juice, soursop juice, and ginger beer, which is a soft drink. Beer, malts, and rums are some of the alcoholic beverages that can be found here. Many of these drinks are produced locally, such as the award-winning English Harbour Rum and the Wadadli beer, which takes its name from the island's former name. A significant number of residents in the area consume bottled sodas, which they refer to as sweet drink. Punch is a flavor that is enjoyed by many. In addition to Red Stripe beer, Guinness stout, Heineken beer, and Malta, the locals like to drink Red Malta. Ponche Kuba Cream Liqueur is a special celebratory alcoholic drink that is very popular in Antigua during the Christmas holiday season. This beverage has a brown color, has a thick and creamy consistency, is extremely sweet, and contains a high percentage of alcohol. ===Media=== The "Antigua Daily Observer, the Antigua News Room, and The Antiguan Times" are the names of the country's three newspapers. The Antigua Observer is the only newspaper that is published every day in printed form. It is possible to watch the local television channel, ABS TV 10. (it is the only station that shows exclusively local programs). There are also a number of radio stations that broadcast regionally and locally. Some of these stations include V2C-AM 620, ZDK-AM 1100, VYBZ-FM 92.9, ZDK-FM 97.1, Observer Radio 91.1 FM, DNECA Radio 90.1 FM, Second Advent Radio 101.5 FM, Abundant Life Radio 103.9 FM, Crusader Radio 107.3 FM, Nice FM 104.3, Pointe FM 99.1, and WTP 93.5FM. === Monuments === * Fort James, an 18th century fort at the eastern entrance to St. John's harbour - Fort Barrington, an 18th century fort at the western entrance to St. John's harbour - Shirley Heights, grounds of an 18th century military complex overlooking English Harbour - Fort Berkeley, an 18th century fort at the western entrance to English Harbour - Fort Charlotte, remains of an 18th century fort at the eastern entrance to English Harbour === Museums === * Museum of Antigua and Barbuda - Dockyard Museum - Betty's Hope - Dow's Hill Interpretation Centre === World heritage === In 2016, Antigua Naval Dockyard and Related Archaeological Sites have been inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage List. ==Sports== Cricket is the most popular sport within the islands. With Sir Isaac Vivian Alexander Richards who represented the West Indies cricket team between 1974 and 1991, Antigua had one of the world's most famous batsmen ever. The Antigua and Barbuda national cricket team represented the country at the 1998 Commonwealth Games, but Antiguan cricketers otherwise play for the Leeward Islands cricket team in domestic matches and the West Indies cricket team internationally. The 2007 Cricket World Cup was hosted in the West Indies from 11 March to 28 April 2007. Antigua hosted eight matches at the Sir Vivian Richards Stadium, which was completed on 11 February 2007 and can hold up to 20,000 people.<br> Antigua is a Host of Stanford Twenty20 – Twenty20 Cricket, a version started by Allen Stanford in 2006 as a regional cricket game with almost all Caribbean islands taking part. From 15 January to 5 February 2022 the Sir Vivian Richards Stadium was one of the venues for the 2022 ICC Under-19 Cricket World Cup.<br>Rugby and Netball are popular as well. Association football, or soccer, is also a very popular sport. Antigua has a national football team which entered World Cup qualification for the 1974 tournament and for 1986 and beyond. A professional team was formed in 2011, Antigua Barracuda FC, which played in the USL Pro, a lower professional league in the US. The nation's team had a major achievement in 2012, getting out of its preliminary group for the 2014 World Cup, notably due to a victory over powerful Haiti. In its first game in the next CONCACAF group play on 8 June 2012 in Tampa, FL, Antigua and Barbuda, comprising 17 Barracuda players and 7 from the lower English professional leagues, scored a goal against the United States. However, the team lost 3:1 to the US. Daniel Bailey had become the first Antiguan to reach a world indoor final, where he won a bronze medal at the 2010 IAAF World Indoor Championships. He was also the first Antiguan to make a 100m final at the 2009 World Championships in Athletics, and the first Antiguan to run under 10 seconds over 100m. Brendan Christian won a gold medal in the 200m and bronze medal in the 100m at the 2007 Pan American Games. James Grayman won a bronze medal at the same games in the men's High Jump. Miguel Francis is the first Antiguan to run sub 20 seconds in the 200m. Heather Samuel won a bronze medal at the 1995 Pan American Games over 100m. 400m Hurdles Olympian Gold Medalist Rai Benjamin previously represented Antigua and Barbuda before representing the United States. His Silver medal run at the 2020 Olympic Games made him the second-fastest person in history over 400m Hurdles with a time of 46.17. == Symbols == The frigatebird is the country's official national bird, and the bucida buceras is the official national tree (Whitewood tree). Clare Waight Keller designed Meghan Markle's wedding veil, which featured the distinctive flora of each Commonwealth nation. To represent Antigua and Barbuda, "Agave karatto" was included in the veil by Clare Waight Keller. The European fallow deer, or Dama dama, is the country's official mammal, despite the fact that it is a non-native species. In 1992, the government held a contest to design a new national dress for the country, and the winner of the competition was the artist Heather Doram.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=953

Azincourt

Azincourt (), historically known in English as Agincourt ( ), is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in northern France. It is situated north-west of Saint-Pol-sur-Ternoise on the D71 road between Hesdin and Fruges. The Late Medieval Battle of Agincourt between the English and the French took place in the commune in 1415. ==Toponym== The name is attested as "Aisincurt" in 1175, derived from a Germanic masculine name Aizo, Aizino and the early Northern French word "curt" (which meant a farm with a courtyard; derived from the Late Latin "cortem"). The name has no etymological link with Agincourt, Meurthe-et-Moselle (attested as "Egincourt" 875), which is derived separately from another Germanic male name "*Ingin-". ==History== Azincourt is known for being near the site of the battle fought on 25 October 1415 in which the army led by King Henry V of England defeated the forces led by Charles d'Albret on behalf of Charles VI of France, which has gone down in history as the Battle of Agincourt. According to M. Forrest, the French knights were so encumbered by their armour that they were exhausted even before the start of the battle. After he became king in 1509, Henry VIII is purported to have commissioned an English translation of a Life of Henry V so that he could emulate him, on the grounds that he thought that launching a campaign against France would help him to impose himself on the European stage. In 1513, Henry VIII crossed the English Channel, stopping by at Azincourt. The battle, as was the tradition, was named after a nearby castle called Azincourt. The castle has since disappeared and the settlement now known as Azincourt adopted the name in the seventeenth century. John Cassell wrote in 1857 that "the village of Azincourt itself is now a group of dirty farmhouses and wretched cottages, but where the hottest of the battle raged, between that village and the commune of Tramecourt, there still remains a wood precisely corresponding with the one in which Henry placed his ambush; and there are yet existing the foundations of the castle of Azincourt, from which the king named the field." ==Sights== The original battlefield museum in the village featured model knights made out of Action Man figures. This has now been replaced by the Centre historique médiéval d'Azincourt (CHM)a more professional museum, conference centre and exhibition space incorporating laser, video, slide shows, audio commentaries, and some interactive elements. The museum building is shaped like a longbow similar to those used at the battle by archers under King Henry. Since 2004 a large medieval festival organised by the local community, the CHM, The Azincourt Alliance, and various other UK societies commemorating the battle, local history and medieval life, arts and crafts has been held in the village. Prior to this date the festival was held in October, but due to the inclement weather and local heavy clay soil (like the battle) making the festival difficult, it was moved to the last Sunday in July. ==International relations== Azincourt is twinned with Middleham, United Kingdom.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=954

Albert Speer

Berthold Konrad Hermann Albert Speer (; ; 19 March 1905 – 1 September 1981) was a German architect who served as the Minister of Armaments and War Production in Nazi Germany during most of World War II. A close ally of Adolf Hitler, he was convicted at the Nuremberg trial and sentenced to 20 years in prison. An architect by training, Speer joined the Nazi Party in 1931. His architectural skills made him increasingly prominent within the Party, and he became a member of Hitler's inner circle. Hitler commissioned him to design and construct structures including the Reich Chancellery and the Nazi party rally grounds in Nuremberg. In 1937, Hitler appointed Speer as General Building Inspector for Berlin. In this capacity he was responsible for the Central Department for Resettlement that evicted Jewish tenants from their homes in Berlin. In February 1942, Speer was appointed as Reich Minister of Armaments and War Production. Using misleading statistics, he promoted himself as having performed an armaments miracle that was widely credited with keeping Germany in the war. In 1944, Speer established a task force to increase production of fighter aircraft. It became instrumental in exploiting slave labor for the benefit of the German war effort. After the war, Albert Speer was among the 24 "major war criminals" charged with the crimes of the Nazi regime before the International Military Tribunal. He was found guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity, principally for the use of slave labor, narrowly avoiding a death sentence. Having served his full term, Speer was released in 1966. He used his writings from the time of imprisonment as the basis for two autobiographical books, "Inside the Third Reich" and "". Speer's books were a success; the public was fascinated by an inside view of the Third Reich. Speer died of a stroke in 1981. Little remains of his personal architectural work. Through his autobiographies and interviews, Speer carefully constructed an image of himself as a man who deeply regretted having failed to discover the crimes of the Third Reich. He continued to deny explicit knowledge of, and responsibility for, the Holocaust. This image dominated his historiography in the decades following the war, giving rise to the "Speer Myth": the perception of him as an apolitical technocrat responsible for revolutionizing the German war machine. The myth began to fall apart in the 1980s, when the armaments miracle was attributed to Nazi propaganda. Adam Tooze wrote in "The Wages of Destruction" that the idea that Speer was an apolitical technocrat was "absurd". Martin Kitchen, writing in "", stated that much of the increase in Germany's arms production was actually due to systems instituted by Speer's predecessor (Fritz Todt) and that Speer was intimately aware of and involved in the "Final Solution", evidence of which has been conclusively shown in the decades following the Nuremberg Trials. ==Early years and personal life== Speer was born in Mannheim, into an upper-middle-class family. He was the second of three sons of Luise Máthilde Wilhelmine (Hommel) and Albert Friedrich Speer. In 1918, the family leased their Mannheim residence and moved to a home they had in Heidelberg. Henry T. King, deputy prosecutor at the Nuremberg trials who later wrote a book about Speer said, "Love and warmth were lacking in the household of Speer's youth." His brothers, Ernst and Hermann, bullied him throughout his childhood. Speer was active in sports, taking up skiing and mountaineering. He followed in the footsteps of his father and grandfather and studied architecture. Speer began his architectural studies at the University of Karlsruhe instead of a more highly acclaimed institution because the hyperinflation crisis of 1923 limited his parents' income. In 1924, when the crisis had abated, he transferred to the "much more reputable" Technical University of Munich. In 1925, he transferred again, this time to the Technical University of Berlin where he studied under Heinrich Tessenow, whom Speer greatly admired. After passing his exams in 1927, Speer became Tessenow's assistant, a high honor for a man of 22. As such, Speer taught some of his classes while continuing his own postgraduate studies. In Munich Speer began a close friendship, ultimately spanning over 50 years, with Rudolf Wolters, who also studied under Tessenow. In mid-1922, Speer began courting Margarete (Margret) Weber (1905–1987), the daughter of a successful craftsman who employed 50 workers. The relationship was frowned upon by Speer's class-conscious mother, who felt the Webers were socially inferior. Despite this opposition, the two married in Berlin on 28 August 1928; seven years elapsed before Margarete was invited to stay at her in-laws' home. The couple would have six children together, but Albert Speer grew increasingly distant from his family after 1933. He remained so even after his release from imprisonment in 1966, despite their efforts to forge closer bonds. ==Party architect and government functionary== ===Joining the Nazis (1931–1934)=== In January 1931, Speer applied for Nazi Party membership, and on 1 March 1931, he became member number 474,481. The same year, with stipends shrinking amid the Depression, Speer surrendered his position as Tessenow's assistant and moved to Mannheim, hoping to make a living as an architect. After he failed to do so, his father gave him a part-time job as manager of his properties. In July 1932, the Speers visited Berlin to help out the Party before the "Reichstag" elections. While they were there his friend, Nazi Party official Karl Hanke recommended the young architect to Joseph Goebbels to help renovate the Party's Berlin headquarters. When the commission was completed, Speer returned to Mannheim and remained there as Hitler took office in January 1933. The organizers of the 1933 Nuremberg Rally asked Speer to submit designs for the rally, bringing him into contact with Hitler for the first time. Neither the organizers nor Rudolf Hess were willing to decide whether to approve the plans, and Hess sent Speer to Hitler's Munich apartment to seek his approval. This work won Speer his first national post, as Nazi Party "Commissioner for the Artistic and Technical Presentation of Party Rallies and Demonstrations". Shortly after Hitler came into power, he began to make plans to rebuild the chancellery. At the end of 1933, he contracted Paul Troost to renovate the entire building. Hitler appointed Speer, whose work for Goebbels had impressed him, to manage the building site for Troost. As Chancellor, Hitler had a residence in the building and came by every day to be briefed by Speer and the building supervisor on the progress of the renovations. After one of these briefings, Hitler invited Speer to lunch, to the architect's great excitement. Speer quickly became part of Hitler's inner circle; he was expected to call on him in the morning for a walk or chat, to provide consultation on architectural matters, and to discuss Hitler's ideas. Most days he was invited to dinner. In the English version of his memoirs, Speer says that his political commitment merely consisted of paying his "monthly dues". He assumed his German readers would not be so gullible and told them the Nazi Party offered a "new mission". He was more forthright in an interview with William Hamsher in which he said he joined the party in order to save "Germany from Communism". After the war, he claimed to have had little interest in politics at all and had joined almost by chance. Like many of those in power in the Third Reich, he was not an ideologue, "nor was he anything more than an instinctive anti-Semite." The historian Magnus Brechtken, discussing Speer, said he did not give anti-Jewish public speeches and that his anti-Semitism can best be understood through his actions—which were anti-Semitic. Brechtken added that, throughout Speer's life, his central motives were to gain power, rule, and acquire wealth. ===Nazi architect (1934–1937)=== When Troost died on 21 January 1934, Speer effectively replaced him as the Party's chief architect. Hitler appointed Speer as head of the Chief Office for Construction, which placed him nominally on Hess's staff. One of Speer's first commissions after Troost's death was the "Zeppelinfeld" stadium in Nuremberg. It was used for Nazi propaganda rallies and can be seen in Leni Riefenstahl's propaganda film "Triumph of the Will". The building was able to hold 340,000 people. Speer insisted that as many events as possible be held at night, both to give greater prominence to his lighting effects and to hide the overweight Nazis. Nuremberg was the site of many official Nazi buildings. Many more buildings were planned. If built, the German Stadium in Nuremberg would have accommodated 400,000 spectators. Speer modified Werner March's design for the being built for the 1936 Summer Olympics. He added a stone exterior that pleased Hitler. Speer designed the German Pavilion for the 1937 international exposition in Paris. ===Berlin's General Building Inspector (1937–1942)=== On 30 January 1937, Hitler appointed Speer as General Building Inspector for the Reich Capital. This carried with it the rank of State Secretary in the Reich government and gave him extraordinary powers over the Berlin city government. He was to report directly to Hitler, and was independent of both the mayor and the Gauleiter of Berlin. Hitler ordered Speer to develop plans to rebuild Berlin. These centered on a three-mile-long grand boulevard running from north to south, which Speer called the "Prachtstrasse", or Street of Magnificence; he also referred to it as the "North–South Axis". At the northern end of the boulevard, Speer planned to build the "Volkshalle", a huge domed assembly hall over high, with floor space for 180,000 people. At the southern end of the avenue, a great triumphal arch, almost high and able to fit the Arc de Triomphe inside its opening, was planned. The existing Berlin railroad termini were to be dismantled, and two large new stations built. Speer hired Wolters as part of his design team, with special responsibility for the "Prachtstrasse". The outbreak of World War II in 1939 led to the postponement, and later the abandonment, of these plans, which, after Nazi capitulation, Speer himself considered as “awful”. Plans to build a new Reich chancellery had been underway since 1934. Land had been purchased by the end of 1934 and starting in March 1936 the first buildings were demolished to create space at Voßstraße. Speer was involved virtually from the beginning. In the aftermath of the Night of the Long Knives, he had been commissioned to renovate the Borsig Palace on the corner of Voßstraße and Wilhelmstraße as headquarters of the "Sturmabteilung" (SA). He completed the preliminary work for the new chancellery by May 1936. In June 1936 he charged a personal honorarium of 30,000 Reichsmark and estimated the chancellery would be completed within three to four years. Detailed plans were completed in July 1937 and the first shell of the new chancellery was complete on 1 January 1938. On 27 January 1938, Speer received plenipotentiary powers from Hitler to finish the new chancellery by 1 January 1939. For propaganda Hitler claimed during the topping-out ceremony on 2 August 1938, that he had ordered Speer to complete the new chancellery that year. Shortages of labor meant the construction workers had to work in ten-to-twelve-hour shifts. The "SS" built two concentration camps in 1938 and used the inmates to quarry stone for its construction. A brick factory was built near the Oranienburg concentration camp at Speer's behest; when someone commented on the poor conditions there, Speer stated, "The Yids got used to making bricks while in Egyptian captivity". The chancellery was completed in early January 1939. The building itself was hailed by Hitler as the "crowning glory of the greater German political empire". During the Chancellery project, the pogrom of "Kristallnacht" took place. Speer made no mention of it in the first draft of "Inside the Third Reich". It was only on the urgent advice of his publisher that he added a mention of seeing the ruins of the Central Synagogue in Berlin from his car. "Kristallnacht" accelerated Speer's ongoing efforts to dispossess Berlin's Jews from their homes. From 1939 on, Speer's Department used the Nuremberg Laws to evict Jewish tenants of non-Jewish landlords in Berlin, to make way for non-Jewish tenants displaced by redevelopment or bombing. Eventually, 75,000 Jews were displaced by these measures. Speer denied he knew they were being put on Holocaust trains and claimed that those displaced were, "Completely free and their families were still in their apartments". He also said: " ... en route to my ministry on the city highway, I could see ... crowds of people on the platform of nearby Nikolassee Railroad Station. I knew that these must be Berlin Jews who were being evacuated. I am sure that an oppressive feeling struck me as I drove past. I presumably had a sense of somber events." Matthias Schmidt said Speer had personally inspected concentration camps and described his comments as an "outright farce". Martin Kitchen described Speer's often repeated line that he knew nothing of the "dreadful things" as hollow—because not only was he fully aware of the fate of the Jews he was actively participating in their persecution. As Germany started World War II in Europe, Speer instituted quick-reaction squads to construct roads or clear away debris; before long, these units would be used to clear bomb sites. Speer used forced Jewish labor on these projects, in addition to regular German workers. Construction stopped on the Berlin and Nüremberg plans at the outbreak of war. Though stockpiling of materials and other work continued, this slowed to a halt as more resources were needed for the armament industry. Speer's offices undertook building work for each branch of the military, and for the SS, using slave labor. Speer's building work made him among the wealthiest of the Nazi elite. ==Minister of Armaments== ===Appointment and increasing power=== As one of the younger and more ambitious men in Hitler's inner circle, Speer was approaching the height of his power. In 1938, Prussian Minister President Hermann Göring had appointed him to the Prussian State Council. In 1941, he was elected to the "Reichstag" from electoral constituency 2 (Berlin–West). On 8 February 1942, Reich Minister of Armaments and Munitions Fritz Todt died in a plane crash shortly after taking off from Hitler's eastern headquarters at Rastenburg. Speer arrived there the previous evening and accepted Todt's offer to fly with him to Berlin. Speer cancelled some hours before take-off because the previous night he had been up late in a meeting with Hitler. Hitler appointed Speer in Todt's place. Martin Kitchen, a British historian, says that the choice was not surprising. Speer was loyal to Hitler, and his experience building prisoner of war camps and other structures for the military qualified him for the job. Speer succeeded Todt not only as Reich Minister but in all his other powerful positions, including Inspector General of German Roadways, Inspector General for Water and Energy and Head of the Nazi Party's Office of Technology. At the same time, Hitler also appointed Speer as head of the Organisation Todt, a massive, government-controlled construction company. Characteristically Hitler did not give Speer any clear remit; he was left to fight his contemporaries in the regime for power and control. As an example, he wanted to be given power over all armaments issues under Göring's Four Year Plan. Göring was reluctant to grant this. However Speer secured Hitler's support, and on 1 March 1942, Göring signed a decree naming Speer "General Plenipotentiary for Armament Tasks" in the Four Year Plan. Speer proved to be ambitious, unrelenting and ruthless. Speer set out to gain control not just of armaments production in the army, but in the whole armed forces. It did not immediately dawn on his political rivals that his calls for rationalization and reorganization were hiding his desire to sideline them and take control. By April 1942, Speer had persuaded Göring to create a three-member Central Planning Board within the Four Year Plan, which he used to obtain supreme authority over procurement and allocation of raw materials and scheduling of production in order to consolidate German war production in a single agency. Speer was fêted at the time, and in the post-war era, for performing an "armaments miracle" in which German war production dramatically increased. This miracle was brought to a halt in the summer of 1943 by, among other factors, the first sustained Allied bombing. Other factors probably contributed to the increase more than Speer himself. Germany's armaments production had already begun to result in increases under his predecessor, Todt. Naval armaments were not under Speer's supervision until October 1943, nor the Luftwaffe's armaments until June of the following year. Yet each showed comparable increases in production despite not being under Speer's control. Another factor that produced the boom in ammunition was the policy of allocating more coal to the steel industry. Production of every type of weapon peaked in June and July 1944, but there was now a severe shortage of fuel. After August 1944, oil from the Romanian fields was no longer available. Oil production became so low that any possibility of offensive action became impossible and weaponry lay idle. As Minister of Armaments, Speer was responsible for supplying weapons to the army. With Hitler's full agreement, he decided to prioritize tank production, and he was given unrivaled power to ensure success. Hitler was closely involved with the design of the tanks, but kept changing his mind about the specifications. This delayed the program, and Speer was unable to remedy the situation. In consequence, despite tank production having the highest priority, relatively little of the armaments budget was spent on it. This led to a significant German Army failure at the Battle of Prokhorovka, a major turning point on the Eastern Front against the Soviet Red Army. As head of Organisation Todt, Speer was directly involved in the construction and alteration of concentration camps. He agreed to expand Auschwitz and some other camps, allocating 13.7 million Reichsmarks for the work to be carried out. This allowed an extra 300 huts to be built at Auschwitz, increasing the total human capacity to 132,000. Included in the building works was material to build gas chambers, crematoria and morgues. The SS called this "Professor Speer's Special Programme". Speer realized that with six million workers drafted into the armed forces, there was a labor shortage in the war economy, and not enough workers for his factories. In response, Hitler appointed Fritz Sauckel as a "manpower dictator" to obtain new workers. Speer and Sauckel cooperated closely to meet Speer's labor demands. Hitler gave Sauckel a free hand to obtain labor, something that delighted Speer, who had requested 1,000,000 "voluntary" laborers to meet the need for armament workers. Sauckel had whole villages in France, Holland and Belgium forcibly rounded up and shipped to Speer's factories. Sauckel obtained new workers often using the most brutal methods. In occupied areas of the Soviet Union, that had been subject to partisan action, civilian men and women were rounded up en masse and sent to work forcibly in Germany. By April 1943, Sauckel had supplied 1,568,801 "voluntary" laborers, forced laborers, prisoners of war and concentration camp prisoners to Speer for use in his armaments factories. It was for the maltreatment of these people, that Speer was principally convicted at the Nuremberg Trials. ===Consolidation of arms production=== Following his appointment as Minister of Armaments, Speer was in control of armaments production solely for the Army. He coveted control of the production of armaments for the "Luftwaffe" and "Kriegsmarine" as well. He set about extending his power and influence with unexpected ambition. His close relationship with Hitler provided him with political protection, and he was able to outwit and outmaneuver his rivals in the regime. Hitler's cabinet was dismayed at his tactics, but, regardless, he was able to accumulate new responsibilities and more power. By July 1943, he had gained control of armaments production for the "Luftwaffe" and "Kriegsmarine". In August 1943, he took control of most of the Ministry of Economics, to become, in Admiral Dönitz's words, "Europe's economic dictator". His formal title was changed on 2 September 1943, to "Reich Minister for Armaments and War Production". He had become one of the most powerful people in Nazi Germany. Speer and his hand-picked director of submarine construction Otto Merker believed that the shipbuilding industry was being held back by outdated methods, and revolutionary new approaches imposed by outsiders would dramatically improve output. This belief proved incorrect, and Speer and Merker's attempt to build the "Kriegsmarine"s new generation of submarines, the Type XXI and Type XXIII, as prefabricated sections at different facilities rather than at single dockyards contributed to the failure of this strategically important program. The designs were rushed into production, and the completed submarines were crippled by flaws which resulted from the way they had been constructed. While dozens of submarines were built, few ever entered service. In December 1943, Speer visited Organisation Todt workers in Lapland, where he seriously damaged his knee and was incapacitated for several months. He was under the dubious care of Professor Karl Gebhardt at a medical clinic called Hohenlychen where patients "mysteriously failed to survive". In mid-January 1944, Speer had a lung embolism and fell seriously ill. Concerned about retaining power, he did not appoint a deputy and continued to direct work of the Armaments Ministry from his bedside. Speer's illness coincided with the Allied "Big Week", a series of bombing raids on the German aircraft factories that were a devastating blow to aircraft production. His political rivals used the opportunity to undermine his authority and damage his reputation with Hitler. He lost Hitler's unconditional support and began to lose power. In response to the Allied Big Week, Adolf Hitler authorized the creation of a Fighter Staff committee. Its aim was to ensure the preservation and growth of fighter aircraft production. The task force was established by 1 March 1944, orders of Speer, with support from Erhard Milch of the Reich Aviation Ministry. Production of German fighter aircraft more than doubled between 1943 and 1944. The growth, however, consisted in large part of models that were becoming obsolescent and proved easy prey for Allied aircraft. On 1 August 1944, Speer merged the Fighter Staff into a newly formed Armament Staff committee. The Fighter Staff committee was instrumental in bringing about the increased exploitation of slave labor in the war economy. The SS provided 64,000 prisoners for 20 separate projects from various concentration camps including Mittelbau-Dora. Prisoners worked for Junkers, Messerschmitt, Henschel and , among others. To increase production, Speer introduced a system of punishments for his workforce. Those who feigned illness, slacked off, sabotaged production or tried to escape were denied food or sent to concentration camps. In 1944, this became endemic; over half a million workers were arrested. By this time, 140,000 people were working in Speer's underground factories. These factories were death-traps; discipline was brutal, with regular executions. There were so many corpses at the Dora underground factory, for example, that the crematorium was overwhelmed. Speer's own staff described the conditions there as "hell". The largest technological advance under Speer's command came through the rocket program. It began in 1932 but had not supplied any weaponry. Speer enthusiastically supported the program and in March 1942 made an order for A4 rockets, the predecessor of the world's first ballistic missile, the V-2 rocket. The rockets were researched at a facility in Peenemünde along with the V-1 flying bomb. The V-2's first target was Paris on 8 September 1944. The program while advanced proved to be an impediment to the war economy. The large capital investment was not repaid in military effectiveness. The rockets were built at an underground factory at Mittelwerk. Labor to build the A4 rockets came from the Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp. Of the 60,000 people who ended up at the camp 20,000 died, due to the appalling conditions. On 14 April 1944, Speer lost control of Organisation Todt to his Deputy, Franz Xaver Dorsch. He opposed the assassination attempt against Hitler on 20 July 1944. He was not involved in the plot, and played a minor role in the regime's efforts to regain control over Berlin after Hitler survived. After the plot Speer's rivals attacked some of his closest allies and his management system fell out of favor with radicals in the party. He lost yet more authority. ===Defeat of Nazi Germany=== Losses of territory and a dramatic expansion of the Allied strategic bombing campaign caused the collapse of the German economy from late 1944. Air attacks on the transport network were particularly effective, as they cut the main centres of production off from essential coal supplies. In January 1945, Speer told Goebbels that armaments production could be sustained for at least a year. However, he concluded that the war was lost after Soviet forces captured the important Silesian industrial region later that month. Nevertheless, Speer believed that Germany should continue the war for as long as possible with the goal of winning better conditions from the Allies than the unconditional surrender they insisted upon. During January and February, Speer claimed that his ministry would deliver "decisive weapons" and a large increase in armaments production which would "bring about a dramatic change on the battlefield". Speer gained control over the railways in February, and asked Heinrich Himmler to supply concentration camp prisoners to work on their repair. By mid-March, Speer had accepted that Germany's economy would collapse within the next eight weeks. While he sought to frustrate directives to destroy industrial facilities in areas at risk of capture, so that they could be used after the war, he still supported the war's continuation. Speer provided Hitler with a memorandum on 15 March, which detailed Germany's dire economic situation and sought approval to cease demolitions of infrastructure. Three days later, he also proposed to Hitler that Germany's remaining military resources be concentrated along the Rhine and Vistula rivers in an attempt to prolong the fighting. This ignored military realities, as the German armed forces were unable to match the Allies' firepower and were facing total defeat. Hitler rejected Speer's proposal to cease demolitions. Instead, he issued the "Nero Decree" on 19 March, which called for the destruction of all infrastructure as the army retreated. Speer was appalled by this order, and persuaded several key military and political leaders to ignore it. During a meeting with Speer on 28/29 March, Hitler rescinded the decree and gave him authority over demolitions. Speer ended them, though the army continued to blow up bridges. By April, little was left of the armaments industry, and Speer had few official duties. Speer visited the "Führerbunker" on 22 April for the last time. He met Hitler and toured the damaged Chancellery before leaving Berlin to return to Hamburg. On 29 April, the day before committing suicide, Hitler dictated a final political testament which dropped Speer from the successor government. Speer was to be replaced by his subordinate, Karl-Otto Saur. Speer was disappointed that Hitler had not selected him as his successor. After Hitler's death, Speer offered his services to the so-called Flensburg Government, headed by Hitler's successor, Karl Dönitz. He took a role in that short-lived regime as Minister of Industry and Production. Speer provided information to the Allies, regarding the effects of the air war, and on a broad range of subjects, beginning on 10 May. On 23 May, two weeks after the surrender of German forces, British troops arrested the members of the Flensburg Government and brought Nazi Germany to a formal end. ==Post-war== ===Nuremberg trial=== Speer was taken to several internment centres for Nazi officials and interrogated. In September 1945, he was told that he would be tried for war crimes, and several days later, he was moved to Nuremberg and incarcerated there. Speer was indicted on four counts: participating in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of crime against peace; planning, initiating and waging wars of aggression and other crimes against peace; war crimes; and crimes against humanity. The chief United States prosecutor, Robert H. Jackson, of the U.S. Supreme Court said, "Speer joined in planning and executing the program to dragoon prisoners of war and foreign workers into German war industries, which waxed in output while the workers waned in starvation." Speer's attorney, Hans Flächsner, successfully contrasted Speer from other defendants and portrayed him as an artist thrust into political life who had always remained a non-ideologue. Speer was found guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity, principally for the use of slave labor and forced labor. He was acquitted on the other two counts. He had claimed that he was unaware of Nazi extermination plans, and the Allies had no proof that he was aware. His claim was revealed to be false in a private correspondence written in 1971 and publicly disclosed in 2007. On 1 October 1946, he was sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment. While three of the eight judges (two Soviet and American Francis Biddle) advocated the death penalty for Speer, the other judges did not, and a compromise sentence was reached after two days of discussions. ===Imprisonment=== On 18 July 1947, Speer was transferred to Spandau Prison in Berlin to serve his prison term. There he was known as Prisoner Number Five. Speer's parents died while he was incarcerated. His father, who died in 1947, despised the Nazis and was silent upon meeting Hitler. His mother died in 1952. As a Nazi Party member, she had greatly enjoyed dining with Hitler. Wolters and longtime Speer secretary Annemarie Kempf, while not permitted direct communication with Speer in Spandau, did what they could to help his family and carry out the requests Speer put in letters to his wife—the only written communication he was officially allowed. Beginning in 1948, Speer had the services of Toni Proost, a sympathetic Dutch orderly, to smuggle mail and his writings. In 1949, Wolters opened a bank account for Speer and began fundraising among those architects and industrialists who had benefited from Speer's activities during the war. Initially, the funds were used only to support Speer's family, but increasingly the money was used for other purposes. They paid for Toni Proost to go on holiday, and for bribes to those who might be able to secure Speer's release. Once Speer became aware of the existence of the fund, he sent detailed instructions about what to do with the money. Wolters raised a total of DM158,000 for Speer over the final seventeen years of his sentence. The prisoners were forbidden to write memoirs. Speer was able to have his writings sent to Wolters, however, and they eventually amounted to 20,000 pages. He had completed his memoirs by November 1953, which became the basis of "Inside the Third Reich". In "Spandau Diaries", Speer aimed to present himself as a tragic hero who had made a Faustian bargain for which he endured a harsh prison sentence. Much of Speer's energy was dedicated to keeping fit, both physically and mentally, during his long confinement. Spandau had a large enclosed yard where inmates were allocated plots of land for gardening. Speer created an elaborate garden complete with lawns, flower beds, shrubbery, and fruit trees. To make his daily walks around the garden more engaging Speer embarked on an imaginary trip around the globe. Carefully measuring distance travelled each day, he mapped distances to the real-world geography. He had walked more than , ending his sentence near Guadalajara, Mexico. Speer also read, studied architectural journals, and brushed up on English and French. In his writings, Speer claimed to have finished five thousand books while in prison. His sentence of twenty years amounted to 7,305 days, which only allotted one and a half days per book. Speer's supporters maintained calls for his release. Among those who pledged support for his sentence to be commuted were Charles de Gaulle and US diplomat George Wildman Ball. Willy Brandt was an advocate of his release, putting an end to the de-Nazification proceedings against him, which could have caused his property to be confiscated. Speer's efforts for an early release came to naught. The Soviet Union, having demanded a death sentence at trial, was unwilling to entertain a reduced sentence. Speer served a full term and was released at midnight on 1 October 1966. ===Release and later life=== Speer's release from prison was a worldwide media event. Reporters and photographers crowded both the street outside Spandau and the lobby of the Hotel Berlin where Speer spent the night. He said little, reserving most comments for a major interview published in "Der Spiegel" in November 1966. Although he stated he hoped to resume an architectural career, his sole project, a collaboration for a brewery, was unsuccessful. Instead, he revised his Spandau writings into two autobiographical books, "Inside the Third Reich" (in German, "Erinnerungen", or "Reminiscences") and "". He later published a work about Himmler and the SS which has been published in English as "The Slave State: Heinrich Himmler's Masterplan for SS Supremacy" or "Infiltration: How Heinrich Himmler Schemed to Build an SS Industrial Empire" (in German, "Der Sklavenstaat - Meine Auseinandersetzung mit der SS"). Speer was aided in shaping the works by Joachim Fest and Wolf Jobst Siedler from the publishing house Ullstein. He found himself unable to re-establish a relationship with his children, even with his son Albert who had also become an architect. According to Speer's daughter Hilde Schramm, "One by one my sister and brothers gave up. There was no communication." He supported Hermann, his brother, financially after the war. However, his other brother Ernst had died in the Battle of Stalingrad, despite repeated requests from his parents for Speer to repatriate him. Following his release from Spandau, Speer donated the "Chronicle", his personal diary, to the German Federal Archives. It had been edited by Wolters and made no mention of the Jews. David Irving discovered discrepancies between the deceptively edited "Chronicle" and independent documents. Speer asked Wolters to destroy the material he had omitted from his donation but Wolters refused and retained an original copy. Wolters' friendship with Speer deteriorated, and one year before Speer's death, Wolters gave Matthias Schmidt access to the unedited "Chronicle". Schmidt authored the first book highly critical of Speer. Speer's memoirs were a phenomenal success. The public was fascinated by an inside view of the Third Reich and a major war criminal became a popular figure almost overnight. Importantly, he provided an alibi to older Germans who had been Nazis. If Speer, who had been so close to Hitler, had not known the full extent of the crimes of the Nazi regime and had just been "following orders", then they could tell themselves and others they too had done the same. So great was the need to believe this "Speer Myth" that Fest and Siedler were able to strengthen it—even in the face of mounting historical evidence to the contrary. ===Death=== Speer made himself widely available to historians and other enquirers. In October 1973, he made his first trip to Britain, flying to London to be interviewed on the BBC "Midweek" programme. In the same year, he appeared on the television programme "The World at War". Speer returned to London in 1981 to participate in the BBC "Newsnight" programme. He suffered a stroke and died in London on 1 September. He had remained married to his wife, but he had formed a relationship with a German woman living in London and was with her at the time of his death. His daughter, Margret Nissen, wrote in her 2005 memoirs that after his release from Spandau he spent all of his time constructing the "Speer Myth". ==The Speer myth== ===The Good Nazi=== After his release from Spandau, Speer portrayed himself as the "good Nazi". He was well-educated, middle class, and bourgeois, and could contrast himself with those who, in the popular mind, typified "bad Nazis". In his memoirs and interviews, he had distorted the truth and made so many major omissions that his lies became known as "myths". Speer even invented his own birth's circumstances, stating falsely that he was born at midday amid crashes of thunder and bells of the nearby Christ Church, whereas it was between three and five o'clock, and the Church was built only some years after. Speer took his myth-making to a mass media level and his "cunning apologies" were reproduced frequently in post-war Germany. Isabell Trommer writes in her biography of Speer that Fest and Siedler were co-authors of Speer's memoirs and co-creators of his myths. In return they were paid handsomely in royalties and other financial inducements. Speer, Siedler and Fest had constructed a masterpiece; the image of the "good Nazi" remained in place for decades, despite historical evidence indicating that it was false. Speer had carefully constructed an image of himself as an apolitical technocrat who deeply regretted having failed to discover the monstrous crimes of the Third Reich. This construction was accepted almost at face value by historian Hugh Trevor-Roper when investigating the death of Adolf Hitler for British Intelligence and in writing "The Last Days of Hitler". Trevor-Roper frequently refers to Speer as "a technocrat [who] nourished a technocrat's philosophy", one who cared only for his building projects or his ministerial duties, and who thought that politics was irrelevant, at least until Hitler's Nero Decree which Speer, according to his own telling, worked assiduously to counter. Trevor-Roper – who calls Speer an administrative genius whose basic instincts were peaceful and constructive – does take Speer to task, however, for his failure to recognize the immorality of Hitler and Nazism, calling him "the real criminal of Nazi Germany": For ten years he sat at the very centre of political power; his keen intelligence diagnosed the nature and observed the mutations of Nazi government and policy; he saw and despised the personalities around him; he heard their outrageous orders and understood their fantastic ambitions; but he did nothing. Supposing politics to be irrelevant, he turned aside and built roads and bridges and factories, while the logical consequences of government by madmen emerged. Ultimately, when their emergence involved the ruin of all his work, Speer accepted the consequences and acted. Then it was too late; Germany had been destroyed. After Speer's death, Matthias Schmidt published a book that demonstrated that Speer had ordered the eviction of Jews from their Berlin homes. By 1999, historians had amply demonstrated that Speer had lied extensively. Even so, public perceptions of Speer did not change substantially until Heinrich Breloer aired a biographical film on TV in 2004. The film began a process of demystification and critical reappraisal. Adam Tooze in his book "The Wages of Destruction" said Speer had manoeuvred himself through the ranks of the regime skillfully and ruthlessly and that the idea he was a technocrat blindly carrying out orders was "absurd". Trommer said he was not an apolitical technocrat; instead, he was one of the most powerful and unscrupulous leaders in the Nazi regime. Kitchen said he had deceived the Nuremberg Tribunal and post-war Germany. Brechtken said that if his extensive involvement in the Holocaust had been known at the time of his trial he would have been sentenced to death. The image of the good Nazi was supported by numerous Speer myths. In addition to the myth that he was an apolitical technocrat, he claimed he did not have full knowledge of the Holocaust or the persecution of the Jews. Another myth posits that Speer revolutionized the German war machine after his appointment as Minister of Armaments. He was credited with a dramatic increase in the shipment of arms that was widely reported as keeping Germany in the war. Another myth centered around a faked plan to assassinate Hitler with poisonous gas. The idea for this myth came to him after he recalled the panic when car fumes came through an air ventilation system. He fabricated the additional details. Brechtken wrote that his most brazen lie was fabricated during an interview with a French journalist in 1952. The journalist described an invented scenario in which Speer had refused Hitler's orders and Hitler had left with tears in his eyes. Speer liked the scenario so much that he wrote it into his memoirs. The journalist had unwittingly collaborated in one of his myths. Speer also sought to portray himself as an opponent of Hitler's leadership. Despite his opposition to the 20 July plot, he falsely claimed in his memoirs to have been sympathetic to the plotters. He maintained Hitler was cool towards him for the remainder of his life after learning they had included him on a list of potential ministers. This formed a key element of the myths Speer encouraged. Speer also falsely claimed that he had realised the war was lost at an early stage, and thereafter worked to preserve the resources needed for the civilian population's survival. In reality, he had sought to prolong the war until further resistance was impossible, thus contributing to the large number of deaths and the extensive destruction Germany suffered in the conflict's final months. ===Denial of responsibility=== Speer maintained at the Nuremberg trials and in his memoirs that he had no direct knowledge of the Holocaust. He admitted only to being uncomfortable around Jews in the published version of the "Spandau Diaries". In his final statement at Nuremberg, Speer gave the impression of apologizing, although he did not directly admit any personal guilt and the only victim he mentioned was the German people. Historian Martin Kitchen states that Speer was actually "fully aware of what had happened to the Jews" and was "intimately involved in the 'Final Solution'". Brechtken said Speer only admitted to a generalized responsibility for the Holocaust to hide his direct and actual responsibility. Speer was photographed with slave laborers at Mauthausen concentration camp during a visit on 31 March 1943; he also visited Gusen concentration camp. Although survivor Francisco Boix testified at the Nuremberg trials about Speer's visit, Taylor writes that, had the photo been available, he would have been hanged. In 2005, "The Daily Telegraph" reported that documents had surfaced indicating that Speer had approved the allocation of materials for the expansion of Auschwitz concentration camp after two of his assistants inspected the facility on a day when almost a thousand Jews were massacred. Heinrich Breloer, discussing the construction of Auschwitz, said Speer was not just a cog in the work—he was the "terror itself". Speer did not deny being present at the Posen speeches to Nazi leaders at a conference in Posen (Poznań) on 6 October 1943, but claimed to have left the auditorium before Himmler said during his speech: "The grave decision had to be taken to cause this people to vanish from the earth", and later, "The Jews must be exterminated". Speer is mentioned several times in the speech, and Himmler addresses him directly. In 2007, "The Guardian" reported that a letter from Speer dated 23 December 1971, had been found in a collection of his correspondence with Hélène Jeanty, the widow of a Belgian resistance fighter. In the letter, Speer says, "There is no doubt—I was present as Himmler announced on October 6, 1943, that all Jews would be killed." ===Armaments miracle=== Speer was credited with an "armaments miracle". During the winter of 1941–42, in the light of Germany's disastrous defeat in the Battle of Moscow, the German leadership including Friedrich Fromm, Georg Thomas and Fritz Todt had come to the conclusion that the war could not be won. The rational position to adopt was to seek a political solution that would end the war without defeat. Speer in response used his propaganda expertise to display a new dynamism of the war economy. He produced spectacular statistics, claiming a sixfold increase in munitions production, a fourfold increase in artillery production, and he sent further propaganda to the newsreels of the country. He was able to curtail the discussion that the war should be ended. The armaments "miracle" was a myth; Speer had used statistical manipulation to support his claims. The production of armaments did rise; however, this was due to the normal causes of reorganization before Speer came to office, the relentless mobilization of slave labor and a deliberate reduction in the quality of output to favor quantity. By July 1943 Speer's armaments propaganda became irrelevant because a catalogue of dramatic defeats on the battlefield meant the prospect of losing the war could no longer be hidden from the German public. ==Architectural legacy== Little remains of Speer's personal architectural works, other than the plans and photographs. No buildings designed by Speer during the Nazi era are extant in Berlin, other than the 4 entrance pavilions and underpasses leading to the Victory Column or Siegessäule, and the "Schwerbelastungskörper", a heavy load-bearing body built around 1941. The concrete cylinder, high, was used to measure ground subsidence as part of feasibility studies for a massive triumphal arch and other large structures planned within Hitler's post-war renewal project for the city of Berlin as the world capital Germania. The cylinder is now a protected landmark and is open to the public. The tribune of the "Zeppelinfeld" stadium in Nuremberg, though partly demolished, can also be seen. During the war, the Speer-designed New Reich Chancellery was largely destroyed by air raids and in the Battle of Berlin. The exterior walls survived, but they were eventually dismantled by the Soviets. Unsubstantiated rumors have claimed that the remains were used for other building projects such as the Humboldt University, Mohrenstraße metro station and Soviet war memorials in Berlin.

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Asteraceae

The family Asteraceae (), with the original name Compositae, consists of over 32,000 known species of flowering plants in over 1,900 genera within the order Asterales. Commonly referred to as the aster, daisy, composite, or sunflower family, Compositae were first described in the year 1740. The number of species in Asteraceae is rivaled only by the Orchidaceae, and which is the larger family is unclear as the quantity of extant species in each family is unknown. Most species of Asteraceae are annual, biennial, or perennial herbaceous plants, but there are also shrubs, vines, and trees. The family has a widespread distribution, from subpolar to tropical regions, in a wide variety of habitats. Most occur in hot desert and cold or hot semi-desert climates, and they are found on every continent but Antarctica. Their primary common characteristic is flower heads, technically known as capitula, consisting of sometimes hundreds of tiny individual florets enclosed by a whorl of protective involucral bracts. The oldest known fossils are pollen grains from the Late Cretaceous (Campanian to Maastrichtian) of Antarctica, dated to million years ago (mya). It is estimated that the crown group of Asteraceae evolved at least 85.9 mya (Late Cretaceous, Santonian) with a stem node age of 88–89 mya (Late Cretaceous, Coniacian). Asteraceae is an economically important family, providing food staples, garden plants, and herbal medicines. Species outside of their native ranges can be considered weedy or invasive. ==Description== Members of the Asteraceae are mostly herbaceous plants, but some shrubs, vines, and trees (such as "Lachanodes arborea") do exist. Asteraceae species are generally easy to distinguish from other plants because of their unique inflorescence and other shared characteristics, such as the joined anthers of the stamens. Nonetheless, determining genera and species of some groups such as "Hieracium" is notoriously difficult (see "damned yellow composite" for example). ===Roots=== Members of the family Asteraceae generally produce taproots, but sometimes they possess fibrous root systems. Some species have underground stems in the form of caudices or rhizomes. These can be fleshy or woody depending on the species. ===Stems=== The stems are herbaceous, aerial, branched, and cylindrical with glandular hairs, generally erect, but can be prostrate to ascending. The stems can contain secretory canals with resin, or latex, which is particularly common among the Cichorioideae. ===Leaves=== Leaves can be alternate, opposite, or whorled. They may be simple, but are often deeply lobed or otherwise incised, often conduplicate or revolute. The margins also can be entire or toothed. Resin or latex can also be present in the leaves. ===Inflorescences=== Nearly all Asteraceae bear their flowers in dense flower heads called "capitula". They are surrounded by involucral bracts, and when viewed from a distance, each capitulum may appear to be a single flower. Enlarged outer (peripheral) flowers in the capitulum may resemble petals, and the involucral bracts may look like a calyx. ==== Floral heads ==== In plants of the Asteraceae, what appears to be a single "daisy"-type flower is actually a composite of several much smaller flowers, known as the "capitulum" or "head". By visually presenting as a single flower, the capitulum functions in attracting pollinators, in the same manner that other "showy" flowering plants in numerous other, older, plant families have evolved to attract pollinators. The previous name for the family, "Compositae", reflects the fact that what appears to be a single floral entity is in fact a "composite" of much smaller flowers. The "petals" or "sunrays" in an "asteraceous" head are in fact individual strap-shaped flowers called "ray flowers" or "ray florets", and the "sun disk" is made up of smaller, radially symmetric, individual flowers called "disc flowers" or "disc florets". The word "aster" means "star" in Greek, referring to the appearance of most family members as a "celestial body with rays". The capitulum, which often appears to be a single flower, is often referred to as a "head". In some species, the entire head is able to pivot its floral stem in the course of the day to track the sun (like a "smart" solar panel), thus maximizing the reflectivity of the entire floral unit and further attracting flying pollinators. Nearest to the flower stem lie a series of small, usually green, scale-like bracts. These are known as "phyllaries"; collectively, they form the involucre, which serves to protect the immature head of florets during its development. The individual florets are arranged atop a dome-like structure called the "receptacle". The individual florets in a head consist, developmentally, of five fused petals (rarely four); instead of sepals, they have threadlike, hairy, or bristly structures, known collectively as a "pappus", (plural "pappi"). The pappus surrounds the ovary and can, when mature and attached to a seed, adhere to animal fur or be carried by air currents, aiding in seed dispersal. The whitish, fluffy head of a dandelion, commonly blown on by children, consists of numerous seeds resting on the receptacle, each seed attached to its pappus. The pappi provide a parachute-like structure to help the seed travel from its point of origin to a more hospitable site. A "ray flower" is a two- or three-lobed, strap-shaped, individual flower, found in the head of most members of the Asteraceae. The corolla of the ray flower may have two tiny, vestigial teeth, opposite to the three-lobed strap, or tongue, indicating its evolution by fusion from an ancestral, five-part corolla. In some species, the 3:2 arrangement is reversed, with two lobes, and zero or three tiny teeth visible opposite the tongue. A "ligulate flower" is a five-lobed, strap-shaped, individual flower found in the heads of certain other asteraceous species. A "ligule" is the strap-shaped tongue of the corolla of either a ray flower or of a ligulate flower. A "disk flower" (or "disc flower") is a radially symmetric individual flower in the head, which is ringed by the ray flowers when both are present. In some species, ray flowers may be arranged around the disc in irregular symmetry, or with a weakly bilaterally symmetric arrangement. == Variations == A "radiate head" has disc flowers surrounded by ray flowers. A "ligulate head" has all ligulate flowers and no disc flowers. When an Asteraceae flower head has only disc flowers that are either sterile, male, or bisexual (but not female and fertile), it is a "discoid head". "Disciform heads" possess only disc flowers in their heads, but may produce two different sex types (male or female) within their disciform head. Some other species produce two different head types: "staminate" (all-male), or "pistillate" (all-female). In a few unusual species, the "head" will consist of one single disc flower; alternatively, a few species will produce both single-flowered female heads, along with multi-flowered male heads, in their "pollination strategy". === Floral structures === The distinguishing characteristic of Asteraceae is their inflorescence, a type of specialised, composite flower head or "pseudanthium", technically called a calathium or "capitulum", that may look superficially like a single flower. The "capitulum" is a contracted raceme composed of numerous individual sessile flowers, called "florets", all sharing the same receptacle. A set of bracts forms an involucre surrounding the base of the capitulum. These are called "phyllaries", or "involucral bracts". They may simulate the sepals of the pseudanthium. These are mostly herbaceous but can also be brightly coloured (e.g. "Helichrysum") or have a scarious (dry and membranous) texture. The phyllaries can be free or fused, and arranged in one to many rows, overlapping like the tiles of a roof ("imbricate") or not (this variation is important in identification of tribes and genera). Each floret may be subtended by a bract, called a "palea" or "receptacular bract". These bracts are often called "chaff". The presence or absence of these bracts, their distribution on the receptacle, and their size and shape are all important diagnostic characteristics for genera and tribes. The florets have five petals fused at the base to form a corolla tube and they may be either actinomorphic or zygomorphic. "Disc florets" are usually actinomorphic, with five petal lips on the rim of the corolla tube. The petal lips may be either very short, or long, in which case they form deeply lobed petals. The latter is the only kind of floret in the Carduoideae, while the first kind is more widespread. "Ray florets" are always highly zygomorphic and are characterised by the presence of a "ligule", a strap-shaped structure on the edge of the corolla tube consisting of fused petals. In the Asteroideae and other minor subfamilies these are usually borne only on florets at the circumference of the capitulum and have a 3+2 scheme – above the fused corolla tube, three very long fused petals form the ligule, with the other two petals being inconspicuously small. The Cichorioideae has only ray florets, with a 5+0 scheme – all five petals form the ligule. A 4+1 scheme is found in the Barnadesioideae. The tip of the ligule is often divided into teeth, each one representing a petal. Some marginal florets may have no petals at all (filiform floret). The calyx of the florets may be absent, but when present is always modified into a pappus of two or more teeth, scales or bristles and this is often involved in the dispersion of the seeds. As with the bracts, the nature of the pappus is an important diagnostic feature. There are usually four or five stamens. The filaments are fused to the corolla, while the anthers are generally connate ("syngenesious" anthers), thus forming a sort of tube around the style ("theca"). They commonly have basal and/or apical appendages. Pollen is released inside the tube and is collected around the growing style, and then, as the style elongates, is pushed out of the tube ("nüdelspritze"). The pistil consists of two connate carpels. The style has two lobes. Stigmatic tissue may be located in the interior surface or form two lateral lines. The ovary is inferior and has only one ovule, with basal placentation. === Fruits and seeds === In members of the Asteraceae the fruit is achene-like, and is called a "cypsela" (plural "cypselae"). Although there are two fused carpels, there is only one locule, and only one seed per fruit is formed. It may sometimes be winged or spiny because the pappus, which is derived from calyx tissue often remains on the fruit (for example in dandelion). In some species, however, the pappus falls off (for example in "Helianthus"). Cypsela morphology is often used to help determine plant relationships at the genus and species level. The mature seeds usually have little endosperm or none. === Pollen === The pollen of composites is typically echinolophate, a morphological term meaning "with elaborate systems of ridges and spines dispersed around and between the apertures." === Metabolites === In Asteraceae, the energy store is generally in the form of inulin rather than starch. They produce iso/chlorogenic acid, sesquiterpene lactones, pentacyclic triterpene alcohols, various alkaloids, acetylenes (cyclic, aromatic, with vinyl end groups), tannins. They have terpenoid essential oils that never contain iridoids. Asteraceae produce secondary metabolites, such as flavonoids and terpenoids. Some of these molecules can inhibit protozoan parasites such as "Plasmodium", "Trypanosoma", "Leishmania" and parasitic intestinal worms, and thus have potential in medicine. == Taxonomy == ===History=== Compositae, the original name for Asteraceae, were first described in 1740 by Dutch botanist Adriaan van Royen. Traditionally, two subfamilies were recognised: Asteroideae (or Tubuliflorae) and Cichorioideae (or Liguliflorae). The latter has been shown to be extensively paraphyletic, and has now been divided into 12 subfamilies, but the former still stands. The study of this family is known as synantherology. ===Phylogeny=== The phylogenetic tree of subfamilies presented below is based on Panero & Funk (2002) updated in 2014, and now also includes the monotypic Famatinanthoideae. The diamond (♦) denotes a very poorly supported node (<50% bootstrap support), the dot (•) a poorly supported node (<80%). The family includes over 32,000 currently accepted species, in over 1,900 genera (list) in 13 subfamilies. The number of species in the family Asteraceae is rivaled only by Orchidaceae. Which is the larger family is unclear, because of the uncertainty about how many extant species each family includes. The four subfamilies Asteroideae, Cichorioideae, Carduoideae and Mutisioideae contain 99% of the species diversity of the whole family (approximately 70%, 14%, 11% and 3% respectively). Because of the morphological complexity exhibited by this family, agreeing on generic circumscriptions has often been difficult for taxonomists. As a result, several of these genera have required multiple revisions. ==== Paleontology and evolutionary processes ==== The oldest known fossils of members of Asteraceae are pollen grains from the Late Cretaceous of Antarctica, dated to ~76–66 mya (Campanian to Maastrichtian) and assigned to the extant genus "Dasyphyllum". Barreda, "et al." (2015) estimated that the crown group of Asteraceae evolved at least 85.9 mya (Late Cretaceous, Santonian) with a stem node age of 88–89 mya (Late Cretaceous, Coniacian). It is not known whether the precise cause of their great success was the development of the highly specialised capitulum, their ability to store energy as fructans (mainly inulin), which is an advantage in relatively dry zones, or some combination of these and possibly other factors. Heterocarpy, or the ability to produce different fruit morphs, has evolved and is common in Asteraceae. It allows seeds to be dispersed over varying distances and each is adapted to different environments, increasing chances of survival. === Etymology and pronunciation === The original name Compositae is still valid under the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants. It refers to the "composite" nature of the capitula, which consist of a few or many individual flowers. The alternative (as it came later) name Asteraceae () comes to international scientific vocabulary from Neo-Latin, from "Aster", the type genus, + "-aceae", a standardized suffix for plant family names in modern taxonomy. This genus name comes from the Classical Latin word , "star", which came from Ancient Greek (), "star". It refers to the star-like form of the inflorescence. The vernacular name "daisy", widely applied to members of this family, is derived from the Old English name of the daisy ("Bellis perennis"): , meaning "day's eye". This is because the petals open at dawn and close at dusk. == Distribution and habitat == Asteraceae species have a widespread distribution, from subpolar to tropical regions in a wide variety of habitats. Most occur in hot desert and cold or hot semi-desert climates, and they are found on every continent but Antarctica. They are especially numerous in tropical and subtropical regions (notably Central America, eastern Brazil, the Mediterranean, the Levant, southern Africa, central Asia, and southwestern China). The largest proportion of the species occur in the arid and semi-arid regions of subtropical and lower temperate latitudes. The Asteraceae family comprises 10% of all flowering plant species. == Ecology == Asteraceae are especially common in open and dry environments. Many members of Asteraceae are pollinated by insects, which explains their value in attracting beneficial insects, but anemophily is also present (e.g. "Ambrosia", "Artemisia"). There are many apomictic species in the family. Seeds are ordinarily dispersed intact with the fruiting body, the cypsela. "Anemochory" (wind dispersal) is common, assisted by a hairy pappus. "Epizoochory" is another common method, in which the dispersal unit, a single cypsela (e.g. "Bidens") or entire capitulum (e.g. "Arctium") has hooks, spines or some structure to attach to the fur or plumage (or even clothes, as in the photo) of an animal just to fall off later far from its mother plant. Some members of Asteraceae are economically important as weeds. Notable in the United States are "Senecio jacobaea" (ragwort), "Senecio vulgaris" (groundsel), and "Taraxacum" (dandelion). Some are invasive species in particular regions, often having been introduced by human agency. Examples include various tumbleweeds, "Bidens", ragweeds, thistles, and dandelion. Dandelion was introduced into North America by European settlers who used the young leaves as a salad green. A number of species are toxic to grazing animals. == Uses == Asteraceae is an economically important family, providing products such as cooking oils, leaf vegetables like lettuce, sunflower seeds, artichokes, sweetening agents, coffee substitutes and herbal teas. Several genera are of horticultural importance, including pot marigold ("Calendula officinalis"), "Echinacea" (coneflowers), various daisies, fleabane, chrysanthemums, dahlias, zinnias, and heleniums. Asteraceae are important in herbal medicine, including "Grindelia", yarrow, and many others. Commercially important plants in Asteraceae include the food crops "Lactuca sativa" (lettuce), "Cichorium" (chicory), "Cynara scolymus" (globe artichoke), "Helianthus annuus" (sunflower), "Smallanthus sonchifolius" (yacón), "Carthamus tinctorius" (safflower) and "Helianthus tuberosus" (Jerusalem artichoke). Plants are used as herbs and in herbal teas and other beverages. Chamomile, for example, comes from two different species: the annual "Matricaria chamomilla" (German chamomile) and the perennial "Chamaemelum nobile" (Roman chamomile). "Calendula" (known as pot marigold) is grown commercially for herbal teas and potpourri. "Echinacea" is used as a medicinal tea. The wormwood genus "Artemisia" includes absinthe ("A. absinthium") and tarragon ("A. dracunculus"). Winter tarragon ("Tagetes lucida"), is commonly grown and used as a tarragon substitute in climates where tarragon will not survive. Many members of the family are grown as ornamental plants for their flowers, and some are important ornamental crops for the cut flower industry. Some examples are "Chrysanthemum", "Gerbera", "Calendula", "Dendranthema", "Argyranthemum", "Dahlia", "Tagetes", "Zinnia", and many others. Many species of this family possess medicinal properties and are used as traditional antiparasitic medicine. Members of the family are also commonly featured in medical and phytochemical journals because the sesquiterpene lactone compounds contained within them are an important cause of allergic contact dermatitis. Allergy to these compounds is the leading cause of allergic contact dermatitis in florists in the US. Pollen from ragweed "Ambrosia" is among the main causes of so-called hay fever in the United States. Asteraceae are also used for some industrial purposes. French Marigold ("Tagetes patula") is common in commercial poultry feeds and its oil is extracted for uses in cola and the cigarette industry. The genera "Chrysanthemum", "Pulicaria", "Tagetes", and "Tanacetum" contain species with useful insecticidal properties. "Parthenium argentatum" (guayule) is a source of hypoallergenic latex. Several members of the family are copious nectar producers and are useful for evaluating pollinator populations during their bloom. "Centaurea" (knapweed), "Helianthus annuus" (domestic sunflower), and some species of "Solidago" (goldenrod) are major "honey plants" for beekeepers. "Solidago" produces relatively high protein pollen, which helps honey bees over winter.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=957

Apiaceae

Apiaceae () or Umbelliferae is a family of mostly aromatic flowering plants named after the type genus "Apium" and commonly known as the celery, carrot or parsley family, or simply as umbellifers. It is the 16th-largest family of flowering plants, with more than 3,800 species in about 446 genera, including such well-known and economically important plants as ajwain, angelica, anise, asafoetida, caraway, carrot, celery, chervil, coriander, cumin, dill, fennel, lovage, cow parsley, parsley, parsnip and sea holly, as well as silphium, a plant whose identity is unclear and which may be extinct. The family Apiaceae includes a significant number of phototoxic species, such as giant hogweed, and a smaller number of highly poisonous species, such as poison hemlock, water hemlock, spotted cowbane, fool's parsley, and various species of water dropwort. == Description == Most Apiaceae are annual, biennial or perennial herbs (frequently with the leaves aggregated toward the base), though a minority are woody shrubs or small trees such as "Bupleurum fruticosum". Their leaves are of variable size and alternately arranged, or with the upper leaves becoming nearly opposite. The leaves may be petiolate or sessile. There are no stipules but the petioles are frequently sheathing and the leaves may be perfoliate. The leaf blade is usually dissected, ternate, or pinnatifid, but simple and entire in some genera, e.g. "Bupleurum". Commonly, their leaves emit a marked smell when crushed, aromatic to fetid, but absent in some species. The defining characteristic of this family is the inflorescence, the flowers nearly always aggregated in terminal umbels, that may be simple or more commonly compound, often umbelliform cymes. The flowers are usually perfect (hermaphroditic) and actinomorphic, but there may be zygomorphic flowers at the edge of the umbel, as in carrot ("Daucus carota") and coriander, with petals of unequal size, the ones pointing outward from the umbel larger than the ones pointing inward. Some are andromonoecious, polygamomonoecious, or even dioecious (as in "Acronema"), with a distinct calyx and corolla, but the calyx is often highly reduced, to the point of being undetectable in many species, while the corolla can be white, yellow, pink or purple. The flowers are nearly perfectly pentamerous, with five petals and five stamens. There is often variation in the functionality of the stamens even within a single inflorescence. Some flowers are functionally staminate (where a pistil may be present but has no ovules capable of being fertilized) while others are functionally pistillate (where stamens are present but their anthers do not produce viable pollen). Pollination of one flower by the pollen of a different flower of the same plant (geitonogamy) is common. The gynoecium consists of two carpels fused into a single, bicarpellate pistil with an inferior ovary. Stylopodia support two styles and secrete nectar, attracting pollinators like flies, mosquitoes, gnats, beetles, moths, and bees. The fruit is a schizocarp consisting of two fused carpels that separate at maturity into two mericarps, each containing a single seed. The fruits of many species are dispersed by wind but others such as those of "Daucus" spp., are covered in bristles, which may be hooked in sanicle "Sanicula europaea" and thus catch in the fur of animals. The seeds have an oily endosperm and often contain essential oils, containing aromatic compounds that are responsible for the flavour of commercially important umbelliferous seed such as anise, cumin and coriander. The shape and details of the ornamentation of the ripe fruits are important for identification to species level. == Taxonomy == Apiaceae was first described by John Lindley in 1836. The name is derived from the type genus "Apium", which was originally used by Pliny the Elder circa 50 AD for a celery-like plant. The alternative name for the family, Umbelliferae, derives from the inflorescence being generally in the form of a compound umbel. The family was one of the first to be recognized as a distinct group in Jacques Daleschamps' 1586 "Historia generalis plantarum". With Robert Morison's 1672 "Plantarum umbelliferarum distribution nova" it became the first group of plants for which a systematic study was published. The family is solidly placed within the Apiales order in the APG III system. It is closely related to Araliaceae and the boundaries between these families remain unclear. Traditionally groups within the family have been delimited largely based on fruit morphology, and the results from this have not been congruent with the more recent molecular phylogenetic analyses. The subfamilial and tribal classification for the family is currently in a state of flux, with many of the groups being found to be grossly paraphyletic or polyphyletic. ===Classification and phylogeny=== Prior to molecular phylogenetic studies, the family was subdivided primarily based on fruit characteristics. Molecular phylogenetic analyses from the mid-1990s onwards have shown that fruit characters evolved in parallel many times, so that using them in classification resulted in units that were not monophyletic. In 2004, it was proposed that Apiaceae should be divided into four subfamilies: - Apioideae - Azorelloideae - Mackinlayoideae - Saniculoideae Apioideae is by far the largest subfamily with about 90% of the genera. Most subsequent studies have supported this division, although leaving some genera unplaced. A 2021 study suggested the relationships shown in the following cladogram. The "Platysace" clade and the genera "Klotzschia" and "Hermas" fell outside the four subfamilies. It was suggested that they could be accommodated in subfamilies of their own. "Phlyctidocarpa" was formerly placed in the subfamily Apioideae, but if kept there makes Apioideae paraphyletic. It could be placed in an enlarged Saniculoideae, or restored to Apioideae if the latter were expanded to include Saniculoideae. The subfamilies can be further divided into tribes and clades, with many clades falling outside formally recognized tribes. === Genera=== The number of genera accepted by sources varies. , Plants of the World Online (PoWO) accepted 444 genera, while GRIN Taxonomy accepted 462. The PoWO genera are not a subset of those in GRIN; for example, "Haloselinum" is accepted by PoWO but not by GRIN, while "Halosciastrum" is accepted by GRIN but not by PoWO, which treats it as a synonym of "Angelica". The Angiosperm Phylogeny Website had an "approximate list" of 446 genera. == Ecology == The black swallowtail butterfly, "Papilio polyxenes", uses the family Apiaceae for food and host plants for oviposition. The 22-spot ladybird is also commonly found eating mildew on these plants. == Uses == Many members of this family are cultivated for various purposes. Parsnip ("Pastinaca sativa"), carrot ("Daucus carota") and Hamburg parsley ("Petroselinum crispum") produce tap roots that are large enough to be useful as food. Many species produce essential oils in their leaves or fruits and as a result are flavourful aromatic herbs. Examples are parsley ("Petroselinum crispum"), coriander ("Coriandrum sativum"), culantro, and dill ("Anethum graveolens"). The seeds may be used in cuisine, as with coriander ("Coriandrum sativum"), fennel ("Foeniculum vulgare"), cumin ("Cuminum cyminum"), and caraway ("Carum carvi"). Other notable cultivated Apiaceae include chervil ("Anthriscus cerefolium"), angelica ("Angelica" spp.), celery ("Apium graveolens"), arracacha ("Arracacia xanthorrhiza"), sea holly ("Eryngium" spp.), asafoetida ("Ferula asafoetida"), galbanum ("Ferula gummosa"), cicely ("Myrrhis odorata"), anise ("Pimpinella anisum"), lovage ("Levisticum officinale"), and hacquetia ("Sanicula epipactis"). === Cultivation === Generally, all members of this family are best cultivated in the cool-season garden; they may not grow at all if the soils are too warm. Almost every widely cultivated plant of this group is a considered useful as a companion plant. One reason is that the tiny flowers, clustered into umbels, are well suited for ladybugs, parasitic wasps, and predatory flies, which drink nectar when not reproducing. They then prey upon insect pests on nearby plants. Some of the members of this family considered "herbs" produce scents that are believed to mask the odours of nearby plants, thus making them harder for insect pests to find. === Other uses === The poisonous members of the Apiaceae have been used for a variety of purposes globally. The poisonous "Oenanthe crocata" has been used as an aid in suicides, and arrow poisons have been made from various other family species. "Daucus carota" has been used as coloring for butter. "Dorema ammoniacum", "Ferula galbaniflua", and "Ferula moschata" (sumbul) are sources of incense. The woody "Azorella compacta" Phil. has been used in South America for fuel. == Toxicity == Many species in the family Apiaceae produce phototoxic substances (called furanocoumarins) that sensitize human skin to sunlight. Contact with plant parts that contain furanocoumarins, followed by exposure to sunlight, may cause phytophotodermatitis, a serious skin inflammation. Phototoxic species include "Ammi majus", "Notobubon galbanum," the parsnip ("Pastinaca sativa") and numerous species of the genus "Heracleum", especially the giant hogweed ("Heracleum mantegazzianum"). Of all the plant species that have been reported to induce phytophotodermatitis, approximately half belong to the family Apiaceae. The family Apiaceae also includes a smaller number of poisonous species, including poison hemlock, water hemlock, spotted cowbane, fool's parsley, and various species of water dropwort. Some members of the family Apiaceae, including carrot, celery, fennel, parsley and parsnip, contain polyynes, an unusual class of organic compounds that exhibit cytotoxic effects.

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Axon

An axon (from Greek ἄξων "áxōn", axis), or nerve fiber (or nerve fibre: see spelling differences), is a long, slender projection of a nerve cell, or neuron, in vertebrates, that typically conducts electrical impulses known as action potentials away from the nerve cell body. The function of the axon is to transmit information to different neurons, muscles, and glands. In certain sensory neurons (pseudounipolar neurons), such as those for touch and warmth, the axons are called afferent nerve fibers and the electrical impulse travels along these from the periphery to the cell body and from the cell body to the spinal cord along another branch of the same axon. Axon dysfunction can be the cause of many inherited and acquired neurological disorders that affect both the peripheral and central neurons. Nerve fibers are classed into three typesgroup A nerve fibers, group B nerve fibers, and group C nerve fibers. Groups A and B are myelinated, and group C are unmyelinated. These groups include both sensory fibers and motor fibers. Another classification groups only the sensory fibers as Type I, Type II, Type III, and Type IV. An axon is one of two types of cytoplasmic protrusions from the cell body of a neuron; the other type is a dendrite. Axons are distinguished from dendrites by several features, including shape (dendrites often taper while axons usually maintain a constant radius), length (dendrites are restricted to a small region around the cell body while axons can be much longer), and function (dendrites receive signals whereas axons transmit them). Some types of neurons have no axon and transmit signals from their dendrites. In some species, axons can emanate from dendrites known as axon-carrying dendrites. No neuron ever has more than one axon; however in invertebrates such as insects or leeches the axon sometimes consists of several regions that function more or less independently of each other. Axons are covered by a membrane known as an axolemma; the cytoplasm of an axon is called axoplasm. Most axons branch, in some cases very profusely. The end branches of an axon are called telodendria. The swollen end of a telodendron is known as the axon terminal which joins the dendrite or cell body of another neuron forming a synaptic connection. Axons make contact with other cellsusually other neurons but sometimes muscle or gland cellsat junctions called synapses. In some circumstances, the axon of one neuron may form a synapse with the dendrites of the same neuron, resulting in an autapse. At a synapse, the membrane of the axon closely adjoins the membrane of the target cell, and special molecular structures serve to transmit electrical or electrochemical signals across the gap. Some synaptic junctions appear along the length of an axon as it extends; these are called "en passant" ("in passing") synapses and can be in the hundreds or even the thousands along one axon. Other synapses appear as terminals at the ends of axonal branches. A single axon, with all its branches taken together, can target multiple parts of the brain and generate thousands of synaptic terminals. A bundle of axons make a nerve tract in the central nervous system, and a fascicle in the peripheral nervous system. In placental mammals the largest white matter tract in the brain is the corpus callosum, formed of some 200 million axons in the human brain. ==Anatomy== Axons are the primary transmission lines of the nervous system, and as bundles they form nerves. Some axons can extend up to one meter or more while others extend as little as one millimeter. The longest axons in the human body are those of the sciatic nerve, which run from the base of the spinal cord to the big toe of each foot. The diameter of axons is also variable. Most individual axons are microscopic in diameter (typically about one micrometer (µm) across). The largest mammalian axons can reach a diameter of up to 20 µm. The squid giant axon, which is specialized to conduct signals very rapidly, is close to 1 millimeter in diameter, the size of a small pencil lead. The numbers of axonal telodendria (the branching structures at the end of the axon) can also differ from one nerve fiber to the next. Axons in the central nervous system (CNS) typically show multiple telodendria, with many synaptic end points. In comparison, the cerebellar granule cell axon is characterized by a single T-shaped branch node from which two parallel fibers extend. Elaborate branching allows for the simultaneous transmission of messages to a large number of target neurons within a single region of the brain. There are two types of axons in the nervous system: myelinated and unmyelinated axons. Myelin is a layer of a fatty insulating substance, which is formed by two types of glial cells: Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes. In the peripheral nervous system Schwann cells form the myelin sheath of a myelinated axon. Oligodendrocytes form the insulating myelin in the CNS. Along myelinated nerve fibers, gaps in the myelin sheath known as nodes of Ranvier occur at evenly spaced intervals. The myelination enables an especially rapid mode of electrical impulse propagation called saltatory conduction. The myelinated axons from the cortical neurons form the bulk of the neural tissue called white matter in the brain. The myelin gives the white appearance to the tissue in contrast to the grey matter of the cerebral cortex which contains the neuronal cell bodies. A similar arrangement is seen in the cerebellum. Bundles of myelinated axons make up the nerve tracts in the CNS. Where these tracts cross the midline of the brain to connect opposite regions they are called "commissures". The largest of these is the corpus callosum that connects the two cerebral hemispheres, and this has around 20 million axons. The structure of a neuron is seen to consist of two separate functional regions, or compartmentsthe cell body together with the dendrites as one region, and the axonal region as the other. ===Axonal region=== The axonal region or compartment, includes the axon hillock, the initial segment, the rest of the axon, and the axon telodendria, and axon terminals. It also includes the myelin sheath. The Nissl bodies that produce the neuronal proteins are absent in the axonal region. Proteins needed for the growth of the axon, and the removal of waste materials, need a framework for transport. This axonal transport is provided for in the axoplasm by arrangements of microtubules and intermediate filaments known as neurofilaments. ====Axon hillock==== The axon hillock is the area formed from the cell body of the neuron as it extends to become the axon. It precedes the initial segment. The received action potentials that are summed in the neuron are transmitted to the axon hillock for the generation of an action potential from the initial segment. ====Axonal initial segment==== The axonal initial segment (AIS) is a structurally and functionally separate microdomain of the axon. One function of the initial segment is to separate the main part of an axon from the rest of the neuron; another function is to help initiate action potentials. Both of these functions support neuron cell polarity, in which dendrites (and, in some cases the soma) of a neuron receive input signals at the basal region, and at the apical region the neuron's axon provides output signals. The axon initial segment is unmyelinated and contains a specialized complex of proteins. It is between approximately 20 and 60 µm in length and functions as the site of action potential initiation. Both the position on the axon and the length of the AIS can change showing a degree of plasticity that can fine-tune the neuronal output. A longer AIS is associated with a greater excitability. Plasticity is also seen in the ability of the AIS to change its distribution and to maintain the activity of neural circuitry at a constant level. The AIS is highly specialized for the fast conduction of nerve impulses. This is achieved by a high concentration of voltage-gated sodium channels in the initial segment where the action potential is initiated. The ion channels are accompanied by a high number of cell adhesion molecules and scaffold proteins that anchor them to the cytoskeleton. Interactions with ankyrin-G are important as it is the major organizer in the AIS. ===Axonal transport=== The axoplasm is the equivalent of cytoplasm in the cell. Microtubules form in the axoplasm at the axon hillock. They are arranged along the length of the axon, in overlapping sections, and all point in the same directiontowards the axon terminals. This is noted by the positive endings of the microtubules. This overlapping arrangement provides the routes for the transport of different materials from the cell body. Studies on the axoplasm has shown the movement of numerous vesicles of all sizes to be seen along cytoskeletal filamentsthe microtubules, and neurofilaments, in both directions between the axon and its terminals and the cell body. Outgoing anterograde transport from the cell body along the axon, carries mitochondria and membrane proteins needed for growth to the axon terminal. Ingoing retrograde transport carries cell waste materials from the axon terminal to the cell body. Outgoing and ingoing tracks use different sets of motor proteins. Outgoing transport is provided by kinesin, and ingoing return traffic is provided by dynein. Dynein is minus-end directed. There are many forms of kinesin and dynein motor proteins, and each is thought to carry a different cargo. The studies on transport in the axon led to the naming of kinesin. ===Myelination=== In the nervous system, axons may be myelinated, or unmyelinated. This is the provision of an insulating layer, called a myelin sheath. The myelin membrane is unique in its relatively high lipid to protein ratio. In the peripheral nervous system axons are myelinated by glial cells known as Schwann cells. In the central nervous system the myelin sheath is provided by another type of glial cell, the oligodendrocyte. Schwann cells myelinate a single axon. An oligodendrocyte can myelinate up to 50 axons. The composition of myelin is different in the two types. In the CNS the major myelin protein is proteolipid protein, and in the PNS it is myelin basic protein. ===Nodes of Ranvier=== Nodes of Ranvier (also known as "myelin sheath gaps") are short unmyelinated segments of a myelinated axon, which are found periodically interspersed between segments of the myelin sheath. Therefore, at the point of the node of Ranvier, the axon is reduced in diameter. These nodes are areas where action potentials can be generated. In saltatory conduction, electrical currents produced at each node of Ranvier are conducted with little attenuation to the next node in line, where they remain strong enough to generate another action potential. Thus in a myelinated axon, action potentials effectively "jump" from node to node, bypassing the myelinated stretches in between, resulting in a propagation speed much faster than even the fastest unmyelinated axon can sustain. ===Axon terminals=== An axon can divide into many branches called telodendria (Greek for 'end of tree'). At the end of each telodendron is an axon terminal (also called a synaptic bouton, or terminal bouton). Axon terminals contain synaptic vesicles that store the neurotransmitter for release at the synapse. This makes multiple synaptic connections with other neurons possible. Sometimes the axon of a neuron may synapse onto dendrites of the same neuron, when it is known as an autapse. ====Axonal varicosities==== In the normally developed brain, along the shaft of some axons are located pre-synaptic boutons also known as axonal varicosities and these have been found in regions of the hippocampus that function in the release of neurotransmitters. However, axonal varicosities are also present in neurodegenerative diseases where they interfere with the conduction of an action potential. Axonal varicosities are also the hallmark of traumatic brain injuries. Axonal damage is usually to the axon cytoskeleton disrupting transport. As a consequence protein accumulations such as amyloid-beta precursor protein can build up in a swelling resulting in a number of varicosities along the axon. ==Action potentials== Most axons carry signals in the form of action potentials, which are discrete electrochemical impulses that travel rapidly along an axon, starting at the cell body and terminating at points where the axon makes synaptic contact with target cells. The defining characteristic of an action potential is that it is "all-or-nothing"every action potential that an axon generates has essentially the same size and shape. This all-or-nothing characteristic allows action potentials to be transmitted from one end of a long axon to the other without any reduction in size. There are, however, some types of neurons with short axons that carry graded electrochemical signals, of variable amplitude. When an action potential reaches a presynaptic terminal, it activates the synaptic transmission process. The first step is rapid opening of calcium ion channels in the membrane of the axon, allowing calcium ions to flow inward across the membrane. The resulting increase in intracellular calcium concentration causes synaptic vesicles (tiny containers enclosed by a lipid membrane) filled with a neurotransmitter chemical to fuse with the axon's membrane and empty their contents into the extracellular space. The neurotransmitter is released from the presynaptic nerve through exocytosis. The neurotransmitter chemical then diffuses across to receptors located on the membrane of the target cell. The neurotransmitter binds to these receptors and activates them. Depending on the type of receptors that are activated, the effect on the target cell can be to excite the target cell, inhibit it, or alter its metabolism in some way. This entire sequence of events often takes place in less than a thousandth of a second. Afterward, inside the presynaptic terminal, a new set of vesicles is moved into position next to the membrane, ready to be released when the next action potential arrives. The action potential is the final electrical step in the integration of synaptic messages at the scale of the neuron. Extracellular recordings of action potential propagation in axons has been demonstrated in freely moving animals. While extracellular somatic action potentials have been used to study cellular activity in freely moving animals such as place cells, axonal activity in both white and gray matter can also be recorded. Extracellular recordings of axon action potential propagation is distinct from somatic action potentials in three ways: 1. The signal has a shorter peak-trough duration (~150μs) than of pyramidal cells (~500μs) or interneurons (~250μs). 2. The voltage change is triphasic. 3. Activity recorded on a tetrode is seen on only one of the four recording wires. In recordings from freely moving rats, axonal signals have been isolated in white matter tracts including the alveus and the corpus callosum as well hippocampal gray matter. In fact, the generation of action potentials in vivo is sequential in nature, and these sequential spikes constitute the digital codes in the neurons. Although previous studies indicate an axonal origin of a single spike evoked by short-term pulses, physiological signals in vivo trigger the initiation of sequential spikes at the cell bodies of the neurons. In addition to propagating action potentials to axonal terminals, the axon is able to amplify the action potentials, which makes sure a secure propagation of sequential action potentials toward the axonal terminal. In terms of molecular mechanisms, voltage-gated sodium channels in the axons possess lower threshold and shorter refractory period in response to short-term pulses. ==Development and growth== ===Development=== The development of the axon to its target, is one of the six major stages in the overall development of the nervous system. Studies done on cultured hippocampal neurons suggest that neurons initially produce multiple neurites that are equivalent, yet only one of these neurites is destined to become the axon. It is unclear whether axon specification precedes axon elongation or vice versa, although recent evidence points to the latter. If an axon that is not fully developed is cut, the polarity can change and other neurites can potentially become the axon. This alteration of polarity only occurs when the axon is cut at least 10 μm shorter than the other neurites. After the incision is made, the longest neurite will become the future axon and all the other neurites, including the original axon, will turn into dendrites. Imposing an external force on a neurite, causing it to elongate, will make it become an axon. Nonetheless, axonal development is achieved through a complex interplay between extracellular signaling, intracellular signaling and cytoskeletal dynamics. ====Extracellular signaling==== The extracellular signals that propagate through the extracellular matrix surrounding neurons play a prominent role in axonal development. These signaling molecules include proteins, neurotrophic factors, and extracellular matrix and adhesion molecules. Netrin (also known as UNC-6) a secreted protein, functions in axon formation. When the UNC-5 netrin receptor is mutated, several neurites are irregularly projected out of neurons and finally a single axon is extended anteriorly. The neurotrophic factorsnerve growth factor (NGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and neurotrophin-3 (NTF3) are also involved in axon development and bind to Trk receptors. The ganglioside-converting enzyme plasma membrane ganglioside sialidase (PMGS), which is involved in the activation of TrkA at the tip of neutrites, is required for the elongation of axons. PMGS asymmetrically distributes to the tip of the neurite that is destined to become the future axon. ====Intracellular signaling==== During axonal development, the activity of PI3K is increased at the tip of destined axon. Disrupting the activity of PI3K inhibits axonal development. Activation of PI3K results in the production of phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate (PtdIns) which can cause significant elongation of a neurite, converting it into an axon. As such, the overexpression of phosphatases that dephosphorylate PtdIns leads into the failure of polarization. ====Cytoskeletal dynamics==== The neurite with the lowest actin filament content will become the axon. PGMS concentration and f-actin content are inversely correlated; when PGMS becomes enriched at the tip of a neurite, its f-actin content is substantially decreased. In addition, exposure to actin-depolimerizing drugs and toxin B (which inactivates Rho-signaling) causes the formation of multiple axons. Consequently, the interruption of the actin network in a growth cone will promote its neurite to become the axon. ===Growth=== Growing axons move through their environment via the growth cone, which is at the tip of the axon. The growth cone has a broad sheet-like extension called a lamellipodium which contain protrusions called filopodia. The filopodia are the mechanism by which the entire process adheres to surfaces and explores the surrounding environment. Actin plays a major role in the mobility of this system. Environments with high levels of cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) create an ideal environment for axonal growth. This seems to provide a "sticky" surface for axons to grow along. Examples of CAMs specific to neural systems include N-CAM, TAG-1an axonal glycoproteinand MAG, all of which are part of the immunoglobulin superfamily. Another set of molecules called extracellular matrix-adhesion molecules also provide a sticky substrate for axons to grow along. Examples of these molecules include laminin, fibronectin, tenascin, and perlecan. Some of these are surface bound to cells and thus act as short range attractants or repellents. Others are difusible ligands and thus can have long range effects. Cells called guidepost cells assist in the guidance of neuronal axon growth. These cells that help axon guidance, are typically other neurons that are sometimes immature. When the axon has completed its growth at its connection to the target, the diameter of the axon can increase by up to five times, depending on the speed of conduction required. It has also been discovered through research that if the axons of a neuron were damaged, as long as the soma (the cell body of a neuron) is not damaged, the axons would regenerate and remake the synaptic connections with neurons with the help of guidepost cells. This is also referred to as neuroregeneration. Nogo-A is a type of neurite outgrowth inhibitory component that is present in the central nervous system myelin membranes (found in an axon). It has a crucial role in restricting axonal regeneration in adult mammalian central nervous system. In recent studies, if Nogo-A is blocked and neutralized, it is possible to induce long-distance axonal regeneration which leads to enhancement of functional recovery in rats and mouse spinal cord. This has yet to be done on humans. A recent study has also found that macrophages activated through a specific inflammatory pathway activated by the Dectin-1 receptor are capable of promoting axon recovery, also however causing neurotoxicity in the neuron. ===Length regulation=== Axons vary largely in length from a few micrometers up to meters in some animals. This emphasizes that there must be a cellular length regulation mechanism allowing the neurons both to sense the length of their axons and to control their growth accordingly. It was discovered that motor proteins play an important role in regulating the length of axons. Based on this observation, researchers developed an explicit model for axonal growth describing how motor proteins could affect the axon length on the molecular level. These studies suggest that motor proteins carry signaling molecules from the soma to the growth cone and vice versa whose concentration oscillates in time with a length-dependent frequency. ==Classification== The axons of neurons in the human peripheral nervous system can be classified based on their physical features and signal conduction properties. Axons were known to have different thicknesses (from 0.1 to 20 µm) and these differences were thought to relate to the speed at which an action potential could travel along the axonits "conductance velocity". Erlanger and Gasser proved this hypothesis, and identified several types of nerve fiber, establishing a relationship between the diameter of an axon and its nerve conduction velocity. They published their findings in 1941 giving the first classification of axons. Axons are classified in two systems. The first one introduced by Erlanger and Gasser, grouped the fibers into three main groups using the letters A, B, and C. These groups, group A, group B, and group C include both the sensory fibers (afferents) and the motor fibers (efferents). The first group A, was subdivided into alpha, beta, gamma, and delta fibersAα, Aβ, Aγ, and Aδ. The motor neurons of the different motor fibers, were the lower motor neuronsalpha motor neuron, beta motor neuron, and gamma motor neuron having the Aα, Aβ, and Aγ nerve fibers, respectively. Later findings by other researchers identified two groups of Aa fibers that were sensory fibers. These were then introduced into a system (Lloyd classification) that only included sensory fibers (though some of these were mixed nerves and were also motor fibers). This system refers to the sensory groups as Types and uses Roman numerals: Type Ia, Type Ib, Type II, Type III, and Type IV. === Motor === Lower motor neurons have two kind of fibers: Different sensory receptors innervate different types of nerve fibers. Proprioceptors are innervated by type Ia, Ib and II sensory fibers, mechanoreceptors by type II and III sensory fibers and nociceptors and thermoreceptors by type III and IV sensory fibers. ===Autonomic=== The autonomic nervous system has two kinds of peripheral fibers: ==Clinical significance== In order of degree of severity, injury to a nerve in the peripheral nervous system can be described as neurapraxia, axonotmesis, or neurotmesis. Concussion is considered a mild form of diffuse axonal injury. Axonal injury can also cause central chromatolysis. The dysfunction of axons in the nervous system is one of the major causes of many inherited and acquired neurological disorders that affect both peripheral and central neurons. When an axon is crushed, an active process of axonal degeneration takes place at the part of the axon furthest from the cell body. This degeneration takes place quickly following the injury, with the part of the axon being sealed off at the membranes and broken down by macrophages. This is known as Wallerian degeneration. Dying back of an axon can also take place in many neurodegenerative diseases, particularly when axonal transport is impaired, this is known as Wallerian-like degeneration. Studies suggest that the degeneration happens as a result of the axonal protein NMNAT2, being prevented from reaching all of the axon. Demyelination of axons causes the multitude of neurological symptoms found in the disease multiple sclerosis. Dysmyelination is the abnormal formation of the myelin sheath. This is implicated in several leukodystrophies, and also in schizophrenia. A severe traumatic brain injury can result in widespread lesions to nerve tracts damaging the axons in a condition known as diffuse axonal injury. This can lead to a persistent vegetative state. It has been shown in studies on the rat that axonal damage from a single mild traumatic brain injury, can leave a susceptibility to further damage, after repeated mild traumatic brain injuries. A nerve guidance conduit is an artificial means of guiding axon growth to enable neuroregeneration, and is one of the many treatments used for different kinds of nerve injury. == Terminology == Some general dictionaries define "nerve fiber" as any neuronal process, including both axons and dendrites. However, medical sources generally use "nerve fiber" to refer to the axon only. ==History== German anatomist Otto Friedrich Karl Deiters is generally credited with the discovery of the axon by distinguishing it from the dendrites. Swiss Rüdolf Albert von Kölliker and German Robert Remak were the first to identify and characterize the axon initial segment. Kölliker named the axon in 1896. Louis-Antoine Ranvier was the first to describe the gaps or nodes found on axons and for this contribution these axonal features are now commonly referred to as the nodes of Ranvier. Santiago Ramón y Cajal, a Spanish anatomist, proposed that axons were the output components of neurons, describing their functionality. Joseph Erlanger and Herbert Gasser earlier developed the classification system for peripheral nerve fibers, based on axonal conduction velocity, myelination, fiber size etc. Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley also employed the squid giant axon (1939) and by 1952 they had obtained a full quantitative description of the ionic basis of the action potential, leading to the formulation of the Hodgkin–Huxley model. Hodgkin and Huxley were awarded jointly the Nobel Prize for this work in 1963. The formulae detailing axonal conductance were extended to vertebrates in the Frankenhaeuser–Huxley equations. The understanding of the biochemical basis for action potential propagation has advanced further, and includes many details about individual ion channels. ==Other animals== The axons in invertebrates have been extensively studied. The longfin inshore squid, often used as a model organism has the longest known axon. The giant squid has the largest axon known. Its size ranges from 0.5 (typically) to 1 mm in diameter and is used in the control of its jet propulsion system. The fastest recorded conduction speed of 210 m/s, is found in the ensheathed axons of some pelagic Penaeid shrimps and the usual range is between 90 and 200 meters/s (cf 100–120 m/s for the fastest myelinated vertebrate axon.) In other cases as seen in rat studies an axon originates from a dendrite; such axons are said to have "dendritic origin". Some axons with dendritic origin similarly have a "proximal" initial segment that starts directly at the axon origin, while others have a "distal" initial segment, discernibly separated from the axon origin. In many species some of the neurons have axons that emanate from the dendrite and not from the cell body, and these are known as axon-carrying dendrites. In many cases, an axon originates at an axon hillock on the soma; such axons are said to have "somatic origin". Some axons with somatic origin have a "proximal" initial segment adjacent the axon hillock, while others have a "distal" initial segment, separated from the soma by an extended axon hillock.

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Agma

Voiced velar nasal

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=960

Aramaic alphabet

The ancient Aramaic alphabet was used to write the Aramaic languages spoken by ancient Aramean pre-Christian tribes throughout the Fertile Crescent. It was also adopted by other peoples as their own alphabet when empires and their subjects underwent linguistic Aramaization during a language shift for governing purposes — a precursor to Arabization centuries later — including among the Assyrians and Babylonians who permanently replaced their Akkadian language and its cuneiform script with Aramaic and its script, and among Jews (but not Samaritans), who adopted the Aramaic language as their vernacular and started using the Aramaic alphabet even for writing Hebrew, displacing the former Paleo-Hebrew alphabet. (The modern Hebrew alphabet derives from the Aramaic alphabet, in contrast to the modern Samaritan alphabet, which derives from Paleo-Hebrew.) The letters in the Aramaic alphabet all represent consonants, some of which are also used as "matres lectionis" to indicate long vowels. Writing systems (like the Aramaic) that indicate consonants but do not indicate most vowels other than by means of "matres lectionis" or added diacritical signs, have been called abjads by Peter T. Daniels to distinguish them from alphabets such as the Greek alphabet that represent vowels more systematically. The term was coined to avoid the notion that a writing system that represents sounds must be either a syllabary or an alphabet, which would imply that a system like Aramaic must be either a syllabary (as argued by Ignace Gelb) or an incomplete or deficient alphabet (as most other writers had said before Daniels). Rather, Daniels put forward, this is a different type of writing system, intermediate between syllabaries and 'full' alphabets. The Aramaic alphabet is historically significant since virtually all modern Middle Eastern writing systems can be traced back to it. That is primarily due to the widespread usage of the Aramaic language after it was adopted as both a "lingua franca" and the official language of the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian Empires, and their successor, the Achaemenid Empire. Among the descendant scripts in modern use, the Jewish Hebrew alphabet bears the closest relation to the Imperial Aramaic script of the 5th century BC, with an identical letter inventory and, for the most part, nearly identical letter shapes. By contrast the Samaritan Hebrew script is directly descended from Proto-Hebrew/Phoenician script, which was in turn the ancestor of the Aramaic alphabet. The Aramaic alphabet was also an ancestor to the Nabataean alphabet, which in turn had the Arabic alphabet as a descendant. == History == The earliest inscriptions in the Aramaic language use the Phoenician alphabet. Over time, the alphabet developed into the Aramaic alphabet by the 8th century BC. It was used to write the Aramaic languages spoken by ancient Aramean pre-Christian tribes throughout the Fertile Crescent. It was also adopted by other peoples as their own alphabet when empires and their subjects underwent linguistic Aramaization during a language shift for governing purposes — a precursor to Arabization centuries later — including among the Assyrians and Babylonians who permanently replaced their Akkadian language and its cuneiform script with Aramaic and its script, and among Jews (but not Samaritans), who adopted the Aramaic language as their vernacular and started using the Aramaic alphabet even for writing Hebrew, displacing the former Paleo-Hebrew alphabet. (The modern Hebrew alphabet derives from the Aramaic alphabet, in contrast to the modern Samaritan alphabet, which derives from Paleo-Hebrew.) === Achaemenid Empire (The First Persian Empire) === Around 500 BC, following the Achaemenid conquest of Mesopotamia under Darius I, Old Aramaic was adopted by the Persians as the "vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast Persian empire with its different peoples and languages. The use of a single official language, which modern scholarship has dubbed as Official Aramaic, Imperial Aramaic or Achaemenid Aramaic, can be assumed to have greatly contributed to the astonishing success of the Achaemenid Persians in holding their far-flung empire together for as long as they did." Imperial Aramaic was highly standardised; its orthography was based more on historical roots than any spoken dialect and was influenced by Old Persian. The Aramaic glyph forms of the period are often divided into two main styles, the "lapidary" form, usually inscribed on hard surfaces like stone monuments, and a cursive form whose lapidary form tended to be more conservative by remaining more visually similar to Phoenician and early Aramaic. Both were in use through the Achaemenid Persian period, but the cursive form steadily gained ground over the lapidary, which had largely disappeared by the 3rd century BC. For centuries after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire in 331 BC, Imperial Aramaic, or something near enough to it to be recognisable, would remain an influence on the various native Iranian languages. The Aramaic script would survive as the essential characteristics of the Iranian Pahlavi writing system. 30 Aramaic documents from Bactria have been recently discovered, an analysis of which was published in November 2006. The texts, which were rendered on leather, reflect the use of Aramaic in the 4th century BC in the Persian Achaemenid administration of Bactria and Sogdiana. The widespread usage of Achaemenid Aramaic in the Middle East led to the gradual adoption of the Aramaic alphabet for writing Hebrew. Formerly, Hebrew had been written using an alphabet closer in form to that of Phoenician, the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet. ===Aramaic-derived scripts=== Since the evolution of the Aramaic alphabet out of the Phoenician one was a gradual process, the division of the world's alphabets into the ones derived from the Phoenician one directly and the ones derived from Phoenician via Aramaic is somewhat artificial. In general, the alphabets of the Mediterranean region (Anatolia, Greece, Italy) are classified as Phoenician-derived, adapted from around the 8th century BC, and those of the East (the Levant, Persia, Central Asia, and India) are considered Aramaic-derived, adapted from around the 6th century BC from the Imperial Aramaic script of the Achaemenid Empire. After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, the unity of the Imperial Aramaic script was lost, diversifying into a number of descendant cursives. The Hebrew and Nabataean alphabets, as they stood by the Roman era, were little changed in style from the Imperial Aramaic alphabet. Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) alleges that not only the old Nabataean writing was influenced by the "Syrian script" (i.e. Aramaic), but also the old Chaldean script. A cursive Hebrew variant developed from the early centuries AD, but it remained restricted to the status of a variant used alongside the noncursive. By contrast, the cursive developed out of the Nabataean alphabet in the same period soon became the standard for writing Arabic, evolving into the Arabic alphabet as it stood by the time of the early spread of Islam. The development of cursive versions of Aramaic also led to the creation of the Syriac, Palmyrene and Mandaic alphabets, which formed the basis of the historical scripts of Central Asia, such as the Sogdian and Mongolian alphabets. The Old Turkic script is generally considered to have its ultimate origins in Aramaic, in particular via the Pahlavi or Sogdian alphabets, as suggested by V. Thomsen, or possibly via Kharosthi ("cf"., Issyk inscription). Brahmi script was also possibly derived or inspired by Aramaic. Brahmic family of scripts includes Devanagari. ==Languages using the alphabet== Today, Biblical Aramaic, Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialects and the Aramaic language of the Talmud are written in the modern-Hebrew alphabet (distinguished from the Old Hebrew script). In classical Jewish literature, the name given to the modern-Hebrew script was "Ashurit" (the ancient Assyrian script), a script now known widely as the Aramaic script. It is believed that during the period of Assyrian dominion that Aramaic script and language received official status. Syriac and Christian Neo-Aramaic dialects are today written in the Syriac alphabet, which script has superseded the more ancient Assyrian script and now bears its name. Mandaic is written in the Mandaic alphabet. The near-identical nature of the Aramaic and the classical Hebrew alphabets caused Aramaic text to be typeset mostly in the standard Hebrew script in scholarly literature. ===Maaloula=== In Maaloula, one of few surviving communities in which a Western Aramaic dialect is still spoken, an Aramaic Language Institute was established in 2006 by Damascus University that teaches courses to keep the language alive. Unlike Classical Syriac, which has a rich literary tradition in Syriac-Aramaic script, Western Neo-Aramaic was solely passed down orally for generations until 2006 and was not utilized in a written form. Therefore, the Language Institute's chairman, George Rizkalla (Rezkallah), undertook the writing of a textbook in Western Neo-Aramaic. Being previously unwritten, Rizkalla opted for the Hebrew alphabet. However, in 2010, the institute's activities were halted due to concerns that the square Maalouli-Aramaic alphabet used in the program bore a resemblance to the square script of the Hebrew alphabet. As a result, all signs featuring the square Maalouli script were subsequently removed. The program stated that they would instead use the more distinct Syriac-Aramaic alphabet, although use of the Maalouli alphabet has continued to some degree. Al Jazeera Arabic also broadcast a program about Western Neo-Aramaic and the villages in which it is spoken with the square script still in use. ==Letters== ====== In Aramaic writing, "waw" and "yodh" serve a double function. Originally, they represented only the consonants "w" and "y", but they were later adopted to indicate the long vowels "ū" and "ī" respectively as well (often also "ō" and "ē" respectively). In the latter role, they are known as or 'mothers of reading'. Ālap, likewise, has some of the characteristics of a because in initial positions, it indicates a glottal stop (followed by a vowel), but otherwise, it often also stands for the long vowels "ā" or "ē". Among Jews, the influence of Hebrew often led to the use of Hē instead, at the end of a word. The practice of using certain letters to hold vowel values spread to Aramaic-derived writing systems, such as in Arabic and Hebrew, which still follow the practice. ==Unicode== The Imperial Aramaic alphabet was added to the Unicode Standard in October 2009, with the release of version 5.2. The Unicode block for Imperial Aramaic is U+10840–U+1085F: The Syriac Aramaic alphabet was added to the Unicode Standard in September 1999, with the release of version 3.0. The Syriac Abbreviation (a type of overline) can be represented with a special control character called the Syriac Abbreviation Mark (U+070F). The Unicode block for Syriac Aramaic is U+0700–U+074F:

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=963

Arguments for the existence of God

Existence of God

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American shot

"American shot" or "cowboy shot" is a translation of a phrase from French film criticism, "," and refers to a medium-long ("knee") film shot of a group of characters, who are arranged so that all are visible to the camera. The usual arrangement is for the actors to stand in an irregular line from one side of the screen to the other, with the actors at the end coming forward a little and standing more in profile than the others. The purpose of the composition is to allow complex dialogue scenes to be played out without changes in camera position. In some literature, this is simply referred to as a 3/4 shot. One of the other main reasons why French critics called it "American shot" was its frequent use in the western genre. This was because a shot that started at knee level would reveal the weapon of a cowboy, usually holstered at their waist. It is actually the closest the camera can get to an actor while keeping both their face and their holstered gun in frame. The French critics thought it was characteristic of American films of the 1930s or 1940s; however, it was mostly characteristic of cheaper American movies, such as Charlie Chan mysteries where people collected in front of a fireplace or at the foot of the stairs in order to explain what happened a few minutes ago. Howard Hawks legitimized this style in his films, allowing characters to act, even when not talking, when most of the audience would not be paying attention. It became his trademark style.

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Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis

Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM), or acute demyelinating encephalomyelitis, is a rare autoimmune disease marked by a sudden, widespread attack of inflammation in the brain and spinal cord. As well as causing the brain and spinal cord to become inflamed, ADEM also attacks the nerves of the central nervous system and damages their myelin insulation, which, as a result, destroys the white matter. The cause is often a trigger such as from viral infection or vaccinations. ADEM's symptoms resemble the symptoms of multiple sclerosis (MS), so the disease itself is sorted into the classification of the multiple sclerosis borderline diseases. However, ADEM has several features that distinguish it from MS. Unlike MS, ADEM occurs usually in children and is marked with rapid fever, although adolescents and adults can get the disease too. ADEM consists of a single flare-up whereas MS is marked with several flare-ups (or relapses), over a long period of time. Relapses following ADEM are reported in up to a quarter of patients, but the majority of these 'multiphasic' presentations following ADEM likely represent MS. ADEM is also distinguished by a loss of consciousness, coma and death, which is very rare in MS, except in severe cases. It affects about 8 per 1,000,000 people per year. Although it occurs in all ages, most reported cases are in children and adolescents, with the average age around 5 to 8 years old. The disease affects males and females almost equally. ADEM shows seasonal variation with higher incidence in winter and spring months which may coincide with higher viral infections during these months. The mortality rate may be as high as 5%; however, full recovery is seen in 50 to 75% of cases with increase in survival rates up to 70 to 90% with figures including minor residual disability as well. The average time to recover from ADEM flare-ups is one to six months. ADEM produces multiple inflammatory lesions in the brain and spinal cord, particularly in the white matter. Usually these are found in the subcortical and central white matter and cortical gray-white junction of both cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum, brainstem, and spinal cord, but periventricular white matter and gray matter of the cortex, thalami and basal ganglia may also be involved. When a person has more than one demyelinating episode of ADEM, the disease is then called recurrent disseminated encephalomyelitis or multiphasic disseminated encephalomyelitis (MDEM). Also, a fulminant course in adults has been described. ==Signs and symptoms== ADEM has an abrupt onset and a monophasic course. Symptoms usually begin 1–3 weeks after infection. Major symptoms include fever, headache, nausea and vomiting, confusion, vision impairment, drowsiness, seizures and coma. Although initially the symptoms are usually mild, they worsen rapidly over the course of hours to days, with the average time to maximum severity being about four and a half days. Additional symptoms include hemiparesis, paraparesis, and cranial nerve palsies. === ADEM in COVID-19 === Neurological symptoms were the main presentation of COVID-19, which did not correlate with the severity of respiratory symptoms. The high incidence of ADEM with hemorrhage is striking. Brain inflammation is likely caused by an immune response to the disease rather than neurotropism. CSF analysis was not indicative of an infectious process, neurological impairment was not present in the acute phase of the infection, and neuroimaging findings were not typical of classical toxic and metabolic disorders. The finding of bilateral periventricular relatively asymmetrical lesions allied with deep white matter involvement, that may also be present in cortical gray-white matter junction, thalami, basal ganglia, cerebellum, and brainstem suggests an acute demyelination process. Additionally, hemorrhagic white matter lesions, clusters of macrophages related to axonal injury and ADEM-like appearance were also found in subcortical white matter. ==Causes== Since the discovery of the anti-MOG specificity against multiple sclerosis diagnosis it is considered that ADEM is one of the possible clinical causes of anti-MOG associated encephalomyelitis. About how the anti-MOG antibodies appear in the patients serum there are several theories: - A preceding antigenic challenge can be identified in approximately two-thirds of people. Some viral infections thought to induce ADEM include influenza virus, dengue, enterovirus, measles, mumps, rubella, varicella zoster, Epstein–Barr virus, cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex virus, hepatitis A, coxsackievirus and COVID-19. Bacterial infections include Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Borrelia burgdorferi, Leptospira, and beta-hemolytic Streptococci. - Exposure to vaccines: The only vaccine proven related to ADEM is the Semple form of the rabies vaccine, but hepatitis B, pertussis, diphtheria, measles, mumps, rubella, pneumococcus, varicella, influenza, Japanese encephalitis, and polio vaccines have all been implicated. The majority of the studies that correlate vaccination with ADEM onset use only small samples or are case studies. Large-scale epidemiological studies (e.g., of MMR vaccine or smallpox vaccine) do not show increased risk of ADEM following vaccination. An upper bound for the risk of ADEM from measles vaccination, if it exists, can be estimated to be 10 per million, which is far lower than the risk of developing ADEM from an actual measles infection, which is about 1 per 1,000 cases. For a rubella infection, the risk is 1 per 5,000 cases. Some early vaccines, later shown to have been contaminated with host animal CNS tissue, had ADEM incidence rates as high as 1 in 600. - In rare cases, ADEM seems to follow from organ transplantation. ==Diagnosis== The term ADEM has been inconsistently used at different times. Currently, the commonly accepted international standard for the clinical case definition is the one published by the International Pediatric MS Study Group, revision 2007. Given that the definition is clinical, it is currently unknown if all the cases of ADEM are positive for anti-MOG autoantibody; in any case, it appears to be strongly related to ADEM diagnosis. ===Differential diagnosis=== ====Multiple sclerosis==== While ADEM and MS both involve autoimmune demyelination, they differ in many clinical, genetic, imaging, and histopathological aspects. Some authors consider MS and its borderline forms to constitute a spectrum, differing only in chronicity, severity, and clinical course, while others consider them discretely different diseases. Typically, ADEM appears in children following an antigenic challenge and remains monophasic. Nevertheless, ADEM does occur in adults, and can also be clinically multiphasic. Problems for differential diagnosis increase due to the lack of agreement for a definition of multiple sclerosis. If MS were defined only by the separation in time and space of the demyelinating lesions as McDonald did, it would not be enough to make a difference, as some cases of ADEM satisfy these conditions. Therefore, some authors propose to establish the dividing line as the shape of the lesions around the veins, being therefore "perivenous vs. confluent demyelination". The pathology of ADEM is very similar to that of MS with some differences. The pathological hallmark of ADEM is perivenous inflammation with limited "sleeves of demyelination". Nevertheless, MS-like plaques (confluent demyelination) can appear Plaques in the white matter in MS are sharply delineated, while the glial scar in ADEM is smooth. Axons are better preserved in ADEM lesions. Inflammation in ADEM is widely disseminated and ill-defined, and finally, lesions are strictly perivenous, while in MS they are disposed around veins, but not so sharply. Nevertheless, the co-occurrence of perivenous and confluent demyelination in some individuals suggests pathogenic overlap between acute disseminated encephalomyelitis and multiple sclerosis and misclassification even with biopsy or even postmortem ADEM in adults can progress to MS ====Multiphasic disseminated encephalomyelitis==== When the person has more than one demyelinating episode of ADEM, the disease is then called recurrent disseminated encephalomyelitis or multiphasic disseminated encephalomyelitis (MDEM). It has been found that anti-MOG auto-antibodies are related to this kind of ADEM Another variant of ADEM in adults has been described, also related to anti-MOG auto-antibodies, has been named fulminant disseminated encephalomyelitis, and it has been reported to be clinically ADEM, but showing MS-like lesions on autopsy. It has been classified inside the anti-MOG associated inflammatory demyelinating diseases. ====Acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis==== Acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis (AHL, or AHLE), acute hemorrhagic encephalomyelitis (AHEM), acute necrotizing hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis (ANHLE), Weston-Hurst syndrome, or Hurst's disease, is a hyperacute and frequently fatal form of ADEM. AHL is relatively rare (less than 100 cases have been reported in the medical literature ), it is seen in about 2% of ADEM cases, and is characterized by necrotizing vasculitis of venules and hemorrhage, and edema. Death is common in the first week and overall mortality is about 70%, but increasing evidence points to favorable outcomes after aggressive treatment with corticosteroids, immunoglobulins, cyclophosphamide, and plasma exchange. About 70% of survivors show residual neurological deficits, but some survivors have shown surprisingly little deficit considering the extent of the white matter affected. This disease has been occasionally associated with ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease, malaria, sepsis associated with immune complex deposition, methanol poisoning, and other underlying conditions. Also anecdotal association with MS has been reported Laboratory studies that support diagnosis of AHL are: peripheral leukocytosis, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pleocytosis associated with normal glucose and increased protein. On magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), lesions of AHL typically show extensive T2-weighted and fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) white matter hyperintensities with areas of hemorrhages, significant edema, and mass effect. ==Treatment== No controlled clinical trials have been conducted on ADEM treatment, but aggressive treatment aimed at rapidly reducing inflammation of the CNS is standard. The widely accepted first-line treatment is high doses of intravenous corticosteroids, such as methylprednisolone or dexamethasone, followed by 3–6 weeks of gradually lower oral doses of prednisolone. Patients treated with methylprednisolone have shown better outcomes than those treated with dexamethasone. Oral tapers of less than three weeks duration show a higher chance of relapsing, and tend to show poorer outcomes. Other anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive therapies have been reported to show beneficial effect, such as plasmapheresis, high doses of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg), mitoxantrone and cyclophosphamide. These are considered alternative therapies, used when corticosteroids cannot be used or fail to show an effect. There is some evidence to suggest that patients may respond to a combination of methylprednisolone and immunoglobulins if they fail to respond to either separately In a study of 16 children with ADEM, 10 recovered completely after high-dose methylprednisolone, one severe case that failed to respond to steroids recovered completely after IV Ig; the five most severe cases – with ADAM and severe peripheral neuropathy – were treated with combined high-dose methylprednisolone and immunoglobulin, two remained paraplegic, one had motor and cognitive handicaps, and two recovered. A recent review of IVIg treatment of ADEM (of which the previous study formed the bulk of the cases) found that 70% of children showed complete recovery after treatment with IVIg, or IVIg plus corticosteroids. A study of IVIg treatment in adults with ADEM showed that IVIg seems more effective in treating sensory and motor disturbances, while steroids seem more effective in treating impairments of cognition, consciousness and rigor. This same study found one subject, a 71-year-old man who had not responded to steroids, that responded to an IVIg treatment 58 days after disease onset. ==Prognosis== Full recovery is seen in 50 to 70% of cases, ranging to 70 to 90% recovery with some minor residual disability (typically assessed using measures such as mRS or EDSS), average time to recover is one to six months. The mortality rate may be as high as 5–10%. Poorer outcomes are associated with unresponsiveness to steroid therapy, unusually severe neurological symptoms, or sudden onset. Children tend to have more favorable outcomes than adults, and cases presenting without fevers tend to have poorer outcomes. The latter effect may be due to either protective effects of fever, or that diagnosis and treatment is sought more rapidly when fever is present. ADEM can progress to MS. It will be considered MS if some lesions appear in different times and brain areas ===Motor deficits=== Residual motor deficits are estimated to remain in about 8 to 30% of cases, the range in severity from mild clumsiness to ataxia and hemiparesis. ===Neurocognitive=== Patients with demyelinating illnesses, such as MS, have shown cognitive deficits even when there is minimal physical disability. Research suggests that similar effects are seen after ADEM, but that the deficits are less severe than those seen in MS. A study of six children with ADEM (mean age at presentation 7.7 years) were tested for a range of neurocognitive tests after an average of 3.5 years of recovery. All six children performed in the normal range on most tests, including verbal IQ and performance IQ, but performed at least one standard deviation below age norms in at least one cognitive domain, such as complex attention (one child), short-term memory (one child) and internalizing behaviour/affect (two children). Group means for each cognitive domain were all within one standard deviation of age norms, demonstrating that, as a group, they were normal. These deficits were less severe than those seen in similar aged children with a diagnosis of MS. Another study compared nineteen children with a history of ADEM, of which 10 were five years of age or younger at the time (average age 3.8 years old, tested an average of 3.9 years later) and nine were older (mean age 7.7y at time of ADEM, tested an average of 2.2 years later) to nineteen matched controls. Scores on IQ tests and educational achievement were lower for the young onset ADEM group (average IQ 90) compared to the late onset (average IQ 100) and control groups (average IQ 106), while the late onset ADEM children scored lower on verbal processing speed. Again, all groups means were within one standard deviation of the controls, meaning that while effects were statistically reliable, the children were as a whole, still within the normal range. There were also more behavioural problems in the early onset group, although there is some suggestion that this may be due, at least in part, to the stress of hospitalization at a young age. ==Research== The relationship between ADEM and anti-MOG associated encephalomyelitis is currently under research. A new entity called MOGDEM has been proposed. About animal models, the main animal model for MS, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is also an animal model for ADEM. Being an acute monophasic illness, EAE is far more similar to ADEM than MS.

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Ataxia

Ataxia (from Greek α- [a negative prefix] + -τάξις [order] = "lack of order") is a neurological sign consisting of lack of voluntary coordination of muscle movements that can include gait abnormality, speech changes, and abnormalities in eye movements, that indicates dysfunction of parts of the nervous system that coordinate movement, such as the cerebellum. These nervous system dysfunctions occur in several different patterns, with different results and different possible causes. Ataxia can be limited to one side of the body, which is referred to as hemiataxia. Friedreich's ataxia has gait abnormality as the most commonly presented symptom. Dystaxia is a mild degree of ataxia. == Types == === Cerebellar === The term cerebellar ataxia is used to indicate ataxia due to dysfunction of the cerebellum. The cerebellum is responsible for integrating a significant amount of neural information that is used to coordinate smoothly ongoing movements and to participate in motor planning. Although ataxia is not present with all cerebellar lesions, many conditions affecting the cerebellum do produce ataxia. People with cerebellar ataxia may have trouble regulating the force, range, direction, velocity, and rhythm of muscle contractions. This results in a characteristic type of irregular, uncoordinated movement that can manifest itself in many possible ways, such as asthenia, asynergy, delayed reaction time, and dyschronometria. Individuals with cerebellar ataxia could also display instability of gait, difficulty with eye movements, dysarthria, dysphagia, hypotonia, dysmetria, and dysdiadochokinesia. These deficits can vary depending on which cerebellar structures have been damaged, and whether the lesion is bi- or unilateral. People with cerebellar ataxia may initially present with poor balance, which could be demonstrated as an inability to stand on one leg or perform tandem gait. As the condition progresses, walking is characterized by a widened base and high stepping, as well as staggering and lurching from side to side. Turning is also problematic and could result in falls. As cerebellar ataxia becomes severe, great assistance and effort are needed to stand and walk. Dysarthria, an impairment with articulation, may also be present and is characterized by "scanning" speech that consists of slower rate, irregular rhythm, and variable volume. Also, slurring of speech, tremor of the voice, and ataxic respiration may occur. Cerebellar ataxia could result with incoordination of movement, particularly in the extremities. Overshooting (or hypermetria) occurs with finger-to-nose testing and heel to shin testing; thus, dysmetria is evident. Impairments with alternating movements (dysdiadochokinesia), as well as dysrhythmia, may also be displayed. Tremor of the head and trunk (titubation) may be seen in individuals with cerebellar ataxia. Dysmetria is thought to be caused by a deficit in the control of interaction torques in multijoint motion. Interaction torques are created at an associated joint when the primary joint is moved. For example, if a movement required reaching to touch a target in front of the body, flexion at the shoulder would create a torque at the elbow, while extension of the elbow would create a torque at the wrist. These torques increase as the speed of movement increases and must be compensated and adjusted for to create coordinated movement. This may, therefore, explain decreased coordination at higher movement velocities and accelerations. - Dysfunction of the vestibulocerebellum (flocculonodular lobe) impairs balance and the control of eye movements. This presents itself with postural instability, in which the person tends to separate his/her feet upon standing, to gain a wider base and to avoid titubation (bodily oscillations tending to be forward-backward ones). The instability is, therefore, worsened when standing with the feet together, regardless of whether the eyes are open or closed. This is a negative Romberg's test, or more accurately, it denotes the individual's inability to carry out the test, because the individual feels unstable even with open eyes. - Dysfunction of the spinocerebellum (vermis and associated areas near the midline) presents itself with a wide-based "drunken sailor" gait (called truncal ataxia), characterised by uncertain starts and stops, lateral deviations, and unequal steps. As a result of this gait impairment, falling is a concern in patients with ataxia. Studies examining falls in this population show that 74–93% of patients have fallen at least once in the past year and up to 60% admit to fear of falling. - 'Dysfunction of the cerebrocerebellum' (lateral hemispheres) presents as disturbances in carrying out voluntary, planned movements by the extremities (called appendicular ataxia). These include: - Intention tremor (coarse trembling, accentuated over the execution of voluntary movements, possibly involving the head and eyes, as well as the limbs and torso) - Peculiar writing abnormalities (large, unequal letters, irregular underlining) - A peculiar pattern of dysarthria (slurred speech, sometimes characterised by explosive variations in voice intensity despite a regular rhythm) - Inability to perform rapidly alternating movements, known as dysdiadochokinesia, occurs, and could involve rapidly switching from pronation to supination of the forearm. Movements become more irregular with increases of speed. - Inability to judge distances or ranges of movement happens. This dysmetria is often seen as undershooting, hypometria, or overshooting, hypermetria, the required distance or range to reach a target. This is sometimes seen when a patient is asked to reach out and touch someone's finger or touch his or her own nose. - The rebound phenomenon, also known as the loss of the check reflex, is also sometimes seen in patients with cerebellar ataxia, for example, when patients are flexing their elbows isometrically against a resistance. When the resistance is suddenly removed without warning, the patients' arms may swing up and even strike themselves. With an intact check reflex, the patients check and activate the opposing triceps to slow and stop the movement. - Patients may exhibit a constellation of subtle to overt cognitive symptoms, which are gathered under the terminology of Schmahmann's syndrome. === Sensory === The term sensory ataxia is used to indicate ataxia due to loss of proprioception, the loss of sensitivity to the positions of joint and body parts. This is generally caused by dysfunction of the dorsal columns of the spinal cord, because they carry proprioceptive information up to the brain. In some cases, the cause of sensory ataxia may instead be dysfunction of the various parts of the brain that receive positional information, including the cerebellum, thalamus, and parietal lobes. Sensory ataxia presents itself with an unsteady "stomping" gait with heavy heel strikes, as well as a postural instability that is usually worsened when the lack of proprioceptive input cannot be compensated for by visual input, such as in poorly lit environments. Physicians can find evidence of sensory ataxia during physical examination by having patients stand with their feet together and eyes shut. In affected patients, this will cause the instability to worsen markedly, producing wide oscillations and possibly a fall; this is called a positive Romberg's test. Worsening of the finger-pointing test with the eyes closed is another feature of sensory ataxia. Also, when patients are standing with arms and hands extended toward the physician, if the eyes are closed, the patients' fingers tend to "fall down" and then be restored to the horizontal extended position by sudden muscular contractions (the "ataxic hand"). === Vestibular === The term vestibular ataxia is used to indicate ataxia due to dysfunction of the vestibular system, which in acute and unilateral cases is associated with prominent vertigo, nausea, and vomiting. In slow-onset, chronic bilateral cases of vestibular dysfunction, these characteristic manifestations may be absent, and dysequilibrium may be the sole presentation. == Causes == The three types of ataxia have overlapping causes, so can either coexist or occur in isolation. Cerebellar ataxia can have many causes despite normal neuroimaging. === Focal lesions === Any type of focal lesion of the central nervous system (such as stroke, brain tumor, multiple sclerosis, inflammatory [such as sarcoidosis], and "chronic lymphocytyc inflammation with pontine perivascular enhancement responsive to steroids syndrome" [CLIPPERS]) will cause the type of ataxia corresponding to the site of the lesion: cerebellar if in the cerebellum; sensory if in the dorsal spinal cord...to include cord compression by thickened ligamentum flavum or stenosis of the boney spinal canal...(and rarely in the thalamus or parietal lobe); or vestibular if in the vestibular system (including the vestibular areas of the cerebral cortex). === Exogenous substances (metabolic ataxia) === Exogenous substances that cause ataxia mainly do so because they have a depressant effect on central nervous system function. The most common example is ethanol (alcohol), which is capable of causing reversible cerebellar and vestibular ataxia. Chronic intake of ethanol causes atrophy of the cerebellum by oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum stresses induced by thiamine deficiency. Other examples include various prescription drugs (e.g. most antiepileptic drugs have cerebellar ataxia as a possible adverse effect), Lithium level over 1.5mEq/L, synthetic cannabinoid HU-211 ingestion and various other medical and recreational drugs (e.g. ketamine, PCP or dextromethorphan, all of which are NMDA receptor antagonists that produce a dissociative state at high doses). A further class of pharmaceuticals which can cause short term ataxia, especially in high doses, are benzodiazepines. Exposure to high levels of methylmercury, through consumption of fish with high mercury concentrations, is also a known cause of ataxia and other neurological disorders. === Radiation poisoning === Ataxia can be induced as a result of severe acute radiation poisoning with an absorbed dose of more than 30 grays. === Vitamin B12 deficiency === Vitamin B12 deficiency may cause, among several neurological abnormalities, overlapping cerebellar and sensory ataxia. Neuropsychological symptoms may include sense loss, difficulty in proprioception, poor balance, loss of sensation in the feet, changes in reflexes, dementia, and psychosis, can be reversible with treatment. Complications may include a neurological complex known as subacute combined degeneration of spinal cord, and other neurological disorders. === Hypothyroidism === Symptoms of neurological dysfunction may be the presenting feature in some patients with hypothyroidism. These include reversible cerebellar ataxia, dementia, peripheral neuropathy, psychosis and coma. Most of the neurological complications improve completely after thyroid hormone replacement therapy. === Causes of isolated sensory ataxia === Peripheral neuropathies may cause generalised or localised sensory ataxia (e.g. a limb only) depending on the extent of the neuropathic involvement. Spinal disorders of various types may cause sensory ataxia from the lesioned level below, when they involve the dorsal columns. === Non-hereditary cerebellar degeneration === Non-hereditary causes of cerebellar degeneration include chronic alcohol use disorder, head injury, paraneoplastic and non-paraneoplastic autoimmune ataxia, high altitude cerebral oedema, coeliac disease, normal pressure hydrocephalus and infectious or post-infectious cerebellitis. === Hereditary ataxias === Ataxia may depend on hereditary disorders consisting of degeneration of the cerebellum or of the spine; most cases feature both to some extent, and therefore present with overlapping cerebellar and sensory ataxia, even though one is often more evident than the other. Hereditary disorders causing ataxia include autosomal dominant ones such as spinocerebellar ataxia, episodic ataxia, and dentatorubropallidoluysian atrophy, as well as autosomal recessive disorders such as Friedreich's ataxia (sensory and cerebellar, with the former predominating) and Niemann Pick disease, ataxia-telangiectasia (sensory and cerebellar, with the latter predominating),autosomal recessive spinocerebellar ataxia-14 and abetalipoproteinaemia. An example of X-linked ataxic condition is the rare fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome or FXTAS. === Arnold–Chiari malformation (congenital ataxia) === Arnold–Chiari malformation is a malformation of the brain. It consists of a downward displacement of the cerebellar tonsils and the medulla through the foramen magnum, sometimes causing hydrocephalus as a result of obstruction of cerebrospinal fluid outflow. === Succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase deficiency === Succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase deficiency is an autosomal-recessive gene disorder where mutations in the ALDH5A1 gene results in the accumulation of gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) in the body. GHB accumulates in the nervous system and can cause ataxia as well as other neurological dysfunction. === Wilson's disease === Wilson's disease is an autosomal-recessive gene disorder whereby an alteration of the ATP7B gene results in an inability to properly excrete copper from the body. Copper accumulates in the nervous system and liver and can cause ataxia as well as other neurological and organ impairments. === Gluten ataxia === Gluten ataxia is an autoimmune disease triggered by the ingestion of gluten. Early diagnosis and treatment with a gluten-free diet can improve ataxia and prevent its progression. The effectiveness of the treatment depends on the elapsed time from the onset of the ataxia until diagnosis, because the death of neurons in the cerebellum as a result of gluten exposure is irreversible. It accounts for 40% of ataxias of unknown origin and 15% of all ataxias. Less than 10% of people with gluten ataxia present any gastrointestinal symptom and only about 40% have intestinal damage. This entity is classified into primary auto-immune cerebellar ataxias (PACA). === Potassium pump === Malfunction of the sodium-potassium pump may be a factor in some ataxias. The - pump has been shown to control and set the intrinsic activity mode of cerebellar Purkinje neurons. This suggests that the pump might not simply be a homeostatic, "housekeeping" molecule for ionic gradients; but could be a computational element in the cerebellum and the brain. Indeed, an ouabain block of - pumps in the cerebellum of a live mouse results in it displaying ataxia and dystonia. Ataxia is observed for lower ouabain concentrations, dystonia is observed at higher ouabain concentrations. === Cerebellar ataxia associated with anti-GAD antibodies === Antibodies against the enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD: enzyme changing glutamate into GABA) cause cerebellar deficits. The antibodies impair motor learning and cause behavioral deficits. GAD antibodies related ataxia is part of the group called immune-mediated cerebellar ataxias. The antibodies induce a synaptopathy. The cerebellum is particularly vulnerable to autoimmune disorders. Cerebellar circuitry has capacities to compensate and restore function thanks to cerebellar reserve, gathering multiple forms of plasticity. LTDpathies gather immune disorders targeting long-term depression (LTD), a form of plasticity. == Diagnosis == * Imaging studies - A CT scan or MRI of the brain might help determine potential causes. An MRI can sometimes show shrinkage of the cerebellum and other brain structures in people with ataxia. It may also show other treatable findings, such as a blood clot or benign tumour, that could be pressing on the cerebellum. - Lumbar puncture (spinal tap) - A needle is inserted into the lower back (lumbar region) between two lumbar vertebrae to obtain a sample of cerebrospinal fluid for testing. - Genetic testing - Determines whether the mutation that causes one of the hereditary ataxic conditions is present. Tests are available for many but not all of the hereditary ataxias. == Treatment == The treatment of ataxia and its effectiveness depend on the underlying cause. Treatment may limit or reduce the effects of ataxia, but it is unlikely to eliminate them entirely. Recovery tends to be better in individuals with a single focal injury (such as stroke or a benign tumour), compared to those who have a neurological degenerative condition. A review of the management of degenerative ataxia was published in 2009. A small number of rare conditions presenting with prominent cerebellar ataxia are amenable to specific treatment and recognition of these disorders is critical. Diseases include vitamin E deficiency, abetalipoproteinemia, cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis, Niemann–Pick type C disease, Refsum's disease, glucose transporter type 1 deficiency, episodic ataxia type 2, gluten ataxia, glutamic acid decarboxylase ataxia. Novel therapies target the RNA defects associated with cerebellar disorders, using in particular anti-sense oligonucleotides. The movement disorders associated with ataxia can be managed by pharmacological treatments and through physical therapy and occupational therapy to reduce disability. Some drug treatments that have been used to control ataxia include: 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP), idebenone, amantadine, physostigmine, L-carnitine or derivatives, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, vigabatrin, phosphatidylcholine, acetazolamide, 4-aminopyridine, buspirone, and a combination of coenzyme Q10 and vitamin E. Physical therapy requires a focus on adapting activity and facilitating motor learning for retraining specific functional motor patterns. A recent systematic review suggested that physical therapy is effective, but there is only moderate evidence to support this conclusion. The most commonly used physical therapy interventions for cerebellar ataxia are vestibular habituation, Frenkel exercises, proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF), and balance training; however, therapy is often highly individualized and gait and coordination training are large components of therapy. Current research suggests that, if a person is able to walk with or without a mobility aid, physical therapy should include an exercise program addressing five components: static balance, dynamic balance, trunk-limb coordination, stairs, and contracture prevention. Once the physical therapist determines that the individual is able to safely perform parts of the program independently, it is important that the individual be prescribed and regularly engage in a supplementary home exercise program that incorporates these components to further improve long term outcomes. These outcomes include balance tasks, gait, and individual activities of daily living. While the improvements are attributed primarily to changes in the brain and not just the hip or ankle joints, it is still unknown whether the improvements are due to adaptations in the cerebellum or compensation by other areas of the brain. Decomposition, simplification, or slowing of multijoint movement may also be an effective strategy that therapists may use to improve function in patients with ataxia. Training likely needs to be intense and focused—as indicated by one study performed with stroke patients experiencing limb ataxia who underwent intensive upper limb retraining. Their therapy consisted of constraint-induced movement therapy which resulted in improvements of their arm function. Treatment should likely include strategies to manage difficulties with everyday activities such as walking. Gait aids (such as a cane or walker) can be provided to decrease the risk of falls associated with impairment of balance or poor coordination. Severe ataxia may eventually lead to the need for a wheelchair. To obtain better results, possible coexisting motor deficits need to be addressed in addition to those induced by ataxia. For example, muscle weakness and decreased endurance could lead to increasing fatigue and poorer movement patterns. There are several assessment tools available to therapists and health care professionals working with patients with ataxia. The International Cooperative Ataxia Rating Scale (ICARS) is one of the most widely used and has been proven to have very high reliability and validity. Other tools that assess motor function, balance and coordination are also highly valuable to help the therapist track the progress of their patient, as well as to quantify the patient's functionality. These tests include, but are not limited to: - The Berg Balance Scale - Tandem Walking (to test for Tandem gaitability) - Scale for the Assessment and Rating of Ataxia (SARA) - tapping tests – The person must quickly and repeatedly tap their arm or leg while the therapist monitors the amount of dysdiadochokinesia. - finger-nose testing – This test has several variations including finger-to-therapist's finger, finger-to-finger, and alternate nose-to-finger. == Other uses == The term "ataxia" is sometimes used in a broader sense to indicate lack of coordination in some physiological process. Examples include optic ataxia (lack of coordination between visual inputs and hand movements, resulting in inability to reach and grab objects) and ataxic respiration (lack of coordination in respiratory movements, usually due to dysfunction of the respiratory centres in the medulla oblongata). Optic ataxia may be caused by lesions to the posterior parietal cortex, which is responsible for combining and expressing positional information and relating it to movement. Outputs of the posterior parietal cortex include the spinal cord, brain stem motor pathways, pre-motor and pre-frontal cortex, basal ganglia and the cerebellum. Some neurons in the posterior parietal cortex are modulated by intention. Optic ataxia is usually part of Balint's syndrome, but can be seen in isolation with injuries to the superior parietal lobule, as it represents a disconnection between visual-association cortex and the frontal premotor and motor cortex.

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AmbientCalculusOnline

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Abdul Alhazred

Necronomicon#Fictional history

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A priori and a posterior knowledge

A priori and a posteriori

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Ada Lovelace

Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace ("née" Byron; 10 December 1815 – 27 November 1852) was an English mathematician and writer, chiefly known for her work on Charles Babbage's proposed mechanical general-purpose computer, the Analytical Engine. She was the first to recognise that the machine had applications beyond pure calculation. Ada Byron was the only legitimate child of poet Lord Byron and reformer Lady Byron. All Lovelace's half-siblings, Lord Byron's other children, were born out of wedlock to other women. Byron separated from his wife a month after Ada was born and left England forever. He died in Greece when Ada was eight. Her mother was anxious about her upbringing and promoted Ada's interest in mathematics and logic in an effort to prevent her from developing her father's perceived insanity. Despite this, Ada remained interested in him, naming her two sons Byron and Gordon. Upon her death, she was buried next to him at her request. Although often ill in her childhood, Ada pursued her studies assiduously. She married William King in 1835. King was made Earl of Lovelace in 1838, Ada thereby becoming Countess of Lovelace. Her educational and social exploits brought her into contact with scientists such as Andrew Crosse, Charles Babbage, Sir David Brewster, Charles Wheatstone, Michael Faraday, and the author Charles Dickens, contacts which she used to further her education. Ada described her approach as "poetical science" and herself as an "Analyst (& Metaphysician)". When she was eighteen, her mathematical talents led her to a long working relationship and friendship with fellow British mathematician Charles Babbage, who is known as "the father of computers". She was in particular interested in Babbage's work on the Analytical Engine. Lovelace first met him in June 1833, through their mutual friend, and her private tutor, Mary Somerville. Between 1842 and 1843, Ada translated by the military engineer Luigi Menabrea (later Prime Minister of Italy) about the Analytical Engine, supplementing it with . Lovelace's notes are important in the early history of computers, especially since the seventh one contained what many consider to be the first computer program—that is, an algorithm designed to be carried out by a machine. Other historians reject this perspective and point out that Babbage's personal notes from the years 1836/1837 contain the first programs for the engine. She also developed a vision of the capability of computers to go beyond mere calculating or number-crunching, while many others, including Babbage himself, focused only on those capabilities. Her mindset of "poetical science" led her to ask questions about the Analytical Engine (as shown in her notes) examining how individuals and society relate to technology as a collaborative tool. ==Biography== ===Childhood=== Lord Byron expected his child to be a "glorious boy" and was disappointed when Lady Byron gave birth to a girl. The child was named after Byron's half-sister, Augusta Leigh, and was called "Ada" by Byron himself. On 16 January 1816, at Lord Byron's command, Lady Byron left for her parents' home at Kirkby Mallory, taking their five-week-old daughter with her. Although English law at the time granted full custody of children to the father in cases of separation, Lord Byron made no attempt to claim his parental rights, but did request that his sister keep him informed of Ada's welfare. On 21 April, Lord Byron signed the deed of separation, although very reluctantly, and left England for good a few days later. Aside from an acrimonious separation, Lady Byron continued throughout her life to make allegations about her husband's immoral behaviour. This set of events made Lovelace infamous in Victorian society. Ada did not have a relationship with her father. He died in 1824 when she was eight years old. Her mother was the only significant parental figure in her life. Lovelace was not shown the family portrait of her father until her 20th birthday. Lovelace did not have a close relationship with her mother. She was often left in the care of her maternal grandmother Judith, Hon. Lady Milbanke, who doted on her. However, because of societal attitudes of the time—which favoured the husband in any separation, with the welfare of any child acting as mitigation—Lady Byron had to present herself as a loving mother to the rest of society. This included writing anxious letters to Lady Milbanke about her daughter's welfare, with a cover note saying to retain the letters in case she had to use them to show maternal concern. In one letter to Lady Milbanke, she referred to her daughter as "it": "I talk to it for your satisfaction, not my own, and shall be very glad when you have it under your own." Lady Byron had her teenage daughter watched by close friends for any sign of moral deviation. Lovelace dubbed these observers the "Furies" and later complained they exaggerated and invented stories about her. Lovelace was often ill, beginning in early childhood. At the age of eight, she experienced headaches that obscured her vision. In June 1829, she was paralyzed after a bout of measles. She was subjected to continuous bed rest for nearly a year, something which may have extended her period of disability. By 1831, she was able to walk with crutches. Despite the illnesses, she developed her mathematical and technological skills. Ada Byron had an affair with a tutor in early 1833. She tried to elope with him after she was caught, but the tutor's relatives recognised her and contacted her mother. Lady Byron and her friends covered the incident up to prevent a public scandal. Lovelace never met her younger half-sister, Allegra, the daughter of Lord Byron and Claire Clairmont. Allegra died in 1822 at the age of five. Lovelace did have some contact with Elizabeth Medora Leigh, the daughter of Byron's half-sister Augusta Leigh, who purposely avoided Lovelace as much as possible when introduced at court. ===Adult years=== Lovelace became close friends with her tutor Mary Somerville, who introduced her to Charles Babbage in 1833. She had a strong respect and affection for Somerville, and they corresponded for many years. Other acquaintances included the scientists Andrew Crosse, Sir David Brewster, Charles Wheatstone, Michael Faraday and the author Charles Dickens. She was presented at Court at the age of seventeen "and became a popular belle of the season" in part because of her "brilliant mind". By 1834 Ada was a regular at Court and started attending various events. She danced often and was able to charm many people, and was described by most people as being dainty, although John Hobhouse, Byron's friend, described her as "a large, coarse-skinned young woman but with something of my friend's features, particularly the mouth". This description followed their meeting on 24 February 1834 in which Ada made it clear to Hobhouse that she did not like him, probably due to her mother's influence, which led her to dislike all of her father's friends. This first impression was not to last, and they later became friends. On 8 July 1835, she married William, 8th Baron King, becoming Lady King. They had three homes: Ockham Park, Surrey; a Scottish estate on Loch Torridon in Ross-shire; and a house in London. They spent their honeymoon at Worthy Manor in Ashley Combe near Porlock Weir, Somerset. The Manor had been built as a hunting lodge in 1799 and was improved by King in preparation for their honeymoon. It later became their summer retreat and was further improved during this time. From 1845, the family's main house was Horsley Towers, built in the Tudorbethan fashion by the architect of the Houses of Parliament, Charles Barry, and later greatly enlarged to Lovelace's own designs. They had three children: Byron (born 1836); Anne Isabella (called Annabella, born 1837); and Ralph Gordon (born 1839). Immediately after the birth of Annabella, Lady King experienced "a tedious and suffering illness, which took months to cure". Ada was a descendant of the extinct Barons Lovelace and in 1838, her husband was made Earl of Lovelace and Viscount Ockham, meaning Ada became the Countess of Lovelace. In 1843–44, Ada's mother assigned William Benjamin Carpenter to teach Ada's children and to act as a "moral" instructor for Ada. He quickly fell for her and encouraged her to express any frustrated affections, claiming that his marriage meant he would never act in an "unbecoming" manner. When it became clear that Carpenter was trying to start an affair, Ada cut it off. In 1841, Lovelace and Medora Leigh (the daughter of Lord Byron's half-sister Augusta Leigh) were told by Ada's mother that Ada's father was also Medora's father. On 27 February 1841, Ada wrote to her mother: "I am not in the least "astonished". In fact, you merely "confirm" what I have for "years and years" felt scarcely a doubt about, but should have considered it most improper in me to hint to you that I in any way suspected." She did not blame the incestuous relationship on Byron, but instead blamed Augusta Leigh: "I fear she is more inherently wicked than he ever was." In the 1840s, Ada flirted with scandals: firstly, from a relaxed approach to extra-marital relationships with men, leading to rumours of affairs; and secondly, from her love of gambling. She apparently lost more than £3,000 on the horses during the later 1840s. The gambling led to her forming a syndicate with male friends, and an ambitious attempt in 1851 to create a mathematical model for successful large bets. This went disastrously wrong, leaving her thousands of pounds in debt to the syndicate, forcing her to admit it all to her husband. She had a shadowy relationship with Andrew Crosse's son John from 1844 onwards. John Crosse destroyed most of their correspondence after her death as part of a legal agreement. She bequeathed him the only heirlooms her father had personally left to her. During her final illness, she would panic at the idea of the younger Crosse being kept from visiting her. ===Education=== From 1832, when she was seventeen, her mathematical abilities began to emerge, and her interest in mathematics dominated the majority of her adult life. Her mother's obsession with rooting out any of the insanity of which she accused Byron was one of the reasons that Ada was taught mathematics from an early age. She was privately educated in mathematics and science by William Frend, William King, and Mary Somerville, the noted 19th-century researcher and scientific author. In the 1840s, the mathematician Augustus De Morgan extended her "much help in her mathematical studies" including study of advanced calculus topics including the "numbers of Bernoulli" (that formed her celebrated algorithm for Babbage's Analytical Engine). In a letter to Lady Byron, De Morgan suggested that Ada's skill in mathematics might lead her to become "an original mathematical investigator, perhaps of first-rate eminence". Lovelace often questioned basic assumptions through integrating poetry and science. Whilst studying differential calculus, she wrote to De Morgan: I may remark that the curious transformations many formulae can undergo, the unsuspected and to a beginner apparently impossible identity of forms exceedingly dissimilar at first sight, is I think one of the chief difficulties in the early part of mathematical studies. I am often reminded of certain sprites and fairies one reads of, who are at one's elbows in "one" shape now, and the next minute in a form most dissimilar. Lovelace believed that intuition and imagination were critical to effectively applying mathematical and scientific concepts. She valued metaphysics as much as mathematics, viewing both as tools for exploring "the unseen worlds around us". ===Death=== Lovelace died at the age of 36 on 27 November 1852, from uterine cancer. The illness lasted several months, in which time Annabella took command over whom Ada saw, and excluded all of her friends and confidants. Under her mother's influence, Ada had a religious transformation and was coaxed into repenting of her previous conduct and making Annabella her executor. She lost contact with her husband after confessing something to him on 30 August which caused him to abandon her bedside. It is not known what she told him. She was buried, at her request, next to her father at the Church of St. Mary Magdalene in Hucknall, Nottinghamshire. A memorial plaque, written in Latin, to her and her father is in the chapel attached to Horsley Towers. ==Work== Throughout her life, Lovelace was strongly interested in scientific developments and fads of the day, including phrenology and mesmerism. After her work with Babbage, Lovelace continued to work on other projects. In 1844, she commented to a friend Woronzow Greig about her desire to create a mathematical model for how the brain gives rise to thoughts and nerves to feelings ("a calculus of the nervous system"). She never achieved this, however. In part, her interest in the brain came from a long-running pre-occupation, inherited from her mother, about her "potential" madness. As part of her research into this project, she visited the electrical engineer Andrew Crosse in 1844 to learn how to carry out electrical experiments. In the same year, she wrote a review of a paper by Baron Karl von Reichenbach, "Researches on Magnetism", but this was not published and does not appear to have progressed past the first draft. In 1851, the year before her cancer struck, she wrote to her mother mentioning "certain productions" she was working on regarding the relation of maths and music. Lovelace first met Charles Babbage in June 1833, through their mutual friend Mary Somerville. Later that month, Babbage invited Lovelace to see the prototype for his difference engine. She became fascinated with the machine and used her relationship with Somerville to visit Babbage as often as she could. Babbage was impressed by Lovelace's intellect and analytic skills. He called her "The Enchantress of Number". In 1843, he wrote to her: During a nine-month period in 1842–43, Lovelace translated the Italian mathematician Luigi Menabrea's article on Babbage's newest proposed machine, the Analytical Engine. With the article, she appended a set of notes. Explaining the Analytical Engine's function was a difficult task; many other scientists did not grasp the concept and the British establishment had shown little interest in it. Lovelace's notes even had to explain how the Analytical Engine differed from the original Difference Engine. Her work was well received at the time; the scientist Michael Faraday described himself as a supporter of her writing. The notes are around three times longer than the article itself and include (in "Note G"), in complete detail, a method for calculating a sequence of Bernoulli numbers using the Analytical Engine, which might have run correctly had it ever been built (only Babbage's Difference Engine has been built, completed in London in 2002). Based on this work, Lovelace is now considered by many to be the first computer programmer and her method has been called the world's first computer program. Others dispute this because some of Charles Babbage's earlier writings could be considered computer programs. "Note G" also contains Lovelace's dismissal of artificial intelligence. She wrote that "The Analytical Engine has no pretensions whatever to "originate" anything. It can do "whatever we know how to order it" to perform. It can follow analysis; but it has no power of anticipating any analytical relations or truths." This objection has been the subject of much debate and rebuttal, for example by Alan Turing in his paper "Computing Machinery and Intelligence". Most modern computer scientists argue that this view is outdated and that computer software can develop in ways that cannot necessarily be anticipated by programmers. Lovelace and Babbage had a minor falling out when the papers were published, when he tried to leave his own statement (criticising the government's treatment of his Engine) as an unsigned preface, which could have been mistakenly interpreted as a joint declaration. When Taylor's "Scientific Memoirs" ruled that the statement should be signed, Babbage wrote to Lovelace asking her to withdraw the paper. This was the first that she knew he was leaving it unsigned, and she wrote back refusing to withdraw the paper. The historian Benjamin Woolley theorised that "His actions suggested he had so enthusiastically sought Ada's involvement, and so happily indulged her ... because of her 'celebrated name'." Their friendship recovered, and they continued to correspond. On 12 August 1851, when she was dying of cancer, Lovelace wrote to him asking him to be her executor, though this letter did not give him the necessary legal authority. Part of the terrace at Worthy Manor was known as "Philosopher's Walk;" it was there that Lovelace and Babbage were reputed to have walked while discussing mathematical principles. ===First published computer program=== In 1840, Babbage was invited to give a seminar at the University of Turin about his Analytical Engine. Luigi Menabrea, a young Italian engineer and the future Prime Minister of Italy, transcribed Babbage's lecture into French, and this transcript was subsequently published in the "Bibliothèque universelle de Genève" in October 1842. Babbage's friend Charles Wheatstone commissioned Ada Lovelace to translate Menabrea's paper into English. She then augmented the paper with notes, which were added to the translation. Ada Lovelace spent the better part of a year doing this, assisted with input from Babbage. These notes, which are more extensive than Menabrea's paper, were then published in the September 1843 edition of Taylor's "Scientific Memoirs" under the initialism "AAL". Ada Lovelace's notes were labelled alphabetically from A to G. In Note G, she describes an algorithm for the Analytical Engine to compute Bernoulli numbers. It is considered to be the first published algorithm ever specifically tailored for implementation on a computer, and Ada Lovelace has often been cited as the first computer programmer for this reason. The engine was never completed and so her program was never tested. In 1953, more than a century after her death, Ada Lovelace's notes on Babbage's Analytical Engine were republished as an appendix to B. V. Bowden's "Faster than Thought: A Symposium on Digital Computing Machines". The engine has now been recognised as an early model for a computer and her notes as a description of a computer and software. ===Insight into potential of computing devices=== In her notes, Ada Lovelace emphasised the difference between the Analytical Engine and previous calculating machines, particularly its ability to be programmed to solve problems of any complexity. She realised the potential of the device extended far beyond mere number crunching. In her notes, she wrote: This analysis was an important development from previous ideas about the capabilities of computing devices and anticipated the implications of modern computing one hundred years before they were realised. Walter Isaacson ascribes Ada's insight regarding the application of computing to "any" process based on logical symbols to an observation about textiles: "When she saw some mechanical looms that used punchcards to direct the weaving of beautiful patterns, it reminded her of how Babbage's engine used punched cards to make calculations." This insight is seen as significant by writers such as Betty Toole and Benjamin Woolley, as well as the programmer John Graham-Cumming, whose project Plan 28 has the aim of constructing the first complete Analytical Engine. According to the historian of computing and Babbage specialist Doron Swade: Ada saw something that Babbage in some sense failed to see. In Babbage's world his engines were bound by number...What Lovelace saw...was that number could represent entities other than quantity. So once you had a machine for manipulating numbers, if those numbers represented other things, letters, musical notes, then the machine could manipulate symbols of which number was one instance, according to rules. It is this fundamental transition from a machine which is a number cruncher to a machine for manipulating symbols according to rules that is the fundamental transition from calculation to computation—to general-purpose computation—and looking back from the present high ground of modern computing, if we are looking and sifting history for that transition, then that transition was made explicitly by Ada in that 1843 paper. ===Distinction between mechanism and logical structure=== Lovelace recognized the difference between the details of the computing mechanism, as covered in an 1834 article on the Difference Engine, and the logical structure of the Analytical Engine, on which the article she was reviewing dwelt. She noted that different specialists might be required in each area. The [1834 article] chiefly treats it under its mechanical aspect, entering but slightly into the mathematical principles of which that engine is the representative, but giving, in considerable length, many details of the mechanism and contrivances by means of which it tabulates the various orders of differences. M. Menabrea, on the contrary, exclusively developes the analytical view; taking it for granted that mechanism is able to perform certain processes, but without attempting to explain how; and devoting his whole attention to explanations and illustrations of the manner in which analytical laws can be so arranged and combined as to bring every branch of that vast subject within the grasp of the assumed powers of mechanism. It is obvious that, in the invention of a calculating engine, these two branches of the subject are equally essential fields of investigation... They are indissolubly connected, though so different in their intrinsic nature, that perhaps the same mind might not be likely to prove equally profound or successful in both. ===Controversy over contribution=== Though Lovelace is often referred to as the first computer programmer, some biographers, computer scientists and historians of computing suggest otherwise. Allan G. Bromley, in the 1990 article "Difference and Analytical Engines": Bruce Collier wrote that Lovelace "made a considerable contribution to publicizing the Analytical Engine, but there is no evidence that she advanced the design or theory of it in any way". Eugene Eric Kim and Betty Alexandra Toole consider it "incorrect" to regard Lovelace as the first computer programmer, as Babbage wrote the initial programs for his Analytical Engine, although the majority were never published. Bromley notes several dozen sample programs prepared by Babbage between 1837 and 1840, all substantially predating Lovelace's notes. Dorothy K. Stein regards Lovelace's notes as "more a reflection of the mathematical uncertainty of the author, the political purposes of the inventor, and, above all, of the social and cultural context in which it was written, than a blueprint for a scientific development". Doron Swade has said that Ada only published the first computer program instead of actually writing it, but agrees that she was the only person to see the potential of the analytical engine as a machine capable of expressing entities other than quantities. In his book, "Idea Makers", Stephen Wolfram defends Lovelace's contributions. While acknowledging that Babbage wrote several unpublished algorithms for the Analytical Engine prior to Lovelace's notes, Wolfram argues that "there's nothing as sophisticated—or as clean—as Ada's computation of the Bernoulli numbers. Babbage certainly helped and commented on Ada's work, but she was definitely the driver of it." Wolfram then suggests that Lovelace's main achievement was to distill from Babbage's correspondence "a clear exposition of the abstract operation of the machine—something which Babbage never did". ==Commemoration== The computer language Ada, created on behalf of the United States Department of Defense, was named after Lovelace. The reference manual for the language was approved on 10 December 1980 and the Department of Defense Military Standard for the language, "MIL-STD-1815", was given the number of the year of her birth. In 1981, the Association for Women in Computing inaugurated its Ada Lovelace Award. , the British Computer Society (BCS) has awarded the Lovelace Medal, and in 2008 initiated an annual competition for women students. BCSWomen sponsors the Lovelace Colloquium, an annual conference for women undergraduates. Ada College is a further-education college in Tottenham Hale, London, focused on digital skills. Ada Lovelace Day is an annual event celebrated on the second Tuesday of October, which began in 2009. Its goal is to "... raise the profile of women in science, technology, engineering, and maths," and to "create new role models for girls and women" in these fields. Events have included Wikipedia edit-a-thons with the aim of improving the representation of women on Wikipedia in terms of articles and editors to reduce unintended gender bias on Wikipedia. The Ada Initiative was a non-profit organisation dedicated to increasing the involvement of women in the free culture and open source movements. The Engineering in Computer Science and Telecommunications College building in Zaragoza University is called the Ada Byron Building. The computer centre in the village of Porlock, near where Lovelace lived, is named after her. Ada Lovelace House is a council-owned building in Kirkby-in-Ashfield, Nottinghamshire, near where Lovelace spent her infancy. In 2012, a Google Doodle and blog post honoured her on her birthday. In 2013, Ada Developers Academy was founded and named after her. The mission of Ada Developers Academy is to diversify tech by providing women and gender diverse people the skills, experience, and community support to become professional software developers to change the face of tech. On 17 September 2013, the BBC Radio 4 biography programme "Great Lives" devoted an episode to Ada Lovelace; she was sponsored by TV presenter Konnie Huq. As of November 2015, all new British passports have included an illustration of Lovelace and Babbage. In 2017, a Google Doodle honoured her with other women on International Women's Day. On 2 February 2018, Satellogic, a high-resolution Earth observation imaging and analytics company, launched a ÑuSat type micro-satellite named in honour of Ada Lovelace. In March 2018, "The New York Times" published a belated obituary for Ada Lovelace. On 27 July 2018, Senator Ron Wyden submitted, in the United States Senate, the designation of 9 October 2018 as National Ada Lovelace Day: "To honor the life and contributions of Ada Lovelace as a leading woman in science and mathematics". The resolution (S.Res.592) was considered, and agreed to without amendment and with a preamble by unanimous consent. In November 2020 it was announced that Trinity College Dublin whose library had previously held forty busts, all of them of men, was commissioning four new busts of women, one of whom was to be Lovelace. In March 2022, a statue of Ada Lovelace was installed at the site of the former Ergon House in the City of Westminster, London, honoring its scientific history. The redevelopment was part of a complex with Imperial Chemical House. The statue was sculpted by Etienne and Mary Millner and based on the portrait by Margaret Sarah Carpenter. The sculpture was unveiled on International Women's Day, 2022. It stands on the 7th floor of Millbank Quarter overlooking the junction of Dean Bradley Street and Horseferry Road. In September 2022, Nvidia announced the Ada Lovelace graphics processing unit (GPU) microarchitecture. In July 2023, The UK's Royal Mint issued four commemorative £2 coins in various metals to "honour the innovative contributions of computer science visionary Ada Lovelace and her legacy as a female trailblazer." ===Bicentenary (2015)=== The bicentenary of Ada Lovelace's birth was celebrated with a number of events, including: - "The Ada Lovelace Bicentenary Lectures on Computability", Israel Institute for Advanced Studies, 20 December 2015 – 31 January 2016. - "Ada Lovelace Symposium", University of Oxford, 13–14 October 2015. - "Ada.Ada.Ada", a one-woman show about the life and work of Ada Lovelace (using an LED dress), premiered at Edinburgh International Science Festival on 11 April 2015, and continued to touring internationally to promote diversity on STEM at technology conferences, businesses, government and educational organisations. Special exhibitions were displayed by the Science Museum in London, England and the Weston Library (part of the Bodleian Library) in Oxford, England. ==In popular culture== ===Novels and plays=== Lovelace is portrayed in Romulus Linney's 1977 play "Childe Byron". In Tom Stoppard's 1993 play "Arcadia", the precocious teenage genius Thomasina Coverly—a character "apparently based" on Ada Lovelace (the play also involves Lord Byron)—comes to understand chaos theory, and theorises the second law of thermodynamics, before either is officially recognised. In the 1990 steampunk novel "The Difference Engine" by William Gibson and Bruce Sterling, Lovelace delivers a lecture on the "punched cards" programme which proves Gödel's incompleteness theorems decades before their actual discovery. Lovelace and Mary Shelley as teenagers are the central characters in Jordan Stratford's steampunk series, "The Wollstonecraft Detective Agency". Lovelace features in John Crowley's 2005 novel, "Lord Byron's Novel: The Evening Land", as an unseen character whose personality is forcefully depicted in her annotations and anti-heroic efforts to archive her father's lost novel. The 2015 play "Ada and the Engine" by Lauren Gunderson portrays Lovelace and Charles Babbage in unrequited love, and it imagines a post-death meeting between Lovelace and her father. Lovelace and Babbage are also the main characters in Sydney Padua's webcomic and graphic novel "The Thrilling Adventures of Lovelace and Babbage". The comic features extensive footnotes on the history of Ada Lovelace, and many lines of dialogue are drawn from actual correspondence. Lovelace is a primary character in the 2019 Big Finish Doctor Who audio play "The Enchantress of Numbers," starring Tom Baker as the Fourth Doctor and Jane Slavin as his current companion, WPC Ann Kelso. Lovelace is played by Finty Williams. In 2019, Lovelace is a featured character in the play STEM FEMMES by Philadelphia theater company Applied Mechanics. ===Film and television=== In the 1997 film "Conceiving Ada," a computer scientist obsessed with Ada finds a way of communicating with her in the past by means of "undying information waves". Lovelace, identified as Ada Augusta Byron, is portrayed by Lily Lesser in the second season of "The Frankenstein Chronicles". She is employed as an "analyst" to provide the workings of a life-sized humanoid automaton. The brass workings of the machine are reminiscent of Babbage's analytical engine. Her employment is described as keeping her occupied until she returns to her studies in advanced mathematics. Lovelace and Babbage appear as characters in the second season of the ITV series "Victoria" (2017). Emerald Fennell portrays Lovelace in the episode, "The Green-Eyed Monster." "Lovelace" is the name given to the operating system designed by the character Cameron Howe in "Halt and Catch Fire". Lovelace features as a character in "Spyfall, Part 2", the second episode of "Doctor Who", series 12, which first aired on BBC One on 5 January 2020. The character was portrayed by Sylvie Briggs, alongside characterisations of Charles Babbage and Noor Inayat Khan. ===Software=== The Cardano cryptocurrency platform, launched in 2017, uses "Ada" as the name for the cryptocurrency and "Lovelace" as the smallest sub-unit of an Ada. In 2021, Lovelace was directly honoured in the codename of Nvidia's new GPU architecture featured in its RTX 4000 series. Ada Lovelace is the first Nvidia architecture to feature both a first and last name. ==Publications== * Lovelace, Ada King. "Ada, the Enchantress of Numbers: A Selection from the Letters of Lord Byron's Daughter and her Description of the First Computer". Mill Valley, CA: Strawberry Press, 1992. . - Also available on Wikisource: , === Publication history === Six copies of the 1843 first edition of "Sketch of the Analytical Engine" with Ada Lovelace's "Notes" have been located. Three are held at Harvard University, one at the University of Oklahoma, and one at the United States Air Force Academy. On 20 July 2018, the sixth copy was sold at auction to an anonymous buyer for £95,000. A digital facsimile of one of the copies in the Harvard University Library is available online. In December 2016, a letter written by Ada Lovelace was forfeited by Martin Shkreli to the New York State Department of Taxation and Finance for unpaid taxes owed by Shkreli.

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August Derleth

August William Derleth (February 24, 1909 – July 4, 1971) was an American writer and anthologist. He was the first book publisher of the writings of H. P. Lovecraft. He made contributions to the Cthulhu Mythos and the cosmic horror genre and helped found the publisher Arkham House (which did much to bring supernatural fiction into print in hardcover in the US that had only been readily available in the UK). Derleth was also a leading American regional writer of his day, as well as prolific in several other genres, including historical fiction, poetry, detective fiction, science fiction, and biography. Notably, he created the fictional detective Solar Pons, a pastiche of Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes. A 1938 Guggenheim Fellow, Derleth considered his most serious work to be the ambitious "Sac Prairie Saga", a series of fiction, historical fiction, poetry, and non-fiction naturalist works designed to memorialize life in the Wisconsin he knew. Derleth can also be considered a pioneering naturalist and conservationist in his writing. ==Life== The son of William Julius Derleth and Rose Louise Volk, Derleth grew up in Sauk City, Wisconsin. He was educated in local parochial and public high school. Derleth wrote his first fiction at age 13. He was interested most in reading, and he made three trips to the library a week. He would save his money to buy books (his personal library exceeded 12,000 volumes later on in life). Some of his biggest influences were Ralph Waldo Emerson's essays, Walt Whitman, H. L. Mencken's "The American Mercury", Samuel Johnson's "The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia", Alexandre Dumas, Edgar Allan Poe, Walter Scott, and Henry David Thoreau's Walden. Forty rejected stories and three years later, according to anthologist Jim Stephens, he sold his first story, "Bat's Belfry", to "Weird Tales" magazine in 1926. Derleth wrote throughout his four years at the University of Wisconsin, where he received a B.A. in 1930. During this time he also served briefly as associate editor of Minneapolis-based Fawcett Publications "Mystic Magazine". Returning to Sauk City in the summer of 1931, Derleth worked in a local canning factory and collaborated with childhood friend Mark Schorer (later Chairman of the University of California, Berkeley English Department). They rented a cabin, writing Gothic and other horror stories and selling them to "Weird Tales" magazine. Derleth won a place on the O'Brien Roll of Honor for "Five Alone", published in "Place of Hawks", but was first published in "Pagany" magazine. As a result of his early work on the "Sac Prairie Saga", Derleth was awarded the prestigious Guggenheim Fellowship; his sponsors were Helen C. White, Nobel Prize-winning novelist Sinclair Lewis and poet Edgar Lee Masters of "Spoon River Anthology" fame. In the mid-1930s, Derleth organized a Ranger's Club for young people, served as clerk and president of the local school board, served as a parole officer, organized a local men's club and a parent-teacher association. He also lectured in American regional literature at the University of Wisconsin and was a contributing editor of "Outdoors Magazine". With longtime friend Donald Wandrei, Derleth founded Arkham House in 1939. Its initial objective was to publish the works of H. P. Lovecraft, with whom Derleth had corresponded since his teenage years. At the same time, he began teaching a course in American Regional Literature at the University of Wisconsin. In 1941, he became literary editor of "The Capital Times" newspaper in Madison, a post he held until his resignation in 1960. His hobbies included fencing, swimming, chess, philately and comic-strips (Derleth reportedly used the funding from his Guggenheim Fellowship to bind his comic book collection, most recently valued in the millions of dollars, rather than to travel abroad as the award intended.). Derleth's true avocation, however, was hiking the terrain of his native Wisconsin lands, and observing and recording nature with an expert eye. Derleth once wrote of his writing methods, "I write very swiftly, from 750,000 to a million words yearly, very little of it pulp material." In 1948, he was elected president of the Associated Fantasy Publishers at the 6th World Science Fiction Convention in Toronto. He was married April 6, 1953, to Sandra Evelyn Winters. They divorced six years later. Derleth retained custody of the couple's two children, April Rose Derleth and Walden William Derleth. April earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in English from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in 1977. She became majority stockholder, President, and CEO of Arkham House in 1994. She remained in that capacity until her death. She was known in the community as a naturalist and humanitarian. April died on March 21, 2011. In 1960, Derleth began editing and publishing a magazine called "Hawk and Whippoorwill", dedicated to poems of man and nature. Derleth died of a heart attack on July 4, 1971, and is buried in St. Aloysius Cemetery in Sauk City. The U.S. 12 bridge over the Wisconsin River is named in his honor. Derleth was Roman Catholic. In Derleth's biography, Dorothy M. Grobe Litersky stated that Derleth was bisexual, and maintained long-term romantic relationships with both men and women. This assertion has not been verified, however; no names were given of these romantic partners (in the interest of privacy according to Litersky), and no evidence or acknowledgement of Derleth having a bisexual or homosexual orientation has ever been found in his personal correspondence or writings. ==Career== Derleth wrote more than 150 short stories and more than 100 books during his lifetime. ===The "Sac Prairie Saga"=== Derleth wrote an expansive series of novels, short stories, journals, poems, and other works about Sac Prairie. Derleth intended this series to comprise up to 50 novels telling the projected life-story of the region from the 19th century onwards, with analogies to Balzac's "Human Comedy" and Proust's "Remembrance of Things Past". This, and other early work by Derleth, made him a well-known figure among the regional literary figures of his time: early Pulitzer Prize winners Hamlin Garland and Zona Gale, as well as Sinclair Lewis, the last both an admirer and critic of Derleth. As Edward Wagenknecht wrote in "Cavalcade of the American Novel", "What Mr. Derleth has that is lacking...in modern novelists generally, is a country. He belongs. He writes of a land and a people that are bone of his bone and flesh of his flesh. In his fictional world, there is a unity much deeper and more fundamental than anything that can be conferred by an ideology. It is clear, too, that he did not get the best, and most fictionally useful, part of his background material from research in the library; like Scott, in his Border novels, he gives, rather, the impression of having drunk it in with his mother's milk." Jim Stephens, editor of "An August Derleth Reader", (1992), argues: "what Derleth accomplished...was to gather a Wisconsin mythos which gave respect to the ancient fundament of our contemporary life." The author inaugurated the "Sac Prairie Saga" with four novellas comprising "Place of Hawks", published by Loring & Mussey in 1935. At publication, "The Detroit News" wrote: "Certainly with this book Mr. Derleth may be added to the American writers of distinction." Derleth's first novel, "Still is the Summer Night", was published two years later by the famous Charles Scribners' editor Maxwell Perkins, and was the second in his Sac Prairie Saga. "Village Year", the first in a series of journals – meditations on nature, Midwestern village American life, and more – was published in 1941 to praise from "The New York Times Book Review": "A book of instant sensitive responsiveness...recreates its scene with acuteness and beauty, and makes an unusual contribution to the Americana of the present day." The "New York Herald Tribune" observed that "Derleth...deepens the value of his village setting by presenting in full the enduring natural background; with the people projected against this, the writing comes to have the quality of an old Flemish picture, humanity lively and amusing and loveable in the foreground and nature magnificent beyond." James Grey, writing in the "St. Louis Dispatch" concluded, "Derleth has achieved a kind of prose equivalent of the "Spoon River Anthology"." In the same year, "Evening in Spring" was published by Charles Scribners & Sons. This work Derleth considered among his finest. What "The Milwaukee Journal" called "this beautiful little love story", is an autobiographical novel of first love beset by small-town religious bigotry. The work received critical praise: "The New Yorker" considered it a story told "with tenderness and charm", while the "Chicago Tribune" concluded: "It's as though he turned back the pages of an old diary and told, with rekindled emotion, of the pangs of pain and the sharp, clear sweetness of a boy's first love." Helen Constance White, wrote in "The Capital Times" that it was "...the best articulated, the most fully disciplined of his stories." These were followed in 1943 with "Shadow of Night", a Scribners' novel of which "The Chicago Sun" wrote: "Structurally it has the perfection of a carved jewel...A psychological novel of the first order, and an adventure tale that is unique and inspiriting." In November 1945, however, Derleth's work was attacked by his one-time admirer and mentor, Sinclair Lewis. Writing in "Esquire", Lewis observed, "It is a proof of Mr. Derleth's merit that he makes one want to make the journey and see his particular Avalon: The Wisconsin River shining among its islands, and the castles of Baron Pierneau and Hercules Dousman. He is a champion and a justification of regionalism. Yet he is also a burly, bounding, bustling, self-confident, opinionated, and highly-sweatered young man with faults so grievous that a melancholy perusal of them may be of more value to apprentices than a study of his serious virtues. If he could ever be persuaded that he isn't half as good as he thinks he is, if he would learn the art of sitting still and using a blue pencil, he might become twice as good as he thinks he is – which would about rank him with Homer." Derleth good-humoredly reprinted the criticism along with a photograph of himself sans sweater, on the back cover of his 1948 country journal: "Village Daybook". A lighter side to the "Sac Prairie Saga" is a series of quasi-autobiographical short stories known as the "Gus Elker Stories", amusing tales of country life that Peter Ruber, Derleth's last editor, said were "...models of construction and...fused with some of the most memorable characters in American literature." Most were written between 1934 and the late 1940s, though the last, "Tail of the Dog", was published in 1959 and won the "Scholastic Magazine" short story award for the year. The series was collected and republished in "Country Matters" in 1996. "Walden West", published in 1961, is considered by many Derleth's finest work. This prose meditation is built out of the same fundamental material as the series of Sac Prairie journals, but is organized around three themes: "the persistence of memory...the sounds and odors of the country...and Thoreau's observation that the 'mass of men lead lives of quiet desperation. A blend of nature writing, philosophic musings, and careful observation of the people and place of "Sac Prairie". Of this work, George Vukelich, author of "North Country Notebook", writes: "Derleth's "Walden West" is...the equal of Sherwood Anderson's "Winesburg,Ohio", Thornton Wilder's "Our Town", and Edgar Lee Masters' "Spoon River Anthology"." This was followed eight years later by "Return to Walden West", a work of similar quality, but with a more noticeable environmentalist edge to the writing, notes critic Norbert Blei. A close literary relative of the "Sac Prairie Saga" was Derleth's "Wisconsin Saga", which comprises several historical novels. ===Detective fiction and "Solar Pons"=== Detective fiction represented another substantial body of Derleth's work. Most notable among this work was a series of 70 stories in affectionate pastiche of Sherlock Holmes, whose creator, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, he admired greatly. The stories feature a Holmes-styled British detective named Solar Pons, of 7B Praed Street in London. These included one published novel as well ("Mr. Fairlie's Final Journey"). The series was greatly admired by such notable writers and critics of mystery and detective fiction as Ellery Queen (Frederic Dannay), Anthony Boucher, Vincent Starrett, and Howard Haycraft. In his 1944 volume "The Misadventures of Sherlock Holmes", Ellery Queen wrote of Derleth's "The Norcross Riddle", an early Pons story: "How many budding authors, not even old enough to vote, could have captured the spirit and atmosphere with as much fidelity?" Queen adds, "his choice of the euphonic Solar Pons is an appealing addition to the fascinating lore of Sherlockian nomenclature." Vincent Starrett, in his foreword to the 1964 edition of "The Casebook of Solar Pons", wrote that the series is "as sparkling a galaxy of Sherlockian pastiches as we have had since the canonical entertainments came to an end." Despite close similarities to Doyle's creation, Pons lived in the post-World War I era, in the decades of the 1920s and 1930s. Though Derleth never wrote a Pons novel to equal "The Hound of the Baskervilles", editor Peter Ruber wrote that "Derleth" produced more than a few Solar Pons stories almost as good as Sir Arthur's, and many that had better plot construction." Although these stories were a form of diversion for Derleth, Ruber, who edited "The Original Text Solar Pons Omnibus Edition" (2000), argued: "Because the stories were generally of such high quality, they ought to be assessed on their own merits as a unique contribution in the annals of mystery fiction, rather than suffering comparison as one of the endless imitators of Sherlock Holmes." Some of the stories were self-published, through a new imprint called "Mycroft & Moran", an appellation of humorous significance to Holmesian scholars. For approximately a decade, an active supporting group was the Praed Street Irregulars, patterned after the Baker Street Irregulars. In 1946, Conan Doyle's two sons made some attempts to force Derleth to cease publishing the Solar Pons series, but the efforts were unsuccessful, and were eventually withdrawn. Derleth's mystery and detective fiction also included a series of works set in Sac Prairie and featuring Judge Peck as the central character. ===Youth and children's fiction=== Derleth wrote many and varied children's works, including biographies meant to introduce younger readers to explorer Jacques Marquette, as well as Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. Arguably most important among his works for younger readers, however, is the Steve and Sim Mystery Series, also known as the Mill Creek Irregulars series. The ten-volume series, published between 1958 and 1970, is set in Sac Prairie of the 1920s and can thus be considered in its own right a part of the "Sac Prairie Saga", as well as an extension of Derleth's body of mystery fiction. Robert Hood, writing in the "New York Times" said: "Steve and Sim, the major characters, are twentieth-century cousins of Huck Finn and Tom Sawyer; Derleth's minor characters, little gems of comic drawing." The first novel in the series, "The Moon Tenders", does, in fact, involve a rafting adventure down the Wisconsin River, which led regional writer Jesse Stuart to suggest the novel was one that "older people might read to recapture the spirit and dream of youth." The connection to the "Sac Prairie Saga" was noted by the "Chicago Tribune": "Once again a small midwest community in 1920s is depicted with perception, skill, and dry humor." ===Arkham House and the "Cthulhu Mythos"=== Derleth was a correspondent and friend of H. P. Lovecraft – when Lovecraft wrote about "le Comte d'Erlette" in his fiction, it was in homage to Derleth. Derleth invented the term "Cthulhu Mythos" to describe the fictional universe depicted in the series of stories shared by Lovecraft and other writers in his circle. When Lovecraft died in 1937, Derleth and Donald Wandrei assembled a collection of Lovecraft's stories and tried to get them published. Existing publishers showed little interest, so Derleth and Wandrei founded Arkham House in 1939 for that purpose. The name of the company derived from Lovecraft's fictional town of Arkham, Massachusetts, which features in many of his stories. In 1939, Arkham House published "The Outsider and Others", a huge collection that contained most of Lovecraft's known short stories. Derleth and Wandrei soon expanded Arkham House and began a regular publishing schedule after its second book, "Someone in the Dark", a collection of some of Derleth's own horror stories, was published in 1941. Following Lovecraft's death, Derleth wrote a number of stories based on fragments and notes left by Lovecraft. These were published in "Weird Tales" and later in book form, under the byline "H. P. Lovecraft and August Derleth", with Derleth calling himself a "posthumous collaborator." This practice has raised objections in some quarters that Derleth simply used Lovecraft's name to market what was essentially his own fiction; S. T. Joshi refers to the "posthumous collaborations" as marking the beginning of "perhaps the most disreputable phase of Derleth's activities". Dirk W. Mosig, S. T. Joshi, and Richard L. Tierney were dissatisfied with Derleth's invention of the term "Cthulhu Mythos" (Lovecraft himself used "Yog-Sothothery") and his presentation of Lovecraft's fiction as having an overall pattern reflecting Derleth's own Christian world view, which they contrast with Lovecraft's depiction of an amoral universe. However, Robert M. Price points out that while Derleth's tales are distinct from Lovecraft's in their use of hope and his depiction of a struggle between good and evil, nevertheless the basis of Derlerth's systemization are found in Lovecraft. He also suggests that the differences can be overstated: Derleth "was" more optimistic than Lovecraft in his conception of the Mythos, but we are dealing with a difference more of degree than kind. There are indeed tales wherein Derleth's protagonists get off scot-free (like "The Shadow in the Attic", "Witches' Hollow", or "The Shuttered Room"), but often the hero is doomed (e.g., "The House in the Valley", "The Peabody Heritage", "Something in Wood"), as in Lovecraft. And it must be remembered that an occasional Lovecraftian hero does manage to overcome the odds, e.g., in "The Horror in the Museum", "The Shunned House", and 'The Case of Charles Dexter Ward'. Derleth also treated Lovecraft's Great Old Ones as representatives of elemental forces, creating new fictional entities to flesh out this framework. Such debates aside, Derleth's founding of Arkham House and his successful effort to rescue Lovecraft from literary oblivion are widely acknowledged by practitioners in the horror field as seminal events in the field. For instance, Ramsey Campbell has acknowledged Derleth's encouragement and guidance during the early part of his own writing career, and Kirby McCauley has cited Derleth and Arkham House as an inspiration for his own anthology "Dark Forces". Arkham House and Derleth published "Dark Carnival", the first book by Ray Bradbury, as well. Brian Lumley cites the importance of Derleth to his own Lovecraftian work, and contends in a 2009 introduction to Derleth's work that he was "...one of the first, finest, and most discerning editors and publishers of macabre fiction." Important as was Derleth's work to rescue H.P. Lovecraft from literary obscurity at the time of Lovecraft's death, Derleth also built a body of horror and spectral fiction of his own; still frequently anthologized. The best of this work, recently reprinted in four volumes of short stories – most of which were originally published in "Weird Tales", illustrates Derleth's original abilities in the genre. While Derleth considered his work in this genre less important than his most serious literary efforts, the compilers of these four anthologies, including Ramsey Campbell, note that the stories still resonate after more than 50 years. In 2009, The Library of America selected Derleth's story "The Panelled Room" for inclusion in its two-century retrospective of American Fantastic Tales. ===Other works=== Derleth also wrote many historical novels, as part of both the "Sac Prairie Saga" and the "Wisconsin Saga". He also wrote history; arguably most notable among these was "The Wisconsin: River of a Thousand Isles", published in 1942. The work was one in a series entitled "The Rivers of America", conceived by writer Constance Lindsay Skinner during the Great Depression as a series that would connect Americans to their heritage through the history of the great rivers of the nation. Skinner wanted the series to be written by artists, not academicians. Derleth, while not a trained historian, was, according to former Wisconsin state historian William F. Thompson, "...a very competent regional historian who based his historical writing upon research in the primary documents and who regularly sought the help of professionals... ." In the foreword to the 1985 reissue of the work by The University of Wisconsin Press, Thompson concluded: "No other writer, of whatever background or training, knew and understood his particular 'corner of the earth' better than August Derleth." Additionally, Derleth wrote a number of volumes of poetry. Three of his collections – "Rind of Earth" (1942), "Selected Poems" (1944), and "The Edge of Night" (1945) – were published by the Decker Press, which also printed the work of other Midwestern poets such as Edgar Lee Masters. Derleth was also the author of several biographies of other writers, including Zona Gale, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. He also wrote introductions to several collections of classic early 20th century comics, such as "Buster Brown", "Little Nemo in Slumberland", and "Katzenjammer Kids", as well as a book of children's poetry entitled "A Boy's Way", and the foreword to "Tales from an Indian Lodge" by Phebe Jewell Nichols"." Derleth also wrote under the pen names Stephen Grendon, Kenyon Holmes and Tally Mason. Derleth's papers were donated to the Wisconsin Historical Society in Madison. ==Awards== * O'Brien Roll of Honour for short story, 1933 - Guggenheim fellow, 1938

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=981

Alps

The Alps () are the highest and most extensive mountain range that is entirely in Europe, stretching approximately across eight Alpine countries (from west to east): Monaco, France, Switzerland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Germany, Austria and Slovenia. The Alpine arch extends from Nice on the western Mediterranean to Trieste on the Adriatic and Vienna at the beginning of the Pannonian Basin. The mountains were formed over tens of millions of years as the African and Eurasian tectonic plates collided. Extreme shortening caused by the event resulted in marine sedimentary rocks rising by thrusting and folding into high mountain peaks such as Mont Blanc and the Matterhorn. Mont Blanc spans the French–Italian border, and at is the highest mountain in the Alps. The Alpine region area contains 128 peaks higher than . The altitude and size of the range affect the climate in Europe; in the mountains, precipitation levels vary greatly and climatic conditions consist of distinct zones. Wildlife such as ibex live in the higher peaks to elevations of , and plants such as edelweiss grow in rocky areas in lower elevations as well as in higher elevations. Evidence of human habitation in the Alps goes back to the Palaeolithic era. A mummified man ("Ötzi"), determined to be 5,000 years old, was discovered on a glacier at the Austrian–Italian border in 1991. By the 6th century BC, the Celtic La Tène culture was well established. Hannibal notably crossed the Alps with a herd of elephants, and the Romans had settlements in the region. In 1800, Napoleon crossed one of the mountain passes with an army of 40,000. The 18th and 19th centuries saw an influx of naturalists, writers, and artists, in particular, the Romantics, followed by the golden age of alpinism as mountaineers began to ascend the peaks of the Alps. The Alpine region has a strong cultural identity. Traditional practices such as farming, cheesemaking, and woodworking still thrive in Alpine villages. However, the tourist industry began to grow early in the 20th century and expanded significantly after World War II, eventually becoming the dominant industry by the end of the century. The Winter Olympic Games have been hosted in the Swiss, French, Italian, Austrian and German Alps. the region is home to 14 million people and has 120 million annual visitors. == Etymology and toponymy == The English word "Alps" comes from the Latin "Alpes". The Latin word "Alpes" could possibly come from the adjective "albus" ("white"), or could possibly come from the Greek goddess Alphito, whose name is related to "alphita", the "white flour"; "alphos", a dull white leprosy; and finally the Proto-Indo-European word *albʰós. Similarly, the river god Alpheus is also supposed to derive from the Greek "alphos" and means whitish. In his commentary on the "Aeneid" of Vergil, the late fourth-century grammarian Maurus Servius Honoratus says that all high mountains are called "Alpes" by Celts. According to the "Oxford English Dictionary", the Latin "Alpes" might derive from a pre-Indo-European word *"alb" "hill"; "Albania" is a related derivation. Albania, a name not native to the region known as the country of Albania, has been used as a name for several mountainous areas across Europe. In Roman times, "Albania" was a name for the eastern Caucasus, while in the English languages "Albania" (or "Albany") was occasionally used as a name for Scotland, although it is more likely derived from the Latin word "albus", the colour white. In modern languages the term "alp", "alm", "albe" or "alpe" refers to a grazing pastures in the alpine regions below the glaciers, not the peaks. An "alp" refers to a high mountain pasture, typically near or above the tree line, where cows and other livestock are taken to be grazed during the summer months and where huts and hay barns can be found, sometimes constituting tiny hamlets. Therefore, the term "the Alps", as a reference to the mountains, is a misnomer. The term for the mountain peaks varies by nation and language: words such as "Horn", "Kogel", "Kopf", "Gipfel", "Spitze", "Stock", and "Berg" are used in German-speaking regions; "Mont", "Pic", "Tête", "Pointe", "Dent", "Roche", and "Aiguille" in French-speaking regions; and "Monte", "Picco", "Corno", "Punta", "Pizzo", or "Cima" in Italian-speaking regions. == Geography == The Alps are a crescent shaped geographic feature of central Europe that ranges in an arc (curved line) from east to west and is in width. The mean height of the mountain peaks is . The range stretches from the Mediterranean Sea north above the Po basin, extending through France from Grenoble, and stretching eastward through mid and southern Switzerland. The range continues onward toward Vienna, Austria, and southeast to the Adriatic Sea and Slovenia. To the south it dips into northern Italy and to the north extends to the southern border of Bavaria in Germany. In areas like Chiasso, Switzerland, and Allgäu, Bavaria, the demarcation between the mountain range and the flatlands are clear; in other places such as Geneva, the demarcation is less clear. The Alps is found in the following countries: Austria (28.7 % of the range's area), Italy (27.2%), France (21.4 %), Switzerland (13.2 %), Germany (5.8 %), Slovenia (3.6 %), Liechtenstein (0.08%) and Monaco (0.001 %). The highest portion of the range is divided by the glacial trough of the Rhône valley, from Mont Blanc to the Matterhorn and Monte Rosa on the southern side, and the Bernese Alps on the northern. The peaks in the easterly portion of the range, in Austria and Slovenia, are smaller than those in the central and western portions. The variances in nomenclature in the region spanned by the Alps make classification of the mountains and subregions difficult, but a general classification is that of the Eastern Alps and Western Alps with the divide between the two occurring in eastern Switzerland according to geologist Stefan Schmid, near the Splügen Pass. The highest peaks of the Western Alps and Eastern Alps, respectively, are Mont Blanc, at , and Piz Bernina, at . The second-highest major peaks are Monte Rosa, at , and Ortler, at , respectively. A series of lower mountain ranges run parallel to the main chain of the Alps, including the French Prealps in France and the Jura Mountains in Switzerland and France. The secondary chain of the Alps follows the watershed from the Mediterranean Sea to the Wienerwald, passing over many of the highest and most well-known peaks in the Alps. From the Colle di Cadibona to Col de Tende it runs westwards, before turning to the northwest and then, near the Colle della Maddalena, to the north. Upon reaching the Swiss border, the line of the main chain heads approximately east-northeast, a heading it follows until its end near Vienna. The northeast end of the Alpine arc, directly on the Danube, which flows into the Black Sea, is the Leopoldsberg near Vienna. In contrast, the southeastern part of the Alps ends on the Adriatic Sea in the area around Trieste towards Duino and Barcola. == Passes == The Alps have been crossed for war and commerce, and by pilgrims, students and tourists. Crossing routes by road, train, or foot are known as "passes", and usually consist of depressions in the mountains in which a valley leads from the plains and hilly pre-mountainous zones. In the medieval period hospices were established by religious orders at the summits of many of the main passes. The most important passes are the Col de l'Iseran (the highest), the Col Agnel, the Brenner Pass, the Mont-Cenis, the Great St. Bernard Pass, the Col de Tende, the Gotthard Pass, the Semmering Pass, the Simplon Pass, and the Stelvio Pass. Crossing the Italian-Austrian border, the Brenner Pass separates the Ötztal Alps and Zillertal Alps and has been in use as a trading route since the 14th century. The lowest of the Alpine passes at , the Semmering crosses from Lower Austria to Styria; since the 12th century when a hospice was built there, it has seen continuous use. A railroad with a tunnel long was built along the route of the pass in the mid-19th century. With a summit of , the Great St Bernard Pass is one of the highest in the Alps, crossing the Italian-Swiss border east of the Pennine Alps along the flanks of Mont Blanc. The pass was used by Napoleon Bonaparte to cross 40,000 troops in 1800. The Mont Cenis pass has been a major commercial and military road between Western Europe and Italy. The pass was crossed by many troops on their way to the Italian peninsula. From Constantine I, Pepin the Short and Charlemagne to Henry IV, Napoléon and more recently the German Gebirgsjägers during World War II. Now the pass has been supplanted by the Fréjus Highway Tunnel (opened 1980) and Rail Tunnel (opened 1871). The Saint Gotthard Pass crosses from Central Switzerland to Ticino; in 1882 the Saint Gotthard Railway Tunnel was opened connecting Lucerne in Switzerland, with Milan in Italy. 98 years later followed Gotthard Road Tunnel ( long) connecting the A2 motorway in Göschenen on the north side with Airolo on the south side, exactly like the railway tunnel. On 1 June 2016 the world's longest railway tunnel, the Gotthard Base Tunnel, was opened, which connects Erstfeld in canton of Uri with Bodio in canton of Ticino by two single tubes of . It is the first tunnel that traverses the Alps on a flat route. From 11 December 2016, it has been part of the regular railway timetable and used hourly as standard ride between Basel/Lucerne/Zurich and Bellinzona/Lugano/Milan. The highest pass in the alps is the Col de l'Iseran in Savoy (France) at , followed by the Stelvio Pass in northern Italy at ; the road was built in the 1820s. == Highest mountains == The Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme (UIAA) has defined a list of 82 "official" Alpine summits that reach at least . The list includes not only mountains, but also subpeaks with little prominence that are considered important mountaineering objectives. Below are listed the 29 "four-thousanders" with at least of prominence. While Mont Blanc was first climbed in 1786 and the Jungfrau in 1811, most of the Alpine four-thousanders were climbed during the second half of the 19th century, notably Piz Bernina (1850), the Dom (1858), the Grand Combin (1859), the Weisshorn (1861) and the Barre des Écrins (1864); the ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865 marked the end of the golden age of alpinism. Karl Blodig (1859–1956) was among the first to successfully climb all the major 4,000 m peaks. He completed his series of ascents in 1911. Many of the big Alpine three-thousanders were climbed in the early 19th century, notably the Grossglockner (1800) and the Ortler (1804), although some of them were climbed only much later, such at Mont Pelvoux (1848), Monte Viso (1861) and La Meije (1877). The first British Mont Blanc ascent by a man was in 1788; the first ascent by a woman was in 1808. By the mid-1850s Swiss mountaineers had ascended most of the peaks and were eagerly sought as mountain guides. Edward Whymper reached the top of the Matterhorn in 1865 (after seven attempts), and in 1938 the last of the six great north faces of the Alps was climbed with the first ascent of the Eiger "Nordwand" (north face of the Eiger). == Geology and orogeny == Important geological concepts were established as naturalists began studying the rock formations of the Alps in the 18th century. In the mid-19th century, the now-defunct idea of geosynclines was used to explain the presence of "folded" mountain chains. This theory was replaced in the mid-20th century by the theory of plate tectonics. The formation of the Alps (the Alpine orogeny) was an episodic process that began about 300 million years ago. In the Paleozoic Era the Pangaean supercontinent consisted of a single tectonic plate; it broke into separate plates during the Mesozoic Era and the Tethys sea developed between Laurasia and Gondwana during the Jurassic Period. The Tethys was later squeezed between colliding plates causing the formation of mountain ranges called the Alpide belt, from Gibraltar through the Himalayas to Indonesia—a process that began at the end of the Mesozoic and continues into the present. The formation of the Alps was a segment of this orogenic process, caused by the collision between the African and the Eurasian plates that began in the late Cretaceous Period. Under extreme compressive stresses and pressure, marine sedimentary rocks were uplifted, forming characteristic recumbent folds, and thrust faults. As the rising peaks underwent erosion, a layer of marine flysch sediments was deposited in the foreland basin, and the sediments became involved in younger folds as the orogeny progressed. Coarse sediments from the continual uplift and erosion were later deposited in foreland areas north of the Alps. These regions in Switzerland and Bavaria are well-developed, containing classic examples of flysch, which is sedimentary rock formed during mountain building. The Alpine orogeny occurred in ongoing cycles through to the Paleogene causing differences in folded structures, with a late-stage orogeny causing the development of the Jura Mountains. A series of tectonic events in the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods caused different paleogeographic regions. The Alps are subdivided by different lithology (rock composition) and nappe structures according to the orogenic events that affected them. The geological subdivision differentiates the Western, Eastern Alps, and Southern Alps: the Helveticum in the north, the Penninicum and Austroalpine system in the centre and, south of the Periadriatic Seam, the Southern Alpine system. According to geologist Stefan Schmid, because the Western Alps underwent a metamorphic event in the Cenozoic Era while the Austroalpine peaks underwent an event in the Cretaceous Period, the two areas show distinct differences in nappe formations. Flysch deposits in the Southern Alps of Lombardy probably occurred in the Cretaceous or later. Peaks in France, Italy and Switzerland lie in the "Houillière zone", which consists of basement with sediments from the Mesozoic Era. High "massifs" with external sedimentary cover are more common in the Western Alps and were affected by Neogene Period thin-skinned thrusting whereas the Eastern Alps have comparatively few high peaked massifs. Similarly the peaks in eastern Switzerland extending to western Austria (Helvetic nappes) consist of thin-skinned sedimentary folding that detached from former basement rock. In simple terms, the structure of the Alps consists of layers of rock of European, African, and oceanic (Tethyan) origin. The bottom nappe structure is of continental European origin, above which are stacked marine sediment nappes, topped off by nappes derived from the African plate. The Matterhorn is an example of the ongoing orogeny and shows evidence of great folding. The tip of the mountain consists of gneisses from the African plate; the base of the peak, below the glaciated area, consists of European basement rock. The sequence of Tethyan marine sediments and their oceanic basement is sandwiched between rock derived from the African and European plates. The core regions of the Alpine orogenic belt have been folded and fractured in such a manner that erosion produced the characteristic steep vertical peaks of the Swiss Alps that rise seemingly straight out of the foreland areas. Peaks such as Mont Blanc, the Matterhorn, and high peaks in the Pennine Alps, the Briançonnais, and Hohe Tauern consist of layers of rock from the various orogenies including exposures of basement rock. Due to the ever-present geologic instability, earthquakes continue in the Alps to this day. Typically, the largest earthquakes in the alps have been between magnitude 6 and 7 on the Richter scale. Geodetic measurements show ongoing topographic uplift at rates of up to about 2.5 mm per year in the North, Western and Central Alps, and at ~1 mm per year in the Eastern and South-Western Alps. The underlying mechanisms that jointly drive the present-day uplift pattern are the isostatic rebound due to the melting of the last glacial maximum ice-cap or long-term erosion, detachment of the Western Alpine subducting slab, mantle convection as well as ongoing horizontal convergence between Africa and Europe, but their relative contributions to the uplift of the Alps are difficult to quantify and likely to vary significantly in space and time. == Minerals == The Alps are a source of minerals that have been mined for thousands of years. In the 8th to 6th centuries, BC during the Hallstatt culture, Celtic tribes mined copper; later the Romans mined gold for coins in the Bad Gastein area. Erzberg in Styria furnishes high-quality iron ore for the steel industry. Crystals, such as cinnabar, amethyst, and quartz, are found throughout much of the Alpine region. The cinnabar deposits in Slovenia are a notable source of cinnabar pigments. Alpine crystals have been studied and collected for hundreds of years and began to be classified in the 18th century. Leonhard Euler studied the shapes of crystals, and by the 19th-century crystal hunting was common in Alpine regions. David Friedrich Wiser amassed a collection of 8000 crystals that he studied and documented. In the 20th century Robert Parker wrote a well-known work about the rock crystals of the Swiss Alps; at the same period a commission was established to control and standardize the naming of Alpine minerals. == Glaciers == In the Miocene Epoch the mountains underwent severe erosion because of glaciation, which was noted in the mid-19th century by naturalist Louis Agassiz who presented a paper proclaiming the Alps were covered in ice at various intervals—a theory he formed when studying rocks near his Neuchâtel home which he believed originated to the west in the Bernese Oberland. Because of his work he came to be known as the "father of the ice-age concept" although other naturalists before him put forth similar ideas. Agassiz studied glacier movement in the 1840s at the Unteraar Glacier where he found the glacier moved per year, more rapidly in the middle than at the edges. His work was continued by other scientists and now a permanent laboratory exists inside a glacier under the Jungfraujoch, devoted exclusively to the study of Alpine glaciers. Glaciers pick up rocks and sediment with them as they flow. This causes erosion and the formation of valleys over time. The Inn valley is an example of a valley carved by glaciers during the ice ages with a typical terraced structure caused by erosion. Eroded rocks from the most recent ice age lie at the bottom of the valley while the top of the valley consists of erosion from earlier ice ages. Glacial valleys have characteristically steep walls (reliefs); valleys with lower reliefs and talus slopes are remnants of glacial troughs or previously infilled valleys. Moraines, piles of rock picked up during the movement of the glacier, accumulate at edges, centre, and the terminus of glaciers. Alpine glaciers can be straight rivers of ice, long sweeping rivers, spread in a fan-like shape (Piedmont glaciers), and curtains of ice that hang from vertical slopes of the mountain peaks. The stress of the movement causes the ice to break and crack loudly, perhaps explaining why the mountains were believed to be home to dragons in the medieval period. The cracking creates unpredictable and dangerous crevasses, often invisible under new snowfall, which causes the greatest danger to mountaineers. Glaciers end in ice caves (the Rhône Glacier), by trailing into a lake or river, or by shedding snowmelt on a meadow. Sometimes a piece of glacier will detach or break resulting in flooding, property damage, and loss of life. High levels of precipitation cause the glaciers to descend to permafrost levels in some areas whereas in other, more arid regions, glaciers remain above about the level. The of the Alps covered by glaciers in 1876 had shrunk to by 1973, resulting in decreased river run-off levels. Forty percent of the glaciation in Austria has disappeared since 1850, and 30% of that in Switzerland. Although the Alpine topography shows marked glacial morphologies, the mechanisms by which glacial reshaping occurs are unclear. Numerical modeling suggests that glacial erosion propagates from low elevations to high elevations leading to an early increase of local relief followed by lowering of the mean orogen elevation. == Rivers and lakes == The Alps provide lowland Europe with drinking water, irrigation, and hydroelectric power. Although the area is only about 11% of the surface area of Europe, the Alps provide up to 90% of water to lowland Europe, particularly to arid areas and during the summer months. Cities such as Milan depend on 80% of water from Alpine runoff. Water from the rivers is used in at least 550 hydroelectricity power plants, considering only those producing at least 10MW of electricity. Major European rivers flow from the Alps, such as the Rhine, the Rhône, the Inn, and the Po, all of which have headwaters in the Alps and flow into neighbouring countries, finally emptying into the North Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, the Adriatic Sea and the Black Sea. Other rivers such as the Danube have major tributaries flowing into them that originate in the Alps. The Rhône is second to the Nile as a freshwater source to the Mediterranean Sea; the river begins as glacial meltwater, flows into Lake Geneva, and from there to France where one of its uses is to cool nuclear power plants. The Rhine originates in a area in Switzerland and represents almost 60% of water exported from the country. Tributary valleys, some of which are complicated, channel water to the main valleys which can experience flooding during the snowmelt season when rapid runoff causes debris torrents and swollen rivers. The rivers form lakes, such as Lake Geneva, a crescent-shaped lake crossing the Swiss border with Lausanne on the Swiss side and the town of Evian-les-Bains on the French side. In Germany, the medieval St. Bartholomew's chapel was built on the south side of the Königssee, accessible only by boat or by climbing over the abutting peaks. Additionally, the Alps have led to the creation of large lakes in Italy. For instance, the Sarca, the primary inflow of Lake Garda, originates in the Italian Alps. The Italian Lakes are a popular tourist destination since the Roman Era for their mild climate. Scientists have been studying the impact of climate change and water use. For example, each year more water is diverted from rivers for snowmaking in the ski resorts, the effect of which is yet unknown. Furthermore, the decrease of glaciated areas combined with a succession of winters with lower-than-expected precipitation may have a future impact on the rivers in the Alps as well as an effect on the water availability to the lowlands. == Climate == The Alps are a classic example of what happens when a temperate area at lower altitude gives way to higher-elevation terrain. Elevations around the world that have cold climates similar to those of the polar regions have been called Alpine. A rise from sea level into the upper regions of the atmosphere causes the temperature to decrease (see adiabatic lapse rate). The effect of mountain chains on prevailing winds is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region into an upper zone, where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of temperature, often accompanied by precipitation in the form of snow or rain. The height of the Alps is sufficient to divide the weather patterns in Europe into a wet north and dry south because moisture is sucked from the air as it flows over the high peaks. The severe weather in the Alps has been studied since the 18th century; particularly the weather patterns such as the seasonal foehn wind. Numerous weather stations were placed in the mountains early in the early 20th century, providing continuous data for climatologists. Some of the valleys are quite arid such as the Aosta valley in Italy, the Maurienne in France, the Valais in Switzerland, and northern Tyrol. The areas that are not arid and receive high precipitation experience periodic flooding from rapid snowmelt and runoff. The mean precipitation in the Alps ranges from a low of per year to per year, with the higher levels occurring at high altitudes. At altitudes between , snowfall begins in November and accumulates through to April or May when the melt begins. Snow lines vary from , above which the snow is permanent and the temperatures hover around the freezing point even during July and August. High-water levels in streams and rivers peak in June and July when the snow is still melting at the higher altitudes. The Alps are split into five climatic zones, each with different vegetation. The climate, plant life, and animal life vary among the different sections or zones of the mountains. The lowest zone is the colline zone, which exists between , depending on the location. The montane zone extends from , followed by the sub-Alpine zone from . The Alpine zone, extending from tree line to the snow line, is followed by the glacial zone, which covers the glaciated areas of the mountain. Climatic conditions show variances within the same zones; for example, weather conditions at the head of a mountain valley, extending directly from the peaks, are colder and more severe than those at the mouth of a valley which tend to be less severe and receive less snowfall. - Climate change Various models of climate change have been projected into the 22nd century for the Alps, with an expectation that a trend toward increased temperatures will have an effect on snowfall, snowpack, glaciation, and river runoff. Significant changes, of both natural and anthropogenic origins, have already been diagnosed from observations, including a 5.6% reduction per decade in snow cover duration over the last 50 years, which also highlights climate change adaptation needs due to impacts on the climate and regional socio-economic activities.<ref name="10.1038/s41558-022-01575-3"></ref> == Ecology == === Flora === Thirteen thousand species of plants have been identified in the Alpine regions. Alpine plants are grouped by habitat and soil type which can be limestone or non-calcareous. The habitats range from meadows, bogs, and woodland (deciduous and coniferous) areas to soil-less scree and moraines, and rock faces and ridges. A natural vegetation limit with altitude is given by the presence of the chief deciduous trees—oak, beech, ash and sycamore maple. These do not reach the same elevation, nor are they often found growing together, but their upper limit corresponds accurately enough to the change from a temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by a change in the presence of wild herbaceous vegetation. This limit usually lies about above the sea on the north side of the Alps, but on the southern slopes it often rises to , sometimes even to . Above the forestry, there is often a band of dwarf pine trees ("Pinus mugo"), which is in turn superseded by "Alpenrosen", dwarf shrubs, typically "Rhododendron ferrugineum" (on acid soils) or "Rhododendron hirsutum" (on alkaline soils). Although Alpenrose prefers acidic soil, the plants are found throughout the region. Above the tree line is the area defined as "alpine" where in the alpine meadow plants are found that have adapted well to harsh conditions of cold temperatures, aridity, and high altitudes. The alpine area fluctuates greatly because of regional fluctuations in tree lines. Alpine plants such as the Alpine gentian grow in abundance in areas such as the meadows above the Lauterbrunnental. Gentians are named after the Illyrian king Gentius, and 40 species of the early-spring blooming flower grow in the Alps, in a range of . Writing about the gentians in Switzerland D. H. Lawrence described them as "darkening the day-time, torch-like with the smoking blueness of Pluto's gloom." Gentians tend to "appear" repeatedly as the spring blooming takes place at progressively later dates, moving from the lower altitude to the higher altitude meadows where the snow melts much later than in the valleys. On the highest rocky ledges, the spring flowers bloom in the summer. At these higher altitudes, the plants tend to form isolated cushions. In the Alps, several species of flowering plants have been recorded above , including "Ranunculus glacialis", "Androsace alpina" and "Saxifraga biflora". "Eritrichium nanum", commonly known as the King of the Alps, is the most elusive of the alpine flowers, growing on rocky ridges at . Perhaps the best known of the alpine plants is Edelweiss which grows in rocky areas and can be found at altitudes as low as and as high as . The plants that grow at the highest altitudes have adapted to conditions by specialization such as growing in rock screes that give protection from winds. The extreme and stressful climatic conditions give way to the growth of plant species with secondary metabolites important for medicinal purposes. Origanum vulgare, Prunella vulgaris, Solanum nigrum, and Urtica dioica are some of the more useful medicinal species found in the Alps. Human interference has nearly exterminated the trees in many areas, and, except for the beech forests of the Austrian Alps, forests of deciduous trees are rarely found after the extreme deforestation between the 17th and 19th centuries. The vegetation has changed since the second half of the 20th century, as the high alpine meadows cease to be harvested for hay or used for grazing which eventually might result in a regrowth of the forest. In some areas, the modern practice of building ski runs by mechanical means has destroyed the underlying tundra from which the plant life cannot recover during the non-skiing months, whereas areas that still practice a natural "piste" type of ski slope building preserve the fragile underlayers. === Fauna === The Alps are a habitat for 30,000 species of wildlife, ranging from the tiniest snow fleas to brown bears, many of which have made adaptations to the harsh cold conditions and high altitudes to the point that some only survive in specific micro-climates either directly above or below the snow line. The largest mammal to live in the highest altitudes are the alpine ibex, which have been sighted as high as . The ibex live in caves and descend to eat the succulent alpine grasses. Classified as antelopes, chamois are smaller than ibex and found throughout the Alps, living above the tree line and are common in the entire alpine range. Areas of the eastern Alps are still home to brown bears. In Switzerland the canton of Bern was named for the bears but the last bear is recorded as having been killed in 1792 above Kleine Scheidegg by three hunters from Grindelwald. Many rodents such as voles live underground. Marmots live almost exclusively above the tree line as high as . They hibernate in large groups to provide warmth, and can be found in all areas of the Alps, in large colonies they build beneath the alpine pastures. Golden eagles and bearded vultures are the largest birds to be found in the Alps; they nest high on rocky ledges and can be found at altitudes of . The most common bird is the alpine chough which can be found scavenging at climber's huts or the Jungfraujoch, a high-altitude tourist destination. Reptiles such as adders and vipers live up to the snow line; because they cannot bear the cold temperatures they hibernate underground and soak up the warmth on rocky ledges. The high-altitude Alpine salamanders have adapted to living above the snow line by giving birth to fully developed young rather than laying eggs. Brown trout can be found in the streams up to the snow line. Molluscs such as the wood snail live up the snow line. Popularly gathered as food, the snails are now protected. Several species of moths live in the Alps, some of which are believed to have evolved in the same habitat up to 120 million years ago, long before the Alps were created. Blue butterflies can commonly be seen drinking from the snowmelt; some species of blues fly as high as . The butterflies tend to be large, such as those from the swallowtail Parnassius family, with a habitat that ranges to . Twelve species of beetles have habitats up to the snow line; the most beautiful and formerly collected for its colours but now protected is "Rosalia alpina". Spiders, such as the large wolf spider, live above the snow line and can be seen as high as . Scorpions can be found in the Italian Alps. Some of the species of moths and insects show evidence of having been indigenous to the area from as long ago as the Alpine orogeny. In Émosson in Valais, Switzerland, dinosaur tracks were found in the 1970s, dating probably from the Triassic Period. == History == === Prehistory === When the ice melted after the Würm glaciation, paleolithic settlements were established along the lake shores and in cave systems. Evidence of human habitation has been found in caves near the Vercors Cave System, close to Grenoble and Echirolles. In Austria, the Mondsee lake shows evidence of houses built on piles. Standing stones have been found in the Alpine areas of France and Italy. About 200,000 drawings and etchings have been documented, and are known as the Rock Drawings in Valcamonica. A mummy of a neolithic human, known as Ötzi, was discovered on the Similaun. His clothing lets modern people assume that he was an alpine farmer, while the location and manner of his death suggests that Ötzi was traveling. Analysis of the mitochondrial DNA of Ötzi, has shown that he belongs to the K1 subclade. From the 13th to the 6th century BC much of the Alps was settled by the Germanic peoples, Lombards, Alemanni, Bavarii, and Franks. Celt tribes settled in modern-day Switzerland between 1500 and 1000 BC. The Raeti lived in the eastern regions, while the west was occupied by the Helvetii and the Allobroges settled in the Rhône valley and in Savoy. The Ligures and Adriatic Veneti lived in Northwest Italy and Triveneto respectively. The Celts mined salt in areas such as Salzburg, where evidence was found of the Hallstatt culture. By the 6th century BC the La Tène culture was well established in the region, and became known for high quality Celtic art. Between 430 and 400 BC prolonged warfare in the Alps resulted in the devastation of agricultural land and human settlements, ultimately triggering the enslavement of men, women, and children, goods had to be imported as a result. The Etruscan civilization responded to raids by the Massalia and acquired absolute control over the Alpine trade routes. Aggressors in modern-day Italy were dealt with and an alliance was formed with the Celts. The grip of the Etruscan settlements broke down, as the Roman political system expanded, so as to take control over Alpine trade routes that connected human settlements in the Alps with settlements in the Mediterranean. During the Second Punic War in 218 BC, the Carthage general Hannibal initiated one of the most celebrated achievements of any military force in ancient warfare, recorded as Hannibal crossing the Alps. The Roman people built roads along the Alpine mountain passes, which continued to be used through the medieval period. Roman road markers can still be found on the Alpine mountain passes. During the Gallic Wars in 58 BC Julius Caesar defeated the Helvetii. The Rhaetian continued to resist but their territory was eventually conquered when the Romans crossed the Danube valley and defeated the Brigantes. The Romans built settlements in the Alps. In towns such as Aosta, Martigny, Lausanne, and Partenkirchen remains of villas, arenas, and temples have been discovered. === Christianity, feudalism, and Napoleonic wars === Christianity was established in the Alps by the Roman people. Monasteries and churches were constructed, even at high Alpine altitudes. The Franks expanded their Carolingian Empire, while the Baiuvarii introduced feudalism in the eastern Alps. The construction of castles in the Alps supported the growing number of dukedoms and kingdoms. Castello del Buonconsiglio in Trento, still has intricate frescoes, and excellent examples of Gothic art. The Château de Chillon is preserved as an example of medieval architecture. There are several important alpine saints and one such one is Saint Maurice. Much of the medieval period was a time of power struggles between competing dynasties such as the House of Savoy, the Visconti of Milan, and the House of Habsburg. The Great St Bernard Hospice, built in the 9th or 10th centuries, at the summit of the Great Saint Bernard Pass was a shelter for humans and destination for pilgrims. In 1291, to protect themselves from incursions by the House of Habsburg, four Alpine cantons drew up the Federal Charter of 1291, which is considered to be a declaration of independence from neighboring kingdoms. After a series of battles fought in the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries, more cantons joined the confederacy and by the 16th century, Switzerland was established as a sovereign state. In the Alps, the War of the Spanish Succession fallout resulted in a 1713 treaty, part of the Peace of Utrecht, which relocated the Western Alps border along the watersheds. Historically, the Alps were used to determine the borders of political and administrative gangs, but the Peace of Utrecht was the first significant body of treaty that considered geographical conditions. The Alps were carved up and borders were agreed, so that enclaves in the Alps could be eliminated. During the Napoleonic Wars in the late 18th century and early 19th century, Napoleon annexed territory formerly controlled by the House of Habsburg, and the House of Savoy. In 1798, the Helvetic Republic was established, two years later an army across the Great St Bernard Pass. In 1799 the Russian imperial military engaged the revolutionary French army in the Alps, this episode has been recorded as significant achievement in mountain warfare. In October 1799 the troops commanded by Alexander Suvorov were surrounded in the Alps by much larger French troops. The Russian troops broke out, mauled the French troops, and retreated through the Panix Pass. After the fall of Napoleon, many alpine countries developed heavy protections to prevent further invasion. Thus, Savoy built a series of fortifications to protect the major alpine passes, such as the col du Mont-Cenis, which was crossed by Charlemagne to obliterate the Lombards. In the 19th century, the monasteries built in the Alps to shelter humans became tourist destinations. The Benedictines had built monasteries in Lucerne, and Oberammergau. The Cistercians built their temple at Lake Constance. Meanwhile, the Augustinians maintained abbeys in Savoy and one in Interlaken. === Exploration === Radiocarbon-dated charcoal placed around 50,000 years ago was found in the "Drachloch" (Dragon's Hole) cave above the village of Vattis in the canton of St. Gallen, proving that the high peaks were visited by prehistoric people. Seven bear skulls from the cave may have been buried by the same prehistoric people. The peaks, however, were mostly ignored except for a few notable examples, and long left to the exclusive attention of the people of the adjoining valleys. The mountain peaks were seen as terrifying, the abode of dragons and demons, to the point that people blindfolded themselves to cross the Alpine passes. The glaciers remained a mystery and many still believed the highest areas to be inhabited by dragons. Charles VII of France ordered his chamberlain to climb Mont Aiguille in 1356. The knight reached the summit of Rocciamelone where he left a bronze triptych of three crosses, a feat which he conducted with the use of ladders to traverse the ice. In 1492, Antoine de Ville climbed Mont Aiguille, without reaching the summit, an experience he described as "horrifying and terrifying." Leonardo da Vinci was fascinated by variations of light in the higher altitudes, and climbed a mountain—scholars are uncertain which one; some believe it may have been Monte Rosa. From his description of a "blue like that of a gentian" sky it is thought that he reached a significantly high altitude. In the 18th century four Chamonix men almost made the summit of Mont Blanc but were overcome by altitude sickness and snowblindness. Conrad Gessner was the first naturalist to ascend the mountains in the 16th century, to study them, writing that in the mountains he found the "theatre of the Lord". By the 19th century more naturalists began to arrive to explore, study and conquer the high peaks. Two men who first explored the regions of ice and snow were Horace-Bénédict de Saussure (1740–1799) in the Pennine Alps, and the Benedictine monk of Disentis Placidus a Spescha (1752–1833). Born in Geneva, Saussure was enamoured with the mountains from an early age; he left a law career to become a naturalist and spent many years trekking through the Bernese Oberland, the Savoy, the Piedmont and Valais, studying the glaciers and geology, as he became an early proponent of the theory of rock upheaval. Saussure, in 1787, was a member of the third ascent of Mont Blanc—today the summits of all the peaks have been climbed. === The Romantics and Alpinists === Albrecht von Haller's poem "Die Alpen", published in 1732 described the mountains as an area of mythical purity. Jean-Jacques Rousseau presented the Alps as a place of allure and beauty, in his novel "Julie, or the New Heloise", published in 1761. Later the first wave of Romanticism such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, and J. M. W. Turner came to admire the Alpine scenery; Wordsworth visited the area in 1790, writing of his experiences in "The Prelude" (1799). Schiller later wrote the play "William Tell" (1804), which tells the story of the legendary Swiss marksman William Tell as part of the greater Swiss struggle for independence from the Habsburg Empire in the early 14th century. At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Alpine countries began to see an influx of poets, artists, and musicians, as visitors came to experience the sublime effects of monumental nature. In 1816, Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley and his wife Mary Shelley visited Geneva and all three were inspired by the scenery in their writings. During these visits Shelley wrote the poem "Mont Blanc", Byron wrote "The Prisoner of Chillon" and the dramatic poem "Manfred", and Mary Shelley, who found the scenery overwhelming, conceived the idea for the novel "Frankenstein" in her villa on the shores of Lake Geneva amid a thunderstorm. When Coleridge travelled to Chamonix, he declaimed, in defiance of Shelley, who had signed himself "Atheos" in the guestbook of the Hotel de Londres near Montenvers, "Who would be, who could be an atheist in this valley of wonders". By the mid-19th century scientists began to arrive en masse to study the geology and ecology of the region. From the beginning of the 19th century, the tourism and mountaineering development of the Alps began. In the early years of the "golden age of alpinism" initially scientific activities were mixed with sport, for example by the physicist John Tyndall, with the first ascent of the Matterhorn by Edward Whymper being the highlight. In the later years, the "silver age of alpinism", the focus was on mountain sports and climbing. The first president of the Alpine Club, John Ball, is considered the discoverer of the Dolomites, which for decades were the focus of climbers like Paul Grohmann, Michael Innerkofler and Angelo Dibona. === The Nazis === Fall 1932, Adolf Hitler commissioned the first of a series of refurbishments, which eventually turned a mountain cottage, later named Berghof, into a fortified citadel. This domestic, but representative, fortification had two small bedrooms, and a full bathroom, planned by the Munich architect and NSDAP member Josef Neumaier. Guests, such as Rudolf Hess, stayed over, sleeping in tents or over the garage. The Alps, Adolf Hitler, and improbable powerful organizations have been subject to crime fiction. The Alps acted as a geographical barrier to Italy, and the Alps for centuries were permeated with established smuggling routes, known as "green line". After World War II, members of the Schutzstaffel that feared prosecution as war criminals, known in modern English only as "SS", disappeared into a crowd of refugees. Massive numbers of refugees entered Italy illegally, by navigating the Alps. === Undocumented migrants === Smugglers of humans claim that crossing the Alps, is less dangerous or deadly, than traveling 355 km on water between Tripoli and Lampedusa with a tramp ship ("carretta del mare") or a dinghy. Undocumented migrants, visa overstayers, false tourists, asylum seekers, and other clandestine humans, lose their lives crossing the Alps. The exact number of smuggled humans who die a brutal death in the Alps, can only be estimated. ==Largest Alpine cities== The largest city within the Alps is the city of Grenoble in France. Other larger and important cities within the Alps with over 100,000 inhabitants are in Tyrol with Bolzano/Bozen (Italy), Trento (Italy) and Innsbruck (Austria). Larger cities outside the Alps are Milan, Verona, Turin (Italy), Munich (Germany), Graz, Vienna, Salzburg (Austria), Ljubljana, Maribor, Kranj (Slovenia), Zurich, Geneva (Switzerland), Nice and Lyon (France). Cities with over 100,000 inhabitants in the Alps are: == Alpine people and culture == The population of the region is 14 million spread across eight countries. On the rim of the mountains, on the plateaus, and on the plains the economy consists of manufacturing and service jobs whereas in the higher altitudes and the mountains farming is still essential to the economy. Farming and forestry continue to be mainstays of Alpine culture, industries that provide for export to the cities and maintain the mountain ecology. The Alpine regions are multicultural and linguistically diverse. Dialects are common and vary from valley to valley and region to region. In the Slavic Alps alone 19 dialects have been identified. Some of the Romance dialects spoken in the French, Swiss and Italian alps of Aosta Valley derive from Arpitan, while the southern part of the western range is related to Occitan; the German dialects derive from Germanic tribal languages. Romansh, spoken by two percent of the population in southeast Switzerland, is an ancient Rhaeto-Romanic language derived from Latin, remnants of ancient Celtic languages and perhaps Etruscan. Much of the Alpine culture is unchanged since the medieval period when skills that guaranteed survival in the mountain valleys and the highest villages became mainstays, leading to strong traditions of carpentry, woodcarving, baking, pastry-making, and cheesemaking. Farming has been a traditional occupation for centuries, although it became less dominant in the 20th century with the advent of tourism. Grazing and pasture land are limited because of the steep and rocky topography of the Alps. In mid-June, cows are moved to the highest pastures close to the snowline, where they are watched by herdsmen who stay in the high altitudes often living in stone huts or wooden barns during the summers. Villagers celebrate the day the cows are herded up to the pastures and again when they return in mid-September. The Almabtrieb, Alpabzug, Alpabfahrt, Désalpes ("coming down from the alps") is celebrated by decorating the cows with garlands and enormous cowbells while the farmers dress in traditional costumes. Cheesemaking is an ancient tradition in most Alpine countries. A wheel of cheese from the Emmental in Switzerland can weigh up to , and the Beaufort in Savoy can weigh up to . Owners of the cows traditionally receive from the cheesemakers a portion about the proportion of the cows' milk from the summer months in the high alps. Haymaking is an important farming activity in mountain villages that have become somewhat mechanized in recent years, although the slopes are so steep that scythes are usually necessary to cut the grass. Hay is normally brought in twice a year, often also on festival days. In the high villages, people live in homes built according to medieval designs that withstand cold winters. The kitchen is separated from the living area (called the "stube", the area of the home heated by a stove), and second-floor bedrooms benefit from rising heat. The typical Swiss chalet originated in the Bernese Oberland. Chalets often face south or downhill and are built of solid wood, with a steeply gabled roof to allow accumulated snow to slide off easily. Stairs leading to upper levels are sometimes built on the outside, and balconies are sometimes enclosed. Food is passed from the kitchen to the stube, where the dining room table is placed. Some meals are communal, such as fondue, where a pot is set in the middle of the table for each person to dip into. Other meals are still served traditionally on carved wooden plates. Furniture has been traditionally elaborately carved and in many Alpine countries, carpentry skills are passed from generation to generation. Roofs are traditionally constructed from Alpine rocks such as pieces of schist, gneiss, or slate. Such chalets are typically found in the higher parts of the valleys, as in the Maurienne valley in Savoy, where the amount of snow during the cold months is important. The inclination of the roof cannot exceed 40%, allowing the snow to stay on top, thereby functioning as insulation from the cold. In the lower areas where the forests are widespread, wooden tiles are traditionally used. Commonly made of Norway spruce, they are called "tavaillon". In the German-speaking parts of the Alps (Austria, Bavaria, South Tyrol, Liechtenstein and Switzerland), there is a strong tradition of Alpine folk culture. Old traditions are carefully maintained among inhabitants of Alpine areas, even though this is seldom obvious to the visitor: many people are members of cultural associations where the Alpine folk culture is cultivated. At cultural events, traditional folk costume (in German "Tracht") is expected: typically lederhosen for men and dirndls for women. Visitors can get a glimpse of the rich customs of the Alps at public Volksfeste. Even when large events feature only a little folk culture, all participants take part with gusto. Good opportunities to see local people celebrating the traditional culture occur at the many fairs, wine festivals, and firefighting festivals which fill weekends in the countryside from spring to autumn. Alpine festivals vary from country to country. Frequently they include music (e.g. the playing of Alpenhorns), dance (e.g. Schuhplattler), sports (e.g. wrestling marches and archery), as well as traditions with pagan roots such as the lighting of fires on Walpurgis Night and Saint John's Eve. Many areas celebrate Fastnacht in the weeks before Lent. Folk costume also continues to be worn for most weddings and festivals. == Tourism == The Alps are one of the more popular tourist destinations in the world with many resorts such as Oberstdorf, in Bavaria, Saalbach in Austria, Davos in Switzerland, Chamonix in France, and Cortina d'Ampezzo in Italy recording more than a million annual visitors. With over 120 million visitors a year, tourism is integral to the Alpine economy with much of it coming from winter sports, although summer visitors are also an important component. The tourism industry began in the early 19th century when foreigners visited the Alps, travelled to the bases of the mountains to enjoy the scenery, and stayed at the spa-resorts. Large hotels were built during the Belle Époque; cog-railways, built early in the 20th century, brought tourists to ever-higher elevations, with the Jungfraubahn terminating at the Jungfraujoch, well above the eternal snow-line, after going through a tunnel in Eiger. During this period winter sports were slowly introduced: in 1882 the first figure skating championship was held in St. Moritz, and downhill skiing became a popular sport with English visitors early in the 20th century, as the first ski-lift was installed in 1908 above Grindelwald. In the first half of the 20th century the Olympic Winter Games were held three times in Alpine venues: the 1924 Winter Olympics in Chamonix, France; the 1928 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, Switzerland; and the 1936 Winter Olympics in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany. During World War II the winter games were cancelled but after that time the Winter Games have been held in St. Moritz (1948), Cortina d'Ampezzo (1956), Innsbruck, Austria (1964 and 1976), Grenoble, France, (1968), Albertville, France, (1992), and Torino (2006). In 1930, the "Lauberhorn Rennen" (Lauberhorn Race), was run for the first time on the Lauberhorn above Wengen; the equally demanding Hahnenkamm was first run in the same year in Kitzbühl, Austria. Both races continue to be held each January on successive weekends. The Lauberhorn is the more strenuous downhill race at and poses danger to racers who reach within seconds of leaving the start gate. During the post-World War I period, ski lifts were built in Swiss and Austrian towns to accommodate winter visitors, and summer tourism continued to be important. By the mid-20th century the popularity of downhill skiing increased greatly as it became more accessible and in the 1970s several new villages were built in France devoted almost exclusively to skiing, such as Les Menuires. Until this point, Austria and Switzerland had been the traditional and more popular destinations for winter sports, and by the end of the 20th century and into the early 21st century, France, Italy, and Tyrol began to see increases in winter visitors. From 1980 to the present, ski-lifts have been modernized and snow-making machines installed at many resorts, leading to mounting concerns regarding the loss of traditional Alpine culture and uncertainties regarding sustainable development. For instance the number of ski resorts and piste kilometres has declined since 2015, a likely result of climatic change. == Avalanche/snow-slide == * 17th-century French-Italian border avalanche: in the 17th century about 2500 people were killed by an avalanche in a village on the French-Italian border. - 19th century Zermatt avalanche: in the 19th century, 120 homes in a village near Zermatt were destroyed by an avalanche. - December 13, 1916 Marmolada-mountain-avalanche - 1950–1951 winter-of-terror avalanches - February 10, 1970 Val d'Isère avalanche - February 9, 1999 Montroc avalanche - February 21, 1999 Evolène avalanche - February 23, 1999, Galtür avalanche the deadliest avalanche in the Alps in 40 years. - July 2014 Mont-Blanc avalanche - January 13, 2016 Les-Deux-Alpes avalanche - January 18, 2016 Valfréjus avalanche - July 3, 2022 Marmolada serac collapse == Transportation == The region is serviced by of roads used by six million vehicles per year. Train travel is well established in the Alps, with, for instance of track for every in a country such as Switzerland. Most of Europe's highest railways are located there. In 2007, the new Lötschberg Base Tunnel was opened, which circumvents the 100 years older Lötschberg Tunnel. With the opening of the Gotthard Base Tunnel on June 1, 2016, it bypasses the Gotthard Tunnel built in the 19th century and realizes the first flat route through the Alps. Some high mountain villages are car-free either because of inaccessibility or by choice. Wengen, and Zermatt (in Switzerland) are accessible only by cable car or cog-rail trains. Avoriaz (in France), is car-free, with other Alpine villages considering becoming car-free zones or limiting the number of cars for reasons of sustainability of the fragile Alpine terrain. The lower regions and larger towns of the Alps are well-served by motorways and main roads, but higher mountain passes and byroads, which are amongst the highest in Europe, can be treacherous even in summer due to steep slopes. Many passes are closed in winter. Several airports around the Alps (and some within), as well as long-distance rail links from all neighbouring countries, afford large numbers of travellers easy access.

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A priori and a posteriori

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Albert Camus

Albert Camus ( ; ; 7 November 1913 – 4 January 1960) was a French philosopher, author, dramatist, journalist, and political activist. He was the recipient of the 1957 Nobel Prize in Literature at the age of 44, the second-youngest recipient in history. His works include "The Stranger", "The Plague", "The Myth of Sisyphus", "The Fall", and "The Rebel". Camus was born in Algeria during the French colonization, to "Pieds Noirs" parents. He spent his childhood in a poor neighbourhood and later studied philosophy at the University of Algiers. He was in Paris when the Germans invaded France during World War II in 1940. Camus tried to flee but finally joined the French Resistance where he served as editor-in-chief at "Combat", an outlawed newspaper. After the war, he was a celebrity figure and gave many lectures around the world. He married twice but had many extramarital affairs. Camus was politically active; he was part of the left that opposed Joseph Stalin and the Soviet Union because of their totalitarianism. Camus was a moralist and leaned towards anarcho-syndicalism. He was part of many organisations seeking European integration. During the Algerian War (1954–1962), he kept a neutral stance, advocating for a multicultural and pluralistic Algeria, a position that was rejected by most parties. Philosophically, Camus' views contributed to the rise of the philosophy known as absurdism. Some consider Camus' work to show him to be an existentialist, even though he himself firmly rejected the term throughout his lifetime. ==Life== ===Early years and education=== Albert Camus was born on 7 November 1913 in a working-class neighbourhood in Mondovi (present-day Dréan), in French Algeria. His mother, Catherine Hélène Camus (née Sintès), was French with Balearic Spanish ancestry. He never knew his father, Lucien Camus, a poor French agricultural worker killed in action while serving with Zouaves, in October 1914, during World War I. Camus, his mother, and other relatives lived without many basic material possessions during his childhood in the Belcourt section of Algiers. Camus was a second-generation French inhabitant of Algeria, a French territory from 1830 until 1962. His paternal grandfather, along with many others of his generation, had moved to Algeria for a better life during the first decades of the 19th century. Hence, he was called — a slang term for people of French and other European descent born in Algeria. His identity and poor background had a substantial effect on his later life. Nevertheless, Camus was a French citizen and enjoyed more rights than Arab and Berber Algerians under indigénat. During his childhood, he developed a love for football and swimming. Under the influence of his teacher Louis Germain, Camus gained a scholarship in 1924 to continue his studies at a prestigious lyceum (secondary school) near Algiers. In 1930, at the age of 17, he was diagnosed with tuberculosis. Because it is a transmitted disease, he moved out of his home and stayed with his uncle Gustave Acault, a butcher, who influenced the young Camus. It was at that time he turned to philosophy, with the mentoring of his philosophy teacher Jean Grenier. He was impressed by ancient Greek philosophers and Friedrich Nietzsche. During that time, he was only able to study part time. To earn money, he took odd jobs: as a private tutor, car parts clerk, and assistant at the Meteorological Institute. In 1933, Camus enrolled at the University of Algiers and completed his "licence de philosophie" (BA) in 1936, after presenting his thesis on Plotinus. Camus developed an interest in early Christian philosophers, but Nietzsche and Arthur Schopenhauer had paved the way towards pessimism and atheism. Camus also studied novelist-philosophers such as Stendhal, Herman Melville, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, and Franz Kafka. In 1933, he also met Simone Hié, then a partner of a friend of Camus, who would become his first wife. Camus played goalkeeper for the Racing Universitaire d'Alger junior team from 1928 to 1930. The sense of team spirit, fraternity, and common purpose appealed to him enormously. In match reports, he was often praised for playing with passion and courage. Any football ambitions, however, disappeared when he contracted tuberculosis. Camus drew parallels among football, human existence, morality, and personal identity. For him, the simplistic morality of football contradicted the complicated morality imposed by authorities such as the state and Church. ===Formative years=== In 1934, aged 20, Camus was in a relationship with Simone Hié. Simone had an addiction to morphine, a drug she used to ease her menstrual pains. His uncle Gustave did not approve of the relationship, but Camus married Hié to help her fight her addiction. He subsequently discovered she was in a relationship with her doctor at the same time and the couple later divorced. Camus joined the French Communist Party (PCF) in early 1935. He saw it as a way to "fight inequalities between Europeans and 'natives' in Algeria," even though he was not a Marxist. He explained: "We might see communism as a springboard and asceticism that prepares the ground for more spiritual activities." Camus left the PCF a year later. In 1936, the independence-minded Algerian Communist Party (PCA) was founded, and Camus joined it after his mentor Grenier advised him to do so. Camus's main role within the PCA was to organise the "Théâtre du Travail" ("Workers' Theatre"). Camus was also close to the "Parti du Peuple Algérien" (Algerian People's Party (PPA)), which was a moderate anti-colonialist/nationalist party. As tensions in the interwar period escalated, the Stalinist PCA and PPA broke ties. Camus was expelled from the PCA for refusing to toe the party line. This series of events sharpened his belief in human dignity. Camus's mistrust of bureaucracies that aimed for efficiency instead of justice grew. He continued his involvement with theatre and renamed his group "Théâtre de l'Equipe" ("Theatre of the Team"). Some of his scripts were the basis for his later novels. In 1938, Camus began working for the leftist newspaper "Alger républicain" (founded by Pascal Pia) as he had strong anti-fascist feelings, and the rise of fascist regimes in Europe was worrying him. By then, Camus had developed strong feelings against authoritative colonialism as he witnessed the harsh treatment of the Arabs and Berbers by French authorities. "Alger républicain" was banned in 1940 and Camus flew to Paris to take a new job at "Paris-Soir" as editor-in-chief. In Paris, he almost completed his "first cycle" of works dealing with the absurd and the meaningless—the novel "L'Étranger" ("The Outsider" (UK), or "The Stranger" (US)), the philosophical essay "Le Mythe de Sisyphe" ("The Myth of Sisyphus") and the play "Caligula". Each cycle consisted of a novel, an essay and a theatrical play. ===World War II, Resistance and "Combat"=== Soon after Camus moved to Paris, the outbreak of World War II began to affect France. Camus volunteered to join the army but was not accepted because he once had tuberculosis. As the Germans were marching towards Paris, Camus fled. He was laid off from "Paris-Soir" and ended up in Lyon, where he married pianist and mathematician Francine Faure on 3 December 1940. Camus and Faure moved back to Algeria (Oran) where he taught in primary schools. Because of his tuberculosis, he moved to the French Alps on medical advice. There he began writing his second cycle of works, this time dealing with revolt—a novel "La Peste" ("The Plague") and a play "Le Malentendu" ("The Misunderstanding"). By 1943 he was known because of his earlier work. He returned to Paris where he met and became friends with Jean-Paul Sartre. He also became part of a circle of intellectuals including Simone de Beauvoir, André Breton, and others. Among them was the actress María Casares, who would later have an affair with Camus. Camus took an active role in the underground resistance movement against the Germans during the French Occupation. Upon his arrival in Paris, he started working as a journalist and editor of the banned newspaper "Combat". He continued writing for the paper after the liberation of France. Camus used a pseudonym for his "Combat" articles and used false ID cards to avoid being captured. During that period he composed four "Lettres à un Ami Allemand" ("Letters to a German Friend"), explaining why resistance was necessary. ===Post–World War II=== After the War, Camus lived in Paris with Faure, who gave birth to twins, Catherine and Jean, in 1945. Camus was now a celebrated writer known for his role in the Resistance. He gave lectures at various universities in the United States and Latin America during two separate trips. He also visited Algeria once more, only to leave disappointed by the continued oppressive colonial policies, which he had warned about many times. During this period he completed the second cycle of his work, with the essay "L'Homme révolté" ("The Rebel"). Camus attacked totalitarian communism while advocating libertarian socialism and anarcho-syndicalism. Upsetting many of his colleagues and contemporaries in France with his rejection of communism, the book brought about the final split with Sartre. His relations with the Marxist Left deteriorated further during the Algerian War. Camus was a strong supporter of European integration in various marginal organisations working towards that end. In 1944, he founded the "Comité français pour la féderation européenne"—(CFFE (French Committee for the European Federation))—declaring that Europe "can only evolve along the path of economic progress, democracy, and peace if the nation-states become a federation." In 1947–48, he founded the "Groupes de Liaison Internationale" (GLI) a trade union movement in the context of revolutionary syndicalism ("syndicalisme révolutionnaire"). His main aim was to express the positive side of surrealism and existentialism, rejecting the negativity and the nihilism of André Breton. Camus also raised his voice against the Soviet invasion of Hungary and the totalitarian tendencies of Franco's regime in Spain. Camus had numerous affairs, particularly an irregular and eventually public affair with the Spanish-born actress María Casares, with whom he had extensive correspondence. Faure did not take this affair lightly. She had a mental breakdown and needed hospitalisation in the early 1950s. Camus, who felt guilty, withdrew from public life and was slightly depressed for some time. In 1957, Camus received the news that he was to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. This came as a shock to him. He was anticipating André Malraux would win the prestigious award. At age 44, he was the second-youngest recipient of the prize, after Rudyard Kipling, who was 42. After this he began working on his autobiography "Le Premier Homme" ("The First Man") in an attempt to examine "moral learning". He also turned to the theatre once more. Financed by the money he received with his Nobel Prize, he adapted and directed for the stage Dostoyevsky's novel "Demons". The play opened in January 1959 at the Antoine Theatre in Paris and was a critical success. During these years, he published posthumously the works of the philosopher Simone Weil, in the series "Espoir" ("Hope") which he had founded for Éditions Gallimard. Weil had great influence on his philosophy, since he saw her writings as an "antidote" to nihilism. Camus described her as "the only great spirit of our times". === Death === Camus died on 4 January 1960 at the age of 46, in a car accident near Sens, in Le Grand Fossard in the small town of Villeblevin. He had spent the New Year's holiday of 1960 at his house in Lourmarin, Vaucluse with his family, and his publisher Michel Gallimard of Éditions Gallimard, along with Gallimard's wife, Janine, and daughter. Camus's wife and children went back to Paris by train on 2 January, but Camus decided to return in Gallimard's luxurious Facel Vega FV2. The car crashed into a plane tree on a long straight stretch of the Route nationale 5 (now the RN 6 or D606). Camus, who was in the passenger seat, died instantly. Gallimard died five days later, although his wife and daughter were unharmed. 144 pages of a handwritten manuscript entitled "Le premier Homme" ("The First Man") were found in the wreckage. Camus had predicted that this unfinished novel based on his childhood in Algeria would be his finest work. Camus was buried in the Lourmarin Cemetery, Vaucluse, France, where he had lived. His friend Sartre read a eulogy, paying tribute to Camus's heroic "stubborn humanism". William Faulkner wrote his obituary, saying, "When the door shut for him he had already written on this side of it that which every artist who also carries through life with him that one same foreknowledge and hatred of death is hoping to do: I was here." ==Literary career== Camus's first publication was a play called "Révolte dans les Asturies" ("Revolt in the Asturias") written with three friends in May 1936. The subject was the 1934 revolt by Spanish miners that was brutally suppressed by the Spanish government resulting in 1,500 to 2,000 deaths. In May 1937 he wrote his first book, "L'Envers et l'Endroit" ("Betwixt and Between", also translated as "The Wrong Side and the Right Side"). Both were published by Edmond Charlot's small publishing house. Camus separated his work into three cycles. Each cycle consisted of a novel, an essay, and a play. The first was the cycle of the absurd consisting of "L'Étranger", "Le Mythe de Sysiphe", and "Caligula". The second was the cycle of the revolt which included "La Peste" ("The Plague"), "L'Homme révolté" ("The Rebel"), and "Les Justes" ("The Just Assassins"). The third, the cycle of the love, consisted of "Nemesis". Each cycle was an examination of a theme with the use of a pagan myth and including biblical motifs. The books in the first cycle were published between 1942 and 1944, but the theme was conceived earlier, at least as far back as 1936. With this cycle, Camus aims to pose a question on the human condition, discuss the world as an absurd place, and warn humanity of the consequences of totalitarianism. Camus began his work on the second cycle while he was in Algeria, in the last months of 1942, just as the Germans were reaching North Africa. In the second cycle, Camus used Prometheus, who is depicted as a revolutionary humanist, to highlight the nuances between revolution and rebellion. He analyses various aspects of rebellion, its metaphysics, its connection to politics, and examines it under the lens of modernity, of historicity and the absence of a God. After receiving the Nobel Prize, Camus gathered, clarified, and published his pacifist leaning views at "Actuelles III: Chronique algérienne 1939–1958" ("Algerian Chronicles"). He then decided to distance himself from the Algerian War as he found the mental burden too heavy. He turned to theatre and the third cycle which was about love and the goddess Nemesis, the Greek and Roman goddess of Revenge. Two of Camus's works were published posthumously. The first entitled "La mort heureuse" ("A Happy Death") (1970), features a character named Patrice Mersault, comparable to "The Stranger"s Meursault. There is scholarly debate about the relationship between the two books. The second was an unfinished novel, "Le Premier homme" ("The First Man") (1995), which Camus was writing before he died. It was an autobiographical work about his childhood in Algeria and its publication in 1994 sparked a widespread reconsideration of Camus's allegedly unrepentant colonialism. ==Political stance== Camus was a moralist; he claimed morality should guide politics. While he did not deny that morals change over time, he rejected the classical Marxist view that historical material relations define morality. Camus was also strongly critical of Marxism-Leninism, especially in the case of the Soviet Union, which he considered totalitarian. Camus rebuked those sympathetic to the Soviet model and their "decision to call total servitude freedom". A proponent of libertarian socialism, he claimed the USSR was not socialist, and the United States was not liberal. His critique of the USSR caused him to clash with others on the political left, most notably with his on-again, off-again friend Jean-Paul Sartre. Active in the French Resistance to the Nazi occupation of France during World War II, Camus wrote for and edited the Resistance journal "Combat". Of the French collaboration with the German occupiers, he wrote: "Now the only moral value is courage, which is useful here for judging the puppets and chatterboxes who pretend to speak in the name of the people." After France's liberation, Camus remarked, "This country does not need a Talleyrand, but a Saint-Just." The reality of the postwar tribunals soon changed his mind: Camus publicly reversed himself and became a lifelong opponent of capital punishment. Camus had anarchist sympathies, which intensified in the 1950s, when he came to believe that the Soviet model was morally bankrupt. Camus was firmly against any kind of exploitation, authority, property, the State, and centralization. He, however, opposed revolution, separating the rebel from the revolutionary and believing that the belief in "absolute truth", most often assuming the guise of history or reason, inspires the revolutionary and leads to tragic results. He believed that rebellion is spurred by our outrage over the world's lack of transcendent significance, while political rebellion is our response to attacks against the dignity and autonomy of the individual. Camus opposed political violence, tolerating it only in rare and very narrowly defined instances, as well as revolutionary terror which he accused of sacrificing innocent lives on the altar of history. Philosophy professor David Sherman considers Camus an anarcho-syndicalist. Graeme Nicholson considers Camus an existentialist anarchist. The anarchist André Prudhommeaux first introduced him at a meeting of the Cercle des Étudiants Anarchistes ("Anarchist Student Circle") in 1948 as a sympathiser familiar with anarchist thought. Camus wrote for anarchist publications such as "Le Libertaire" (The Libertarian), "La Révolution prolétarienne" (The Proletarian Revolution), and "Solidaridad Obrera" ("Workers' Solidarity"), the organ of the anarcho-syndicalist Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) ("National Confederation of Labor"). Camus kept a neutral stance during the Algerian Revolution (1954–62). While he was against the violence of the National Liberation Front (FLN) he acknowledged the injustice and brutalities imposed by colonialist France. He was supportive of Pierre Mendès France's Unified Socialist Party (PSU) and its approach to the crisis; Mendes France advocated reconciliation. Camus also supported a like-minded Algerian militant, Aziz Kessous. Camus traveled to Algeria to negotiate a truce between the two belligerents but was met with distrust by all parties. In one, often misquoted incident, Camus confronted an Algerian critic during his 1957 Nobel Prize acceptance speech in Stockholm, rejecting the false equivalence of justice with revolutionary terrorism: "People are now planting bombs in the tramways of Algiers. My mother might be on one of those tramways. If that is justice, then I prefer my mother." Camus's critics have labelled the response as reactionary and a result of a colonialist attitude. He was sharply critical of the proliferation of nuclear weapons and the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In the 1950s, Camus devoted his efforts to human rights. In 1952, he resigned from his work for UNESCO when the UN accepted Spain, under the leadership of the caudillo General Francisco Franco, as a member. Camus maintained his pacifism and resisted capital punishment anywhere in the world. He wrote an essay against capital punishment in collaboration with Arthur Koestler, the writer, intellectual, and founder of the League Against Capital Punishment entitled "Réflexions sur la peine capitale" (Reflections on capital punishment), published by Calmann-Levy in 1957. Along with Albert Einstein, Camus was one of the sponsors of the Peoples' World Convention (PWC), also known as Peoples' World Constituent Assembly (PWCA), which took place in 1950-51 at Palais Electoral, Geneva, Switzerland. ==Role in Algeria== Born in Algeria to French parents, Camus was familiar with the institutional racism of France against Arabs and Berbers, but he was not part of a rich elite. He lived in very poor conditions as a child but was a citizen of France and as such was entitled to citizens' rights; members of the country's Arab and Berber majority were not. Camus was a vocal advocate of the "new Mediterranean Culture". This was his vision of embracing the multi-ethnicity of the Algerian people, in opposition to "Latiny", a popular pro-fascist and antisemitic ideology among other "Pieds-Noirs"—or French or Europeans born in Algeria. For Camus, this vision encapsulated the Hellenic humanism which survived among ordinary people around the Mediterranean Sea. His 1938 address on "The New Mediterranean Culture" represents Camus's most systematic statement of his views at this time. Camus also supported the Blum–Viollette proposal to grant Algerians full French citizenship in a manifesto with arguments defending this assimilative proposal on radical egalitarian grounds. In 1939, Camus wrote a stinging series of articles for the "Alger républicain" on the atrocious living conditions of the inhabitants of the Kabylie highlands. He advocated for economic, educational and political reforms as a matter of emergency. In 1945, following the Sétif and Guelma massacre after Arab revolts against French mistreatment, Camus was one of only a few mainland journalists to visit the colony. He wrote a series of articles reporting on conditions, and advocating for French reforms and concessions to the demands of the Algerian people. When the Algerian War began in 1954, Camus was confronted with a moral dilemma. He identified with the "Pieds-Noirs" such as his own parents and defended the French government's actions against the revolt. He argued the Algerian uprising was an integral part of the "new Arab imperialism" led by Egypt, and an "anti-Western" offensive orchestrated by Russia to "encircle Europe" and "isolate the United States". Although favoring greater Algerian autonomy or even federation, though not full-scale independence, he believed the "Pieds-Noirs" and Arabs could co-exist. During the war, he advocated a civil truce that would spare the civilians. It was rejected by both sides who regarded it as foolish. Behind the scenes, he began working for imprisoned Algerians who faced the death penalty. His position drew much criticism from the left and later postcolonial literary critics, such as Edward Said, who were opposed to European imperialism, and charged that Camus's novels and short stories are plagued with colonial depictions – or conscious erasures – of Algeria's Arab population. In their eyes, Camus was no longer the defender of the oppressed. Camus once said that the troubles in Algeria "affected him as others feel pain in their lungs." ==Philosophy== ===Existentialism=== Even though Camus is mostly connected to absurdism, he is routinely categorized as an existentialist, a term he rejected on several occasions. Camus himself said his philosophical origins lay in ancient Greek philosophy, Nietzsche, and 17th-century moralists whereas existentialism arises from 19th- and early 20th-century philosophy such as Kierkegaard, Karl Jaspers, and Heidegger. He also said his work, "The Myth of Sisyphus", was a criticism of various aspects of existentialism. Camus was rejecting existentialism as a philosophy, but his critique was mostly focused on Sartrean existentialism, and to a lesser extent on religious existentialism. He thought that the importance of history held by Marx and Sartre was incompatible with his belief in human freedom. David Sherman and others also suggest the rivalry between Sartre and Camus also played a part in his rejection of existentialism. David Simpson argues further that his humanism and belief in human nature set him apart from the existentialist doctrine that existence precedes essence. On the other hand, Camus focused most of his philosophy around existential questions. The absurdity of life, the inevitable ending (death) is highlighted in his acts. His belief was that the absurd—life being void of meaning, or man's inability to know that meaning if it were to exist—was something that man should embrace. His anti-Christianity, his commitment to individual moral freedom and responsibility are only a few of the similarities with other existential writers. More importantly, Camus addressed one of the fundamental questions of existentialism: the problem of suicide. He wrote: "There is only one really serious philosophical question, and that is suicide." Camus viewed the question of suicide as arising naturally as a solution to the absurdity of life. ===Absurdism=== Many existentialist writers have addressed the Absurd, each with their own interpretation of what it is and what makes it important. Kierkegaard explains that the absurdity of religious truths prevents us from reaching God rationally. Sartre recognizes the absurdity of individual experience. Camus's thoughts on the Absurd begin with his first cycle of books and the literary essay "The Myth of Sisyphus", ("Le Mythe de Sisyphe"), his major work on the subject. In 1942, he published the story of a man living an absurd life in "The Stranger". He also wrote a play about the Roman emperor Caligula, pursuing an absurd logic, which was not performed until 1945. His early thoughts appeared in his first collection of essays, "L'Envers et l'Endroit" ("Betwixt and Between") in 1937. Absurd themes were expressed with more sophistication in his second collection of essays, "Noces" ("Nuptials") in 1938. In these essays, Camus reflects on the experience of the Absurd. Aspects of the notion of the Absurd can be found in "The Plague". Camus follows Sartre's definition of the Absurd: "That which is meaningless. Thus man's existence is absurd because his contingency finds no external justification". The Absurd is created because man, who is placed in an unintelligent universe, realises that human values are not founded on a solid external component; or as Camus himself explains, the Absurd is the result of the "confrontation between human need and the unreasonable silence of the world." Even though absurdity is inescapable, Camus does not drift towards nihilism. But the realization of absurdity leads to the question: Why should someone continue to live? Suicide is an option that Camus firmly dismisses as the renunciation of human values and freedom. Rather, he proposes we accept that absurdity is a part of our lives and live with it. The turning point in Camus's attitude to the Absurd occurs in a collection of four letters to an anonymous German friend, written between July 1943 and July 1944. The first was published in the "Revue Libre" in 1943, the second in the "Cahiers de Libération" in 1944, and the third in the newspaper "Libertés", in 1945. The four letters were published as "Lettres à un ami allemand" ("Letters to a German Friend") in 1945, and were included in the collection "Resistance, Rebellion, and Death". Camus regretted the continued reference to himself as a "philosopher of the absurd". He showed less interest in the Absurd shortly after publishing "Le Mythe de Sisyphe". To distinguish his ideas, scholars sometimes refer to the Paradox of the Absurd, when referring to "Camus's Absurd". ===Revolt=== Camus articulated the case for revolting against any kind of oppression, injustice, or whatever disrespects the human condition. He is cautious enough, however, to set the limits on the rebellion. "L'Homme révolté" ("The Rebel") explains in detail his thoughts on the issue. There, he builds upon the absurd (described in "The Myth of Sisyphus") but goes further. In the introduction, where he examines the metaphysics of rebellion, he concludes with the phrase "I revolt, therefore we exist" implying the recognition of a common human condition. Camus also delineates the difference between revolution and rebellion and notices that history has shown that the rebel's revolution might easily end up as an oppressive regime; he therefore places importance on the morals accompanying the revolution. Camus poses a crucial question: Is it possible for humans to act in an ethical and meaningful manner, in a silent universe? According to him the answer is yes, as the experience and awareness of the Absurd creates the moral values and also sets the limits of our actions. Camus separates the modern form of rebellion into two modes. First, there is the metaphysical rebellion, which is "the movement by which man protests against his condition and against the whole of creation." The other mode, historical rebellion, is the attempt to materialize the abstract spirit of metaphysical rebellion and change the world. In this attempt, the rebel must balance between the evil of the world and the intrinsic evil which every revolt carries, and not cause any unjustifiable suffering. ==Legacy== Camus's novels and philosophical essays are still influential. After his death, interest in Camus followed the rise (and diminution) of the New Left. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, interest in his alternative road to communism resurfaced. He is remembered for his skeptical humanism and his support for political tolerance, dialogue, and civil rights. Although Camus has been linked to anti-Soviet communism, reaching as far as anarcho-syndicalism, some neo-liberals have tried to associate him with their policies; for instance, the French President Nicolas Sarkozy suggested that his remains be moved to the Panthéon, an idea that was criticised by Camus's surviving family and angered many on the Left. American heavy metal band Avenged Sevenfold has stated their album Life Is But A Dream... is inspired by the work of Camus. Albert Camus also served as the inspiration for the Aquarius Gold Saint Camus in the classic anime and manga Saint Seiya. ==Tributes== * In Tipasa (Algeria), inside the Roman ruins, facing the sea and Mount Chenoua, a stele was erected in 1961 in honor of Albert Camus with this phrase in French extracted from his work Noces à Tipasa: "I understand here what is called glory: the right to love beyond measure " (« Je comprends ici ce qu'on appelle gloire : le droit d'aimer sans mesure. »). - The French Post published a stamp with his effigy on 26 June 1967. ==Works== The works of Albert Camus include: ===Novels=== * "A Happy Death" ("La Mort heureuse") (written 1936–38, published 1971) - "The Stranger" ("L'Étranger", often translated as "The Outsider". An alternate meaning of "l'étranger" is "foreigner" ) (1942) - "The Plague" ("La Peste") (1947) - "The Fall" ("La Chute") (1956) - "The First Man" ("Le premier homme") (incomplete, published 1994) ===Short stories=== * "Exile and the Kingdom" ("L'exil et le royaume") (collection, 1957), containing the following short stories: - "The Adulterous Woman" ("La Femme adultère") - "The Renegade or a Confused Spirit" ("Le Renégat ou un esprit confus") - "The Silent Men" ("Les Muets") - "The Guest" ("L'Hôte") - "Jonas, or the Artist at Work" ("Jonas, ou l'artiste au travail") - "The Growing Stone" ("La Pierre qui pousse") ===Academic theses=== * "Christian Metaphysics and Neoplatonism" ("Métaphysique chrétienne et néoplatonisme") (1935): the that enabled Camus to teach in secondary schools in France ===Non-fiction=== * "Betwixt and Between" ("L'envers et l'endroit", also translated as "The Wrong Side and the Right Side") (collection, 1937) - "Nuptials" ("Noces") (1938) - "The Myth of Sisyphus" ("Le Mythe de Sisyphe") (1942) - "The Rebel" ("L'Homme révolté") (1951) - "Algerian Chronicles" ("Chroniques algériennes") (1958, first English translation published 2013) - "Resistance, Rebellion, and Death" (collection, 1961) - "Notebooks 1935–1942" ("Carnets, mai 1935 — fevrier 1942") (1962) - "Notebooks 1942–1951" ("Carnets II: janvier 1942-mars 1951") (1965) - "Lyrical and Critical Essays" (collection, 1968) - "American Journals" (Journaux de voyage) (1978) - "Notebooks 1951–1959" (2008). Published as "Carnets Tome III: Mars 1951 – December 1959" (1989) - "Correspondence (1944–1959)" The correspondence of Albert Camus and María Casares, with a preface by his daughter, Catherine Camus (2017) ===Plays=== * "Caligula" (performed 1945, written 1938) - "The Misunderstanding" ("Le Malentendu") (1944) - "The State of Siege" ("L'État de Siège") (1948) - "The Just Assassins" ("Les Justes") (1949) - "Requiem for a Nun" ("Requiem pour une nonne", adapted from William Faulkner's novel by the same name) (1956) - "The Possessed" ("Les Possédés", adapted from Fyodor Dostoyevsky's novel "Demons") (1959) ===Essays=== * "The Crisis of Man" ("Lecture at Columbia University") (28 March 1946) - "Neither Victims nor Executioners" (Series of essays in "Combat") (1946) - "Why Spain?" (Essay for the theatrical play "L'Etat de Siège") (1948) - "Summer" ("L'Été") (1954) - "Reflections on the Guillotine" ("Réflexions sur la guillotine") (Extended essay, 1957) - "Create Dangerously" ("Essay on Realism and Artistic Creation", lecture at the University of Uppsala in Sweden) (1957)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=984

Agatha Christie

Dame Agatha Mary Clarissa Christie, Lady Mallowan, (; 15 September 1890 – 12 January 1976) was an English writer known for her 66 detective novels and 14 short story collections, particularly those revolving around fictional detectives Hercule Poirot and Miss Marple. She also wrote the world's longest-running play, the murder mystery "The Mousetrap", which has been performed in the West End since 1952. A writer during the "Golden Age of Detective Fiction", Christie has been called the "Queen of Crime". She also wrote six novels under the pseudonym Mary Westmacott. In 1971, she was made a Dame (DBE) by Queen Elizabeth II for her contributions to literature. "Guinness World Records" lists Christie as the best-selling fiction writer of all time, her novels having sold more than two billion copies. Christie was born into a wealthy upper-middle-class family in Torquay, Devon, and was largely home-schooled. She was initially an unsuccessful writer with six consecutive rejections, but this changed in 1920 when "The Mysterious Affair at Styles", featuring detective Hercule Poirot, was published. Her first husband was Archibald Christie; they married in 1914 and had one child before divorcing in 1928. Following the breakdown of her marriage and the death of her mother in 1926 she made international headlines by going missing for eleven days. During both World Wars, she served in hospital dispensaries, acquiring a thorough knowledge of the poisons that featured in many of her novels, short stories, and plays. Following her marriage to archaeologist Max Mallowan in 1930, she spent several months each year on digs in the Middle East and used her first-hand knowledge of this profession in her fiction. According to UNESCO's Index Translationum, she remains the most-translated individual author. Her novel "And Then There Were None" is one of the top-selling books of all time, with approximately 100 million copies sold. Christie's stage play "The Mousetrap" holds the world record for the longest initial run. It opened at the Ambassadors Theatre in the West End on 25 November 1952, and by 2018 there had been more than 27,500 performances. The play was temporarily closed in 2020 because of COVID-19 lockdowns in London before it reopened in 2021. In 1955, Christie was the first recipient of the Mystery Writers of America's Grand Master Award. Later that year, "Witness for the Prosecution" received an Edgar Award for best play. In 2013, she was voted the best crime writer and "The Murder of Roger Ackroyd" the best crime novel ever by 600 professional novelists of the Crime Writers' Association. In 2015, "And Then There Were None" was named the "World's Favourite Christie" in a vote sponsored by the author's estate. Many of Christie's books and short stories have been adapted for television, radio, video games, and graphic novels. More than 30 feature films are based on her work. == Life and career == === Childhood and adolescence: 1890–1907 === Agatha Mary Clarissa Miller was born on 15 September 1890, into a wealthy upper middle class family in Torquay, Devon. She was the youngest of three children born to Frederick Alvah Miller, "a gentleman of substance", and his wife Clarissa Margaret "Clara" Miller, née Boehmer. Christie's mother Clara was born in Dublin in 1854 to British Army officer Frederick Boehmer and his wife Mary Ann Boehmer (née West). Boehmer died in Jersey in 1863, leaving his widow to raise Clara and her brothers on a meagre income. Two weeks after Boehmer's death, Mary's sister Margaret West married widowed dry goods merchant Nathaniel Frary Miller, a US citizen. To assist Mary financially, they agreed to foster nine-year-old Clara; the family settled in Timperley, Cheshire. Margaret and Nathaniel had no children together, but Nathaniel had a 17-year-old son, Fred Miller, from his previous marriage. Fred was born in New York City and travelled extensively after leaving his Swiss boarding school. He and Clara were married in London in 1878. Their first child, Margaret Frary ("Madge"), was born in Torquay in 1879. The second, Louis Montant ("Monty"), was born in Morristown, New Jersey, in 1880, while the family was on an extended visit to the United States. When Fred's father died in 1869, he left Clara £2,000 (approximately ); in 1881 they used this to buy the leasehold of a villa in Torquay named Ashfield. It was here that their third and last child, Agatha, was born in 1890. She described her childhood as "very happy". The Millers lived mainly in Devon but often visited her step-grandmother/great-aunt Margaret Miller in Ealing and maternal grandmother Mary Boehmer in Bayswater. A year was spent abroad with her family, in the French Pyrenees, Paris, Dinard, and Guernsey. Because her siblings were so much older, and there were few children in their neighbourhood, Christie spent much of her time playing alone with her pets and imaginary companions. She eventually made friends with other girls in Torquay, noting that "one of the highlights of my existence" was her appearance with them in a youth production of Gilbert and Sullivan's "The Yeomen of the Guard", in which she played the hero, Colonel Fairfax. According to Christie, Clara believed she should not learn to read until she was eight; thanks to her curiosity, she was reading by the age of four. Her sister had been sent to a boarding school, but their mother insisted that Christie receive her education at home. As a result, her parents and sister supervised her studies in reading, writing and basic arithmetic, a subject she particularly enjoyed. They also taught her music, and she learned to play the piano and the mandolin. Christie was a voracious reader from an early age. Some of her earliest memories were of reading children's books by Mrs Molesworth and Edith Nesbit. When a little older, she moved on to the surreal verse of Edward Lear and Lewis Carroll. As an adolescent, she enjoyed works by Anthony Hope, Walter Scott, Charles Dickens, and Alexandre Dumas. In April 1901, aged 10, she wrote her first poem, "The Cow Slip". By 1901, her father's health had deteriorated, because of what he believed were heart problems. Fred died in November 1901 from pneumonia and chronic kidney disease. Christie later said that her father's death when she was 11 marked the end of her childhood. The family's financial situation had, by this time, worsened. Madge married the year after their father's death and moved to Cheadle, Cheshire; Monty was overseas, serving in a British regiment. Christie now lived alone at Ashfield with her mother. In 1902, she began attending Miss Guyer's Girls' School in Torquay but found it difficult to adjust to the disciplined atmosphere. In 1905, her mother sent her to Paris, where she was educated in a series of (boarding schools), focusing on voice training and piano playing. Deciding she lacked the temperament and talent, she gave up her goal of performing professionally as a concert pianist or an opera singer. === Early literary attempts, marriage, literary success: 1907–1926 === After completing her education, Christie returned to England to find her mother ailing. They decided to spend the northern winter of 1907–1908 in the warm climate of Egypt, which was then a regular tourist destination for wealthy Britons. They stayed for three months at the Gezirah Palace Hotel in Cairo. Christie attended many dances and other social functions; she particularly enjoyed watching amateur polo matches. While they visited some ancient Egyptian monuments such as the Great Pyramid of Giza, she did not exhibit the great interest in archaeology and Egyptology that developed in her later years. Returning to Britain, she continued her social activities, writing and performing in amateur theatrics. She also helped put on a play called "The Blue Beard of Unhappiness" with female friends. At 18, Christie wrote her first short story, "The House of Beauty", while recovering in bed from an illness. It consisted of about 6,000 words about "madness and dreams", subjects of fascination for her. Her biographer Janet Morgan has commented that, despite "infelicities of style", the story was "compelling". (The story became an early version of her story "The House of Dreams".) Other stories followed, most of them illustrating her interest in spiritualism and the paranormal. These included "The Call of Wings" and "The Little Lonely God". Magazines rejected all her early submissions, made under pseudonyms (including Mac Miller, Nathaniel Miller, and Sydney West); some submissions were later revised and published under her real name, often with new titles. Around the same time, Christie began work on her first novel, "Snow Upon the Desert". Writing under the pseudonym Monosyllaba, she set the book in Cairo and drew upon her recent experiences there. She was disappointed when the six publishers she contacted declined the work. Clara suggested that her daughter ask for advice from the successful novelist Eden Phillpotts, a family friend and neighbour, who responded to her enquiry, encouraged her writing, and sent her an introduction to his own literary agent, Hughes Massie, who also rejected "Snow Upon the Desert" but suggested a second novel. Meanwhile, Christie's social activities expanded, with country house parties, riding, hunting, dances, and roller skating. She had short-lived relationships with four men and an engagement to another. In October 1912, she was introduced to Archibald "Archie" Christie at a dance given by Lord and Lady Clifford at Ugbrooke, about from Torquay. The son of a barrister in the Indian Civil Service, Archie was a Royal Artillery officer who was seconded to the Royal Flying Corps in April 1913. The couple quickly fell in love. Three months after their first meeting, Archie proposed marriage, and Agatha accepted. With the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, Archie was sent to France to fight. They married on Christmas Eve 1914 at Emmanuel Church, Clifton, Bristol, close to the home of his mother and stepfather, when Archie was on home leave. Rising through the ranks, he was posted back to Britain in September 1918 as a colonel in the Air Ministry. Christie involved herself in the war effort as a member of the Voluntary Aid Detachment of the British Red Cross. From October 1914 to May 1915, then from June 1916 to September 1918, she worked 3,400 hours in the Town Hall Red Cross Hospital, Torquay, first as a nurse (unpaid) then as a dispenser at £16 (approximately ) a year from 1917 after qualifying as an apothecary's assistant. Her war service ended in September 1918 when Archie was reassigned to London, and they rented a flat in St. John's Wood. Christie had long been a fan of detective novels, having enjoyed Wilkie Collins's "The Woman in White" and "The Moonstone", and Arthur Conan Doyle's early Sherlock Holmes stories. She wrote her first detective novel, "The Mysterious Affair at Styles", in 1916. It featured Hercule Poirot, a former Belgian police officer with "magnificent moustaches" and a head "exactly the shape of an egg", who had taken refuge in Britain after Germany invaded Belgium. Christie's inspiration for the character came from Belgian refugees living in Torquay, and the Belgian soldiers she helped to treat as a volunteer nurse during the First World War. Her original manuscript was rejected by Hodder & Stoughton and Methuen. After keeping the submission for several months, John Lane at The Bodley Head offered to accept it, provided that Christie change how the solution was revealed. She did so, and signed a contract committing her next five books to The Bodley Head, which she later felt was exploitative. It was published in 1920. Christie settled into married life, giving birth to her only child, Rosalind Margaret Clarissa (later Hicks), in August 1919 at Ashfield. Archie left the Air Force at the end of the war and began working in the City financial sector on a relatively low salary. They still employed a maid. Her second novel, "The Secret Adversary" (1922), featuring new detective couple Tommy and Tuppence, was also published by The Bodley Head. It earned her £50 (approximately ). A third novel, "Murder on the Links", again featured Poirot, as did the short stories commissioned by Bruce Ingram, editor of "The Sketch" magazine, from 1923. She now had no difficulty selling her work. In 1922, the Christies joined an around-the-world promotional tour for the British Empire Exhibition, led by Major Ernest Belcher. Leaving their daughter with Agatha's mother and sister, in 10 months they travelled to South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, and Canada. They learned to surf prone in South Africa; then, in Waikiki, they were among the first Britons to surf standing up, and extended their time there by three months to practise. She is remembered at the British Surfing Museum as having said about surfing, ""Oh it was heaven! Nothing like rushing through the water at what seems to you a speed of about two hundred miles an hour. It is one of the most perfect physical pleasures I have known"." When they returned to England, Archie resumed work in the city, and Christie continued to work hard at her writing. After living in a series of apartments in London, they bought a house in Sunningdale, Berkshire, which they renamed Styles after the mansion in Christie's first detective novel. Christie's mother, Clarissa Miller, died in April 1926. They had been exceptionally close, and the loss sent Christie into a deep depression. In August 1926, reports appeared in the press that Christie had gone to a village near Biarritz to recuperate from a "breakdown" caused by "overwork". === Disappearance: 1926 === In August 1926, Archie asked Agatha for a divorce. He had fallen in love with Nancy Neele, a friend of Major Belcher. On 3December 1926, the pair quarrelled after Archie announced his plan to spend the weekend with friends, unaccompanied by his wife. Late that evening, Christie disappeared from their home in Sunningdale. The following morning, her car, a Morris Cowley, was discovered at Newlands Corner in Surrey, parked above a chalk quarry with an expired driving licence and clothes inside. It was feared that she might have drowned herself in the Silent Pool, a nearby beauty spot. The disappearance quickly became a news story. The press sought to satisfy their readers' "hunger for sensation, disaster, and scandal". Home Secretary William Joynson-Hicks pressured police, and a newspaper offered a £100 reward (). More than 1,000 police officers, 15,000 volunteers, and several aeroplanes searched the rural landscape. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle gave a spirit medium one of Christie's gloves to find her. Christie's disappearance made international headlines, including featuring on the front page of "The New York Times". Despite the extensive manhunt, she was not found for another 10 days. On 4 December, the day after she went missing, it is now known she had tea in London and visited Harrods department store where she marvelled at the spectacle of the store's Christmas display. On 14 December 1926, she was located at the Swan Hydropathic Hotel in Harrogate, Yorkshire, north of her home in Sunningdale, registered as "Mrs Tressa Neele" (the surname of her husband's lover) from " S.A." (South Africa). The next day, Christie left for her sister's residence at Abney Hall, Cheadle, where she was sequestered "in guarded hall, gates locked, telephone cut off, and callers turned away". Christie's autobiography makes no reference to the disappearance. Two doctors diagnosed her with "an unquestionable genuine loss of memory", yet opinion remains divided over the reason for her disappearance. Some, including her biographer Morgan, believe she disappeared during a fugue state. The author Jared Cade concluded that Christie planned the event to embarrass her husband but did not anticipate the resulting public melodrama. Christie biographer Laura Thompson provides an alternative view that Christie disappeared during a nervous breakdown, conscious of her actions but not in emotional control of herself. Public reaction at the time was largely negative, supposing a publicity stunt or an attempt to frame her husband for murder. === Second marriage and later life: 1927–1976 === In January 1927, Christie, looking "very pale", sailed with her daughter and secretary to Las Palmas, Canary Islands, to "complete her convalescence", returning three months later. Christie petitioned for divorce and was granted a decree nisi against her husband in April 1928, which was made absolute in October 1928. Archie married Nancy Neele a week later. Christie retained custody of their daughter, Rosalind, and kept the Christie surname for her writing. Reflecting on the period in her autobiography, Christie wrote, "So, after illness, came sorrow, despair and heartbreak. There is no need to dwell on it." In 1928, Christie left England and took the (Simplon) Orient Express to Istanbul and then to Baghdad. In Iraq, she became friends with archaeologist Leonard Woolley and his wife, who invited her to return to their dig in February 1930. On that second trip, she met archaeologist Max Mallowan, 13 years her junior. In a 1977 interview, Mallowan recounted his first meeting with Christie, when he took her and a group of tourists on a tour of his expedition site in Iraq. Christie and Mallowan married in Edinburgh in September 1930. Their marriage lasted until Christie's death in 1976. She accompanied Mallowan on his archaeological expeditions, and her travels with him contributed background to several of her novels set in the Middle East. Other novels (such as "Peril at End House") were set in and around Torquay, where she was raised. Christie drew on her experience of international train travel when writing her 1934 novel "Murder on the Orient Express". The Pera Palace Hotel in Istanbul, the eastern terminus of the railway, claims the book was written there and maintains Christie's room as a memorial to the author. Christie and Mallowan first lived in Cresswell Place in Chelsea, and later in Sheffield Terrace, Holland Park, Kensington. Both properties are now marked by blue plaques. In 1934, they bought Winterbrook House in Winterbrook, a hamlet near Wallingford. This was their main residence for the rest of their lives and the place where Christie did much of her writing. This house also bears a blue plaque. Christie led a quiet life despite being known in Wallingford; from 1951 to 1976 she served as president of the local amateur dramatic society. The couple acquired the Greenway Estate in Devon as a summer residence in 1938; it was given to the National Trust in 2000. Christie frequently stayed at Abney Hall, Cheshire, which was owned by her brother-in-law, James Watts, and based at least two stories there: a short story, "The Adventure of the Christmas Pudding", in the story collection of the same name and the novel "After the Funeral". One Christie compendium notes that "Abney became Agatha's greatest inspiration for country-house life, with all its servants and grandeur being woven into her plots. The descriptions of the fictional Chimneys, Stonygates, and other houses in her stories are mostly Abney Hall in various forms." During World War II, Christie moved to London and lived in a flat at the Isokon in Hampstead, whilst working in the pharmacy at University College Hospital (UCH), London, where she updated her knowledge of poisons. Her later novel "The Pale Horse" was based on a suggestion from Harold Davis, the chief pharmacist at UCH. In 1977, a thallium poisoning case was solved by British medical personnel who had read Christie's book and recognised the symptoms she described. The British intelligence agency MI5 investigated Christie after a character called Major Bletchley appeared in her 1941 thriller "N or M?", which was about a hunt for a pair of deadly fifth columnists in wartime England. MI5 was concerned that Christie had a spy in Britain's top-secret codebreaking centre, Bletchley Park. The agency's fears were allayed when Christie told her friend, the codebreaker Dilly Knox, "I was stuck there on my way by train from Oxford to London and took revenge by giving the name to one of my least lovable characters." Christie was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Literature in 1950. In honour of her many literary works, Christie was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1956 New Year Honours. She was co-president of the Detection Club from 1958 to her death in 1976. In 1961, she was awarded an honorary Doctor of Literature degree by the University of Exeter. In the 1971 New Year Honours, she was promoted to Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE), three years after her husband had been knighted for his archaeological work. After her husband's knighthood, Christie could also be styled Lady Mallowan. From 1971 to 1974, Christie's health began to fail, but she continued to write. Her last novel was "Postern of Fate" in 1973. Textual analysis suggested that Christie may have begun to develop Alzheimer's disease or other dementia at about this time. === Personal qualities === In 1946, Christie said of herself: "My chief dislikes are crowds, loud noises, gramophones and cinemas. I dislike the taste of alcohol and do not like smoking. I "do" like sun, sea, flowers, travelling, strange foods, sports, concerts, theatres, pianos, and doing embroidery." Christie was a lifelong, "quietly devout" member of the Church of England, attended church regularly, and kept her mother's copy of "The Imitation of Christ" by her bedside. After her divorce, she stopped taking the sacrament of communion. The Agatha Christie Trust For Children was established in 1969, and shortly after Christie's death a charitable memorial fund was set up to "help two causes that she favoured: old people and young children". Christie's obituary in "The Times" notes that "she never cared much for the cinema, or for wireless and television." Further, == Death and estate == === Death and burial === Christie died peacefully on 12 January 1976 at age 85 from natural causes at her home at Winterbrook House. Upon her death, two West End theatresthe St. Martin's, where "The Mousetrap" was playing, and the Savoy, which was home to a revival of "Murder at the Vicarage"dimmed their outside lights in her honour. She was buried in the nearby churchyard of St Mary's, Cholsey, in a plot she had chosen with her husband 10 years previously. The simple funeral service was attended by about 20 newspaper and TV reporters, some having travelled from as far away as South America. Thirty wreaths adorned Christie's grave, including one from the cast of her long-running play "The Mousetrap" and one sent "on behalf of the multitude of grateful readers" by the Ulverscroft Large Print Book Publishers. Mallowan, who remarried in 1977, died in 1978 and was buried next to Christie. === Estate and subsequent ownership of works === Christie was unhappy about becoming "an employed wage slave", and for tax reasons set up a private company in 1955, Agatha Christie Limited, to hold the rights to her works. In about 1959 she transferred her 278-acre home, Greenway Estate, to her daughter, Rosalind Hicks. In 1968, when Christie was almost 80, she sold a 51% stake in Agatha Christie Limited (and the works it owned) to Booker Books (better known as Booker Author's Division), which by 1977 had increased its stake to 64%. Agatha Christie Limited still owns the worldwide rights for more than 80 of Christie's novels and short stories, 19 plays, and nearly 40 TV films. In the late 1950s, Christie had reputedly been earning around £100,000 (approximately ) per year. Christie sold an estimated 300 million books during her lifetime. At the time of her death in 1976, "she was the best-selling novelist in history." One estimate of her total earnings from more than a half-century of writing is $20 million (approximately $ million in ). As a result of her tax planning, her will left only £106,683 (approximately ) net, which went mostly to her husband and daughter along with some smaller bequests. Her remaining 36% share of Agatha Christie Limited was inherited by Hicks, who passionately preserved her mother's works, image, and legacy until her own death 28 years later. The family's share of the company allowed them to appoint 50% of the board and the chairman, and retain a veto over new treatments, updated versions, and republications of her works. In 2004, Hicks' obituary in "The Telegraph" noted that she had been "determined to remain true to her mother's vision and to protect the integrity of her creations" and disapproved of "merchandising" activities. Upon her death on 28 October 2004, the Greenway Estate passed to her son Mathew Prichard. After his stepfather's death in 2005, Prichard donated Greenway and its contents to the National Trust. Christie's family and family trusts, including great-grandson James Prichard, continue to own the 36% stake in Agatha Christie Limited, and remain associated with the company. In 2020, James Prichard was the company's chairman. Mathew Prichard also holds the copyright to some of his grandmother's later literary works including "The Mousetrap". Christie's work continues to be developed in a range of adaptations. In 1998, Booker sold its shares in Agatha Christie Limited (at the time earning £2,100,000, approximately annual revenue) for £10,000,000 (approximately ) to Chorion, whose portfolio of authors' works included the literary estates of Enid Blyton and Dennis Wheatley. In February 2012, after a management buyout, Chorion began to sell off its literary assets. This included the sale of Chorion's 64% stake in Agatha Christie Limited to Acorn Media UK. In 2014, RLJ Entertainment Inc. (RLJE) acquired Acorn Media UK, renamed it Acorn Media Enterprises, and incorporated it as the RLJE UK development arm. In late February 2014, media reports stated that the BBC had acquired exclusive TV rights to Christie's works in the UK (previously associated with ITV) and made plans with Acorn's co-operation to air new productions for the 125th anniversary of Christie's birth in 2015. As part of that deal, the BBC broadcast "Partners in Crime" and "And Then There Were None", both in 2015. Subsequent productions have included "The Witness for the Prosecution" but plans to televise "Ordeal by Innocence" at Christmas 2017 were delayed because of controversy surrounding one of the cast members. The three-part adaptation aired in April 2018. A three-part adaptation of "The A.B.C. Murders" starring John Malkovich and Rupert Grint began filming in June 2018 and was first broadcast in December 2018. A two-part adaptation of "The Pale Horse" was broadcast on BBC1 in February 2020. "Death Comes as the End" will be the next BBC adaptation. Since 2020, reissues of Christie's Miss Marple and Hercule Poirot novels by HarperCollins have removed "passages containing descriptions, insults or references to ethnicity". == Works == === Works of fiction === ==== Hercule Poirot and Miss Marple ==== Christie's first published book, "The Mysterious Affair at Styles", was released in 1920 and introduced the detective Hercule Poirot, who appeared in 33 of her novels and more than 50 short stories. Over the years, Christie grew tired of Poirot, much as Doyle did with Sherlock Holmes. By the end of the 1930s, Christie wrote in her diary that she was finding Poirot "insufferable", and by the 1960s she felt he was "an egocentric creep". Thompson believes Christie's occasional antipathy to her creation is overstated, and points out that "in later life she sought to protect him against misrepresentation as powerfully as if he were her own flesh and blood". Unlike Doyle, she resisted the temptation to kill her detective off while he was still popular. She married off Poirot's "Watson", Captain Arthur Hastings, in an attempt to trim her cast commitments. Miss Jane Marple was introduced in a series of short stories that began publication in December 1927 and were subsequently collected under the title "The Thirteen Problems". Marple was a genteel, elderly spinster who solved crimes using analogies to English village life. Christie said, "Miss Marple was not in any way a picture of my grandmother; she was far more fussy and spinsterish than my grandmother ever was", but her autobiography establishes a firm connection between the fictional character and Christie's step-grandmother Margaret Miller ("Auntie-Grannie") and her "Ealing cronies". Both Marple and Miller "always expected the worst of everyone and everything, and were, with almost frightening accuracy, usually proved right". Marple appeared in 12 novels and 20 stories. During the Second World War, Christie wrote two novels, "Curtain" and "Sleeping Murder", featuring Hercule Poirot and Miss Marple, respectively. Both books were sealed in a bank vault, and she made over the copyrights by deed of gift to her daughter and her husband to provide each with a kind of insurance policy. Christie had a heart attack and a serious fall in 1974, after which she was unable to write. Her daughter authorised the publication of "Curtain" in 1975, and "Sleeping Murder" was published posthumously in 1976. These publications followed the success of the 1974 film version of "Murder on the Orient Express". Shortly before the publication of "Curtain", Poirot became the first fictional character to have an obituary in "The New York Times", which was printed on page one on 6 August 1975. Christie never wrote a novel or short story featuring both Poirot and Miss Marple. In a recording discovered and released in 2008, Christie revealed the reason for this: "Hercule Poirot, a complete egoist, would not like being taught his business or having suggestions made to him by an elderly spinster lady. Hercule Poirota professional sleuthwould not be at home at all in Miss Marple's world." In 2013, the Christie family supported the release of a new Poirot story, "The Monogram Murders", written by British author Sophie Hannah. Hannah later published three more Poirot mysteries, "Closed Casket" in 2016, "The Mystery of Three Quarters" in 2018., and "The Killings at Kingfisher Hill" in 2020. ==== Formula and plot devices ==== Christie has been called the "Duchess of Death", the "Mistress of Mystery", and the "Queen of Crime". Early in her career, a reporter noted that "her plots are possible, logical, and always new." According to Hannah, "At the start of each novel, she shows us an apparently impossible situation and we go mad wondering 'How can this be happening?' Then, slowly, she reveals how the impossible is not only possible but the only thing that could have happened." Christie developed her storytelling techniques during what has been called the "Golden Age" of detective fiction. Author Dilys Winn called Christie "the doyenne of Coziness", a sub-genre which "featured a small village setting, a hero with faintly aristocratic family connections, a plethora of red herrings and a tendency to commit homicide with sterling silver letter openers and poisons imported from Paraguay". At the end, in a Christie hallmark, the detective usually gathers the surviving suspects into one room, explains the course of their deductive reasoning, and reveals the guilty party; but there are exceptions where it is left to the guilty party to explain all (such as "And Then There Were None" and "Endless Night"). Christie did not limit herself to quaint English villagesthe action might take place on a small island ("And Then There Were None"), an aeroplane ("Death in the Clouds"), a train ("Murder on the Orient Express"), a steamship ("Death on the Nile"), a smart London flat ("Cards on the Table"), a resort in the West Indies ("A Caribbean Mystery"), or an archaeological dig ("Murder in Mesopotamia")but the circle of potential suspects is usually closed and intimate: family members, friends, servants, business associates, fellow travellers. Stereotyped characters abound (the , the stolid policeman, the devoted servant, the dull colonel), but these may be subverted to stymie the reader; impersonations and secret alliances are always possible. There is always a motivemost often, money: "There are very few killers in Christie who enjoy murder for its own sake." Professor of Pharmacology Michael C. Gerald noted that "in over half her novels, one or more victims are poisoned, albeit not always to the full satisfaction of the perpetrator." Guns, knives, garrottes, tripwires, blunt instruments, and even a hatchet were also used, but "Christie never resorted to elaborate mechanical or scientific means to explain her ingenuity," according to John Curran, author and literary adviser to the Christie estate. Many of her clues are mundane objects: a calendar, a coffee cup, wax flowers, a beer bottle, a fireplace used during a heat wave. According to crime writer P. D. James, Christie was prone to making the unlikeliest character the guilty party. Alert readers could sometimes identify the culprit by identifying the least likely suspect. Christie mocked this insight in her foreword to "Cards on the Table": "Spot the person least likely to have committed the crime and in nine times out of ten your task is finished. Since I do not want my faithful readers to fling away this book in disgust, I prefer to warn them beforehand "that this is not that kind of book"." On BBC Radio 4's "Desert Island Discs" in 2007, Brian Aldiss said Christie had told him she wrote her books up to the last chapter, then decided who the most unlikely suspect was, after which she would go back and make the necessary changes to "frame" that person. Based upon a study of her working notebooks, Curran describes how Christie would first create a cast of characters, choose a setting, and then produce a list of scenes in which specific clues would be revealed; the order of scenes would be revised as she developed her plot. Of necessity, the murderer had to be known to the author before the sequence could be finalised and she began to type or dictate the first draft of her novel. Much of the work, particularly dialogue, was done in her head before she put it on paper. In 2013, the 600 members of the Crime Writers' Association chose "The Murder of Roger Ackroyd" as "the best whodunit... ever written". Author Julian Symons observed, "In an obvious sense, the book fits within the conventions... The setting is a village deep within the English countryside, Roger Ackroyd dies in his study; there is a butler who behaves suspiciously... Every successful detective story in this period involved a deceit practised upon the reader, and here the trick is the highly original one of making the murderer the local doctor, who tells the story and acts as Poirot's Watson." Critic Sutherland Scott stated, "If Agatha Christie had made no other contribution to the literature of detective fiction she would still deserve our grateful thanks" for writing this novel. In September 2015, to mark her 125th birthday, "And Then There Were None" was named the "World's Favourite Christie" in a vote sponsored by the author's estate. The novel is emblematic of both her use of formula and her willingness to discard it. ""And Then There Were None" carries the 'closed society' type of murder mystery to extreme lengths," according to author Charles Osborne. It begins with the classic set-up of potential victim(s) and killer(s) isolated from the outside world, but then violates conventions. There is no detective involved in the action, no interviews of suspects, no careful search for clues, and no suspects gathered together in the last chapter to be confronted with the solution. As Christie herself said, "Ten people had to die without it becoming ridiculous or the murderer being obvious." Critics agreed she had succeeded: "The arrogant Mrs. Christie this time set herself a fearsome test of her own ingenuity... the reviews, not surprisingly, were without exception wildly adulatory." ==== Character stereotypes and racism ==== Christie included stereotyped descriptions of characters in her work, especially before 1945 (when such attitudes were more commonly expressed publicly), particularly in regard to Italians, Jews, and non-Europeans. For example, she described "men of Hebraic extraction, sallow men with hooked noses, wearing rather flamboyant jewellery" in the short story "The Soul of the Croupier" from the collection "The Mysterious Mr Quin". In 1947, the Anti-Defamation League in the US sent an official letter of complaint to Christie's American publishers, Dodd, Mead and Company, regarding perceived antisemitism in her works. Christie's British literary agent later wrote to her US representative, authorising American publishers to "omit the word 'Jew' when it refers to an unpleasant character in future books." In "The Hollow", published in 1946, one of the characters is described by another as "a Whitechapel Jewess with dyed hair and a voice like a corncrake ... a small woman with a thick nose, henna red and a disagreeable voice". To contrast with the more stereotyped descriptions, Christie portrayed some "foreign" characters as victims, or potential victims, at the hands of English malefactors, such as, respectively, Olga Seminoff ("Hallowe'en Party") and Katrina Reiger (in the short story "How Does Your Garden Grow?"). Jewish characters are often seen as un-English (such as Oliver Manders in "Three Act Tragedy"), but they are rarely the culprits. In 2023, the "Telegraph" reported that several Agatha Christie novels have been edited to remove potentially offensive language, including insults and references to ethnicity. Poirot and Miss Marple mysteries written between 1920 and 1976 have had passages reworked or removed in new editions published by HarperCollins, in order to strip them of language and descriptions that modern audiences find offensive, especially those involving the characters Christie’s protagonists encounter outside the UK. Sensitivity readers had made the edits, which were evident in digital versions of the new editions, including the entire Miss Marple run and selected Poirot novels set to be released or that have been released since 2020. ==== Other detectives ==== In addition to Hercule Poirot and Miss Marple, Christie also created amateur detectives Thomas (Tommy) Beresford and his wife, Prudence "Tuppence" "née" Cowley, who appear in four novels and one collection of short stories published between 1922 and 1974. Unlike her other sleuths, the Beresfords were only in their early twenties when introduced in "The Secret Adversary", and were allowed to age alongside their creator. She treated their stories with a lighter touch, giving them a "dash and verve" which was not universally admired by critics. Their last adventure, "Postern of Fate", was Christie's last novel. Harley Quin was "easily the most unorthodox" of Christie's fictional detectives. Inspired by Christie's affection for the figures from the Harlequinade, the semi-supernatural Quin always works with an elderly, conventional man called Satterthwaite. The pair appear in 14 short stories, 12 of which were collected in 1930 as "The Mysterious Mr. Quin". Mallowan described these tales as "detection in a fanciful vein, touching on the fairy story, a natural product of Agatha's peculiar imagination". Satterthwaite also appears in a novel, "Three Act Tragedy", and a short story, "Dead Man's Mirror", both of which feature Poirot. Another of her lesser-known characters is Parker Pyne, a retired civil servant who assists unhappy people in an unconventional manner. The 12 short stories which introduced him, "Parker Pyne Investigates" (1934), are best remembered for "The Case of the Discontented Soldier", which features Ariadne Oliver, "an amusing and satirical self-portrait of Agatha Christie". Over the ensuing decades, Oliver reappeared in seven novels. In most of them she assists Poirot. ==== Plays ==== In 1928, Michael Morton adapted "The Murder of Roger Ackroyd" for the stage under the name of "Alibi". The play enjoyed a respectable run, but Christie disliked the changes made to her work and, in future, preferred to write for the theatre herself. The first of her own stage works was "Black Coffee", which received good reviews when it opened in the West End in late 1930. She followed this up with adaptations of her detective novels: "And Then There Were None" in 1943, "Appointment with Death" in 1945, and "The Hollow" in 1951. In the 1950s, "the theatre ... engaged much of Agatha's attention." She next adapted her short radio play into "The Mousetrap", which premiered in the West End in 1952, produced by Peter Saunders and starring Richard Attenborough as the original Detective Sergeant Trotter. Her expectations for the play were not high; she believed it would run no more than eight months. "The Mousetrap" has long since made theatrical history as the world's longest-running play, staging its 27,500th performance in September 2018. The play temporarily closed in March 2020, when all UK theatres shut due to the coronavirus pandemic, before it re-opened on 17 May 2021. In 1953, she followed this with "Witness for the Prosecution", whose Broadway production won the New York Drama Critics' Circle award for best foreign play of 1954 and earned Christie an Edgar Award from the Mystery Writers of America. "Spider's Web", an original work written for actress Margaret Lockwood at her request, premiered in the West End in 1954 and was also a hit. Christie became the first female playwright to have three plays running simultaneously in London: "The Mousetrap", "Witness for the Prosecution" and "Spider's Web". She said, "Plays are much easier to "write" than books, because you can "see" them in your mind's eye, you are not hampered by all that description which clogs you so terribly in a book and stops you from getting on with what's happening." In a letter to her daughter, Christie said being a playwright was "a lot of fun!" ==== As Mary Westmacott ==== Christie published six mainstream novels under the name Mary Westmacott, a pseudonym which gave her the freedom to explore "her most private and precious imaginative garden". These books typically received better reviews than her detective and thriller fiction. Of the first, "Giant's Bread" published in 1930, a reviewer for "The New York Times" wrote, "...her book is far above the average of current fiction, in fact, comes well under the classification of a 'good book'. And it is only a satisfying novel that can claim that appellation." It was publicized from the very beginning that "Mary Westmacott" was a pen name of a well-known author, although the identity behind the pen name was kept secret; the dust jacket of "Giant's Bread" mentions that the author had previously written "under her real name...half a dozen books that have each passed the thirty thousand mark in sales." (In fact, though this was technically true, it disguised Christie's identity through understatement. By the publication of "Giant's Bread", Christie had published 10 novels and two short story collections, all of which had sold considerably more than 30,000 copies.) After Christie's authorship of the first four Westmacott novels was revealed by a journalist in 1949, she wrote two more, the last in 1956. The other Westmacott titles are: "Unfinished Portrait" (1934), "Absent in the Spring" (1944), "The Rose and the Yew Tree" (1948), "A Daughter's a Daughter" (1952), and "The Burden" (1956). === Non-fiction works === Christie published a few non-fiction works. "Come, Tell Me How You Live", about working on an archaeological dig, was drawn from her life with Mallowan. "The Grand Tour: Around the World with the Queen of Mystery" is a collection of correspondence from her 1922 Grand Tour of the British Empire, including South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada. "" was published posthumously in 1977 and adjudged the Best Critical/Biographical Work at the 1978 Edgar Awards. === Titles === Many of Christie's works from 1940 onward have titles drawn from literature, with the original context of the title typically printed as an epigraph. The inspirations for some of Christie's titles include: - William Shakespeare's works: "Sad Cypress", "By the Pricking of My Thumbs", "There is a Tide...", "Absent in the Spring", and "The Mousetrap", for example. Osborne notes that "Shakespeare is the writer most quoted in the works of Agatha Christie"; - The Bible: "Evil Under the Sun", "The Burden", and "The Pale Horse"; - Other works of literature: "The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side" (from Tennyson's "The Lady of Shalott"), "The Moving Finger" (from Edward FitzGerald's translation of the "Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám"), "The Rose and the Yew Tree" (from T. S. Eliot's "Four Quartets"), "Postern of Fate" (from James Elroy Flecker's "Gates of Damascus"), "Endless Night" (from William Blake's "Auguries of Innocence"), "N or M?" (from the "Book of Common Prayer"), and "Come, Tell Me How You Live" (from Lewis Carroll's "Through the Looking-Glass"). Christie biographer Gillian Gill said, "Christie's writing has the sparseness, the directness, the narrative pace, and the universal appeal of the fairy story, and it is perhaps as modern fairy stories for grown-up children that Christie's novels succeed." Reflecting a juxtaposition of innocence and horror, numerous Christie titles were drawn from well-known children's nursery rhymes: "And Then There Were None" (from "Ten Little Niggers", a rhyme also published as "Ten Little Indians", both of which were also used for the book's title in some printings), "One, Two, Buckle My Shoe" (from "One, Two, Buckle My Shoe"), "Five Little Pigs" (from "This Little Piggy"), "Crooked House" (from "There Was a Crooked Man"), "A Pocket Full of Rye" (from "Sing a Song of Sixpence"), "Hickory Dickory Dock" (from "Hickory Dickory Dock"), and "Three Blind Mice" (from "Three Blind Mice"). == Critical reception == Christie is regularly referred to as the "Queen of Crime"—which is now trademarked by the Christie estate—or "Queen of Mystery", and is considered a master of suspense, plotting, and characterisation. In 1955, she became the first recipient of the Mystery Writers of America's Grand Master Award. She was named "Best Writer of the Century" and the Hercule Poirot series of books was named "Best Series of the Century" at the 2000 Bouchercon World Mystery Convention. In 2013, she was voted "best crime writer" in a survey of 600 members of the Crime Writers' Association of professional novelists. However, the writer Raymond Chandler criticised the artificiality of her books, as did writer Julian Symons. The literary critic Edmund Wilson described her prose as banal and her characterisations as superficial. In 2011, Christie was named by the digital crime drama TV channel Alibi as the second most financially successful crime writer of all time in the United Kingdom, after James Bond author Ian Fleming, with total earnings around £100 million. In 2012, Christie was among the people selected by the artist Peter Blake to appear in a new version of his most famous work, the Beatles' "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band" album cover, "to celebrate the British cultural figures he most admires". On the record-breaking longevity of Christie's "The Mousetrap" which had marked its 60th anniversary in 2012, Stephen Moss in "The Guardian" wrote, "the play and its author are the stars". In 2015, marking the 125th anniversary of her birth date, 25 contemporary mystery writers and one publisher gave their views on Christie's works. Many of the authors had read Christie's novels first, before other mystery writers, in English or in their native language, influencing their own writing, and nearly all still viewed her as the "Queen of Crime" and creator of the plot twists used by mystery authors. Nearly all had one or more favourites among Christie's mysteries and found her books still good to read nearly 100 years after her first novel was published. Just one of the 25 authors held with Wilson's views. === Book sales === In her prime, Christie was rarely out of the bestseller list. She was the first crime writer to have 100,000 copies of 10 of her titles published by Penguin on the same day in 1948. , "Guinness World Records" listed Christie as the best-selling fiction writer of all time. , her novels had sold more than two billion copies in 44 languages. Half the sales are of English-language editions, and half are translations. According to Index Translationum, , she was the most-translated individual author. Christie is one of the most-borrowed authors in UK libraries. She is also the UK's best-selling spoken-book author. In 2002, 117,696 Christie audiobooks were sold, in comparison to 97,755 for J. K. Rowling, 78,770 for Roald Dahl and 75,841 for J. R. R. Tolkien. In 2015, the Christie estate claimed "And Then There Were None" was "the best-selling crime novel of all time", with approximately 100 million sales, also making it one of the highest-selling books of all time. More than two million copies of her books were sold in English in 2020. == Legacy == In 2016, the Royal Mail marked the centenary of Christie's first detective story by issuing six first-class postage stamps of her works: "The Mysterious Affair at Styles", "The Murder of Roger Ackroyd", "Murder on the Orient Express", "And Then There Were None", "The Body in the Library", and "A Murder is Announced". "The Guardian" reported that, "Each design incorporates microtext, UV ink and thermochromic ink. These concealed clues can be revealed using either a magnifying glass, UV light or body heat and provide pointers to the mysteries' solutions." Her characters and her face appeared on the stamps of many countries like Dominica and the Somali Republic. In 2020, Christie was commemorated on a £2 coin by the Royal Mint for the first time to mark the centenary of her first novel, "The Mysterious Affair at Styles". In 2023 a life-size bronze statue of Christie sitting on a park bench holding a book was unveiled in Wallingford. === Adaptations === Christie's works have been adapted for cinema and television. The first was the 1928 British film "The Passing of Mr. Quin". Poirot's first film appearance was in 1931 in "Alibi", which starred Austin Trevor as Christie's sleuth. Margaret Rutherford played Marple in a series of films released in the 1960s. Christie liked her acting, but considered the first film "pretty poor" and thought no better of the rest. She felt differently about the 1974 film "Murder on the Orient Express", directed by Sidney Lumet, which featured major stars and high production values; her attendance at the London premiere was one of her last public outings. In 2017, a new film version was released, directed by Kenneth Branagh, who also starred, wearing "the most extravagant mustache moviegoers have ever seen". Branagh has since directed two more adaptations of Christie, "Death on the Nile" (2022) and its sequel "A Haunting in Venice" (2023), the latter an adaptation of her 1969 novel "Hallowe'en Party". The television adaptation "Agatha Christie's Poirot" (1989–2013), with David Suchet in the title role, ran for 70 episodes over 13 series. It received nine BAFTA award nominations and won four BAFTA awards in 1990–1992. The television series "Miss Marple" (1984–1992), with Joan Hickson as "the BBC's peerless Miss Marple", adapted all 12 Marple novels. The French television series (2009–2012, 2013–2020), adapted 36 of Christie's stories. Christie's books have also been adapted for BBC Radio, a video game series, and graphic novels. == Interests and influences == === Pharmacology === During the First World War, Christie took a break from nursing to train for the Apothecaries Hall Examination. While she subsequently found dispensing in the hospital pharmacy monotonous, and thus less enjoyable than nursing, her new knowledge provided her with a background in potentially toxic drugs. Early in the Second World War, she brought her skills up to date at Torquay Hospital. As Michael C. Gerald puts it, her "activities as a hospital dispenser during both World Wars not only supported the war effort but also provided her with an appreciation of drugs as therapeutic agents and poisons... These hospital experiences were also likely responsible for the prominent role physicians, nurses, and pharmacists play in her stories." There were to be many medical practitioners, pharmacists, and scientists, naïve or suspicious, in Christie's cast of characters; featuring in "Murder in Mesopotamia", "Cards on the Table", "The Pale Horse", and "Mrs. McGinty's Dead", among many others. Gillian Gill notes that the murder method in Christie's first detective novel, "The Mysterious Affair at Styles", "comes right out of Agatha Christie's work in the hospital dispensary". In an interview with journalist Marcelle Bernstein, Christie stated, "I don't like messy deaths... I'm more interested in peaceful people who die in their own beds and no one knows why." With her expert knowledge, Christie had no need of poisons unknown to science, which were forbidden under Ronald Knox's "Ten Rules for Detective Fiction". Arsenic, aconite, strychnine, digitalis, nicotine, thallium, and other substances were used to dispatch victims in the ensuing decades. === Archaeology === In her youth, Christie showed little interest in antiquities. After her marriage to Mallowan in 1930, she accompanied him on annual expeditions, spending three to four months at a time in Syria and Iraq at excavation sites at Ur, Nineveh, Tell Arpachiyah, Chagar Bazar, Tell Brak, and Nimrud. The Mallowans also took side trips whilst travelling to and from expedition sites, visiting Italy, Greece, Egypt, Iran, and the Soviet Union, among other places. Their experiences travelling and living abroad are reflected in novels such as "Murder on the Orient Express", "Death on the Nile", and "Appointment with Death". For the 1931 digging season at Nineveh, Christie bought a writing table to continue her own work; in the early 1950s, she paid to add a small writing room to the team's house at Nimrud. She also devoted time and effort each season in "making herself useful by photographing, cleaning, and recording finds; and restoring ceramics, which she especially enjoyed". She also provided funds for the expeditions. Many of the settings for Christie's books were inspired by her archaeological fieldwork in the Middle East; this is reflected in the detail with which she describes themfor instance, the temple of Abu Simbel as depicted in "Death on the Nile"while the settings for "They Came to Baghdad" were places she and Mallowan had recently stayed. Similarly, she drew upon her knowledge of daily life on a dig throughout "Murder in Mesopotamia". Archaeologists and experts in Middle Eastern cultures and artefacts featured in her works include Dr Eric Leidner in "Murder in Mesopotamia" and Signor Richetti in "Death on the Nile". After the Second World War, Christie chronicled her time in Syria in "Come, Tell Me How You Live", which she described as "small beera very little book, full of everyday doings and happenings". From 8November 2001 to March 2002, The British Museum presented a "colourful and episodic exhibition" called "Agatha Christie and Archaeology: Mystery in Mesopotamia" which illustrated how her activities as a writer and as the wife of an archaeologist intertwined. == In popular culture == Some of Christie's fictional portrayals have explored and offered accounts of her disappearance in 1926. The film "Agatha" (1979), with Vanessa Redgrave, has Christie sneaking away to plan revenge against her husband; Christie's heirs sued unsuccessfully to prevent the film's distribution. The "Doctor Who" episode "The Unicorn and the Wasp" (17 May 2008) stars Fenella Woolgar as Christie, and explains her disappearance as being connected to aliens. The film "Agatha and the Truth of Murder" (2018) sends her undercover to solve the murder of Florence Nightingale's goddaughter, Florence Nightingale Shore. A fictionalised account of Christie's disappearance is also the central theme of a Korean musical, "Agatha". "The Christie Affair", a Christie-like mystery story of love and revenge by author Nina de Gramont, was a 2022 novel loosely based on Christie's disappearance. Other portrayals, such as the Hungarian film "Kojak Budapesten" (1980), create their own scenarios involving Christie's criminal skills. In the TV play "Murder by the Book" (1986), Christie (Dame Peggy Ashcroft) murders one of her fictional-turned-real characters, Poirot. Christie features as a character in Gaylord Larsen's "Dorothy and Agatha" and "The London Blitz Murders" by Max Allan Collins. The American television program "Unsolved Mysteries" devoted a segment to her famous disappearance, with Agatha portrayed by actress Tessa Pritchard. A young Agatha is depicted in the Spanish historical television series "Gran Hotel" (2011) in which she finds inspiration to write her new novel while aiding local detectives. In the alternative history television film "Agatha and the Curse of Ishtar" (2018), Christie becomes involved in a murder case at an archaeological dig in Iraq. In 2019, Honeysuckle Weeks portrayed Christie in an episode, "No Friends Like Old Friends", in a Canadian drama, "Frankie Drake Mysteries." In 2020, Heather Terrell, under the pseudonym of Marie Benedict, published "The Mystery of Mrs. Christie", a fictional reconstruction of Christie's December 1926 disappearance. The novel was on the "USA Today" and "The New York Times" Best Seller lists. In December 2020, Library Reads named Terrell a Hall of Fame author for the book. Andrew Wilson has written four novels featuring Agatha Christie as a detective: "A Talent For Murder" (2017), "A Different Kind of Evil" (2018), "Death In A Desert Land" (2019) and "I Saw Him Die" (2020). Christie was portrayed by Shirley Henderson in the 2022 comedy/mystery film "See How They Run".

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=986

The Plague (novel)

The Plague () is a 1947 absurdist novel by Albert Camus. It tells the story from the point of view of a narrator in the midst of a plague sweeping the French Algerian city of Oran. The narrator remains unknown until the beginning of the last chapter. The novel presents a snapshot into life in Oran as seen through the author's distinctive absurdist point of view. Camus used as source material the cholera epidemic that killed a large proportion of Oran's population in 1849, but set the novel in the 1940s. Oran and its surroundings were struck by disease several times before Camus published his novel. According to an academic study, Oran was decimated by the bubonic plague in 1556 and 1678, but all later outbreaks (in 1921: 185 cases; 1931: 76 cases; and 1944: 95 cases) were very far from the scale of the epidemic described in the novel. "The Plague" is considered an existentialist classic despite Camus' objection to the label. The novel stresses the powerlessness of the individual characters to affect their own destinies. The narrative tone is similar to Kafka's, especially in "The Trial", whose individual sentences potentially have multiple meanings; the material often pointedly resonating as stark allegory of phenomenal consciousness and the human condition. ==Major characters== *Dr. Bernard Rieux: Dr. Bernard Rieux is described as a man about age 35, of moderate height, dark-skinned, with close-cropped black hair. At the beginning of the novel, Rieux's wife, who has been ill for a year, leaves for a sanatorium. It is Rieux who treats the first victim of plague and first uses the word plague to describe the disease. He urges the authorities to take action to stop the spread of the epidemic. However, at first, along with everyone else, the danger the town faces seems unreal to him. He feels uneasy but does not realise the gravity of the situation. Within a short while, he grasps what is at stake and warns the authorities that unless steps are taken immediately, the epidemic could kill off half the town's population of two hundred thousand within a couple of months.<br>During the epidemic, Rieux heads an auxiliary hospital and works long hours treating the victims. He injects serum and lances the abscesses, but there is little more that he can do, and his duties weigh heavily upon him. He never gets home until late, and he must distance himself from the natural pity that he feels for the victims; otherwise, he would not be able to go on. It is especially hard for him when he visits a victim in their own home because he knows that he must immediately call for an ambulance and have the person removed from the house. Often, the relatives plead with him not to do so as they know they may never see the person again.<br>Rieux works to combat the plague simply because he is a doctor and his job is to relieve human suffering. He does not do it for any grand, religious purpose, like Paneloux (Rieux does not believe in God), or as part of a high-minded moral code, like Tarrou. He is a practical man, doing what needs to be done without any fuss, but he knows that the struggle against death is something that he can never win. - Jean Tarrou: Jean Tarrou arrived in Oran some weeks before the plague broke out for unknown reasons. He is not there on business since he appears to have private means. Tarrou is a good-natured man who smiles a lot. Before the plague came, he liked to associate with the Spanish dancers and musicians in the city. He also keeps a diary full of his observations of life in Oran, which the Narrator incorporates into the narrative.<br>It is Tarrou who first comes up with the idea of organising teams of volunteers to fight the plague. He wants to do so before the authorities begin to conscript people, and he does not like the official plan to get prisoners to do the work. He takes action, prompted by his own code of morals; he feels that the plague is everybody's responsibility and that everyone should do their duty. What interests him, he tells Rieux, is how to become a saint even though he does not believe in God.<br>Later in the novel, Tarrou tells Rieux, with whom he has become friends, the story of his life. His father, although a kind man in private, was also an aggressive prosecuting attorney who tried death penalty cases, arguing strongly for the death penalty to be imposed. As a young boy, Tarrou attended one day of a criminal proceeding in which a man was on trial for his life. The idea of capital punishment disgusted him. After he left home before 18, his main interest in life was his opposition to the death penalty, which he regarded as state-sponsored murder. However, years of activism have left him disillusioned.<br>When the plague epidemic is virtually over, Tarrou becomes one of its last victims but puts up a heroic struggle before dying. - Raymond Rambert: Raymond Rambert is a journalist who is visiting Oran to research a story on the standards of living in the Arab colony of Oran. When the plague strikes, he finds himself trapped in a city with which he feels he has no connection. He misses his girlfriend who is in Paris and uses all his ingenuity and resourcefulness to persuade the city bureaucracy to allow him to leave. When that fails, he contacts smugglers, who agree to help him escape for a fee of ten thousand francs. However, there is a hitch in the arrangements, and by the time another escape plan is arranged, Rambert has changed his mind. He decides to stay in the city and continue to help fight the plague, saying that he would feel ashamed of himself if he pursued a merely personal happiness. He now feels that he belongs in Oran, and that the plague is everyone's business, including his. - Joseph Grand: Joseph Grand is a fifty-year-old clerk for the city government. He is tall and thin. Poorly paid, he lives an austere life, but is capable of deep affection. In his spare time, Grand polishes up his Latin, and is also writing a book. However, he is such a perfectionist that he continually rewrites the first sentence and can progress no further. One of his problems in life is that he can rarely find the correct words to express what he means. Grand tells Rieux that he married while still in his teens, but overwork and poverty took their toll (Grand did not receive the career advancement that he had been promised), and his wife Jeanne left him. He tried but failed to write a letter to her, and he still grieves for his loss.<br>Grand is a neighbor of Cottard, and it is he who calls Rieux for help when Cottard tries to commit suicide. When the plague takes a grip on the town, Grand joins the team of volunteers, acting as general secretary and recording the statistics. Rieux regards him as "the true embodiment of the quiet courage that inspired the sanitary groups." Grand catches the plague himself and asks Rieux to burn his manuscript, but then makes an unexpected recovery. At the end of the novel, Grand says he is much happier; he has written to Jeanne and made a fresh start on his book. - Cottard: Cottard lives in the same building as Grand. He does not appear to have a job and is described as having private means although he describes himself as "a traveling salesman in wines and spirits." Cottard is an eccentric figure, silent and secretive, who tries to hang himself in his room. He is anxious for Rieux not to report the incident, as he is under investigation by the authorities for an unstated crime. In an offhand reference to the plot of "The Outsider", Cottard reacts by a sudden exit from the tobacconist shop when she mentions an arrest in Algiers of a man for killing an Arab on a beach. <br>Cottard's personality changes after the outbreak of plague. Whereas he was aloof and mistrustful before, he now becomes agreeable and tries hard to make friends. He appears to relish the coming of the plague, and Tarrou thinks it is because he finds it easier to live with his own fears now that everyone else is in a state of fear, too. Cottard also avoids arrest by the police during the chaos caused by the plague. Cottard takes advantage of the crisis to make money by selling contraband cigarettes and inferior liquor.<br>As the quarantine of the city comes to an end, Cottard anticipates being arrested after life returns to normal. He experiences severe mood swings; sometimes he is sociable, but at other times, he shuts himself up in his room. On the day the city gates are reopened, he shoots at random at people on the street, wounding some and killing a dog. The police arrest him. - Father Paneloux: Father Paneloux is a learned, well-respected Jesuit priest. He is well known for having given a series of lectures in which he championed a pure form of Christian doctrine and chastised his audience about their laxity. During the first stage of the plague outbreak, Paneloux preaches a sermon at the cathedral. He has a powerful way of speaking, and he insists to the congregation that the plague is a scourge sent by God to those who have hardened their hearts against Him. However, Paneloux also claims that God is present to offer succour and hope. Later, Paneloux attends at the bedside of Othon's stricken son and prays that the boy may be spared. After the boy's death, Paneloux tells Rieux that although the death of an innocent child in a world ruled by a loving God cannot be rationally explained, it should nonetheless be accepted. Paneloux joins the team of volunteer workers and preaches another sermon saying that the death of the innocent child is a test of faith. Since God willed the child's death, so the Christian should will it, too. A few days after preaching this sermon, Paneloux is taken ill. He refuses to call for a doctor, trusting in God alone, and dies. Since his symptoms did not seem to resemble those of the plague, Rieux records his death as a "doubtful case." ==Minor characters== *The Narrator: the narrator presents himself at the outset of the book as witness to the events and privy to documents, but does not identify himself until the ending of the novel. - The Prefect: The Prefect believes at first that the talk of plague is a false alarm, but on the advice of his medical association, he authorizes limited measures to combat it. When they do not work, he attempts to avoid responsibility, saying he will ask the government for orders. He later takes responsibility for tightening up the regulations relating to the plague and issues the order to close the town. - Dr. Castel: Dr. Castel is one of Rieux's medical colleagues and is much older than Rieux. He realizes after the first few cases that the disease is bubonic plague and is aware of the seriousness of the situation. He works hard to make an antiplague serum, but as the epidemic continues, he shows increasing signs of wear and tear. - M. Othon: M. Othon is a magistrate in Oran. He is tall and thin and, as Tarrou observes in his journal, "his small, beady eyes, narrow nose, and hard, straight mouth make him look like a well-brought-up owl." Othon treats his wife and children unkindly, but after his son dies of the plague, his character softens. After he finishes his time at the isolation camp, where he is sent because his son is infected. He wants to return there because it would make him feel closer to his lost son. However, before Othon can do this, he contracts the plague and dies. - Jacques Othon: Philippe Othon is M. Othon's young son. When he contracts the plague, he is the first to receive Dr. Castel's antiplague serum. The serum is ineffective, and the boy dies after a long and painful struggle. - Mme. Rieux: Mme. Rieux is Dr. Rieux's mother, who comes to stay with him when his sick wife goes to the sanatorium. She is a serene woman who, after taking care of the housework, sits quietly in a chair. She says that at her age, there is nothing much left to fear. - Dr. Richard: Dr. Richard is chairman of the Oran Medical Association. He is slow to recommend any action to combat the plague for fear of public alarm. He does not want even to admit that the disease is the plague, referring instead to a "special type of fever." - M. Michel: M. Michel is the concierge of the building in which Rieux lives. An old man, he is the first victim of the plague. - Raoul: Raoul is the man who agrees, for a fee of ten thousand francs, to arrange for Rambert to escape. He introduces Rambert to Gonzales. - Gonzales: Gonzales is the smuggler who makes the arrangements for Rambert's escape and bonds with him over football. - Asthma Patient: the asthma patient receives regular visits from Dr. Rieux. He is a seventy-five-year-old Spaniard with a rugged face, who comments on events in Oran that he hears about on the radio and in the newspapers. He sits in his bed all day and measures the passing of time by putting peas from one jug into another. - Louis: Louis is one of the sentries who take part in the plan for Rambert to escape. - Marcel: Marcel, Louis's brother, is also a sentry who is part of the escape plan for Rambert. - Garcia: Garcia is a man who knows the group of smugglers in Oran. He introduces Rambert to Raoul. ==Plot summary== The book begins with an epigraph quoting Daniel Defoe, author of "A Journal of the Plague Year". ===Part One=== In the town of Oran, thousands of rats, initially unnoticed by the populace, begin to die in the streets. Hysteria develops soon afterward, causing the local newspapers to report the incident. Authorities responding to public pressure order the collection and cremation of the rats, unaware that the collection itself was the catalyst for the spread of the bubonic plague. The main character, Dr. Bernard Rieux, lives comfortably in an apartment building when strangely the building's concierge, M. Michel, a confidante, dies from a fever. Dr. Rieux consults his colleague, Dr. Castel, about the illness until they come to the conclusion that a plague is sweeping the town. They both approach fellow doctors and town authorities about their theory but are eventually dismissed on the basis of one death. However, as more deaths quickly ensue, it becomes apparent that there is an epidemic. Meanwhile, Rieux's wife has been sent to a sanatorium in another city, to be treated for an unrelated chronic illness. Authorities, including the Prefect, are slow to accept that the situation is serious and quibble over the appropriate action to take. Official notices enacting control measures are posted, but the language used is optimistic and downplays the seriousness of the situation. A "special ward" is opened at the hospital, but its 80 beds are filled within three days. As the death toll begins to rise, more desperate measures are taken. Homes are quarantined; corpses and burials are strictly supervised. A supply of plague serum finally arrives, but there is enough to treat only existing cases, and the country's emergency reserves are depleted. When the daily number of deaths jumps to 30, the town is sealed, and an outbreak of plague is officially declared. ===Part Two=== The town is sealed off. The town gates are shut, rail travel is prohibited, and all mail service is suspended. The use of telephone lines is restricted only to "urgent" calls, leaving short telegrams as the only means of communicating with friends or family outside the town. The separation affects daily activity and depresses the spirit of the townspeople, who begin to feel isolated and introverted, and the plague begins to affect various characters. One character, Raymond Rambert, devises a plan to escape the city to join his wife in Paris after city officials refused his request to leave. He befriends some underground criminals so that they may smuggle him out of the city. Another character, Father Paneloux, uses the plague as an opportunity to advance his stature in the town by suggesting that the plague was an act of God punishing the citizens' sinful nature. His diatribe falls on the ears of many citizens of the town, who turned to religion in droves, but would not have done so under normal circumstances. Cottard, a criminal remorseful enough to attempt suicide but fearful of being arrested, becomes wealthy as a major smuggler. Meanwhile, Jean Tarrou, a vacationer; Joseph Grand, a civil engineer; and Dr. Rieux, exhaustively treat patients in their homes and in the hospital. Rambert informs Tarrou of his escape plan, but when Tarrou tells him that there are others in the city, including Dr. Rieux, who have loved ones outside the city whom they are not allowed to see, Rambert becomes sympathetic and offers to help Rieux fight the epidemic until he leaves town. ===Part Three=== In mid-August, the situation continues to worsen. People try to escape the town, but some are shot by armed sentries. Violence and looting break out on a small scale, and the authorities respond by declaring martial law and imposing a curfew. Funerals are conducted with more speed, no ceremony and little concern for the feelings of the families of the deceased. The inhabitants passively endure their increasing feelings of exile and separation. Despondent, they waste away emotionally as well as physically. ===Part Four=== In September and October, the town remains at the mercy of the plague. Rieux hears from the sanatorium that his wife's condition is worsening. He also hardens his heart regarding the plague victims so that he can continue to do his work. Cottard, on the other hand, seems to flourish during the plague because it gives him a sense of being connected to others, since everybody faces the same danger. Cottard and Tarrou attend a performance of Gluck's opera "Orpheus and Eurydice", but the actor portraying Orpheus collapses with plague symptoms during the performance. After extended negotiations with guards, Rambert finally has a chance to escape, but he decides to stay, saying that he would feel ashamed of himself if he left. Towards the end of October, Castel's new antiplague serum is tried for the first time, but it cannot save the life of Othon's young son, who suffers greatly, as Paneloux, Rieux, and Tarrou tend to his bedside in horror. Paneloux, who has joined the group of volunteers fighting the plague, gives a second sermon. He addresses the problem of an innocent child's suffering and says it is a test of a Christian's faith since it requires him either to deny everything or believe everything. He urges the congregation not to give up the struggle but to do everything possible to fight the plague. A few days after the sermon, Paneloux is taken ill. His symptoms do not conform to those of the plague, but the disease still proves fatal. Tarrou and Rambert visit one of the isolation camps, where they meet Othon. When Othon's period of quarantine ends, he chooses to stay in the camp as a volunteer because this will make him feel less separated from his dead son. Tarrou tells Rieux the story of his life and, to take their mind off the epidemic, the two men go swimming together in the sea. Grand catches the plague and instructs Rieux to burn all his papers. However, Grand makes an unexpected recovery, and deaths from the plague start to decline. ===Part Five=== By late January, the plague is in full retreat, and the townspeople begin to celebrate the imminent opening of the town gates. Othon, however, does not escape death from the disease. Cottard is distressed by the ending of the epidemic from which he has profited by shady dealings. Two government employees approach him, and he flees. Despite the epidemic's ending, Tarrou contracts the plague and dies after a heroic struggle. Rieux is later informed via telegram that his wife has also died. In February, the town gates open and people are reunited with their loved ones from other cities. Rambert is reunited with his wife. Cottard goes mad and shoots at people from his home, and is soon arrested after a brief skirmish with the police. Grand begins working on his novel again. The narrator of the chronicle discloses his identity as Dr. Rieux and states that he tried to present an objective view of the events. He reflects on the epidemic and declares he wrote the chronicle "to simply say what we learn in the midst of plagues: there are more things to admire in men than to despise". ==Critical analysis== Germaine Brée has characterised the struggle of the characters against the plague as "undramatic and stubborn", and in contrast to the ideology of "glorification of power" in the novels of André Malraux, whereas Camus' characters "are obscurely engaged in saving, not destroying, and this in the name of no ideology". Lulu Haroutunian has discussed Camus' own medical history, including a bout with tuberculosis, and how it informs the novel. Marina Warner notes its larger philosophical themes of "engagement", "paltriness and generosity", "small heroism and large cowardice", and "all kinds of profoundly humanist problems, such as love and goodness, happiness and mutual connection". Thomas L Hanna and John Loose have separately discussed themes related to Christianity in the novel, with particular respect to Father Paneloux and Dr Rieux. Louis R Rossi briefly discusses the role of Tarrou in the novel, and the sense of philosophical guilt behind his character. Elwyn Sterling has analysed the role of Cottard and his final actions at the end of the novel. Father Paneloux has been subject to several literary analyses in the context of faith faced with great suffering. Dr Rieux has been described as a classic example of an idealist doctor. He has also been an inspiration to the life and career of the French doctor , and also to the fictional character of Jeanne Dion, starring in the movie trilogy directed by Bernard Émond (beginning with "The Novena"). Medically trained readers are sometimes upset that Dr. Rieux and Dr. Castel make no effort to get their patients sulfa drugs, which were available and known to be effective against plague. Instead the doctors waste time and effort attempting to obtain plague antiserum, which was much less effective and, in fact, was rapidly being abandoned during the 1940s. ==In the popular press== The novel has been read as an allegorical treatment of the French resistance to Nazi occupation during World War II. The novel became a bestseller during the worldwide COVID-19 pandemic of 2020 to the point that its British publisher Penguin Classics reported struggling to keep up with demand. The prescience of the fictional cordon sanitaire of Oran with real-life COVID-19 lockdowns worldwide brought revived popular attention. Sales in Italy tripled and it became a top-ten bestseller during its nationwide lockdown. Penguin Classics' editorial director said "it couldn’t be more relevant to the current moment" and Camus' daughter Catherine said that the message of the novel had newfound relevance in that "we are not responsible for coronavirus but we can be responsible in the way we respond to it". ==Adaptations== * 1965: "La Peste", a cantata composed by Roberto Gerhard - 1970 "Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow", a Hong Kong film directed by Patrick Lung - 1992: "La Peste", a film directed by Luis Puenzo - 2017: "The Plague", a play adapted by Neil Bartlett. Bartlett substitutes a black woman for the male doctor, Rieux, and a black man for Tarrou. - 2020: "The Plague", an adaptation for radio of Neil Bartlett's 2017 play. Premiered on 26 July on BBC Radio 4 during the COVID-19 pandemic. The play was recorded at home by actors during the quarantine period. With Sara Powell as Doctor Rieux, Billy Postlethwaite as Raymond Rambert, Joe Alessi as Mr Cottard, Jude Aduwudike as Jean Tarrou and Colin Hurley as Mr Grand. ==Publication history== As early as April 1941, Camus had been working on the novel, as evidenced in his diaries in which he wrote down a few ideas on "the redeeming plague". On 13 March 1942, he informed André Malraux that he was writing "a novel on the plague", adding "Said like that it might sound strange, […] but this subject seems so natural to me." - 1947, "La Peste" (French), Paris: Gallimard - 1948, translated by Stuart Gilbert, London: Hamish Hamilton - 1960, translated by Stuart Gilbert, London: Penguin, - 2001, translated by Robin Buss, London: Allen Lane, - 2021, translated by Laura Marris, New York: Knopf,

988

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=988

Applied ethics

Applied ethics is the practical aspect of moral considerations. It is ethics with respect to real-world actions and their moral considerations in private and public life, the professions, health, technology, law, and leadership. For example, bioethics is concerned with identifying the best approach to moral issues in the life sciences, such as euthanasia, the allocation of scarce health resources, or the use of human embryos in research. Environmental ethics is concerned with ecological issues such as the responsibility of government and corporations to clean up pollution. Business ethics includes the duties of whistleblowers to the public and to their employers. == History == Applied ethics has expanded the study of ethics beyond the realms of academic philosophical discourse. The field of applied ethics, as it appears today, emerged from debate surrounding rapid medical and technological advances in the early 1970s and is now established as a subdiscipline of moral philosophy. However, applied ethics is, by its very nature, a multi-professional subject because it requires specialist understanding of the potential ethical issues in fields like medicine, business or information technology. Nowadays, ethical codes of conduct exist in almost every profession. An applied ethics approach to the examination of moral dilemmas can take many different forms but one of the most influential and most widely utilised approaches in bioethics and health care ethics is the four-principle approach developed by Tom Beauchamp and James Childress. The four-principle approach, commonly termed principlism, entails consideration and application of four prima facie ethical principles: autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence, and justice. ==Underpinning theory== Applied ethics is distinguished from normative ethics, which concerns standards for right and wrong behavior, and from meta-ethics, which concerns the nature of ethical properties, statements, attitudes, and judgments. Whilst these three areas of ethics appear to be distinct, they are also interrelated. The use of an applied ethics approach often draws upon these normative ethical theories: - Consequentialist ethics, which hold that the rightness of acts depends only on their consequences. The paradigmatic consequentialist theory is Utilitarianism, which classically holds that whether an act is morally right depends on whether it maximizes net aggregated psychological wellbeing. This theory's main developments came from Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill who distinguished between Act and Rule utilitarianism. Notable later developments were made by Henry Sidgwick who introduced the significance of motive or intent, and R. M. Hare who introduced the significance of preference in utilitarian decision-making. Other forms of consequentialism include Prioritarianism. - Deontological ethics, which hold that acts have an inherent rightness or wrongness regardless of their context or consequences. This approach is epitomized by Immanuel Kant's notion of the categorical imperative, which was the centre of Kant's ethical theory based on duty. Another key deontological theory is natural law, which was heavily developed by Thomas Aquinas and is an important part of the Catholic Church's teaching on morals. Threshold deontology holds that rules ought to govern up to a point despite adverse consequences; but when the consequences become so dire that they cross a stipulated threshold, consequentialism takes over. - Virtue ethics, derived from Aristotle's and Confucius' notions, which asserts that the right action will be that chosen by a suitably 'virtuous' agent. Normative ethical theories can clash when trying to resolve real-world ethical dilemmas. One approach attempting to overcome the divide between consequentialism and deontology is case-based reasoning, also known as casuistry. Casuistry does not begin with theory, rather it starts with the immediate facts of a real and concrete case. While casuistry makes use of ethical theory, it does not view ethical theory as the most important feature of moral reasoning. Casuists, like Albert Jonsen and Stephen Toulmin ("The Abuse of Casuistry", 1988), challenge the traditional paradigm of applied ethics. Instead of starting from theory and applying theory to a particular case, casuists start with the particular case itself and then ask what morally significant features (including both theory and practical considerations) ought to be considered for that particular case. In their observations of medical ethics committees, Jonsen and Toulmin note that a consensus on particularly problematic moral cases often emerges when participants focus on the facts of the case, rather than on ideology or theory. Thus, a Rabbi, a Catholic priest, and an agnostic might agree that, in this particular case, the best approach is to withhold extraordinary medical care, while disagreeing on the reasons that support their individual positions. By focusing on cases and not on theory, those engaged in moral debate increase the possibility of agreement. Applied ethics was later distinguished from the nascent applied epistemology, which is also under the umbrella of applied philosophy. While the former was concerned with the practical application of moral considerations, the latter focuses on the application of epistemology in solving practical problems.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=991

Absolute value

In mathematics, the absolute value or modulus of a real number formula_1, is the non-negative value without regard to its sign. Namely, formula_2 if formula_1 is a positive number, and formula_4 if formula_1 is negative (in which case negating formula_1 makes formula_7 positive), and For example, the absolute value of 3 and the absolute value of −3 is The absolute value of a number may be thought of as its distance from zero. Generalisations of the absolute value for real numbers occur in a wide variety of mathematical settings. For example, an absolute value is also defined for the complex numbers, the quaternions, ordered rings, fields and vector spaces. The absolute value is closely related to the notions of magnitude, distance, and norm in various mathematical and physical contexts. ==Terminology and notation== In 1806, Jean-Robert Argand introduced the term "module", meaning "unit of measure" in French, specifically for the "complex" absolute value, and it was borrowed into English in 1866 as the Latin equivalent "modulus". The term "absolute value" has been used in this sense from at least 1806 in French and 1857 in English. The notation , with a vertical bar on each side, was introduced by Karl Weierstrass in 1841. Other names for "absolute value" include "numerical value" and "magnitude". In programming languages and computational software packages, the absolute value of formula_8 is generally represented by codice_1, or a similar expression. The vertical bar notation also appears in a number of other mathematical contexts: for example, when applied to a set, it denotes its cardinality; when applied to a matrix, it denotes its determinant. Vertical bars denote the absolute value only for algebraic objects for which the notion of an absolute value is defined, notably an element of a normed division algebra, for example a real number, a complex number, or a quaternion. A closely related but distinct notation is the use of vertical bars for either the Euclidean norm or sup norm of a vector although double vertical bars with subscripts respectively) are a more common and less ambiguous notation. ==Definition and properties== ===Real numbers=== For any the absolute value or modulus is denoted , with a vertical bar on each side of the quantity, and is defined as formula_9 The absolute value is thus always either a positive number or zero, but never negative. When formula_1 itself is negative then its absolute value is necessarily positive From an analytic geometry point of view, the absolute value of a real number is that number's distance from zero along the real number line, and more generally the absolute value of the difference of two real numbers (their absolute difference) is the distance between them. The notion of an abstract distance function in mathematics can be seen to be a generalisation of the absolute value of the difference (see "Distance" below). Since the square root symbol represents the unique "positive" square root, when applied to a positive number, it follows that formula_11 This is equivalent to the definition above, and may be used as an alternative definition of the absolute value of real numbers. The absolute value has the following four fundamental properties (formula_12, formula_13 are real numbers), that are used for generalization of this notion to other domains: Non-negativity, positive definiteness, and multiplicativity are readily apparent from the definition. To see that subadditivity holds, first note that formula_14 with its sign chosen to make the result positive. Now, since formula_15 it follows that, whichever of formula_16 is the value one has formula_17 for all Consequently, formula_18, as desired. Some additional useful properties are given below. These are either immediate consequences of the definition or implied by the four fundamental properties above. Two other useful properties concerning inequalities are: These relations may be used to solve inequalities involving absolute values. For example: The absolute value, as "distance from zero", is used to define the absolute difference between arbitrary real numbers, the standard metric on the real numbers. ===Complex numbers=== Since the complex numbers are not ordered, the definition given at the top for the real absolute value cannot be directly applied to complex numbers. However, the geometric interpretation of the absolute value of a real number as its distance from 0 can be generalised. The absolute value of a complex number is defined by the Euclidean distance of its corresponding point in the complex plane from the origin. This can be computed using the Pythagorean theorem: for any complex number formula_19 where formula_1 and formula_21 are real numbers, the absolute value or modulus is and is defined by formula_22 the Pythagorean addition of formula_1 and formula_21, where formula_25 and formula_26 denote the real and imaginary parts respectively. When the is zero, this coincides with the definition of the absolute value of the When a complex number formula_27 is expressed in its polar form its absolute value Since the product of any complex number formula_27 and its with the same absolute value, is always the non-negative real number the absolute value of a complex number formula_27 is the square root which is therefore called the absolute square or "squared modulus" formula_30 This generalizes the alternative definition for reals: The complex absolute value shares the four fundamental properties given above for the real absolute value. The identity formula_31 is a special case of multiplicativity that is often useful by itself. ==Absolute value function== The real absolute value function is continuous everywhere. It is differentiable everywhere except for . It is monotonically decreasing on the interval and monotonically increasing on the interval . Since a real number and its opposite have the same absolute value, it is an even function, and is hence not invertible. The real absolute value function is a piecewise linear, convex function. For both real and complex numbers the absolute value function is idempotent (meaning that the absolute value of any absolute value is itself). ===Relationship to the sign function=== The absolute value function of a real number returns its value irrespective of its sign, whereas the sign (or signum) function returns a number's sign irrespective of its value. The following equations show the relationship between these two functions: formula_32 or formula_33 and for , formula_34 ===Relationship to the max and min functions=== Let formula_35, then formula_36 and formula_37 ===Derivative=== The real absolute value function has a derivative for every , but is not differentiable at . Its derivative for is given by the step function: formula_38 The real absolute value function is an example of a continuous function that achieves a global minimum where the derivative does not exist. The subdifferential of  at  is the interval . The complex absolute value function is continuous everywhere but complex differentiable "nowhere" because it violates the Cauchy–Riemann equations. The second derivative of  with respect to  is zero everywhere except zero, where it does not exist. As a generalised function, the second derivative may be taken as two times the Dirac delta function. ===Antiderivative=== The antiderivative (indefinite integral) of the real absolute value function is formula_39 where is an arbitrary constant of integration. This is not a complex antiderivative because complex antiderivatives can only exist for complex-differentiable (holomorphic) functions, which the complex absolute value function is not. === Derivatives of compositions === The following two formulae are special cases of the chain rule: formula_40 if the absolute value is inside a function, and formula_41 if another function is inside the absolute value. In the first case, the derivative is always discontinuous at formula_42 in the first case and where formula_43 in the second case. ==Distance== The absolute value is closely related to the idea of distance. As noted above, the absolute value of a real or complex number is the distance from that number to the origin, along the real number line, for real numbers, or in the complex plane, for complex numbers, and more generally, the absolute value of the difference of two real or complex numbers is the distance between them. The standard Euclidean distance between two points formula_44 and formula_45 in Euclidean -space is defined as: formula_46 This can be seen as a generalisation, since for formula_47 and formula_48 real, i.e. in a 1-space, according to the alternative definition of the absolute value, formula_49 and for formula_50 and formula_51 complex numbers, i.e. in a 2-space, The above shows that the "absolute value"-distance, for real and complex numbers, agrees with the standard Euclidean distance, which they inherit as a result of considering them as one and two-dimensional Euclidean spaces, respectively. The properties of the absolute value of the difference of two real or complex numbers: non-negativity, identity of indiscernibles, symmetry and the triangle inequality given above, can be seen to motivate the more general notion of a distance function as follows: A real valued function on a set is called a metric (or a "distance function") on , if it satisfies the following four axioms: ==Generalizations== ===Ordered rings=== The definition of absolute value given for real numbers above can be extended to any ordered ring. That is, if  is an element of an ordered ring "R", then the absolute value of , denoted by , is defined to be: formula_52 where is the additive inverse of , 0 is the additive identity, and < and ≥ have the usual meaning with respect to the ordering in the ring. ===Fields=== The four fundamental properties of the absolute value for real numbers can be used to generalise the notion of absolute value to an arbitrary field, as follows. A real-valued function  on a field  is called an "absolute value" (also a "modulus", "magnitude", "value", or "valuation") if it satisfies the following four axioms: Where 0 denotes the additive identity of . It follows from positive-definiteness and multiplicativity that , where 1 denotes the multiplicative identity of . The real and complex absolute values defined above are examples of absolute values for an arbitrary field. If is an absolute value on , then the function  on , defined by , is a metric and the following are equivalent: - satisfies the ultrametric inequality formula_53 for all , , in . - formula_54 is bounded in R. - formula_55 for every formula_56. - formula_57 for all formula_58. - formula_59 for all formula_60. An absolute value which satisfies any (hence all) of the above conditions is said to be non-Archimedean, otherwise it is said to be Archimedean. ===Vector spaces=== Again the fundamental properties of the absolute value for real numbers can be used, with a slight modification, to generalise the notion to an arbitrary vector space. A real-valued function on a vector space  over a field , represented as , is called an absolute value, but more usually a norm, if it satisfies the following axioms: For all  in , and , in , The norm of a vector is also called its "length" or "magnitude". In the case of Euclidean space formula_61, the function defined by formula_62 is a norm called the Euclidean norm. When the real numbers formula_63 are considered as the one-dimensional vector space formula_64, the absolute value is a norm, and is the -norm (see Lp space) for any . In fact the absolute value is the "only" norm on formula_64, in the sense that, for every norm on formula_64, . The complex absolute value is a special case of the norm in an inner product space, which is identical to the Euclidean norm when the complex plane is identified as the Euclidean plane formula_67. ===Composition algebras=== Every composition algebra "A" has an involution "x" → "x"* called its conjugation. The product in "A" of an element "x" and its conjugate "x"* is written "N"("x") = "x x"* and called the norm of x. The real numbers formula_63, complex numbers formula_69, and quaternions formula_70 are all composition algebras with norms given by definite quadratic forms. The absolute value in these division algebras is given by the square root of the composition algebra norm. In general the norm of a composition algebra may be a quadratic form that is not definite and has null vectors. However, as in the case of division algebras, when an element "x" has a non-zero norm, then "x" has a multiplicative inverse given by "x"*/"N"("x").

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=993

Analog signal

An analog signal is any continuous-time signal representing some other quantity, i.e., "analogous" to another quantity. For example, in an analog audio signal, the instantaneous signal voltage varies continuously with the pressure of the sound waves. In contrast, a digital signal represents the original time-varying quantity as a sampled sequence of quantized values. Digital sampling imposes some bandwidth and dynamic range constraints on the representation and adds quantization error. The term "analog signal" usually refers to electrical signals; however, mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and other systems may also convey or be considered analog signals. ==Representation== An analog signal uses some property of the medium to convey the signal's information. For example, an aneroid barometer uses rotary position as the signal to convey pressure information. In an electrical signal, the voltage, current, or frequency of the signal may be varied to represent the information. Any information may be conveyed by an analog signal; such a signal may be a measured response to changes in a physical variable, such as sound, light, temperature, position, or pressure. The physical variable is converted to an analog signal by a transducer. For example, sound striking the diaphragm of a microphone induces corresponding fluctuations in the current produced by a coil in an electromagnetic microphone or the voltage produced by a condenser microphone. The voltage or the current is said to be an "analog" of the sound. ==Noise== An analog signal is subject to electronic noise and distortion introduced by communication channels, recording and signal processing operations, which can progressively degrade the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). As the signal is transmitted, copied, or processed, the unavoidable noise introduced in the signal path will accumulate as a generation loss, progressively and irreversibly degrading the SNR, until in extreme cases, the signal can be overwhelmed. Noise can show up as hiss and intermodulation distortion in audio signals, or snow in video signals. Generation loss is irreversible as there is no reliable method to distinguish the noise from the signal. Converting an analog signal to digital form introduces a low-level quantization noise into the signal due to finite resolution of digital systems. Once in digital form, the signal can be transmitted, stored, and processed without introducing additional noise or distortion using error detection and correction. Noise accumulation in analog systems can be minimized by electromagnetic shielding, balanced lines, low-noise amplifiers and high-quality electrical components.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=994

Arecales

Arecales is an order of flowering plants. The order has been widely recognised only for the past few decades; until then, the accepted name for the order including these plants was Principes. ==Taxonomy== The APG IV system of 2016 places Dasypogonaceae in this order, after studies showing Dasypogonaceae as sister to Arecaceae. However, this decision has been called into question. === Historical taxonomical systems === The Cronquist system of 1981 assigned the order to the subclass Arecidae in the class Liliopsida (= monocotyledons). The Thorne system (1992) and the Dahlgren system assigned the order to the superorder Areciflorae, also called Arecanae in the subclass Liliidae (= monocotyledons), with the single family Arecaceae. The APG II system of 2003 recognised the order and placed it in the clade commelinids in the monocots and uses this circumscription: - order Arecales - : family Arecaceae, alternative name Palmae This was unchanged from the APG system of 1998, although it used the spelling "commelinoids" instead of commelinids. ==== Principes ==== In plant taxonomy, Principes is a botanical name, meaning "the first". It was used in the Engler system for an order in the "Monocotyledones" and later in the Kubitzki system. This order included one family only, the "Palmae" (alternate name "Arecaceae"). As the rules for botanical nomenclature provide for the use of such descriptive botanical names above the rank of family it is quite allowed to use this name even today, but in practice most systems prefer the name Arecales. Following this, "Principes" became the name of the journal of the International Palm Society, becoming "Palms" in 1999.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1000

Hercule Poirot

Hercule Poirot (, ) is a fictional Belgian detective created by British writer Agatha Christie. Poirot is one of Christie's most famous and long-running characters, appearing in 33 novels, two plays ("Black Coffee" and "Alibi"), and 51 short stories published between 1920 and 1975. Poirot has been portrayed on radio, in film and on television by various actors, including Austin Trevor, John Moffatt, Albert Finney, Peter Ustinov, Ian Holm, Tony Randall, Alfred Molina, Orson Welles, David Suchet, Kenneth Branagh, and John Malkovich. == Overview == === Influences === Poirot's name was derived from two other fictional detectives of the time: Marie Belloc Lowndes' Hercule Popeau and Frank Howel Evans' Monsieur Poiret, a retired French police officer living in London. Evans' Jules Poiret "was small and rather heavyset, hardly more than five feet, but moved with his head held high. The most remarkable features of his head were the stiff military moustache. His apparel was neat to perfection, a little quaint and frankly dandified." He was accompanied by Captain Harry Haven, who had returned to London from a Colombian business venture ended by a civil war. A more obvious influence on the early Poirot stories is that of Arthur Conan Doyle. In "An Autobiography", Christie states, "I was still writing in the Sherlock Holmes tradition – eccentric detective, stooge assistant, with a Lestrade-type Scotland Yard detective, Inspector Japp". Conan Doyle acknowledged basing his detective stories on the model of Edgar Allan Poe's C. Auguste Dupin and his anonymous narrator, and basing his character Sherlock Holmes on Joseph Bell, who in his use of "ratiocination" prefigured Poirot's reliance on his "little grey cells". Poirot also bears a striking resemblance to A. E. W. Mason's fictional detective Inspector Hanaud of the French Sûreté, who first appeared in the 1910 novel "At the Villa Rose" and predates the first Poirot novel by 10 years. Christie's Poirot was clearly the result of her early development of the detective in her first book, written in 1916 and published in 1920. The large number of refugees in the country who had fled the German invasion of Belgium in August to November 1914 served as a plausible explanation of why such a skilled detective would be available to solve mysteries at an English country house. At the time of Christie's writing, it was considered patriotic to express sympathy towards the Belgians, since the invasion of their country had constituted Britain's "casus belli" for entering World War I, and British wartime propaganda emphasised the "Rape of Belgium". === Popularity === Poirot first appeared in "The Mysterious Affair at Styles", published in 1920, and exited in "Curtain", published in 1975. Following the latter, Poirot was the only fictional character to receive an obituary on the front page of "The New York Times". By 1930, Agatha Christie found Poirot "insufferable", and by 1960 she felt that he was a "detestable, bombastic, tiresome, ego-centric little creep". Despite this, Poirot remained an exceedingly popular character with the general public. Christie later stated that she refused to kill him off, claiming that it was her duty to produce what the public liked. === Appearance and proclivities === Captain Arthur Hastings's first description of Poirot: Agatha Christie's initial description of Poirot in "Murder on the Orient Express": In the later books, his limp is not mentioned, suggesting it may have been a temporary wartime injury. (In "", Poirot admits he was wounded when he first came to England.) Poirot has green eyes that are repeatedly described as shining "like a cat's" when he is struck by a clever idea, and dark hair, which he dyes later in life. In "Curtain", he admits to Hastings that he wears a wig and a false moustache. However, in many of his screen incarnations, he is bald or balding. Frequent mention is made of his patent leather shoes, damage to which is frequently a source of misery for him, but comical for the reader. Poirot's appearance, regarded as fastidious during his early career, later falls hopelessly out of fashion. Among Poirot's most significant personal attributes is the sensitivity of his stomach: He suffers from sea sickness, and, in "Death in the Clouds", he states that his air sickness prevents him from being more alert at the time of the murder. Later in his life, we are told: Poirot is extremely punctual and carries a pocket watch almost to the end of his career. He is also particular about his personal finances, preferring to keep a bank balance of 444 pounds, 4 shillings, and 4 pence. Actor David Suchet, who portrayed Poirot on television, said "there's no question he's obsessive-compulsive". Film portrayer Kenneth Branagh said that he "enjoyed finding the sort of obsessive-compulsive" in Poirot. As mentioned in "Curtain" and "The Clocks", he is fond of classical music, particularly Mozart and Bach. === Methods === In "The Mysterious Affair at Styles", Poirot operates as a fairly conventional, clue-based and logical detective; reflected in his vocabulary by two common phrases: his use of "the little grey cells" and "order and method". Hastings is irritated by the fact that Poirot sometimes conceals important details of his plans, as in "The Big Four". In this novel, Hastings is kept in the dark throughout the climax. This aspect of Poirot is less evident in the later novels, partly because there is rarely a narrator to mislead. In "Murder on the Links," still largely dependent on clues himself, Poirot mocks a rival "bloodhound" detective who focuses on the traditional trail of clues established in detective fiction (e.g., Sherlock Holmes depending on footprints, fingerprints, and cigar ash). From this point on, Poirot establishes his psychological bona fides. Rather than painstakingly examining crime scenes, he enquires into the nature of the victim or the psychology of the murderer. He predicates his actions in the later novels on his underlying assumption that particular crimes are committed by particular types of people. Poirot focuses on getting people to talk. In the early novels, he casts himself in the role of "Papa Poirot", a benign confessor, especially to young women. In later works, Christie made a point of having Poirot supply false or misleading information about himself or his background to assist him in obtaining information. In "The Murder of Roger Ackroyd", Poirot speaks of a non-existent mentally disabled nephew to uncover information about homes for the mentally unfit. In "Dumb Witness", Poirot invents an elderly invalid mother as a pretence to investigate local nurses. In "The Big Four", Poirot pretends to have (and poses as) an identical twin brother named Achille: however, this brother was mentioned again in "The Labours of Hercules". "If I remember rightly – though my memory isn't what it was – you also had a brother called Achille, did you not?" Poirot's mind raced back over the details of Achille Poirot's career. Had all that really happened? "Only for a short space of time," he replied. Poirot is also willing to appear more foreign or vain in an effort to make people underestimate him. He admits as much: It is true that I can speak the exact, the idiomatic English. But, my friend, to speak the broken English is an enormous asset. It leads people to despise you. They say – a foreigner – he can't even speak English properly. ... Also I boast! An Englishman he says often, "A fellow who thinks as much of himself as that cannot be worth much." ... And so, you see, I put people off their guard. He also has a tendency to refer to himself in the third person. In later novels, Christie often uses the word "mountebank" when characters describe Poirot, showing that he has successfully passed himself off as a charlatan or fraud. Poirot's investigating techniques assist him solving cases; "For in the long run, either through a lie, or through truth, people were bound to give themselves away..." At the end, Poirot usually reveals his description of the sequence of events and his deductions to a room of suspects, often leading to the culprit's apprehension. == Life == ===Origins=== Christie was purposely vague about Poirot's origins, as he is thought to be an elderly man even in the early novels. In "An Autobiography," she admitted that she already imagined him to be an old man in 1920. At the time, however, she did not know that she would write works featuring him for decades to come. A brief passage in "The Big Four" provides original information about Poirot's birth or at least childhood in or near the town of Spa, Belgium: "But we did not go into Spa itself. We left the main road and wound into the leafy fastnesses of the hills, till we reached a little hamlet and an isolated white villa high on the hillside." Christie strongly implies that this "quiet retreat in the Ardennes" near Spa is the location of the Poirot family home. An alternative tradition holds that Poirot was born in the village of Ellezelles (province of Hainaut, Belgium). A few memorials dedicated to Hercule Poirot can be seen in the centre of this village. There appears to be no reference to this in Christie's writings, but the town of Ellezelles cherishes a copy of Poirot's birth certificate in a local memorial 'attesting' Poirot's birth, naming his father and mother as Jules-Louis Poirot and Godelieve Poirot. Christie wrote that Poirot is a Catholic by birth, but not much is described about his later religious convictions, except sporadic references to his "going to church" and occasional invocations of "le bon Dieu". Christie provides little information regarding Poirot's childhood, only mentioning in "Three Act Tragedy" that he comes from a large family with little wealth, and has at least one younger sister. Apart from French and English, Poirot is also fluent in German. === Policeman === Gustave ... was not a policeman. I have dealt with policemen all my life and I "know". He could pass as a detective to an outsider but not to a man who was a policeman himself. — Hercule Poirot Hercule Poirot was active in the Brussels police force by 1893. Very little mention is made about this part of his life, but in "The Nemean Lion" (1939) Poirot refers to a Belgian case of his in which "a wealthy soap manufacturer ... poisoned his wife in order to be free to marry his secretary". As Poirot was often misleading about his past to gain information, the truthfulness of that statement is unknown; it does, however, scare off a would-be wife-killer. In the short story "The Chocolate Box" (1923), Poirot reveals to Captain Arthur Hastings an account of what he considers to be his only failure. Poirot admits that he has failed to solve a crime "innumerable" times: I have been called in too late. Very often another, working towards the same goal, has arrived there first. Twice I have been struck down with illness just as I was on the point of success. Nevertheless, he regards the 1893 case in "The Chocolate Box", as his only failure through his fault only. Again, Poirot is not reliable as a narrator of his personal history and there is no evidence that Christie sketched it out in any depth. During his police career, Poirot shot a man who was firing from a roof into the public below. In "Lord Edgware Dies", Poirot reveals that he learned to read writing upside down during his police career. Around that time he met Xavier Bouc, director of the Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits. Inspector Japp offers some insight into Poirot's career with the Belgian police when introducing him to a colleague: You've heard me speak of Mr Poirot? It was in 1904 he and I worked together – the Abercrombie forgery case – you remember he was run down in Brussels. Ah, those were the days Moosier. Then, do you remember "Baron" Altara? There was a pretty rogue for you! He eluded the clutches of half the police in Europe. But we nailed him in Antwerp – thanks to Mr. Poirot here. In "The Double Clue," Poirot mentions that he was Chief of Police of Brussels, until "the Great War" (World War I) forced him to leave for England. === Private detective === I had called in at my friend Poirot's rooms to find him sadly overworked. So much had he become the rage that every rich woman who had mislaid a bracelet or lost a pet kitten rushed to secure the services of the great Hercule Poirot. During World War I, Poirot left Belgium for England as a refugee, although he returned a few times. On 16 July 1916 he again met his lifelong friend, Captain Arthur Hastings, and solved the first of his cases to be published, "The Mysterious Affair at Styles". It is clear that Hastings and Poirot are already friends when they meet in Chapter 2 of the novel, as Hastings tells Cynthia that he has not seen him for "some years". "Agatha Christie's Poirot" has Hastings reveal that they met on a shooting case where Hastings was a suspect. Particulars such as the date of 1916 for the case and that Hastings had met Poirot in Belgium, are given in "Curtain", Chapter 1. After that case, Poirot apparently came to the attention of the British secret service and undertook cases for the British government, including foiling the attempted abduction of the Prime Minister. Readers were told that the British authorities had learned of Poirot's keen investigative ability from certain members of Belgium's royal family. After the war, Poirot became a private detective and began undertaking civilian cases. He moved into what became both his home and work address, Flat 203 at 56B Whitehaven Mansions. Hastings first visits the flat when he returns to England in June 1935 from Argentina in "The A.B.C. Murders", Chapter 1. The TV programmes place this in Florin Court, Charterhouse Square, in the wrong part of London. According to Hastings, it was chosen by Poirot "entirely on account of its strict geometrical appearance and proportion" and described as the "newest type of service flat". The Florin Court building was actually built in 1936, decades after Poirot fictionally moved in. His first case in this period was "The Affair at the Victory Ball", which allowed Poirot to enter high society and begin his career as a private detective. Between the world wars, Poirot travelled all over Europe and the Middle East investigating crimes and solving murders. Most of his cases occurred during this time, and he was at the height of his powers at this point in his life. In "The Murder on the Links", the Belgian pits his grey cells against a French murderer. In the Middle East, he solved the cases "Death on the Nile" and "Murder in Mesopotamia" with ease, and even survived "An Appointment with Death". As he passed through Eastern Europe on his return trip, he solved "The Murder on the Orient Express". He did not travel to Africa or Asia, probably to avoid seasickness. It is this villainous sea that troubles me! The "mal de mer" – it is horrible suffering! It was during this time he met the Countess Vera Rossakoff, a glamorous jewel thief. The history of the countess is, like Poirot's, steeped in mystery. She claims to have been a member of the Russian aristocracy before the Russian Revolution and suffered greatly as a result, but how much of that story is true is an open question. Even Poirot acknowledges that Rossakoff offered wildly varying accounts of her early life. Poirot later became smitten with the woman and allowed her to escape justice. It is the misfortune of small, precise men always to hanker after large and flamboyant women. Poirot had never been able to rid himself of the fatal fascination that the countess held for him. Although letting the countess escape was morally questionable, it was not uncommon. In "The Nemean Lion", Poirot sided with the criminal, Miss Amy Carnaby, allowing her to evade prosecution by blackmailing his client Sir Joseph Hoggins, who, Poirot discovered, had plans to commit murder. Poirot even sent Miss Carnaby two hundred pounds as a final payoff prior to the conclusion of her dog kidnapping campaign. In "The Murder of Roger Ackroyd", Poirot allowed the murderer to escape justice through suicide and then withheld the truth to spare the feelings of the murderer's relatives. In "The Augean Stables", he helped the government to cover up vast corruption. In "Murder on the Orient Express", Poirot allowed the murderers to go free after discovering that twelve different people participated in the murder, each one stabbing the victim in a darkened carriage, after drugging him into unconsciousness so that there was no way for anyone to definitively determine which of them actually delivered the killing blow. The victim had committed a disgusting crime which led to the deaths of at least five people, and there was no question of his guilt, but he had been acquitted in America in a miscarriage of justice. Considering it poetic justice that twelve jurors had acquitted him and twelve people had stabbed him, Poirot produced an alternative sequence of events to explain the death involving an unknown additional passenger on the train, with the medical examiner agreeing to doctor his own report to support this theory. After his cases in the Middle East, Poirot returned to Britain. Apart from some of the so-called Labours of Hercules (see next section) he very rarely went abroad during his later career. He moved into Styles Court towards the end of his life. While Poirot was usually paid handsomely by clients, he was also known to take on cases that piqued his curiosity, although they did not pay well. Poirot shows a love of steam trains, which Christie contrasts with Hastings' love of autos: this is shown in "The Plymouth Express", "The Mystery of the Blue Train", "Murder on the Orient Express", and "The ABC Murders". In the TV series, steam trains are seen in nearly all of the episodes. === Retirement === That's the way of it. Just a case or two, just one case more – the Prima Donna's farewell performance won't be in it with yours, Poirot. Confusion surrounds Poirot's retirement. Most of the cases covered by Poirot's private detective agency take place before his retirement to attempt to grow larger marrows, at which time he solves "The Murder of Roger Ackroyd". It has been said that the twelve cases related in "The Labours of Hercules" (1947) must refer to a different retirement, but the fact that Poirot specifically says that he intends to grow marrows indicates that these stories also take place before "Roger Ackroyd", and presumably Poirot closed his agency once he had completed them. There is specific mention in "The Capture of Cerberus" of the twenty-year gap between Poirot's previous meeting with Countess Rossakoff and this one. If the "Labours" precede the events in "Roger Ackroyd", then the Ackroyd case must have taken place around twenty years "later" than it was published, and so must any of the cases that refer to it. One alternative would be that having failed to grow marrows once, Poirot is determined to have another go, but this is specifically denied by Poirot himself. In "The Erymanthian Boar", a character is said to have been turned out of Austria by the Nazis, implying that the events of "The Labours of Hercules" took place after 1937. Another alternative would be to suggest that the Preface to the "Labours" takes place at one date but that the labours are completed over a matter of twenty years. None of the explanations is especially attractive. In terms of a rudimentary chronology, Poirot speaks of retiring to grow marrows in Chapter 18 of "The Big Four" (1927) which places that novel out of published order before "Roger Ackroyd". He declines to solve a case for the Home Secretary because he is retired in Chapter One of "Peril at End House" (1932). He has certainly retired at the time of "Three Act Tragedy" (1935) but he does not enjoy his retirement and repeatedly takes cases thereafter when his curiosity is engaged. He continues to employ his secretary, Miss Lemon, at the time of the cases retold in "Hickory Dickory Dock" and "Dead Man's Folly", which take place in the mid-1950s. It is, therefore, better to assume that Christie provided no authoritative chronology for Poirot's retirement but assumed that he could either be an active detective, a consulting detective, or a retired detective as the needs of the immediate case required. One consistent element about Poirot's retirement is that his fame declines during it, so that in the later novels he is often disappointed when characters, especially younger characters, recognise neither him nor his name: "I should, perhaps, Madame, tell you a little more about myself. I am "Hercule Poirot"." The revelation left Mrs Summerhayes unmoved. "What a lovely name," she said kindly. "Greek, isn't it?" === Post–World War II === Poirot is less active during the cases that take place at the end of his career. Beginning with "Three Act Tragedy" (1934), Christie had perfected during the inter-war years a subgenre of Poirot novel in which the detective himself spent much of the first third of the novel on the periphery of events. In novels such as "Taken at the Flood", "After the Funeral", and "Hickory Dickory Dock", he is even less in evidence, frequently passing the duties of main interviewing detective to a subsidiary character. In "Cat Among the Pigeons", Poirot's entrance is so late as to be almost an afterthought. Whether this was a reflection of his age or of Christie's distaste for him, is impossible to assess. "Crooked House" (1949) and "Ordeal by Innocence" (1957), which could easily have been Poirot novels, represent a logical endpoint of the general diminution of his presence in such works. Towards the end of his career, it becomes clear that Poirot's retirement is no longer a convenient fiction. He assumes a genuinely inactive lifestyle during which he concerns himself with studying famous unsolved cases of the past and reading detective novels. He even writes a book about mystery fiction in which he deals sternly with Edgar Allan Poe and Wilkie Collins. In the absence of a more appropriate puzzle, he solves such inconsequential domestic riddles as the presence of three pieces of orange peel in his umbrella stand. Poirot, and, it is reasonable to suppose, his creator becomes increasingly bemused by the vulgarism of the up-and-coming generation's young people. In "Hickory Dickory Dock", he investigates the strange goings-on in a student hostel, while in "Third Girl" (1966) he is forced into contact with the smart set of Chelsea youths. In the growing drug and pop culture of the sixties, he proves himself once again but has become heavily reliant on other investigators, especially the private investigator, Mr. Goby, who provide him with the clues that he can no longer gather for himself. Notably, during this time his physical characteristics also change dramatically, and by the time Arthur Hastings meets Poirot again in "Curtain", he looks very different from his previous appearances, having become thin with age and with obviously dyed hair. === Death === On the ITV television series, Poirot died in October 1949 from complications of a heart condition at the end of "". This took place at Styles Court, the scene of his first English case in 1916. In Christie's novels, he lived into the early 1970s, perhaps even until 1975 when "Curtain" was published. In "Curtain", Poirot himself became a murderer, in order to prevent further murders instigated by a man who manipulated others to kill for him, subtly and psychologically manipulating the moments where others desire to commit murder so that they carry out the crime when they might otherwise dismiss their thoughts as nothing more than a momentary passion. Poirot executed the man, as otherwise he would have continued his actions and never been convicted. Poirot himself died shortly after having committed murder. He had moved his amyl nitrite pills out of his own reach, possibly because of guilt. Poirot himself noted that he wanted to kill his victim shortly before his own death so that he could avoid succumbing to the arrogance of the murderer, concerned that he might come to view himself as entitled to kill those whom he deemed necessary to eliminate. It is revealed at the end of "Curtain" that he fakes his need for a wheelchair to fool people into believing that he is suffering from arthritis, to give the impression that he is more infirm than he is. His last recorded words are "Cher ami!", spoken to Hastings as the Captain left his room. The TV adaptation adds that as Poirot is dying alone, he whispers out his final prayer to God in these words: "Forgive me... forgive...". Poirot was buried at Styles, and his funeral was arranged by his best friend Hastings and Hastings' daughter Judith. Hastings reasoned, "Here was the spot where he had lived when he first came to this country. He was to lie here at the last." Poirot's actual death and funeral occurred in "Curtain", years after his retirement from the active investigation, but it was not the first time that Hastings attended the funeral of his best friend. In "The Big Four" (1927), Poirot feigned his death and subsequent funeral to launch a surprise attack on the Big Four. == Recurring characters == === Captain Arthur Hastings === Hastings, a former British Army officer, meets Poirot during Poirot's years as a police officer in Belgium and almost immediately after they both arrive in England. He becomes Poirot's lifelong friend and appears in many cases. Poirot regards Hastings as a poor private detective, not particularly intelligent, yet helpful in his way of being fooled by the criminal or seeing things the way the average man would see them and for his tendency to unknowingly "stumble" onto the truth. Hastings marries and has four children – two sons and two daughters. As a loyal, albeit somewhat naïve companion, Hastings is to Poirot what Watson is to Sherlock Holmes. Hastings is capable of great bravery and courage, facing death unflinchingly when confronted by "The Big Four" and displaying unwavering loyalty towards Poirot. However, when forced to choose between Poirot and his wife in that novel, he initially chooses to betray Poirot to protect his wife. Later, though, he tells Poirot to draw back and escape the trap. The two are an airtight team until Hastings meets and marries Dulcie Duveen, a beautiful music hall performer half his age, after investigating the "Murder on the Links". They later emigrated to Argentina, leaving Poirot behind as a "very unhappy old man". Poirot and Hastings reunite during the novels "The Big Four", "Peril at End House", "The ABC Murders", "Lord Edgware Dies", and "Dumb Witness," when Hastings arrives in England for business, with Poirot noting in "ABC Murders" that he enjoys having Hastings over because he feels that he always has his most interesting cases with Hastings. The two collaborate for the final time in "Curtain" when the seemingly-crippled Poirot asks Hastings to assist him in his final case. When the killer they are tracking nearly manipulates Hastings into committing murder, Poirot describes this in his final farewell letter to Hastings as the catalyst that prompted him to eliminate the man himself, as Poirot "knew" that his friend was not a murderer and refused to let a man capable of manipulating Hastings in such a manner go on. === Mrs Ariadne Oliver === Detective novelist Ariadne Oliver is Agatha Christie's humorous self-caricature. Like Christie, she is not overly fond of the detective whom she is most famous for creating–in Ariadne's case, Finnish sleuth Sven Hjerson. We never learn anything about her husband, but we do know that she hates alcohol and public appearances and has a great fondness for apples, until she is put off them by the events of "Hallowe'en Party". She has a habit of constantly changing her hairstyle. In every appearance by her much is made of her clothes and hats. Her maid Maria prevents the public adoration from becoming too much of a burden on her employer but does nothing to prevent her from becoming too much of a burden on others. She has authored more than 56 novels and greatly dislikes people modifying her characters. She is the only one in Poirot's universe to have noted that "It's not natural for five or six people to be on the spot when B is murdered and all have a motive for killing B." She first met Poirot in the story "Cards on the Table" and has bothered him ever since. === Miss Felicity Lemon === Poirot's secretary, Miss Felicity Lemon, has few human weaknesses. The only mistakes she makes within the series are a typing error during the events of "Hickory Dickory Dock" and the mis-mailing of an electricity bill, although she was worried about strange events surrounding her sister who worked at a student hostel at the time. Poirot described her as being "Unbelievably ugly and incredibly efficient. Anything that she mentioned as worth consideration usually was worth consideration." She is an expert on nearly everything and plans to create the perfect filing system. She also worked for the government statistician-turned-philanthropist Parker Pyne. Whether this was during one of Poirot's numerous retirements or before she entered his employment is unknown. In "The Agatha Christie Hour", she was portrayed by Angela Easterling, while in "Agatha Christie's Poirot" she was portrayed by Pauline Moran (where she was shown to be efficient, prim and modest, but not remotely "unbelievably ugly".) On a number of occasions, she joins Poirot in his inquiries or seeks out answers alone at his request. === Chief Inspector James Harold Japp === Japp is a Scotland Yard Inspector and appears in many of the stories trying to solve cases that Poirot is working on. Japp is outgoing, loud, and sometimes inconsiderate by nature, and his relationship with the refined Belgian is one of the stranger aspects of Poirot's world. He first met Poirot in Belgium in 1904, during the Abercrombie Forgery. Later that year they joined forces again to hunt down a criminal known as Baron Altara. They also meet in England where Poirot often helps Japp and lets him take credit in return for special favours. These favours usually entail Poirot being supplied with other interesting cases. In "Agatha Christie's Poirot", Japp was portrayed by Philip Jackson. In the film, "Thirteen at Dinner" (1985), adapted from "Lord Edgware Dies", the role of Japp was taken by the actor David Suchet, who would later star as Poirot in the ITV adaptations. == Major novels == The Poirot books take readers through the whole of his life in England, from the first book ("The Mysterious Affair at Styles"), where he is a refugee staying at Styles, to the last Poirot book ("Curtain"), where he visits Styles before his death. In between, Poirot solves cases outside England as well, including his most famous case, "Murder on the Orient Express" (1934). Hercule Poirot became famous in 1926 with the publication of "The Murder of Roger Ackroyd", whose surprising solution proved controversial. The novel is still among the most famous of all detective novels: Edmund Wilson alludes to it in the title of his well-known attack on detective fiction, "Who Cares Who Killed Roger Ackroyd?" Aside from "Roger Ackroyd", the most critically acclaimed Poirot novels appeared from 1932 to 1942, including "Murder on the Orient Express" (1934); "The ABC Murders" (1935)"; Cards on the Table" (1936); and "Death on the Nile" (1937), a tale of multiple murders upon a Nile steamer. "Death on the Nile" was judged by the famed detective novelist John Dickson Carr to be among the ten greatest mystery novels of all time. The 1942 novel "Five Little Pigs" (a.k.a. "Murder in Retrospect"), in which Poirot investigates a murder committed sixteen years before by analysing various accounts of the tragedy, has been called "the best Christie of all" by critic and mystery novelist Robert Barnard. In 2014, the Poirot canon was added to by Sophie Hannah, the first author to be commissioned by the Christie estate to write an original story. The novel was called "The Monogram Murders", and was set in the late 1920s, placing it chronologically between "The Mystery of the Blue Train" and "Peril at End House". A second Hannah-penned Poirot came out in 2016, called "Closed Casket", and a third, "The Mystery of Three Quarters", in 2018. == Portrayals == === Stage === The first actor to portray Poirot was Charles Laughton. He appeared on the West End in 1928 in the play "Alibi" which had been adapted by Michael Morton from the novel "The Murder of Roger Ackroyd". In 1932, the play was performed as "The Fatal Alibi" on Broadway. Another Poirot play, "Black Coffee" opened in London at the Embassy Theatre on 8 December 1930 and starred Francis L. Sullivan as Poirot. Another production of "Black Coffee" ran in Dublin, Ireland from 23 to 28 June 1931, starring Robert Powell. American playwright Ken Ludwig adapted "Murder on the Orient Express" into a play, which premiered at the McCarter Theatre in Princeton, New Jersey on 14 March 2017. It starred Allan Corduner in the role of Hercule Poirot. === Film === ==== Austin Trevor ==== Austin Trevor debuted the role of Poirot on screen in the 1931 British film "Alibi". The film was based on the stage play. Trevor reprised the role of Poirot twice, in "Black Coffee" and "Lord Edgware Dies". Trevor said once that he was probably cast as Poirot simply because he could do a French accent. Notably, Trevor's Poirot did not have a moustache. Leslie S. Hiscott directed the first two films, and Henry Edwards took over for the third. ==== Tony Randall ==== Tony Randall portrayed Poirot in "The Alphabet Murders", a 1965 film also known as "The ABC Murders". This was more a satire of Poirot than a straightforward adaptation and was greatly changed from the original. Much of the story, set in modern times, was played for comedy, with Poirot investigating the murders while evading the attempts by Hastings (Robert Morley) and the police to get him out of England and back to Belgium. ==== Albert Finney ==== Albert Finney played Poirot in 1974 in the cinematic version of "Murder on the Orient Express". As of now, Finney is the only actor to receive an Academy Award nomination for playing Poirot, though he did not win. ==== Peter Ustinov ==== Peter Ustinov played Poirot six times, starting with "Death on the Nile" (1978). He reprised the role in "Evil Under the Sun" (1982) and "Appointment with Death" (1988). Christie's daughter Rosalind Hicks observed Ustinov during a rehearsal and said, "That's not Poirot! He isn't at all like that!" Ustinov overheard and remarked "He is "now!"" He appeared again as Poirot in three television films: "Thirteen at Dinner" (1985), "Dead Man's Folly" (1986), and "Murder in Three Acts" (1986). Earlier adaptations were set during the time in which the novels were written, but these television films were set in the contemporary era. The first of these was based on "Lord Edgware Dies" and was made by Warner Bros. It also starred Faye Dunaway, with David Suchet as Inspector Japp, just before Suchet began to play Poirot. David Suchet considers his performance as Japp to be "possibly the worst performance of [his] career". ==== Kenneth Branagh ==== Kenneth Branagh played Poirot in film adaptations of "Murder on the Orient Express" in 2017, "Death on the Nile" in 2022, and "A Haunting in Venice", based on the novel "Hallowe'en Party", in 2023. Branagh directed all three and co-produced them alongside Ridley Scott. They were written by Michael Green. ==== Other ==== * Anatoly Ravikovich, "Zagadka Endkhauza" ("End House Mystery") (1989; based on "Peril at End House") - Pál Mácsai, "A titokzatos stylesi eset" ("The Mysterious Affair at Styles) (2023) === Television === ==== David Suchet ==== David Suchet starred as Poirot in the ITV series "Agatha Christie's Poirot" from 1989 until June 2013, when he announced that he was bidding farewell to the role. "No one could've guessed then that the series would span a quarter-century or that the classically trained Suchet would complete the entire catalogue of whodunits featuring the eccentric Belgian investigator, including 33 novels and dozens of short stories." His final appearance in the show was in an adaptation of "Curtain", aired on 13 November 2013. The writers of the "Binge!" article of "Entertainment Weekly" Issue #1343–44 (26 December 2014 – 3 January 2015) picked Suchet as "Best Poirot" in the "Hercule Poirot & Miss Marple" timeline. The episodes were shot in various locations in the UK and abroad (for example "Triangle at Rhodes" and "Problem at Sea"), whilst other scenes were shot at Twickenham Studios. ==== Other ==== * Heini Göbel, (1955; an adaptation of "Murder on the Orient Express" for the West German television series "Die Galerie der großen Detektive") - José Ferrer, "Hercule Poirot" (1961; Unaired TV Pilot, MGM; adaptation of "The Disappearance of Mr. Davenheim") - Martin Gabel, "General Electric Theater" (4/1/1962; adaptation of "The Disappearance of Mr. Davenheim") - Horst Bollmann, "Black Coffee" 1973 - Ian Holm, "Murder by the Book", 1986 - Arnolds Liniņš, "Slepkavība Stailzā" ("The Mysterious Affair at Styles"), 1990 - Hugh Laurie, "Spice World", 1997 - Alfred Molina, "Murder on the Orient Express", 2001 - Konstantin Raikin, "Neudacha Puaro" ("Poirot's Failure") (2002; based on "The Murder of Roger Ackroyd") - Anthony O'Donnell, "", 2004 - Shirō Itō (Takashi Akafuji), "Meitantei Akafuji Takashi" ("The Detective Takashi Akafuji"), 2005 - Mansai Nomura (Takeru Suguro), "Orient Kyūkō Satsujin Jiken" ("Murder on the Orient Express"), 2015; "Kuroido Goroshi" ("The Murder of Kuroido"), 2018 (based on "The Murder of Roger Ackroyd"); "Shi to no Yakusoku", 2021 (based on "Appointment with Death") - John Malkovich was Poirot in the 2018 BBC adaptation of "The ABC Murders". === Anime === In 2004, the Japanese public broadcaster NHK produced a 39-episode anime series titled "Agatha Christie's Great Detectives Poirot and Marple", as well as a manga series under the same title released in 2005. The series, adapting several of the best-known Poirot and Marple stories, ran from 4 July 2004 through 15 May 2005, and in repeated reruns on NHK and other networks in Japan. Poirot was voiced by Kōtarō Satomi and Miss Marple was voiced by Kaoru Yachigusa. === Radio === From 1985 to 2007, BBC Radio 4 produced a series of twenty-seven adaptations of Poirot novels and short stories, adapted by Michael Bakewell and directed by Enyd Williams. Twenty five starred John Moffatt as Poirot; Maurice Denham and Peter Sallis played Poirot on BBC Radio 4 in the first two adaptations, "The Mystery of the Blue Train" and in "Hercule Poirot's Christmas" respectively. In 1939, Orson Welles and the Mercury Players dramatised "Roger Ackroyd" on CBS's "Campbell Playhouse". On 6 October 1942, the Mutual radio series "Murder Clinic" broadcast "The Tragedy at Marsden Manor" starring Maurice Tarplin as Poirot. A 1945 radio series of at least 13 original half-hour episodes (none of which apparently adapt any Christie stories) transferred Poirot from London to New York and starred character actor Harold Huber, perhaps better known for his appearances as a police officer in various Charlie Chan films. On 22 February 1945, "speaking from London, Agatha Christie introduced the initial broadcast of the Poirot series via shortwave". An adaptation of "Murder in the Mews" was broadcast on the BBC Light Programme in March 1955 starring Richard Bebb as Poirot; this program was thought lost, but was discovered in the BBC archives in 2015. === Other audio === In 2017, Audible released an original audio adaptation of "Murder on the Orient Express" starring Tom Conti as Poirot. The cast included Jane Asher as Mrs. Hubbard, Jay Benedict as Monsieur Bouc, Ruta Gedmintas as Countess Andrenyi, Sophie Okonedo as Mary Debenham, Eddie Marsan as Ratchett, Walles Hamonde as Hector MacQueen, Paterson Joseph as Colonel Arbuthnot, Rula Lenska as Princess Dragimiroff and Art Malik as the Narrator. According to the Publisher's Summary on Audible.com, "sound effects [were] recorded on the Orient Express itself." In 2021, L.A. Theatre Works produced an adaptation of "The Murder on the Links", dramatised by Kate McAll. Alfred Molina starred as Poirot, with Simon Helberg as Hastings. === Video games === The video game "Agatha Christie - Hercule Poirot: The First Cases" has Poirot voice acted by Will De Renzy-Martin. === Parodies and references === Parodies of Hercule Poirot have appeared in a number of movies, including "Revenge of the Pink Panther", where Poirot makes a cameo appearance in a mental asylum, portrayed by Andrew Sachs and claiming to be "the greatest detective in all of France, the greatest in all the world"; Neil Simon's "Murder by Death", where "Milo Perrier" is played by American actor James Coco; the 1977 film "The Strange Case of the End of Civilization as We Know It" (1977); the film "Spice World", where Hugh Laurie plays Poirot; and in "", Poirot appears as a young boy on the train transporting Holmes and Watson. Holmes helps the boy in opening a puzzle-box, with Watson giving the boy advice about using his "little grey cells". In the book series "Geronimo Stilton", the character Hercule Poirat is inspired by Hercule Poirot. The Belgian brewery Brasserie Ellezelloise makes a stout called "Hercule" with a moustachioed caricature of Hercule Poirot on the label. In season 2, episode 4 of TVFPlay's Indian web series "Permanent Roommates", one of the characters refers to Hercule Poirot as her inspiration while she attempts to solve the mystery of the cheating spouse. Throughout the episode, she is mocked as Hercule Poirot and Agatha Christie by the suspects. TVFPlay also telecasted a spoof of Indian TV suspense drama "CID" as "Qissa Missing Dimaag Ka: C.I.D Qtiyapa". In the first episode, when Ujjwal is shown to browse for the best detectives of the world, David Suchet appears as Poirot in his search.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1002

Miss Marple

Miss Jane Marple is a fictional character in Agatha Christie's crime novels and short stories. Miss Marple lives in the village of St. Mary Mead and acts as an amateur consulting detective. Often characterized as an elderly spinster, she is one of Christie's best-known characters and has been portrayed numerous times on screen. Her first appearance was in a short story published in "The Royal Magazine" in December 1927, "The Tuesday Night Club", which later became the first chapter of "The Thirteen Problems" (1932). Her first appearance in a full-length novel was in "The Murder at the Vicarage" in 1930, and her last appearance was in "Sleeping Murder" in 1976. ==Origins== The character of Miss Marple is based on friends of Christie's step grandmother/aunt (Margaret Miller, née West). Christie attributed the inspiration for the character to multiple sources, stating that Miss Marple was "the sort of old lady who would have been rather like some of my step grandmother's Ealing cronies – old ladies whom I have met in so many villages where I have gone to stay as a girl". Christie also used material from her fictional creation, spinster Caroline Sheppard, who appeared in "The Murder of Roger Ackroyd". When Michael Morton adapted the novel for the stage, he replaced the character of Caroline with a young girl. This change saddened Christie and she determined to give old maids a voice: Miss Marple was born. Christie is popularly believed to have taken the name from Marple railway station, through which she passed, though a letter she wrote to a fan appears to prove that the name was inspired by a visit to a sale at Marple Hall in the same town, near her sister Margaret Watts' home at Abney Hall. ==Character== The character of Jane Marple in the first Miss Marple book, "The Murder at the Vicarage", is quite different from how she appears in later books. This early version of Miss Marple is a gleeful gossip and not an especially nice woman. The residents of St. Mary Mead like her but are often tired of her nosy nature and the fact she seems to expect the worst of everyone. In later books, she becomes a kinder person. Miss Marple solves difficult crimes thanks to her shrewd intelligence, and St. Mary Mead, over her lifetime, has given her seemingly infinite examples of the negative side of human nature. Crimes always remind her of a previous incident, although acquaintances may be bored by analogies that often lead her to a deeper realisation about the true nature of a crime. She also has a remarkable ability to latch onto a casual comment and connect it to the case at hand. In several stories, she is able to rely on her acquaintance with Sir Henry Clithering, a retired commissioner of the Metropolitan Police, for official information when required. Miss Marple never married and has no close living relatives. Her nephew, the "well-known author" Raymond West, appears in some stories, including "The Thirteen Problems", "Sleeping Murder", and "Ingots of Gold" (which also feature his wife, Joyce Lemprière). Raymond overestimates himself and underestimates his aunt's mental acuity. Miss Marple employs young women (including Clara, Emily, Alice, Esther, Gwenda, and Amy) from a nearby orphanage, whom she trains for service as general housemaids after the retirement of her long-time maid-housekeeper, faithful Florence. She was briefly looked after by her irritating companion, Miss Knight. In her later years, companion Cherry Baker, first introduced in "The Mirror Crack'd From Side to Side", lives in. Miss Marple has never worked for her living and is of independent means, although she benefits in her old age from the financial support of her nephew Raymond. She is not from the aristocracy or landed gentry, but is quite at home among them; as a gentlewoman, Miss Marple may thus be considered a female version of the gentleman detective, a staple of British detective fiction. She demonstrates a remarkably thorough education, including some art courses that involved the study of human anatomy using human cadavers. In "They Do It with Mirrors" (1952), it is revealed that Miss Marple grew up in a cathedral close, and that she studied at an Italian finishing school with American sisters Ruth Van Rydock and Caroline "Carrie" Louise Serrocold. While Miss Marple is described as "an old lady" in many of the stories, her age is rarely mentioned and is not consistently presented. In "At Bertram's Hotel", published in 1965, it is said she visited the hotel when she was 14 and almost 60 years have passed since then, implying that she is nearly 75 years old; but in "4:50 from Paddington", published almost a decade earlier in 1957, she says she will be "90 next year." Excluding "Sleeping Murder", 41 years passed between the first and last-written novels, and many characters grow and age. An example would be the Vicar's nephew: in "The Murder at the Vicarage", the Reverend Mr Clement's nephew Dennis is a teenager; in "The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side", it is mentioned that the nephew is now an adult and has a successful career. The effects of ageing are seen on Miss Marple, such as needing a holiday after illness in "A Caribbean Mystery", but she is if anything more agile in "Nemesis", set only 16 months later. Miss Marple's background is described in some detail, albeit in glimpses across the novels and short stories in which she appears. She has a very large family, including a sister, the mother of Raymond, and Mabel Denham, a young woman who was accused of poisoning her husband Geoffrey ("The Thumb Mark of St. Peter"). ==Bibliography== Agatha Christie wrote 12 novels and 20 short stories featuring Miss Marple. ===Miss Marple series=== # "The Murder at the Vicarage" (1930, Novel) - "The Body in the Library" (1942, Novel) - "The Moving Finger" (1943, Novel) - "A Murder Is Announced" (1950, Novel) - "They Do It with Mirrors" (1952, Novel) - also published in the United States as "Murder With Mirrors" - "A Pocket Full of Rye" (1953, Novel) - "4.50 from Paddington" (1957, Novel) - also published in the United States as "What Mrs. McGillicuddy Saw!" - "The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side" (1962, Novel) - "A Caribbean Mystery" (1964, Novel) - "At Bertram's Hotel" (1965, Novel) - "Nemesis" (1971, Novel) - "Sleeping Murder" (1976, Novel) ===Miss Marple short story collections=== * "The Thirteen Problems" (1932 short story collection featuring Miss Marple, also published as "The Tuesday Club Murders") - "The Regatta Mystery and Other Stories" (1939, Collection) - "Three Blind Mice and Other Stories" (1950, Collection) - "The Adventure of the Christmas Pudding" (1960, Collection) - "Double Sin and Other Stories" (1961, Collection) - "Miss Marple's Final Cases and Two Other Stories" (short stories collected posthumously, also published as "Miss Marple's Final Cases", but only six of the eight stories actually feature Miss Marple) (written between 1939 and 1954, published 1979) - "Miss Marple: The Complete Short Stories", published 1985, includes 20 from 4 sets: "The Thirteen Problems", "The Regatta Mystery", "Three Blind Mice and Other Stories", and "Double Sin and Other Stories". Miss Marple also appears in "Greenshaw's Folly", a short story included as part of the Poirot collection "The Adventure of the Christmas Pudding" (1960). Four stories in the "Three Blind Mice" collection (1950) feature Miss Marple: "Strange Jest", "Tape-Measure Murder", "The Case of the Caretaker", and "The Case of the Perfect Maid". The Autograph edition of "Miss Marple's Final Cases" includes the eight in the original plus "Greenshaw's Folly". ===Continuations not by Christie=== * "Marple: Twelve New Mysteries", collection with stories written by Naomi Alderman, Leigh Bardugo, Alyssa Cole, Lucy Foley, Elly Griffiths, Natalie Haynes, Jean Kwok, Val McDermid, Karen M. McManus, Dreda Say Mitchell, Kate Mosse, and Ruth Ware (published 2022) ===Books about Miss Marple=== * "The Life and Times of Miss Jane Marple" – a biography by Anne Hart ==Stage== A stage adaptation of "Murder at the Vicarage", by Moie Charles and Barbara Toy, was first seen at Northampton on 17 October 1949; it was directed by Reginald Tate, starred the 35-year-old Barbara Mullen as Miss Marple, and after touring, reached the Playhouse Theatre in London's West End on 14 December. Having run till late March 1950, it then went on tour again. In July 1974, Mullen (by then 60) returned to the role in another national tour of the same play, culminating 12 months later when the show opened at London's Savoy Theatre on 28 July 1975. At the end of March 1976, the Miss Marple role was taken over by Avril Angers, after which the production transferred to the Fortune Theatre on 5 July. The role then passed to Muriel Pavlow in June 1977 and to Gabrielle Hamilton late the following year; the production finally closed in October 1979. On 21 September 1977, while "Murder at the Vicarage" was still running at the Fortune, a stage adaptation by Leslie Darbon of "A Murder Is Announced" opened at the Vaudeville Theatre, with Dulcie Gray as Miss Marple. The show ran to the end of September 1978 and then toured. ==Films== ===Margaret Rutherford=== Margaret Rutherford played Miss Marple in four films directed by George Pollock between 1961 and 1964. These were successful light comedies, but Christie herself was disappointed with them. Nevertheless, Agatha Christie dedicated the novel "The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side" to Rutherford. Rutherford presented the character as a bold and eccentric old lady, different from the prim and birdlike character Christie created in her novels. As penned by Christie, Miss Marple has never worked for a living, but the character as portrayed by Margaret Rutherford briefly works as a cook-housekeeper, a stage actress, a sailor and criminal reformer, and is offered the chance to run a riding establishment-cum-hotel. Her education and genteel background are hinted at when she mentions her awards at marksmanship, fencing, and equestrianism (although these hints are played for comedic value). "Murder, She Said" (1961) was the first of the four British MGM productions starring Rutherford. This film was based on the 1957 novel "4:50 from Paddington" (U.S. title, "What Mrs. McGillicuddy Saw!"), and the changes made in the plot were typical of the series. In the film, Mrs. McGillicuddy is cut from the plot. Miss Marple herself sees an apparent murder committed on a train running alongside hers. Actress Joan Hickson, who played Marple in the 1984–1992 television adaptations, has a role as a housekeeper in this movie. "Murder at the Gallop" (1963), based on the 1953 Hercule Poirot novel "After the Funeral" (in this film, she is identified as Miss JTV Marple, though there was no indication as to what the extra initials might stand for). "Murder Most Foul" (1964), based on the 1952 Poirot novel "Mrs McGinty's Dead". "Murder Ahoy!" (1964). The last film is not based on any Christie work but displays a few plot elements from "They Do It With Mirrors" (viz., the ship is used as a reform school for wayward boys and one of the teachers uses them as a crime force), and there is a kind of salute to "The Mousetrap". The music to all four films was composed and conducted by Ron Goodwin. The same theme is used on all four films with slight variations in each. The score was written within a couple of weeks by Goodwin who was approached by Pollock after Pollock had heard about him from Stanley Black. Black had worked with Pollock on "Stranger in Town" in 1957 and had previously hired Goodwin as his orchestrator. Rutherford, who was 68 years old when the first film was shot in February 1961, insisted that she wear her own clothes during the filming of the movie, as well as having her husband, Stringer Davis, appear alongside her as the character Mr Stringer. The Rutherford films are frequently repeated on television in Germany, and in that country Miss Marple is generally identified with Rutherford's quirky portrayal. Rutherford also appeared briefly as Miss Marple in the parodic Hercule Poirot adventure "The Alphabet Murders" (1965). ===Angela Lansbury=== In 1980, Angela Lansbury played Miss Marple in "The Mirror Crack'd" (EMI, directed by Guy Hamilton), based on Christie's 1962 novel. The film featured an all-star cast that included Elizabeth Taylor, Rock Hudson, Geraldine Chaplin, Tony Curtis, and Kim Novak. Edward Fox appeared as Inspector Craddock, who did Miss Marple's legwork. Lansbury's Marple was a crisp, intelligent woman who moved stiffly and spoke in clipped tones. Unlike most incarnations of Miss Marple, this one smoked cigarettes. Lansbury was later cast as Jessica Fletcher in "Murder, She Wrote", a similar role. ===Ita Ever=== In 1983, Estonian stage and film actress Ita Ever starred in the Russian language Mosfilm adaptation of Agatha Christie's novel "A Pocket Full of Rye" (using the Russian edition's translated title, "The Secret of the Blackbirds") as the character of Miss Marple. Ever has also portrayed the character of Miss Marple in the Eesti Televisioon (ETV) series "Miss Marple Stories" in 1990, and onstage at the Tallinn City Theatre in a production of "The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side" in 2005. ==Television== The first on-screen portrayal of Miss Marple was British actress and singer Gracie Fields, playing her in a 1956 episode of the American series "Goodyear TV Playhouse" based on "A Murder Is Announced", the 1950 Christie novel. In 1970, the character of Miss Marple was portrayed by in a West German television adaptation of "The Murder at the Vicarage " ("Mord im Pfarrhaus"). ===Helen Hayes=== American stage and screen actress Helen Hayes portrayed Miss Marple in two American television films near the end of her decades-long acting career, both for CBS: "A Caribbean Mystery" (1983) and "Murder with Mirrors" (1985). Sue Grafton contributed to the screenplay of the former. Hayes's Marple was benign and chirpy. She had earlier appeared in a television film adaptation of the non-Marple Christie story "Murder Is Easy", playing an elderly lady somewhat similar to Miss Marple. ===Joan Hickson=== From 1984 to 1992, the BBC adapted all of the original Miss Marple novels as a series titled "Miss Marple". Joan Hickson played the lead role. In the 1940s, she had appeared on stage in an Agatha Christie play, "Appointment with Death", which was seen by Christie who wrote in a note to her, "I hope one day you will play my dear Miss Marple". She portrayed a maid in the 1937 film, "Love from a Stranger", which starred Ann Harding and Basil Rathbone, another Agatha Christie play adaptation. As well as portraying Miss Marple on television, Hickson narrated Miss Marple stories for audio books. In the "Binge!" article of "Entertainment Weekly" Issue #1343–1344 (26 December 2014 – 3 January 2015), the writers picked Hickson as "Best Marple" in the "Hercule Poirot & Miss Marple" timeline. Listing of the TV series featuring Joan Hickson: - "The Body in the Library" (1984) - "The Moving Finger" (1985) - "A Murder Is Announced" (1985) - "A Pocket Full of Rye" (1985) - "The Murder at the Vicarage" (1986) – BAFTA nomination - "Sleeping Murder" (1987) - "At Bertram's Hotel" (1987) - "Nemesis" (1987) – BAFTA nomination - "4.50 from Paddington" (1987) - "A Caribbean Mystery" (1989) - "They Do It With Mirrors" (1991) - "The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side" (1992) ===Geraldine McEwan (2004–2008)/Julia McKenzie (2009–2013)=== Beginning in 2004, ITV broadcast a series of adaptations of Agatha Christie's books under the title "Agatha Christie's Marple", usually referred to as "Marple." Geraldine McEwan starred in the first three series. Julia McKenzie took over the role in the fourth season. The adaptations change the plots and characters of the original books (e.g. incorporating lesbian affairs, changing the identities of some killers, renaming or removing significant characters, and even using stories from other books in which Miss Marple did not originally feature). In the Geraldine McEwan series it is revealed that when she was young (portrayed by Julie Cox in a flashback), Miss Marple had an affair with a married soldier, Captain Ainsworth, who was killed in action in World War I, in December 1915. It is also said (in "A Murder Is Announced") that she served as an ambulance driver during World War I. Listing of the TV series featuring Geraldine McEwan and Julia McKenzie: - "The Body in the Library" (2004) - "The Murder at the Vicarage" (2004) - "4.50 from Paddington" (2004) - "A Murder Is Announced" (2005) - "Sleeping Murder" (2005) - "The Moving Finger" (2006) - "By the Pricking of My Thumbs" (2006) - "The Sittaford Mystery" (2006) - "At Bertram's Hotel" (2007) - "Ordeal by Innocence" (2007) - "Towards Zero" (2008) - "Nemesis" (2008) - "A Pocket Full of Rye" (2009) - "Murder Is Easy" (2009) - "They Do It with Mirrors" (2010) - "Why Didn't They Ask Evans?" (2011) - "The Pale Horse" (2010) - "The Secret of Chimneys" (2010) - "The Blue Geranium" (2010) - "The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side" (2011) - "A Caribbean Mystery" (2013) - "Greenshaw's Folly" (2013) - "Endless Night" (2013) In 2015, CBS planned a "much younger" version of the character, a granddaughter who takes over a California bookstore. In 2018, Miss Marple was portrayed by Yunjin Kim in the South Korean television series "Ms. Ma, Nemesis". ===Anime=== From 2004 to 2005, Japanese TV network NHK produced a 39 episode anime series titled "Agatha Christie's Great Detectives Poirot and Marple", which features both Miss Marple and Hercule Poirot. Miss Marple's voice is provided by Kaoru Yachigusa. Episodes adapted both short stories and novels. The anime series dramatised the following Miss Marple stories: - "Strange Jest" (EP 3) - "The Case of the Perfect Maid" (EP 4) - "The Tape-Measure Murder" (EP 13) - "Ingots of Gold" (EP 14) - "The Blue Geranium" (EP 15) - "4.50 from Paddington" (EP 21–24) - "Motive versus Opportunity" (EP 27) - "Sleeping Murder" (EP 30–33) ==Radio== June Whitfield starred as Miss Marple in Michael Bakewell's adaptations of all twelve novels, broadcast on BBC Radio 4 between 1993 and 2001. Three short stories with Whitfield ("Tape-Measure Murder", "The Case of the Perfect Maid" and "Sanctuary") were later broadcast under the collective title "Miss Marple's Final Cases" weekly 16 – 30 September 2015. ==Other appearances== Marple was highlighted in volume 20 of the "Case Closed" manga's edition of "Gosho Aoyama's Mystery Library", a section of the graphic novels (usually the last page) where the author introduces a different detective (or occasionally, a villain) from mystery literature, television, or other media. In the 1976 Neil Simon spoof "Murder by Death", Miss Marple is parodied as "Miss Marbles" by Elsa Lanchester.

1004

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1004

April

April is the fourth month of the year in the Gregorian and Julian calendars. Its length is 30 days. April is commonly associated with the season of spring in the Northern Hemisphere, and autumn in the Southern Hemisphere, where it is the seasonal equivalent to October in the Northern Hemisphere and vice versa. == History == The Romans gave this month the Latin name "Aprilis" but the derivation of this name is uncertain. The traditional etymology is from the verb "aperire", "to open", in allusion to its being the season when trees and flowers begin to "open", which is supported by comparison with the modern Greek use of άνοιξη ("ánixi") (opening) for spring. Since some of the Roman months were named in honor of divinities, and as April was sacred to the goddess Venus, her Veneralia being held on the first day, it has been suggested that Aprilis was originally her month Aphrilis, from her equivalent Greek goddess name Aphrodite ("Aphros"), or from the Etruscan name "Apru". Jacob Grimm suggests the name of a hypothetical god or hero, "Aper" or "Aprus". April was the second month of the earliest Roman calendar, before "Ianuarius" and "Februarius" were added by King Numa Pompilius about 700 BC. It became the fourth month of the calendar year (the year when twelve months are displayed in order) during the time of the decemvirs about 450 BC, when it was 29 days long. The 30th day was added back during the reform of the calendar undertaken by Julius Caesar in the mid-40s BC, which produced the Julian calendar. The Anglo-Saxons called April "ēastre-monaþ". The Venerable Bede says in "The Reckoning of Time" that this month "ēastre" is the root of the word Easter. He further states that the month was named after a goddess "Eostre" whose feast was in that month. It is also attested by Einhard in his work, "Vita Karoli Magni". St George's day is the twenty-third of the month; and St Mark's Eve, with its superstition that the ghosts of those who are doomed to die within the year will be seen to pass into the church, falls on the twenty-fourth. In China the symbolic ploughing of the earth by the emperor and princes of the blood took place in their third month, which frequently corresponds to April. In Finnish April is "huhtikuu", meaning "slash-and-burn moon", when gymnosperms for beat and burn clearing of farmland were felled. In Slovene, the most established traditional name is "mali traven", meaning the month when plants start growing. It was first written in 1466 in the Škofja Loka manuscript. The month Aprilis originally had 30 days; Numa Pompilius made it 29 days long; finally, Julius Caesar's calendar reform made it 30 days long again, which was not changed in the calendar revision of Augustus Caesar in 8 BC. In Ancient Rome, the festival of Cerealia was held for seven days from mid-to-late April, but exact dates are uncertain. Feriae Latinae was also held in April, with the date varying. Other ancient Roman observances include Veneralia (April 1), Megalesia (April 10–16), Fordicidia (April 15), Parilia (April 21), Vinalia Urbana (April 23), Robigalia (April 25), and Serapia (April 25). Floralia was held April 27 during the Republican era, or April 28 on the Julian calendar, and lasted until May 3. However, these dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar. The Lyrids meteor shower appears on April 16 – April 26 each year, with the peak generally occurring on April 22. The Eta Aquariids meteor shower also appears in April. It is visible from about April 21 to about May 20 each year with peak activity on or around May 6. The Pi Puppids appear on April 23, but only in years around the parent comet's perihelion date. The Virginids also shower at various dates in April. The "Days of April" ("journées d'avril") is a name assigned in French history to a series of insurrections at Lyons, Paris and elsewhere, against the government of Louis Philippe in 1834, which led to violent repressive measures, and to a famous trial known as the "procès d'avril". == Symbols == April's birthstone is the diamond. The birth flower is the common daisy "(Bellis perennis)" or the sweet pea. The zodiac signs are Aries (until April 19) and Taurus (April 20 onward). == Observances == "This list does not necessarily imply either official status nor general observance." === Month-long === * In Catholic, Protestant and Orthodox tradition, April is the Month of the Resurrection of the Lord. April and March are the months in which is celebrated the moveable Feast of Easter Sunday. - National Pet Month (United Kingdom) ==== United States ==== * Arab American Heritage Month - Autism Awareness Month - Cancer Control Month - Community College Awareness Month - Confederate History Month (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas, Virginia) - Financial Literacy Month - Jazz Appreciation Month - Mathematics and Statistics Awareness Month - Month of the Military Child - National Poetry Month - National Poetry Writing Month - Occupational Therapy Month - National Prevent Child Abuse Month - National Volunteer Month - Parkinson's Disease Awareness Month - Rosacea Awareness Month - Sexual Assault Awareness Month ==== United States food months ==== * Fresh Florida Tomato Month - National Food Month - National Grilled Cheese Month - National Pecan Month - National Soft Pretzel Month - National Soyfoods Month === Non-Gregorian === "(All Baha'i, Islamic, and Jewish observances begin at the sundown prior to the date listed, and end at sundown of the date in question unless otherwise noted.)" - List of observances set by the Bahá'í calendar - List of observances set by the Chinese calendar - List of observances set by the Hebrew calendar - List of observances set by the Islamic calendar - List of observances set by the Solar Hijri calendar === Movable === ==== Variable; 2021 dates shown ==== * Youth Homelessness Matters Day - National Health Day (Kiribati): April 6 - Oral, Head and Neck Cancer Awareness Week (United States): April 13–19 - National Park Week (United States): April 18–26 - Crime Victims' Rights Week (United States): April 19–25 - National Volunteer Week: April 19–25 - European Immunization Week: April 20–26 - Day of Silence (United States): April 24 - Pay It Forward Day: April 28 (International observance) - Denim Day: April 29 (International observance) - Day of Dialogue (United States) - Vaccination Week In The Americas - See: List of movable Western Christian observances - See: List of movable Eastern Christian observances ==== First Wednesday ==== * National Day of Hope (United States) ==== First Saturday ==== * Ulcinj Municipality Day (Ulcinj, Montenegro) ==== First Sunday ==== * Daylight saving time ends (Australia and New Zealand) - Geologists Day (former Soviet Union countries) - Kanamara Matsuri (Kawasaki, Japan) - Opening Day (United States) ==== First full week ==== * National Library Week (United States) - National Library Workers Day (United States) (Tuesday of National Library week, April 4) - National Bookmobile Day (Wednesday of National Library week, April 5) - National Public Health Week (United States) - National Public Safety Telecommunicators Week (United States) ===== Second Wednesday ===== * International Day of Pink ===== Second Thursday ===== * National Former Prisoner of War Recognition Day (United States) ===== Second Friday ===== * Fast and Prayer Day (Liberia) - Air Force Day (Russia) - Kamakura Matsuri at Tsurugaoka Hachiman (Kamakura, Japan), lasts until third Sunday. ==== Second Sunday ==== * Children's Day (Peru) ==== Week of April 14 ==== * Pan-American Week (United States) ==== Third Wednesday ==== * Administrative Professionals' Day (New Zealand) ==== Third Thursday ==== * National High Five Day (United States) ==== Third Saturday ==== * Record Store Day (International observance) ==== Last full week of April ==== * Administrative Professionals Week (Malaysia, North America) - World Immunization Week ==== Week of April 23 ==== * Canada Book Week (Canada) ==== Week of the New Moon ==== * National Dark-Sky Week (United States) ==== Third Monday ==== * Patriots' Day (Massachusetts, Maine, United States) - Queen's Official Birthday (Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha) - Sechseläuten (Zürich, Switzerland) ===== Wednesday of last full week of April ===== * Administrative Professionals' Day (Hong Kong, North America) ==== First Thursday after April 18 ==== * First Day of Summer (Iceland) ===== Fourth Thursday ===== * Take Our Daughters And Sons To Work Day (United States) ===== Last Friday ===== * Arbor Day (United States) - Día de la Chupina (Rosario, Argentina) ==== Last Friday in April to first Sunday in May ==== * Arbour Week in Ontario ===== Last Saturday ===== * Children's Day (Colombia) - National Rebuilding Day (United States) - National Sense of Smell Day (United States) - World Tai Chi and Qigong Day ===== Last Sunday ===== * Flag Day (Åland, Finland) - Turkmen Racing Horse Festival (Turkmenistan) ===== April 27 (April 26 if April 27 is a Sunday) ===== * Koningsdag (Netherlands) ===== Last Monday ===== * Confederate Memorial Day (Alabama, Georgia (U.S. state), and Mississippi, United States) ===== Last Wednesday ===== * International Noise Awareness Day === Fixed === * April 1 - April Fools' Day - Arbor Day (Tanzania) - Civil Service Day (Thailand) - Cyprus National Day (Cyprus) - Edible Book Day - Fossil Fools Day - Kha b-Nisan (Assyrian people) - National Civil Service Day (Thailand) - Odisha Day (Odisha, India) - Start of Testicular Cancer Awareness week (United States), April 1–7 - Season for Nonviolence January 30 – April 4 - April 2 - International Children's Book Day (International observance) - Malvinas Day (Argentina) - National Peanut Butter and Jelly Day (United States) - Thai Heritage Conservation Day (Thailand) - Unity of Peoples of Russia and Belarus Day (Belarus) - World Autism Awareness Day (International observance) - April 3 - April 4 - Children's Day (Hong Kong, Taiwan) - Independence Day (Senegal) - International Day for Mine Awareness and Assistance in Mine Action - Peace Day (Angola) - April 5 - Children's Day (Palestinian territories) - National Caramel Day (United States) - Sikmogil (South Korea) - April 6 - Chakri Day (Thailand) - National Beer Day (United Kingdom) - New Beer's Eve (United States) - Tartan Day (United States & Canada) - April 7 - Flag Day (Slovenia) - Genocide Memorial Day (Rwanda), and its related observance: - International Day of Reflection on the 1994 Rwanda Genocide (United Nations) - Motherhood and Beauty Day (Armenia) - National Beer Day (United States) - No Housework Day - Sheikh Abeid Amani Karume Day (Tanzania) - Women's Day (Mozambique) - World Health Day (International observance) - April 8 - Buddha's Birthday (Japan only, other countries follow different calendars) - Feast of the First Day of the Writing of the Book of the Law (Thelema) - International Romani Day (International observance) - Trading Cards for Grown-ups Day - April 9 - Anniversary of the German Invasion of Denmark (Denmark) - Baghdad Liberation Day (Iraqi Kurdistan) - Constitution Day (Kosovo) - Day of National Unity (Georgia) - Day of the Finnish Language (Finland) - Day of Valor or "Araw ng Kagitingan" (Philippines) - Feast of the Second Day of the Writing of the Book of the Law (Thelema) - International Banshtai Tsai Day - Martyr's Day (Tunisia) - National Former Prisoner of War Recognition Day (United States) - Remembrance for Haakon Sigurdsson (The Troth) - Vimy Ridge Day (Canada) - April 10 - Day of the Builder (Azerbaijan) - Feast of the Third Day of the Writing of the Book of the Law (Thelema) - Siblings Day (International observance) - April 11 - Juan Santamaría Day, anniversary of his death in the Second Battle of Rivas. (Costa Rica) - International Louie Louie Day - National Cheese Fondue Day (United States) - World Parkinson's Day - April 12 - Children's Day (Bolivia and Haiti) - Commemoration of first human in space by Yuri Gagarin: - Cosmonautics Day (Russia) - International Day of Human Space Flight - Yuri's Night (International observance) - Halifax Day (North Carolina) - National Grilled Cheese Sandwich Day (United States) - National Redemption Day (Liberia) - Walk on Your Wild Side Day - April 13 - Jefferson's Birthday (United States) - Katyn Memorial Day (Poland) - Teacher's Day (Ecuador) - First day of Thingyan (Myanmar) (April 13–16) - Unfairly Prosecuted Persons Day (Slovakia) - April 14 - ʔabusibaree (Okinawa Islands, Japan) - Ambedkar Jayanti (India) - Black Day (South Korea) - Commemoration of Anfal Genocide Against the Kurds (Iraqi Kurdistan) - Dhivehi Language Day (Maldives) - Day of Mologa (Yaroslavl Oblast, Russia) - Day of the Georgian language (Georgia (country)) - Season of Emancipation (April 14 to August 23) (Barbados) - N'Ko Alphabet Day (Mande speakers) - Pohela Boishakh (Bangladesh) - Pana Sankranti (Odisha, India) - Puthandu (Tamils) (India, Malaysia, Singapore, Sri Lanka) - Second day of Songkran (Thailand) (Thailand) - Pan American Day (several countries in the Americas) - The first day of Takayama Spring Festival (Takayama, Gifu, Japan) - Vaisakh (Punjab (region)), (India and Pakistan) - Youth Day (Angola) - April 15 - Day of the Sun (North Korea). - Hillsborough Disaster Memorial (Liverpool, England) - Jackie Robinson Day (United States) - Pohela Boishakh (West Bengal, India) (Note: celebrated on April 14 in Bangladesh) - Last day of Songkran (Thailand) (Thailand) - Tax Day, the official deadline for filing an individual tax return (or requesting an extension). (United States, Philippines) - Universal Day of Culture - World Art Day - April 16 - Birthday of José de Diego (Puerto Rico, United States) - Birthday of Queen Margrethe II (Denmark) - Emancipation Day (Washington, D.C., United States) - Foursquare Day (International observance) - Memorial Day for the Victims of the Holocaust (Hungary) - National Healthcare Decisions Day (United States) - Remembrance of Chemical Attack on Balisan and Sheikh Wasan (Iraqi Kurdistan) - World Voice Day - April 17 - Blah Blah Blah Day - Evacuation Day (Syria) - FAO Day (Iraq) - Flag Day (American Samoa) - Malbec World Day - National Cheeseball Day (United States) - National Espresso Day (Italy) - Women's Day (Gabon) - World Hemophilia Day - April 18 - Anniversary of the Victory over the Teutonic Knights in the Battle of the Ice, 1242 (Russia) - Army Day (Iran) - Coma Patients' Day (Poland) - Friend's Day (Brazil) - Independence Day (Zimbabwe) - International Day For Monuments and Sites - Invention Day (Japan) - Pet Owner's Independence Day - April 19 - Army Day (Brazil) - Beginning of the Independence Movement (Venezuela) - Bicycle Day - Dutch-American Friendship Day (United States) - Holocaust Remembrance Day (Poland) - Indigenous Peoples Day (Brazil) - King Mswati III's birthday (Eswatini) - Landing of the 33 Patriots Day (Uruguay) - National Garlic Day (United States) - National Rice Ball Day (United States) - Primrose Day (United Kingdom) - April 20 - 420 (cannabis culture) (International) - UN Chinese Language Day (United Nations) - April 21 - A&M Day (Texas A&M University) - Civil Service Day (India) - Day of Local Self-Government (Russia) - Grounation Day (Rastafari movement) - Heroic Defense of Veracruz (Mexico) - Kang Pan-sok's Birthday (North Korea) - Kartini Day (Indonesia) - Local Self Government Day (Russia) - National Tree Planting Day (Kenya) - San Jacinto Day (Texas) - Queen's Official Birthday (Falkland Islands) - Tiradentes' Day (Brazil) - Vietnam Book Day (Vietnam) - April 22 - Discovery Day (Brazil) - Earth Day (International observance) and its related observance: - International Mother Earth Day - Holocaust Remembrance Day (Serbia) - National Jelly Bean Day (United States) - April 23 - Castile and León Day (Castile and León, Spain) - German Beer Day (Germany) - Independence Day (Conch Republic, Key West, Florida) - International Pixel-Stained Technopeasant Day - Khongjom Day (Manipur, India) - National Sovereignty and Children's Day (Turkey and Northern Cyprus) - Navy Day (China) - St George's Day (England) and its related observances: - Canada Book Day (Canada) - La Diada de Sant Jordi (Catalonia, Spain) - World Book Day - UN English Language Day (United Nations) - April 24 - Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day (Armenia) - Concord Day (Niger) - Children's Day (Zambia) - Democracy Day (Nepal) - Fashion Revolution Day - Flag Day (Ireland) - International Sculpture Day - Kapyong Day (Australia) - Labour Safety Day (Bangladesh) - National Panchayati Raj Day (India) - National Pigs in a Blanket Day (United States) - Republic Day (The Gambia) - St Mark's Eve (Western Christianity) - World Day for Laboratory Animals - April 25 - Anniversary of the First Cabinet of Kurdish Government (Iraqi Kurdistan) - Anzac Day (Australia, New Zealand) - Arbor Day (Germany) - DNA Day - Feast of Saint Mark (Western Christianity) - Flag Day (Faroe Islands) - Flag Day (Eswatini) - Freedom Day (Portugal) - Liberation Day (Italy) - Major Rogation (Western Christianity) - Military Foundation Day (North Korea) - National Zucchini Bread Day (United States) - Parental Alienation Awareness Day - Red Hat Society Day - Sinai Liberation Day (Egypt) - World Malaria Day - April 26 - Chernobyl disaster related observances: - Memorial Day of Radiation Accidents and Catastrophes (Russia) - Day of Remembrance of the Chernobyl tragedy (Belarus) - Confederate Memorial Day (Florida, United States) - Hug A Friend Day - Hug an Australian Day - Lesbian Visibility Day - National Pretzel Day (United States) - Old Permic Alphabet Day - Union Day (Tanzania) - World Intellectual Property Day - April 27 - Day of Russian Parliamentarism (Russia) - Day of the Uprising Against the Occupying Forces (Slovenia) - Flag Day (Moldova) - Freedom Day (South Africa) - UnFreedom Day - Independence Day (Sierra Leone) - Independence Day (Togo) - National Day (Mayotte) - National Day (Sierra Leone) - National Prime Rib Day (United States) - National Veterans' Day (Finland) - April 28 - Lawyers' Day (Orissa, India) - Mujahideen Victory Day (Afghanistan) - National Day (Sardinia, Italy) - National Heroes Day (Barbados) - Restoration of Sovereignty Day (Japan) - Workers' Memorial Day and World Day for Safety and Health at Work (international) - National Day of Mourning (Canada) - April 29 - Day of Remembrance for all Victims of Chemical Warfare (United Nations) - International Dance Day (UNESCO) - Princess Bedike's Birthday (Denmark) - National Shrimp Scampi Day (United States) - Shōwa Day, traditionally the start of the Golden Week holiday period, which is April 29 and May 3–5. (Japan) - April 30 - Armed Forces Day (Georgia (country)) - Birthday of the King (Sweden) - Camarón Day (French Foreign Legion) - Children's Day (Mexico) - Consumer Protection Day (Thailand) - Honesty Day (United States) - International Jazz Day (UNESCO) - Martyr's Day (Pakistan) - May Eve, the eve of the first day of summer in the Northern hemisphere "(see May 1)": - Beltane begins at sunset in the Northern hemisphere, Samhain begins at sunset in the Southern hemisphere. (Neo-Druidic Wheel of the Year) - Carodejnice (Czech Republic and Slovakia) - Walpurgis Night (Central and Northern Europe) - National Persian Gulf Day (Iran) - Reunification Day (Vietnam) - Russian State Fire Service Day (Russia) - Tax Day (Canada) - Teachers' Day (Paraguay)

1005

82432

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1005

August

August is the eighth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. Its length is 31 days. In the Southern Hemisphere, August is the seasonal equivalent of February in the Northern Hemisphere. In the Northern Hemisphere, August falls in the season of summer. In the Southern Hemisphere, the month falls during the season of winter. In many European countries, August is the holiday month for most workers. Numerous religious holidays occurred during August in ancient Rome. Certain meteor showers take place in August. The Kappa Cygnids take place in August, with the dates varying each year. The Alpha Capricornids meteor shower takes place as early as July 10 and ends at around August 10, and the Southern Delta Aquariids take place from mid-July to mid-August, with the peak usually around July 28–29. The Perseids, a major meteor shower, typically takes place between July 17 and August 24, with the days of the peak varying yearly. The star cluster of Messier 30 is best observed around August. Among the aborigines of the Canary Islands, especially among the Guanches of Tenerife, the month of August received in the name of Beñesmer or Beñesmen, which was also the harvest festival held this month. The month was originally named "Sextilis" in Latin because it was the 6th month in the original ten-month Roman calendar under Romulus in 753 BC, with March being the first month of the year. About 700 BC, it became the eighth month when January and February were added to the year before March by King Numa Pompilius, who also gave it 29 days. Julius Caesar added two days when he created the Julian calendar in , giving it its modern length of 31 days. In 8 BC, the month was renamed in honor of Emperor Augustus. According to a Senatus consultum quoted by Macrobius, he chose this month because it was the time of several of his great triumphs, including the conquest of Egypt. Commonly repeated lore has it that August has 31 days because Augustus wanted his month to match the length of Julius Caesar's July, but this is an invention of the 13th century scholar Johannes de Sacrobosco. Sextilis in fact had 31 days before it was renamed, and it was not chosen for its length. == Symbols == August's birthstones are the peridot, sardonyx, and spinel. Its birth flower is the gladiolus or poppy, meaning beauty, strength of character, love, marriage and family. The Western zodiac signs are Leo (until August 22) and Virgo (from August 23 onward). == Observances == "This list does not necessarily imply either official status or general observance." === Non-Gregorian: 2024 dates === (All Baha'i, Islamic, and Jewish observances begin at the sundown prior to the date listed, and end at sundown of the date in question unless otherwise noted.) - List of observances set by the Bahá'í calendar - List of observances set by the Chinese calendar - List of observances set by the Hebrew calendar - List of observances set by the Islamic calendar - List of observances set by the Solar Hijri calendar === Month-long === * American Adventures Month (celebrating vacationing in the Americas) - Children's Eye Health and Safety Month - Digestive Tract Paralysis (DTP) Month - Get Ready for Kindergarten Month - Happiness Happens Month - Month of Philippine Languages or Buwan ng Wika (Philippines) - Neurosurgery Outreach Month - Psoriasis Awareness Month - Spinal Muscular Atrophy Awareness Month - What Will Be Your Legacy Month === United States month-long === * National Black Business Month - National Children's Vision and Learning Month - National Immunization Awareness Month - National Princess Peach Month - National Water Quality Month - National Win with Civility Month ==== Food months in the United States ==== * National Catfish Month - National Dippin' Dots Month - Family Meals Month - National Goat Cheese Month. - National Panini Month - Peach Month - Sandwich Month === Moveable Gregorian === * National Science Week (Australia) - See also Movable Western Christian observances - See also Movable Eastern Christian observances ==== Second to last Sunday in July and the following two weeks ==== * Construction Holiday (Quebec) ==== 1st Saturday ==== * Food Day (Canada) - Mead Day (United States) - National Mustard Day (United States) ==== 1st Sunday ==== * Air Force Day (Ukraine) - American Family Day (Arizona, United States) - Children's Day (Uruguay) - Friendship Day (United States) - International Forgiveness Day - Railway Workers' Day (Russia) ==== First full week of August ==== * National Farmer's Market Week (United States) ==== 1st Monday ==== * August Public Holiday (Ireland) - Children's Day (Tuvalu) - Civic Holiday (Canada) - British Columbia Day (British Columbia, Canada) - Natal Day (Nova Scotia, Canada) - New Brunswick Day (New Brunswick, Canada) - Saskatchewan Day (Saskatchewan, Canada - Terry Fox Day (Manitoba, Canada) - Commerce Day (Iceland) - Emancipation Day (Anguilla, Antigua, The Bahamas, British Virgin Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Kitts and Nevis) - Farmer's Day (Zambia) - Kadooment Day (Barbados) - Labor Day (Samoa) - National Day (Jamaica) - Picnic Day (Northern Territory, Australia) - Somers' Day (Bermuda) - Youth Day (Kiribati) ==== 1st Tuesday ==== * National Night Out (United States) ==== 1st Friday ==== * International Beer Day ==== 2nd Saturday ==== * Sports Day (Russia) ====Sunday on or closest to August 9==== * National Peacekeepers' Day (Canada) ==== 2nd Sunday ==== * Children's Day (Argentina, Chile, Uruguay) - Father's Day (Brazil, Samoa) - Melon Day (Turkmenistan) - Navy Day (Bulgaria) - National Day (Singapore) ==== 2nd Monday ==== * Heroes' Day (Zimbabwe) - Victory Day (Hawaii and Rhode Island, United States) ==== 2nd Tuesday ==== * Defence Forces Day (Zimbabwe) ==== 3rd Saturday ==== * National Honey Bee Day (United States) ==== 3rd Sunday ==== * Children's Day (Argentina, Peru) - Grandparents Day (Hong Kong) ==== 3rd Monday ==== * Discovery Day (Yukon, Canada) - Day of Hearts (Haarlem and Amsterdam, Netherlands) - National Mourning Day (Bangladesh) ==== 3rd Friday ==== * Hawaii Admission Day (Hawaii, United States) ==== Last Thursday ==== * National Burger Day (United Kingdom) ==== Last Sunday ==== * Coal Miner's Day (some former Soviet Union countries) - National Grandparents Day (Taiwan) ==== Last Monday ==== * Father's Day (South Sudan) - National Heroes' Day (Philippines) - Liberation Day (Hong Kong) - Late Summer Bank Holiday (England, Northern Ireland and Wales) === Fixed Gregorian === * Season of Emancipation (Barbados) (April 14 to August 23) - International Clown Week (August 1–7) - World Breastfeeding Week (August 1–7) - August 1 - Armed Forces Day (China) - Armed Forces Day (Lebanon) - Azerbaijani Language and Alphabet Day (Azerbaijan) - Emancipation Day (Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, St. Lucia, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands) - Imbolc (Neopaganism, Southern Hemisphere only) - Lammas (England, Scotland, Neopaganism, Northern Hemisphere only) - Lughnasadh (Gaels, Ireland, Scotland, Neopaganism, Northern Hemisphere only) - Minden Day (United Kingdom) - National Day (Benin) - National Milkshake Day (United States) - Official Birthday and Coronation Day of the King of Tonga (Tonga) - Pachamama Raymi (Quechua people in Ecuador and Peru) - Parents' Day (Democratic Republic of the Congo) - Procession of the Cross and the beginning of Dormition Fast (Eastern Orthodoxy) - Statehood Day (Colorado) - Swiss National Day (Switzerland) - Victory Day (Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam) - World Scout Scarf Day - Yorkshire Day (Yorkshire, England) - August 2 - Airmobile Forces Day (Ukraine) - Day of Azerbaijani cinema (Azerbaijan) - Our Lady of the Angels Day (Costa Rica) - Paratroopers Day (Russia) - Republic Day (North Macedonia) - August 3 - Anniversary of the Killing of Pidjiguiti (Guinea-Bissau) - Armed Forces Day (Equatorial Guinea) - Esther Day (United States) - Flag Day (Venezuela) - Independence Day (Niger) - Arbor Day (Niger) - National Guard Day (Venezuela) - National Watermelon Day (United States) - National White Wine Day (United States) - August 4 - Coast Guard Day (United States) - Constitution Day (Cook Islands) - Matica slovenská Day (Slovakia) - Revolution Day (Burkina Faso) - August 5 - Dedication of the Basilica of St Mary Major (Catholic Church) - Independence Day (Burkina Faso) - National Underwear Day (United States) - Victory and Homeland Thanksgiving Day and the Day of Croatian defenders (Croatia) - August 6 - Feast of the Transfiguration - Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan's Accession Day. (United Arab Emirates) - Hiroshima Peace Memorial Ceremony (Hiroshima, Japan) - Independence Day (Bolivia) - Independence Day (Jamaica) - Russian Railway Troops Day (Russia) - August 7 - Assyrian Martyrs Day (Assyrian community) - Battle of Boyacá Day (Colombia) - Emancipation Day (Saint Kitts and Nevis) - Independence Day (Ivory Coast) - Republic Day (Ivory Coast) - Youth Day (Kiribati) - August 8 - Ceasefire Day (Iraqi Kurdistan) - Father's Day (Taiwan) - Happiness Happens Day (International observance) - International Cat Day - Namesday of Queen Silvia of Sweden, (Sweden) - Nane Nane Day (Tanzania) - Signal Troops Day (Ukraine) - August 9 - Battle of Gangut Day (Russia) - International Day of the World's Indigenous People (United Nations) - National Day (Singapore) - National Women's Day (South Africa) - Remembrance for Radbod, King of the Frisians (The Troth) - August 10 - Argentine Air Force Day (Argentina) - Constitution Day (Anguilla) - Declaration of Independence of Quito (Ecuador) - International Biodiesel Day - National S'more Day (United States) - August 11 - Flag Day (Pakistan) - Independence Day (Chad) - Mountain Day (Japan) - August 12 - Glorious Twelfth (United Kingdom) - HM the Queen's Birthday and National Mother's Day (Thailand) - International Youth Day (United Nations) - Russian Railway Troops Day (Russia) - Sea Org Day (Scientology) - World Elephant Day - August 13 - Independence Day (Central African Republic) - International Lefthanders Day - National Filet Mignon Day (United States) - Women's Day (Tunisia) - August 14 - Anniversary Day (Tristan da Cunha) - Commemoration of Wadi al-Dahab (Morocco) - Day of the Defenders of the Fatherland (Abkhazia) - Engineer's Day (Dominican Republic) - Falklands Day (Falkland Islands) - Independence Day (Pakistan) - National Creamsicle Day (United States) - Pramuka Day (Indonesia) - August 15 - Feast Day of the Assumption of Mary (Catholic holy days of obligation, a public holiday in many countries. - Ferragosto (Italy) - Māras (Latvia) - Mother's Day (Antwerp and Costa Rica) - National Acadian Day (Acadians) - Virgin of Candelaria, patron of the Canary Islands. (Tenerife, Spain) - Feast of the Dormition of the Theotokos (Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches) - Navy Day (Romania) - Armed Forces Day (Poland) - The first day of Flooding of the Nile, or "Wafaa El-Nil" (Egypt and Coptic Church) - The main day of Bon Festival (Japan), and its related observances: - Awa Dance Festival (Tokushima Prefecture) - Constitution Day (Equatorial Guinea) - End-of-war Memorial Day, when the National Memorial Service for War Dead is held. (Japan) - Founding of Asunción (Paraguay) - Independence Day (Korea) - Gwangbokjeol (South Korea) - Jogukhaebangui nal, "Fatherland Liberation Day" (North Korea) - Independence Day (India) - Independence Day (Republic of the Congo) - National Day (Liechtenstein) - National Mourning Day (Bangladesh) - Victory over Japan Day (United Kingdom) - National Lemon Meringue Pie Day (United States) - August 16 - Bennington Battle Day (Vermont, United States) - Children's Day (Paraguay) - Gozan no Okuribi (Kyoto, Japan) - The first day of the Independence Days (Gabon) - National Airborne Day (United States) - National Rum Day (United States) - Restoration Day (Dominican Republic) - August 17 - The Birthday of Marcus Garvey (Rastafari) - Engineer's Day (Colombia) - Flag Day (Bolivia) - Independence Day (Indonesia) - Independence Days (Gabon) - National Vanilla Custard Day (United States) - Prekmurje Union Day (Slovenia) - San Martin Day (Argentina) - August 18 - Arbor Day (Pakistan) - Armed Forces Day (North Macedonia) - Bad Poetry Day - Birthday of Virginia Dare (Roanoke Island) - Constitution Day (Indonesia) - Long Tan Day (Australia) - National Science Day (Thailand) - August 19 - Feast of the Transfiguration (Julian calendar), and its related observances: - Buhe (Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church) - Saviour's Transfiguration, popularly known as the "Apples Feast" (Russian Orthodox Church and Georgian Orthodox Church) - Afghan Independence Day (Afghanistan) - August Revolution Commemoration Day (Vietnam) - Birthday of Crown Princess Mette-Marit (Norway) - Manuel Luis Quezón Day (Quezon City and other places in The Philippines named after Manuel L. Quezon) - National Aviation Day (United States) - National Potato Day (United States) - World Humanitarian Day - August 20 - Indian Akshay Urja Day (India) - Restoration of Independence Day (Estonia) - Revolution of the King and People (Morocco) - Saint Stephen's Day (Hungary) - World Mosquito Day - August 21 - Ninoy Aquino Day (Philippines) - Youth Day/King Mohammed VI's Birthday (Morocco) - August 22 - Feast of the Coronation of Mary - Flag Day (Russia) - Madras Day (Chennai and Tamil Nadu, India) - National Eat a Peach Day (United States) - National Pecan Torte Day (United States) - Southern Hemisphere Hoodie-Hoo Day (Chase's Calendar of Events, Southern Hemisphere) - August 23 - Battle of Kursk Day (Russia) - Day of the National Flag (Ukraine) - European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism or Black Ribbon Day (European Union and other countries), and related observances: - Liberation from Fascist Occupation Day (Romania) - International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its Abolition - Umhlanga Day (Eswatini) - August 24 - Flag Day (Liberia) - Independence Day of Ukraine - International Strange Music Day - National Waffle Day (United States) - Nostalgia Night (Uruguay) - Willka Raymi (Cusco, Peru) - August 25 - Day of Songun (North Korea) - Independence Day (Uruguay) - Liberation Day (France) - National Banana Split Day (United States) - National Whiskey Sour Day (United States) - Soldier's Day (Brazil) - August 26 - Herero Day (Namibia) - Heroes' Day (Namibia) - Repentance Day (Papua New Guinea) - Women's Equality Day (United States) - August 27 - Film and Movies Day (Russia) - Independence Day of the Republic of Moldova - Lyndon Baines Johnson Day (Texas, United States) - National Banana Lovers Day (United States) - National Pots De Creme Day (United States) - August 28 - Assumption of Mary (Eastern Orthodox Church (Public holiday in North Macedonia, Serbia, and Georgia (country)) - Crackers of the Keyboard Day - Race Your Mouse Around the Icons Day - National Cherry Turnover Day (United States) - August 29 - International Day against Nuclear Tests - Miners' Day (Ukraine) - More Herbs, Less Salt Day - National Lemon Juice Day (United States) - National Chop Suey Day (United States) - National Sports Day (India) - Slovak National Uprising Anniversary (Slovakia) - Telugu Language Day (India) - August 30 - Constitution Day (Kazakhstan) - Constitution Day (Turks and Caicos Islands) - Independence Day (Tatarstan, Russia, unrecognized) - International Day of the Disappeared (International) - Popular Consultation Day (East Timor) - Saint Rose of Lima's Day (Peru) - Victory Day (Turkey) - August 31 - Baloch-Pakhtun Unity Day (Balochs and Pashtuns, International observance) - Day of Solidarity and Freedom (Poland) - Independence Day (Federation of Malaya, Malaysia) - Independence Day (Kyrgyzstan) - Independence Day (Trinidad and Tobago) - Love Litigating Lawyers Day - National Trail Mix Day (United States) - North Borneo Self-government Day (Sabah, Borneo) - Romanian Language Day (Romania, Moldova)

1006

47129241

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1006

Aaron

According to Abrahamic religions, Aaron ( or ) was a prophet, a high priest, and the elder brother of Moses. Information about Aaron comes exclusively from religious texts such as the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament (Luke, Acts, and Hebrews), and the Quran. The Hebrew Bible relates that, unlike Moses, who grew up in the Egyptian royal court, Aaron and his elder sister Miriam remained with their kinsmen in the northeastern region of the Nile Delta. When Moses first confronted the Egyptian king about the enslavement of the Israelites, Aaron served as his brother's spokesman to the Pharaoh (). Part of the Law given to Moses at Sinai granted Aaron the priesthood for himself and his male descendants, and he became the first High Priest of the Israelites. Levitical priests or "kohanim" are traditionally believed and halakhically required to be of direct patrilineal descent from Aaron. According to the Book of Numbers, Aaron died at 123 years of age, on Mount Hor, in the fortieth year after the Israelites had come out of the land of Egypt. Deuteronomy, however, places these events at Moseroth. ==Biblical narrative== According to the Book of Exodus, Aaron first functioned as Moses' assistant. Because Moses complained that he could not speak well, God appointed Aaron as Moses' "prophet" (). At the command of Moses, he let his rod turn into a snake. Then he stretched out his rod in order to bring on the first three plagues. After that, Moses tended to act and speak for himself. During the journey in the wilderness, Aaron was not always prominent or active. At the battle with Amalek, he was chosen with Hur to support the hand of Moses that held the "rod of God". When the revelation was given to Moses at Mount Sinai, he headed the elders of Israel who accompanied Moses on the way to the summit. While Joshua went with Moses to the top, however, Aaron and Hur remained below to look after the people. From here on in Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers, Joshua appears in the role of Moses' assistant while Aaron functions instead as the first high priest. ===High Priest=== The books of Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers maintain that Aaron received from God a monopoly over the priesthood for himself and his male descendants. The family of Aaron had the exclusive right and responsibility to make offerings on the altar to Yahweh. The rest of his tribe, the Levites, were given subordinate responsibilities within the sanctuary. Moses anointed and consecrated Aaron and his sons to the priesthood, and arrayed them in the robes of office. He also related to them God's detailed instructions for performing their duties while the rest of the Israelites listened. Aaron and his successors as high priest were given control over the Urim and Thummim by which the will of God could be determined. God commissioned the Aaronide priests to distinguish the holy from the common and the clean from the unclean, and to teach the divine laws (the Torah) to the Israelites. The priests were also commissioned to bless the people. When Aaron completed the altar offerings for the first time and, with Moses, "blessed the people: and the glory of the appeared unto all the people: And there came a fire out from before the , and consumed upon the altar the burnt offering and the fat [which] when all the people saw, they shouted, and fell on their faces". In this way, the institution of the Aaronide priesthood was established. In later books of the Hebrew Bible, Aaron and his kin are not mentioned very often except in literature dating to the Babylonian captivity and later. The books of Judges, Samuel and Kings mention priests and Levites, but do not mention the Aaronides in particular. The Book of Ezekiel, which devotes much attention to priestly matters, calls the priestly upper class the Zadokites after one of King David's priests. It does reflect a two-tier priesthood with the Levites in subordinate position. A two-tier hierarchy of Aaronides and Levites appears in Ezra, Nehemiah and Chronicles. As a result, many historians think that Aaronide families did not control the priesthood in pre-exilic Israel. What is clear is that high priests claiming Aaronide descent dominated the Second Temple period. Most scholars think the Torah reached its final form early in this period, which may account for Aaron's prominence in Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers. ===Conflicts=== Aaron plays a leading role in several stories of conflicts during Israel's wilderness wanderings. During the prolonged absence of Moses on Mount Sinai, the people provoked Aaron to make a golden calf. This incident nearly caused God to destroy the Israelites. Moses successfully intervened, but then led the loyal Levites in executing many of the culprits; a plague afflicted those who were left. Aaron, however, escaped punishment for his role in the affair, because of the intercession of Moses according to Deuteronomy 9:20. Later retellings of this story almost always excuse Aaron for his role. For example, in rabbinic sources and in the Quran, Aaron was not the idol-maker and upon Moses' return begged his pardon because he felt mortally threatened by the Israelites. On the day of Aaron's consecration, his oldest sons, Nadab and Abihu, were burned up by divine fire because they offered "strange" incense. Most interpreters think this story reflects a conflict between priestly families some time in Israel's past. Others argue that the story simply shows what can happen if the priests do not follow God's instructions given through Moses. The Torah generally depicts the siblings, Moses, Aaron, and Miriam, as the leaders of Israel after the Exodus, a view also reflected in the biblical Book of Micah. Numbers 12, however, reports that on one occasion, Aaron and Miriam complained about Moses' exclusive claim to be the 's prophet. Their presumption was rebuffed by God who affirmed Moses' uniqueness as the one with whom the spoke face to face. Miriam was punished with a skin disease ("tzaraath") that turned her skin white. Aaron pleaded with Moses to intercede for her, and Miriam, after seven days' quarantine, was healed. Aaron once again escaped any retribution. According to Numbers 16–17, a Levite named Korah led many in challenging Aaron's exclusive claim to the priesthood. When the rebels were punished by being swallowed up by the earth, Eleazar, the son of Aaron, was commissioned to take charge of the censers of the dead priests. And when a plague broke out among the people who had sympathized with the rebels, Aaron, at the command of Moses, took his censer and stood between the living and the dead until the plague abated (), atoning in the process. To emphasize the validity of the Levites' claim to the offerings and tithes of the Israelites, Moses collected a rod from the leaders of each tribe in Israel and laid the twelve rods overnight in the tent of meeting. The next morning, Aaron's rod was found to have budded and blossomed and produced ripe almonds. The following chapter then details the distinction between Aaron's family and the rest of the Levites: while all the Levites (and only Levites) were devoted to the care of the sanctuary, charge of its interior and the altar was committed to the Aaronites alone. ===Death=== Aaron, like Moses, was not permitted to enter Canaan with the Israelites when Moses brought water out of a rock to quench the people's thirst. Although they had been commanded to speak to the rock, Moses struck it with the staff twice, which was construed as displaying a lack of deference to the . There are two accounts of the death of Aaron in the Torah. Numbers says that soon after the incident at Meribah, Aaron with his son Eleazar and Moses ascended Mount Hor. There Moses stripped Aaron of his priestly garments and transferred them to Eleazar. Aaron died on the summit of the mountain, and the people mourned him for thirty days. The other account is found in Deuteronomy 10:6, where Aaron died at Moserah and was buried. There is a significant amount of travel between these two points, as the itinerary in Numbers 33:31–37 records seven stages between Moseroth (Mosera) and Mount Hor. Aaron died on the 1st of Av and was 123 at the time of his death. ===Descendants=== Aaron married Elisheba, daughter of Amminadab and sister of Nahshon of the tribe of Judah. The sons of Aaron were Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar and Itamar; only the latter two had progeny. A descendant of Aaron is an Aaronite, or Kohen, meaning Priest. Any non-Aaronic Levite—i.e., descended from Levi but not from Aaron—assisted the Levitical priests of the family of Aaron in the care of the tabernacle; later of the temple. The Gospel of Luke records that both Zechariah and Elizabeth and therefore their son John the Baptist were descendants of Aaron. ==In religious traditions== ===Jewish rabbinic literature=== The older prophets and prophetical writers beheld in their priests the representatives of a religious form inferior to the prophetic truth; men without the spirit of God and lacking the will-power requisite to resist the multitude in its idolatrous proclivities. Thus Aaron, the first priest, ranks below Moses: he is his mouthpiece, and the executor of the will of God revealed through Moses, although it is pointed out that it is said fifteen times in the Torah that "the Lord spoke to Moses "and" Aaron." Under the influence of the priesthood that shaped the destinies of the nation under Persian rule, a different ideal of the priest was formed, according to Malachi 2:4-7, and the prevailing tendency was to place Aaron on a footing equal with Moses. "At times Aaron, and at other times Moses, is mentioned first in Scripture—this is to show that they were of equal rank," says the Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael, which strongly implies this when introducing in its record of renowned men the glowing description of Aaron's ministration. In fulfillment of the promise of peaceful life, symbolized by the pouring of oil upon his head, Aaron's death, as described in the aggadah, was of a wonderful tranquility. Accompanied by Moses, his brother, and by Eleazar, his son, Aaron went to the summit of Mount Hor, where the rock suddenly opened before him and a beautiful cave lit by a lamp presented itself to his view. Moses said, "Take off thy priestly raiment and place it upon thy son Eleazar!" said Moses; "and then follow me." Aaron did as commanded; and they entered the cave, where was prepared a bed around which angels stood. "Go lie down upon thy bed, my brother," Moses continued; and Aaron obeyed without a murmur. Then his soul departed as if by a kiss from God. The cave closed behind Moses as he left; and he went down the hill with Eleazar, with garments rent, and crying: "Alas, Aaron, my brother! thou, the pillar of supplication of Israel!" When the Israelites cried in bewilderment, "Where is Aaron?" angels were seen carrying Aaron's bier through the air. A voice was then heard saying: "The law of truth was in his mouth, and iniquity was not found on his lips: he walked with me in righteousness, and brought many back from sin." He died on the first of Av. The pillar of cloud which proceeded in front of Israel's camp disappeared at Aaron's death. The seeming contradiction between Numbers 20:22 et seq. and Deuteronomy 10:6 is solved by the rabbis in the following manner: Aaron's death on Mount Hor was marked by the defeat of the people in a war with the king of Arad, in consequence of which the Israelites fled, marching seven stations backward to Mosera, where they performed the rites of mourning for Aaron; wherefore it is said: "There [at Mosera] died Aaron." The rabbis particularly praise the brotherly sentiment between Aaron and Moses. When Moses was appointed ruler and Aaron high priest, neither betrayed any jealousy; instead they rejoiced in each other's greatness. When Moses at first declined to go to Pharaoh, saying: "O my Lord, send, I pray, by the hand of him whom you will send", he was unwilling to deprive Aaron of the high position the latter had held for so many years; but the Lord reassured him, saying: "Behold, when he sees you, he will be glad in his heart." Indeed, Aaron was to find his reward, says Shimon bar Yochai; for that heart which had leaped with joy over his younger brother's rise to glory greater than his was decorated with the Urim and Thummim, which were to "be upon Aaron's heart when he goeth in before the Lord". Moses and Aaron met in gladness of heart, kissing each other as true brothers, and of them it is written: "Behold how good and how pleasant [it is] for brethren to dwell together in unity!" Of them it is said: "Mercy and truth are met together; righteousness and peace have kissed [each other]"; for Moses stood for righteousness and Aaron for peace. Again, mercy was personified in Aaron, according to Deuteronomy 33:8, and truth in Moses, according to Numbers 12:7. When Moses poured the oil of anointment upon the head of Aaron, Aaron modestly shrank back and said: "Who knows whether I have not cast some blemish upon this sacred oil so as to forfeit this high office." Then the Shekhinah spoke the words: "Behold the precious ointment upon the head, that ran down upon the beard of Aaron, that even went down to the skirts of his garment, is as pure as the dew of Hermon." According to Tanhuma, Aaron's activity as a prophet began earlier than that of Moses. Hillel held Aaron up as an example, saying: "Be of the disciples of Aaron, loving peace and pursuing peace; love your fellow creatures and draw them nigh unto the Law!" This is further illustrated by the tradition that Aaron was an ideal priest of the people, far more beloved for his kindly ways than was Moses. While Moses was stern and uncompromising, brooking no wrong, Aaron went about as peacemaker, reconciling man and wife when he saw them estranged, or a man with his neighbor when they quarreled, and winning evil-doers back into the right way by his friendly intercourse. As a result, Aaron's death was more intensely mourned than Moses': when Aaron died the whole house of Israel wept, including the women, while Moses was bewailed by "the sons of Israel" only. Even in the making of the Golden Calf the rabbis find extenuating circumstances for Aaron. His fortitude and silent submission to the will of God on the loss of his two sons are referred to as an excellent example to men how to glorify God in the midst of great affliction. Especially significant are the words represented as being spoken by God after the princes of the Twelve Tribes had brought their dedication offerings into the newly reared Tabernacle: "Say to thy brother Aaron: Greater than the gifts of the princes is thy gift; for thou art called upon to kindle the light, and, while the sacrifices shall last only as long as the Temple lasts, thy light shall last forever." ===Christianity=== In the Eastern Orthodox and Maronite churches, Aaron is venerated as a saint whose feast day is shared with his brother Moses and celebrated on September 4. (Those churches that follow the traditional Julian calendar celebrate this day on September 17 of the modern Gregorian calendar). Aaron is also commemorated with other Old Testament saints on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers, the Sunday before Christmas. In Eastern Orthodox Church he is commemorated on 20 July, 12 March, Sunday of the Forefathers, Sunday of the Fathers and on April 14 with all saint Sinai monks. Aaron is commemorated as one of the Holy Forefathers in the Calendar of Saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on July 30. He is commemorated on July 1 in the modern Latin calendar and in the Syriac Calendar. The "Moses and Aaron Church" (), in the Waterlooplein neighborhood of Amsterdam, is one of the most well-known Catholic churches in the city. One version of the Bible has an encyclopedia that describes Aaron's role in Scripture as the "spokesman for Moses". ====Mormonism==== In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Aaronic priesthood is the lesser order of priesthood under the higher order of the Melchizedek priesthood. Those ordained to this priesthood have the authority to act in God's name in certain responsibilities in the church such as the administration of the sacrament and baptism. In the Community of Christ, the Aaronic order of priesthood is regarded as an appendage to the Melchisedec order, and consists of the priesthood offices of deacon, teacher, and priest. While differing in responsibilities, these offices, along with those of the Melchisidec order, are regarded as equal before God. === Islam=== Aaron (Arabic: هارون, "Hārūn") is mentioned in the Quran as a prophet of God. The Quran praises Aaron repeatedly, calling him a "believing servant" as well as one who was "guided" and one of the "victors". Aaron is important in Islam for his role in the events of the Exodus, in which, according to the Quran and Islamic belief, he preached with his elder brother, Moses to the Pharaoh of the Exodus. Aaron's significance in Islam, however, is not limited to his role as the helper of Moses. Islamic tradition also accords Aaron the role of a patriarch, as tradition records that the priestly descent came through Aaron's lineage, which included the entire House of Amran. ===Baháʼí Faith=== In the Baháʼí Faith, although his father is described as both an apostle and a prophet, Aaron is merely described as a prophet. The "Kitáb-i-Íqán" describes Imran as his father. ==In art== Aaron appears paired with Moses frequently in Jewish and Christian art, especially in the illustrations of manuscript and printed Bibles. He can usually be distinguished by his priestly vestments, especially his turban or miter and jeweled breastplate. He frequently holds a censer or, sometimes, his flowering rod. Aaron also appears in scenes depicting the wilderness Tabernacle and its altar, as already in the third-century frescos in the synagogue at Dura-Europos in Syria. An eleventh-century portable silver altar from Fulda, Germany depicts Aaron with his censor, and is located in the Musée de Cluny in Paris. This is also how he appears in the frontispieces of early printed Passover Haggadot and occasionally in church sculptures. Aaron has rarely been the subject of portraits, such as those by Anton Kern [1710–1747] and by Pier Francesco Mola []. Christian artists sometimes portray Aaron as a prophet holding a scroll, as in a twelfth-century sculpture from the Cathedral of Noyon in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York and often in Eastern Orthodox icons. Illustrations of the Golden Calf story usually include him as well – most notably in Nicolas Poussin's "The Adoration of the Golden Calf" (–34, National Gallery, London). Finally, some artists interested in validating later priesthoods have painted the ordination of Aaron and his sons (Leviticus 8). Harry Anderson's realistic portrayal is often reproduced in the literature of the Latter Day Saints.

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April 6

==Events== ===Pre–1600=== *46 BC – Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato (Cato the Younger) at the Battle of Thapsus. - 402 – Stilicho defeats the Visigoths under Alaric in the Battle of Pollentia. - 1320 – The Scots reaffirm their independence by signing the Declaration of Arbroath. - 1453 – Mehmed II begins his siege of Constantinople. The city falls on May 29, and is renamed Istanbul. - 1580 – One of the largest earthquakes recorded in the history of England, Flanders, or Northern France, takes place. ===1601–1900=== *1652 – At the Cape of Good Hope, Dutch sailor Jan van Riebeeck establishes a resupply camp that eventually becomes Cape Town. - 1712 – The New York Slave Revolt of 1712 begins near Broadway. - 1776 – American Revolutionary War: Ships of the Continental Navy fail in their attempt to capture a Royal Navy dispatch boat. - 1782 – King Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke (Rama I) of Siam (modern day Thailand) establishes the Chakri dynasty. - 1793 – During the French Revolution, the Committee of Public Safety becomes the executive organ of the republic. - 1800 – The Treaty of Constantinople establishes the Septinsular Republic, the first autonomous Greek state since the Fall of the Byzantine Empire. (Under the Old Style calendar then still in use in the Ottoman Empire, the treaty was signed on 21 March.) - 1808 – John Jacob Astor incorporates the American Fur Company, that would eventually make him America's first millionaire. - 1812 – British forces under the command of the Duke of Wellington assault the fortress of Badajoz. This would be the turning point in the Peninsular War against Napoleon-led France. - 1814 – Nominal beginning of the Bourbon Restoration; anniversary date that Napoleon abdicates and is exiled to Elba. - 1830 – Church of Christ, the original church of the Latter Day Saint movement, is organized by Joseph Smith and others at either Fayette or Manchester, New York. - 1841 – U.S. President John Tyler is sworn in, two days after having become president upon William Henry Harrison's death. - 1860 – The Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, later renamed Community of Christ, is organized by Joseph Smith III and others at Amboy, Illinois. - 1862 – American Civil War: The Battle of Shiloh begins: In Tennessee, forces under Union General Ulysses S. Grant meet Confederate troops led by General Albert Sidney Johnston. - 1865 – American Civil War: The Battle of Sailor's Creek: Confederate General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia fights and loses its last major battle while in retreat from Richmond, Virginia, during the Appomattox Campaign. - 1866 – The Grand Army of the Republic, an American patriotic organization composed of Union veterans of the American Civil War, is founded. It lasts until 1956. - 1896 – In Athens, the opening of the first modern Olympic Games is celebrated, 1,500 years after the original games are banned by Roman emperor Theodosius I. ===1901–present=== *1909 – Robert Peary and Matthew Henson become the first people to reach the North Pole; Peary's claim has been disputed because of failings in his navigational ability. - 1911 – During the Battle of Deçiq, Dedë Gjon Luli Dedvukaj, leader of the Malësori Albanians, raises the Albanian flag in the town of Tuzi, Montenegro, for the first time after George Kastrioti (Skanderbeg). - 1917 – World War I: The United States declares war on Germany. - 1918 – Finnish Civil War: The battle of Tampere ends. - 1926 – Varney Airlines makes its first commercial flight (Varney is the root company of United Airlines). - 1929 – Huey P. Long, Governor of Louisiana, is impeached by the Louisiana House of Representatives. - 1930 – At the end of the Salt March, Gandhi raises a lump of mud and salt and declares, "With this, I am shaking the foundations of the British Empire." - 1936 – Tupelo–Gainesville tornado outbreak: Another tornado from the same storm system as the Tupelo tornado hits Gainesville, Georgia, killing 203. - 1941 – World War II: Nazi Germany launches Operation 25 (the invasion of Kingdom of Yugoslavia) and Operation Marita (the invasion of Greece). - 1945 – World War II: Sarajevo is liberated from German and Croatian forces by the Yugoslav Partisans. - 1945 – World War II: The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville comes to an end. - 1947 – The first Tony Awards are presented for theatrical achievement. - 1957 – The flag carrier airline of Greece for decades, Olympic Airways, is founded by Aristotle Onassis following the acquisition of "TAE - Greek National Airlines". - 1958 – Capital Airlines Flight 67 crashes into Saginaw Bay near Freeland, Michigan, killing 47. - 1965 – Launch of Early Bird, the first commercial communications satellite to be placed in geosynchronous orbit. - 1968 – In the downtown district of Richmond, Indiana, a double explosion kills 41 and injures 150. - 1968 – Pierre Elliott Trudeau wins the Liberal Party leadership election, and becomes Prime Minister of Canada soon afterward. - 1970 – Newhall massacre: Four California Highway Patrol officers are killed in a shootout. - 1972 – Vietnam War: Easter Offensive: American forces begin sustained air strikes and naval bombardments. - 1973 – Launch of "Pioneer 11" spacecraft. - 1973 – The American League of Major League Baseball begins using the designated hitter. - 1984 – Members of Cameroon's Republican Guard unsuccessfully attempt to overthrow the government headed by Paul Biya. - 1985 – Sudanese President Gaafar Nimeiry is ousted from power in a coup d'état led by Field Marshal Abdel Rahman Swar al-Dahab. - 1992 – The Bosnian War begins. - 1994 – The Rwandan genocide begins when the aircraft carrying Rwandan president Juvénal Habyarimana and Burundian president Cyprien Ntaryamira is shot down. - 1997 – In Greene County, Tennessee, the Lillelid murders occur. - 1998 – Nuclear weapons testing: Pakistan tests medium-range missiles capable of reaching India. - 2004 – Rolandas Paksas becomes the first president of Lithuania to be peacefully removed from office by impeachment. - 2005 – Kurdish leader Jalal Talabani becomes Iraqi president; Shiite Arab Ibrahim al-Jaafari is named premier the next day. - 2008 – The 2008 Egyptian general strike starts led by Egyptian workers later to be adopted by April 6 Youth Movement and Egyptian activists. - 2009 – A 6.3 magnitude earthquake strikes near L'Aquila, Italy, killing 307. - 2010 – Maoist rebels kill 76 CRPF officers in Dantewada district, India. - 2011 – In San Fernando, Tamaulipas, Mexico, over 193 victims of Los Zetas were exhumed from several mass graves. - 2012 – Azawad declares itself independent from the Republic of Mali. - 2017 – U.S. military launches 59 Tomahawk cruise missiles at an air base in Syria. Russia describes the strikes as an "aggression", adding they significantly damage US-Russia ties. - 2018 – A bus carrying the Humboldt Broncos junior ice hockey team collides with a semi-truck in Saskatchewan, Canada, killing 16 people and injuring 13 others. ==Births== ===Pre–1600=== *1135 – Maimonides, Jewish philosopher, Torah scholar, physician and astronomer (March 30 also proposed, d. 1204) - 1342 – Infanta Maria, Marchioness of Tortosa - 1573 – Margaret of Brunswick-Lüneburg, German noble (d. 1643) ===1601–1900=== *1632 – Maria Leopoldine of Austria (d. 1649) - 1651 – André Dacier, French scholar and academic (d. 1722) - 1660 – Johann Kuhnau, German organist and composer (d. 1722) - 1664 – Arvid Horn, Swedish general and politician, Governor of Västerbotten County (d. 1742) - 1671 – Jean-Baptiste Rousseau, French poet and playwright (d. 1741) - 1672 – André Cardinal Destouches, French composer (d. 1749) - 1706 – Louis de Cahusac, French playwright and composer (d. 1759) - 1708 – Johann Georg Reutter, Austrian organist and composer (d. 1772) - 1725 – Pasquale Paoli, French soldier and politician (d. 1807) - 1726 – Gerard Majella, Italian saint (d. 1755) - 1741 – Nicolas Chamfort, French author and playwright (d. 1794) - 1766 – Wilhelm von Kobell, German painter and educator (d. 1853) - 1773 – James Mill, Scottish historian, economist, and philosopher (d. 1836) - 1787 – Celestina Cordero, Puerto Rican educator (d. 1862) - 1810 – Philip Henry Gosse, English biologist and academic (d. 1888) - 1812 – Alexander Herzen, Russian philosopher and author (d. 1870) - 1815 – Robert Volkmann, German organist, composer, and conductor (d. 1883) - 1818 – Aasmund Olavsson Vinje, Norwegian journalist and poet (d. 1870) - 1820 – Nadar, French photographer, journalist, and author (d. 1910) - 1823 – Joseph Medill, Canadian-American publisher and politician, 26th Mayor of Chicago (d. 1899) - 1824 – George Waterhouse, English-New Zealand politician, 7th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1906) - 1826 – Gustave Moreau, French painter and academic (d. 1898) - 1844 – William Lyne, Australian politician, 13th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1913) - 1851 – Guillaume Bigourdan, French astronomer and academic (d. 1932) - 1852 – Will Crooks, English trade unionist and politician (d. 1921) - 1855 – Charles Huot, Canadian painter and illustrator (d. 1930) - 1857 – Arthur Wesley Dow, American painter and photographer (d. 1922) - 1860 – René Lalique, French sculptor and jewellery designer (d. 1945) - 1861 – Stanislas de Guaita, French poet and author (d. 1897) - 1864 – William Bate Hardy, English biologist and academic (d. 1934) - 1866 – Felix-Raymond-Marie Rouleau, Canadian cardinal (d. 1931) - 1869 – Levon Shant, Armenian author, poet, and playwright (d. 1951) - 1878 – Erich Mühsam, German author, poet, and playwright (d. 1934) - 1881 – Karl Staaf, Swedish pole vaulter and hammer thrower (d. 1953) - 1884 – J. G. Parry-Thomas, Welsh race car driver and engineer (d. 1927) - 1886 – Athenagoras I of Constantinople (d. 1972) - 1886 – Walter Dandy, American physician and neurosurgeon (d. 1946) - 1886 – Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII, Indian ruler (d. 1967) - 1888 – Hans Richter, Swiss painter, illustrator, and director (d. 1976) - 1888 – Gerhard Ritter, German historian and academic (d. 1967) - 1890 – Anthony Fokker, Dutch engineer and businessman, founded Fokker Aircraft Manufacturer (d. 1939) - 1892 – Donald Wills Douglas, Sr., American businessman, founded the Douglas Aircraft Company (d. 1981) - 1892 – Lowell Thomas, American journalist and author (d. 1981) - 1895 – Dudley Nichols, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1960) - 1898 – Jeanne Hébuterne, French painter and author (d. 1920) - 1900 – Leo Robin, American composer and songwriter (d. 1984) ===1901–present=== *1901 – Pier Giorgio Frassati, Italian activist (d. 1925) - 1902 – Julien Torma, French author, poet, and playwright (d. 1933) - 1903 – Mickey Cochrane, American baseball player and manager (d. 1962) - 1903 – Harold Eugene Edgerton, American engineer and academic (d. 1990) - 1904 – Kurt Georg Kiesinger, German lawyer, politician and Chancellor of Germany (d. 1988) - 1904 – Erwin Komenda, Austrian car designer and engineer (d. 1966) - 1908 – Marcel-Marie Desmarais, Canadian preacher, missionary, and author (d. 1994) - 1908 – Ernie Lombardi, American baseball player (d. 1977) - 1909 – William M. Branham, American minister and theologian (d. 1965) - 1909 – Hermann Lang, German race car driver (d. 1987) - 1910 – Barys Kit, Belarusian-American rocket scientist (d. 2018) - 1911 – Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen, German biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1979) - 1913 – Shannon Boyd-Bailey McCune, American geographer and academic (d. 1993) - 1915 – Tadeusz Kantor, Polish director, painter, and set designer (d. 1990) - 1916 – Phil Leeds, American actor (d. 1998) - 1916 – Vincent Ellis McKelvey, American geologist and author (d. 1987) - 1917 – Leonora Carrington, English-Mexican painter and author (d. 2011) - 1918 – Alfredo Ovando Candía, Bolivian general and politician, 56th President of Bolivia (d. 1982) - 1919 – Georgios Mylonas, Greek politician, 11th Greek Minister of Culture (d. 1998) - 1920 – Jack Cover, American pilot and physicist, invented the Taser gun (d. 2009) - 1920 – Edmond H. Fischer, Swiss-American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2021) - 1921 – Wilbur Thompson, American shot putter (d. 2013) - 1922 – Gordon Chater, English-Australian comedian and actor (d. 1999) - 1923 – Herb Thomas, American race car driver (d. 2000) - 1926 – Sergio Franchi, Italian-American singer and actor (d. 1990) - 1926 – Gil Kane, Latvian-American author and illustrator (d. 2000) - 1926 – Ian Paisley, Northern Irish evangelical minister and politician, 2nd First Minister of Northern Ireland (d. 2014) - 1926 – Randy Weston, American jazz pianist and composer (d. 2018) - 1927 – Gerry Mulligan, American saxophonist, clarinet player, and composer (d. 1996) - 1928 – James Watson, American biologist, geneticist, and zoologist, Nobel Prize laureate - 1929 – Willis Hall, English playwright and author (d. 2005) - 1929 – Joi Lansing, American model, actress and nightclub singer (d. 1972) - 1929 – André Previn, American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 2019) - 1929 – Christos Sartzetakis, Greek jurist, supreme justice and President of Greece (d. 2022) - 1931 – Ram Dass, American author and educator (d. 2019) - 1931 – Ivan Dixon, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2008) - 1932 – Connie Broden, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2013) - 1932 – Helmut Griem, German actor and director (d. 2004) - 1933 – Roy Goode, English lawyer and academic - 1933 – Tom C. Korologos, American journalist and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Belgium - 1933 – Eduardo Malapit, American lawyer and politician, Mayor of Kauai (d. 2007) - 1934 – Enrique Álvarez Félix, Mexican actor (d. 1996) - 1934 – Anton Geesink, Dutch martial artist and wrestler (d. 2010) - 1934 – Guy Peellaert, Belgian painter, illustrator, and photographer (d. 2008) - 1935 – Douglas Hill, Canadian author and critic (d. 2007) - 1936 – Helen Berman, Dutch-Israeli painter and illustrator - 1936 – Jean-Pierre Changeux, French neuroscientist, biologist, and academic - 1937 – Merle Haggard, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2016) - 1937 – Tom Veivers, Australian cricketer and politician - 1937 – Billy Dee Williams, American actor, singer, and writer - 1938 – Paul Daniels, English magician and television host (d. 2016) - 1938 – Roy Thinnes, American television and film actor - 1939 – André Ouellet, Canadian lawyer and politician, 1st Canadian Minister of Foreign Affairs - 1939 – John Sculley, American businessman, co-founded Zeta Interactive - 1940 – Homero Aridjis, Mexican journalist, author, and poet - 1940 – Pedro Armendáriz, Jr., Mexican-American actor and producer (d. 2011) - 1941 – Christopher Allsopp, English economist and academic - 1941 – Phil Austin, American comedian, actor, and screenwriter (d. 2015) - 1941 – Hans W. Geißendörfer, German director and producer - 1941 – Angeliki Laiou, Greek-American Byzantinist and politician (d. 2008) - 1941 – Don Prudhomme, American race car driver and manager - 1941 – Gheorghe Zamfir, Romanian flute player and composer - 1942 – Barry Levinson, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter - 1942 – Anita Pallenberg, Italian-English model, actress, and fashion designer (d. 2017) - 1943 – Max Clifford, English journalist and publicist (d. 2017) - 1943 – Roger Cook, New Zealand-English journalist and academic - 1943 – Ian MacRae, New Zealand rugby player - 1943 – Mitchell Melton, American lawyer and politician (d. 2013) - 1944 – Felicity Palmer, English operatic soprano - 1945 – Rodney Bickerstaffe, English trade union leader (d. 2017) - 1945 – Peter Hill, English journalist - 1946 – Paul Beresford, New Zealand-English dentist and politician - 1947 – John Ratzenberger, American actor and director - 1947 – André Weinfeld, French-American director, producer, and screenwriter - 1947 – Mike Worboys, English mathematician and computer scientist - 1949 – Alyson Bailes, English academic and diplomat (d. 2016) - 1949 – Patrick Hernandez, French singer-songwriter - 1949 – Ng Ser Miang, Singaporean athlete, entrepreneur and diplomat - 1949 – Horst Ludwig Störmer, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate - 1950 – Claire Morissette, Canadian cycling activist (d. 2007) - 1950 – Cleo Odzer, American anthropologist and author (d. 2001) - 1951 – Bert Blyleven, Dutch-American baseball player and sportscaster - 1951 – Jean-Marc Boivin, French skier, mountaineer, and pilot (d. 1990) - 1951 – Pascal Rogé, French pianist - 1952 – Udo Dirkschneider, German singer-songwriter - 1952 – Marilu Henner, Greek-Polish American actress and author - 1952 – Michel Larocque, Canadian ice hockey player and manager (d. 1992) - 1953 – Patrick Doyle, Scottish actor and composer - 1953 – Christopher Franke, German-American drummer and songwriter - 1955 – Rob Epstein, American director and producer - 1955 – Michael Rooker, American actor, director, and producer - 1955 – Cathy Jones, Canadian actress, comedian, and writer - 1956 – Michele Bachmann, American lawyer and politician - 1956 – Normand Corbeil, Canadian composer (d. 2013) - 1956 – Mudassar Nazar, Pakistani cricketer - 1956 – Lee Scott, English politician - 1956 – Sebastian Spreng, Argentinian-American painter and journalist - 1956 – Dilip Vengsarkar, Indian cricketer and coach - 1957 – Giorgio Damilano, Italian race walker and coach - 1957 – Maurizio Damilano, Italian race walker and coach - 1957 – Jaroslava Maxová, Czech soprano and educator - 1957 – Paolo Nespoli, Italian soldier, engineer, and astronaut - 1958 – Graeme Base, Australian author and illustrator - 1959 – Gail Shea, Canadian politician - 1960 – Warren Haynes, American singer-songwriter and guitarist - 1960 – Richard Loe, New Zealand rugby player - 1960 – John Pizzarelli, American singer-songwriter and guitarist - 1961 – Rory Bremner, Scottish impressionist and comedian - 1961 – Peter Jackson, English footballer and manager - 1962 – Iris Häussler, German sculptor and academic - 1962 – Marco Schällibaum, Swiss footballer, coach, and manager - 1963 – Rafael Correa, Ecuadorian economist and politician, 54th President of Ecuador - 1964 – David Woodard, American conductor and writer - 1965 – Black Francis, American singer-songwriter and guitarist - 1965 – Sterling Sharpe, American football player and sportscaster - 1966 – Vince Flynn, American author (d. 2013) - 1966 – Young Man Kang, South Korean-American director and producer - 1967 – Julian Anderson, English composer and educator - 1967 – Kathleen Barr, Canadian voice actress and singer - 1967 – Tanya Byron, English psychologist and academic - 1967 – Jonathan Firth, English actor - 1968 – Archon Fung, American political scientist, author, and academic - 1968 – Affonso Giaffone, Brazilian race car driver - 1969 – Bret Boone, American baseball player and manager - 1969 – Bison Dele, American basketball player (d. 2002) - 1969 – Philipp Peter, Austrian race car driver - 1969 – Paul Rudd, American actor - 1969 – Spencer Wells, American geneticist and anthropologist - 1970 – Olaf Kölzig, South African-German ice hockey player and coach - 1970 – Roy Mayorga, American drummer, songwriter, and producer - 1970 – Huang Xiaomin, Chinese swimmer - 1972 – Anders Thomas Jensen, Danish director and screenwriter - 1972 – Dickey Simpkins, American basketball player and sportscaster - 1973 – Donnie Edwards, American football player - 1973 – Randall Godfrey, American football player - 1973 – Rie Miyazawa, Japanese model and actress - 1973 – Sun Wen, Chinese footballer - 1975 – Zach Braff, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter - 1975 – Hal Gill, American ice hockey player - 1976 – Candace Cameron Bure, American actress and talk show panelist - 1976 – James Fox, Welsh singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor - 1976 – Chris Hoke, American football player - 1976 – Georg Hólm, Icelandic bass player - 1976 – Hirotada Ototake, Japanese author and educator - 1977 – Ville Nieminen, Finnish ice hockey player - 1977 – Andy Phillips, American baseball player and coach - 1978 – Imani Coppola, American singer-songwriter and violinist - 1978 – Robert Glasper, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer - 1978 – Tim Hasselbeck, American football player and sportscaster - 1978 – Myleene Klass, Austrian/Filipino-English singer, pianist, and model - 1978 – Martín Méndez, Uruguayan bass player and songwriter - 1978 – Blaine Neal, American baseball player - 1978 – Igor Semshov, Russian footballer - 1979 – Lord Frederick Windsor, English journalist and financier - 1979 – Clay Travis, American sports journalist, blogger, and broadcaster - 1980 – Tommi Evilä, Finnish long jumper - 1980 – Tanja Poutiainen, Finnish skier - 1980 – Antonio Thomas, American wrestler - 1981 – Robert Earnshaw, Welsh footballer - 1981 – Jeff Faine, American football player - 1981 – Lucas Licht, Argentine footballer - 1981 – Alex Suarez, American bass player - 1982 – Travis Moen, Canadian ice hockey player - 1982 – Miguel Ángel Silvestre, Spanish actor - 1983 – Mehdi Ballouchy, Moroccan footballer - 1983 – Jerome Kaino, New Zealand rugby player - 1983 – Mitsuru Nagata, Japanese footballer - 1983 – Remi Nicole, English singer-songwriter and actress - 1983 – James Wade, English darts player - 1983 – Katie Weatherston, Canadian ice hockey player - 1984 – Max Bemis, American singer-songwriter - 1984 – Michaël Ciani, French footballer - 1984 – Siboniso Gaxa, South African footballer - 1984 – Diana Matheson, Canadian soccer player - 1985 – Clarke MacArthur, Canadian ice hockey player - 1985 – Frank Ongfiang, Cameroonian footballer - 1985 – Sinqua Walls, American basketball player and actor - 1986 – Nikolas Asprogenis, Cypriot footballer - 1986 – Aaron Curry, American football player - 1986 – Goeido Gotaro, Japanese sumo wrestler - 1986 – Ryota Moriwaki, Japanese footballer - 1987 – Benjamin Corgnet, French footballer - 1987 – Heidi Mount, American model - 1987 – Juan Adriel Ochoa, Mexican footballer - 1987 – Levi Porter, English footballer - 1987 – Hilary Rhoda, American model - 1988 – Jucilei, Brazilian footballer - 1988 – Leigh Adams, Australian footballer - 1988 – Daniele Gasparetto, Italian footballer - 1988 – Carlton Mitchell, American football player - 1988 – Fabrice Muamba, Congolese-English footballer - 1988 – Ivonne Orsini, Puerto Rican model and television host, Miss World Puerto Rico 2008 - 1990 – Lachlan Coote, Australian rugby league player - 1990 – Charlie McDermott, American actor - 1990 – Andrei Veis, Estonian footballer - 1992 – Ken, South Korean singer - 1992 – Julie Ertz, American soccer player - 1994 – Adrián Alonso, Mexican actor - 1995 – Darya Lebesheva, Belarusian tennis player - 1998 – Peyton List, American actress and model - 1998 – Spencer List, American actor - 2000 – Shaheen Afridi, Pakistani cricketer - 2002 – Andrea Botez, Canadian-American chess player, commentator, Twitch streamer and YouTuber - 2002 – Leyre Romero Gormaz, Spanish tennis player - 2009 – Shaylee Mansfield, deaf American actress and YouTuber - 2009 – Valentina Tronel, French child singer ==Deaths== ===Pre–1600=== * 861 – Prudentius, bishop of Troyes - 885 – Saint Methodius, Byzantine missionary and saint (b. 815) - 887 – Pei Che, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty - 943 – Liu Churang, Chinese general and chief of staff (b. 881) - 943 – Nasr II, ruler ("amir") of the Samanid Empire (b. 906) - 1147 – Frederick II, duke of Swabia (b. 1090) - 1199 – Richard I, king of England (b. 1157) - 1231 – William Marshal, 2nd Earl of Pembroke - 1250 – Guillaume de Sonnac, Grand Master of the Knights Templar - 1252 – Peter of Verona, Italian priest and saint (b. 1206) - 1340 – Basil, emperor of Trebizond (Turkey) - 1362 – James I, count of La Marche (b. 1319) - 1376 – Preczlaw of Pogarell, Cardinal and Bishop of Wrocław (b. 1310) - 1490 – Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary and Croatia from 1458 to 1490 (b. 1443) - 1520 – Raphael, Italian painter and architect (b. 1483) - 1523 – Henry Stafford, 1st Earl of Wiltshire, English nobleman (b. 1479) - 1528 – Albrecht Dürer, German painter, engraver, and mathematician (b. 1471) - 1551 – Joachim Vadian, Swiss scholar and politician (b. 1484) - 1571 – John Hamilton, Scottish archbishop and academic (b. 1512) - 1590 – Francis Walsingham, English politician and diplomat, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (b. 1532) - 1593 – Henry Barrowe, English Puritan and separatist (b. 1550) ===1601–1900=== *1605 – John Stow, English historian and author (b. 1525) - 1621 – Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford (b. 1539) - 1641 – Domenico Zampieri (Domenichino), Italian painter (b. 1581) - 1655 – David Blondel, French minister, historian, and scholar (b. 1591) - 1670 – Leonora Baroni, Italian composer (b. 1611) - 1676 – John Winthrop the Younger, English politician, 1st Governor of Connecticut (b. 1606) - 1686 – Arthur Annesley, 1st Earl of Anglesey, Irish-English politician (b. 1614) - 1707 – Willem van de Velde the Younger, Dutch-English painter (b. 1633) - 1755 – Richard Rawlinson, English minister and historian (b. 1690) - 1790 – Louis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt (b. 1719) - 1825 – Vladimir Borovikovsky, Ukrainian-Russian painter and educator (b. 1757) - 1827 – Nikolis Apostolis, Greek naval commander during the Greek War of Independence (b. 1770) - 1829 – Niels Henrik Abel, Norwegian mathematician and theorist (b. 1802) - 1833 – Adamantios Korais, Greek philosopher and scholar (b. 1748) - 1838 – José Bonifácio de Andrada, Brazilian poet, academic, and politician (b. 1763) - 1860 – James Kirke Paulding, American author and politician, 11th United States Secretary of the Navy (b. 1778) - 1862 – Albert Sidney Johnston, American general (b. 1803) - 1883 – Benjamin Wright Raymond, American merchant and politician, 3rd Mayor of Chicago (b. 1801) - 1886 – William Edward Forster, English businessman, philanthropist, and politician, Chief Secretary for Ireland (b. 1818) - 1899 – Alvan Wentworth Chapman, American physician and botanist (b. 1809) ===1901–present=== *1906 – Alexander Kielland, Norwegian author, playwright, and politician, 6th County Governor of Møre og Romsdal (b. 1849) - 1913 – Somerset Lowry-Corry, 4th Earl Belmore (b. 1835) - 1927 – Florence Earle Coates, American poet (b. 1850) - 1935 – Edwin Arlington Robinson, American poet and playwright (b. 1869) - 1944 – Rose O'Neill, American cartoonist, illustrator, artist, and writer (b. 1874) - 1947 – Herbert Backe, German agronomist and politician (b. 1896) - 1950 – Louis Wilkins, American pole vaulter (b. 1882) - 1953 – Idris Davies, Welsh poet and author (b. 1905) - 1959 – Leo Aryeh Mayer, Polish-Israeli scholar and academic (b. 1895) - 1961 – Jules Bordet, Belgian microbiologist and immunologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1870) - 1963 – Otto Struve, Ukrainian-American astronomer and academic (b. 1897) - 1970 – Maurice Stokes, American basketball player (b. 1933) - 1971 – Igor Stravinsky, Russian-American pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1882) - 1974 – Willem Marinus Dudok, Dutch architect (b. 1884) - 1974 – Hudson Fysh, Australian pilot and businessman, co-founded Qantas Airways Limited (b. 1895) - 1977 – Kōichi Kido, Japanese politician, 13th Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal of Japan (b. 1889) - 1979 – Ivan Vasilyov, Bulgarian architect, designed the SS. Cyril and Methodius National Library (b. 1893) - 1983 – Jayanto Nath Chaudhuri, Indian General who served as the Chief of Army Staff of the Indian Army from 1962 to 1966 and the Military Governor of Hyderabad State from 1948 to 1949. (b. 1908) - 1992 – Isaac Asimov, American science fiction writer (b. 1920) - 1994 – Juvénal Habyarimana, Rwandan banker and politician, 3rd President of Rwanda (b. 1937) - 1994 – Cyprien Ntaryamira, Burundian politician, 5th President of Burundi (b. 1955) - 1995 – Ioannis Alevras, Greek banker and politician, President of Greece (b. 1912) - 1996 – Greer Garson, English-American actress (b. 1904) - 1998 – Norbert Schmitz, German footballer (b. 1958) - 1998 – Tammy Wynette, American singer-songwriter (b. 1942) - 1999 – Red Norvo, American vibraphone player and composer (b. 1908) - 2000 – Habib Bourguiba, Tunisian politician, 1st President of Tunisia (b. 1903) - 2001 – Charles Pettigrew, American singer-songwriter (b. 1963) - 2003 – David Bloom, American journalist (b. 1963) - 2003 – Anita Borg, American computer scientist and educator; founded Anita Borg Institute for Women and Technology (b. 1949) - 2003 – Gerald Emmett Carter, Canadian cardinal (b. 1912) - 2003 – Babatunde Olatunji, Nigerian drummer, educator, and activist (b. 1927) - 2003 – Dino Yannopoulos, Greek stage director of the Metropolitan Opera (b. 1919) - 2004 – Lou Berberet, American baseball player (b. 1929) - 2004 – Larisa Bogoraz, Russian linguist and activist (b. 1929) - 2005 – Rainier III, Prince of Monaco (b. 1923) - 2005 – Anthony F. DePalma, American orthopedic surgeon and professor (b. 1904) - 2006 – Maggie Dixon, American basketball player and coach (b. 1977) - 2006 – Francis L. Kellogg, American soldier and diplomat (b. 1917) - 2006 – Stefanos Stratigos, Greek actor and director (b. 1926) - 2007 – Luigi Comencini, Italian director and producer (b. 1916) - 2009 – J. M. S. Careless, Canadian historian and academic (b. 1919) - 2009 – Shawn Mackay, Australian rugby player and coach (b. 1982) - 2010 – Wilma Mankiller, American tribal leader (b. 1945) - 2010 – Corin Redgrave, English actor (b. 1939) - 2011 – Gerald Finnerman, American director and cinematographer (b. 1931) - 2012 – Roland Guilbault, American admiral (b. 1934) - 2012 – Thomas Kinkade, American painter and illustrator (b. 1958) - 2012 – Fang Lizhi, Chinese astrophysicist and academic (b. 1936) - 2012 – Sheila Scotter, Australian fashion designer and journalist (b. 1920) - 2012 – Reed Whittemore, American poet and critic (b. 1919) - 2013 – Hilda Bynoe, Grenadian physician and politician, 2nd Governor of Grenada (b. 1921) - 2013 – Bill Guttridge, English footballer and manager (b. 1931) - 2013 – Bigas Luna, Spanish director and screenwriter (b. 1946) - 2013 – Ottmar Schreiner, German lawyer and politician (b. 1946) - 2014 – Mary Anderson, American actress (b. 1918) - 2014 – Jacques Castérède, French pianist and composer (b. 1926) - 2014 – Liv Dommersnes, Norwegian actress (b. 1922) - 2014 – Mickey Rooney, American soldier, actor, and dancer (b. 1920) - 2014 – Chuck Stone, American soldier, journalist, and academic (b. 1924) - 2014 – Massimo Tamburini, Italian motorcycle designer, co-founded Bimota (b. 1943) - 2015 – Giovanni Berlinguer, Italian lawyer and politician (b. 1924) - 2015 – James Best, American actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1926) - 2015 – Ray Charles, American singer-songwriter and conductor (b. 1918) - 2015 – Dollard St. Laurent, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1929) - 2016 – Merle Haggard, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1937) - 2017 – Don Rickles, American actor and comedian (b. 1926) - 2019 – Michael O'Donnell, British physician, journalist, author and broadcaster (b. 1928) - 2020 – Al Kaline, American baseball player, broadcaster and executive (b.1934) - 2021 – Hans Küng, Swiss Catholic priest, theologian, and author (b. 1928) - 2022 – Vladimir Zhirinovsky, Russian and Soviet politician (b. 1946) - 2022 – Jill Knight, British politician (b. 1923) ==Holidays and observances== *Chakri Day, commemorating the establishment of the Chakri dynasty. (Thailand) - Christian feast day: - Albrecht Dürer and Lucas Cranach (Lutheran Church). - Brychan - Eutychius of Constantinople (Eastern Orthodox Church) - Marcellinus of Carthage - Pope Sixtus I - April 6 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) - International Day of Sport for Development and Peace - National Fisherman Day (Indonesia) - New Beer's Eve (United States) - Tartan Day (United States & Canada) - Waltzing Matilda Day (Australia) - International Asexuality Day ==Other== * April 6 Youth Movement - (starts 6April)

1009

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1009

April 12

==Events== ===Pre-1600=== * 240 – Shapur I becomes co-emperor of the Sasanian Empire with his father Ardashir I. - 467 – Anthemius is elevated to Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. - 627 – King Edwin of Northumbria is converted to Christianity by Paulinus, bishop of York. - 1012 – Duke Oldřich of Bohemia deposes and blinds his brother Jaromír, who flees to Poland. - 1204 – The Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade breach the walls of Constantinople and enter the city, which they completely occupy the following day. ===1601–1900=== *1606 – The Union Flag is adopted as the flag of English and Scottish ships. - 1776 – American Revolution: With the Halifax Resolves, the North Carolina Provincial Congress authorizes its Congressional delegation to vote for independence from Britain. - 1807 – The Froberg mutiny on Malta ends when the remaining mutineers blow up the magazine of Fort Ricasoli. - 1820 – Alexander Ypsilantis is declared leader of Filiki Eteria, a secret organization to overthrow Ottoman rule over Greece. - 1831 – Soldiers marching on the Broughton Suspension Bridge in Manchester, England, cause it to collapse. - 1861 – American Civil War: Battle of Fort Sumter. The war begins with Confederate forces firing on Fort Sumter, in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. - 1862 – American Civil War: The Andrews Raid (the Great Locomotive Chase) occurs, starting from Big Shanty, Georgia (now Kennesaw). - 1864 – American Civil War: The Battle of Fort Pillow: Confederate forces kill most of the African American soldiers that surrendered at Fort Pillow, Tennessee. - 1865 – American Civil War: Mobile, Alabama, falls to the Union Army. - 1877 – The United Kingdom annexes the Transvaal. - 1900 – One day after its enactment by the Congress, President William McKinley signs the Foraker Act into law, giving Puerto Rico limited self-rule. ===1901–present=== *1910 – , one of the last pre-dreadnought battleships built by the Austro-Hungarian Navy, is launched. - 1917 – World War I: Canadian forces successfully complete the taking of Vimy Ridge from the Germans. - 1927 – Shanghai massacre of 1927: Chiang Kai-shek orders the Chinese Communist Party members executed in Shanghai, ending the First United Front. - 1927 – Rocksprings, Texas is hit by an F5 tornado that destroys 235 of the 247 buildings in the town, kills 72 townspeople and injures 205; third deadliest tornado in Texas history. - 1928 – The "Bremen", a German Junkers W 33 type aircraft, takes off for the first successful transatlantic aeroplane flight from east to west. - 1934 – The strongest surface wind gust in the world at the time of 231 mph, is measured on the summit of Mount Washington, New Hampshire. It has since been surpassed. - 1934 – The U.S. Auto-Lite strike begins, culminating in a five-day melee between Ohio National Guard troops and 6,000 strikers and picketers. - 1937 – Sir Frank Whittle ground-tests the first jet engine designed to power an aircraft, at Rugby, England. - 1945 – U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt dies in office; Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes President upon Roosevelt's death. - 1945 – World War II: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg, and reaches Tangermünde—only 50 miles from Berlin. - 1955 – The polio vaccine, developed by Dr. Jonas Salk, is declared safe and effective. - 1961 – Space Race: The Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin becomes the first human to travel into outer space and perform the first crewed orbital flight, Vostok 1. - 1963 – The Soviet nuclear-powered submarine "K-33" collides with the Finnish merchant vessel M/S "Finnclipper" in the Danish straits. - 1970 – Soviet submarine "K-8", carrying four nuclear torpedoes, sinks in the Bay of Biscay four days after a fire on board. - 1980 – The Americo-Liberian government of Liberia is violently deposed. - 1980 – Transbrasil Flight 303, a Boeing 727, crashes on approach to Hercílio Luz International Airport, in Florianópolis, Brazil. Fifty-five out of the 58 people on board are killed. - 1980 – Canadian runner and athlete, Terry Fox begins his Marathon of Hope Run in St. John's, NF - 1981 – The first launch of a Space Shuttle ("Columbia") takes place: The STS-1 mission. - 1983 – Harold Washington is elected as the first black mayor of Chicago. - 1990 – Jim Gary's "Twentieth Century Dinosaurs" exhibition opens at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. He is the only sculptor ever invited to present a solo exhibition there. - 1990 – Widerøe Flight 839 crashes after takeoff from Værøy Airport in Norway, killing five people. - 1992 – The "Euro Disney Resort" officially opens with its theme park "Euro Disneyland"; the resort and its park's name are subsequently changed to Disneyland Paris. - 1999 – United States President Bill Clinton is cited for contempt of court for giving "intentionally false statements" in a civil lawsuit; he is later fined and disbarred. - 2002 – A suicide bomber blows herself up at the entrance to Jerusalem's Mahane Yehuda Market, killing seven people and wounding 104. - 2007 – A suicide bomber penetrates the Green Zone and detonates in a cafeteria within a parliament building, killing Iraqi MP Mohammed Awad and wounding more than twenty other people. - 2009 – Zimbabwe officially abandons the Zimbabwean dollar as its official currency. - 2010 – Merano derailment: A rail accident in South Tyrol kills nine people and injures a further 28. - 2013 – Two suicide bombers kill three Chadian soldiers and injure dozens of civilians at a market in Kidal, Mali. - 2014 – The Great Fire of Valparaíso ravages the Chilean city of Valparaíso, killing 16 people, displacing nearly 10,000, and destroying over 2,000 homes. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== * 811 – Muhammad al-Jawad, the ninth Imam of Shia Islam (d. 835) - 959 – En'yū, emperor of Japan (d. 991) - 1116 – Richeza of Poland, queen of Sweden and Grand Princess of Minsk (d. 1156) - 1432 – Anne of Austria, Landgravine of Thuringia (d. 1462) - 1484 – Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, Italian architect, designed the Apostolic Palace and St. Peter's Basilica (d. 1546) - 1484 – Maharana Sangram Singh, Rana of Mewar (d. 1527) - 1500 – Joachim Camerarius, German scholar and translator (d. 1574) - 1526 – Muretus, French philosopher and author (d. 1585) - 1550 – Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford, English courtier and politician, Lord Great Chamberlain (d. 1604) - 1577 – Christian IV of Denmark (d. 1648) ===1601–1900=== *1612 – Simone Cantarini, Italian painter and engraver (d. 1648) - 1639 – Martin Lister, English naturalist and physician (d. 1712) - 1656 – Benoît de Maillet, French diplomat and natural historian (d. 1738) - 1705 – William Cookworthy, English minister and pharmacist (d. 1780) - 1710 – Caffarelli, Italian actor and singer (d. 1783) - 1713 – Guillaume Thomas François Raynal, French historian and author (d. 1796) - 1716 – Felice Giardini, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1796) - 1722 – Pietro Nardini, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1793) - 1724 – Lyman Hall, American physician, clergyman, and politician, 16th Governor of Georgia (d. 1790) - 1748 – Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, French botanist and author (d. 1836) - 1777 – Henry Clay, American lawyer and politician, 9th United States Secretary of State (d. 1852) - 1792 – John Lambton, 1st Earl of Durham, English soldier and politician, Lord Privy Seal (d. 1840) - 1794 – Germinal Pierre Dandelin, Belgian mathematician and engineer (d. 1847) - 1796 – George N. Briggs, American lawyer and politician, 19th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1861) - 1799 – Henri Druey, Swiss lawyer and politician, 2nd President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 1855) - 1801 – Joseph Lanner, Austrian composer and conductor (d. 1843) - 1816 – Charles Gavan Duffy, Irish-Australian politician, 8th Premier of Victoria (d. 1903) - 1823 – Alexander Ostrovsky, Russian playwright and translator (d. 1886) - 1839 – Nikolay Przhevalsky, Russian geographer and explorer (d. 1888) - 1845 – Gustaf Cederström, Swedish painter (d. 1933) - 1851 – José Gautier Benítez, Puerto Rican soldier and poet (d. 1880) - 1851 – Edward Walter Maunder, English astronomer and author (d. 1928) - 1852 – Ferdinand von Lindemann, German mathematician and academic (d. 1939) - 1856 – Martin Conway, 1st Baron Conway of Allington, English mountaineer, cartographer, and politician (d. 1937) - 1863 – Raul Pompeia, Brazilian writer (d. 1895) - 1868 – Akiyama Saneyuki, Japanese admiral (d. 1918) - 1869 – Henri Désiré Landru, French serial killer (d. 1922) - 1871 – Ioannis Metaxas, Greek general and politician, 130th Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1941) - 1874 – William B. Bankhead, American lawyer and politician, 47th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (d. 1940) - 1880 – Addie Joss, American baseball player and journalist (d. 1911) - 1883 – Imogen Cunningham, American photographer and educator (d. 1976) - 1883 – Dally Messenger, Australian rugby player, cricketer, and sailor (d. 1959) - 1884 – Tenby Davies, Welsh runner (d. 1932) - 1884 – Otto Meyerhof, German physician and biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1951) - 1885 – Robert Delaunay, French painter (d. 1941) - 1887 – Harold Lockwood, American actor and director (d. 1918) - 1888 – Dan Ahearn, Irish-American long jumper and police officer (d. 1942) - 1888 – Cecil Kimber, English automobile engineer (d. 1945) - 1892 – Henry Darger, American writer and artist (d. 1973) - 1894 – Dorothy Cumming, Australian-American actress (d. 1983) - 1894 – Francisco Craveiro Lopes, Portuguese field marshal and politician, 13th President of Portugal (d. 1964) - 1898 – Lily Pons, French-American soprano and actress (d. 1976) ===1901–present=== *1901 – Lowell Stockman, American farmer and politician (d. 1962) - 1902 – Louis Beel, Dutch academic and politician, 36th Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 1977) - 1903 – Jan Tinbergen, Dutch economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1994) - 1907 – Zawgyi, Burmese poet, author, literary historian, critic, scholar and academic (d. 1990) - 1907 – Felix de Weldon, Austrian-American sculptor, designed the Marine Corps War Memorial (d. 2003) - 1908 – Ida Pollock, English author and painter (d. 2013) - 1908 – Robert Lee Scott, Jr., American pilot and general (d. 2006) - 1910 – Gillo Dorfles, Italian art critic, painter and philosopher (d. 2018) - 1910 – Irma Rapuzzi, French politician (d. 2018) - 1911 – Mahmoud Younis, Egyptian engineer (d. 1976) - 1912 – Frank Dilio, Canadian businessman (d. 1997) - 1912 – Hamengkubuwono IX, Indonesian politician, 2nd Vice President of Indonesia (d. 1988) - 1912 – Hound Dog Taylor, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1975) - 1913 – Keiko Fukuda, Japanese-American martial artist (d. 2013) - 1914 – Armen Alchian, American economist and academic (d. 2013) - 1916 – Beverly Cleary, American author (d. 2021) - 1916 – Russell Garcia, American-New Zealander composer and conductor (d. 2011) - 1916 – Benjamin Libet, American neuropsychologist and academic (d. 2007) - 1917 – Helen Forrest, American singer and actress (d. 1999) - 1917 – Vinoo Mankad, Indian cricketer (d. 1978) - 1917 – Robert Manzon, French racing driver (d. 2015) - 1919 – István Anhalt, Hungarian-Canadian composer and educator (d. 2012) - 1919 – Billy Vaughn, American musician and bandleader (d. 1991) - 1921 – Robert Cliche, Canadian lawyer, judge, and politician (d. 1978) - 1922 – Simon Kapwepwe, Zambian politician, 2nd Vice President of Zambia (d. 1980) - 1923 – Ann Miller, American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2004) - 1924 – Raymond Barre, French economist and politician, Prime Minister of France (d. 2007) - 1924 – Peter Safar, Austrian physician and academic (d. 2003) - 1924 – Curtis Turner, American race car driver (d. 1970) - 1925 – Evelyn Berezin, American computer scientist and engineer (d. 2018) - 1925 – Ned Miller, American country music singer and songwriter (d. 2016) - 1925 – Oliver Postgate, English animator, puppeteer, and screenwriter (d. 2008) - 1926 – Jane Withers, American actress (d. 2021) - 1927 – Thomas Hemsley, English baritone (d. 2013) - 1927 – Alvin Sargent, American screenwriter (d. 2019) - 1928 – Hardy Krüger, German actor (d. 2022) - 1928 – Jean-François Paillard, French conductor (d. 2013) - 1929 – Elspet Gray, Scottish actress (d. 2013) - 1929 – Mukhran Machavariani, Georgian poet and educator (d. 2010) - 1930 – John Landy, Australian runner and politician, 26th Governor of Victoria (d. 2022) - 1930 – Bryan Magee, English philosopher and politician (d. 2019) - 1930 – Manuel Neri, American sculptor and painter (d. 2021) - 1930 – Pythagoras Papastamatiou, Greek lyricist and playwright (d. 1979) - 1930 – Michał Życzkowski, Polish technician and educator (d. 2006) - 1931 – Leonid Derbenyov, Russian poet and songwriter (d. 1995) - 1932 – Lakshman Kadirgamar, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician, 5th Sri Lankan Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 2005) - 1932 – Jean-Pierre Marielle, French actor (d. 2019) - 1932 – Tiny Tim, American singer and ukulele player (d. 1996) - 1933 – Montserrat Caballé, Spanish soprano and actress (d. 2018) - 1934 – Heinz Schneiter, Swiss footballer and manager (d. 2017) - 1935 – Jimmy Makulis, Greek singer (d. 2007) - 1936 – Tony Earl, American politician, 40th Governor of Wisconsin (d. 2023) - 1936 – Charles Napier, American actor (d. 2011) - 1936 – Kennedy Simmonds, Kittitian politician, 4th Prime Minister of Saint Kitts and Nevis - 1937 – Dennis Banks, American author and activist (d. 2017) - 1937 – Igor Volk, Ukrainian-Russian colonel, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2017) - 1939 – Alan Ayckbourn, English director and playwright - 1939 – Johnny Raper, Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2022) - 1940 – Woodie Fryman, American baseball player (d. 2011) - 1940 – Herbie Hancock, American pianist, composer, and bandleader - 1941 – Bobby Moore, English footballer and manager (d. 1993) - 1942 – Bill Bryden, Scottish actor, director, and screenwriter - 1942 – Carlos Reutemann, Argentinian race car driver and politician (d. 2021) - 1942 – Jacob Zuma, South African politician, 4th President of South Africa - 1943 – Sumitra Mahajan, Indian politician, 16th Speaker of the Lok Sabha - 1944 – Lisa Jardine, English historian, author, and academic (d. 2015) - 1944 – John Kay, German-Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer - 1945 – Lee Jong-wook, South Korean physician and diplomat (d. 2006) - 1946 – John Dunsworth, Canadian actor and comedian (d. 2017) - 1946 – Ed O'Neill, American actor and comedian - 1946 – George Robertson, Baron Robertson of Port Ellen, Scottish politician and diplomat, 10th Secretary General of NATO - 1947 – Roy M. Anderson, English epidemiologist, zoologist, and academic - 1947 – Martin Brasier, English palaeontologist, biologist, and academic (d. 2014) - 1947 – Tom Clancy, American historian and author (d. 2013) - 1947 – David Letterman, American comedian and talk show host - 1948 – Jeremy Beadle, English television host and producer (d. 2008) - 1948 – Joschka Fischer, German academic and politician - 1948 – Christos Iakovou, Greek weightlifter - 1948 – Marcello Lippi, Italian footballer, manager, and coach - 1949 – Scott Turow, American lawyer and author - 1950 – Flavio Briatore, Italian businessman - 1950 – David Cassidy, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2017) - 1950 – Joyce Banda, Malawian politician, 4th president of Malawi - 1950 – Nicholas Sackman, English composer and educator - 1951 – Tom Noonan, American actor - 1952 – Reuben Gant, American football player - 1952 – Leicester Rutledge, New Zealand rugby player - 1952 – Gary Soto, American poet, novelist, and memoirist - 1952 – Ralph Wiley, American journalist (d. 2004) - 1953 – Tanino Liberatore, Italian author and illustrator - 1954 – John Faulkner, Australian educator and politician, 52nd Australian Minister for Defence - 1954 – Steve Stevaert, Belgian businessman and politician (d. 2015) - 1954 – Pat Travers, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist - 1955 – Fabian Hamilton, English graphic designer, engineer, and politician - 1956 – Andy Garcia, Cuban-American actor, director, and producer - 1956 – Herbert Grönemeyer, German singer-songwriter and actor - 1957 – Greg Child, Australian mountaineer and author - 1957 – Vince Gill, American singer-songwriter and guitarist - 1957 – Tama Janowitz, American novelist and short story writer - 1958 – Will Sergeant, English guitarist - 1958 – Klaus Tafelmeier, German javelin thrower - 1958 – Ginka Zagorcheva, Bulgarian hurdler - 1960 – David Thirdkill, American basketball player - 1961 – Corrado Fabi, Italian racing driver - 1961 – Charles Mann, American football player and sportscaster - 1961 – Magda Szubanski, English-Australian actress, comedian and writer - 1962 – Art Alexakis, American singer-songwriter and musician - 1962 – Carlos Sainz, Spanish racing driver - 1962 – Nobuhiko Takada, Japanese mixed martial artist and wrestler, founded Hustle - 1963 – Lydia Cacho, Mexican journalist and author - 1964 – Chris Fairclough, English footballer and coach - 1964 – Amy Ray, American folk-rock singer-songwriter, musician, and music producer - 1965 – Kim Bodnia, Danish actor and director - 1965 – Chi Onwurah, English politician - 1965 – Gervais Rufyikiri, Burundian politician - 1965 – Mihai Stoica, Romanian footballer and manager - 1966 – Nils-Olav Johansen, Norwegian guitarist and singer - 1966 – Lorenzo White, American football player - 1967 – Sarah Cracknell, English singer-songwriter - 1968 – Alicia Coppola, American actress - 1968 – Toby Gad, German songwriter and producer - 1968 – Adam Graves, Canadian ice hockey player - 1969 – Jörn Lenz, German footballer and manager - 1969 – Lucas Radebe, South African footballer and sportscaster - 1969 – Michael Jackson, American football player and politician (d. 2017) - 1970 – Sylvain Bouchard, Canadian speed skater - 1971 – Nicholas Brendon, American actor - 1971 – Shannen Doherty, American actress, director, and producer - 1972 – Paul Lo Duca, American baseball player and sportscaster - 1973 – J. Scott Campbell, American author and illustrator - 1973 – Ryan Kisor, American trumpet player and composer - 1973 – Antonio Osuna, Mexican-American baseball player - 1973 – Christian Panucci, Italian footballer and manager - 1974 – Belinda Emmett, Australian actress (d. 2006) - 1974 – Bryan Fletcher, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster - 1974 – Roman Hamrlík, Czech ice hockey player - 1974 – Marley Shelton, American actress - 1974 – Sylvinho, Brazilian footballer and manager - 1976 – Olga Kotlyarova, Russian runner - 1976 – Brad Miller, American basketball player - 1977 – Giovanny Espinoza, Ecuadorian footballer - 1977 – Sarah Monahan, Australian actress - 1977 – Jason Price, Welsh footballer - 1977 – Glenn Rogers, Australian-Scottish cricketer - 1978 – Guy Berryman, Scottish bassist (Coldplay) - 1978 – Scott Crary, American director, producer, and screenwriter - 1978 – Svetlana Lapina, Russian high jumper - 1978 – Robin Walker, English businessman and politician - 1979 – Claire Danes, American actress - 1979 – Elena Grosheva, Russian gymnast - 1979 – Mateja Kežman, Serbian footballer - 1979 – Jennifer Morrison, American actress - 1979 – Cristian Ranalli, Italian footballer - 1979 – Lee Soo-young, South Korean singer - 1980 – Sara Head, Welsh Paralympic table tennis champion - 1980 – Brian McFadden, Irish singer-songwriter - 1981 – Yuriy Borzakovskiy, Russian runner - 1981 – Nicolás Burdisso, Argentinian footballer - 1981 – Tulsi Gabbard, American politician - 1981 – Grant Holt, English footballer and professional wrestler - 1981 – Hisashi Iwakuma, Japanese baseball pitcher - 1983 – Jelena Dokic, Serbian-Australian tennis player - 1983 – Luke Kibet, Kenyan runner - 1984 – Aleksey Dmitrik, Russian high jumper - 1985 – Brennan Boesch, American baseball player - 1985 – Hitomi Yoshizawa, Japanese singer - 1986 – Brad Brach, American baseball pitcher - 1986 – Blerim Džemaili, Swiss footballer - 1986 – Marcel Granollers, Spanish tennis player - 1986 – Jonathan Pitroipa, Burkinabé footballer - 1987 – Brooklyn Decker, American model and actress - 1987 – Shawn Gore, Canadian football player - 1987 – Josh McCrone, Australian rugby league player - 1987 – Luiz Adriano, Brazilian professional footballer - 1987 – Brendon Urie, American singer, songwriter, musician and multi-instrumentalist - 1988 – Ricky Álvarez, Argentinian footballer - 1988 – Stephen Brogan, English footballer - 1988 – Amedeo Calliari, Italian footballer - 1988 – Jessie James Decker, American singer-songwriter - 1988 – Moamen Zakaria, Egyptian footballer - 1989 – Bethan Dainton, Welsh rugby union player - 1989 – Miguel Ángel Ponce, American-Mexican footballer - 1989 – Ádám Hanga, Hungarian basketball player - 1989 – Kaitlyn Weaver, Canadian-American ice dancer - 1989 – Valentin Stocker, Swiss footballer - 1990 – Francesca Halsall, English swimmer - 1990 – Hiroki Sakai, Japanese footballer - 1991 – Torey Krug, American ice hockey player - 1991 – Lionel Carole, French professional footballer - 1991 – Oliver Norwood, English born Northern Irish international footballer - 1991 – Magnus Pääjärvi, Swedish ice hockey player - 1991 – Jazz Richards, Welsh international footballer - 1992 – Chad le Clos, South African swimmer - 1993 – Robin Anderson, American tennis player - 1993 – Jordan Archer, English-Scottish footballer - 1993 – Ryan Nugent-Hopkins, Canadian ice hockey player - 1994 – Isabelle Drummond, Brazilian actress and singer - 1994 – Saoirse Ronan, American-born Irish actress - 1994 – Oh Sehun, South Korean musician - 1994 – Eric Bailly, Ivorian professional footballer - 1994 – Guido Rodríguez, Argentine footballer - 1995 – Pedro Cachin, Argentine tennis player - 1996 – Matteo Berrettini, Italian tennis player - 1996 – Elizaveta Kulichkova, Russian tennis player ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== *45 BC – Gnaeus Pompeius, Roman general and politician (b. 75 BC) - 352 – Julius I, pope of the Catholic Church - 434 – Maximianus, archbishop of Constantinople - 901 – Eudokia Baïana, Byzantine empress and wife of Leo VI - 1125 – Vladislaus I, Duke of Bohemia (b. 1065) - 1167 – Charles VII, king of Sweden (b. c. 1130) - 1256 – Margaret of Bourbon, Queen of Navarre, regent of Navarre (b. c. 1217) - 1443 – Henry Chichele, English archbishop (b. 1364) - 1500 – Leonhard of Gorizia, Count of Gorz (b. 1440) - 1530 – Joanna La Beltraneja, Princess of Castile (b. 1462) - 1550 – Claude, Duke of Guise (b. 1496) - 1555 – Joanna, Queen of Castile and Aragon (b. 1479) ===1601–1900=== *1675 – Richard Bennett, English politician, colonial Governor of Virginia (b. 1609) - 1684 – Nicola Amati, Italian instrument maker (b. 1596) - 1687 – Ambrose Dixon, English-American soldier (b. 1619) - 1704 – Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet, French bishop and theologian (b. 1627) - 1748 – William Kent, English architect, designed Holkham Hall and Chiswick House (b. 1685) - 1782 – Metastasio, Italian-Austrian poet and composer (b. 1698) - 1788 – Carlo Antonio Campioni, French-Italian composer (b. 1719) - 1795 – Johann Kaspar Basselet von La Rosée, Bavarian general (b. 1710) - 1814 – Charles Burney, English composer and historian (b. 1726) - 1817 – Charles Messier, French astronomer and academic (b. 1730) - 1850 – Adoniram Judson, American lexicographer and missionary (b. 1788) - 1866 – Peter Hesketh-Fleetwood, English politician, founded Fleetwood (b. 1801) - 1872 – Nikolaos Mantzaros, Greek composer and theorist (b. 1795) - 1878 – William M. Tweed, American lawyer and politician (b. 1823) - 1879 – Richard Taylor, Confederate general (b. 1826) - 1885 – William Crowther, Dutch-Australian politician, 14th Premier of Tasmania (b. 1817) - 1898 – Elzéar-Alexandre Taschereau, Canadian cardinal (b. 1820) ===1901–present=== *1902 – Marie Alfred Cornu, French physicist and academic (b. 1842) - 1906 – Mahesh Chandra Nyayratna Bhattacharyya, Indian scholar, academic, and philanthropist (b. 1836) - 1912 – Clara Barton, American nurse and humanitarian, founded the American Red Cross (b. 1821) - 1933 – Adelbert Ames, American general and politician, 30th Governor of Mississippi (b. 1835) - 1937 – Abdülhak Hâmid Tarhan, Turkish playwright and poet (b. 1852) - 1938 – Feodor Chaliapin, Russian opera singer (b. 1873) - 1943 – Viktor Puskar, Estonian colonel (b. 1889) - 1945 – Franklin D. Roosevelt, American lawyer and politician, 32nd President of the United States (b. 1882) - 1953 – Lionel Logue, Australian actor and therapist (b. 1880) - 1962 – Ron Flockhart, Scottish racing driver (b. 1923) - 1966 – Sydney Allard, English racing driver and founder of the Allard car company (b. 1910) - 1968 – Heinrich Nordhoff, German engineer (b. 1899) - 1971 – Ed Lafitte, American baseball player and dentist (b. 1886) - 1973 – Arthur Freed, American songwriter and producer (b. 1894) - 1975 – Josephine Baker, French actress, activist, and humanitarian (b. 1906) - 1976 – Christos Kakkalos, Greek mountain guide (b. 1882) - 1977 – Philip K. Wrigley, American businessman, co-founded Lincoln Park Gun Club (b. 1894) - 1980 – William R. Tolbert, Jr., Liberian politician, 20th President of Liberia (b. 1913) - 1981 – Prince Yasuhiko Asaka of Japan (b. 1887) - 1981 – Joe Louis, American boxer and wrestler (b. 1914) - 1983 – Jørgen Juve, Norwegian football player and journalist (b. 1906) - 1983 – Carl Morton, American baseball player (b. 1944) - 1984 – Edwin T. Layton, American admiral and cryptanalyst (b. 1903) - 1986 – Valentin Kataev, Russian author and playwright (b. 1897) - 1988 – Colette Deréal, French singer and actress (b. 1927) - 1988 – Alan Paton, South African historian and author (b. 1903) - 1989 – Abbie Hoffman, American activist, co-founded Youth International Party (b. 1936) - 1989 – Sugar Ray Robinson, American boxer (b. 1921) - 1992 – Ilario Bandini, Italian racing driver and businessman (b. 1911) - 1997 – George Wald, American neurologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1906) - 1998 – Robert Ford, Canadian poet and diplomat (b. 1915) - 1999 – Boxcar Willie, American singer-songwriter (b. 1931) - 2001 – Harvey Ball, American illustrator, created the smiley (b. 1921) - 2002 – George Shevelov, Ukrainian-American linguist and philologist (b. 1908) - 2004 – Moran Campbell, Canadian physician and academic, invented the venturi mask (b. 1925) - 2006 – William Sloane Coffin, American minister and activist (b. 1924) - 2007 – Kevin Crease, Australian journalist (b. 1936) - 2008 – Cecilia Colledge, English-American figure skater and coach (b. 1920) - 2008 – Patrick Hillery, Irish physician and politician, 6th President of Ireland (b. 1923) - 2008 – Jerry Zucker, Israeli-American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1949) - 2010 – Michel Chartrand, Canadian trade union leader (b. 1916) - 2010 – Werner Schroeter, German director and screenwriter (b. 1945) - 2011 – Karim Fakhrawi, Bahraini journalist, co-founded "Al-Wasat" (b. 1962) - 2012 – Mohit Chattopadhyay, Indian poet and playwright (b. 1934) - 2012 – Rodgers Grant, American pianist and composer (b. 1935) - 2013 – Robert Byrne, American chess player and author (b. 1928) - 2013 – Johnny du Plooy, South African boxer (b. 1964) - 2013 – Michael France, American screenwriter (b. 1962) - 2013 – Brennan Manning, American priest and author (b. 1934) - 2013 – Annamária Szalai, Hungarian journalist and politician (b. 1961) - 2013 – Ya'akov Yosef, Israeli rabbi and politician (b. 1946) - 2014 – Pierre Autin-Grenier, French author and poet (b. 1947) - 2014 – Pierre-Henri Menthéour, French cyclist (b. 1960) - 2014 – Maurício Alves Peruchi, Brazilian footballer (b. 1990) - 2014 – Hal Smith, American baseball player and coach (b. 1931) - 2014 – Billy Standridge, American race car driver (b. 1953) - 2015 – Paulo Brossard, Brazilian jurist and politician (b. 1924) - 2015 – Patrice Dominguez, Algerian-French tennis player and trainer (b. 1950) - 2015 – Alfred Eick, German commander (b. 1916) - 2015 – André Mba Obame, Gabonese politician (b. 1957) - 2016 – Anne Jackson, American actress (b. 1925) - 2016 – Mohammad Al Gaz, Emirati politician & diplomat (b. 1930) - 2017 – Charlie Murphy, American actor and comedian (b. 1959) - 2020 – Tarvaris Jackson, American football player (b. 1983) - 2021 – Joseph Siravo, American actor and producer (b. 1955) - 2022 – Gilbert Gottfried, American comedian, actor, and singer (b. 1955) == Holidays and observances == * Children's Day (Bolivia) - Christian feast day: - Adoniram Judson (Episcopal Church) - Alferius - Blessed Angelo Carletti di Chivasso - Erkembode - Pope Julius I - Teresa of the Andes - Zeno of Verona - April 12 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) - Commemoration of first human in space by Yuri Gagarin: - Cosmonautics Day (Russia) - International Day of Human Space Flight - Yuri's Night (International observance) - Halifax Day (North Carolina) - National Redemption Day (Liberia)

1010

15996738

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1010

April 15

==Events== ===Pre-1600=== * 769 – The Lateran Council ends by condemning the Council of Hieria and anathematizing its iconoclastic rulings. - 1071 – Bari, the last Byzantine possession in southern Italy, is surrendered to Robert Guiscard. - 1450 – Battle of Formigny: Toward the end of the Hundred Years' War, the French attack and nearly annihilate English forces, ending English domination in Northern France. ===1601–1900=== *1632 – Battle of Rain: Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus defeat the Holy Roman Empire during the Thirty Years' War. - 1642 – Irish Confederate Wars: A Confederate Irish militia is routed in the Battle of Kilrush when it attempts to halt the progress of a Royalist Army. - 1715 – The Pocotaligo Massacre triggers the start of the Yamasee War in colonial South Carolina. - 1736 – Foundation of the short-lived Kingdom of Corsica. - 1738 – "Serse", an Italian opera by George Frideric Handel, receives its premiere performance in London, England. - 1755 – Samuel Johnson's "A Dictionary of the English Language" is published in London. - 1817 – Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet and Laurent Clerc found the American School for the Deaf (then called the Connecticut Asylum for the Education and Instruction of Deaf and Dumb Persons), the first American school for deaf students, in Hartford, Connecticut. - 1861 – President Abraham Lincoln calls for 75,000 Volunteers to quell the insurrection that soon became the American Civil War. - 1865 – President Abraham Lincoln dies after being shot the previous evening by actor John Wilkes Booth. Three hours later, Vice President Andrew Johnson is sworn in as President. - 1892 – The General Electric Company is formed. - 1896 – Closing ceremony of the Games of the I Olympiad in Athens, Greece. - 1900 – Philippine–American War: Filipino guerrillas launch a surprise attack on U.S. infantry and begin a four-day siege of Catubig, Philippines. ===1901–present=== *1912 – The British passenger liner sinks in the North Atlantic at 2:20 a.m., two hours and forty minutes after hitting an iceberg. Only 710 of 2,224 passengers and crew on board survive. - 1920 – Two security guards are murdered during a robbery in South Braintree, Massachusetts. Anarchists Sacco and Vanzetti would be convicted of and executed for the crime, amid much controversy. - 1922 – U.S. Senator John B. Kendrick of Wyoming introduces a resolution calling for an investigation of a secret land deal, which leads to the discovery of the Teapot Dome scandal. - 1923 – Insulin becomes generally available for use by people with diabetes. - 1923 – Racially motivated Nihon Shōgakkō fire lit by a serial arsonist kills 10 children in Sacramento, California. - 1936 – First day of the Arab revolt in Mandatory Palestine. - 1941 – In the Belfast Blitz, two hundred bombers of the German Luftwaffe attack Belfast, killing around one thousand people. - 1942 – The George Cross is awarded "to the island fortress of Malta" by King George VI. - 1945 – Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated. - 1947 – Jackie Robinson debuts for the Brooklyn Dodgers, breaking baseball's color line. - 1952 – First flight of the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress. - 1955 – McDonald's restaurant dates its founding to the opening of a franchised restaurant by Ray Kroc, in Des Plaines, Illinois. - 1960 – At Shaw University in Raleigh, North Carolina, Ella Baker leads a conference that results in the creation of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, one of the principal organizations of the civil rights movement in the 1960s. - 1969 – The EC-121 shootdown incident: North Korea shoots down a United States Navy aircraft over the Sea of Japan, killing all 31 on board. - 1970 – During the Cambodian Civil War, massacre of the Vietnamese minority results in 800 bodies flowing down the Mekong river into South Vietnam. - 1986 – The United States launches Operation El Dorado Canyon, its bombing raids against Libyan targets in response to a discotheque bombing in West Germany that killed two U.S. servicemen. - 1989 – Hillsborough disaster: A human crush occurs at Hillsborough Stadium, home of Sheffield Wednesday, in the FA Cup Semi-final, resulting in the deaths of 97 Liverpool fans. - 1989 – Upon Hu Yaobang's death, the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 begin in China. - 1994 – Marrakesh Agreement relating to foundation of World Trade Organization is adopted. - 2002 – Air China Flight 129 crashes on approach to Gimhae International Airport in Busan, South Korea, killing 129 people. - 2013 – Two bombs explode near the finish line at the Boston Marathon in Boston, Massachusetts, killing three people and injuring 264 others. - 2013 – A wave of bombings across Iraq kills at least 75 people. - 2014 – In the worst massacre of the South Sudanese Civil War, at least 200 civilians are gunned down after seeking refuge in houses of worship as well as hospitals. - 2019 – The cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris in France is seriously damaged by a large fire. - 2021 – A mass shooting occurred at a Fedex Ground facility in Indianapolis, Indiana, killing nine and injuring seven. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== *68 BC – Gaius Maecenas, Roman politician (d. 8 BC) - 1282 – Frederick IV, Duke of Lorraine (d. 1329) - 1442 – John Paston, English noble (d. 1479) - 1452 – Leonardo da Vinci, Italian painter, sculptor, and architect (d. 1519) - 1469 – Guru Nanak, the first Sikh guru (d. 1539) - 1552 – Pietro Cataldi, Italian mathematician and astronomer (d. 1626) - 1563 – Guru Arjan Dev, fifth Sikh leader (d. 1606) - 1588 – Claudius Salmasius, French author and scholar (d. 1653) - 1592 – Francesco Maria Brancaccio, Catholic cardinal (d. 1675) ===1601–1900=== *1641 – Robert Sibbald, Scottish physician and geographer (d. 1722) - 1642 – Suleiman II, Ottoman sultan (d. 1691) - 1646 – Christian V of Denmark (d. 1699) - 1684 – Catherine I of Russia (d. 1727) - 1688 – Johann Friedrich Fasch, German violinist and composer (d. 1758) - 1707 – Leonhard Euler, Swiss mathematician and physicist (d. 1783) - 1710 – William Cullen, Scottish physician and chemist (d. 1790) - 1741 – Charles Willson Peale, American painter and soldier (d. 1827) - 1771 – Nicolas Chopin, French-Polish educator (d. 1844) - 1772 – Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, French biologist and zoologist (d. 1844) - 1793 – Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve, German astronomer and academic (d. 1864) - 1795 – Maria Schicklgruber, mother of Alois Hitler and the paternal grandmother of Adolf Hitler (d.1847) - 1800 – James Clark Ross, English captain and explorer (d. 1862) - 1808 – William Champ, English-Australian politician, 1st Premier of Tasmania (d. 1892) - 1809 – Hermann Grassmann, German linguist and mathematician (d. 1877) - 1817 – William Crowther, Dutch-Australian politician, 14th Premier of Tasmania (d. 1885) - 1828 – Jean Danjou, French captain (d. 1863) - 1832 – Wilhelm Busch, German poet, painter, and illustrator (d. 1908) - 1841 – Mary Grant Roberts, Australian zoo owner (d. 1921) - 1841 – Joseph E. Seagram, Canadian businessman and politician, founded the Seagram Company Ltd (d. 1919) - 1843 – Henry James, American novelist, short story writer, and critic (d. 1916) - 1856 – Jean Moréas, Greek poet and critic (d. 1910) - 1858 – Émile Durkheim, French sociologist, psychologist, and philosopher (d. 1917) - 1861 – Bliss Carman, Canadian-British poet and playwright (d. 1929) - 1863 – Ida Freund, Austrian-born chemist and educator (d. 1914) - 1874 – George Harrison Shull, American botanist and geneticist (d. 1954) - 1874 – Johannes Stark, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1957) - 1875 – James J. Jeffries, American boxer and promoter (d. 1953) - 1877 – Georg Kolbe, German sculptor (d. 1947) - 1877 – William David Ross, Scottish philosopher (d. 1971) - 1878 – Robert Walser, Swiss author and playwright (d. 1956) - 1879 – Melville Henry Cane, American lawyer and poet (d. 1980) - 1883 – Stanley Bruce, Australian captain and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1967) - 1885 – Tadeusz Kutrzeba, Polish general (d. 1947) - 1886 – Nikolay Gumilyov, Russian poet and critic (d. 1921) - 1887 – Felix Pipes, Austrian tennis player (d. 1983) - 1887 – William Forgan Smith, Scottish-Australian politician, 24th Premier of Queensland (d. 1953) - 1888 – Maximilian Kronberger, German poet and author (d. 1904) - 1889 – Thomas Hart Benton, American painter and educator (d. 1975) - 1889 – A. Philip Randolph, American activist (d. 1979) - 1890 – Percy Shaw, English businessman, invented the cat's eye (d. 1976) - 1892 – Theo Osterkamp, German general and pilot (d. 1975) - 1892 – Corrie ten Boom, Dutch-American clocksmith, Nazi resister, and author (d. 1983) - 1894 – Nikita Khrushchev, Russian general and politician, 7th Premier of the Soviet Union (d. 1971) - 1894 – Bessie Smith, African-American singer and actress (d. 1937) - 1895 – Clark McConachy, New Zealand snooker player (d. 1980) - 1895 – Abigail Mejia, Dominican feminist activist, nationalist, literary critic and educator (d. 1941) - 1896 – Nikolay Semyonov, Russian physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1986) - 1898 – Harry Edward, Guyanese-English sprinter (d. 1973) - 1900 – Ramón Iribarren, Spanish civil engineer (d. 1967) ===1901–present=== *1901 – Joe Davis, English snooker player (d. 1978) - 1901 – Ajoy Mukherjee, Indian politician, Chief Minister of West Bengal (d. 1986) - 1901 – René Pleven, French businessman and politician, Prime Minister of France (d. 1993) - 1902 – Fernando Pessa, Portuguese journalist (d. 2002) - 1903 – John Williams, English-American actor (d. 1983) - 1904 – Arshile Gorky, Armenian-American painter and illustrator (d. 1948) - 1907 – Nikolaas Tinbergen, Dutch-English ethologist and ornithologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1988) - 1908 – eden ahbez, Scottish-American songwriter and recording artist (d. 1995) - 1908 – Lita Grey, American actress (d. 1995) - 1909 – Robert Edison Fulton Jr., American inventor and adventurer (d. 2004) - 1910 – Sulo Bärlund, Finnish shot putter (d. 1986) - 1910 – Miguel Najdorf, Polish-Argentinian chess player and theoretician (d. 1997) - 1912 – William Congdon, American-Italian painter and sculptor (d. 1998) - 1912 – Kim Il Sung, North Korean general and politician, 1st Supreme Leader of North Korea (d. 1994) - 1915 – Elizabeth Catlett, African-American sculptor and illustrator (d. 2012) - 1916 – Alfred S. Bloomingdale, American businessman (d. 1982) - 1916 – Helene Hanff, American author and screenwriter (d. 1997) - 1917 – Hans Conried, American actor (d. 1982) - 1917 – Elmer Gedeon, American baseball player and bomber pilot (d. 1944) - 1917 – James Kee, American lawyer and politician (d. 1989) - 1918 – Hans Billian, German film director, screenwriter, and actor (d. 2007) - 1919 – Alberto Breccia, Uruguayan-Argentinian author and illustrator (d. 1993) - 1920 – Godfrey Stafford, English-South African physicist and academic (d. 2013) - 1920 – Thomas Szasz, Hungarian-American psychiatrist and academic (d. 2012) - 1920 – Richard von Weizsäcker, German soldier and politician, 6th President of Germany (d. 2015) - 1921 – Georgy Beregovoy, Ukrainian-Russian general, pilot, and astronaut (d. 1995) - 1921 – Angelo DiGeorge, American physician and endocrinologist (d. 2009) - 1922 – Michael Ansara, Syrian-American actor (d. 2013) - 1922 – Hasrat Jaipuri, Indian poet and songwriter (d. 1999) - 1922 – Harold Washington, American lawyer and politician, 51st Mayor of Chicago (d. 1987) - 1922 – Graham Whitehead, English racing driver (d. 1981) - 1923 – Artur Alliksaar, Estonian poet and author (d. 1966) - 1923 – Robert DePugh, American activist, founded the Minutemen (an anti-Communist organization) (d. 2009) - 1924 – M. Canagaratnam, Sri Lankan politician (d. 1980) - 1924 – Rikki Fulton, Scottish comedian (d. 2004) - 1924 – Neville Marriner, English violinist and conductor (d. 2016) - 1926 – Jurriaan Schrofer, Dutch sculptor, designer, and educator (d. 1990) - 1927 – Robert Mills, American physicist and academic (d. 1999) - 1929 – Gérald Beaudoin, Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 2008) - 1929 – Adrian Cadbury, English rower and businessman (d. 2015) - 1930 – Georges Descrières, French actor (d. 2013) - 1930 – Vigdís Finnbogadóttir, Icelandic educator and politician, 4th President of Iceland - 1931 – Kenneth Bloomfield, Northern Irish civil servant - 1931 – Tomas Tranströmer, Swedish poet, translator, and psychologist Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2015) - 1933 – Roy Clark, American musician and television personality (d. 2018) - 1933 – David Hamilton, English-French photographer and director (d. 2016) - 1933 – Elizabeth Montgomery, American actress and producer (d. 1995) - 1935 – Stavros Paravas, Greek actor and producer (d. 2008) - 1936 – Raymond Poulidor, French cyclist (d. 2019) - 1937 – Bob Luman, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1978) - 1937 – Robert W. Gore, American engineer and businessman, co-inventor of Gore-Tex (d. 2020) - 1938 – Claudia Cardinale, Italian actress - 1938 – Hso Khan Pha, Burmese-Canadian geologist and politician (d. 2016) - 1939 – Marty Wilde, English singer-songwriter and actor - 1939 – Desiré Ecaré, Ivorian filmmaker (d. 2009) - 1940 – Jeffrey Archer, English author, playwright, and politician - 1940 – Penelope Coelen, South African actress, model, beauty queen and 1958 Miss World - 1940 – Willie Davis, American baseball player and actor (d. 2010) - 1940 – Robert Lacroix, Canadian economist and academic - 1940 – Robert Walker, American actor (d. 2019) - 1941 – Howard Berman, American lawyer and politician - 1942 – Francis X. DiLorenzo, American bishop (d. 2017) - 1942 – Walt Hazzard, American basketball player and coach (d. 2011) - 1942 – Kenneth Lay, American businessman and criminal(d. 2006) - 1942 – Tim Lankester, English economist and academic - 1943 – Pınar Kür, Turkish author, playwright, and academic - 1943 – Robert Lefkowitz, American physician and biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate - 1943 – Veronica Linklater, Baroness Linklater, English politician - 1943 – Hugh Thompson, Jr., American soldier and pilot (d. 2006) - 1944 – Dave Edmunds, Welsh singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer - 1946 – John Lloyd, Scottish journalist and author - 1946 – Pete Rouse, American politician, White House Chief of Staff - 1947 – Linda Bloodworth-Thomason, American screenwriter and producer - 1947 – Martin Broughton, English businessman - 1947 – Lois Chiles, American model and actress - 1947 – David Omand, English civil servant and academic - 1947 – Cristina Husmark Pehrsson, Swedish nurse and politician, Swedish Minister for Social Security - 1948 – Christopher Brown, English historian, curator, and academic - 1948 – Michael Kamen, American composer and conductor (d. 2003) - 1948 – Phil Mogg, English singer-songwriter and musician - 1949 – Alla Pugacheva, Russian singer-songwriter and actress - 1949 – Craig Zadan, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2018) - 1950 – Josiane Balasko, French actress, director, and screenwriter - 1950 – Amy Wright, American actress - 1950 – Karel Kroupa, Czech football player - 1951 – Heloise, American journalist and author - 1951 – John L. Phillips, American captain and astronaut - 1951 – Stuart Prebble, English journalist and producer - 1951 – Marsha Ivins, American engineer and astronaut - 1952 – Kym Gyngell, Australian actor, comedian, and screenwriter - 1952 – Brian Muir, English sculptor and set designer - 1952 – Avital Ronell, Czech-American philosopher and academic - 1952 – Glenn Shadix, American actor, (d. 2010) - 1955 – Dodi Fayed, Egyptian film producer (d. 1997) - 1955 – Joice Mujuru, Zimbabwean politician - 1956 – Michael Cooper, American basketball player and coach - 1957 – Evelyn Ashford, American runner and coach - 1958 – Keith Acton, Canadian ice hockey player and coach - 1958 – John Bracewell, New Zealand cricketer - 1958 – Memos Ioannou, Greek basketball player and coach - 1958 – Benjamin Zephaniah, English actor, author, poet, and playwright (d. 2023) - 1959 – Fruit Chan, Chinese director, producer, and screenwriter - 1959 – Kevin Lowe, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager - 1959 – Emma Thompson, English actress, comedian, author, activist and screenwriter - 1960 – Pierre Aubry, Canadian ice hockey player - 1960 – Susanne Bier, Danish director and screenwriter - 1960 – Pedro Delgado, Spanish cyclist and sportscaster - 1960 – Tony Jones, English snooker player - 1961 – Neil Carmichael, English academic and politician - 1961 – Carol W. Greider, American molecular biologist - 1961 – Dawn Wright, American geographer and oceanographer - 1962 – Nawal El Moutawakel, Moroccan athlete and politician - 1962 – Tom Kane, American voice actor - 1963 – Alex Crawford, Nigerian-South African journalist - 1963 – Manzoor Elahi, Pakistani cricketer - 1963 – Manoj Prabhakar, Indian cricketer and sportscaster - 1964 – Andre Joubert, South African rugby player - 1964 – Lee Kernaghan, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist - 1965 – Soichi Noguchi, Japanese engineer and astronaut - 1965 – Linda Perry, American singer-songwriter, musician and record producer - 1965 – Kevin Stevens, American ice hockey player - 1966 – Samantha Fox, English singer-songwriter and actress - 1966 – Mott Green, American businessman (d. 2013) - 1967 – Frankie Poullain, Scottish bass player and songwriter - 1967 – Dara Torres, American swimmer and journalist - 1968 – Ben Clarke, English rugby player and coach - 1968 – Brahim Lahlafi, Moroccan-French runner - 1968 – Ed O'Brien, English guitarist - 1969 – Jeromy Burnitz, American baseball player - 1969 – Kaisa Roose, Estonian pianist and conductor - 1969 – Jimmy Waite, Canadian-German ice hockey player and coach - 1970 – Chris Huffins, American decathlete and coach - 1971 – Philippe Carbonneau, French rugby player - 1971 – Finidi George, Nigerian footballer - 1971 – Jason Sehorn, American football player - 1971 – Josia Thugwane, South African runner - 1971 – Karl Turner, English lawyer and politician - 1972 – Arturo Gatti, Italian-Canadian boxer (d. 2009) - 1972 – Lou Romano, American animator and voice actor - 1974 – Kim Min-kyo, South Korean actor and director - 1974 – Danny Pino, American actor and screenwriter - 1974 – Mike Quinn, American football player - 1974 – Douglas Spain, American actor, director, and producer - 1974 – Tim Thomas, American ice hockey player - 1975 – Sarah Teichmann, German-American biophysicist and immunologist - 1976 – Jason Bonsignore, Canadian ice hockey player and coach - 1976 – Darius Regelskis, Lithuanian footballer - 1976 – Kęstutis Šeštokas, Lithuanian basketball player - 1976 – Steve Williams, English rower - 1977 – Sudarsan Pattnaik, Indian sculptor - 1977 – Brian Pothier, American ice hockey player - 1978 – Milton Bradley, American baseball player - 1978 – Tim Corcoran, American baseball player - 1978 – Luis Fonsi, Puerto Rican-American singer-songwriter and dancer - 1978 – Chris Stapleton, American country singer-songwriter and guitarist - 1979 – Luke Evans, Welsh actor and singer - 1980 – Patrick Carney, American drummer, musician, and producer - 1980 – James Foster, English cricketer - 1980 – Raül López, Spanish basketball player - 1980 – Willie Mason, New Zealand-Australian rugby league player - 1980 – Aida Mollenkamp, American chef and author - 1980 – Billy Yates, American football player - 1981 – Andrés D'Alessandro, Argentinian footballer - 1982 – Michael Aubrey, American baseball player - 1982 – Anthony Green, American singer-songwriter - 1982 – Seth Rogen, Canadian-American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter - 1983 – Alice Braga, Brazilian actress - 1983 – Matt Cardle, English singer-songwriter and guitarist - 1983 – Dudu Cearense, Brazilian footballer - 1983 – Andreas Fransson, Swedish skier (d. 2014) - 1983 – Ilya Kovalchuk, Russian ice hockey player - 1983 – Martin Pedersen, Danish cyclist - 1984 – Antonio Cromartie, American football player - 1984 – Cam Janssen, American ice hockey player - 1984 – Daniel Paille, Canadian ice hockey player - 1985 – Ryan Hamilton, Canadian ice hockey player - 1986 – Tom Heaton, English footballer - 1986 – Sylvain Marveaux, French footballer - 1988 – Blake Ayshford, Australian rugby league player - 1988 – Steven Defour, Belgian footballer - 1988 – Chris Tillman, American baseball pitcher - 1989 – Darren Nicholls, Australian rugby league player - 1990 – Emma Watson, English actress - 1991 – Daiki Arioka, Japanese idol, singer, and actor - 1991 – Javier Fernández López, Spanish figure skater - 1992 – Jeremy McGovern, Australian rules football player - 1994 – Brodie Grundy, Australian rules football player - 1994 – Shaunae Miller-Uibo, Bahamian sprinter - 1995 – Leander Dendoncker, Belgian footballer - 1997 – Ashleigh Gardner, Australian cricketer - 1997 – Maisie Williams, English actress - 1999 – Denis Shapovalov, Canadian tennis player - 2001 – Shanti Dope, Filipino rapper ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== * 628 – Suiko, emperor of Japan (b. 554) - 943 – Liu Bin, emperor of Southern Han (b. 920) - 956 – Lin Yanyu, Chinese court official and eunuch - 1053 – Godwin, Earl of Wessex (b. 1001) - 1136 – Richard Fitz Gilbert de Clare (b. 1094) - 1220 – Adolf of Altena, German archbishop (b. 1157) - 1237 – Richard Poore, English ecclesiastic - 1415 – Manuel Chrysoloras, Greek philosopher and translator (b. 1355) - 1446 – Filippo Brunelleschi, Italian sculptor and architect (b. 1377) - 1502 – John IV of Chalon-Arlay, Prince of Orange (b. 1443) - 1558 – Roxelana, wife of Suleiman the Magnificent (b. c. 1500) - 1578 – Wolrad II, Count of Waldeck-Eisenberg, German nobleman (b. 1509) ===1601–1900=== *1610 – Robert Persons, English Jesuit priest, insurrectionist, and author (b. 1546) - 1632 – George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore, English politician, English Secretary of State (b. 1580) - 1652 – Patriarch Joseph of Moscow, Russian patriarch - 1659 – Simon Dach, German poet and hymnwriter (b. 1605) - 1719 – Françoise d'Aubigné, Marquise de Maintenon, French wife of Louis XIV of France (b. 1635) - 1754 – Jacopo Riccati, Italian mathematician and academic (b. 1676) - 1757 – Rosalba Carriera, Italian painter (b. 1673) - 1761 – Archibald Campbell, 3rd Duke of Argyll, Scottish lawyer and politician, Lord President of the Court of Session (b. 1682) - 1761 – William Oldys, English historian and author (b. 1696) - 1764 – Peder Horrebow, Danish astronomer and mathematician (b. 1679) - 1764 – Madame de Pompadour, mistress of King Louis XV (b. 1721) - 1765 – Mikhail Lomonosov, Russian chemist and physicist (b. 1711) - 1788 – Giuseppe Bonno, Austrian composer (b. 1711) - 1793 – Ignacije Szentmartony, Croatian priest, mathematician, and astronomer (b. 1718) - 1854 – Arthur Aikin, English chemist and mineralogist (b. 1773) - 1861 – Sylvester Jordan, Austrian-German lawyer and politician (b. 1792) - 1865 – Abraham Lincoln, 16th President of the United States (b. 1809) - 1888 – Matthew Arnold, English poet and critic (b. 1822) - 1889 – Father Damien, Belgian priest and saint (b. 1840) - 1898 – Te Keepa Te Rangihiwinui, New Zealand commander and politician ===1901–present=== *1912 – Victims of the "Titanic" disaster: - Thomas Andrews, Irish shipbuilder (b. 1873) - John Jacob Astor IV, American colonel, businessman, and author (b. 1864) - Archibald Butt, American general and journalist (b. 1865) - Jacques Futrelle, American journalist and author (b. 1875) - Benjamin Guggenheim, American businessman (b. 1865) - Henry B. Harris, American producer and manager (b. 1866) - Wallace Hartley, English violinist and bandleader (b. 1878) - Charles Melville Hays, American businessman (b. 1856) - James Paul Moody, English Sixth Officer (b. 1887) - William McMaster Murdoch, Scottish First Officer (b. 1873) - Jack Phillips, English telegraphist (b. 1887) - Edward Smith, English Captain (b. 1850) - William Thomas Stead, English journalist (b. 1849) - Ida Straus, German-American businesswoman (b. 1849) - Isidor Straus, German-American businessman and politician (b. 1845) - John B. Thayer, American business and sportsman (b. 1862) - Henry Tingle Wilde, English chief officer (b. 1872) - 1917 – János Murkovics, Slovene author, poet, and educator (b. 1839) - 1927 – Gaston Leroux, French journalist and author (b. 1868) - 1938 – César Vallejo, Peruvian journalist, poet, and playwright (b. 1892) - 1942 – Robert Musil, Austrian-Swiss author and playwright (b. 1880) - 1943 – Aristarkh Lentulov, Russian painter and set designer (b. 1882) - 1944 – Nikolai Fyodorovich Vatutin, Russian general (b. 1901) - 1945 – Hermann Florstedt, German SS officer (b. 1895) - 1948 – Radola Gajda, Montenegrin-Czech general and politician (b. 1892) - 1949 – Wallace Beery, American actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1885) - 1962 – Clara Blandick, American actress (b. 1880) - 1962 – Arsenio Lacson, Filipino journalist and politician, Mayor of Manila (b. 1912) - 1963 – Edward Greeves, Jr., Australian footballer (b. 1903) - 1966 – Habibullah Bahar Chowdhury, Bengali politician, writer, journalist, first health minister of East Pakistan - 1967 – Totò, Italian comedian (b. 1898) - 1971 – Gurgen Boryan, Armenian poet and playwright (b. 1915) - 1971 – Friedebert Tuglas, Estonian author and critic (b. 1886) - 1979 – David Brand, Australian politician, 19th Premier of Western Australia (b. 1912) - 1980 – Raymond Bailey, American actor and soldier (b. 1904) - 1980 – Jean-Paul Sartre, French philosopher and author, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1905) - 1982 – Arthur Lowe, English actor (b. 1915) - 1984 – Tommy Cooper, Welsh comedian and magician (b. 1921) - 1986 – Jean Genet, French novelist, poet, and playwright (b. 1910) - 1988 – Kenneth Williams, English actor and screenwriter (b. 1926) - 1989 – Hu Yaobang, Chinese soldier and politician, former General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (b. 1915) - 1990 – Greta Garbo, Swedish-American actress (b. 1905) - 1993 – Leslie Charteris, English author and screenwriter (b. 1907) - 1993 – John Tuzo Wilson, Canadian geophysicist and geologist (b. 1908) - 1998 – William Congdon, American-Italian painter and sculptor (b. 1912) - 1998 – Pol Pot, Cambodian general and politician, 29th Prime Minister of Cambodia (b. 1925) - 1999 – Harvey Postlethwaite, English engineer (b. 1944) - 2000 – Edward Gorey, American poet and illustrator (b. 1925) - 2001 – Joey Ramone, American singer-songwriter (b. 1951) - 2002 – Damon Knight, American author and critic (b. 1922) - 2002 – Byron White, American football player, lawyer, and jurist, 4th United States Deputy Attorney General (b. 1917) - 2004 – Mitsuteru Yokoyama, Japanese illustrator (b. 1934) - 2007 – Brant Parker, American illustrator (b. 1920) - 2008 – Krister Stendahl, Swedish bishop, theologian, and scholar (b. 1921) - 2009 – Clement Freud, German-English journalist, academic, and politician (b. 1924) - 2009 – László Tisza, Hungarian-American physicist and academic (b. 1907) - 2009 – Salih Neftçi, Turkish economist and author (b. 1947) - 2010 – Jack Herer, American author and activist (b. 1939) - 2010 – Michael Pataki, American actor and director (b. 1938) - 2011 – Vittorio Arrigoni, Italian journalist, author, and activist (b. 1975) - 2012 – Paul Bogart, American director and producer (b. 1919) - 2012 – Dwayne Schintzius, American basketball player (b. 1968) - 2013 – Benjamin Fain, Ukrainian-Israeli physicist and academic (b. 1930) - 2013 – Richard LeParmentier, American-English actor and screenwriter (b. 1946) - 2013 – Jean-François Paillard, French conductor (b. 1928) - 2014 – John Houbolt, American engineer and academic (b. 1919) - 2014 – Eliseo Verón, Argentinian sociologist and academic (b. 1935) - 2015 – Jonathan Crombie, Canadian-American actor and screenwriter (b. 1966) - 2015 – Surya Bahadur Thapa, Nepalese politician, 24th Prime Minister of Nepal (b. 1928) - 2017 – Clifton James, American actor (b. 1920) - 2017 – Emma Morano, Italian supercentenarian, last person verified born in the 1800s (b. 1899) - 2018 – R. Lee Ermey, American actor (b. 1944) - 2018 – Vittorio Taviani, Italian film director and screenwriter (b. 1929) - 2022 – Bilquis Edhi, Pakistani philanthropist and wife of Abdul Sattar Edhi (b. 1947) - 2022 – Henry Plumb, British politician and farmer (b. 1925) - 2022 – Liz Sheridan, American actress (b. 1929) ==Holidays and observances== *Christian feast day: - Abbo II of Metz - Father Damien (The Episcopal Church) - Hunna - Paternus of Avranches - April 15 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) - Day of the Sun (North Korea) - Father Damien Day (Hawaii) - Hillsborough Disaster Memorial (Liverpool, England) - Jackie Robinson Day (United States) - National American Sign Language Day (United States) - Pohela Boishakh (Bengali New Year; India) - Tax Day, the official deadline for filing an individual tax return (or requesting an extension). (United States, Philippines) - Universal Day of Culture - World Art Day

1011

1188602117

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1011

April 30

==Events== ===Pre-1600=== *311 – The Diocletianic Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire ends. - 1315 – Enguerrand de Marigny is hanged at the instigation of Charles, Count of Valois. - 1492 – Spain gives Christopher Columbus his commission of exploration. He is named admiral of the ocean sea, viceroy and governor of any territory he discovers. - 1513 – Edmund de la Pole, Yorkist pretender to the English throne, is executed on the orders of Henry VIII. - 1557 – Mapuche leader Lautaro is killed by Spanish forces at the Battle of Mataquito in Chile. - 1598 – Juan de Oñate begins the conquest of Santa Fe de Nuevo México. - 1598 – Henry IV of France issues the Edict of Nantes, allowing freedom of religion to the Huguenots. ===1601–1900=== *1636 – Eighty Years' War: Dutch Republic forces recapture a strategically important fort from Spain after a nine-month siege. - 1789 – On the balcony of Federal Hall on Wall Street in New York City, George Washington takes the oath of office to become the first President of the United States. - 1803 – Louisiana Purchase: The United States purchases the Louisiana Territory from France for $15 million, more than doubling the size of the young nation. - 1812 – The Territory of Orleans becomes the 18th U.S. state under the name Louisiana. - 1838 – Nicaragua declares independence from the Central American Federation. - 1863 – A 65-man French Foreign Legion infantry patrol fights a force of nearly 2,000 Mexican soldiers to nearly the last man in Hacienda Camarón, Mexico. - 1871 – The Camp Grant massacre takes place in Arizona Territory. - 1885 – Governor of New York David B. Hill signs legislation creating the Niagara Reservation, New York's first state park, ensuring that Niagara Falls will not be devoted solely to industrial and commercial use. - 1897 – J. J. Thomson of the Cavendish Laboratory announces his discovery of the electron as a subatomic particle, over 1,800 times smaller than a proton (in the atomic nucleus), at a lecture at the Royal Institution in London. - 1900 – Hawaii becomes a territory of the United States, with Sanford B. Dole as governor. ===1901–present=== *1905 – Albert Einstein completes his doctoral thesis at the University of Zurich. - 1925 – Automaker Dodge Brothers, Inc is sold to Dillon, Read & Co. for US$146 million plus $50 million for charity. - 1927 – The Federal Industrial Institute for Women opens in Alderson, West Virginia, as the first women's federal prison in the United States. - 1937 – The Commonwealth of the Philippines holds a plebiscite for Filipino women on whether they should be extended the right to suffrage; over 90% would vote in the affirmative. - 1939 – The 1939–40 New York World's Fair opens. - 1939 – NBC inaugurates its regularly scheduled television service in New York City, broadcasting President Franklin D. Roosevelt's N.Y. World's Fair opening day ceremonial address. - 1943 – World War II: The British submarine surfaces near Huelva to cast adrift a dead man dressed as a courier and carrying false invasion plans. - 1945 – World War II: "Führerbunker": Adolf Hitler and Eva Braun commit suicide after being married for less than 40 hours. Soviet soldiers raise the Victory Banner over the Reichstag building. - 1945 – World War II: Stalag Luft I prisoner-of-war camp near Barth, Germany is liberated by Soviet soldiers, freeing nearly 9,000 American and British airmen. - 1947 – In Nevada, Boulder Dam is renamed Hoover Dam. - 1948 – In Bogotá, Colombia, the Organization of American States is established. - 1956 – Former Vice President and Democratic Senator Alben Barkley dies during a speech in Virginia. - 1957 – Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery entered into force. - 1961 – "K-19", the first Soviet nuclear submarine equipped with nuclear missiles, is commissioned. - 1963 – The Bristol Bus Boycott is held in Bristol to protest the Bristol Omnibus Company's refusal to employ Black or Asian bus crews, drawing national attention to racial discrimination in the United Kingdom. - 1973 – Watergate scandal: U.S. President Richard Nixon fires White House Counsel John Dean; other top aides, most notably H. R. Haldeman and John Ehrlichman, resign. - 1975 – Fall of Saigon: Communist forces gain control of Saigon. The Vietnam War formally ends with the unconditional surrender of South Vietnamese president Dương Văn Minh. - 1979 – Eruption of Mount Marapi: Mount Marapi, a complex volcano on the Indonesian island of Sumatra, erupted. 80 up to 100 people were killed. - 1980 – Beatrix is inaugurated as Queen of the Netherlands following the abdication of Juliana. - 1980 – The Iranian Embassy siege begins in London. - 1982 – The Bijon Setu massacre occurs in Calcutta, India. - 1993 – CERN announces World Wide Web protocols will be free. - 1994 – Formula One racing driver Roland Ratzenberger is killed in a crash during the qualifying session of the San Marino Grand Prix run at Autodromo Enzo e Dino Ferrari outside Imola, Italy. - 1999 – Neo-Nazi David Copeland carries out the last of his three nail bombings in London at the Admiral Duncan gay pub, killing three people and injuring 79 others. - 2000 – Canonization of Faustina Kowalska in the presence of 200,000 people and the first Divine Mercy Sunday celebrated worldwide. - 2004 – U.S. media release graphic photos of American soldiers committing war crimes against Iraqi prisoners at Abu Ghraib prison. - 2008 – Two skeletal remains found near Yekaterinburg, Russia are confirmed by Russian scientists to be the remains of Alexei and Anastasia, two of the children of the last Tsar of Russia, whose entire family was executed at Yekaterinburg by the Bolsheviks. - 2009 – Chrysler files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. - 2009 – Seven civilians and the perpetrator are killed and another ten injured at a Queen's Day parade in Apeldoorn, Netherlands in an attempted assassination on Queen Beatrix. - 2012 – An overloaded ferry capsizes on the Brahmaputra River in India killing at least 103 people. - 2013 – Willem-Alexander is inaugurated as King of the Netherlands following the abdication of Beatrix. - 2014 – A bomb blast in Ürümqi, China kills three people and injures 79 others. - 2021 – Forty-five men and boys are killed in the Meron stampede in Israel. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== *1310 – King Casimir III of Poland (d. 1368) - 1331 – Gaston III, Count of Foix (d. 1391) - 1383 – Anne of Gloucester, English countess, granddaughter of King Edward III of England (d. 1438) - 1425 – William III, Landgrave of Thuringia (d. 1482) - 1504 – Francesco Primaticcio, Italian painter (d. 1570) - 1553 – Louise of Lorraine (d. 1601) ===1601–1900=== *1623 – François de Laval, French-Canadian bishop and saint (d. 1708) - 1651 – Jean-Baptiste de La Salle, French priest and saint (d. 1719) - 1662 – Mary II of England (d. 1694) - 1664 – François Louis, Prince of Conti (d. 1709) - 1710 – Johann Kaspar Basselet von La Rosée, Bavarian general (d. 1795) - 1723 – Mathurin Jacques Brisson, French zoologist and philosopher (d. 1806) - 1758 – Emmanuel Vitale, Maltese commander and politician (d. 1802) - 1770 – David Thompson, English-Canadian cartographer and explorer (d. 1857) - 1777 – Carl Friedrich Gauss, German mathematician and physicist (d. 1855) - 1799 – Joseph Dart, American businessman and entrepreneur (d. 1879) - 1803 – Albrecht von Roon, Prussian soldier and politician, 10th Minister President of Prussia (d. 1879) - 1829 – Ferdinand von Hochstetter, Austrian geologist and academic (d. 1884) - 1848 – Eugène Simon, French naturalist (d. 1924) - 1857 – Eugen Bleuler, Swiss psychiatrist and eugenicist (d. 1940) - 1857 – Walter Simon, German banker and philanthropist (d. 1920) - 1865 – Max Nettlau, German historian and academic (d. 1944) - 1866 – Mary Haviland Stilwell Kuesel, American pioneer dentist (d. 1936) - 1869 – Hans Poelzig, German architect, designed the IG Farben Building and Großes Schauspielhaus (d. 1936) - 1870 – Franz Lehár, Hungarian composer (d. 1948) - 1870 – Dadasaheb Phalke, Indian director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1944) - 1874 – Cyriel Verschaeve, Flemish priest and author (d. 1949) - 1876 – Orso Mario Corbino, Italian physicist and politician (d. 1937) - 1877 – Léon Flameng, French cyclist (d. 1917) - 1877 – Alice B. Toklas, American memoirist (d. 1967) - 1878 – Władysław Witwicki, Polish psychologist, philosopher, translator, historian (of philosophy and art) and artist (d. 1948) - 1879 – Richárd Weisz, Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (d. 1945) - 1880 – Charles Exeter Devereux Crombie, Scottish cartoonist (d. 1967) - 1883 – Jaroslav Hašek, Czech soldier and author (d. 1923) - 1883 – Luigi Russolo, Italian painter and composer (d. 1947) - 1884 – Olof Sandborg, Swedish actor (d. 1965) - 1888 – John Crowe Ransom, American poet, critic, and academic (d. 1974) - 1893 – Harold Breen, Australian public servant (d. 1966) - 1893 – Joachim von Ribbentrop, German soldier and politician, 14th German Reich Minister for Foreign Affairs (d. 1946) - 1895 – Philippe Panneton, Canadian physician, academic, and diplomat (d. 1960) - 1896 – Reverend Gary Davis, American singer and guitarist (d. 1972) - 1896 – Hans List, Austrian scientist and businessman, founded the AVL Engineering Company (d. 1996) - 1897 – Humberto Mauro, Brazilian director and screenwriter (d. 1983) - 1900 – Erni Krusten, Estonian author and poet (d. 1984) ===1901–present=== *1901 – Simon Kuznets, Belarusian-American economist, statistician, and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1985) - 1902 – Theodore Schultz, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998) - 1905 – Sergey Nikolsky, Russian mathematician and academic (d. 2012) - 1908 – Eve Arden, American actress (d. 1990) - 1908 – Bjarni Benediktsson, Icelandic professor of law and politician, 13th Prime Minister of Iceland (d. 1970) - 1908 – Frank Robert Miller, Canadian air marshal and politician (d. 1997) - 1909 – F. E. McWilliam, Irish sculptor and educator (d. 1992) - 1909 – Juliana of the Netherlands (d. 2004) - 1910 – Levi Celerio, Filipino pianist, violinist, and composer (d. 2002) - 1914 – Charles Beetham, American middle-distance runner (d. 1997) - 1914 – Dorival Caymmi, Brazilian singer-songwriter, actor, and painter (d. 2008) - 1916 – Paul Kuusberg, Estonian journalist and author (d. 2003) - 1916 – Claude Shannon, American mathematician and engineer (d. 2001) - 1916 – Robert Shaw, American conductor (d. 1999) - 1917 – Bea Wain, American singer (d. 2017) - 1920 – Duncan Hamilton, Irish-English race car driver and pilot (d. 1994) - 1920 – Gerda Lerner, Austrian-American historian and woman's history author (d. 2013) - 1920 – Tom Moore, British army officer and fundraiser (d. 2021) - 1921 – Roger L. Easton, American scientist, co-invented the GPS (d. 2014) - 1922 – Anton Murray, South African cricketer (d. 1995) - 1923 – Percy Heath, American bassist (d. 2005) - 1923 – Kagamisato Kiyoji, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 42nd Yokozuna (d. 2004) - 1924 – Sheldon Harnick, American lyricist (d. 2023) - 1924 – Uno Laht, Estonian KGB officer and author (d. 2008) - 1925 – Corinne Calvet, French actress (d. 2001) - 1925 – Johnny Horton, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1960) - 1926 – Shrinivas Khale, Indian composer (d. 2011) - 1926 – Cloris Leachman, American actress and comedian (d. 2021) - 1928 – Hugh Hood, Canadian author and academic (d. 2000) - 1928 – Orlando Sirola, Italian tennis player (d. 1995) - 1930 – Félix Guattari, French psychotherapist and philosopher (d. 1992) - 1933 – Charles Sanderson, Baron Sanderson of Bowden, English politician - 1934 – Jerry Lordan, English singer-songwriter (d. 1995) - 1934 – Don McKenney, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2022) - 1937 – Tony Harrison, English poet and playwright - 1938 – Gary Collins, American actor and talk show host (d. 2012) - 1938 – Juraj Jakubisko, Slovak director and screenwriter (d. 2023) - 1938 – Larry Niven, American author and screenwriter - 1940 – Jeroen Brouwers, Dutch journalist and writer - 1940 – Michael Cleary, Australian rugby player and politician - 1940 – Ülo Õun, Estonian sculptor (d. 1988) - 1940 – Burt Young, American actor and painter (d. 2023) - 1941 – Stavros Dimas, Greek lawyer and politician, Greek Minister of Foreign Affairs - 1941 – Max Merritt, New Zealand-Australian singer-songwriter (d. 2020) - 1942 – Sallehuddin of Kedah, Sultan of Kedah - 1943 – Frederick Chiluba, Zambian politician, 2nd President of Zambia (d. 2011) - 1943 – Bobby Vee, American pop singer-songwriter (d. 2016) - 1944 – Jon Bing, Norwegian author, scholar, and academic (d. 2014) - 1944 – Jill Clayburgh, American actress (d. 2010) - 1945 – J. Michael Brady, British radiologist - 1945 – Annie Dillard, American novelist, essayist, and poet - 1945 – Mimi Fariña, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and activist (d. 2001) - 1945 – Michael J. Smith, American pilot, and astronaut (d. 1986) - 1946 – King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden - 1946 – Bill Plympton, American animator, producer, and screenwriter - 1946 – Don Schollander, American swimmer - 1947 – Paul Fiddes, English theologian and academic - 1947 – Finn Kalvik, Norwegian singer-songwriter and guitarist - 1947 – Tom Køhlert, Danish footballer and manager - 1947 – Mats Odell, Swedish economist and politician, Swedish Minister for Financial Markets - 1948 – Wayne Kramer, American guitarist and singer-songwriter - 1948 – Pierre Pagé, Canadian ice hockey player and coach - 1948 – Margit Papp, Hungarian athlete - 1949 – Phil Garner, American baseball player and manager - 1949 – António Guterres, Portuguese academic and politician, 114th Prime Minister of Portugal and 9th Secretary-General of the United Nations - 1949 – Karl Meiler, German tennis player (d. 2014) - 1952 – Jacques Audiard, French director and screenwriter - 1952 – Jack Middelburg, Dutch motorcycle racer (d. 1984) - 1953 – Merrill Osmond, American singer and bass player - 1954 – Jane Campion, New Zealand director, producer, and screenwriter - 1954 – Kim Darroch, English diplomat, UK Permanent Representative to the European Union - 1954 – Frank-Michael Marczewski, German footballer - 1955 – Nicolas Hulot, French journalist and environmentalist - 1955 – David Kitchin, English lawyer and judge - 1955 – Pradeep Sarkar, Indian director and screenwriter (d. 2023) - 1955 – Zlatko Topčić, Bosnian writer and screenwriter - 1956 – Lars von Trier, Danish director and screenwriter - 1957 – Wonder Mike, American rapper and songwriter - 1958 – Charles Berling, French actor, director, and screenwriter - 1959 – Stephen Harper, Canadian economist and politician, 22nd Prime Minister of Canada - 1960 – Geoffrey Cox, English lawyer and politician - 1960 – Kerry Healey, American academic and politician, 70th Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts - 1961 – Arnór Guðjohnsen, Icelandic footballer - 1961 – Isiah Thomas, American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster - 1963 – Andrew Carwood, English tenor and conductor - 1963 – Michael Waltrip, American race car driver and sportscaster - 1964 – Tony Fernandes, Malaysian-Indian businessman, co-founded Tune Group - 1964 – Ian Healy, Australian cricketer, coach, and sportscaster - 1964 – Lorenzo Staelens, Belgian footballer and manager - 1964 – Abhishek Chatterjee, Indian actor - 1965 – Daniela Costian, Romanian-Australian discus thrower - 1965 – Adrian Pasdar, American actor - 1966 – Jeff Brown, Canadian ice hockey player and coach - 1966 – Dave Meggett, American football player and coach - 1967 – Phil Chang, Taiwanese singer-songwriter and actor - 1967 – Philipp Kirkorov, Bulgarian-born Russian singer, composer and actor - 1967 – Turbo B, American rapper - 1969 – Warren Defever, American bass player and producer - 1969 – Justine Greening, English accountant and politician, Secretary of State for International Development - 1969 – Paulo Jr., Brazilian bass player - 1972 – Takako Tokiwa, Japanese actress - 1973 – Leigh Francis, English comedian and actor - 1974 – Christian Tamminga, Dutch athlete - 1975 – Johnny Galecki, American actor - 1976 – Davian Clarke, Jamaican sprinter - 1976 – Amanda Palmer, American singer-songwriter and pianist - 1976 – Daniel Wagon, Australian rugby league player - 1976 – Victor J. Glover, American astronaut - 1977 – Jeannie Haddaway, American politician - 1977 – Meredith L. Patterson, American technologist, journalist, and author - 1978 – Liljay, Taiwanese singer - 1979 – Gerardo Torrado, Mexican footballer - 1980 – Luis Scola, Argentinian basketball player - 1980 – Jeroen Verhoeven, Dutch footballer - 1981 – Nicole Kaczmarski, American basketball player - 1981 – John O'Shea, Irish footballer - 1981 – Kunal Nayyar, British-Indian actor - 1981 – Justin Vernon, American singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, and producer - 1982 – Kirsten Dunst, American actress - 1982 – Drew Seeley, Canadian-American singer-songwriter, dancer, and actor - 1983 – Chris Carr, American football player - 1983 – Tatjana Hüfner, German luger - 1983 – Marina Tomić, Slovenian hurdler - 1983 – Troy Williamson, American football player - 1984 – Seimone Augustus, American basketball player - 1984 – Shawn Daivari, American wrestler and manager - 1984 – Risto Mätas, Estonian javelin thrower - 1984 – Lee Roache, English footballer - 1985 – Brandon Bass, American basketball player - 1985 – Gal Gadot, Israeli actress and model - 1985 – Ashley Alexandra Dupré, American journalist, singer, and prostitute - 1986 – Dianna Agron, American actress and singer - 1986 – Martten Kaldvee, Estonian biathlete - 1987 – Alipate Carlile, Australian footballer - 1987 – Chris Morris, South African cricketer - 1987 – Rohit Sharma, Indian cricketer - 1988 – Andy Allen, Australian chef - 1988 – Sander Baart, Dutch field hockey player - 1988 – Ana de Armas, Cuban actress - 1988 – Liu Xijun, Chinese singer - 1988 – Oh Hye-ri, South Korean taekwondo athlete - 1989 – Jang Wooyoung, South Korean singer and actor - 1990 – Jonny Brownlee, English triathlete - 1990 – Mac DeMarco, Canadian singer-songwriter - 1990 – Kaarel Kiidron, Estonian footballer - 1990 – Paula Ribó, Spanish singer-songwriter and actress - 1991 – Chris Kreider, American ice hockey player - 1991 – Travis Scott, American rapper and producer - 1992 – Marc-André ter Stegen, German footballer - 1993 – Dion Dreesens, Dutch swimmer - 1993 – Martin Fuksa, Czech canoeist - 1994 – Chae Seo-jin, South Korean actress - 1994 – Wang Yafan, Chinese tennis player - 1996 – Luke Friend, English singer - 1997 – Adam Ryczkowski, Polish footballer - 1998 – Georgina Amorós, Spanish actress - 1999 – Jorden van Foreest, Dutch chess grandmaster - 1999 – Krit Amnuaydechkorn, Thai actor and singer - 2000 – Yui Hiwatashi, Japanese singer - 2002 – Anna Cramling, Spanish-Swedish chess player - 2002 – Teden Mengi, English footballer - 2003 – Emily Carey, British actress - 2003 – Jung Yun-seok, South Korean actor ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== *AD 65 – Lucan, Roman poet (b. 39) - 125 – An, Chinese emperor (b. 94) - 535 – Amalasuntha, Ostrogothic queen and regent - 783 – Hildegard of the Vinzgau, Frankish queen - 1002 – Eckard I, German nobleman - 1030 – Mahmud of Ghazni, Ghaznavid emir (b. 971) - 1063 – Ren Zong, Chinese emperor (b. 1010) - 1131 – Adjutor, French knight and saint - 1305 – Roger de Flor, Italian military adventurer (b. 1267) - 1341 – John III, duke of Brittany (b. 1286) - 1439 – Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick, English commander (b. 1382) - 1524 – Pierre Terrail, seigneur de Bayard, French soldier (b. 1473) - 1544 – Thomas Audley, 1st Baron Audley of Walden, English lawyer and judge, Lord Chancellor of England (b. 1488) - 1550 – Tabinshwehti, Burmese king (b. 1516) ===1601–1900=== *1632 – Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly, Bavarian general (b. 1559) - 1632 – Sigismund III Vasa, Swedish-Polish son of John III of Sweden (b. 1566) - 1637 – Niwa Nagashige, Japanese daimyō (b. 1571) - 1655 – Eustache Le Sueur, French painter (b. 1617) - 1660 – Petrus Scriverius, Dutch historian and scholar (b. 1576) - 1672 – Marie of the Incarnation, French-Canadian nun and saint, founded the Ursulines of Quebec (b. 1599) - 1696 – Robert Plot, English chemist and academic (b. 1640) - 1712 – Philipp van Limborch, Dutch theologian and author (b. 1633) - 1733 – Rodrigo Anes de Sá Almeida e Meneses, 1st Marquis of Abrantes, Portuguese diplomat (b. 1676) - 1736 – Johann Albert Fabricius, German scholar and author (b. 1668) - 1758 – François d'Agincourt, French organist and composer (b. 1684) - 1792 – John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, English politician, Secretary of State for the Northern Department (b. 1718) - 1795 – Jean-Jacques Barthélemy, French archaeologist and author (b. 1716) - 1806 – Onogawa Kisaburō, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 5th Yokozuna (b. 1758) - 1841 – Peter Andreas Heiberg, Danish philologist and author (b. 1758) - 1847 – Charles, Austrian commander and duke of Teschen (b. 1771) - 1863 – Jean Danjou, French captain (b. 1828) - 1865 – Robert FitzRoy, English admiral, meteorologist, and politician, 2nd Governor of New Zealand (b. 1805) - 1870 – Thomas Cooke, Canadian bishop and missionary (b. 1792) - 1875 – Jean-Frédéric Waldeck, French explorer, lithographer, and cartographer (b. 1766) - 1879 – Emma Smith, American religious leader (b. 1804) - 1883 – Édouard Manet, French painter (b. 1832) - 1891 – Joseph Leidy, American paleontologist and author (b. 1823) - 1900 – Casey Jones, American railroad engineer (b. 1864) ===1901–present=== *1903 – Emily Stowe, Canadian physician and activist (b. 1831) - 1910 – Jean Moréas, Greek poet and critic (b. 1856) - 1926 – Bessie Coleman, American pilot (b. 1892) - 1936 – A. E. Housman, English poet and scholar (b. 1859) - 1939 – Frank Haller, American boxer (b. 1883) - 1943 – Eddy Hamel, American footballer (b. 1902) - 1943 – Otto Jespersen, Danish linguist and academic (b. 1860) - 1943 – Beatrice Webb, English sociologist and economist (b. 1858) - 1945 – Eva Braun, German photographer and office and lab assistant, wife of Adolf Hitler (b. 1912) - 1945 – Adolf Hitler, Austrian-German politician and author, dictator of Nazi Germany (b. 1889) - 1953 – Jacob Linzbach, Estonian linguist and author (b. 1874) - 1956 – Alben W. Barkley, American lawyer and politician, 35th Vice President of the United States (b. 1877) - 1970 – Jacques Presser, Dutch historian, writer and poet (b. 1899) - 1970 – Inger Stevens, Swedish-American actress (b. 1934) - 1972 – Gia Scala, English-American model and actress (b. 1934) - 1973 – Václav Renč, Czech poet and playwright (b. 1911) - 1974 – Agnes Moorehead, American actress (b. 1900) - 1980 – Luis Muñoz Marín, Puerto Rican journalist and politician, 1st Governor of Puerto Rico (b. 1898) - 1982 – Lester Bangs, American journalist and author (b. 1949) - 1983 – George Balanchine, Russian dancer and choreographer (b. 1904) - 1983 – Muddy Waters, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and bandleader (b. 1913) - 1983 – Edouard Wyss-Dunant, Swiss physician and mountaineer (b. 1897) - 1986 – Robert Stevenson, English director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1905) - 1989 – Sergio Leone, Italian director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1929) - 1993 – Tommy Caton, English footballer (b. 1962) - 1994 – Roland Ratzenberger, Austrian race car driver (b. 1960) - 1994 – Richard Scarry, American author and illustrator (b. 1919) - 1995 – Maung Maung Kha, Burmese colonel and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Burma (b. 1920) - 1998 – Nizar Qabbani, Syrian-English poet, publisher, and diplomat (b. 1926) - 2000 – Poul Hartling, Danish politician, 36th Prime Minister of Denmark (b. 1914) - 2002 – Charlotte von Mahlsdorf, German philanthropist, founded the Gründerzeit Museum (b. 1928) - 2003 – Mark Berger, American economist and academic (b. 1955) - 2003 – Possum Bourne, New Zealand race car driver (b. 1956) - 2005 – Phil Rasmussen, American lieutenant and pilot (b. 1918) - 2006 – Jean-François Revel, French philosopher (b. 1924) - 2006 – Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Indonesian author and academic (b. 1925) - 2007 – Kevin Mitchell, American football player (b. 1971) - 2007 – Tom Poston, American actor, comedian, and game show panelist (b. 1921) - 2007 – Gordon Scott, American film and television actor (b. 1926) - 2008 – Juancho Evertsz, Dutch Antillean politician (b. 1923) - 2009 – Henk Nijdam, Dutch cyclist (b. 1935) - 2011 – Dorjee Khandu, Indian politician, 6th Chief Minister of Arunachal Pradesh (b. 1955) - 2011 – Evald Okas, Estonian painter (b. 1915) - 2011 – Ernesto Sabato, Argentinian physicist, author, and painter (b. 1911) - 2012 – Tomás Borge, Nicaraguan poet and politician, co-founded the Sandinista National Liberation Front (b. 1930) - 2012 – Alexander Dale Oen, Norwegian swimmer (b. 1985) - 2012 – Giannis Gravanis, Greek footballer (b. 1958) - 2012 – Benzion Netanyahu, Russian-Israeli historian and academic (b. 1910) - 2013 – Roberto Chabet, Filipino painter and sculptor (b. 1937) - 2013 – Shirley Firth, Canadian skier (b. 1953) - 2013 – Viviane Forrester, French author and critic (b. 1925) - 2014 – Khaled Choudhury, Indian painter and set designer (b. 1919) - 2014 – Julian Lewis, English biologist and academic (b. 1946) - 2014 – Carl E. Moses, American businessman and politician (b. 1929) - 2014 – Ian Ross, Australian journalist (b. 1940) - 2015 – Ben E. King, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1938) - 2016 – Daniel Berrigan, American priest and activist (b. 1921) - 2016 – Harry Kroto, English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1939) - 2017 – Belchior, Brazilian singer and composer (b. 1946) - 2019 – Peter Mayhew, English-American actor (b. 1944) - 2020 – Tony Allen, Nigerian drummer and composer (b. 1940) - 2020 – Rishi Kapoor, Indian actor, film director and producer (b. 1952) - 2021 – Anthony Payne, English composer (b. 1936) - 2022 – Naomi Judd, American singer-songwriter and actress (b. 1946) - 2022 – Mino Raiola, Italian football agent (b. 1967) - 2023 – Jock Zonfrillo, Scottish television presenter and chef (b. 1976) ==Holidays and observances== *Armed Forces Day (Georgia) - Camarón Day (French Foreign Legion) - Children's Day (Mexico) - Christian feast day: - Adjutor - Aimo - Amator, Peter and Louis - Donatus of Evorea - Eutropius of Saintes - Marie Guyart (Anglican Church of Canada) - Marie of the Incarnation (Ursuline) - Maximus of Rome - Blessed Miles Gerard - Pomponius of Naples - Pope Pius V - Quirinus of Neuss - Sarah Josepha Hale (Episcopal Church) - Suitbert the Younger - April 30 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) - Consumer Protection Day (Thailand) - Honesty Day (United States) - International Jazz Day (UNESCO) - Martyrs' Day (Pakistan) - May Eve, the eve of the first day of summer in the Northern hemisphere "(see May 1)": - Beltane begins at sunset in the Northern hemisphere, Samhain begins at sunset in the Southern hemisphere. (Neo-Druidic Wheel of the Year) - Carodejnice (Czech Republic and Slovakia) - Walpurgis Night (Central and Northern Europe) - National Persian Gulf Day (Iran) - Reunification Day (Vietnam) - Rincon Day (Bonaire) - Russian State Fire Service Day (Russia) - Teachers' Day (Paraguay)

1012

10951369

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1012

August 22

==Events== ===Pre-1600=== * 392 – Arbogast has Eugenius elected Western Roman Emperor. - 851 – Battle of Jengland: Erispoe defeats Charles the Bald near the Breton town of Jengland. - 1138 – Battle of the Standard between Scotland and England. - 1485 – The Battle of Bosworth Field occurs; Richard III dies, marking the end of the House of Plantagenet. - 1559 – Spanish archbishop Bartolomé Carranza is arrested for heresy. ===1601–1900=== *1614 – Fettmilch Uprising: Jews are expelled from Frankfurt, Holy Roman Empire, following the plundering of the Judengasse. - 1639 – Madras (now Chennai), India, is founded by the British East India Company on a sliver of land bought from local Nayak rulers. - 1642 – Charles I raises his standard in Nottingham, which marks the beginning of the English Civil War. - 1654 – Jacob Barsimson arrives in New Amsterdam. He is the first known Jewish immigrant to America. - 1711 – Britain's Quebec Expedition loses eight ships and almost nine hundred soldiers, sailors and women to rocks at Pointe-aux-Anglais. - 1717 – Spanish troops land on Sardinia. - 1770 – James Cook names and lands on Possession Island, and claims the east coast of Australia for Britain as New South Wales. - 1777 – British forces abandon the Siege of Fort Stanwix after hearing rumors of Continental Army reinforcements. - 1780 – James Cook's ship returns to England (Cook having been killed on Hawaii during the voyage). - 1791 – The Haitian slave revolution begins in Saint-Domingue, Haiti. - 1798 – French troops land at Kilcummin, County Mayo, Ireland to aid the rebellion. - 1827 – José de La Mar becomes President of Peru. - 1846 – The Second Federal Republic of Mexico is established. - 1849 – Passaleão incident: João Maria Ferreira do Amaral, the governor of Portuguese Macau, is assassinated by a group of Chinese locals, triggering a military confrontation between China and Portugal at the Battle of Passaleão three days after. - 1851 – The first America's Cup is won by the yacht "America". - 1864 – Twelve nations sign the First Geneva Convention, establishing the rules of protection of the victims of armed conflicts. - 1875 – The Treaty of Saint Petersburg between Japan and Russia is ratified, providing for the exchange of Sakhalin for the Kuril Islands. - 1894 – Mahatma Gandhi forms the Natal Indian Congress (NIC) in order to fight discrimination against Indian traders in Natal. ===1901–present=== *1902 – The Cadillac Motor Company is founded. - 1902 – Theodore Roosevelt becomes the first President of the United States to make a public appearance in an automobile. - 1902 – At least 6,000 people are killed by the magnitude 7.7 Kashgar earthquake in the Tien Shan mountains. - 1922 – Michael Collins, Commander-in-chief of the Irish Free State Army, is shot dead in an ambush during the Irish Civil War. - 1934 – Bill Woodfull of Australia becomes the only test cricket captain to twice regain The Ashes. - 1941 – World War II: German troops begin the Siege of Leningrad. - 1942 – Brazil declares war on Germany, Japan and Italy. - 1944 – World War II: Holocaust of Kedros in Crete by German forces. - 1949 – The Queen Charlotte earthquake is Canada's strongest since the 1700 Cascadia earthquake. - 1953 – The penal colony on Devil's Island is permanently closed. - 1962 – The OAS attempts to assassinate French president Charles de Gaulle. - 1963 – X-15 Flight 91 reaches the highest altitude of the X-15 program ( (354,200 feet)). - 1966 – Labor movements NFWA and AWOC merge to become the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee (UFWOC), the predecessor of the United Farm Workers. - 1968 – Pope Paul VI arrives in Bogotá, Colombia. It is the first visit of a pope to Latin America. - 1971 – J. Edgar Hoover and John Mitchell announce the arrest of 20 of the Camden 28. - 1972 – Rhodesia is expelled by the IOC for its racist policies. - 1973 – The Congress of Chile votes in favour of a resolution condemning President Salvador Allende's government and demands that he resign or else be unseated through force and new elections. - 1978 – Nicaraguan Revolution: The FLSN seizes the National Congress of Nicaragua, along with over a thousand hostages. - 1978 – The District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment is passed by the U.S. Congress, although it is never ratified by a sufficient number of states. - 1981 – Far Eastern Air Transport Flight 103 disintegrates in mid-air and crashes in Sanyi Township, Miaoli County, Taiwan. All 110 people on board are killed. - 1985 – British Airtours Flight 28M suffers an engine fire during takeoff at Manchester Airport. The pilots abort but due to inefficient evacuation procedures 55 people are killed, mostly from smoke inhalation. - 1989 – Nolan Ryan strikes out Rickey Henderson to become the first Major League Baseball pitcher to record 5,000 strikeouts. - 1991 – Iceland is the first nation in the world to recognize the independence of the Baltic states. - 1992 – FBI sniper Lon Horiuchi shoots and kills Vicki Weaver during an 11-day siege at her home at Ruby Ridge, Idaho. - 1999 – China Airlines Flight 642 crashes at Hong Kong International Airport, killing three people and injuring 208 more. - 2003 – Alabama Chief Justice Roy Moore is suspended after refusing to comply with a federal court order to remove a rock inscribed with the Ten Commandments from the lobby of the Alabama Supreme Court building. - 2004 – Versions of "The Scream" and "Madonna", two paintings by Edvard Munch, are stolen at gunpoint from a museum in Oslo, Norway. - 2006 – Pulkovo Aviation Enterprise Flight 612 crashes near the Russian border over eastern Ukraine, killing all 170 people on board. - 2006 – Grigori Perelman is awarded the Fields Medal for his proof of the Poincaré conjecture in mathematics but refuses to accept the medal. - 2007 – The Texas Rangers defeat the Baltimore Orioles 30–3, the most runs scored by a team in modern Major League Baseball history. - 2012 – Ethnic clashes over grazing rights for cattle in Kenya's Tana River District result in more than 52 deaths. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== *1412 – Frederick II, Elector of Saxony (d. 1464) - 1570 – Franz von Dietrichstein, Roman Catholic archbishop and cardinal (d. 1636) - 1599 – Agatha Marie of Hanau, German noblewoman (d. 1636) ===1601–1900=== *1601 – Georges de Scudéry, French author, poet, and playwright (d. 1667) - 1624 – Jean Regnault de Segrais, French author and poet (d. 1701) - 1647 – Denis Papin, French physicist and mathematician, developed pressure cooking (d. 1712) - 1679 – Pierre Guérin de Tencin, French cardinal (d. 1758) - 1760 – Pope Leo XII (d. 1829) - 1764 – Charles Percier, French architect and interior designer (d. 1838) - 1771 – Henry Maudslay, English engineer (d. 1831) - 1773 – Aimé Bonpland, French botanist and explorer (d. 1858) - 1778 – James Kirke Paulding, American poet, playwright, and politician, 11th United States Secretary of the Navy (d. 1860) - 1800 – Samuel David Luzzatto, Italian poet and scholar (d. 1865) - 1818 – Rudolf von Jhering, German jurist (d. 1892) - 1827 – Ezra Butler Eddy, Canadian businessman and politician (d. 1906) - 1834 – Samuel Pierpont Langley, American physicist and astronomer (d. 1906) - 1836 – Archibald Willard, American soldier and painter (d. 1918) - 1844 – George W. De Long, American Naval officer and explorer (d. 1881) - 1845 – William Lewis Douglas, American businessman and politician, 42nd Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1924) - 1847 – John Forrest, Australian politician, 1st Premier of Western Australia (d. 1918) - 1848 – Melville Elijah Stone, American publisher, founded the "Chicago Daily News" (d. 1929) - 1854 – Milan I of Serbia (d. 1901) - 1857 – Ned Hanlon, American baseball player and manager (d. 1937) - 1860 – Paul Gottlieb Nipkow, Polish-German technician and inventor, created the Nipkow disk (d. 1940) - 1860 – Alfred Ploetz, German physician, biologist, and eugenicist (d. 1940) - 1862 – Claude Debussy, French pianist and composer (d. 1918) - 1867 – Maximilian Bircher-Benner, Swiss physician and nutritionist (d. 1939) - 1867 – Charles Francis Jenkins, American inventor (d. 1934) - 1868 – Willis R. Whitney, American chemist (d. 1958) - 1873 – Alexander Bogdanov, Russian physician and philosopher (d. 1928) - 1874 – Max Scheler, German philosopher and author (d. 1928) - 1880 – Gorch Fock, German author and poet (d. 1916) - 1880 – George Herriman, American cartoonist (d. 1944) - 1881 – James Newland, Australian soldier and policeman (d. 1949) - 1882 – Raymonde de Laroche, French pilot (d. 1919) - 1887 – Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk, German jurist and politician, German Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1977) - 1890 – Cecil Kellaway, South African actor (d. 1973) - 1891 – Henry Bachtold, Australian soldier and railway engineer (d. 1983) - 1891 – Jacques Lipchitz, Lithuanian-Italian sculptor (d. 1973) - 1893 – Wilfred Kitching, English 7th General of The Salvation Army (d. 1977) - 1893 – Dorothy Parker, American poet, short story writer, critic, and satirist (d. 1967) - 1893 – Ernest H. Volwiler, American chemist (d. 1992) - 1895 – László Almásy, Hungarian captain, pilot, and explorer (d. 1951) - 1895 – Paul Comtois, Canadian lawyer and politician, 21st Lieutenant Governor of Quebec (d. 1966) - 1896 – Laurence McKinley Gould, American geologist, educator, and polar explorer (d. 1995) - 1897 – Bill Woodfull, Australian cricketer and educator (d. 1965) - 1900 – Lisy Fischer, Swiss-born pianist and child prodigy (d. 1999) ===1901–present=== *1902 – Thomas Pelly, American lawyer and politician (d. 1973) - 1902 – Leni Riefenstahl, German actress, film director and propagandist (d. 2003) - 1902 – Edward Rowe Snow, American historian and author (d. 1982) - 1903 – Jerry Iger, American cartoonist, co-founded Eisner & Iger (d. 1990) - 1904 – Deng Xiaoping, Chinese soldier and politician, 1st Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China (d. 1997) - 1908 – Henri Cartier-Bresson, French photographer and painter (d. 2004) - 1908 – Erwin Thiesies, German rugby player and coach (d. 1993) - 1909 – Julius J. Epstein, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2000) - 1909 – Mel Hein, American football player and coach (d. 1992) - 1913 – Leonard Pagliero, English businessman and pilot (d. 2008) - 1913 – Bruno Pontecorvo, Italian physicist and academic (d. 1993) - 1914 – Jack Dunphy, American author and playwright (d. 1992) - 1914 – Connie B. Gay, American businessman, co-founded the Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum (d. 1989) - 1915 – David Dellinger, American activist (d. 2004) - 1915 – James Hillier, Canadian-American scientist, co-designed the electron microscope (d. 2007) - 1915 – Edward Szczepanik, Polish economist and politician, 15th Prime Minister of the Polish Republic in Exile (d. 2005) - 1917 – John Lee Hooker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2001) - 1918 – Mary McGrory, American journalist and author (d. 2004) - 1920 – Ray Bradbury, American science fiction writer and screenwriter (d. 2012) - 1920 – Denton Cooley, American surgeon and scientist (d. 2016) - 1921 – Dinos Dimopoulos, Greek director and screenwriter (d. 2003) - 1921 – Tony Pawson, English cricketer, footballer, and journalist (d. 2012) - 1922 – Roberto Aizenberg, Argentine painter and sculptor (d. 1996) - 1922 – Theoni V. Aldredge, Greek-American costume designer (d. 2011) - 1924 – James Kirkwood, Jr., American playwright and author (d. 1989) - 1924 – Harishankar Parsai, Indian writer, satirist and humorist (d. 1995) - 1925 – Honor Blackman, English actress and republican (d. 2020) - 1926 – Marc Bohan, French fashion designer (d. 2023) - 1926 – Bob Flanigan, American pop singer (d. 2011) - 1928 – Tinga Seisay, Sierra Leonean academic and diplomat (d. 2015) - 1928 – Karlheinz Stockhausen, German composer and academic (d. 2007) - 1929 – Valery Alekseyev, Russian anthropologist and author (d. 1991) - 1929 – Ulrich Wegener, German police officer and general (d. 2017) - 1930 – Gylmar dos Santos Neves, Brazilian footballer (d. 2013) - 1932 – Gerald P. Carr, American engineer, colonel, and astronaut (d. 2020) - 1933 – Sylva Koscina, Italian actress (d. 1994) - 1934 – Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr., American general and engineer (d. 2012) - 1935 – Annie Proulx, American novelist, short story writer, and journalist - 1936 – Chuck Brown, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 2012) - 1936 – John Callaway, American journalist and producer (d. 2009) - 1936 – Dale Hawkins, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2010) - 1936 – Werner Stengel, German roller coaster designer and engineer, designed the Maverick roller coaster - 1938 – Jean Berkey, American businesswoman and politician (d. 2013) - 1939 – Valerie Harper, American actress (d. 2019) - 1939 – Carl Yastrzemski, American baseball player - 1941 – Bill Parcells, American football player and coach - 1943 – Alun Michael, Welsh police commissioner and politician, inaugural First Minister of Wales - 1943 – Masatoshi Shima, Japanese computer scientist and engineer, co-designed the Intel 4004 - 1944 – Roger Cashmore, English physicist and academic - 1945 – David Chase, American screenwriter and producer - 1945 – Ron Dante, American singer-songwriter and producer - 1947 – Cindy Williams, American actress and producer (d. 2023) - 1948 – David Marks, American singer-songwriter and guitarist - 1949 – Diana Nyad, American swimmer and author - 1949 – Joop Donkervoort, Dutch businessman - 1950 – Ray Burris, American baseball player and coach - 1950 – Scooter Libby, American lawyer and politician, Chief of Staff to the Vice President of the United States - 1952 – Peter Laughner, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1977) - 1953 – Paul Ellering, American weightlifter, wrestler, and manager - 1955 – Chiranjeevi, Indian film actor, producer and politician - 1956 – Paul Molitor, American baseball player and coach - 1956 – Peter Taylor, Australian cricketer - 1957 – Steve Davis, English snooker player, sportscaster, and author - 1957 – Holly Dunn, American country music singer-songwriter (d. 2016) - 1958 – Colm Feore, American-Canadian actor - 1958 – Stevie Ray, American semi-retired wrestler - 1958 – Vernon Reid, English-born American guitarist and songwriter - 1959 – Juan Croucier, Cuban-American singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer - 1959 – Pia Gjellerup, Danish lawyer and politician, Danish Minister of Finance - 1959 – Mark Williams, English actor - 1960 – Holger Gehrke, German footballer and manager - 1960 – Collin Raye, American country music singer - 1960 – Regina Taylor, American actress and playwright - 1961 – Andrés Calamaro, Argentine singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer - 1961 – Roland Orzabal, English singer and musician - 1961 – Debbi Peterson, American singer-songwriter and drummer - 1962 – Stefano Tilli, Italian sprinter - 1963 – Tori Amos, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer - 1963 – James DeBarge, American R&B/soul singer - 1963 – Terry Catledge, American basketball player - 1964 – Trey Gowdy, American lawyer and U.S. Representative - 1964 – Mats Wilander, Swedish-American tennis player and coach - 1965 – Wendy Botha, South African-Australian surfer - 1965 – David Reimer, Canadian man, born male but reassigned female and raised as a girl after a botched circumcision (d. 2004) - 1966 – GZA, American rapper and producer - 1966 – Rob Witschge, Dutch footballer and manager - 1967 – Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje, English actor - 1967 – Ty Burrell, American actor and comedian - 1967 – Paul Colman, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist - 1967 – Alfred Gough, American screenwriter and producer - 1967 – Layne Staley, American singer-songwriter (d. 2002) - 1968 – Casper Christensen, Danish comedian, actor, and screenwriter - 1968 – Rich Lowry, American writer and magazine editor ("National Review") - 1968 – Aleksandr Mostovoi, Russian footballer - 1968 – Elisabeth Murdoch, Australian businesswoman - 1968 – Horst Skoff, Austrian tennis player (d. 2008) - 1970 – Charlie Connelly, English author and broadcaster - 1970 – Giada De Laurentiis, Italian-American chef and author - 1970 – Tímea Nagy, Hungarian fencer - 1971 – Richard Armitage, English actor - 1971 – Craig Finn, American singer-songwriter and guitarist - 1971 – Melinda Page Hamilton, American actress - 1971 – Rick Yune, American actor - 1972 – Okkert Brits, South African pole vaulter - 1972 – Paul Doucette, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and drummer - 1972 – Steve Kline, American baseball player and coach - 1972 – Max Wilson, German-Brazilian race car driver - 1973 – Roslina Bakar, Malaysian sport shooter - 1973 – Beenie Man, Jamaican deejay - 1973 – Howie Dorough, American singer-songwriter and dancer - 1973 – Kristen Wiig, American actress, comedian, and screenwriter - 1973 – Eurelijus Žukauskas, Lithuanian basketball player - 1974 – Cory Gardner, American politician - 1974 – Jenna Leigh Green, American actress and singer - 1974 – Agustín Pichot, Argentinian rugby player - 1975 – Clint Bolton, Australian footballer - 1975 – Rodrigo Santoro, Brazilian actor - 1976 – Marius Bezykornovas, Lithuanian footballer - 1976 – Bryn Davies, American bassist, cellist, and pianist - 1976 – Laurent Hernu, French decathlete - 1976 – Jeff Weaver, American baseball player - 1976 – Randy Wolf, American baseball player - 1977 – Heiðar Helguson, Icelandic footballer - 1977 – Keren Cytter, Israeli visual artist and writer - 1978 – James Corden, English actor, comedian, writer, and television presenter - 1978 – Ioannis Gagaloudis, Greek basketball player - 1979 – Brandon Adams, American actor - 1979 – Matt Walters, American football player - 1980 – Roland Benschneider, German footballer - 1980 – Nicolas Macrozonaris, Canadian sprinter - 1980 – Aya Sumika, American actress - 1980 – Seiko Yamamoto, Japanese wrestler - 1981 – Alex Holmes, American football player - 1981 – Jang Hyun-kyu, South Korean footballer (d. 2012) - 1981 – Christina Obergföll, German athlete - 1983 – Theo Bos, Dutch cyclist - 1983 – Jahri Evans, American football player - 1984 – Lee Camp, English footballer - 1984 – Lawrence Quaye, Ghanaian-Qatari footballer - 1985 – Luke Russert, American journalist - 1985 – Jey Uso, Samoan-American wrestler - 1985 – Jimmy Uso, Samoan-American wrestler - 1985 – Salih Yoluç, Turkish Automobile Racer - 1986 – Stephen Ireland, Irish footballer - 1986 – Tokushōryū Makoto, Japanese sumo wrestler - 1986 – Pac, English wrestler - 1987 – Leonardo Moracci, Italian footballer - 1987 – Apollo Crews, American wrestler - 1989 – Giacomo Bonaventura, Italian footballer - 1990 – Randall Cobb, American football player - 1990 – Drew Hutchison, American baseball player - 1990 – Robbie Rochow, Australian rugby league player - 1990 – Adam Thielen, American football player - 1991 – Federico Macheda, Italian footballer - 1991 – Brayden Schenn, Canadian ice hockey player - 1992 – Ema Burgić Bucko, Bosnian tennis player - 1992 – Ari Stidham, American actor - 1993 – Dillon Danis, American mixed martial artist - 1994 – Israel Broussard, American actor - 1994 – Olli Määttä, Finnish ice hockey player - 1995 – Dua Lipa, English singer-songwriter - 1996 – Jessica-Jane Applegate, British Paralympic swimmer - 1996 – Jeon So-min, South Korean singer-songwriter - 1997 – Maxx Crosby, American football player - 1997 – Lautaro Martínez, Argentine footballer - 2001 – LaMelo Ball, American basketball player ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== * 408 – Stilicho, Roman general (b. 359) - 1155 – Emperor Konoe of Japan (b. 1139) - 1241 – Pope Gregory IX, (b. 1143) - 1280 – Pope Nicholas III (b. 1225) - 1304 – John II, Count of Holland (b. 1247) - 1338 – William II, Duke of Athens (b. 1312) - 1350 – Philip VI of France (b. 1293) - 1358 – Isabella of France (b. 1295) - 1425 – Eleanor, Princess of Asturias (b. 1423) - 1456 – Vladislav II of Wallachia - 1485 – Richard III of England (b. 1452) - 1485 – James Harrington, Yorkist knight - 1485 – John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk (b. 1430) - 1485 – Richard Ratcliffe, supporter of Richard III - 1485 – William Brandon, supporter of Henry VII (b. 1426) - 1532 – William Warham, Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1450) - 1545 – Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk, English politician and husband of Mary Tudor (b. c. 1484) - 1553 – John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland, English admiral and politician, Lord President of the Council (b. 1504) - 1572 – Thomas Percy, 7th Earl of Northumberland, English leader of the Rising of the North (b. 1528) - 1584 – Jan Kochanowski, Polish poet and playwright (b. 1530) - 1599 – Luca Marenzio, Italian singer-songwriter (b. 1553) ===1601–1900=== *1607 – Bartholomew Gosnold, English lawyer and explorer, founded the London Company (b. 1572) - 1652 – Jacob De la Gardie, Estonian-Swedish soldier and politician, Lord High Constable of Sweden (b. 1583) - 1664 – Maria Cunitz, Polish astronomer and author (b. 1610) - 1680 – John George II, Elector of Saxony (b. 1613) - 1681 – Philippe Delano, Dutch Plymouth Colony settler (b. 1602) - 1701 – John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1628) - 1711 – Louis François, duc de Boufflers, French general (b. 1644) - 1752 – William Whiston, English mathematician, historian, and theologian (b. 1667) - 1773 – George Lyttelton, 1st Baron Lyttelton, English poet and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (b. 1709) - 1793 – Louis de Noailles, French general (b. 1713) - 1797 – Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser, French-Austrian field marshal (b. 1724) - 1806 – Jean-Honoré Fragonard, French painter and illustrator (b. 1732) - 1818 – Warren Hastings, English lawyer and politician, 1st Governor-General of Bengal (b. 1732) - 1828 – Franz Joseph Gall, Austrian neuroanatomist and physiologist (b. 1758) - 1850 – Nikolaus Lenau, Romanian-Austrian poet and author (b. 1802) - 1861 – Xianfeng, Emperor of China (b. 1831) - 1888 – Ágoston Trefort, Hungarian jurist and politician, Hungarian Minister of Education (b. 1817) - 1891 – Jan Neruda, Czech journalist, author, and poet (b. 1834) ===1901–present=== *1903 – Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, English academic and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1830) - 1904 – Kate Chopin, American novelist and poet (b. 1850) - 1909 – Henry Radcliffe Crocker, English dermatologist and author (b. 1846) - 1914 – Giacomo Radini-Tedeschi, Italian bishop and academic (b. 1859) - 1918 – Korbinian Brodmann, German neurologist and academic (b. 1868) - 1920 – Anders Zorn, Swedish artist (b. 1860) - 1922 – Michael Collins, Irish rebel, counter-intelligence and military tactician, and politician; 2nd Irish Minister of Finance (b. 1890) - 1926 – Charles William Eliot, American academic (b. 1834) - 1933 – Alexandros Kontoulis, Greek general and diplomat (b. 1858) - 1940 – Oliver Lodge, English physicist and academic (b. 1851) - 1940 – Gerald Strickland, 1st Baron Strickland, Maltese lawyer and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Malta (b. 1861) - 1942 – Michel Fokine, Russian dancer and choreographer (b. 1880) - 1946 – Döme Sztójay, Hungarian general and politician, 35th Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1883) - 1950 – Kirk Bryan, American geologist and academic (b. 1888) - 1951 – Jack Bickell, Canadian businessman and philanthropist (b. 1884) - 1953 – Jim Tabor, American baseball player (b. 1916) - 1958 – Roger Martin du Gard, French novelist and paleographer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1881) - 1960 – Johannes Sikkar, Estonian soldier and politician, Prime Minister of Estonia in exile (b. 1897) - 1963 – William Morris, 1st Viscount Nuffield, English businessman and philanthropist, founded Morris Motors (b. 1877) - 1967 – Gregory Goodwin Pincus, American biologist and academic, co-created the birth-control pill (b. 1903) - 1970 – Vladimir Propp, Russian philologist and scholar (b. 1895) - 1971 – Birger Nerman, Swedish archaeologist (b. 1888) - 1974 – Jacob Bronowski, Polish-English mathematician, biologist, and author (b. 1908) - 1976 – Gina Bachauer, Greek pianist and composer (b. 1913) - 1976 – Juscelino Kubitschek, Brazilian physician and politician, 21st President of Brazil (b. 1902) - 1977 – Sebastian Cabot, English actor (b. 1918) - 1977 – Chunseong, Korean monk, philosopher and writer (b. 1891) - 1977 – Rex Connor, Australian politician (b. 1907) - 1978 – Jomo Kenyatta, Kenyan politician, 1st President of Kenya (b. 1894) - 1979 – James T. Farrell, American novelist, short-story writer, and poet (b. 1904) - 1980 – James Smith McDonnell, American pilot, engineer, and businessman, founded McDonnell Aircraft (b. 1899) - 1981 – Vicente Manansala, Filipino painter (b. 1910) - 1985 – Charles Gibson (historian), Historian of Mexico and its Indians, President of the American Historical Association (b. 1920) - 1986 – Celâl Bayar, Turkish lawyer and politician, 3rd President of Turkey (b. 1883) - 1987 – Joseph P. Lash, American author and journalist (b. 1909) - 1989 – Robert Grondelaers, Belgian cyclist (b. 1933) - 1989 – Huey P. Newton, American activist, co-founded the Black Panther Party (b. 1942) - 1991 – Colleen Dewhurst, Canadian-American actress (b. 1924) - 1991 – Boris Pugo, Russian soldier and politician, Soviet Minister of Interior (b. 1937) - 1994 – Gilles Groulx, Canadian director and screenwriter (b. 1931) - 1994 – Allan Houser, American sculptor and painter (b. 1914) - 1995 – Johnny Carey, Irish footballer and manager (b. 1919) - 1996 – Erwin Komenda, Austrian car designer and engineer (b. 1904) - 2000 – Abulfaz Elchibey, 2nd President of Azerbaijan (b. 1938) - 2003 – Arnold Gerschwiler, Swiss figure skater and coach (b. 1914) - 2004 – Konstantin Aseev, Russian chess player and trainer (b. 1960) - 2004 – Angus Bethune, Australian soldier and politician, 33rd Premier of Tasmania (b. 1908) - 2004 – Daniel Petrie, Canadian director and producer (b. 1920) - 2005 – Luc Ferrari, French-Italian director and composer (b. 1929) - 2005 – Ernest Kirkendall, American chemist and metallurgist (b. 1914) - 2007 – Grace Paley, American short story writer and poet (b. 1922) - 2008 – Gladys Powers, English-Canadian soldier (b. 1899) - 2009 – Muriel Duckworth, Canadian pacifist, feminist, and activist (b. 1908) - 2009 – Elmer Kelton, American journalist and author (b. 1926) - 2010 – Stjepan Bobek, Croatian footballer and manager (b. 1923) - 2011 – Nick Ashford, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1942) - 2011 – Jack Layton, Canadian academic and politician (b. 1950) - 2011 – Casey Ribicoff, American philanthropist (b. 1922) - 2012 – Nina Bawden, English author (b. 1925) - 2012 – Paul Shan Kuo-hsi, Chinese cardinal (b. 1923) - 2012 – Jeffrey Stone, American actor and screenwriter (b. 1926) - 2013 – Paul Poberezny, American pilot and businessman, founded the Experimental Aircraft Association (b. 1921) - 2013 – Andrea Servi, Italian footballer (b. 1984) - 2014 – U. R. Ananthamurthy, Indian author, poet, and playwright (b. 1932) - 2014 – Emmanuel Kriaras, Greek lexicographer and philologist (b. 1906) - 2014 – Pete Ladygo, American football player and coach (b. 1928) - 2014 – Noella Leduc, American baseball player (b. 1933) - 2014 – John Sperling, American businessman, founded the University of Phoenix (b. 1921) - 2014 – John S. Waugh, American chemist and academic (b. 1929) - 2015 – Arthur Morris, Australian cricketer and journalist (b. 1922) - 2015 – Ieng Thirith, Cambodian academic and politician (b. 1932) - 2015 – Eric Thompson, English race car driver and book dealer (b. 1919) - 2016 – S. R. Nathan, 6th President of Singapore (b. 1924) - 2016 – Toots Thielemans, Belgian and American jazz musician (b. 1922) - 2017 – Michael J. C. Gordon, British Computer scientist (b. 1948) - 2018 – Ed King, American musician (b. 1949) - 2018 – Krishna Reddy, Indian printmaker, sculptor and teacher (b. 1925) - 2021 – Rod Gilbert, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1941) == Holidays and observances == * Christian feast day: - Fabrizio - Guinefort, the holy greyhound, feast day traditionally. - Immaculate Heart of Mary (Roman Catholic calendar of 1960) - Queenship of Mary - Symphorian and Timotheus - August 22 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) - Earliest day on which National Heroes' Day (Philippines) can fall, while August 28 is the latest; celebrated on the fourth Monday in August. - Flag Day (Russia) - Madras Day (Chennai and Tamil Nadu, India) - End of Filseta feast in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church - International Day Commemorating the Victims of Acts of Violence Based on Religion or Belief (International)

1013

1601788

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1013

August 27

==Events== ===Pre-1600=== * 410 – The sacking of Rome by the Visigoths ends after three days. - 1172 – Henry the Young King and Margaret of France are crowned junior king and queen of England. - 1232 – Shikken Hojo Yasutoki of the Kamakura shogunate promulgates the Goseibai Shikimoku, the first Japanese legal code governing the "samurai" class. - 1557 – The Battle of St. Quentin results in Emmanuel Philibert becoming Duke of Savoy. - 1593 – Pierre Barrière failed an attempt to assassinate Henry IV of France. - 1597 – : Battle of Chilcheollyang: A Japanese fleet of 500 ships destroys Joseon commander Won Gyun’s fleet of 200 ships at Chilcheollyang. - 1600 – Ishida Mitsunari’s Western Army commences the Siege of Fushimi Castle, which is lightly defended by a much smaller Tokugawa garrison led by Torii Mototada. ===1601–1900=== *1689 – The Treaty of Nerchinsk is signed by Russia and the Qing Empire (Julian calendar). - 1776 – American Revolutionary War: Members of the 1st Maryland Regiment repeatedly charged a numerically superior British force during the Battle of Long Island, allowing General Washington and the rest of the American troops to escape. - 1791 – French Revolution: Frederick William II of Prussia and Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor, issue the Declaration of Pillnitz, declaring the joint support of the Holy Roman Empire and Prussia for the French monarchy, agitating the French revolutionaries and contributing to the outbreak of the War of the First Coalition. - 1793 – French Revolutionary Wars: The city of Toulon revolts against the French Republic and admits the British and Spanish fleets to seize its port, leading to the Siege of Toulon by French Revolutionary forces. - 1798 – Wolfe Tone's United Irish and French forces clash with the British Army in the Battle of Castlebar, part of the Irish Rebellion of 1798, resulting in the creation of the French puppet Republic of Connacht. - 1810 – Napoleonic Wars: The French Navy defeats the British Royal Navy, preventing them from taking the harbour of Grand Port on Île de France. - 1813 – French Emperor Napoleon I defeats a larger force of Austrians, Russians, and Prussians at the Battle of Dresden. - 1828 – Brazil and Argentina recognize the sovereignty of Uruguay in the Treaty of Montevideo - 1832 – Black Hawk, leader of the Sauk tribe of Native Americans, surrenders to U.S. authorities, ending the Black Hawk War. - 1859 – Petroleum is discovered in Titusville, Pennsylvania, leading to the world's first commercially successful oil well. - 1881 – The Georgia hurricane makes landfall near Savannah, Georgia, resulting in an estimated 700 deaths. - 1883 – Eruption of Krakatoa: Four enormous explosions almost completely destroy the island of Krakatoa and cause years of climate change. - 1893 – The Sea Islands hurricane strikes the United States near Savannah, Georgia, killing between 1,000 and 2,000 people. - 1895 – Japanese invasion of Taiwan: Battle of Baguashan: The Empire of Japan decisively defeats a smaller Formosan army at Changhua, crippling the short-lived Republic of Formosa and leading to its surrender two months later. - 1896 – Anglo-Zanzibar War: The shortest war in world history (09:02 to 09:40), between the United Kingdom and Zanzibar. ===1901–present=== *1908 – The Qing dynasty promulgates the Qinding Xianfa Dagang, the first constitutional document in the history of China, transforming the Qing empire into a constitutional monarchy. - 1914 – World War I: Battle of Étreux: A British rearguard action by the Royal Munster Fusiliers during the Great Retreat. - 1914 – World War I: Siege of Tsingtao: A Japanese fleet commanded by Vice Admiral Sadakichi Kato imposes a blockade along the whole coastline of German Tsingtao, initiating the Siege of Tsingtao. - 1915 – Attempted assassination of Bishop Patrick Heffron, bishop of the Diocese of Winona, by Rev. Louis M. Lesches. - 1916 – World War I: The Kingdom of Romania declares war on Austria-Hungary, entering the war as one of the Allied nations. - 1918 – Mexican Revolution: Battle of Ambos Nogales: U.S. Army forces skirmish against Mexican Carrancistas in the only battle of World War I fought on American soil. - 1922 – Greco-Turkish War: The Turkish army takes the Aegean city of Afyonkarahisar from the Kingdom of Greece. - 1927 – Five Canadian women file a petition to the Supreme Court of Canada, asking: "Does the word 'Persons' in Section 24 of the British North America Act, 1867, include female persons?" - 1928 – The Kellogg–Briand Pact outlawing war is signed by fifteen nations. Ultimately sixty-one nations will sign it. - 1933 – The first Afrikaans Bible is introduced during a Bible Festival in Bloemfontein. - 1939 – First flight of the turbojet-powered Heinkel He 178, the world's first jet aircraft. - 1942 – First day of the Sarny Massacre, perpetrated by Germans and Ukrainians. - 1943 – World War II: Japanese forces evacuate New Georgia Island in the Pacific Theater of Operations during World War II. - 1943 – World War II: Aerial bombardment by the Luftwaffe razes to the ground the village of Vorizia in Crete. - 1955 – The first edition of the "Guinness Book of Records" is published in Great Britain. - 1956 – The nuclear power station at Calder Hall in the United Kingdom was connected to the national power grid becoming the world's first commercial nuclear power station to generate electricity on an industrial scale. - 1962 – The Mariner 2 unmanned space mission is launched to Venus by NASA. - 1963 – An explosion at the Cane Creek potash mine near Moab, Utah kills 18 miners.<ref name="CCZ-June/July 2018"></ref> - 1964 – South Vietnamese junta leader Nguyễn Khánh enters into a triumvirate power-sharing arrangement with rival generals Trần Thiện Khiêm and Dương Văn Minh, who had both been involved in plots to unseat Khánh. - 1971 – An attempted coup d'état fails in the African nation of Chad. The Government of Chad accuses Egypt of playing a role in the attempt and breaks off diplomatic relations. - 1975 – The Governor of Portuguese Timor abandons its capital, Dili, and flees to Atauro Island, leaving control to a rebel group. - 1979 – The Troubles: Eighteen British soldiers are killed in an ambush by the Provisional Irish Republican Army near Warrenpoint, Northern Ireland, in the deadliest attack on British forces during Operation Banner. An IRA bomb also kills British royal family member Lord Mountbatten and three others on his boat at Mullaghmore, Republic of Ireland. - 1980 – South Korean presidential election: After successfully staging the Coup d'état of May Seventeenth, General Chun Doo-hwan, running unopposed, has the National Conference for Unification elect him President of the Fourth Republic of Korea. - 1982 – Turkish military diplomat Colonel Atilla Altıkat is shot and killed in Ottawa. Justice Commandos of the Armenian Genocide claim to be avenging the massacre of 1 million Armenians in the 1915 Armenian genocide. - 1985 – Major General Muhammadu Buhari, Chairman of the Supreme Military Council of Nigeria, is ousted from power in a coup d'état led by Major General Ibrahim Babangida. - 1991 – The European Community recognizes the independence of the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. - 1991 – Moldova declares independence from the USSR. - 2003 – Mars makes its closest approach to Earth in nearly 60,000 years, passing distant. - 2003 – The first six-party talks, involving South and North Korea, the United States, China, Japan and Russia, convene to find a peaceful resolution to the security concerns of the North Korean nuclear weapons program. - 2006 – Comair Flight 5191 crashes on takeoff from Blue Grass Airport in Lexington, Kentucky, bound for Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport in Atlanta. Of the passengers and crew, 49 of 50 are confirmed dead in the hours following the crash. - 2009 – Internal conflict in Myanmar: The Burmese military junta and ethnic armies begin three days of violent clashes in the Kokang Special Region. - 2011 – Hurricane Irene strikes the United States east coast, killing 47 and causing an estimated $15.6 billion in damage. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== * 865 – Rhazes, Persian polymath (d. 925) - 1407 – Ashikaga Yoshikazu, Japanese shōgun (d. 1425) - 1471 – George, Duke of Saxony (d. 1539) - 1487 – Anna of Brandenburg (d. 1514) - 1512 – Friedrich Staphylus, German theologian (d. 1564) - 1542 – John Frederick, Duke of Pomerania and Protestant Bishop of Cammin (d. 1600) - 1545 – Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma (d. 1592) ===1601–1900=== *1624 – Koxinga, Chinese-Japanese Ming loyalist (d. 1662) - 1637 – Charles Calvert, 3rd Baron Baltimore, English politician, 2nd Proprietor of Maryland (d. 1715) - 1665 – John Hervey, 1st Earl of Bristol, English politician (d. 1751) - 1669 – Anne Marie d'Orléans, queen of Sardinia (d. 1728) - 1677 – Otto Ferdinand von Abensberg und Traun, Austrian general (d. 1748) - 1724 – John Joachim Zubly, Swiss-American pastor, planter, and politician (d. 1781) - 1730 – Johann Georg Hamann, German philosopher and author (d. 1788) - 1770 – Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, German philosopher and academic (d. 1831) - 1785 – Agustín Gamarra, Peruvian general and politician, 10th and 14th President of Peru (d. 1841) - 1795 – Giorgio Mitrovich, Maltese politician (d. 1885) - 1803 – Edward Beecher, American minister and theologian (d. 1895) - 1809 – Hannibal Hamlin, American publisher and politician, 15th Vice President of the United States (d. 1891) - 1812 – Bertalan Szemere, Hungarian poet and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Hungary (d. 1869) - 1822 – William Hayden English, American politician, U.S. Representative from Indiana and Democratic Vice-Presidential nominee (d. 1896) - 1827 – Charles Lilley, English-Australian politician, 4th Premier of Queensland (d. 1897) - 1845 – Ödön Lechner, Hungarian architect, designed the Museum of Applied Arts and the Church of St Elisabeth (d. 1914) - 1845 – Friedrich Martens, Estonian-Russian historian, lawyer, and diplomat (d. 1909) - 1856 – Ivan Franko, Ukrainian author and poet (d. 1916) - 1858 – Giuseppe Peano, Italian mathematician and philosopher (d. 1932) - 1864 – Hermann Weingärtner, German gymnast (d. 1919) - 1865 – James Henry Breasted, American archaeologist and historian (d. 1935) - 1865 – Charles G. Dawes, American general and politician, 30th Vice President of the United States, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1951) - 1868 – Hong Beom-do, Korean general and activist (d. 1943) - 1870 – Amado Nervo, Mexican journalist, poet, and diplomat (d. 1919) - 1871 – Theodore Dreiser, American novelist and journalist (d. 1945) - 1874 – Carl Bosch, German chemist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1940) - 1875 – Katharine McCormick, American biologist, philanthropist, and activist (d. 1967) - 1877 – Charles Rolls, English engineer and businessman, co-founded Rolls-Royce Limited (d. 1910) - 1877 – Ernst Wetter, Swiss lawyer and politician, 48th President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 1963) - 1878 – Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel, Russian general (d. 1928) - 1884 – Vincent Auriol, French lawyer and politician, President of the French Republic (d. 1966) - 1884 – Denis G. Lillie, British biologist, member of the 1910–1913 "Terra Nova" Expedition (d. 1963) - 1886 – Rebecca Clarke, English viola player and composer (d. 1979) - 1890 – Man Ray, American-French photographer and painter (d. 1976) - 1895 – Andreas Alföldi, Hungarian archaeologist and historian (d. 1981) - 1896 – Kenji Miyazawa, Japanese author and poet (d. 1933) - 1898 – Gaspard Fauteux, Canadian businessman and politician, 19th Lieutenant Governor of Quebec (d. 1963) - 1899 – C. S. Forester, English novelist (d. 1966) ===1901–present=== *1904 – Alar Kotli, Estonian architect (d. 1963) - 1904 – Norah Lofts, English author (d. 1983) - 1904 – John Hay Whitney, American businessman, publisher, and diplomat, founded J.H. Whitney & Company (d. 1982) - 1905 – Aris Velouchiotis, Greek soldier (d. 1945) - 1906 – Ed Gein, American murderer and body snatcher, The Butcher of Plainfield (d. 1982) - 1908 – Don Bradman, Australian cricketer and manager (d. 2001) - 1908 – Lyndon B. Johnson, American commander and politician, 36th President of the United States (d. 1973) - 1909 – Sylvère Maes, Belgian cyclist (d. 1966) - 1909 – Charles Pozzi, French race car driver (d. 2001) - 1909 – Lester Young, American saxophonist and clarinet player (d. 1959) - 1911 – Kay Walsh, English actress and dancer (d. 2005) - 1912 – Gloria Guinness, Mexican journalist (d. 1980) - 1915 – Norman Foster Ramsey Jr., American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2011) - 1916 – Gordon Bashford, English engineer, co-designed the Range Rover (d. 1991) - 1916 – Tony Harris, South African cricketer and rugby player (d. 1993) - 1916 – Martha Raye, American actress and comedian (d. 1994) - 1917 – Peanuts Lowrey, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1986) - 1918 – Jelle Zijlstra, Dutch economist and politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 2001) - 1919 – Pee Wee Butts, American baseball player and coach (d. 1972) - 1919 – Murray Grand, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 2007) - 1920 – Baptiste Manzini, American football player (d. 2008) - 1920 – James Molyneaux, Baron Molyneaux of Killead, Northern Irish soldier and politician (d. 2015) - 1921 – Georg Alexander, Duke of Mecklenburg (d. 1996) - 1921 – Leo Penn, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1998) - 1922 – Roelof Kruisinga, Dutch physician and politician, Minister of Defence for The Netherlands (d. 2012) - 1923 – Jimmy Greenhalgh, English footballer and manager (d. 2013) - 1924 – David Rowbotham, Australian journalist and poet (d. 2010) - 1924 – Rosalie E. Wahl, American lawyer and jurist (d. 2013) - 1925 – Andrea Cordero Lanza di Montezemolo, Italian cardinal (d. 2017) - 1925 – Nat Lofthouse, English footballer and manager (d. 2011) - 1925 – Saiichi Maruya, Japanese author and critic (d. 2012) - 1925 – Bill Neilson, Australian politician, 34th Premier of Tasmania (d. 1989) - 1925 – Jaswant Singh Neki, Indian poet and academic (d. 2015) - 1925 – Carter Stanley, American bluegrass singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1966) - 1926 – George Brecht, American-German chemist and composer (d. 2008) - 1926 – Kristen Nygaard, Norwegian computer scientist and academic (d. 2002) - 1928 – Péter Boross, Hungarian lawyer and politician, 54th Prime Minister of Hungary - 1928 – Mangosuthu Buthelezi, South African politician, Chief Minister of KwaZulu (d. 2023) - 1928 – Joan Kroc, American philanthropist (d. 2003) - 1929 – Ira Levin, American novelist, playwright, and songwriter (d. 2007) - 1929 – George Scott, Canadian-American wrestler and promoter (d. 2014) - 1930 – Gholamreza Takhti, Iranian wrestler and politician (d. 1968) - 1931 – Sri Chinmoy, Indian-American guru and poet (d. 2007) - 1931 – Joe Cunningham, American baseball player and coach (d. 2021) - 1932 – Cor Brom, Dutch footballer and manager (d. 2008) - 1932 – Antonia Fraser, English historian and author - 1935 – Ernie Broglio, American baseball player (d. 2019) - 1935 – Michael Holroyd, English author - 1935 – Frank Yablans, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2014) - 1936 – Joel Kovel, American scholar and author (d. 2018) - 1936 – Lien Chan, Taiwanese politician, Vice President of the Republic of China - 1937 – Alice Coltrane, American pianist and composer (d. 2007) - 1937 – Tommy Sands, American pop singer and actor - 1939 – William Least Heat-Moon, American travel writer and historian - 1939 – Edward Patten, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2005) - 1939 – Nikola Pilić, Yugoslav tennis player and coach - 1940 – Fernest Arceneaux, American singer and accordion player (d. 2008) - 1940 – Sonny Sharrock, American guitarist (d. 1994) - 1941 – Cesária Évora, Cape Verdean singer (d. 2011) - 1941 – János Konrád, Hungarian water polo player and swimmer (d. 2014) - 1941 – Harrison Page, American actor - 1942 – Daryl Dragon, American keyboard player and songwriter (d. 2019) - 1942 – Brian Peckford, Canadian educator and politician, 3rd Premier of Newfoundland and Labrador - 1943 – Chuck Girard, American singer-songwriter and pianist - 1943 – Bob Kerrey, American lieutenant and politician, Medal of Honor recipient, 35th Governor of Nebraska - 1943 – Tuesday Weld, American model and actress - 1944 – G. W. Bailey, American actor - 1944 – Tim Bogert, American singer and bass player (d. 2021) - 1945 – Douglas R. Campbell, Canadian lawyer and judge - 1945 – Marianne Sägebrecht, German actress - 1946 – Tony Howard, Barbadian cricketer and manager - 1947 – Barbara Bach, American actress and model - 1947 – Halil Berktay, Turkish historian and academic - 1947 – Kirk Francis, American engineer and producer - 1947 – Peter Krieg, German director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2009) - 1947 – John Morrison, New Zealand cricketer and politician - 1947 – Gavin Pfuhl, South African cricketer and sportscaster (d. 2002) - 1948 – John Mehler, American drummer - 1948 – Sgt. Slaughter, American wrestler - 1948 – Deborah Swallow, English historian and curator - 1948 – Philippe Vallois, French director and screenwriter - 1949 – Jeff Cook, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2022) - 1949 – Leah Jamieson, American computer scientist, engineer, and academic - 1949 – Ann Murray, Irish soprano - 1950 – Charles Fleischer, American comedian and actor - 1950 – Neil Murray, Scottish bass player and songwriter - 1950 – Edmund Weiner, English lexicographer and author - 1951 – Buddy Bell, American baseball player and manager - 1951 – Mack Brown, American football player and coach - 1951 – Randall Garrison, American-Canadian criminologist and politician - 1952 – Paul Reubens, American actor and comedian (d. 2023) - 1953 – Tom Berryhill, American businessman and politician (d. 2020) - 1953 – Alex Lifeson, Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer - 1953 – Joan Smith, English journalist and author - 1953 – Peter Stormare, Swedish actor, director, and playwright - 1954 – John Lloyd, English tennis player and sportscaster - 1954 – Rajesh Thakker, English physician and academic - 1954 – Derek Warwick, English race car driver - 1955 – Robert Richardson, American cinematographer - 1955 – Diana Scarwid, American actress - 1956 – Glen Matlock, English singer-songwriter and bass player - 1957 – Jeff Grubb, American game designer and author - 1957 – Bernhard Langer, German golfer - 1958 – Sergei Krikalev, Russian engineer and astronaut - 1958 – Tom Lanoye, Belgian author, poet, and playwright - 1958 – Hugh Orde, British police officer - 1959 – Daniela Romo, Mexican singer, actress and TV hostess - 1959 – Gerhard Berger, Austrian race car driver - 1959 – Juan Fernando Cobo, Colombian painter and sculptor - 1959 – Denice Denton, American engineer and academic (d. 2006) - 1959 – Frode Fjellheim, Norwegian pianist and composer - 1959 – András Petőcz, Hungarian author and poet - 1959 – Jeanette Winterson, English journalist and novelist - 1961 – Yolanda Adams, American singer, producer, and actress - 1961 – Mark Curry, English television host and actor - 1961 – Tom Ford, American fashion designer and film director - 1961 – Steve McDowall, New Zealand rugby player - 1961 – Helmut Winklhofer, German footballer - 1962 – Adam Oates, Canadian ice hockey player - 1964 – Stephan Elliott, Australian actor, director, and screenwriter - 1964 – Paul Bernardo, Canadian serial rapist and murderer - 1965 – Scott Dibble, American lawyer and politician - 1965 – Wayne James, Zimbabwean cricketer and coach - 1965 – Ange Postecoglou, Greek-Australian footballer and coach - 1966 – Jeroen Duyster, Dutch rower - 1966 – René Higuita, Colombian footballer - 1966 – Juhan Parts, Estonian lawyer and politician, 14th Prime Minister of Estonia - 1967 – Ogie Alcasid, Filipino singer-songwriter, producer, and actor - 1967 – Rob Burnett, American football player and sportscaster - 1968 – Eric "Bobo" Correa, American musician - 1968 – Daphne Koller, Israeli-American computer scientist and academic - 1968 – Michael Long, New Zealand golfer - 1968 – Matthew Ridge, New Zealand rugby player and sportscaster - 1969 – Mark Ealham, English cricketer - 1969 – Cesar Millan, Mexican-American dog trainer, television personality, and author - 1969 – Reece Shearsmith, English actor, comedian and writer - 1969 – Chandra Wilson, American actress and director - 1970 – Andy Bichel, Australian cricketer and coach - 1970 – Mark Ilott, English cricketer - 1970 – Pokwang, Filipino comedian, actress, television host and singer - 1970 – Tony Kanal, British-American bass player. songwriter, and record producer - 1970 – Jim Thome, American baseball player and manager - 1970 – Karl Unterkircher, Italian mountaineer (d. 2008) - 1971 – Ernest Faber, Dutch footballer and manager - 1971 – Kyung Lah, South Korean-American journalist - 1971 – Hisayuki Okawa, Japanese runner - 1971 – Aygül Özkan, German lawyer and politician - 1972 – Jaap-Derk Buma, Dutch field hockey player - 1972 – Denise Lewis, English heptathlete - 1972 – Jimmy Pop, American singer-songwriter and guitarist - 1972 – The Great Khali, Indian professional wrestler - 1973 – Danny Coyne, Welsh footballer - 1973 – Dietmar Hamann, German footballer and manager - 1973 – Burak Kut, Turkish singer-songwriter - 1973 – Johan Norberg, Swedish historian and author - 1974 – Aaron Downey, Canadian ice hockey player and coach - 1974 – Manny Fernandez, Canadian ice hockey player - 1974 – Michael Mason, New Zealand cricketer - 1974 – José Vidro, Puerto Rican-American baseball player - 1974 – Mohammad Yousuf, Pakistani cricketer - 1975 – Blake Adams, American golfer - 1975 – Mase, American rapper, songwriter and pastor - 1975 – Jonny Moseley, Puerto Rican-American skier and television host - 1975 – Marko Rudan, Australian footballer and manager - 1976 – Sarah Chalke, Canadian actress - 1976 – Audrey C. Delsanti, French astronomer and biologist - 1976 – Milano Collection A.T., Japanese wrestler - 1976 – Carlos Moyá, Spanish-Swiss tennis player - 1976 – Mark Webber, Australian race car driver - 1977 – Deco, Brazilian-Portuguese footballer - 1977 – Justin Miller, American baseball player (d. 2013) - 1978 – Demetria McKinney, American actress and singer - 1979 – Sarah Neufeld, Canadian violinist - 1979 – Aaron Paul, American actor and producer - 1979 – Karel Rachůnek, Czech ice hockey player (d. 2011) - 1979 – Rusty Smith, American speed skater - 1981 – Patrick J. Adams, Canadian actor - 1981 – Maxwell Cabelino Andrade, Brazilian footballer - 1981 – Alessandro Gamberini, Italian footballer - 1981 – Karla Mosley, American actress - 1983 – Joanna McGilchrist, English rugby player and physiotherapist - 1984 – David Bentley, English footballer - 1984 – Amanda Fuller, American actress - 1984 – Sulley Muntari, Ghanaian footballer - 1985 – Kayla Ewell, American actress - 1985 – Kevan Hurst, English footballer - 1985 – Nikica Jelavić, Croatian footballer - 1985 – Alexandra Nechita, Romanian-American painter and sculptor - 1986 – Lana Bastašić, Serbian-Bosnian author and translator - 1986 – Sebastian Kurz, Austrian politician, 25th Chancellor of Austria - 1986 – Mario, American singer and actor - 1987 – Joel Grant, English-Jamaican footballer - 1987 – Darren McFadden, American football player - 1988 – Alexa PenaVega, American actress and singer - 1989 – Romain Amalfitano, French footballer - 1989 – Juliana Cannarozzo, American figure skater and actress - 1990 – Tori Bowie, American athlete (d. 2023) - 1990 – Luuk de Jong, Dutch footballer - 1991 – Lee Sung-yeol, South Korean actor and singer - 1992 – Blake Jenner, American actor and singer - 1992 – Stephen Morris, American football player - 1992 – Kim Petras, German singer-songwriter - 1992 – Ayame Goriki, Japanese actress and singer - 1993 – Sarah Hecken, German figure skater - 1993 – Olivier Le Gac, French cyclist - 1994 – Ellar Coltrane, American actor - 1994 – Breanna Stewart, American basketball player - 1995 – Jessie Mei Li, English actress - 1995 – Sergey Sirotkin, Russian race car driver - 1998 – Kevin Huerter, American basketball player - 2001 – Franz Wagner, German basketball player ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== * 542 – Caesarius of Arles, French bishop and saint (b. 470) - 749 – Qahtaba ibn Shabib al-Ta'i, Persian general - 827 – Pope Eugene II - 923 – Ageltrude, queen of Italy and Holy Roman Empress - 1146 – King Eric III of Denmark - 1255 – Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln (b. 1247) - 1312 – Arthur II, Duke of Brittany (b. 1261) - 1394 – Emperor Chōkei of Japan (b. 1343) - 1450 – Reginald West, 6th Baron De La Warr, English politician (b. 1395) - 1521 – Josquin des Prez, Flemish composer (b. 1450) - 1545 – Piotr Gamrat, Polish archbishop (b. 1487) - 1576 – Titian, Italian painter and educator (b. 1488) - 1590 – Pope Sixtus V (b. 1521) ===1601–1900=== *1611 – Tomás Luis de Victoria, Spanish composer (b. c. 1548) - 1635 – Lope de Vega, Spanish poet and playwright (b. 1562) - 1664 – Francisco de Zurbarán, Spanish painter and educator (b. 1598) - 1748 – James Thomson, Scottish poet and playwright (b. 1700) - 1782 – John Laurens, American Revolutionary and abolitionist (b. 1754) - 1828 – Eise Eisinga, Dutch astronomer and academic, built the Eisinga Planetarium (b. 1744) - 1857 – Rufus Wilmot Griswold, American anthologist, poet, and critic (b. 1815) - 1865 – Thomas Chandler Haliburton, Canadian judge and politician (b. 1796) - 1871 – William Whiting Boardman, American lawyer and politician (b. 1794) - 1875 – William Chapman Ralston, American businessman and financier, founded the Bank of California (b. 1826) - 1891 – Samuel C. Pomeroy, American businessman and politician (b. 1816) ===1901–present=== *1903 – Kusumoto Ine, first Japanese female doctor of Western medicine (b. 1827) - 1909 – Emil Christian Hansen, Danish physiologist and mycologist (b. 1842) - 1922 – Reşat Çiğiltepe, Turkish colonel (b. 1879) - 1929 – Herman Potočnik, Croatian-Austrian engineer (b. 1892) - 1931 – Frank Harris, Irish-American journalist and author (b. 1856) - 1931 – Willem Hubert Nolens, Dutch priest and politician (b. 1860) - 1931 – Francis Marion Smith, American miner and businessman (b. 1846) - 1935 – Childe Hassam, American painter and academic (b. 1859) - 1944 – Georg von Boeselager, German soldier (b. 1915) - 1945 – Hubert Pál Álgyay, Hungarian engineer, designed the Petőfi Bridge (b. 1894) - 1948 – Charles Evans Hughes, American lawyer and politician, 11th Chief Justice of the United States (b. 1862) - 1950 – Cesare Pavese, Italian author, poet, and critic (b. 1908) - 1956 – Pelageya Shajn, Russian astronomer and academic (b. 1894) - 1958 – Ernest Lawrence, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1901) - 1963 – W. E. B. Du Bois, American sociologist, historian, and activist (b. 1868) - 1963 – Inayatullah Khan Mashriqi, Pakistani mathematician and scholar (b. 1888) - 1964 – Gracie Allen, American actress and comedian (b. 1895) - 1965 – Le Corbusier, Swiss-French architect and urban planner, designed the Philips Pavilion (b. 1887) - 1967 – Brian Epstein, English businessman and manager (b. 1934) - 1968 – Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark (b. 1906) - 1969 – Ivy Compton-Burnett, English author (b. 1884) - 1969 – Erika Mann, German actress and author (b. 1905) - 1971 – Bennett Cerf, American publisher, co-founded Random House (b. 1898) - 1971 – Margaret Bourke-White, American photographer and journalist (b. 1906) - 1975 – Haile Selassie, Ethiopian emperor (b. 1892) - 1978 – Gordon Matta-Clark, American painter and illustrator (b. 1943) - 1978 – Ieva Simonaitytė, Lithuanian author and poet (b. 1897) - 1979 – Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma, English admiral and politician, 44th Governor-General of India (b. 1900) - 1980 – Douglas Kenney, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1947) - 1981 – Valeri Kharlamov, Russian ice hockey player (b. 1948) - 1990 – Avdy Andresson, Estonian soldier and diplomat (b. 1899) - 1990 – Stevie Ray Vaughan, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1954) - 1992 – Bengt Holbek, Danish folklorist (b. 1933) - 1994 – Frank Jeske, German footballer (b. 1960) - 1996 – Greg Morris, American actor (b. 1933) - 1998 – Essie Summers, New Zealand author (b. 1912) - 1999 – Hélder Câmara, Brazilian archbishop and theologian (b. 1909) - 2001 – Michael Dertouzos, Greek-American computer scientist and academic (b. 1936) - 2001 – Abu Ali Mustafa, Palestinian politician (b. 1938) - 2002 – Edwin Louis Cole, American religious leader and author (b. 1922) - 2003 – Pierre Poujade, French soldier and politician (b. 1920) - 2004 – Willie Crawford, American baseball player (b. 1946) - 2005 – Giorgos Mouzakis, Greek trumpet player and composer (b. 1922) - 2005 – Seán Purcell, Irish footballer (b. 1929) - 2006 – Hrishikesh Mukherjee, Indian director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1922) - 2006 – Jesse Pintado, Mexican-American guitarist (b. 1969) - 2007 – Emma Penella, Spanish actress (b. 1930) - 2009 – Sergey Mikhalkov, Russian author and poet (b. 1913) - 2010 – Anton Geesink, Dutch martial artist (b. 1934) - 2010 – Luna Vachon, Canadian-American wrestler and manager (b. 1962) - 2012 – Neville Alexander, South African linguist and activist (b. 1936) - 2012 – Malcolm Browne, American journalist and photographer (b. 1931) - 2012 – Art Heyman, American basketball player (b. 1941) - 2012 – Ivica Horvat, Croatian footballer and manager (b. 1926) - 2012 – Richard Kingsland, Australian captain and pilot (b. 1916) - 2012 – Geliy Korzhev, Russian painter (b. 1925) - 2013 – Chen Liting, Chinese director and playwright (b. 1910) - 2013 – Bill Peach, Australian journalist (b. 1935) - 2013 – Dave Thomas, Welsh golfer and architect (b. 1934) - 2014 – Jacques Friedel, French physicist and academic (b. 1921) - 2014 – Valeri Petrov, Bulgarian poet, playwright, and screenwriter (b. 1920) - 2014 – Benno Pludra, German author (b. 1925) - 2015 – Kazi Zafar Ahmed, Bangladeshi politician, 8th Prime Minister of Bangladesh (b. 1939) - 2015 – Pascal Chaumeil, French director and screenwriter (b. 1961) - 2015 – Darryl Dawkins, American basketball player and coach (b. 1957) - 2016 – Cookie, Australian Major Mitchell's cockatoo, oldest recorded parrot (b. 1933) ==Holidays and observances== *Christian feast day: - Baculus of Sorrento - Caesarius of Arles - Decuman - Gebhard of Constance - Euthalia - John of Pavia - Lycerius (or: Glycerius, Lizier) - Máel Ruba (or Rufus) (Scotland) - Margaret the Barefooted - Monica of Hippo, mother of Augustine of Hippo - Narnus - Our Lady of La Vang - Phanourios of Rhodes - Rufus and Carpophorus - Syagrius of Autun - Thomas Gallaudet and Henry Winter Syle (Episcopal Church) - August 27 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) - Independence Day (Republic of Moldova), celebrates the independence of Moldova from the USSR in 1991. - Lyndon Baines Johnson Day (Texas, United States)

1014

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1014

Alcohol (chemistry)

In chemistry, an alcohol is a type of organic compound that carries at least one hydroxyl () functional group bound to a saturated carbon atom. Alcohols range from the simple, like methanol and ethanol, to complex, like sucrose and cholesterol. The presence of an OH group strongly modifies the properties of hydrocarbons, conferring hydrophilic (water-loving) properties. The OH group provides a site at which many reactions can occur. ==History== The flammable nature of the exhalations of wine was already known to ancient natural philosophers such as Aristotle (384–322 BCE), Theophrastus (–287 BCE), and Pliny the Elder (23/24–79 CE). However, this did not immediately lead to the isolation of alcohol, even despite the development of more advanced distillation techniques in second- and third-century Roman Egypt. An important recognition, first found in one of the writings attributed to Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (ninth century CE), was that by adding salt to boiling wine, which increases the wine's relative volatility, the flammability of the resulting vapors may be enhanced. The distillation of wine is attested in Arabic works attributed to al-Kindī (–873 CE) and to al-Fārābī (–950), and in the 28th book of al-Zahrāwī's (Latin: Abulcasis, 936–1013) "Kitāb al-Taṣrīf" (later translated into Latin as "Liber servatoris"). In the twelfth century, recipes for the production of "aqua ardens" ("burning water", i.e., alcohol) by distilling wine with salt started to appear in a number of Latin works, and by the end of the thirteenth century it had become a widely known substance among Western European chemists. The works of Taddeo Alderotti (1223–1296) describe a method for concentrating alcohol involving repeated fractional distillation through a water-cooled still, by which an alcohol purity of 90% could be obtained. The medicinal properties of ethanol were studied by Arnald of Villanova (1240–1311 CE) and John of Rupescissa (–1366), the latter of whom regarded it as a life-preserving substance able to prevent all diseases (the "aqua vitae" or "water of life", also called by John the "quintessence" of wine). ==Nomenclature== ===Etymology=== The word "alcohol" derives from the Arabic "kohl" (), a powder used as an eyeliner. The first part of the word () is the Arabic definite article, equivalent to "the" in English. The second part of the word () has several antecedents in Semitic languages, ultimately deriving from the Akkadian (), meaning stibnite or antimony. Like its antecedents in Arabic and older languages, the term "alcohol" was originally used for the very fine powder produced by the sublimation of the natural mineral stibnite to form antimony trisulfide . It was considered to be the essence or "spirit" of this mineral. It was used as an antiseptic, eyeliner, and cosmetic. Later the meaning of alcohol was extended to distilled substances in general, and then narrowed again to ethanol, when "spirits" was a synonym for hard liquor. Paracelsus and Libavius both used the term "alcohol" to denote a fine powder, the latter speaking of an "alcohol" derived from antimony. At the same time Paracelsus uses the word for a volatile liquid; "alcool" or "alcool vini" occurs often in his writings. Bartholomew Traheron, in his 1543 translation of John of Vigo, introduces the word as a term used by "barbarous" authors for "fine powder." Vigo wrote: "the barbarous auctours use alcohol, or (as I fynde it sometymes wryten) alcofoll, for moost fine poudre." The 1657 "Lexicon Chymicum", by William Johnson glosses the word as "antimonium sive stibium." By extension, the word came to refer to any fluid obtained by distillation, including "alcohol of wine," the distilled essence of wine. Libavius in "Alchymia" (1594) refers to "". Johnson (1657) glosses "alcohol vini" as "." The word's meaning became restricted to "spirit of wine" (the chemical known today as ethanol) in the 18th century and was extended to the class of substances so-called as "alcohols" in modern chemistry after 1850. The term "ethanol" was invented in 1892, blending "ethane" with the "-ol" ending of "alcohol", which was generalized as a libfix. The term "alcohol" originally referred to the primary alcohol ethanol (ethyl alcohol), which is used as a drug and is the main alcohol present in alcoholic drinks. The suffix "-ol" appears in the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) chemical name of all substances where the hydroxyl group is the functional group with the highest priority. When a higher priority group is present in the compound, the prefix "hydroxy-" is used in its IUPAC name. The suffix "-ol" in non-IUPAC names (such as paracetamol or cholesterol) also typically indicates that the substance is an alcohol. However, some compounds that contain hydroxyl functional groups have "trivial names" which do not include the suffix "-ol" or the prefix "hydroxy-", e.g. the sugars glucose and sucrose. ===Systematic names=== IUPAC nomenclature is used in scientific publications and where precise identification of the substance is important. In naming simple alcohols, the name of the alkane chain loses the terminal "e" and adds the suffix "-ol", "e.g.", as in "ethanol" from the alkane chain name "ethane". When necessary, the position of the hydroxyl group is indicated by a number between the alkane name and the "-ol": propan-1-ol for , propan-2-ol for . If a higher priority group is present (such as an aldehyde, ketone, or carboxylic acid), then the prefix "hydroxy-"is used, e.g., as in 1-hydroxy-2-propanone (). Compounds having more than one hydroxy group are called polyols. They are named using suffixes -diol, -triol, etc., following a list of the position numbers of the hydroxyl groups, as in propane-1,2-diol for CH3CH(OH)CH2OH (propylene glycol). In cases where the hydroxy group is bonded to an sp2 carbon on an aromatic ring, the molecule is classified separately as a phenol and is named using the IUPAC rules for naming phenols. Phenols have distinct properties and are not classified as alcohols. ===Common names=== In other less formal contexts, an alcohol is often called with the name of the corresponding alkyl group followed by the word "alcohol", e.g., methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol. Propyl alcohol may be "n"-propyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol, depending on whether the hydroxyl group is bonded to the end or middle carbon on the straight propane chain. As described under systematic naming, if another group on the molecule takes priority, the alcohol moiety is often indicated using the "hydroxy-" prefix. In archaic nomenclature, alcohols can be named as derivatives of methanol using "-carbinol" as the ending. For instance, can be named trimethylcarbinol. ====Primary, secondary, and tertiary==== Alcohols are then classified into primary, secondary ("sec-", "s-"), and tertiary ("tert-", "t-"), based upon the number of carbon atoms connected to the carbon atom that bears the hydroxyl functional group. (The respective numeric shorthands 1°, 2°, and 3° are sometimes used in informal settings.) The primary alcohols have general formulas . The simplest primary alcohol is methanol (), for which R=H, and the next is ethanol, for which , the methyl group. Secondary alcohols are those of the form RR'CHOH, the simplest of which is 2-propanol (). For the tertiary alcohols the general form is RR'R"COH. The simplest example is tert-butanol (2-methylpropan-2-ol), for which each of R, R', and R" is . In these shorthands, R, R', and R" represent substituents, alkyl or other attached, generally organic groups. ==Applications== Alcohols have a long history of myriad uses. For simple mono-alcohols, which is the focus on this article, the following are most important industrial alcohols: - methanol, mainly for the production of formaldehyde and as a fuel additive - ethanol, mainly for alcoholic beverages, fuel additive, solvent - 1-propanol, 1-butanol, and isobutyl alcohol for use as a solvent and precursor to solvents - C6–C11 alcohols used for plasticizers, e.g. in polyvinylchloride - fatty alcohol (C12–C18), precursors to detergents Methanol is the most common industrial alcohol, with about 12 million tons/y produced in 1980. The combined capacity of the other alcohols is about the same, distributed roughly equally. ==Toxicity== With respect to acute toxicity, simple alcohols have low acute toxicities. Doses of several milliliters are tolerated. For pentanols, hexanols, octanols and longer alcohols, LD50 range from 2–5 g/kg (rats, oral). Ethanol is less acutely toxic. All alcohols are mild skin irritants. The metabolism of methanol (and ethylene glycol) is affected by the presence of ethanol, which has a higher affinity for liver alcohol dehydrogenase. In this way methanol will be excreted intact in urine. ==Physical properties== In general, the hydroxyl group makes alcohols polar. Those groups can form hydrogen bonds to one another and to most other compounds. Owing to the presence of the polar OH alcohols are more water-soluble than simple hydrocarbons. Methanol, ethanol, and propanol are miscible in water. Butanol, with a four-carbon chain, is moderately soluble. Because of hydrogen bonding, alcohols tend to have higher boiling points than comparable hydrocarbons and ethers. The boiling point of the alcohol ethanol is 78.29 °C, compared to 69 °C for the hydrocarbon hexane, and 34.6 °C for diethyl ether. ==Occurrence in nature== Simple alcohols are found widely in nature. Ethanol is the most prominent because it is the product of fermentation, a major energy-producing pathway. Other simple alcohols, chiefly fusel alcohols, are formed in only trace amounts. More complex alcohols however are pervasive, as manifested in sugars, some amino acids, and fatty acids. ==Production== ===Hydroxylation=== Many alcohols are produced by hydroxylation, i.e., the installation of a hydroxy group using oxygen or related oxidant. Hydroxylation is the means by which the body processes many poisons, converting lipophilic compounds into hydrophilic derivatives that are more readily excreted. Enzymes called hydroxylases and oxidases facilitate these conversions. Many industrial alcohols, such as cyclohexanol for the production of nylon, are produced by hydroxylation. ===Ziegler and oxo processes=== In the Ziegler process, linear alcohols are produced from ethylene and triethylaluminium followed by oxidation and hydrolysis. An idealized synthesis of 1-octanol is shown: <chem>Al(C2H5)3 + 9 C2H4 -> Al(C8H17)3</chem> <chem>Al(C8H17)3 + 3O + 3 H2O -> 3 HOC8H17 + Al(OH)3</chem> The process generates a range of alcohols that are separated by distillation. Many higher alcohols are produced by hydroformylation of alkenes followed by hydrogenation. When applied to a terminal alkene, as is common, one typically obtains a linear alcohol: <chem>RCH=CH2 + H2 + CO -> RCH2CH2CHO</chem> <chem>RCH2CH2CHO + 3 H2 -> RCH2CH2CH2OH</chem> Such processes give fatty alcohols, which are useful for detergents. ===Hydration reactions=== Some low molecular weight alcohols of industrial importance are produced by the addition of water to alkenes. Ethanol, isopropanol, 2-butanol, and tert-butanol are produced by this general method. Two implementations are employed, the direct and indirect methods. The direct method avoids the formation of stable intermediates, typically using acid catalysts. In the indirect method, the alkene is converted to the sulfate ester, which is subsequently hydrolyzed. The direct hydration using ethylene (ethylene hydration) or other alkenes from cracking of fractions of distilled crude oil. Hydration is also used industrially to produce the diol ethylene glycol from ethylene oxide. ===Fermentation=== Ethanol is obtained by fermentation of glucose (which is often obtained from starch) in the presence of yeast. Carbon dioxide is cogenerated. Like ethanol, butanol can be produced by fermentation processes. "Saccharomyces" yeast are known to produce these higher alcohols at temperatures above . The bacterium "Clostridium acetobutylicum" can feed on cellulose (also an alcohol) to produce butanol on an industrial scale. ===Substitution=== Primary alkyl halides react with aqueous NaOH or KOH to alcohols in nucleophilic aliphatic substitution. (Secondary and especially tertiary alkyl halides will give the elimination (alkene) product instead). Grignard reagents react with carbonyl groups to secondary and tertiary alcohols. Related reactions are the Barbier reaction and the Nozaki-Hiyama reaction. ===Reduction=== Aldehydes or ketones are reduced with sodium borohydride or lithium aluminium hydride (after an acidic workup). Another reduction by aluminiumisopropylates is the Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley reduction. Noyori asymmetric hydrogenation is the asymmetric reduction of β-keto-esters. ===Hydrolysis=== Alkenes engage in an acid catalysed hydration reaction using concentrated sulfuric acid as a catalyst that gives usually secondary or tertiary alcohols. Formation of a secondary alcohol via alkene reduction and hydration is shown on the right: The hydroboration-oxidation and oxymercuration-reduction of alkenes are more reliable in organic synthesis. Alkenes react with N-bromosuccinimide and water in halohydrin formation reaction. Amines can be converted to diazonium salts, which are then hydrolyzed. ==Reactions== ===Deprotonation=== With aqueous p"K"a values of around 16–19, they are, in general, slightly weaker acids than water. With strong bases such as sodium hydride or sodium they form salts called "alkoxides", with the general formula (where R is an alkyl and M is a metal). <chem>2 R-OH + 2 NaH -> 2 R-O-Na + 2 H2</chem> <chem>2 R-OH + 2 Na -> 2 R-O-Na + H2</chem> The acidity of alcohols is strongly affected by solvation. In the gas phase, alcohols are more acidic than in water. In DMSO, alcohols (and water) have a p"K"a of around 29–32. As a consequence, alkoxides (and hydroxide) are powerful bases and nucleophiles (e.g., for the Williamson ether synthesis) in this solvent. In particular, or in DMSO can be used to generate significant equilibrium concentrations of acetylide ions through the deprotonation of alkynes (see Favorskii reaction). ===Nucleophilic substitution=== Tertiary alcohols react with hydrochloric acid to produce tertiary alkyl chloride. Primary and secondary alcohols are converted to the corresponding chlorides using thionyl chloride and various phosphorus chloride reagents. Primary and secondary alcohols, likewise, convert to alkyl bromides phosphorus tribromide, for example: <chem>3 R-OH + PBr3 -> 3 RBr + H3PO3</chem> In the Barton-McCombie deoxygenation an alcohol is deoxygenated to an alkane with tributyltin hydride or a trimethylborane-water complex in a radical substitution reaction. ===Dehydration=== Meanwhile, the oxygen atom has lone pairs of nonbonded electrons that render it weakly basic in the presence of strong acids such as sulfuric acid. For example, with methanol: Upon treatment with strong acids, alcohols undergo the E1 elimination reaction to produce alkenes. The reaction, in general, obeys Zaitsev's Rule, which states that the most stable (usually the most substituted) alkene is formed. Tertiary alcohols eliminate easily at just above room temperature, but primary alcohols require a higher temperature. This is a diagram of acid catalysed dehydration of ethanol to produce ethylene: A more controlled elimination reaction requires the formation of the xanthate ester. ===Protonolysis=== Tertiary alcohols react with strong acids to generate carbocations. The reaction is related to their dehydration, e.g. isobutylene from tert-butyl alcohol. A special kind of dehydration reaction involves triphenylmethanol and especially its amine-substituted derivatives. When treated with acid, these alcohols lose water to give stable carbocations, which are commercial dyes. ===Esterification=== Alcohol and carboxylic acids react in the so-called Fischer esterification. The reaction usually requires a catalyst, such as concentrated sulfuric acid: <chem>R-OH + R'-CO2H -> R'-CO2R + H2O</chem> Other types of ester are prepared in a similar manner for example, tosyl (tosylate) esters are made by reaction of the alcohol with p-toluenesulfonyl chloride in pyridine. ===Oxidation=== Primary alcohols () can be oxidized either to aldehydes () or to carboxylic acids (). The oxidation of secondary alcohols () normally terminates at the ketone () stage. Tertiary alcohols () are resistant to oxidation. The direct oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids normally proceeds via the corresponding aldehyde, which is transformed via an "aldehyde hydrate" () by reaction with water before it can be further oxidized to the carboxylic acid. Reagents useful for the transformation of primary alcohols to aldehydes are normally also suitable for the oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones. These include Collins reagent and Dess-Martin periodinane. The direct oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids can be carried out using potassium permanganate or the Jones reagent.

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Achill Island

Achill Island (; ) is the largest of the Irish isles and lies off the west coast of Ireland in County Mayo. It has a population of 2,345. Its area is . Achill is attached to the mainland by Michael Davitt Bridge, between the villages of Achill Sound and Polranny. A bridge was first completed here in 1887. Other centres of population include the villages of Keel, Dooagh, Dooega, Dooniver, and Dugort. The parish's main Gaelic football pitch and secondary school are on the mainland at Polranny. Early human settlements are believed to have been established on Achill around 3000 BC. The island is 87% peat bog. The parish of Achill consists of Achill Island, Achillbeg, Inishbiggle and the Corraun Peninsula. Roughly half of the island, including the villages of Achill Sound and Bunacurry are in the Gaeltacht (traditional Irish-speaking region) of Ireland, although the vast majority of the island's population speaks English as their daily language. ==History== It is believed that at the end of the Neolithic Period (around 4000 BC), Achill had a population of 500–1,000 people. The island would have been mostly forest until the Neolithic people began crop cultivation. Settlement increased during the Iron Age, and the dispersal of small promontory forts around the coast indicate the warlike nature of the times. Megalithic tombs and forts can be seen at Slievemore, along the Atlantic Drive and on Achillbeg. ===Overlords=== Achill Island lies in the Barony of Burrishoole, in the territory of ancient Umhall (Umhall Uactarach and Umhall Ioctarach), that originally encompassed an area extending from the County Galway/Mayo border to Achill Head. The hereditary chieftains of Umhall were the O'Malleys, recorded in the area in 814 AD when they successfully repelled an onslaught by the Vikings in Clew Bay. The Anglo-Norman invasion of Connacht in 1235 AD saw the territory of Umhall taken over by the Butlers and later by the de Burgos. The Butler Lordship of Burrishoole continued into the late 14th century when Thomas le Botiller was recorded as being in possession of Akkyll and Owyll. ===Immigration=== In the 17th and 18th centuries, there was much migration to Achill from other parts of Ireland, particularly Ulster, due to the political and religious turmoil of the time. For a while, there were two different dialects of Irish being spoken on Achill. This led to many townlands being recorded as having two names during the 1824 Ordnance Survey, and some maps today give different names for the same place. Achill Irish still has many traces of Ulster Irish. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, seasonal migration of farm workers to Scotland to pick potatoes took place; these squads of 'tattie howkers' were known as Achill workers, although not all were from Achill, and were organised for potato merchants by gaffers or gangers. Squads travelled from farm to farm to harvest the crop and were allocated basic accommodation. On 15 September 1937 ten young migrant potato pickers from Achill died in a fire at Kirkintilloch. ===Specific historical sites and events=== ====Grace O'Malley's Castle==== Carrickkildavnet Castle is a 15th-century tower house associated with the O'Malley Clan, who were once a ruling family of Achill. Grace O' Malley, or Granuaile, the most famous of the O'Malleys, was born on Clare Island around 1530. Her father was the chieftain of the barony of Murrisk. The O'Malleys were a powerful seafaring family, who traded widely. Grace became a fearless leader and gained fame as a sea captain and pirate. She is reputed to have met with Queen Elizabeth I in 1593. She died around 1603 and is buried in the O'Malley family tomb on Clare Island. ====Achill Mission==== One of Achill's most famous historical sites is that of the Achill Mission or 'the Colony' at Dugort. In 1831, the Anglican (Church of Ireland) Rev Edward Nangle founded a mission at Dugort. The Mission included schools, cottages, an orphanage, an infirmary and a guesthouse. The Colony gave rise to mixed assessments, particularly during the Great Famine when charges of "souperism" were leveled against Nangle. The provision of food across the Achill Mission schools - which also provided 'scriptural' religious instruction - was particularly controversial. For almost forty years, Nangle edited a newspaper called the "Achill Missionary Herald and Western Witness", which was printed in Achill. He expanded his mission into Mweelin, Kilgeever, West Achill where a school, church, rectory, cottages and a training school were built. Edward's wife, Eliza, suffered poor health in Achill and died in 1852; she is buried with six of the Nangle children on the slopes of Slievemore in North Achill. In 1848, at the height of the Great Famine, the Achill Mission published a prospectus seeking to raise funds for the acquisition of significant additional lands from Sir Richard O'Donnell. The document gives an overview, from the Mission's perspective, of its activities in Achill over the previous decade and a half including considerable sectarian unrest. In 1851, Edward Nangle confirmed the purchase of the land which made the Achill Mission the largest landowner on the island. The Achill Mission began to decline slowly after Nangle was moved from Achill and closed in the 1880s. When Edward Nangle died in 1883 there were opposing views on his legacy. ====Railway==== In 1894, the Westport – Newport railway line was extended to Achill Sound. The railway station is now a hostel. The train provided a great service to Achill, but it also is said to have fulfilled an ancient prophecy. Brian Rua O' Cearbhain had prophesied that 'carts on iron wheels' would carry bodies into Achill on their first and last journey. In 1894, the first train on the Achill railway carried the bodies of victims of the Clew Bay Drowning. This tragedy occurred when a boat overturned in Clew Bay, drowning thirty-two young people. They had been going to meet the steamer which would take them to Scotland for potato picking. The Kirkintilloch Fire in 1937 almost fulfilled the second part of the prophecy when the bodies of ten victims were carried by rail to Achill. While it was not literally the last train, the railway closed just two weeks later. These people had died in a fire in a bothy in Kirkintilloch. This term referred to the temporary accommodation provided for those who went to Scotland to pick potatoes, a migratory pattern that had been established in the early nineteenth century. ====Kildamhnait==== Kildamhnait on the south-east coast of Achill is named after St. Damhnait, or Dymphna, who founded a church there in the 7th century. There is also a holy well just outside the graveyard. The present church was built in the 1700s and the graveyard contains memorials to the victims of two of Achill's greatest tragedies, the Kirchintilloch Fire (1937) and the Clew Bay Drowning (1894). ====The Monastery==== In 1852, Dr John MacHale, Roman Catholic Archbishop of Tuam, purchased land in Bunnacurry, on which a Franciscan Monastery was established, which, for many years, provided an education for local children. The building of the monastery was marked by a conflict between the Protestants of the mission colony and the workers building the monastery. The dispute is known in the island folklore as the "Battle of the Stones". A notable monk who lived at the monastery for almost thirty years was Brother Paul Carney. He wrote a biography of James Lynchehaun who rose to either fame or infamy (depending on whom you spoke to) following his conviction for the 1894 attack on an Englishwoman named Agnes MacDonnell, which left her face disfigured, and the burning of her home, Valley House, Tonatanvally, North Achill. (The home was rebuilt and Mrs MacDonnell died there in 1923, while Lynchehaun escaped to the USA after serving 7 years and successfully resisted extradition but spent his last years in Scotland, where he died.) Brother Carney's-great grandniece, Patricia Byrne, write her own account of Mrs MacDonnell and Lynchehaun, entitled "The Veiled Woman of Achill". Brother Carney also wrote accounts of his lengthy fundraising trips across the U.S. at the start of the 20th century. The ruins of this monastery are still to be seen in Bunnacurry today. ====Valley House==== The historic Valley House is located in Tonatanvally, "The Valley", near Dugort, in the northeast of Achill Island. The present building sits on the site of a hunting lodge built by the Earl of Cavan in the 19th century. Its notoriety arises from an incident in 1894 in which the then owner, an Englishwoman, Mrs Agnes McDonnell, was savagely beaten and the house set alight by a local man, James Lynchehaun. Lynchehaun had been employed by McDonnell as her land agent, but the two fell out and he was sacked and told to quit his accommodation on her estate. A lengthy legal battle ensued, with Lynchehaun refusing to leave. At the time, in the 1890s, the issue of land ownership in Ireland was politically charged. After the events at the Valley House in 1895, Lynchehaun would falsely claim his actions were carried out on behalf of the Irish Republican Brotherhood and motivated by politics. He escaped custody after serving seven years and fled to the United States seeking political asylum (although Michael Davitt refused to shake his hand, calling Lynchehaun a "murderer"), where he successfully defeated legal attempts by the British authorities to have him extradited to face charges arising from the attack and the burning of the Valley House. Agnes McDonnell suffered terrible injuries from the attack but survived and lived for another 23 years, dying in 1923. Lynchehaun is said to have returned to Achill on two occasions, once in disguise as an American tourist, and eventually died in Girvan, Scotland, in 1937. The Valley House is now a hostel and bar. ====The Deserted Village==== Close by Dugort, at the base of Slievemore mountain lies the Deserted Village. There are approximately 80 ruined houses in the village. The houses were built of unmortared stone, which means that no cement or mortar was used to hold the stones together. Each house consisted of just one room and this room was used as a kitchen, living room, bedroom and even a stable. If one looks at the fields around the Deserted Village and right up the mountain, one can see the tracks in the fields of 'lazy beds', which is the way crops like potatoes were grown. In Achill, as in many areas of Ireland, a system called 'Rundale' was used for farming. This meant that the land around a village was rented from a landlord. This land was then shared by all the villagers to graze their cattle and sheep. Each family would then have two or three small pieces of land scattered about the village, which they used to grow crops. For many years people lived in the village and then in 1845 Famine struck in Achill as it did in the rest of Ireland. Most of the families moved to the nearby village of Dooagh, which is beside the sea, while some others emigrated. Living beside the sea meant that fish and shellfish could be used for food. The village was completely abandoned which is where the name 'Deserted Village' came from. No one has lived in these houses since the time of the Famine, however, the families that moved to Dooagh and their descendants, continued to use the village as a 'booley village'. This means that during the summer season, the younger members of the family, teenage boys and girls, would take the cattle to graze on the hillside and they would stay in the houses of the Deserted Village. This custom continued until the 1940s. Boolying was also carried out in other areas of Achill, including Annagh on Croaghaun mountain and in Curraun. At Ailt, Kildownet, the remains of a similar deserted village can be found. This village was deserted in 1855 when the tenants were evicted by the local landlord so the land could be used for cattle grazing; the tenants were forced to rent holdings in Currane, Dooega and Slievemore. Others emigrated to America. ===Archaeology=== Recent archaeological research suggests the village was occupied year-round at least as early as the 19th century, though it is known to have served as a seasonally occupied 'booley village' by the first half of the 20th century. A booley village (a number of which exist in a ruined state on the island) is a village occupied only during part of the year, such as a resort community, a lake community, or (as the case on Achill) a place to live while tending flocks or herds of ruminants during winter or summer pasturing. Specifically, some of the people of Dooagh and Pollagh would migrate in the summer to Slievemore and then go back to Dooagh in the autumn. The summer 2009 field school excavated Round House 2 on Slievemore Mountain under the direction of archaeologist Stuart Rathbone. Only the outside north wall, entrance way and inside of the Round House were completely excavated. From 2004 to 2006, the Achill Island Maritime Archaeology Project directed by Chuck Meide was sponsored by the College of William and Mary, the Institute of Maritime History, the Achill Folklife Centre (now the Achill Archaeology Centre), and the Lighthouse Archaeological Maritime Program (LAMP). This project focused on the documentation of archaeological resources related to Achill's rich maritime heritage. Maritime archaeologists recorded a 19th-century fishing station, an ice house, boat house ruins, a number of anchors which had been salvaged from the sea, 19th-century and more recent currach pens, a number of traditional vernacular watercraft including a possibly 100-year-old Achill yawl, and the remains of four historic shipwrecks. ==Other places of interest== The cliffs of Croaghaun on the western end of the island are the third highest sea cliffs in Europe but are inaccessible by road. Near the westernmost point of Achill, Achill Head, is Keem Bay. Keel Beach is quite popular with tourists and some locals as a surfing location. South of Keem beach is Moytoge Head, which with its rounded appearance drops dramatically down to the ocean. An old British observation post, built during World War I to prevent the Germans from landing arms for the Irish Republican Army, is still standing on Moytoge. During the Second World War this post was rebuilt by the Irish Defence Forces as a lookout post for the Coast Watching Service wing of the Defence Forces. It operated from 1939 to 1945. The mountain of Slievemore, (672 m) rises dramatically in the north of the island and the Atlantic Drive (along the south/west of the island) has some scenic views. On the slopes of Slievemore, there is an abandoned village, the "Deserted Village", traditionally thought to be a remnant village from An Gorta Mór (The Great Hunger of 1845–1849). Just west of the deserted village is an old Martello tower, again built by the British to warn of any possible French invasion during the Napoleonic Wars. The area also boasts an approximately 5000-year-old Neolithic tomb. Achillbeg ("", "Little Achill") is a small island just off Achill's southern tip. Its inhabitants were resettled on Achill in the 1960s. A plaque to Johnny Kilbane is situated on Achillbeg and was erected to celebrate 100 years since his first championship win. The villages of Dooniver and Askill have picturesque scenery and the cycle route is popular with tourists. Caisleán Ghráinne, also known as Kildownet Castle, is a small tower house built in the early 1400s. It is located in Cloughmore, on the south of Achill Island. It is noted for its associations with Grace O'Malley, along with the larger Rockfleet Castle in Newport. ==Economy== While a number of attempts at setting up small industrial units on the island have been made, its economy is largely dependent on tourism. Subventions from Achill people working abroad allowed many families to remain living in Achill throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. In the past, fishing was a significant activity but this aspect of the economy is small now. At one stage, the island was known for its shark fishing, basking shark in particular was fished for its valuable shark liver oil. There was a big spurt of growth in tourism in the 1960s and 1970s before which life was tough and difficult on the island. Despite healthy visitor numbers each year, the common perception is that tourism in Achill has been slowly declining since its heyday. Currently, the largest employers on Achill are two hotels. ==Religion== Most people on Achill are either Roman Catholic or Anglican (Church of Ireland). Overview of the churches - Catholic: - Bunnacurry Church (Saint Josephs) - The Valley Church; Only open for certain events. - Dookinella Church - Currane Church - Pollagh Church - Derreens Church - Dooega Church - Belfarsed Church - Achill Sound Church - Church of Ireland: - Dugort Church (St. Thomas's church) - Innisbiggle Island church - Other: - House of Prayer, Achill == Artists == For almost two centuries, a number of artists have had a close relationship with Achill Island, including the landscape painter Paul Henry. Within the emerging Irish Free State, Paul Henry's landscapes from Achill and other areas reinforced a vision of Ireland of communities living in harmony with the land. He lived in Achill for almost a decade with his wife, artist Grace Henry and, while using similar subject-matter, the pair developed very different styles. This relationship of artists with Achill was particularly intense in the early decades of the twentieth century when Eva O'Flaherty (1874-1963) became a focal point for artistic networking on the island. A network of over 200 artists linked to Achill is charted in "Achill Painters - An Island History" and includes painters such as the Belgian Marie Howet, the American Robert Henri, the modernist painter Mainie Jellett and contemporary artist Camille Souter. The 2018 "Coming Home Art & The Great Hunger" exhibition, in partnership with The Great Hunger Museum of Quinnipiac University, USA, featured Achill's Deserted Village and the island lazy beds prominently in works by Geraldine O'Reilly and Alanna O'Kelly; also included was an 1873 painting, 'Cottage, Achill Island' by Alexander Williams - one of the first artists to open up the island to a wider audience. ==Education== Hedge schools existed in most villages of Achill in various periods of history. A university was started by the missions to Achill in Mweelin. In the modern age, there used to be two secondary schools in Achill, Mc Hale College and Scoil Damhnait. However, in August 2011, the two schools amalgamated to form Coláiste Pobail Acla. For primary education, there are eight national schools including Bullsmouth NS, Valley NS, Bunnacurry NS, Dookinella NS, Dooagh NS, Saula NS, Achill Sound NS and Tonragee NS. National schools closed down include Dooega NS, Crumpaun NS, Ashleam NS and Currane NS. ==Transport== ===Rail=== Achill railway station, still on the mainland and not on the island, was opened by the Midland Great Western Railway on 13 May 1895, the terminus of its line from Westport via Newport and Mulranny. The station, and the line, were closed by the Great Southern Railways on 1 October 1937. The Great Western Greenway, created during 2010 and 2011, follows the line's route and has proved to be very successful in attracting visitors to Achill and the surrounding areas. ===Road=== The R319 road is the main road onto the island. ===Bus=== Bus Éireann's route 450 operates several times daily to Westport and Louisburgh from the island's scattered villages. Bus Éireann also provides transport for the area's secondary school children. ==Cuisine== Achill Island has several bars, cafes and restaurants. The island's Atlantic location means that seafood, including lobster, mussels, salmon, trout and winkles, are common meals. With a large sheep and cow populations, lamb and beef are popular on the island too. ==Sport== Achill has a Gaelic football club which competes in the junior championship and division 1E of the Mayo League. There are also Achill Rovers which play in the Mayo Association Football League. There is a 9-hole links golf course on the island. Outdoor activities can be done through Achill Outdoor Education Centre. Achill Island's rugged landscape and the surrounding ocean offers multiple locations for outdoor adventure activities, like surfing, kite-surfing and sea kayaking. Fishing and watersports are also common. Sailing regattas featuring a local vessel type, the Achill Yawl, have been popular since the 19th century, though most present-day yawls, unlike their traditional working boat ancestors, have been structurally modified to promote greater speed under sail. The island's waters and underwater sites are occasionally visited by scuba divers, though Achill's unpredictable weather generally has precluded a commercially successful recreational diving industry. ==Population== In 2016, the population was 2,594, with 5.2% claiming they spoke Irish on a daily basis outside the education system. The island's population has declined from around 6,000 before the Great Famine of the mid-19th century. === Demographics === The table below reports data on Achill Island's population taken from "Discover the Islands of Ireland" (Alex Ritsema, Collins Press, 1999) and the census of Ireland. ==Architecture== Few inhabited houses date from before the 20th century, though there are many examples of abandoned stone structures dating to the 19th century. The best known of these earlier can be seen in the "Deserted Village" ruins near the graveyard at the foot of Slievemore. Even the houses in this village represent a relatively comfortable class of dwelling as, even as recently as a hundred years ago, some people still used "Beehive" style houses (small circular single-roomed dwellings with a hole in the ceiling to let out smoke). Many of the oldest inhabited cottages date from the activities of the Congested Districts Board for Ireland—a body set up around the turn of the 20th century in Ireland to improve the welfare of the inhabitants of small villages and towns. Most of the homes in Achill at the time were very small and tightly packed together in villages. The CDB subsidised the building of new, more spacious (though still small by modern standards) homes outside of the traditional villages. ==Notable people== * Heinrich Böll, German writer who spent several summers with his family and later lived several months per year on the island - Charles Boycott (1832–1897), unpopular landowner from whom the term "boycott" arose - Nancy Corrigan, pioneer aviator, second female commercial pilot in the US. - Dermot Freyer (1883–1970), writer who opened a hotel on the island - Paul Henry, artist, stayed on the island for a number of years in the early 1900s - James Kilbane, singer, lives on the island - Johnny Kilbane, boxer - Saoirse McHugh, former Green Party politician - Danny McNamara, musician - Richard McNamara, musician - Eva O’Flaherty, Nationalist, model and milliner - Thomas Patten, from Dooega. Died during the Siege of Madrid in December 1936 - Honor Tracy, author, lived there until her death in 1989 ==Literature== *Heinrich Böll: "Irisches Tagebuch", Berlin, 1957 - Bob Kingston "The Deserted Village at Slievemore", Castlebar, 1990 - Theresa McDonald: "Achill: 5000 B.C. to 1900 A.D.: Archeology History Folklore", I.A.S. Publications [1992] - Rosa Meehan: "The Story of Mayo", Castlebar, 2003 - James Carney: "The Playboy & the Yellow lady", 1986 Poolbeg - Hugo Hamilton: The Island of Talking, 2007 - Kevin Barry: "Beatlebone", 2015 - Mealla Nī Ghiobúin: "Dugort, Achill Island 1831–1861: The Rise and Fall of a Missionary Community", 2001 - Patricia Byrne: "The Veiled Woman of Achill – Island Outrage & A Playboy Drama", 2012 - Mary J. Murphy: "Achill's Eva O'Flaherty – Forgotten Island Heroine", 2011 - Patricia Byrne: "The Preacher and The Prelate – The Achill Mission Colony and The Battle for Souls in Famine Ireland", 2018 - Mary J. Murphy, "Achill Painters -An Island History", 2020 - Michael Gallagher, "Stick on Stone", 2013 ==In popular culture== The island is featured throughout the film "The Banshees of Inisherin" in various locations on the island including Keem Bay, Cloughmore, and Purteen Pier. The film "My Sailor My Love" features Achill island. The island is the primary setting of the visual novel "If Found...".

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Allen Ginsberg

Irwin Allen Ginsberg (; June 3, 1926 – April 5, 1997) was an American poet and writer. As a student at Columbia University in the 1940s, he began friendships with Lucien Carr, William S. Burroughs and Jack Kerouac, forming the core of the Beat Generation. He vigorously opposed militarism, economic materialism, and sexual repression, and he embodied various aspects of this counterculture with his views on drugs, sex, multiculturalism, hostility to bureaucracy, and openness to Eastern religions. Best known for his poem "Howl", Ginsberg denounced what he saw as the destructive forces of capitalism and conformity in the United States. San Francisco police and US Customs seized copies of "Howl" in 1956, and a subsequent obscenity trial in 1957 attracted widespread publicity due to the poem's language and descriptions of heterosexual and homosexual sex at a time when sodomy laws made (male) homosexual acts a crime in every state. The poem reflected Ginsberg's own sexuality and his relationships with a number of men, including Peter Orlovsky, his lifelong partner. Judge Clayton W. Horn ruled that "Howl" was not obscene, asking: "Would there be any freedom of press or speech if one must reduce his vocabulary to vapid innocuous euphemisms?" Ginsberg was a Buddhist who extensively studied Eastern religious disciplines. He lived modestly, buying his clothing in second-hand stores and residing in apartments in New York City's East Village. One of his most influential teachers was Tibetan Buddhist Chögyam Trungpa, the founder of the Naropa Institute in Boulder, Colorado. At Trungpa's urging, Ginsberg and poet Anne Waldman started The Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics there in 1974. For decades, Ginsberg was active in political protests across a range of issues from the Vietnam War to the war on drugs. His poem "September on Jessore Road" drew attention to refugees fleeing the 1971 Bangladeshi genocide, exemplifying what literary critic Helen Vendler described as Ginsberg's persistent opposition to "imperial politics" and the "persecution of the powerless". His collection "The Fall of America" shared the annual National Book Award for Poetry in 1974. In 1979, he received the National Arts Club gold medal and was inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Letters. He was a Pulitzer Prize finalist in 1995 for his book "Cosmopolitan Greetings: Poems 1986–1992". ==Biography== ===Early life and family=== Ginsberg was born into a Jewish family in Newark, New Jersey, and grew up in nearby Paterson. He was the second son of Louis Ginsberg, also born in Newark, a schoolteacher and published poet, and the former Naomi Levy, born in Nevel (Russia) and a fervent Marxist. As a teenager, Ginsberg began to write letters to "The New York Times" about political issues, such as World War II and workers' rights. He published his first poems in the "Paterson Morning Call". While in high school, Ginsberg became interested in the works of Walt Whitman, inspired by his teacher's passionate reading. In 1943, Ginsberg graduated from Eastside High School and briefly attended Montclair State College before entering Columbia University on a scholarship from the Young Men's Hebrew Association of Paterson. In 1945, he joined the Merchant Marine to earn money to continue his education at Columbia. While at Columbia, Ginsberg contributed to the "Columbia Review" literary journal, the "Jester" humor magazine, won the Woodberry Poetry Prize, served as president of the Philolexian Society (literary and debate group), and joined Boar's Head Society (poetry society). He was a resident of Hartley Hall, where other Beat Generation poets such as Jack Kerouac and Herbert Gold also lived. Ginsberg has stated that he considered his required freshman seminar in Great Books, taught by Lionel Trilling, to be his favorite Columbia course. According to The Poetry Foundation, Ginsberg spent several months in a mental institution after he pleaded insanity during a hearing. He was allegedly being prosecuted for harboring stolen goods in his dorm room. It was noted that the stolen property was not his, but belonged to an acquaintance. Ginsberg also took part in public readings at the Episcopal St. Mark's Church in-the-Bowery which would later hold a memorial service for him after his death. ===Relationship with his parents=== Ginsberg referred to his parents in a 1985 interview as "old-fashioned delicatessen philosophers". His mother was also an active member of the Communist Party and took Ginsberg and his brother Eugene to party meetings. Ginsberg later said that his mother "made up bedtime stories that all went something like: 'The good king rode forth from his castle, saw the suffering workers and healed them.'" Of his father Ginsberg said: "My father would go around the house either reciting Emily Dickinson and Longfellow under his breath or attacking T. S. Eliot for ruining poetry with his 'obscurantism.' I grew suspicious of both sides." Naomi Ginsberg had schizophrenia which often manifested as paranoid delusions, disordered thinking and multiple suicide attempts. She would claim, for example, that the president had implanted listening devices in their home and that her mother-in-law was trying to kill her. Her suspicion of those around her caused Naomi to draw closer to young Allen, "her little pet," as Bill Morgan says in his biography of Ginsberg, titled "I Celebrate Myself: The Somewhat Private Life of Allen Ginsberg". She also tried to kill herself by slitting her wrists and was soon taken to Greystone, a mental hospital; she would spend much of Ginsberg's youth in mental hospitals. His experiences with his mother and her mental illness were a major inspiration for his two major works, "Howl" and his long autobiographical poem "Kaddish for Naomi Ginsberg (1894–1956)". When he was in junior high school, he accompanied his mother by bus to her therapist. The trip deeply disturbed Ginsberg—he mentioned it and other moments from his childhood in "Kaddish". His experiences with his mother's mental illness and her institutionalization are also frequently referred to in "Howl." For example, "Pilgrim State, Rockland, and Grey Stone's foetid halls" is a reference to institutions frequented by his mother and Carl Solomon, ostensibly the subject of the poem: Pilgrim State Hospital and Rockland State Hospital in New York and Greystone Park Psychiatric Hospital in New Jersey. This is followed soon by the line "with mother finally ******." Ginsberg later admitted the deletion was the expletive "fucked." He also says of Solomon in section three, "I'm with you in Rockland where you imitate the shade of my mother," once again showing the association between Solomon and his mother. Ginsberg received a letter from his mother after her death responding to a copy of "Howl" he had sent her. It admonished Ginsberg to be good and stay away from drugs; she says, "The key is in the window, the key is in the sunlight at the window—I have the key—Get married Allen don't take drugs—the key is in the bars, in the sunlight in the window." In a letter she wrote to Ginsberg's brother Eugene, she said, "God's informers come to my bed, and God himself I saw in the sky. The sunshine showed too, a key on the side of the window for me to get out. The yellow of the sunshine, also showed the key on the side of the window." These letters and the absence of a facility to recite kaddish inspired Ginsberg to write "Kaddish", which makes references to many details from Naomi's life, Ginsberg's experiences with her, and the letter, including the lines "the key is in the light" and "the key is in the window." ===New York Beats=== In Ginsberg's first year at Columbia he met fellow undergraduate Lucien Carr, who introduced him to a number of future Beat writers, including Jack Kerouac, William S. Burroughs, and John Clellon Holmes. They bonded, because they saw in one another an excitement about the potential of American youth, a potential that existed outside the strict conformist confines of post–World War II, McCarthy-era America. Ginsberg and Carr talked excitedly about a "New Vision" (a phrase adapted from Yeats' "A Vision"), for literature and America. Carr also introduced Ginsberg to Neal Cassady, for whom Ginsberg had a long infatuation. In the first chapter of his 1957 novel "On the Road" Kerouac described the meeting between Ginsberg and Cassady. Kerouac saw them as the dark (Ginsberg) and light (Cassady) side of their "New Vision", a perception stemming partly from Ginsberg's association with communism, of which Kerouac had become increasingly distrustful. Though Ginsberg was never a member of the Communist Party, Kerouac named him "Carlo Marx" in "On the Road". This was a source of strain in their relationship. Also, in New York, Ginsberg met Gregory Corso in the Pony Stable Bar. Corso, recently released from prison, was supported by the Pony Stable patrons and was writing poetry there the night of their meeting. Ginsberg claims he was immediately attracted to Corso, who was straight, but understood homosexuality after three years in prison. Ginsberg was even more struck by reading Corso's poems, realizing Corso was "spiritually gifted." Ginsberg introduced Corso to the rest of his inner circle. In their first meeting at the Pony Stable, Corso showed Ginsberg a poem about a woman who lived across the street from him and sunbathed naked in the window. Amazingly, the woman happened to be Ginsberg's girlfriend that he was living with during one of his forays into heterosexuality. Ginsberg took Corso over to their apartment. There the woman proposed sex with Corso, who was still very young and fled in fear. Ginsberg introduced Corso to Kerouac and Burroughs and they began to travel together. Ginsberg and Corso remained lifelong friends and collaborators. Shortly after this period in Ginsberg's life, he became romantically involved with Elise Nada Cowen after meeting her through Alex Greer, a philosophy professor at Barnard College whom she had dated for a while during the burgeoning Beat generation's period of development. As a Barnard student, Elise Cowen extensively read the poetry of Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot, when she met Joyce Johnson and Leo Skir, among other Beat players. As Cowen had felt a strong attraction to darker poetry most of the time, Beat poetry seemed to provide an allure to what suggests a shadowy side of her persona. While at Barnard, Cowen earned the nickname "Beat Alice" as she had joined a small group of anti-establishment artists and visionaries known to outsiders as beatniks, and one of her first acquaintances at the college was the beat poet Joyce Johnson who later portrayed Cowen in her books, including "Minor Characters" and "Come and Join the Dance", which expressed the two women's experiences in the Barnard and Columbia Beat community. Through his association with Elise Cowen, Ginsberg discovered that they shared a mutual friend, Carl Solomon, to whom he later dedicated his most famous poem "Howl." This poem is considered an autobiography of Ginsberg up to 1955, and a brief history of the Beat Generation through its references to his relationship to other Beat artists of that time. ===The "Blake vision"=== In 1948, in an apartment in East Harlem, Ginsberg experienced an auditory hallucination while masturbating and reading the poetry of William Blake, which he later referred to as his "Blake vision". Ginsberg claimed to have heard the voice of God—also described as the "voice of the Ancient of Days"—or of Blake himself reading "Ah! Sun-flower", "The Sick Rose" and "The Little Girl Lost". The experience lasted several days, with him believing that he had witnessed the interconnectedness of the universe; Ginsberg recounted that after looking at latticework on the fire escape of the apartment and then at the sky, he intuited that one had been crafted by human beings, while the other had been crafted by itself. He explained that this hallucination was not inspired by drug use, but said he sought to recapture the feeling of interconnectedness later with various drugs. ===San Francisco Renaissance=== Ginsberg moved to San Francisco during the 1950s. Before "Howl and Other Poems" was published in 1956 by City Lights, he worked as a market researcher. In 1954, in San Francisco, Ginsberg met Peter Orlovsky (1933–2010), with whom he fell in love and who remained his lifelong partner. Selections from their correspondence have been published. Also in San Francisco, Ginsberg met members of the San Francisco Renaissance (James Broughton, Robert Duncan, Madeline Gleason and Kenneth Rexroth) and other poets who would later be associated with the Beat Generation in a broader sense. Ginsberg's mentor William Carlos Williams wrote an introductory letter to San Francisco Renaissance figurehead Kenneth Rexroth, who then introduced Ginsberg into the San Francisco poetry scene. There, Ginsberg also met three budding poets and Zen enthusiasts who had become friends at Reed College: Gary Snyder, Philip Whalen, and Lew Welch. In 1959, along with poets John Kelly, Bob Kaufman, A. D. Winans, and William Margolis, Ginsberg was one of the founders of the "Beatitude" poetry magazine. Wally Hedrick—a painter and co-founder of the Six Gallery—approached Ginsberg in mid-1955 and asked him to organize a poetry reading at the Six Gallery. At first, Ginsberg refused, but once he had written a rough draft of "Howl," he changed his "fucking mind," as he put it. Ginsberg advertised the event as "Six Poets at the Six Gallery." One of the most important events in Beat mythos, known simply as "The Six Gallery reading" took place on October 7, 1955. The event, in essence, brought together the East and West Coast factions of the Beat Generation. Of more personal significance to Ginsberg, the reading that night included the first public presentation of "Howl," a poem that brought worldwide fame to Ginsberg and to many of the poets associated with him. An account of that night can be found in Kerouac's novel "The Dharma Bums", describing how change was collected from audience members to buy jugs of wine, and Ginsberg reading passionately, drunken, with arms outstretched. Ginsberg's principal work, "Howl," is well known for its opening line: "I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness, starving hysterical naked [...]." "Howl" was considered scandalous at the time of its publication, because of the rawness of its language. Shortly after its 1956 publication by San Francisco's City Lights Bookstore, it was banned for obscenity. The ban became a cause célèbre among defenders of the First Amendment, and was later lifted, after Judge Clayton W. Horn declared the poem to possess redeeming artistic value. Ginsberg and Shig Murao, the City Lights manager who was jailed for selling "Howl," became lifelong friends. ====Biographical references in "Howl"==== Ginsberg claimed at one point that all of his work was an extended biography (like Kerouac's "Duluoz Legend"). "Howl" is not only a biography of Ginsberg's experiences before 1955, but also a history of the Beat Generation. Ginsberg also later claimed that at the core of "Howl" were his unresolved emotions about his schizophrenic mother. Though "Kaddish" deals more explicitly with his mother, "Howl" in many ways is driven by the same emotions. "Howl" chronicles the development of many important friendships throughout Ginsberg's life. He begins the poem with "I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness", which sets the stage for Ginsberg to describe Cassady and Solomon, immortalizing them into American literature. This madness was the "angry fix" that society needed to function—madness was its disease. In the poem, Ginsberg focused on "Carl Solomon! I'm with you in Rockland", and, thus, turned Solomon into an archetypal figure searching for freedom from his "straightjacket". Though references in most of his poetry reveal much about his biography, his relationship to other members of the Beat Generation, and his own political views, "Howl," his most famous poem, is still perhaps the best place to start. ===To Paris and the "Beat Hotel", Tangier and India=== In 1957, Ginsberg surprised the literary world by abandoning San Francisco. After a spell in Morocco, he and Peter Orlovsky joined Gregory Corso in Paris. Corso introduced them to a shabby lodging house above a bar at 9 rue Gît-le-Cœur that was to become known as the Beat Hotel. They were soon joined by Burroughs and others. It was a productive, creative time for all of them. There, Ginsberg began his epic poem "Kaddish", Corso composed "Bomb" and "Marriage", and Burroughs (with help from Ginsberg and Corso) put together "Naked Lunch" from previous writings. This period was documented by the photographer Harold Chapman, who moved in at about the same time, and took pictures constantly of the residents of the "hotel" until it closed in 1963. During 1962–1963, Ginsberg and Orlovsky travelled extensively across India, living half a year at a time in Calcutta (now Kolkata) and Benares (Varanasi). On his road to India he stayed two months in Athens ( August 29, 1961 – October 31, 1961) where he visited various cites such as Delphi, Mycines, Crete, and then he continued his journey to Israel, Kenya and finally India. Also during this time, he formed friendships with some of the prominent young Bengali poets of the time including Shakti Chattopadhyay and Sunil Gangopadhyay. Ginsberg had several political connections in India; most notably Pupul Jayakar who helped him extend his stay in India when the authorities were eager to expel him. ===England and the International Poetry Incarnation=== In May 1965, Ginsberg arrived in London, and offered to read anywhere for free. Shortly after his arrival, he gave a reading at Better Books, which was described by Jeff Nuttall as "the first healing wind on a very parched collective mind." Tom McGrath wrote: "This could well turn out to have been a very significant moment in the history of England—or at least in the history of English Poetry." Soon after the bookshop reading, plans were hatched for the International Poetry Incarnation, which was held at the Royal Albert Hall in London on June 11, 1965. The event attracted an audience of 7,000, who heard readings and live and tape performances by a wide variety of figures, including Ginsberg, Adrian Mitchell, Alexander Trocchi, Harry Fainlight, Anselm Hollo, Christopher Logue, George MacBeth, Gregory Corso, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Michael Horovitz, Simon Vinkenoog, Spike Hawkins and Tom McGrath. The event was organized by Ginsberg's friend, the filmmaker Barbara Rubin. Peter Whitehead documented the event on film and released it as "Wholly Communion". A book featuring images from the film and some of the poems that were performed was also published under the same title by Lorrimer in the UK and Grove Press in US. ===Continuing literary activity=== Though the term "Beat" is most accurately applied to Ginsberg and his closest friends (Corso, Orlovsky, Kerouac, Burroughs, etc.), the term "Beat Generation" has become associated with many of the other poets Ginsberg met and became friends with in the late 1950s and early 1960s. A key feature of this term seems to be a friendship with Ginsberg. Friendship with Kerouac or Burroughs might also apply, but both writers later strove to disassociate themselves from the name "Beat Generation." Part of their dissatisfaction with the term came from the mistaken identification of Ginsberg as the leader. Ginsberg never claimed to be the leader of a movement. He claimed that many of the writers with whom he had become friends in this period shared many of the same intentions and themes. Some of these friends include: David Amram, Bob Kaufman; Diane di Prima; Jim Cohn; poets associated with the Black Mountain College such as Charles Olson, Robert Creeley, and Denise Levertov; poets associated with the New York School such as Frank O'Hara and Kenneth Koch. LeRoi Jones before he became Amiri Baraka, who, after reading "Howl", wrote a letter to Ginsberg on a sheet of toilet paper. Baraka's independent publishing house Totem Press published Ginsberg's early work. Through a party organized by Baraka, Ginsberg was introduced to Langston Hughes while Ornette Coleman played saxophone. Later in his life, Ginsberg formed a bridge between the beat movement of the 1950s and the hippies of the 1960s, befriending, among others, Timothy Leary, Ken Kesey, Hunter S. Thompson, and Bob Dylan. Ginsberg gave his last public reading at Booksmith, a bookstore in the Haight-Ashbury neighborhood of San Francisco, a few months before his death. In 1993, Ginsberg visited the University of Maine at Orono to pay homage to the 90-year-old great Carl Rakosi. ===Buddhism and Krishna=== In 1950, Kerouac began studying Buddhism and shared what he learned from Dwight Goddard's "Buddhist Bible" with Ginsberg. Ginsberg first heard about the Four Noble Truths and such sutras as the Diamond Sutra at this time. Ginsberg's spiritual journey began early on with his spontaneous visions, and continued with an early trip to India with Gary Snyder. Snyder had previously spent time in Kyoto to study at the First Zen Institute at Daitoku-ji Monastery. At one point, Snyder chanted the Prajnaparamita, which in Ginsberg's words "blew my mind." His interest piqued, Ginsberg traveled to meet the Dalai Lama as well as the Karmapa at Rumtek Monastery. Continuing on his journey, Ginsberg met Dudjom Rinpoche in Kalimpong, who taught him: "If you see something horrible, don't cling to it, and if you see something beautiful, don't cling to it." After returning to the United States, a chance encounter on a New York City street with Chögyam Trungpa Rinpoche (they both tried to catch the same cab), a Kagyu and Nyingma Tibetan Buddhist master, led to Trungpa becoming his friend and lifelong teacher. Ginsberg helped Trungpa and New York poet Anne Waldman in founding the Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics at Naropa University in Boulder, Colorado. Ginsberg was also involved with Krishnaism. He had started incorporating chanting the Hare Krishna mantra into his religious practice in the mid-1960s. After learning that A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, the founder of the Hare Krishna movement in the Western world had rented a store front in New York, he befriended him, visiting him often and suggesting publishers for his books, and a fruitful relationship began. This relationship is documented by Satsvarupa dasa Goswami in his biographical account "Srila Prabhupada Lilamrta". Ginsberg donated money, materials, and his reputation to help the Swami establish the first temple, and toured with him to promote his cause. Despite disagreeing with many of Bhaktivedanta Swami's required prohibitions, Ginsberg often sang the Hare Krishna mantra publicly as part of his philosophy and declared that it brought a state of ecstasy. He was glad that Bhaktivedanta Swami, an authentic swami from India, was now trying to spread the chanting in America. Along with other counterculture ideologists like Timothy Leary, Gary Snyder, and Alan Watts, Ginsberg hoped to incorporate Bhaktivedanta Swami and his chanting into the hippie movement, and agreed to take part in the Mantra-Rock Dance concert and to introduce the swami to the Haight-Ashbury hippie community. On January 17, 1967, Ginsberg helped plan and organize a reception for Bhaktivedanta Swami at San Francisco International Airport, where fifty to a hundred hippies greeted the Swami, chanting Hare Krishna in the airport lounge with flowers in hands. To further support and promote Bhaktivendata Swami's message and chanting in San Francisco, Allen Ginsberg agreed to attend the Mantra-Rock Dance, a musical event 1967 held at the Avalon Ballroom by the San Francisco Hare Krishna temple. It featured some leading rock bands of the time: Big Brother and the Holding Company with Janis Joplin, the Grateful Dead, and Moby Grape, who performed there along with the Hare Krishna founder Bhaktivedanta Swami and donated proceeds to the Krishna temple. Ginsberg introduced Bhaktivedanta Swami to some three thousand hippies in the audience and led the chanting of the Hare Krishna mantra. Music and chanting were both important parts of Ginsberg's live delivery during poetry readings. He often accompanied himself on a harmonium, and was often accompanied by a guitarist. It is believed that the Hindi and Buddhist poet Nagarjun had introduced Ginsberg to the harmonium in Banaras. According to Malay Roy Choudhury, Ginsberg refined his practice while learning from his relatives, including his cousin Savitri Banerjee. When Ginsberg asked if he could sing a song in praise of Lord Krishna on William F. Buckley, Jr.'s TV show "Firing Line" on September 3, 1968, Buckley acceded and the poet chanted slowly as he played dolefully on a harmonium. According to Richard Brookhiser, an associate of Buckley's, the host commented that it was "the most unharried Krishna I've ever heard." At the 1967 Human Be-In in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park, the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, and the 1970 Black Panther rally at Yale campus Allen chanted "Om" repeatedly over a sound system for hours on end. Ginsberg further brought mantras into the world of rock and roll when he recited the Heart Sutra in the song "Ghetto Defendant." The song appears on the 1982 album Combat Rock by British first wave punk band The Clash. Ginsberg came in touch with the Hungryalist poets of Bengal, especially Malay Roy Choudhury, who introduced Ginsberg to the three fish with one head of Indian emperor Jalaluddin Mohammad Akbar. The three fish symbolised coexistence of all thought, philosophy, and religion. In spite of Ginsberg's attraction to Eastern religions, the journalist Jane Kramer argues that he, like Whitman, adhered to an "American brand of mysticism" that was "rooted in humanism and in a romantic and visionary ideal of harmony among men." The Allen Ginsberg Estate and Jewel Heart International partnered to present "Transforming Minds: Kyabje Gelek Rimpoche and Friends", a gallery and online exhibition of images of Gelek Rimpoche by Allen Ginsberg, a student with whom he had an "indissoluble bond," in 2021 at Tibet House US in New York City. Fifty negatives from Ginsberg's Stanford University photo archive celebrated "the unique relationship between Allen and Rimpoche." The selection of never-before presented images, featuring great Tibetan masters including the Dalai Lama, Tibetologists, and students were "guided by Allen's extensive notes on the contact sheets and images he'd circled with the intention to print." ===Illness and death=== In 1960, he was treated for a tropical disease, and it is speculated that he contracted hepatitis from an unsterilized needle administered by a doctor, which played a role in his death 37 years later. Ginsberg was a lifelong smoker, and though he tried to quit for health and religious reasons, his busy schedule in later life made it difficult, and he always returned to smoking. In the 1970s, Ginsberg had two minor strokes which were first diagnosed as Bell's palsy, which gave him significant paralysis and stroke-like drooping of the muscles in one side of his face. Later in life, he also had constant minor ailments such as high blood pressure. Many of these symptoms were related to stress, but he never slowed down his schedule. Ginsberg won a 1974 National Book Award for ' (split with Adrienne Rich, '). In 1986, Ginsberg was awarded the Golden Wreath by the Struga Poetry Evenings International Festival in Macedonia, the second American poet to be so awarded since W. H. Auden. At Struga, Ginsberg met with the other Golden Wreath winners, Bulat Okudzhava and Andrei Voznesensky. In 1989, Ginsberg appeared in Rosa von Praunheim's award-winning film "Silence = Death" about the fight of gay artists in New York City for AIDS-education and the rights of HIV infected people. In 1993, the French Minister of Culture appointed Ginsberg a Chevalier des Arts et des Lettres. Ginsberg continued to help his friends as much as he could: he gave money to Herbert Huncke out of his own pocket, regularly supplied neighbor Arthur Russell with an extension cord to power his home recording setup, and housed a broke, drug-addicted Harry Smith. With the exception of a special guest appearance at the NYU Poetry Slam on February 20, 1997, Ginsberg gave what is thought to be his last reading at The Booksmith in San Francisco on December 16, 1996. After returning home from the hospital for the last time, where he had been unsuccessfully treated for congestive heart failure, Ginsberg continued making phone calls to say goodbye to nearly everyone in his address book. Some of the phone calls were sad and interrupted by crying, and others were joyous and optimistic. Ginsberg continued to write through his final illness, with his last poem, "Things I'll Not Do (Nostalgias)", written on March 30. He died on April 5, 1997, surrounded by family and friends in his East Village loft in Manhattan, succumbing to liver cancer via complications of hepatitis at the age of 70. Gregory Corso, Roy Lichtenstein, Patti Smith and others came by to pay their respects. He was cremated, and his ashes were buried in his family plot in Gomel Chesed Cemetery in Newark. He was survived by Orlovsky. In 1998, various writers, including Catfish McDaris read at a gathering at Ginsberg's farm to honor Allen and the Beats. "Good Will Hunting" (released in December 1997) was dedicated to Ginsberg, as well as Burroughs, who died four months later. ==Social and political activism== ===Free speech=== Ginsberg's willingness to talk about taboo subjects made him a controversial figure during the conservative 1950s, and a significant figure in the 1960s. In the mid-1950s, no reputable publishing company would even consider publishing "Howl". At the time, such "sex talk" employed in "Howl" was considered by some to be vulgar or even a form of pornography, and could be prosecuted under law. Ginsberg used phrases such as "cocksucker", "fucked in the ass", and "cunt" as part of the poem's depiction of different aspects of American culture. Numerous books that discussed sex were banned at the time, including "Lady Chatterley's Lover". The sex that Ginsberg described did not portray the sex between heterosexual married couples, or even longtime lovers. Instead, Ginsberg portrayed casual sex. For example, in "Howl", Ginsberg praises the man "who sweetened the snatches of a million girls." Ginsberg used gritty descriptions and explicit sexual language, pointing out the man "who lounged hungry and lonesome through Houston seeking jazz or sex or soup." In his poetry, Ginsberg also discussed the then-taboo topic of homosexuality. The explicit sexual language that filled "Howl" eventually led to an important trial on First Amendment issues. Ginsberg's publisher was brought up on charges for publishing pornography, and the outcome led to a judge going on record dismissing charges, because the poem carried "redeeming social importance," thus setting an important legal precedent. Ginsberg continued to broach controversial subjects throughout the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. From 1970 to 1996, Ginsberg had a long-term affiliation with PEN American Center with efforts to defend free expression. When explaining how he approached controversial topics, he often pointed to Herbert Huncke: he said that when he first got to know Huncke in the 1940s, Ginsberg saw that he was sick from his heroin addiction, but at the time heroin was a taboo subject and Huncke was left with nowhere to go for help. ===Role in Vietnam War protests=== Ginsberg was a signer of the anti-war manifesto "A Call to Resist Illegitimate Authority", circulated among draft resistors in 1967 by members of the radical intellectual collective RESIST. Other signers and RESIST members included Mitchell Goodman, Henry Braun, Denise Levertov, Noam Chomsky, William Sloane Coffin, Dwight Macdonald, Robert Lowell, and Norman Mailer. In 1968, Ginsberg signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War, and later became a sponsor of the War Tax Resistance project, which practiced and advocated tax resistance as a form of anti-war protest. He was present the night of the Tompkins Square Park riot (1988) and provided an eyewitness account to "The New York Times". ===Relationship to communism=== Ginsberg talked openly about his connections with communism and his admiration for past communist heroes and the labor movement at a time when the Red Scare and McCarthyism were still raging. He admired Fidel Castro and many other Marxist figures from the 20th century. In "America" (1956), Ginsberg writes: "America, I used to be a communist when I was a kid I'm not sorry". Biographer Jonah Raskin has claimed that, despite his often stark opposition to communist orthodoxy, Ginsberg held "his own idiosyncratic version of communism." On the other hand, when Donald Manes, a New York City politician, publicly accused Ginsberg of being a member of the Communist Party, Ginsberg objected: "I am not, as a matter of fact, a member of the Communist party, nor am I dedicated to the overthrow of the U.S. government or any government by violence ... I must say that I see little difference between the armed and violent governments both Communist and Capitalist that I have observed". Ginsberg travelled to several communist countries to promote free speech. He claimed that communist countries, such as China, welcomed him because they thought he was an enemy of capitalism, but often turned against him when they saw him as a troublemaker. For example, in 1965 Ginsberg was deported from Cuba for publicly protesting the persecution of homosexuals. The Cubans sent him to Czechoslovakia, where one week after being named the "Král majálesu" ("King of May", a students' festivity, celebrating spring and student life), Ginsberg was arrested for alleged drug use and public drunkenness, and the security agency StB confiscated several of his writings, which they considered to be lewd and morally dangerous. Ginsberg was then deported from Czechoslovakia on May 7, 1965, by order of the StB. Václav Havel points to Ginsberg as an important inspiration. ===Gay rights=== One contribution that is often considered his most significant and most controversial was his openness about homosexuality. Ginsberg was an early proponent of freedom for gay people. In 1943, he discovered within himself "mountains of homosexuality." He expressed this desire openly and graphically in his poetry. He also struck a note for gay marriage by listing Peter Orlovsky, his lifelong companion, as his spouse in his "Who's Who" entry. Subsequent gay writers saw his frank talk about homosexuality as an opening to speak more openly and honestly about something often before only hinted at or spoken of in metaphor. In writing about sexuality in graphic detail and in his frequent use of language seen as indecent, he challenged—and ultimately changed—obscenity laws. He was a staunch supporter of others whose expression challenged obscenity laws (William S. Burroughs and Lenny Bruce, for example). ===Association with NAMBLA=== Ginsberg was a supporter and member of the North American Man/Boy Love Association (NAMBLA), a pedophilia and pederasty advocacy organization in the United States that works to abolish age of consent laws and legalize sexual relations between adults and children. Saying that he joined the organization "in defense of free speech", Ginsberg stated: "Attacks on NAMBLA stink of politics, witchhunting for profit, humorlessness, vanity, anger and ignorance ... I'm a member of NAMBLA because I love boys too—everybody does, who has a little humanity". In 1994, Ginsberg appeared in a documentary on NAMBLA called "" (playing on the gay male slang term "Chickenhawk"), in which he read a "graphic ode to youth". He read his poem "Sweet Boy, Gimme Yr Ass" from the book "Mind Breaths". In her 2002 book "Heartbreak", Andrea Dworkin claimed Ginsberg had ulterior motives for allying with NAMBLA. In reference to his onetime friend Dworkin, Ginsberg stated: ===Demystification of drugs=== Ginsberg talked often about drug use. He organized the New York City chapter of LeMar (Legalize Marijuana). Throughout the 1960s he took an active role in the demystification of LSD, and, with Timothy Leary, worked to promote its common use. He remained for many decades an advocate of marijuana legalization, and, at the same time, warned his audiences against the hazards of tobacco in his "Put Down Your Cigarette Rag (Don't Smoke):" "Don't Smoke Don't Smoke Nicotine Nicotine No / No don't smoke the official Dope Smoke Dope Dope." ===CIA drug trafficking=== Ginsberg worked closely with Alfred W. McCoy on the latter's book "The Politics of Heroin in Southeast Asia", which claimed that the CIA was knowingly involved in the production of heroin in the Golden Triangle of Burma, Thailand, and Laos. In addition to working with McCoy, Ginsberg personally confronted Richard Helms, the director of the CIA in the 1970s, about the matter, but Helms denied that the CIA had anything to do with selling illegal drugs. Ginsberg wrote many essays and articles, researching and compiling evidence of the CIA's alleged involvement in drug trafficking, but it took ten years, and the publication of McCoy's book in 1972, before anyone took him seriously. In 1978, Ginsberg received a note from the chief editor of "The New York Times", apologizing for not having taken his allegations seriously. The political subject is dealt with in his song/poem "CIA Dope calypso". The United States Department of State responded to McCoy's initial allegations stating that they were "unable to find any evidence to substantiate them, much less proof." Subsequent investigations by the Inspector General of the CIA, United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs, and United States Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, a.k.a. the Church Committee, also found the charges to be unsubstantiated. ==Work== Most of Ginsberg's very early poetry was written in formal rhyme and meter like that of his father, and of his idol William Blake. His admiration for the writing of Jack Kerouac inspired him to take poetry more seriously. In 1955, upon the advice of a psychiatrist, Ginsberg dropped out of the working world to devote his entire life to poetry. Soon after, he wrote "Howl", the poem that brought him and his Beat Generation contemporaries to national attention and allowed him to live as a professional poet for the rest of his life. Later in life, Ginsberg entered academia, teaching poetry as Distinguished Professor of English at Brooklyn College from 1986 until his death. ===Inspiration from friends=== Ginsberg claimed throughout his life that his biggest inspiration was Kerouac's concept of "spontaneous prose." He believed literature should come from the soul without conscious restrictions. Ginsberg was much more prone to revise than Kerouac. For example, when Kerouac saw the first draft of "Howl", he disliked the fact that Ginsberg had made editorial changes in pencil (transposing "negro" and "angry" in the first line, for example). Kerouac only wrote out his concepts of spontaneous prose at Ginsberg's insistence because Ginsberg wanted to learn how to apply the technique to his poetry. The inspiration for "Howl" was Ginsberg's friend, Carl Solomon, and "Howl" is dedicated to him. Solomon was a Dada and Surrealism enthusiast (he introduced Ginsberg to Artaud) who had bouts of clinical depression. Solomon wanted to commit suicide, but he thought a form of suicide appropriate to dadaism would be to go to a mental institution and demand a lobotomy. The institution refused, giving him many forms of therapy, including electroshock therapy. Much of the final section of the first part of "Howl" is a description of this. Ginsberg used Solomon as an example of all those ground down by the machine of "Moloch." Moloch, to whom the second section is addressed, is a Levantine god to whom children were sacrificed. Ginsberg may have gotten the name from the Kenneth Rexroth poem "Thou Shalt Not Kill," a poem about the death of one of Ginsberg's heroes, Dylan Thomas. Moloch is mentioned a few times in the Torah and references to Ginsberg's Jewish background are frequent in his work. Ginsberg said the image of Moloch was inspired by peyote visions he had of the Francis Drake Hotel in San Francisco which appeared to him as a skull; he took it as a symbol of the city (not specifically San Francisco, but all cities). Ginsberg later acknowledged in various publications and interviews that behind the visions of the Francis Drake Hotel were memories of the Moloch of Fritz Lang's film "Metropolis" (1927) and of the woodcut novels of Lynd Ward. Moloch has subsequently been interpreted as any system of control, including the conformist society of post-World War II America, focused on material gain, which Ginsberg frequently blamed for the destruction of all those outside of societal norms. He also made sure to emphasize that Moloch is a part of humanity in multiple aspects, in that the decision to "defy" socially created systems of control—and therefore go against Moloch—is a form of self-destruction. Many of the characters Ginsberg references in "Howl", such as Neal Cassady and Herbert Huncke, destroyed themselves through excessive substance abuse or a generally wild lifestyle. The personal aspects of "Howl" are perhaps as important as the political aspects. Carl Solomon, the prime example of a "best mind" destroyed by defying society, is associated with Ginsberg's schizophrenic mother: the line "with mother finally fucked" comes after a long section about Carl Solomon, and in Part III, Ginsberg says: "I'm with you in Rockland where you imitate the shade of my mother." Ginsberg later admitted that the drive to write "Howl" was fueled by sympathy for his ailing mother, an issue which he was not yet ready to deal with directly. He dealt with it directly with 1959's "Kaddish", which had its first public reading at a Catholic Worker Friday Night meeting, possibly due to its associations with Thomas Merton. ===Inspiration from mentors and idols=== Ginsberg's poetry was strongly influenced by Modernism (most importantly the American style of Modernism pioneered by William Carlos Williams), Romanticism (specifically William Blake and John Keats), the beat and cadence of jazz (specifically that of bop musicians such as Charlie Parker), and his Kagyu Buddhist practice and Jewish background. He considered himself to have inherited the visionary poetic mantle handed down from the English poet and artist William Blake, the American poet Walt Whitman and the Spanish poet Federico García Lorca. The power of Ginsberg's verse, its searching, probing focus, its long and lilting lines, as well as its New World exuberance, all echo the continuity of inspiration that he claimed. He corresponded with William Carlos Williams, who was then in the middle of writing his epic poem "Paterson" about the industrial city near his home. After attending a reading by Williams, Ginsberg sent the older poet several of his poems and wrote an introductory letter. Most of these early poems were rhymed and metered and included archaic pronouns like "thee." Williams disliked the poems and told Ginsberg, "In this mode perfection is basic, and these poems are not perfect." Though he disliked these early poems, Williams loved the exuberance in Ginsberg's letter. He included the letter in a later part of "Paterson". He encouraged Ginsberg not to emulate the old masters, but to speak with his own voice and the voice of the common American. From Williams, Ginsberg learned to focus on strong visual images, in line with Williams' own motto "No ideas but in things." Studying Williams' style led to a tremendous shift from the early formalist work to a loose, colloquial free verse style. Early breakthrough poems include "Bricklayer's Lunch Hour" and "Dream Record". Carl Solomon introduced Ginsberg to the work of Antonin Artaud ("To Have Done with the Judgement of God" and "Van Gogh: The Man Suicided by Society"), and Jean Genet ("Our Lady of the Flowers"). Philip Lamantia introduced him to other Surrealists and Surrealism continued to be an influence (for example, sections of "Kaddish" were inspired by André Breton's "Free Union"). Ginsberg claimed that the anaphoric repetition of "Howl" and other poems was inspired by Christopher Smart in such poems as "Jubilate Agno". Ginsberg also claimed other more traditional influences, such as: Franz Kafka, Herman Melville, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Edgar Allan Poe, and Emily Dickinson. Ginsberg also made an intense study of haiku and the paintings of Paul Cézanne, from which he adapted a concept important to his work, which he called the "Eyeball Kick". He noticed in viewing Cézanne's paintings that when the eye moved from one color to a contrasting color, the eye would spasm, or "kick." Likewise, he discovered that the contrast of two seeming opposites was a common feature in haiku. Ginsberg used this technique in his poetry, putting together two starkly dissimilar images: something weak with something strong, an artifact of high culture with an artifact of low culture, something holy with something unholy. The example Ginsberg most often used was "hydrogen jukebox" (which later became the title of a song cycle composed by Philip Glass with lyrics drawn from Ginsberg's poems). Another example is Ginsberg's observation on Bob Dylan during Dylan's hectic and intense 1966 electric-guitar tour, fueled by a cocktail of amphetamines, opiates, alcohol, and psychedelics, as a "Dexedrine Clown". The phrases "eyeball kick" and "hydrogen jukebox" both show up in "Howl", as well as a direct quote from Cézanne: "Pater Omnipotens Aeterna Deus". ===Inspiration from music=== Allen Ginsberg also found inspiration in music. He frequently included music in his poetry, invariably composing his tunes on an old Indian harmonium, which he often played during his readings. He wrote and recorded music to accompany William Blake's "Songs of Innocence" and "Songs of Experience". He also recorded a handful of other albums. To create music for "Howl" and "Wichita Vortex Sutra", he worked with the minimalist composer, Philip Glass. Ginsberg worked with, drew inspiration from, and inspired artists such as Bob Dylan, The Clash, Patti Smith, Phil Ochs, and The Fugs. He worked with Dylan on various projects and maintained a friendship with him over many years. In 1981, Ginsberg recorded a song called "Birdbrain." He was backed by the Gluons, and the track was released as a single. In 1996, he recorded a song co-written with Paul McCartney and Philip Glass, "The Ballad of the Skeletons", which reached number 8 on the Triple J Hottest 100 for that year. ===Style and technique=== From the study of his idols and mentors and the inspiration of his friends—not to mention his own experiments—Ginsberg developed an individualistic style that's easily identified as Ginsbergian. Ginsberg stated that Whitman's long line was a dynamic technique few other poets had ventured to develop further, and Whitman is also often compared to Ginsberg because their poetry sexualized aspects of the male form. Many of Ginsberg's early long line experiments contain some sort of anaphora, repetition of a "fixed base" (for example "who" in "Howl", "America" in "America") and this has become a recognizable feature of Ginsberg's style. He said later this was a crutch because he lacked confidence; he did not yet trust "free flight." In the 1960s, after employing it in some sections of "Kaddish" ("caw" for example) he, for the most part, abandoned the anaphoric form. 'Latter-Day Beat' Bob Dylan is known for using anaphora, as in 'Tangled Up in Blue' where the phrase, returned to at the end of every verse, takes the place of a chorus. Several of his earlier experiments with methods for formatting poems as a whole became regular aspects of his style in later poems. In the original draft of "Howl", each line is in a "stepped triadic" format reminiscent of William Carlos Williams. He abandoned the "stepped triadic" when he developed his long line although the stepped lines showed up later, most significantly in the travelogues of "The Fall of America". "Howl" and "Kaddish", arguably his two most important poems, are both organized as an inverted pyramid, with larger sections leading to smaller sections. In "America", he also experimented with a mix of longer and shorter lines. Ginsberg's mature style made use of many specific, highly developed techniques, which he expressed in the "poetic slogans" he used in his Naropa teaching. Prominent among these was the inclusion of his unedited mental associations so as to reveal the mind at work ("First thought, best thought." "Mind is shapely, thought is shapely.") He preferred expression through carefully observed physical details rather than abstract statements ("Show, don't tell." "No ideas but in things.") In these he carried on and developed traditions of modernism in writing that are also found in Kerouac and Whitman. In "Howl" and in his other poetry, Ginsberg drew inspiration from the epic, free verse style of the 19th-century American poet Walt Whitman. Both wrote passionately about the promise (and betrayal) of American democracy, the central importance of erotic experience, and the spiritual quest for the truth of everyday existence. J. D. McClatchy, editor of the "Yale Review", called Ginsberg "the best-known American poet of his generation, as much a social force as a literary phenomenon." McClatchy added that Ginsberg, like Whitman, "was a bard in the old manner—outsized, darkly prophetic, part exuberance, part prayer, part rant. His work is finally a history of our era's psyche, with all its contradictory urges." McClatchy's barbed eulogies define the essential difference between Ginsberg ("a beat poet whose writing was [...] journalism raised by combining the recycling genius with a generous mimic-empathy, to strike audience-accessible chords; always lyrical and sometimes truly poetic") and Kerouac ("a poet of singular brilliance, the brightest luminary of a 'beat generation' he came to symbolise in popular culture [...] [though] in reality he far surpassed his contemporaries [...] Kerouac is an originating genius, exploring then answering—like Rimbaud a century earlier, by necessity more than by choice—the demands of authentic self-expression as applied to the evolving quicksilver mind of America's only literary virtuoso [...]"). ==Bibliography== * "Howl and Other Poems" (1956), - "Kaddish and Other Poems" (1961), - "" (1961), - "Reality Sandwiches" (1963), - "The Yage Letters" (1963)with William S. Burroughs - "Planet News" (1968), - "Indian Journals" (1970), - "" (1975), - " 1948–1951" (1972), - "" (1973), - "Iron Horse" (1973) - " (1974), edited by Gordon Ball, - " (1975) - "Mind Breaths" (1978), - " 1977–1980" (1981), - "Collected Poems 1947–1980" (1984), . Republished with later material added as "Collected Poems 1947-1997", New York, HarperCollins, 2006 - "White Shroud Poems: 1980–1985" (1986), - "Cosmopolitan Greetings Poems: 1986–1993" (1994) - "Howl Annotated" (1995) - "Illuminated Poems" (1996) - "" (1996) - " 1993–1997" (1999) - "Deliberate Prose 1952–1995" (2000) - "Howl & Other Poems" 50th Anniversary Edition (2006), - "" (Da Capo Press, 2006) - "The Selected Letters of Allen Ginsberg and Gary Snyder" (Counterpoint, 2009) - "I Greet You at the Beginning of a Great Career: The Selected Correspondence of Lawrence Ferlinghetti and Allen Ginsberg, 1955–1997" (City Lights, 2015) - "" (Grove Press, 2017) ==Honors== His collection "The Fall of America" shared the annual U.S. National Book Award for Poetry in 1974. In 1979, he received the National Arts Club gold medal and was inducted into the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters. Ginsberg was a Pulitzer Prize finalist in 1995 for his book "Cosmopolitan Greetings: Poems 1986–1992". In 1993, he received a John Jay Award posthumously from Columbia. In 2014, Ginsberg was one of the inaugural honorees in the Rainbow Honor Walk, a walk of fame in San Francisco's Castro neighborhood noting LGBTQ people who have "made significant contributions in their fields."

1018

7903804

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1018

Algebraically closed field

In mathematics, a field is algebraically closed if every non-constant polynomial in (the univariate polynomial ring with coefficients in ) has a root in . ==Examples== As an example, the field of real numbers is not algebraically closed, because the polynomial equation formula_1 has no solution in real numbers, even though all its coefficients (1 and 0) are real. The same argument proves that no subfield of the real field is algebraically closed; in particular, the field of rational numbers is not algebraically closed. By contrast, the fundamental theorem of algebra states that the field of complex numbers is algebraically closed. Another example of an algebraically closed field is the field of (complex) algebraic numbers. No finite field "F" is algebraically closed, because if "a"1, "a"2, ..., "an" are the elements of "F", then the polynomial ("x" − "a"1)("x" − "a"2) ⋯ ("x" − "a""n") + 1 has no zero in "F". However, the union of all finite fields of a fixed characteristic "p" is an algebraically closed field, which is, in fact, the algebraic closure of the field formula_2 with "p" elements. ==Equivalent properties== Given a field "F", the assertion ""F" is algebraically closed" is equivalent to other assertions: ===The only irreducible polynomials are those of degree one=== The field "F" is algebraically closed if and only if the only irreducible polynomials in the polynomial ring "F"["x"] are those of degree one. The assertion "the polynomials of degree one are irreducible" is trivially true for any field. If "F" is algebraically closed and "p"("x") is an irreducible polynomial of "F"["x"], then it has some root "a" and therefore "p"("x") is a multiple of "x" − "a". Since "p"("x") is irreducible, this means that "p"("x") = "k"("x" − "a"), for some "k" ∈ "F" \ {0}. On the other hand, if "F" is not algebraically closed, then there is some non-constant polynomial "p"("x") in "F"["x"] without roots in "F". Let "q"("x") be some irreducible factor of "p"("x"). Since "p"("x") has no roots in "F", "q"("x") also has no roots in "F". Therefore, "q"("x") has degree greater than one, since every first degree polynomial has one root in "F". ===Every polynomial is a product of first degree polynomials=== The field "F" is algebraically closed if and only if every polynomial "p"("x") of degree "n" ≥ 1, with coefficients in "F", splits into linear factors. In other words, there are elements "k", "x"1, "x"2, ..., "xn" of the field "F" such that "p"("x") = "k"("x" − "x"1)("x" − "x"2) ⋯ ("x" − "xn"). If "F" has this property, then clearly every non-constant polynomial in "F"["x"] has some root in "F"; in other words, "F" is algebraically closed. On the other hand, that the property stated here holds for "F" if "F" is algebraically closed follows from the previous property together with the fact that, for any field "K", any polynomial in "K"["x"] can be written as a product of irreducible polynomials. ===Polynomials of prime degree have roots=== If every polynomial over "F" of prime degree has a root in "F", then every non-constant polynomial has a root in "F". It follows that a field is algebraically closed if and only if every polynomial over "F" of prime degree has a root in "F". ===The field has no proper algebraic extension=== The field "F" is algebraically closed if and only if it has no proper algebraic extension. If "F" has no proper algebraic extension, let "p"("x") be some irreducible polynomial in "F"["x"]. Then the quotient of "F"["x"] modulo the ideal generated by "p"("x") is an algebraic extension of "F" whose degree is equal to the degree of "p"("x"). Since it is not a proper extension, its degree is 1 and therefore the degree of "p"("x") is 1. On the other hand, if "F" has some proper algebraic extension "K", then the minimal polynomial of an element in "K" \ "F" is irreducible and its degree is greater than 1. ===The field has no proper finite extension=== The field "F" is algebraically closed if and only if it has no proper finite extension because if, within the previous proof, the term "algebraic extension" is replaced by the term "finite extension", then the proof is still valid. (Finite extensions are necessarily algebraic.) ===Every endomorphism of "Fn" has some eigenvector=== The field "F" is algebraically closed if and only if, for each natural number "n", every linear map from "Fn" into itself has some eigenvector. An endomorphism of "Fn" has an eigenvector if and only if its characteristic polynomial has some root. Therefore, when "F" is algebraically closed, every endomorphism of "Fn" has some eigenvector. On the other hand, if every endomorphism of "Fn" has an eigenvector, let "p"("x") be an element of "F"["x"]. Dividing by its leading coefficient, we get another polynomial "q"("x") which has roots if and only if "p"("x") has roots. But if "q"("x") = "xn" + "a""n" − 1"x""n" − 1+ ⋯ + "a"0, then "q"("x") is the characteristic polynomial of the "n×n" companion matrix formula_3 ===Decomposition of rational expressions=== The field "F" is algebraically closed if and only if every rational function in one variable "x", with coefficients in "F", can be written as the sum of a polynomial function with rational functions of the form "a"/("x" − "b")"n", where "n" is a natural number, and "a" and "b" are elements of "F". If "F" is algebraically closed then, since the irreducible polynomials in "F"["x"] are all of degree 1, the property stated above holds by the theorem on partial fraction decomposition. On the other hand, suppose that the property stated above holds for the field "F". Let "p"("x") be an irreducible element in "F"["x"]. Then the rational function 1/"p" can be written as the sum of a polynomial function "q" with rational functions of the form "a"/("x" – "b")"n". Therefore, the rational expression formula_4 can be written as a quotient of two polynomials in which the denominator is a product of first degree polynomials. Since "p"("x") is irreducible, it must divide this product and, therefore, it must also be a first degree polynomial. ===Relatively prime polynomials and roots=== For any field "F", if two polynomials "p"("x"),"q"("x") ∈ "F"["x"] are relatively prime then they do not have a common root, for if "a" ∈ "F" was a common root, then "p"("x") and  "q"("x") would both be multiples of "x" − "a" and therefore they would not be relatively prime. The fields for which the reverse implication holds (that is, the fields such that whenever two polynomials have no common root then they are relatively prime) are precisely the algebraically closed fields. If the field "F" is algebraically closed, let "p"("x") and "q"("x") be two polynomials which are not relatively prime and let "r"("x") be their greatest common divisor. Then, since "r"("x") is not constant, it will have some root "a", which will be then a common root of "p"("x") and "q"("x"). If "F" is not algebraically closed, let "p"("x") be a polynomial whose degree is at least 1 without roots. Then "p"("x") and "p"("x") are not relatively prime, but they have no common roots (since none of them has roots). ==Other properties== If "F" is an algebraically closed field and "n" is a natural number, then "F" contains all "n"th roots of unity, because these are (by definition) the "n" (not necessarily distinct) zeroes of the polynomial "xn" − 1. A field extension that is contained in an extension generated by the roots of unity is a "cyclotomic extension", and the extension of a field generated by all roots of unity is sometimes called its "cyclotomic closure". Thus algebraically closed fields are cyclotomically closed. The converse is not true. Even assuming that every polynomial of the form "xn" − "a" splits into linear factors is not enough to assure that the field is algebraically closed. If a proposition which can be expressed in the language of first-order logic is true for an algebraically closed field, then it is true for every algebraically closed field with the same characteristic. Furthermore, if such a proposition is valid for an algebraically closed field with characteristic 0, then not only is it valid for all other algebraically closed fields with characteristic 0, but there is some natural number "N" such that the proposition is valid for every algebraically closed field with characteristic "p" when "p" > "N". Every field "F" has some extension which is algebraically closed. Such an extension is called an algebraically closed extension. Among all such extensions there is one and only one (up to isomorphism, but not unique isomorphism) which is an algebraic extension of "F"; it is called the algebraic closure of "F". The theory of algebraically closed fields has quantifier elimination.

1019

15655632

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1019

August 6

==Events== ===Pre-1600=== *1284 – The Republic of Pisa is defeated in the Battle of Meloria by the Republic of Genoa, thus losing its naval dominance in the Mediterranean. - 1538 – Bogotá, Colombia, is founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada. ===1601–1900=== *1661 – The Treaty of The Hague is signed by Portugal and the Dutch Republic. - 1777 – American Revolutionary War: The bloody Battle of Oriskany prevents American relief of the Siege of Fort Stanwix. - 1787 – Sixty proof sheets of the Constitution of the United States are delivered to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. - 1806 – Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor, declares the moribund empire to be dissolved, although he retains power in the Austrian Empire. - 1819 – Norwich University is founded in Vermont as the first private military school in the United States. - 1824 – Peruvian War of Independence: Patriot forces led by Simón Bolívar defeat the Spanish Royalist army in the Battle of Junín. - 1825 – The Bolivian Declaration of Independence is proclaimed. - 1861 – Britain imposes the Lagos Treaty of Cession to suppress slavery in what is now Nigeria. - 1862 – American Civil War: The Confederate ironclad is scuttled on the Mississippi River after suffering catastrophic engine failure near Baton Rouge, Louisiana. - 1870 – Franco-Prussian War: The Battle of Spicheren is fought, resulting in a German victory. - 1870 – Franco-Prussian War: The Battle of Wörth results in a decisive German victory. - 1890 – At Auburn Prison in New York, murderer William Kemmler becomes the first person to be executed by electric chair. ===1901–present=== *1901 – Kiowa land in Oklahoma is opened for white settlement, effectively dissolving the contiguous reservation. - 1914 – World War I: U-boat campaign: Two days after the United Kingdom had declared war on Germany over the German invasion of Belgium, ten German U-boats leave their base in Heligoland to attack Royal Navy warships in the North Sea. - 1914 – World War I: Serbia declares war on Germany; Austria declares war on Russia. - 1915 – World War I: Battle of Sari Bair: The Allies mount a diversionary attack timed to coincide with a major Allied landing of reinforcements at Suvla Bay. - 1917 – World War I: Battle of Mărășești between the Romanian and German armies begins. - 1926 – Gertrude Ederle becomes the first woman to swim across the English Channel. - 1926 – First public screening using the Vitaphone process - 1940 – Estonia is annexed by the Soviet Union. - 1942 – Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands becomes the first reigning queen to address a joint session of the United States Congress. - 1944 – The Warsaw Uprising occurs on August 1. It is brutally suppressed and all able-bodied men in Kraków are detained afterwards to prevent a similar uprising, the Kraków Uprising, that was planned but never carried out. - 1945 – World War II: Hiroshima, Japan is devastated when the atomic bomb "Little Boy" is dropped by the United States B-29 "Enola Gay". Around 70,000 people are killed instantly, and some tens of thousands die in subsequent years from burns and radiation poisoning. - 1956 – After going bankrupt in 1955, the American broadcaster DuMont Television Network makes its final broadcast, a boxing match from St. Nicholas Arena in New York in the "Boxing from St. Nicholas Arena" series. - 1958 – Law of Permanent Defense of Democracy, outlawing the Communist Party of Chile and banning 26,650 persons from the electoral lists, is repealed in Chile. - 1960 – Cuban Revolution: Cuba nationalizes American and foreign-owned property in the nation. - 1962 – Jamaica becomes independent from the United Kingdom. - 1965 – US President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Voting Rights Act of 1965 into law. - 1986 – A low-pressure system that redeveloped off the New South Wales coast dumps a record 328 millimeters (13 inches) of rain in a day on Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. - 1990 – Gulf War: The United Nations Security Council orders a global trade embargo against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. - 1991 – Tim Berners-Lee releases files describing his idea for the World Wide Web. WWW makes its first appearance as a publicly available service on the Internet. - 1991 – Takako Doi, chair of the Social Democratic Party, becomes Japan's first female speaker of the House of Representatives. - 1996 – NASA announces that the ALH 84001 meteorite, thought to originate from Mars, contains evidence of primitive life-forms. - 1997 – Korean Air Flight 801 crashed at Nimitz Hill, Guam, killing 229 of the 254 people on board. - 2001 – Erwadi fire incident: Twenty-eight mentally ill persons tied to a chain are burnt to death at a faith based institution at Erwadi, Tamil Nadu. - 2008 – A military junta led by Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz stages a coup d'état in Mauritania, overthrowing president Sidi Ould Cheikh Abdallahi. - 2010 – Flash floods across a large part of Jammu and Kashmir, India, damages 71 towns and kills at least 255 people. - 2011 – War in Afghanistan: A United States military helicopter is shot down, killing 30 American special forces members and a working dog, seven Afghan soldiers, and one Afghan civilian. It was the deadliest single event for the United States in the War in Afghanistan. - 2012 – NASA's "Curiosity" rover lands on the surface of Mars. - 2015 – A suicide bomb attack kills at least 15 people at a mosque in the Saudi city of Abha. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== *1180 – Emperor Go-Toba of Japan (d. 1239) - 1504 – Matthew Parker, English archbishop (d. 1575) - 1572 – Fakhr-al-Din II, Druze emir (d. 1635) ===1601–1900=== *1605 – Bulstrode Whitelocke, English lawyer (d. 1675) - 1609 – Richard Bennett, English-American politician, Colonial Governor of Virginia (d. 1675) - 1619 – Barbara Strozzi, Italian composer and singer-songwriter (d. 1677) - 1622 – Tjerk Hiddes de Vries, Dutch admiral (d. 1666) - 1638 – Nicolas Malebranche, French priest and philosopher (d. 1715) - 1644 – Louise de La Vallière, French mistress of Louis XIV of France (d. 1710) - 1651 – François Fénelon, French archbishop and poet (d. 1715) - 1656 – Claude de Forbin, French general (d. 1733) - 1666 – Maria Sophia of Neuburg (d. 1699) - 1667 – Johann Bernoulli, Swiss mathematician (d. 1748) - 1697 – Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1745) - 1715 – Luc de Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues, French author (d. 1747) - 1765 – Petros Mavromichalis, Greek general and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1848) - 1766 – William Hyde Wollaston, English chemist and physicist (d. 1828) - 1768 – Jean-Baptiste Bessières, French general and politician (d. 1813) - 1775 – Daniel O'Connell, Irish lawyer and politician, Lord Mayor of Dublin (d. 1847) - 1809 – Alfred, Lord Tennyson, English poet (d. 1892) - 1826 – Thomas Alexander Browne, English-Australian author (d. 1915) - 1835 – Hjalmar Kiærskou, Danish botanist (d. 1900) - 1844 – Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (d. 1900) - 1844 – James Henry Greathead, South African-English engineer (d. 1896) - 1848 – Susie Taylor, American writer and first black Army nurse (d. 1912) - 1846 – Anna Haining Bates, Canadian-American giant (d. 1888) - 1868 – Paul Claudel, French poet and playwright (d. 1955) - 1874 – Charles Fort, American author (d. 1932) - 1877 – Wallace H. White Jr., American lawyer and politician (d. 1952) - 1880 – Hans Moser, Austrian actor and singer (d. 1964) - 1881 – Leo Carrillo, American actor (d. 1961) - 1881 – Alexander Fleming, Scottish biologist, pharmacologist, and botanist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1955) - 1881 – Louella Parsons, American journalist (d. 1972) - 1883 – Constance Georgina Adams, South African botanist (d. 1968) - 1883 – Scott Nearing, American economist and educator (d. 1983) - 1886 – Edward Ballantine, American composer and academic (d. 1971) - 1887 – Dudley Benjafield, English racing driver (d. 1957) - 1889 – George Kenney, Canadian-American general (d. 1977) - 1889 – John Middleton Murry, English poet and author (d. 1957) - 1891 – William Slim, 1st Viscount Slim, English field marshal and politician, 13th Governor-General of Australia (d. 1970) - 1895 – Frank Nicklin, Australian politician, 28th Premier of Queensland (d. 1978) - 1900 – Cecil Howard Green, English-American geophysicist and businessman, co-founded Texas Instruments (d. 2003) ===1901–present=== *1901 – Dutch Schultz, American gangster (d. 1935) - 1903 – Virginia Foster Durr, American civil rights activist (d. 1999) - 1904 – Jean Dessès, Greek-Egyptian fashion designer (d. 1970) - 1904 – Henry Iba, American basketball player and coach (d. 1993) - 1906 – Vic Dickenson, American trombonist (d. 1984) - 1908 – Maria Ludwika Bernhard, Polish classical archaeologist and a member of WWII Polish resistance (d. 1998) - 1908 – Helen Jacobs, American tennis player and commander (d. 1997) - 1908 – Lajos Vajda, Hungarian painter and illustrator (d. 1941) - 1909 – Diana Keppel, Countess of Albemarle (d. 2013) - 1910 – Adoniran Barbosa, Brazilian musician, singer, composer, humorist, and actor (d. 1982) - 1910 – Charles Crichton, English director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1999) - 1911 – Lucille Ball, American actress, television producer and businesswoman (d. 1989) - 1911 – Norman Gordon, South African cricketer (d. 2014) - 1911 – Constance Heaven, English author and actress (d. 1995) - 1912 – Richard C. Miller, American photographer (d. 2010) - 1914 – Gordon Freeth, Australian lawyer and politician, 24th Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs (d. 2001) - 1916 – Richard Hofstadter, American historian and academic (d. 1970) - 1916 – Dom Mintoff, Maltese journalist and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Malta (d. 2012) - 1917 – Barbara Cooney, American author and illustrator (d. 2000) - 1917 – Robert Mitchum, American actor (d. 1997) - 1918 – Norman Granz, American-Swiss record producer and manager (d. 2001) - 1919 – Pauline Betz, American tennis player (d. 2011) - 1920 – John Graves, American author (d. 2013) - 1920 – Ella Raines, American actress (d. 1988) - 1922 – Freddie Laker, English businessman, founded Laker Airways (d. 2006) - 1922 – Dan Walker, American lawyer and politician, 36th Governor of Illinois (d. 2015) - 1923 – Jess Collins, American painter (d. 2004) - 1923 – Paul Hellyer, Canadian engineer and politician, 16th Canadian Minister of Defence (d. 2021) - 1924 – Samuel Bowers, American activist, co-founded the White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan (d. 2006) - 1926 – Elisabeth Beresford, English journalist and author (d. 2010) - 1926 – Frank Finlay, English actor (d. 2016) - 1926 – Clem Labine, American baseball player and manager (d. 2007) - 1926 – János Rózsás, Hungarian author (d. 2012) - 1926 – Norman Wexler, American screenwriter (d. 1999) - 1928 – Herb Moford, American baseball player (d. 2005) - 1928 – Andy Warhol, American painter, photographer and film director (d. 1987) - 1929 – Mike Elliott, Jamaican saxophonist - 1929 – Roch La Salle, Canadian politician, 42nd Canadian Minister of Public Works (d. 2007) - 1930 – Abbey Lincoln, American singer-songwriter and actress (d. 2010) - 1931 – Chalmers Johnson, American scholar and author (d. 2010) - 1932 – Michael Deeley, English screenwriter and producer - 1932 – Howard Hodgkin, English painter (d. 2017) - 1932 – Charles Wood, English playwright and screenwriter (d. 2020) - 1933 – A. G. Kripal Singh, Indian cricketer (d. 1987) - 1934 – Piers Anthony, English-American soldier and author - 1934 – Chris Bonington, English mountaineer and author - 1934 – Billy Boston, Welsh rugby player and soldier - 1935 – Fortunato Baldelli, Italian cardinal (d. 2012) - 1935 – Octavio Getino, Spanish-Argentinian director and screenwriter (d. 2012) - 1937 – Baden Powell de Aquino, Brazilian guitarist and composer (d. 2000) - 1937 – Charlie Haden, American bassist and composer (d. 2014) - 1937 – Barbara Windsor, English actress (d. 2020) - 1938 – Paul Bartel, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2000) - 1938 – Peter Bonerz, American actor and director - 1938 – Bert Yancey, American golfer (d. 1994) - 1940 – Mukhu Aliyev, Russian philologist and politician, 2nd President of Dagestan - 1940 – Egil Kapstad, Norwegian pianist and composer (d. 2017) - 1940 – Louise Sorel, American actress - 1941 – Ray Culp, American baseball player - 1942 – Byard Lancaster, American saxophonist and flute player (d. 2012) - 1943 – Jon Postel, American computer scientist and academic (d. 1998) - 1944 – Inday Badiday, Filipino journalist and actress (d. 2003) - 1944 – Michael Mingos, English chemist and academic - 1944 – Martin Wharton, English bishop - 1945 – Ron Jones, English director and production manager (d. 1993) - 1946 – Allan Holdsworth, English guitarist, songwriter, and producer (d. 2017) - 1947 – Radhia Cousot, French computer scientist and academic (d. 2014) - 1949 – Dino Bravo, Italian-Canadian wrestler (d. 1993) - 1950 – Dorian Harewood, American actor - 1951 – Catherine Hicks, American actress - 1951 – Daryl Somers, Australian television host and singer - 1952 – Pat MacDonald, American singer-songwriter and guitarist - 1952 – David McLetchie, Scottish lawyer and politician (d. 2013) - 1952 – Ton Scherpenzeel, Dutch keyboard player, songwriter, and producer - 1954 – Mark Hughes, English-Australian rugby league player - 1956 – Bill Emmott, English journalist and author - 1957 – Bob Horner, American baseball player - 1957 – Jim McGreevey, American lawyer and politician, 52nd Governor of New Jersey - 1958 – Randy DeBarge, American singer-songwriter and bass player - 1959 – Rajendra Singh, Indian environmentalist - 1959 – Joyce Sims, American singer (d. 2022) - 1960 – Dale Ellis, American basketball player - 1961 – Mary Ann Sieghart, English journalist and radio host - 1962 – Michelle Yeoh, Malaysian-Hong Kong actress and producer - 1963 – Charles Ingram, English soldier, author, and game show contestant - 1963 – Kevin Mitnick, American computer security consultant, author, and convicted hacker (d. 2023) - 1964 – Kemi Omololu-Olunloyo, Nigerian journalist, activist, social media expert, and pharmacist - 1965 – Stéphane Peterhansel, French racing driver - 1965 – Yuki Kajiura, Japanese pianist and composer - 1965 – David Robinson, American basketball player and lieutenant - 1965 – Vince Wells, English cricketer - 1967 – Lorna Fitzsimons, English businesswoman and politician - 1967 – Mike Greenberg, American journalist and sportscaster - 1967 – Julie Snyder, Canadian talk show host and producer - 1968 – Jack de Gier, Dutch footballer - 1969 – Simon Doull, New Zealand cricketer and sportscaster - 1969 – Elliott Smith, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2003) - 1970 – M. Night Shyamalan, Indian-American director, producer, and screenwriter - 1972 – Geri Halliwell, English singer-songwriter, dancer, and actress - 1972 – Ray Lucas, American football player and sportscaster - 1972 – Jason O'Mara, Irish actor - 1973 – Vera Farmiga, American actress - 1973 – Stuart O'Grady, Australian cyclist - 1974 – Ever Carradine, American actress - 1974 – Bobby Petta, Dutch footballer - 1974 – Luis Vizcaíno, Dominican baseball player - 1974 – Alvin Williams, American basketball player and coach - 1975 – Jason Crump, English-Australian motorcycle racer - 1975 – Renate Götschl, Austrian skier - 1975 – Víctor Zambrano, Venezuelan baseball player - 1976 – Soleil Moon Frye, American actress - 1976 – Melissa George, Australian-American actress - 1977 – Leandro Amaral, Brazilian footballer - 1977 – Jimmy Nielsen, Danish footballer and manager - 1977 – Luciano Zavagno, Argentinian footballer - 1978 – Marvel Smith, American football player - 1979 – Francesco Bellotti, Italian cyclist - 1979 – Jaime Correa, Mexican footballer - 1979 – Travis Reed, American basketball player - 1981 – Leslie Odom Jr., American actor and singer - 1981 – Diána Póth, Hungarian figure skater - 1983 – Robin van Persie, Dutch footballer - 1984 – Vedad Ibišević, Bosnian footballer - 1984 – Maja Ognjenović, Serbian volleyball player - 1984 – Jesse Ryder, New Zealand cricketer - 1985 – Mickaël Delage, French cyclist - 1985 – Bafétimbi Gomis, French footballer - 1985 – Garrett Weber-Gale, American swimmer - 1986 – Raphael Pyrasch, German rugby player - 1987 – Leanne Crichton, Scottish footballer - 1990 – JonBenét Ramsey, American child beauty queen and victim of prominent unsolved murder case (d. 1996) - 1991 – Wilmer Flores, Venezuelan baseball player - 1991 – Jiao Liuyang, Chinese swimmer - 1995 – Rebecca Peterson, Swedish tennis player - 1999 – Rebeka Masarova, Spanish-Swiss tennis player ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== * 258 – Pope Sixtus II - 523 – Pope Hormisdas (b. 450) - 750 – Marwan II, Umayyad general and caliph (b. 688) - 1027 – Richard III, Duke of Normandy - 1162 – Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona (b. 1113) - 1195 – Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria (b. 1129) - 1221 – Saint Dominic, Spanish priest, founded the Dominican Order (b. 1170) - 1272 – Stephen V of Hungary (b. 1239) - 1384 – Francesco I of Lesbos - 1412 – Margherita of Durazzo, Queen consort of Charles III of Naples (b. 1347) - 1414 – Ladislaus of Naples (b. 1377) - 1458 – Pope Callixtus III (b. 1378) - 1530 – Jacopo Sannazaro, Italian poet (b. 1458) - 1553 – Girolamo Fracastoro, Italian physician (b. 1478) - 1588 – Josias I, Count of Waldeck-Eisenberg, Count of Waldeck-Eisenberg (1578-1588) (b. 1554) ===1601–1900=== *1628 – Johannes Junius, German lawyer and politician (b. 1573) - 1637 – Ben Jonson, English poet and playwright (b. 1572) - 1645 – Lionel Cranfield, 1st Earl of Middlesex, English merchant and politician (b. 1575) - 1657 – Bohdan Khmelnytsky, Ukrainian soldier and politician, 1st Hetman of Zaporizhian Host (b. 1595) - 1660 – Diego Velázquez, Spanish painter and educator (b. 1599) - 1666 – Tjerk Hiddes de Vries, Frisian naval hero and commander (b. 1622) - 1679 – John Snell, Scottish-English soldier and philanthropist, founded the Snell Exhibition (b. 1629) - 1694 – Antoine Arnauld, French mathematician and philosopher (b. 1612) - 1695 – François de Harlay de Champvallon, French archbishop (b. 1625) - 1753 – Georg Wilhelm Richmann, Estonian-Russian physicist and academic (b. 1711) - 1757 – Ádám Mányoki, Hungarian painter (b. 1673) - 1794 – Henry Bathurst, 2nd Earl Bathurst, English lawyer and politician, Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain (b. 1714) - 1815 – James A. Bayard, American lawyer and politician (b. 1767) - 1828 – Konstantin von Benckendorff, Russian general and diplomat (b. 1785) - 1850 – Edward Walsh, Irish poet (b. 1805) - 1866 – John Mason Neale, English priest, scholar, and hymnwriter (b. 1818) - 1881 – James Springer White, American religious leader, co-founded the Seventh-day Adventist Church (b. 1821) - 1893 – Jean-Jacques Challet-Venel, Swiss lawyer and politician (b. 1811) ===1901–present=== *1904 – Eduard Hanslick, Austrian author and critic (b. 1825) - 1906 – George Waterhouse, English-New Zealand politician, 7th Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1824) - 1915 – Jennie de la Montagnie Lozier, American physician (b. 1841) - 1920 – Stefan Bastyr, Polish pilot and author (b. 1890) - 1925 – Surendranath Banerjee, Indian academic and politician (b. 1848) - 1925 – Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro, Italian mathematician (b. 1853) - 1931 – Bix Beiderbecke, American cornet player, pianist, and composer (b. 1903) - 1945 – Richard Bong, American soldier and pilot, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1920) - 1945 – Hiram Johnson, American lawyer and politician, 23rd Governor of California (b. 1866) - 1946 – Tony Lazzeri, American baseball player and coach (b. 1903) - 1952 – Betty Allan, Australian statistician and biometrician (b. 1905) - 1959 – Preston Sturges, American director, screenwriter, and playwright (b. 1898) - 1964 – Cedric Hardwicke, English actor and director (b. 1893) - 1969 – Theodor W. Adorno, German sociologist and philosopher (b. 1903) - 1970 – Nikos Tsiforos, Greek director and screenwriter (b. 1912) - 1973 – Fulgencio Batista, Cuban colonel and politician, 9th President of Cuba (b. 1901) - 1976 – Gregor Piatigorsky, Russian-American cellist and educator (b. 1903) - 1978 – Pope Paul VI (b. 1897) - 1978 – Edward Durell Stone, American architect, designed Radio City Music Hall and the Kennedy Center (b. 1902) - 1979 – Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen, German biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1911) - 1983 – Klaus Nomi, German singer-songwriter and actor (b. 1944) - 1985 – Forbes Burnham, Guyanese politician, 2nd President of Guyana (b. 1923) - 1986 – Emilio Fernández, Mexican actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1904) - 1987 – Ira C. Eaker, American general (b. 1896) - 1990 – Jacques Soustelle, French anthropologist and politician (b. 1912) - 1991 – Shapour Bakhtiar, Iranian soldier and politician, 74th Prime Minister of Iran (b. 1915) - 1991 – Roland Michener, Canadian lawyer and politician, 20th Governor General of Canada (b. 1900) - 1991 – Harry Reasoner, American journalist, co-created "60 Minutes" (b. 1923) - 1992 – Leszek Błażyński, Polish boxer (b. 1949) - 1993 – Tex Hughson, American baseball player (b. 1916) - 1994 – Domenico Modugno, Italian singer-songwriter and politician (b. 1928) - 1997 – Shin Ki-ha, South Korean lawyer and politician (b. 1941) - 1998 – André Weil, French-American mathematician and academic (b. 1906) - 2001 – Jorge Amado, Brazilian novelist and poet (b. 1912) - 2001 – Adhar Kumar Chatterji, Indian Naval officer (b. 1914) - 2001 – Wilhelm Mohnke, German general (b. 1911) - 2001 – Shan Ratnam, Sri Lankan physician and academic (b. 1928) - 2001 – Dorothy Tutin, English actress (b. 1930) - 2002 – Edsger W. Dijkstra, Dutch physicist, computer scientist, and academic (b. 1930) - 2003 – Julius Baker, American flute player and educator (b. 1915) - 2004 – Rick James, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1948) - 2004 – Donald Justice, American poet and academic (b. 1925) - 2005 – Robin Cook, Scottish educator and politician, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (b. 1946) - 2005 – Creme Puff, tabby domestic cat, oldest recorded cat (b. 1967) - 2007 – Zsolt Daczi, Hungarian guitarist (b. 1969) - 2008 – Angelos Kitsos, Greek lawyer and author (b. 1934) - 2009 – Riccardo Cassin, Italian mountaineer and author (b. 1909) - 2009 – Willy DeVille, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1950) - 2009 – John Hughes, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1950) - 2011 – Fe del Mundo, Filipino pediatrician and educator (b. 1911) - 2012 – Richard Cragun, American-Brazilian ballet dancer and choreographer (b. 1944) - 2012 – Marvin Hamlisch, American pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1944) - 2012 – Robert Hughes, Australian-American author and critic (b. 1938) - 2012 – Bernard Lovell, English physicist and astronomer (b. 1913) - 2012 – Mark O'Donnell, American playwright (b. 1954) - 2012 – Ruggiero Ricci, American violinist and educator (b. 1918) - 2012 – Dan Roundfield, American basketball player (b. 1953) - 2013 – Stan Lynde, American author and illustrator (b. 1931) - 2013 – Mava Lee Thomas, American baseball player (b. 1929) - 2013 – Jerry Wolman, American businessman (b. 1927) - 2014 – Ralph Bryans, Northern Irish motorcycle racer (b. 1941) - 2014 – Ananda W.P. Guruge, Sri Lankan scholar and diplomat (b. 1928) - 2014 – John Woodland Hastings, American biochemist and academic (b. 1927) - 2015 – Ray Hill, American football player (b. 1975) - 2015 – Orna Porat, German-Israeli actress (b. 1924) - 2017 – Betty Cuthbert, Australian sprinter (b. 1938) - 2017 – Darren Daulton, American baseball player (b. 1962) - 2018 – Joël Robuchon, French Chef (b. 1945) - 2018 – Margaret Heckler, American politician (b. 1931) - 2018 – Anya Krugovoy Silver, American poet (b. 1968) ==Holidays and observances== *Christian holidays and observances - Transfiguration of Jesus - Anna Maria Rubatto - Hormisdas - Justus and Pastor - August 6 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) - Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan's Accession Day. (United Arab Emirates) - Independence Day (Bolivia), celebrates the independence of Bolivia from Spain in 1825. - Independence Day (Jamaica), celebrates the independence of Jamaica from the United Kingdom in 1962. - Hiroshima Peace Memorial Ceremony (Hiroshima, Japan) - Russian Railway Troops Day (Russia)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1020

Anatoly Karpov

Anatoly Yevgenyevich Karpov (; born May 23, 1951) is a Russian and former Soviet chess grandmaster, former World Chess Champion, ⁣and politician. He was the 12th World Chess Champion from 1975 to 1985, a three-time FIDE World Champion (1993, 1996, 1998), twice World Chess champion as a member of the USSR team (1985, 1989), and a six-time winner of Chess Olympiads as a member of the USSR team (1972, 1974, 1980, 1982, 1986, 1988). The International Association of Chess Press awarded him nine Chess Oscars (1973–77, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1984). Karpov's chess tournament successes include over 160 first-place finishes. He had a peak Elo rating of 2780, and his 102 total months at world number one is the fourth-longest of all time, behind Magnus Carlsen, Garry Kasparov, and Emanuel Lasker. Karpov is also an elected Member of the State Duma in Russia. Since 2006, he has chaired the Commission for Ecological Safety and Environmental Protection of the Civic Chamber of the Russian Federation, and since 2007, he has been a member of the Public Council under the Ministry of Defence. ==Early life== Karpov was born into a Russian family on May 23, 1951, in Zlatoust, in the Urals region of the former Soviet Union, and learned to play chess at the age of four. His early rise in chess was swift, as he became a candidate master by age 11. At 12, he was accepted into Mikhail Botvinnik's prestigious chess school, though Botvinnik made the following remark about the young Karpov: "The boy does not have a clue about chess, and there's no future at all for him in this profession." Karpov acknowledged that his understanding of chess theory was very confused at that time, and later wrote that the homework Botvinnik assigned greatly helped him, since it required that he consult chess books and work diligently. Karpov improved so quickly under Botvinnik's tutelage that he became the youngest Soviet master in history at the age of fifteen in 1966; this tied the record established by Boris Spassky in 1952. ==Career== ===Young master=== Karpov finished first in his first international tournament, in Třinec, several months later, ahead of Viktor Kupreichik. In 1967, he won the annual Niemeyer Tournament in Groningen. Karpov won a gold medal for academic excellence in high school, and entered Moscow State University in 1968 to study mathematics. He later transferred to Leningrad State University, eventually graduating from there in economics. One reason for the transfer was to be closer to his coach, grandmaster Semyon Furman, who lived in Leningrad. In his writings, Karpov credits Furman as a major influence on his development as a world-class player. In 1969, Karpov became the first Soviet player since Spassky (1955) to win the World Junior Championship, scoring an undefeated 10/11 in the final A group at Stockholm. This victory earned him the International Master title. In 1970, Karpov tied for fourth and fifth places with Pal Benko at an international tournament in Caracas, Venezuela, and earned the international grandmaster title. FIDE awarded him the title during its 41st congress, held during the Chess Olympiad in Siegen, West Germany in September 1970. ===Grandmaster=== Karpov won the 1971 Alekhine Memorial tournament in Moscow (jointly with Leonid Stein), ahead of a star-studded field, for his first significant adult victory. His Elo rating shot from 2540 in 1971 to 2660 in 1973, during which he shared second place in the 1973 Soviet championship, one point behind Spassky, and qualified for the Leningrad Interzonal. ===Candidate=== Karpov's world junior championship qualified him for one of the two Interzonals, a stage in the 1975 World Championship cycle to choose the challenger to play world champion Bobby Fischer. He finished equal first in the Leningrad Interzonal, qualifying for the 1974 Candidates Matches. Karpov defeated Lev Polugaevsky by the score of +3=5 in the first Candidates' match, earning the right to face former champion Boris Spassky in the semifinal round. Karpov was on record saying that he believed Spassky would easily beat him and win the Candidates' cycle to face Fischer, and that he (Karpov) would win the following Candidates' cycle in 1977. Spassky won the first game as Black in good style, but tenacious, aggressive play from Karpov secured him overall victory by +4−1=6. The Candidates' final was played in Moscow with Victor Korchnoi. Karpov took an early lead, winning the second game against the Sicilian Dragon, then scoring another victory in the sixth game. Following ten consecutive draws, Korchnoi threw away a winning position in the seventeenth game to give Karpov a 3–0 lead. In game 19, Korchnoi succeeded in winning a long endgame, then notched a speedy victory after a blunder by Karpov two games later. Three more draws, the last agreed by Karpov when he was in a clearly better position, closed the match, with Karpov prevailing +3−2=19, entitling him to move on to challenge Fischer for the world title. ===Match with Fischer in 1975=== Though a world championship match between Karpov and Fischer was highly anticipated, those hopes were never realised. Fischer not only insisted that the match be the first to ten wins (draws not counting), but also that the champion retain the crown if the score was tied 9–9. FIDE, the International Chess Federation, refused to allow this proviso, and gave both players a deadline of April 1, 1975, to agree to play the match under the FIDE-approved rules. When Fischer did not agree, FIDE President Max Euwe declared on April 3, 1975, that Fischer had forfeited his title and Karpov was the new World Champion. Karpov later attempted to set up another match with Fischer, but the negotiations fell through. This thrust the young Karpov into the role of World Champion without having faced the reigning champion. Garry Kasparov argued that Karpov would have had good chances because he had beaten Spassky convincingly and was a new breed of tough professional, and indeed had higher quality games, while Fischer had been inactive for three years. This view is echoed by Karpov himself. Spassky thought that Fischer would have won in 1975, but Karpov would have qualified again and beaten Fischer in 1978. Karpov has said that if he had had the opportunity to play Fischer for the championship in his twenties, he could have been a much better player as a result. ===World champion=== Determined to prove himself a legitimate champion, Karpov participated in nearly every major tournament for the next ten years. He convincingly won the Milan tournament in 1975, and captured his first of three Soviet titles in 1976. He created a phenomenal streak of tournament wins against the strongest players in the world. Karpov held the record for most consecutive tournament victories (9) until it was shattered by Garry Kasparov (14). As a result, most chess professionals soon agreed that Karpov was a legitimate world champion. In 1978, Karpov's first title defence was against Viktor Korchnoi, the opponent he had defeated in the 1973–75 Candidates' cycle; the match was played at Baguio, Philippines, with the winner needing six victories. As in 1974, Karpov took an early lead, winning the eighth game after seven draws to open the match. When the score was +5−2=20 in Karpov's favour, Korchnoi staged a comeback, and won three of the next four games to draw level with Karpov. Karpov then won the very next game to retain the title (+6−5=21). Three years later, Korchnoi reemerged as the Candidates' winner against German finalist Robert Hübner to challenge Karpov in Merano, Italy. Karpov handily won this match, 11–7 (+6−2=10), in what is remembered as the "Massacre in Merano". Karpov's tournament career reached a peak at the Montreal "Tournament of Stars" tournament in 1979, where he finished joint first (+7−1=10) with Mikhail Tal ahead of a field of strong grandmasters completed by Jan Timman, Ljubomir Ljubojević, Boris Spassky, Vlastimil Hort, Lajos Portisch, Robert Hübner, Bent Larsen and Lubomir Kavalek. He dominated Las Palmas in 1977 with 13½/15. He also won the prestigious Bugojno tournament in 1978 (shared), 1980 and 1986, the Linares tournament in 1981 (shared with Larry Christiansen) and 1994, the Tilburg tournament in 1977, 1979, 1980, 1982, and 1983, and the Soviet Championship in 1976, 1983, and 1988. Karpov represented the Soviet Union at six Chess Olympiads, in all of which the USSR won the team gold medal. He played as the first reserve at Skopje 1972, winning the board prize with 13/15. At Nice 1974, he advanced to board one and again won the board prize with 12/14. At La Valletta 1980, he was again board one and scored 9/12. At Lucerne 1982, he scored 6½/8 on board one. At Dubai 1986, he scored 6/9 on board two. His last was Thessaloniki 1988, where on board two he scored 8/10. In Olympiad play, Karpov lost only two games out of 68 played. To illustrate Karpov's dominance over his peers as champion, his score was +13−1=22 versus Spassky, +8=19 versus Robert Hübner, +12−1=29 versus Ulf Andersson, +3−1=10 versus Vasily Smyslov, +1=19 versus Mikhail Tal, +19-7=23 versus Ljubomir Ljubojević. === Rivalry with Kasparov === Karpov had cemented his position as the world's best player and world champion by the time Garry Kasparov arrived on the scene. In their first match, the World Chess Championship 1984 in Moscow, the first player to win six games would win the match. Karpov built a 4–0 lead after nine games. The next 17 games were drawn, setting a record for world title matches, and it took Karpov until game 27 to gain his fifth win. In game 31, Karpov had a winning position but failed to take advantage and settled for a draw. He lost the next game, after which 14 more draws ensued. Karpov held a solidly winning position in Game 41, but again blundered and had to settle for a draw. After Kasparov won games 47 and 48, FIDE President Florencio Campomanes unilaterally terminated the match, citing the players' health. Karpov is said to have lost 10 kg over the course of the match. The match had lasted an unprecedented five months, with five wins for Karpov, three for Kasparov, and 40 draws. A rematch was set for later in 1985, also in Moscow. The events of the so-called Marathon Match forced FIDE to return to the previous format, with a match limited to 24 games (with Karpov remaining champion if the match finished 12–12). Karpov needed to win the final game to draw the match and retain his title, but lost, surrendering the title to his opponent. The final score was 13–11 (+3−5=16) in favour of Kasparov. Karpov remained a formidable opponent (and the world No. 2) until the mid-1990s. He fought Kasparov in three more world championship matches in 1986 (held in London and Leningrad), 1987 (in Seville), and 1990 (in New York City and Lyon). All three matches were extremely close: the scores were 11½–12½ (+4−5=15), 12–12 (+4−4=16), and 11½–12½ (+3−4=17). In all three matches, Karpov had winning chances up to the last games. The ending of the 1987 Seville match was particularly dramatic. Karpov won the 23rd game when Kasparov miscalculated a combination. In the final game, needing only a draw to win the title, Karpov cracked under time pressure at the end of the first session of play, missed a variation leading to an almost forced draw, and allowed Kasparov to adjourn the game with an extra pawn. After a further mistake in the second session, Karpov was slowly ground down and resigned on move 64, ending the match and allowing Kasparov to keep the title. In their five world championship matches, Karpov scored 19 wins, 21 losses, and 104 draws in 144 games. Overall, Karpov played five matches against Kasparov for the title from 1984 to 1990 without ever defeating him in a match. ===FIDE champion again (1993–1999)=== In 1992, Karpov lost a Candidates Match against Nigel Short. But in the World Chess Championship 1993, Karpov reacquired the FIDE World Champion title when Kasparov and Short split from FIDE. Karpov defeated Timman – the loser of the Candidates' final against Short. The next major meeting of Kasparov and Karpov was the 1994 Linares chess tournament. The field, in eventual finishing order, was Karpov, Kasparov, Shirov, Bareev, Kramnik, Lautier, Anand, Kamsky, Topalov, Ivanchuk, Gelfand, Illescas, Judit Polgár, and Beliavsky; with an average Elo rating of 2685, the highest ever at that time. Impressed by the strength of the tournament, Kasparov had said several days before the tournament that the winner could rightly be called the world champion of tournaments. Perhaps spurred on by this comment, Karpov played the best tournament of his life. He was undefeated and earned 11 points out of 13 (the best world-class tournament winning percentage since Alekhine won San Remo in 1930), finishing 2½ points ahead of second-place Kasparov and Shirov. Many of his wins were spectacular (in particular, his win over Topalov is considered possibly the finest of his career). This performance against the best players in the world put his Elo rating tournament performance at 2985, the highest performance rating of any player in history up until 2009, when Magnus Carlsen won the category XXI Pearl Spring chess tournament with a performance of 3002. Chess statistician Jeff Sonas considers Karpov's Linares performance the best tournament result in history. Karpov defended his FIDE title against the rising star Gata Kamsky (+6−3=9) in 1996. In 1998, FIDE largely scrapped the old system of Candidates' Matches, instead having a large knockout event in which a large number of players contested short matches against each other over just a few weeks. In the first of these events, the FIDE World Chess Championship 1998, champion Karpov was seeded straight into the final, defeating Viswanathan Anand (+2−2=2, rapid tiebreak 2–0). In the subsequent cycle, the format was changed, with the champion having to qualify. Karpov refused to defend his title, and ceased to be FIDE World Champion after the FIDE World Chess Championship 1999. ===Towards retirement=== Karpov's classical tournament play has been seriously limited since 1997, since he prefers to be more involved in Russian politics. He had been a member of the Supreme Soviet Commission for Foreign Affairs and the president of the Soviet Peace Fund before the Soviet Union dissolved. In addition, he has been involved in several disputes with FIDE. In the September 2009 FIDE rating list, he dropped out of the world's Top 100 for the first time. Karpov usually limits his play to exhibition events, and has revamped his style to specialize in rapid chess. In 2002, he won a match against Kasparov, defeating him in a rapid time control match 2½–1½. In 2006, he tied for first with Kasparov in a blitz tournament, ahead of Korchnoi and Judit Polgár. Karpov and Kasparov played a mixed 12-game match from September 21–24, 2009, in Valencia, Spain. It consisted of four rapid (or semi-rapid) and eight blitz games and took place exactly 25 years after the two players' legendary encounter at the World Chess Championship 1984. Kasparov won the match 9–3. Karpov played a match against Yasser Seirawan in 2012 in St. Louis, Missouri, an important center of the North American chess scene, winning 8–6 (+5−3=6). In November 2012, he won the Cap d'Agde rapid tournament that bears his name (Anatoly Karpov Trophy), beating Vasyl Ivanchuk (ranked 9th in the October 2012 FIDE world rankings) in the final. ==Professional and political career after retirement from chess == In 2003, Karpov opened his first American chess school in Lindsborg, Kansas. On March 2, 2022, the school announced a name change to International School of Chess of the Midwest due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Karpov has been a member of the sixth, seventh and eighth Russian State Dumas. Since 2005, he has been a member of the Public Chamber of Russia. He has involved himself in several humanitarian causes, such as advocating the use of iodised salt. On December 17, 2012, Karpov supported the law in the Russian Parliament banning adoption of Russian orphans by U.S. citizens. Karpov expressed support of the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, and accused Europe of trying to demonize Putin. In August 2019, Maxim Dlugy said that Karpov had been waiting since March for the approval of a non-immigrant visa to the United States, despite frequently visiting the country since 1972. Karpov had been scheduled to teach a summer camp at the Chess Max Academy. Dlugy said that Karpov had been questioned at the US embassy in Moscow about whether he planned to communicate with American politicians. Karpov was among the Russian State Duma members placed under sanctions by the EU and UK during the Russo-Ukrainian War. In March 2022, after the start of the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the FIDE Council suspended Karpov's title of FIDE Ambassador for Life. In November 2022, Karpov was placed in an induced coma after receiving a head injury. Karpov's daughter Sofia and the Russian Chess Federation said that he had accidentally fallen. Karpov made a full recovery from the injury. ==Candidate for FIDE presidency== In March 2010, Karpov announced that he would be a candidate for the presidency of FIDE. The election took place in September 2010 at the 39th Chess Olympiad. In May, a fundraising event took place in New York with the participation of Kasparov and Magnus Carlsen, who both supported his bid and campaigned for him. Nigel Short also supported Karpov's candidacy. On September 29, 2010, Kirsan Ilyumzhinov was reelected as president of FIDE, 95 votes to 55. ==Style== Karpov's "boa constrictor" playing style is solidly positional, taking minimal risks but reacting mercilessly to the slightest error by his opponent. As a result, he is often compared to José Raúl Capablanca, the third world champion. Karpov himself describes his style as follows:Let us say the game may be continued in two ways: one of them is a beautiful tactical blow that gives rise to variations that don't yield to precise calculations; the other is clear positional pressure that leads to an endgame with microscopic chances of victory... I would choose [the latter] without thinking twice. If the opponent offers keen play I don't object; but in such cases I get less satisfaction, even if I win, than from a game conducted according to all the rules of strategy with its ruthless logic. ==Notable games== *Viktor Korchnoi vs. Anatoly Karpov, Moscow 1973 Karpov sacrifices a pawn for a strong center and attack. - Anatoly Karpov vs. Gyula Sax, Linares 1983 Karpov sacrifices for an attack that wins the game 20 moves later, after another spectacular sacrifice from Karpov and counter-sacrifice from Sax. It won the tournament's first . This was not the first time Karpov used the sharp Keres Attack (6.g4) – see his win in Anatoly Karpov vs. Vlastimil Hort, Alekhine Memorial Tournament, Moscow 1971. - Anatoly Karpov vs. Veselin Topalov, Dos Hermanas 1994 This game features a sham sacrifice of two pieces, which Karpov regains with a variation, culminating in the win of an exchange with a technically won endgame. ==Hobbies== Karpov's extensive stamp collection of Belgian philately and Belgian Congo stamps and postal history covering mail from 1742 through 1980 was sold by David Feldman's auction company between December 2011 and 2012. He is also known to have large chess stamp and chess book collections. His private chess library consists of 9,000 books. ==Honours and awards== * Order of Merit for the Fatherland, 3rd class (2001) – for outstanding contribution to the implementation of charitable programmes, the strengthening of peace and friendship between the peoples - Order of Friendship (2011) – for his great contribution to strengthening peace and friendship between peoples and productive social activities - Order of Lenin (1981) - Order of the Red Banner of Labour (1978) - Order of Merit, 2nd class (Ukraine) (November 13, 2006) – for his contribution to the victims of the Chernobyl disaster - Order of Holy Prince Daniel of Moscow, 2nd class (1996) - Order of St. Sergius of Radonezh, 2nd class (2001) - Medal "For outstanding contribution to the Collector business in Russia" - Honorary member of the Soviet Philately Society (1979) - Diploma of the State Duma of the Russian Federation No. 1 - Order "For outstanding achievements in sport" (Republic of Cuba) - Medal of Tsiolkovsky Cosmonautics Federation of Russia - Medal "For Strengthening the penal system", 1st and 2nd class - Breastplate of the 1st degree of the Interior Ministry - International Association of Chess Press, 9 times voted the best chess player of the year and awarded the "Chess Oscar" - Order of Saint Nestor the Chronicler, 1st class - Asteroid 90414 Karpov is named after Karpov - Anatoly Karpov International Chess Tournament, an annual round-robin tournament held in his honour in Poikovsky, Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug, Russia since 2000 ==Books== Karpov has authored or co-authored several books, most of which have been translated into English. - Karpov, A.E. Ninth vertical. 1978. Moscow: Molodaya Gvardia. - (also a 1992 Simon & Schuster edition)

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Aspect ratio

The aspect ratio of a geometric shape is the ratio of its sizes in different dimensions. For example, the aspect ratio of a rectangle is the ratio of its longer side to its shorter side—the ratio of width to height, when the rectangle is oriented as a "landscape". The aspect ratio is most often expressed as two integer numbers separated by a colon (x:y), less commonly as a simple or decimal fraction. The values x and y do not represent actual widths and heights but, rather, the proportion between width and height. As an example, 8:5, 16:10, 1.6:1, and 1.6 are all ways of representing the same aspect ratio. In objects of more than two dimensions, such as hyperrectangles, the aspect ratio can still be defined as the ratio of the longest side to the shortest side. ==Applications and uses== The term is most commonly used with reference to: - Graphic / image - Image aspect ratio - Display aspect ratio - Paper size - Standard photographic print sizes - Motion picture film formats - Standard ad size - Pixel aspect ratio - Photolithography: the aspect ratio of an etched, or deposited structure is the ratio of the height of its vertical side wall to its width. - HARMST High Aspect Ratios allow the construction of tall microstructures without slant - Tire code - Tire sizing - Turbocharger impeller sizing - Wing aspect ratio of an aircraft or bird - Astigmatism of an optical lens - Nanorod dimensions - Shape factor (image analysis and microscopy) - Finite Element Analysis ==Aspect ratios of simple shapes== ===Rectangles=== For a rectangle, the aspect ratio denotes the ratio of the width to the height of the rectangle. A square has the smallest possible aspect ratio of 1:1. Examples: - 4:3 = 1.: Some (not all) 20th century computer monitors (VGA, XGA, etc.), standard-definition television - formula_1: international paper sizes (ISO 216) - 3:2 = 1.5: 35mm still camera film, iPhone (until iPhone 5) displays - = 1.6: commonly used widescreen computer displays (WXGA) - Φ:1 = 1.618...: golden ratio, close to 16:10 - 5:3 = 1.: super 16 mm, a standard film gauge in many European countries - 16:9 = 1.: widescreen TV and most laptops - 2:1 = 2: dominoes - 64:27 = 2.: ultra-widescreen, - 32:9 = 3.: super ultra-widescreen ===Ellipses=== For an ellipse, the aspect ratio denotes the ratio of the major axis to the minor axis. An ellipse with an aspect ratio of 1:1 is a circle. ==Aspect ratios of general shapes== In geometry, there are several alternative definitions to aspect ratios of general compact sets in a d-dimensional space: - The diameter-width aspect ratio (DWAR) of a compact set is the ratio of its diameter to its width. A circle has the minimal DWAR which is 1. A square has a DWAR of formula_2. - The cube-volume aspect ratio (CVAR) of a compact set is the "d"-th root of the ratio of the "d"-volume of the smallest enclosing axes-parallel "d"-cube, to the set's own "d"-volume. A square has the minimal CVAR which is 1. A circle has a CVAR of formula_2. An axis-parallel rectangle of width "W" and height "H", where "W">"H", has a CVAR of formula_4. If the dimension "d" is fixed, then all reasonable definitions of aspect ratio are equivalent to within constant factors. ==Notations== Aspect ratios are mathematically expressed as "x":"y" (pronounced "x-to-y"). Cinematographic aspect ratios are usually denoted as a (rounded) decimal multiple of width vs unit height, while photographic and videographic aspect ratios are usually defined and denoted by whole number ratios of width to height. In digital images there is a subtle distinction between the "display" aspect ratio (the image as displayed) and the "storage" aspect ratio (the ratio of pixel dimensions); see Distinctions.

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Auto racing

Auto racing (also known as car racing, motor racing, or automobile racing) is a motorsport involving the racing of automobiles for competition. Auto racing has existed since the invention of the automobile. Races of various sorts were organised, with the first recorded as early as 1867. Many of the earliest events were effectively reliability trials, aimed at proving these new machines were a practical mode of transport, but soon became an important way for automobile makers to demonstrate their machines. By the 1930s, specialist racing cars had developed. There are now numerous different categories, each with different rules and regulations. ==History== The first prearranged match race of two self-powered road vehicles over a prescribed route occurred at 4:30 A.M. on August 30, 1867, between Ashton-under-Lyne and Old Trafford, England, a distance of . It was won by the carriage of Isaac Watt Boulton. Internal combustion auto racing events began soon after the construction of the first successful gasoline-fueled automobiles. The first organized contest was on April 28, 1887, by the chief editor of Paris publication "", Monsieur Fossier. It ran from Neuilly Bridge to the Bois de Boulogne. On July 22, 1894, the Parisian magazine "" organized what is considered to be the world's first motoring competition, from Paris to Rouen. One hundred and two competitors paid a 10-franc entrance fee. The first American automobile race is generally held to be the Thanksgiving Day "Chicago Times-Herald" race of November 28, 1895. Press coverage of the event first aroused significant American interest in the automobile. The Targa Florio was an open road endurance automobile race held in the mountains of Sicily, Italy near the island's capital of Palermo. Founded in 1906, it was the oldest sports car racing event, part of the World Sportscar Championship between 1955 and 1973. The oldest surviving sports car racing event is the 24 Hours of Le Mans, begun in 1923. It is run by the Automobile Club of the West (ACO). Team Ferrari won the race in 2023. With auto construction and racing dominated by France, the French automobile club ACF staged a number of major international races, usually from or to Paris, connecting with another major city, in France or elsewhere in Europe. Aspendale Racecourse, in Australia, was the world's first purpose-built motor racing circuit, opening in January 1906. The pear-shaped track was close to a mile in length, with slightly banked curves and a gravel surface of crushed cement. Brooklands, in Surrey, England, was the first purpose-built 'banked' motor racing venue, opening in June 1907. It featured a concrete track with high-speed banked corners. One of the oldest existing purpose-built automobile racing circuits in the United States, still in use, is the Indianapolis Motor Speedway in Speedway, Indiana. It is the largest capacity sports venue of any variety worldwide, with a top capacity of some 257,000+ seated spectators. NASCAR was founded by Bill France Sr. on February 21, 1948, with the help of several other drivers of the time. The first NASCAR "Strictly Stock" race ever was held on June 19, 1949, at Daytona Beach, Florida, U.S.. From 1962, sports cars temporarily took a back seat to GT cars, with the (FIA) replacing the World Championship for Sports Cars with the International Championship for GT Manufacturers. From 1962 through 2003, NASCAR's premier series was called the Winston Cup Series, sponsored by R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company cigarette brand Winston. The changes that resulted from RJR's involvement, as well as the reduction of the schedule from 56 to 34 races a year, established 1972 as the beginning of NASCAR's "modern era". The IMSA GT Series evolved into the American Le Mans Series, which ran its first season in 1998. The European races eventually became the closely related European Le Mans Series, both of which mix prototypes and GTs. (TC) is a popular touring car racing series in Argentina, and one of the oldest car racing series still active in the world. The first TC competition took place in 1931 with 12 races, each in a different province. Future Formula One star Juan Manuel Fangio (Chevrolet) won the 1940 and 1941 editions of the TC. It was during this time that the series' Chevrolet-Ford rivalry began, with Ford acquiring most of its historical victories. Over the last few years, auto racing has seen a transformative shift, echoing past pivots. The industry, much like the cars it champions, has had to navigate through the hairpin turns of a global pandemic and a persistent chip shortage, each threatening to derail production schedules. At the same time, a new course is being charted towards an electric future, a dramatic change in direction that's challenging the old guard of gasoline engines. There is also a growing number of events for electric racing cars, such as the Formula E,the Eco Grand Prix or the Electric GT Championship. ==Categories== ===Open-wheel racing=== In single-seater (open-wheel) racing, the wheels are not covered, and the cars often have aerofoil wings front and rear to produce downforce and enhance adhesion to the track. The two most popular varieties of open-wheel road racing are Formula One and the IndyCar Series. In Europe and Asia, open-wheeled racing is commonly referred to as 'Formula', with appropriate hierarchical suffixes. In North America, the 'Formula' terminology is not followed (with the exception of F1). The sport is usually arranged to follow an international format (such as F1), a regional format (such as the Formula 3 Euro Series), and/or a domestic, or country-specific, format (such as the German Formula 3 championship, or the British Formula Ford). F1 is a worldwide series that runs only street circuit and race tracks. These cars are heavily based on technology and their aerodynamics. The speed record was set in 2005 by Juan Pablo Montoya hitting 373 km/h (232 mph). Some of the most prominent races are the Monaco Grand Prix, the Italian Grand Prix, and the British Grand Prix. The season ends with the crowning of the World Championship for drivers and constructors. In the United States, the most popular series is the IndyCar Series. The cars have traditionally been similar to, though less technologically sophisticated than, F1 cars, with more restrictions on technology aimed at controlling costs. While these cars are not as technologically advanced, they are faster, mainly because they compete on oval race tracks, being able to average a lap at 388 km/h (241 mph). The series' biggest race is the Indianapolis 500, which is commonly referred to as "The Greatest Spectacle in Racing" due to being the longest continuously run race and having the largest crowd for a single-day sporting event (350,000+). The other major international single-seater racing series is Formula 2 (formerly known as Formula 3000 and GP2 Series). Regional series include Super Formula and Formula V6 Asia (specifically in Asia), Formula Renault 3.5 (also known as the World Series by Renault, succession series of World Series by Nissan), Formula Three, Formula Palmer Audi and Formula Atlantic. In 2009, the FIA Formula Two Championship brought about the revival of the F2 series. Domestic, or country-specific, series include Formula Three and Formula Renault, with the leading introductory series being Formula Ford. Single-seater racing is not limited merely to professional teams and drivers. There exist many amateur racing clubs. In the UK, the major club series are the Monoposto Racing Club, BRSCC F3 (Formerly ClubF3, formerly ARP F3), Formula Vee and Club Formula Ford. Each series caters to a section of the market, with some primarily providing low-cost racing, while others aim for an authentic experience using the same regulations as the professional series (BRSCC F3). There are other categories of single-seater racing, including kart racing, which employs a small, low-cost machine on small tracks. Many of the current top drivers began their careers in karts. Formula Ford represents the most popular first open-wheel category for up-and-coming drivers stepping up from karts. The series is still the preferred option, as it has introduced an aero package and slicks, allowing the junior drivers to gain experience in a race car with dynamics closer to F1. The Star Mazda Series is another entry-level series. Students at colleges and universities can also take part in single-seater racing through the Formula SAE competition, which involves designing and building a single-seater car in a multidisciplinary team and racing it at the competition. This also develops other soft skills, such as teamwork, while promoting motorsport and engineering. The world's first all-female Formula racing team was created in 2006. The group was an assemblage of drivers from different racing disciplines and formed for an MTV reality pilot, which was shot at Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca. In December 2005, the FIA gave approval to Superleague Formula racing, which debuted in 2008, whereby the racing teams are owned and run by prominent sports clubs such as A.C. Milan and Liverpool F.C. After 25 years away from the sport, former Formula 2 champion Jonathan Palmer reopened the F2 category again; most drivers have graduated from the Formula Palmer Audi series. The category is officially registered as the FIA Formula Two championship. Most rounds have two races and are support races to the FIA World Touring Car Championship. ===Touring car racing=== Touring car racing is a style of road racing that is run with production-derived four-seat race cars. The lesser use of aerodynamics means following cars have a much easier time passing than in open-wheel racing. It often features full-contact racing with subtle bumping and nudging due to the small speed differentials and large grids. The major touring car championships conducted worldwide are the Supercars Championship (Australia), British Touring Car Championship, Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters (DTM), World Touring Car Championship and the World Touring Car Cup. The European Touring Car Cup is a one-day event open to Super 2000 specification touring cars from Europe's many national championships. The Sports Car Club of America's SPEED World Challenge Touring Car and GT championships are dominant in North America. America's historic Trans-Am Series is undergoing a period of transition, but is still the longest-running road racing series in the U.S. The National Auto Sport Association also provides a venue for amateurs to compete in home-built factory-derived vehicles on various local circuits. ===Sports car racing=== In sports car racing, production-derived versions of two-seat sports cars, also known as grand tourers (GTs), and purpose-built sports prototype cars compete within their respective classes on closed circuits. The premier championship series of sports car racing is the FIA World Endurance Championship. The main series for GT car racing is the GT World Challenge Europe, divided into two separate championships: the GT World Challenge Europe Sprint Cup and the GT World Challenge Europe Endurance Cup. This series has formed after the folding of the various FIA GT championships. Other major GT championships include the GT World Challenge America, GT World Challenge Asia, Super GT, and the International GT Open. There are minor regional and national GT series using mainly GT4 and GT3 cars featuring both amateur and professional drivers. Sports prototypes, unlike GT cars, do not rely on road-legal cars as a base. They are closed-wheel and often closed-cockpit purpose-built race cars intended mainly for endurance racing. They have much lower weight and more downforce compared to GT cars, making them much faster. They are raced in the 24 hours of Le Mans (held annually since 1923) and in the (European) Le Mans series, Asian Le Mans Series and the WeatherTech SportsCar Championship. These cars are referred to as LMP (Le Mans prototype) cars with LMP1 being run mainly by manufacturers and the slightly less powerful LMP2 cars run by privateer teams. All three Le Mans Series run GT cars in addition to Le Mans Prototypes; these cars have different restrictions than the FIA GT cars. Another prototype and GT racing championship exists in the United States; the Grand-Am, which began in 2000, sanctions its own endurance series, the Rolex Sports Car Series, which consists of slower and lower-cost race cars compared to LMP and FIA GT cars. The Rolex Sports Car Series and American Le Mans Series announced a merger between the two series forming the WeatherTech SportsCar Championship starting in 2014. These races are often conducted over long distances, at least , and cars are driven by teams of two or more drivers, switching every few hours. Due to the performance difference between production-based sports cars and purpose-built sports prototypes, one race usually involves several racing classes, each fighting for its own championship. Famous sports car races include the 24 Hours of Le Mans, the Rolex 24 at Daytona, 24 Hours of Spa-Franchorchamps, the 12 Hours of Sebring, the 6 Hours of Watkins Glen, and the Petit Le Mans at Road Atlanta. There is also the 24 Hours of the Nürburgring on the infamous Nordschleife track and the Dubai 24 Hour, which is aimed at GT3 and below cars with a mixture of professional and pro-am drivers. ===Production-car racing=== Production-car racing, otherwise known as "showroom stock" in the US, is an economical and rules-restricted version of touring-car racing, mainly used to restrict costs. Numerous production racing categories are based on particular makes of cars. Most series, with a few exceptions, follow the Group N regulation. There are several different series that are run all over the world, most notably, Japan's Super Taikyu and IMSA's Firehawk Series, which ran in the 1980s and 1990s all over the United States. ===Stock car racing=== In North America, stock car racing is the most popular form of auto racing. Primarily raced on oval tracks, stock cars vaguely resemble production cars, but are in fact purpose-built racing machines that are built to tight specifications and, together with touring cars, also called Silhouette racing cars. The largest stock car racing governing body is NASCAR (National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing). NASCAR's premier series is the NASCAR Cup Series, its most famous races being the Daytona 500, the Southern 500, the Coca-Cola 600, and the Brickyard 400. NASCAR also runs several feeder series, including the Xfinity Series and Gander RV & Outdoors Truck Series (a pickup truck racing series). The series conduct races across the entire continental United States. The NASCAR Pinty's Series conducts races across Canada and the NASCAR PEAK Mexico Series conducts races across Mexico. NASCAR also governs several smaller regional series, such as the Whelen Modified Tour. Modified cars are best described as open-wheel cars. Modified cars have no parts related to the stock vehicle for which they are named after. A number of modified cars display a "manufacturer's" logo and "vehicle name", yet use components produced by another automobile manufacturer. There are also other stock car governing bodies, most notably the Automobile Racing Club of America (ARCA). In the UK, British Stock car racing is also referred to as "Short Circuit Racing". UK Stock car racing started in the 1950s and grew rapidly through the 1960s and 1970s. Events take place on shale or tarmac tracks – usually around 1/4 mile long. There are around 35 tracks in the UK and upwards of 7000 active drivers. The sport is split into three basic divisions – distinguished by the rules regarding car contact during racing. The most famous championship are the BriSCA F1 Stock Cars. Full-contact formulas include Bangers, Bombers, and Rookie Bangers – and racing features Demolition Derbies, Figure of Eight, and Oval Racing. Semi Contact Formulas include BriSCA F1, F2, and Superstox – where bumpers are used tactically. Non-contact formulas include National Hot Rods, Stock Rods, and Lightning Rods. ===One-make racing=== One-make, or single marque, championships often employ production-based cars from a single manufacturer or even a single model from a manufacturer's range. There are numerous notable one-make formulae from various countries and regions, some of which – such as the Porsche Supercup and, previously, IROC – have fostered many distinct national championships. Single marque series are often found at the club level, to which the production-based cars, limited modifications, and close parity in performance are very well suited. Some of the better-known single-make series are the Mini 7 Championship (Europe's longest-running one-make championship), the Radical European Masters, John Cooper Mini Challenge, Clio Cup, Ginettas, Caterhams, BMWs, and MX5s. There are also single-chassis single seater formulae, such as Formula Renault and Formula BMW, usually as "feeder" series for "senior" race formula (in the fashion of farm teams). ===Drag racing=== In drag racing, the objective is to complete a given straight-line distance, from a standing start, ahead of a vehicle in a parallel lane. This distance is traditionally , though has become popular since the 1990s. The vehicles may or may not be given the signal to start at the same time, depending on the class of racing. Vehicles range from the everyday car to the purpose-built dragster. Speeds and elapsed time differ from class to class. Average street cars cover the mile in 12 to 16 seconds, whereas a top fuel dragster takes 4.5 seconds or less, reaching speeds of up to . Drag racing was organized as a sport by Wally Parks in the early 1950s through the National Hot Rod Association (NHRA). The NHRA was formed to discourage street racing. When launching, a top fuel dragster will accelerate at 3.4 g (33 m/s2), and when braking parachutes are deployed the deceleration is 4 g (39 m/s2), more than the Space Shuttle experiences. A top fuel car can be heard over away and can generate a reading from 1.5 to 3.9 on the Richter scale. Drag racing is two cars head-to-head, the winner proceeding to the next round. Professional classes are all first to the finish line wins. Sportsman racing is handicapped (slower car getting a head start) using an index (a lowest e.t. allowed), and cars running under (quicker than) their index "break out" and lose. The slowest cars, bracket racers, are also handicapped, but rather than an index, they use a dial-in. ===Off-road racing=== In off-road racing, various classes of specially modified vehicles, including cars, compete in races through off-road environments. In North America these races often take place in the desert, such as the famous Baja 1000. Another format for off-road racing happens on closed-course short course tracks such as Crandon International Off-Road Raceway. In the 1980s and 1990s, the short course was extended to racing inside stadiums in the Mickey Thompson Entertainment Group; this format was revived by Robby Gordon in 2013 with his Stadium Super Trucks series. In Europe, "offroad" refers to events such as autocross or rallycross, while desert races and rally-raids such as the Paris-Dakar, Master Rallye or European "bajas" are called "cross-country rallies". ===Kart racing=== The modern kart was invented by Art Ingels, a fabricator at the Indianapolis-car manufacturer Kurtis-Kraft, in Southern California in 1956. Ingels took a small chainsaw engine and mounted it to a simple tube-frame chassis weighing less than 100 lb. Ingels, and everyone else who drove the kart, were startled at its performance capabilities. The sport soon blossomed in Southern California, and quickly spread around the world. Although often seen as the entry point for serious racers into the sport, kart racing, or karting, can be an economical way for amateurs to try racing and is also a fully-fledged international sport in its own right. A large proportion of professional racing drivers began in karts, often from a very young age, such as Michael Schumacher and Fernando Alonso. Several former motorcycle champions have also taken up the sport, notably Wayne Rainey, who was paralysed in a racing accident and now races a hand-controlled kart. As one of the cheapest ways to race, karting is seeing its popularity grow worldwide. Despite their diminutive size, karts of the most powerful class, superkart (assuming a weight of 205 kg (452 lb), and a power output of 100 hp (75 kW)), can have a power-to-weight ratio (including the driver) of 490 hp/tonne (0.22 hp/lb). Without the driver, this figure doubles, to almost 980 hp/tonne (0.44 hp/lb). ===Historical racing=== Historic motorsport or vintage motorsport uses vehicles limited to a particular era. Only safety precautions are modernized in these hobbyist races. A historical event can be of various types of motorsport disciplines, from road racing to rallying. Because it is based on a particular era it is more hobbyist-oriented, reducing corporate sponsorship. The only modern equipment used is related to safety and timing. A historical event can be of a number of different motorsport disciplines. Some of the most famous events include the Goodwood Festival of Speed and Goodwood Revival in Britain and Monterey Historic in the United States. Championships range from "grass root" Austin Seven racing to the FIA Thoroughbred Grand Prix Championship for classic Formula One chassis. While there are several professional teams and drivers in historical racing, this branch of auto sport tends to be contested by wealthy car owners and is thus more amateur and less competitive in its approach. ==Use of flags== In many types of auto races, particularly those held on closed courses, flags are displayed to indicate the general status of the track and to communicate instructions to competitors. While individual series have different rules, and the flags have changed from the first years (e.g., red used to start a race), these are generally accepted. ==Accidents== The worst accident in racing history is the 1955 Le Mans disaster, where more than 80 people died, including the French driver Pierre Levegh. ==Racing-car setup== In auto racing, the racing setup or car setup is the set of adjustments made to the vehicle to optimize its behaviour (performance, handling, reliability, etc.). Adjustments can occur in suspensions, brakes, transmissions, engines, tires, and many others. ===Aerodynamics=== Aerodynamics and airflow play big roles in the setup of a race car. Aerodynamic downforce improves the race car's handling by lowering the center of gravity and distributing the weight of the car equally on each tire. Once this is achieved, fuel consumption decreases and the forces against the car are significantly lowered. Many aerodynamic experiments are conducted in wind tunnels, to simulate real-life situations while measuring the various drag forces on the car. These "Rolling roads" produce many wind situations and direct air flow at certain speeds and angles. When a diffuser is installed under the car, the amount of drag force is significantly lowered, and the overall aerodynamics of the vehicle is positively adjusted. Wings and canards channel the airflow in the most efficient way to get the least amount of drag from the car. It is experimentally proven that downforce is gained and the vehicle's handling is considerably changed when aerodynamic wings on the front and rear of the vehicle are installed. ===Suspension=== Suspension plays a huge part in giving the race car the ability to be driven optimally. Shocks are mounted vertically or horizontally to prevent the body from rolling in the corners. The suspension is important because it makes the car stable and easier to control and keeps the tires on the road when driving on uneven terrain. It works in three different ways including vertically, longitudinally, and laterally to control movement when racing on various tracks. ===Tyres=== Tyres called R-Compounds are commonly used in motorsports for high amounts of traction. The soft rubber allows them to expand when they are heated up, making more surface area on the pavement, therefore producing the most traction. These types of tyres do not have grooves on them. Tyre pressure is dependent on the temperature of the tyre and track when racing. Each time a driver pulls into the pits, the tyre pressure and temperature should be tested for optimal performance. When the tyres get too hot they will swell or inflate and need to be deflated to the correct pressure. When the tyres are not warmed up they will not perform as well. ===Brakes=== Brakes on a race car are imperative in slowing and stopping the car at precise times and wear quickly depending on the road or track on which the car is being raced, how many laps are being run, track conditions due to weather, and how many caution runs require more braking. There are three variables to consider in racing: brake pedal displacement, brake pedal force, and vehicle deceleration. Various combinations of these variables work together to determine the stiffness, sensitivity, and pedal force of the brakes. When using the brakes effectively, the driver must go through a buildup phase and end with a modulating phase. These phases include attaining maximum deceleration and modulating the brake pressure. Brake performance is measured in bite and consistency. Bite happens when the driver first applies the brakes and they have not warmed up to the correct temperature to operate efficiently. Consistency is measured in how consistent the friction is during the entire time of braking. These two measurements determine the wear of the brakes. ===Engine=== The race car's engine needs a considerable amount of air to produce maximum power. The air intake manifold sucks the air from scoops on the hood and front bumper and feeds it into the engine. Many engine modifications to increase horsepower and efficiency are commonly used in many racing-sanctioning bodies. Engines are tuned on a machine called a dynamometer, which is commonly known in the racing world as a DYNO. The car is driven onto the DYNO and many gauges and sensors are hooked up to the car that are controlled by an online program to test force, torque, or power. Through the testing, the car's engine maps can be changed to get the most horsepower and ultimately speed out of the vehicle. ==Racing drivers== Racing drivers, at the highest levels, are usually paid by the team, or by sponsors, and can command very substantial salaries. Contrary to what may be popularly assumed, racing drivers as a group do not have unusually better reflexes or peripheral response time. During repeated physiological (and psychological) evaluations of professional racing drivers, the two characteristics that stand out are racers' near-obsessive need to control their surroundings (the psychological aspect), and an unusual ability to process fast-moving information (physiological). In this, researchers have noted a strong correlation between racers' psychological profiles and those of fighter pilots. In tests comparing racers to members of the general public, the greater the complexity of the information processing matrix, the greater the speed gap between racers and the public. Due partly to the performance capabilities of modern racing cars, racing drivers require a high level of fitness, focus, and the ability to concentrate at high levels for long periods in an inherently difficult environment. Racing drivers mainly complain about pains in the lumbar, shoulder, and neck regions. Racing drivers experience extremely large g-forces because formula cars and sports prototypes generate more downforce and are able to corner at significantly higher speeds. Formula 1 drivers routinely experience g-loadings in excess of 4.5 g.

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Anarcho-capitalism

Anarcho-capitalism (colloquially: ancap or an-cap) is an anti-statist, libertarian political philosophy and economic theory that seeks to abolish centralized states in favor of stateless societies with systems of private property enforced by private agencies, the non-aggression principle, free markets and self-ownership, which extends the concept to include control of private property as part of the self. In the absence of statute, anarcho-capitalists hold that society tends to contractually self-regulate and civilize through participation in the free market, which they describe as a voluntary society involving the voluntary exchange of goods and services. In a theoretical anarcho-capitalist society, the system of private property would still exist and be enforced by private defense agencies and/or insurance companies selected by customers, which would operate competitively in a market and fulfill the roles of courts and the police. According to its proponents, various historical theorists have espoused philosophies similar to anarcho-capitalism. While the earliest extant attestation of "anarchocapitalism" is in Karl Hess's essay "The Death of Politics" published by "Playboy" in March 1969, American economist Murray Rothbard was credited with coining the terms "anarcho-capitalist" and "anarcho-capitalism" in 1971. A leading figure in the 20th-century American libertarian movement, Rothbard synthesized elements from the Austrian School, classical liberalism and 19th-century American individualist anarchists and mutualists Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker, while rejecting the labor theory of value. Rothbard's anarcho-capitalist society would operate under a mutually agreed-upon "legal code which would be generally accepted, and which the courts would pledge themselves to follow". This legal code would recognize contracts between individuals, private property, self-ownership and tort law in keeping with the non-aggression principle. Rothbard views the power of the state as unjustified, arguing that it restricts individual rights and prosperity, and creates social and economic problems. Anarcho-capitalists and right-libertarians cite several historical precedents of what they believe to be examples of quasi-anarcho-capitalism, including the Republic of Cospaia, Acadia, Anglo-Saxon England, Medieval Iceland, the American Old West, Gaelic Ireland, and merchant law, admiralty law, and early common law. Anarcho-capitalism is distinguished from minarchism, which advocates a minimal governing body (typically a night-watchman state limited to protecting individuals from aggression and enforcing private property) and from Objectivism which is a broader philosophy advocating a limited role, yet unlimited size, of said government. Unlike most anarchists, anarcho-capitalists support private property and private institutions. == Classification == Anarcho-capitalism developed from radical American anti-state libertarianism and individualist anarchism. A strong current within anarchism does not consider anarcho-capitalism to be part of the anarchist movement because they argue that anarchism has historically been an anti-capitalist movement and for definitional reasons which see anarchism as incompatible with capitalist forms. According to several scholars, Anarcho-capitalism lies outside the tradition of the vast majority of anarchist schools of thought and is more closely affiliated with capitalism, right-libertarianism and neoliberalism. Social anarchists oppose and reject capitalism, and consider "anarcho-capitalism" to be a contradiction in terms, although some, including anarcho-capitalists and right-libertarians, consider anarcho-capitalism to be a form of anarchism. According to the "Encyclopædia Britannica":Anarcho-capitalism is occasionally seen as part of the New Right. == Philosophy == Author J Michael Oliver says that during the 1960s, a philosophical movement arose in the US that championed "reason, ethical egoism, and free-market capitalism". According to Oliver, anarcho-capitalism is a political theory which logically follows the philosophical conclusions of Objectivism, a philosophical system developed by Ayn Rand, but he acknowledges that his advocacy of anarcho-capitalism is "quite at odds with Rand's ardent defense of 'limited government. Professor Lisa Duggan also says that Rand's anti-statist, pro–"free market" stances went on to shape the politics of anarcho-capitalism. According to Patrik Schumacher, the political ideology and programme of anarcho-capitalism envisages the radicalization of the neoliberal "rollback of the state", and calls for the extension of "entrepreneurial freedom" and "competitive market rationality" to the point where the scope for private enterprise is all-encompassing and "leaves no space for state action whatsoever". === On the state === Anarcho-capitalists oppose the state and seek to privatize any useful service the government presently provides, such as education, infrastructure, or the enforcement of law. They see capitalism and the "free market" as the basis for a free and prosperous society. Murray Rothbard stated that the difference between free-market capitalism and state capitalism is the difference between "peaceful, voluntary exchange" and a "collusive partnership" between business and government that "uses coercion to subvert the free market". Rothbard argued that all government services, including defense, are inefficient because they lack a market-based pricing mechanism regulated by "the voluntary decisions of consumers purchasing services that fulfill their highest-priority needs" and by investors seeking the most profitable enterprises to invest in. Maverick Edwards of the Liberty University describes anarcho-capitalism as a political, social, and economic theory that places markets as the central "governing body" and where government no longer "grants" rights to its citizenry. === Non-aggression principle === Writer Stanisław Wójtowicz says that although anarcho-capitalists are against centralized states, they hold that all people would naturally share and agree to a specific moral theory based on the non-aggression principle. While the Friedmanian formulation of anarcho-capitalism is robust to the presence of violence and in fact, assumes some degree of violence will occur, anarcho-capitalism as formulated by Rothbard and others holds strongly to the central libertarian nonaggression axiom, sometimes non-aggression principle. Rothbard wrote: Rothbard's defense of the self-ownership principle stems from what he believed to be his falsification of all other alternatives, namely that either a group of people can own another group of people, or that no single person has full ownership over one's self. Rothbard dismisses these two cases on the basis that they cannot result in a universal ethic, i.e. a just natural law that can govern all people, independent of place and time. The only alternative that remains to Rothbard is self-ownership which he believes is both axiomatic and universal. In general, the non-aggression axiom is described by Rothbard as a prohibition against the initiation of force, or the threat of force, against persons (in which he includes direct violence, assault and murder) or property (in which he includes fraud, burglary, theft and taxation). The initiation of force is usually referred to as aggression or coercion. The difference between anarcho-capitalists and other libertarians is largely one of the degree to which they take this axiom. Minarchist libertarians such as libertarian political parties would retain the state in some smaller and less invasive form, retaining at the very least public police, courts, and military. However, others might give further allowance for other government programs. In contrast, Rothbard rejects any level of "state intervention", defining the state as a coercive monopoly and as the only entity in human society, excluding acknowledged criminals, that derives its income entirely from coercion, in the form of taxation, which Rothbard describes as "compulsory seizure of the property of the State's inhabitants, or subjects." Some anarcho-capitalists such as Rothbard accept the non-aggression axiom on an intrinsic moral or natural law basis. It is in terms of the non-aggression principle that Rothbard defined his interpretation of anarchism, "a system which provides no legal sanction for such aggression ['against person and property']"; and wrote that "what anarchism proposes to do, then, is to abolish the State, i.e. to abolish the regularized institution of aggressive coercion". In an interview published in the American libertarian journal "The New Banner", Rothbard stated that "capitalism is the fullest expression of anarchism, and anarchism is the fullest expression of capitalism". === Property === ==== Private property ==== Anarcho-capitalists postulate the privatization of everything, including cities with all their infrastructures, public spaces, streets and urban management systems. Central to Rothbardian anarcho-capitalism are the concepts of self-ownership and original appropriation that combines personal and private property. Hans-Hermann Hoppe wrote: Rothbard however rejected the Lockean proviso, and followed the rule of "first come, first served", without any consideration of how much resources are left for other individuals. Anarcho-capitalists advocate private ownership of the means of production and the allocation of the product of labor created by workers within the context of wage labour and the free market – that is through decisions made by property and capital owners, regardless of what an individual needs or does not need. Original appropriation allows an individual to claim any never-before-used resources, including land and by improving or otherwise using it, own it with the same "absolute right" as their own body, and retaining those rights forever, regardless of whether the resource is still being used by them. According to Rothbard, property can only come about through labor, therefore original appropriation of land is not legitimate by merely claiming it or building a fence around it—it is only by using land and by mixing one's labor with it that original appropriation is legitimized: "Any attempt to claim a new resource that someone does not use would have to be considered invasive of the property right of whoever the first user will turn out to be". Rothbard argued that the resource need not continue to be used in order for it to be the person's property as "for once his labor is mixed with the natural resource, it remains his owned land. His labor has been irretrievably mixed with the land, and the land is therefore his or his assigns' in perpetuity". Rothbard also spoke about a theory of justice in property rights: In "Justice and Property Rights", Rothbard wrote that "any identifiable owner (the original victim of theft or his heir) must be accorded his property". In the case of slavery, Rothbard claimed that in many cases "the old plantations and the heirs and descendants of the former slaves can be identified, and the reparations can become highly specific indeed". Rothbard believed slaves rightfully own any land they were forced to work on under the homestead principle. If property is held by the state, Rothbard advocated its confiscation and "return to the private sector", writing that "any property in the hands of the State is in the hands of thieves, and should be liberated as quickly as possible". Rothbard proposed that state universities be seized by the students and faculty under the homestead principle. Rothbard also supported the expropriation of nominally "private property" if it is the result of state-initiated force such as businesses that receive grants and subsidies. Rothbard further proposed that businesses who receive at least 50% of their funding from the state be confiscated by the workers, writing: "What we libertarians object to, then, is not government "per se" but crime, what we object to is unjust or criminal property titles; what we are for is not 'private' property "per se" but just, innocent, non-criminal private property". Similarly, Karl Hess wrote that "libertarianism wants to advance principles of property but that it in no way wishes to defend, willy nilly, all property which now is called private ... Much of that property is stolen. Much is of dubious title. All of it is deeply intertwined with an immoral, coercive state system". Anarchists view capitalism as an inherently authoritarian and hierarchical system and seek the abolishment of private property. There is disagreement between anarchists and anarcho-capitalists as the former generally rejects anarcho-capitalism as a form of anarchism and considers "anarcho-capitalism" a contradiction in terms, while the latter holds that the abolishment of private property would require expropriation which is "counterproductive to order" and would require a state. ==== Common property ==== As opposed to anarchists, most anarcho-capitalists reject the commons. However, some of them propose that non-state public or community property can also exist in an anarcho-capitalist society. For anarcho-capitalists, what is important is that it is "acquired" and transferred without help or hindrance from what they call the "compulsory state". Deontological anarcho-capitalists believe that the only just and most economically beneficial way to acquire property is through voluntary trade, gift, or labor-based original appropriation, rather than through aggression or fraud. Anarcho-capitalists state that there could be cases where common property may develop in a Lockean natural rights framework. Anarcho-capitalists make the example of a number of private businesses which may arise in an area, each owning the land and buildings that they use, but they argue that the paths between them become cleared and trodden incrementally through customer and commercial movement. These thoroughfares may become valuable to the community, but according to them ownership cannot be attributed to any single person and original appropriation does not apply because many contributed the labor necessary to create them. In order to prevent it from falling to the "tragedy of the commons", anarcho-capitalists suggest transitioning from common to private property, wherein an individual would make a homesteading claim based on disuse, acquire title by the assent of the community consensus, form a corporation with other involved parties, or other means. American economist Randall G. Holcombe sees challenges stemming from the idea of common property under anarcho-capitalism, such as whether an individual might claim fishing rights in the area of a major shipping lane and thereby forbid passage through it. In contrast, Hoppe's work on anarcho-capitalist theory is based on the assumption that all property is privately held, "including all streets, rivers, airports, and harbors" which forms the foundation of his views on immigration. ==== Intellectual property ==== Some anarcho-capitalists strongly oppose intellectual property (i.e., trademarks, patents, copyrights). Stephan N. Kinsella argues that ownership only relates to tangible assets. === Contractual society === The society envisioned by anarcho-capitalists has been labelled by them as a "contractual society" which Rothbard described as "a society based purely on voluntary action, entirely unhampered by violence or threats of violence" The system relies on contracts between individuals as the legal framework which would be enforced by private police and security forces as well as private arbitrations. Rothbard argues that limited liability for corporations could also exist through contract, arguing that "[c]orporations are not at all monopolistic privileges; they are free associations of individuals pooling their capital. On the purely free market, those men would simply announce to their creditors that their liability is limited to the capital specifically invested in the corporation". There are limits to the right to contract under some interpretations of anarcho-capitalism. Rothbard believes that the right to contract is based in inalienable rights and because of this any contract that implicitly violates those rights can be voided at will, preventing a person from permanently selling himself or herself into unindentured slavery. That restriction aside, the right to contract under anarcho-capitalist order would be pretty broad. For example, Rothbard went as far as to justify stork markets, arguing that a market in guardianship rights would facilitate the transfer of guardianship from abusive or neglectful parents to those more interested or suited to raising children. Other anarcho-capitalists have also suggested the legalization of organ markets, as in Iran's renal market. Other interpretations conclude that banning such contracts would in itself be an unacceptably invasive interference in the right to contract. Included in the right of contract is "the right to contract oneself out for employment by others". While anarchists criticize wage labour describing it as wage slavery, anarcho-capitalists view it as a consensual contract. Some anarcho-capitalists prefer to see self-employment prevail over wage labor. David D. Friedman has expressed a preference for a society where "almost everyone is self-employed" and "instead of corporations there are large groups of entrepreneurs related by trade, not authority. Each sells not his time, but what his time produces". === Law and order and the use of violence === Different anarcho-capitalists propose different forms of anarcho-capitalism and one area of disagreement is in the area of law. In "The Market for Liberty", Morris and Linda Tannehill object to any statutory law whatsoever. They argue that all one has to do is ask if one is aggressing against another in order to decide if an act is right or wrong. However, while also supporting a natural prohibition on force and fraud, Rothbard supports the establishment of a mutually agreed-upon centralized libertarian legal code which private courts would pledge to follow, as he presumes a high degree of convergence amongst individuals about what constitutes natural justice. Unlike both the Tannehills and Rothbard who see an ideological commonality of ethics and morality as a requirement, David D. Friedman proposes that "the systems of law will be produced for profit on the open market, just as books and bras are produced today. There could be competition among different brands of law, just as there is competition among different brands of cars". Friedman says whether this would lead to a libertarian society "remains to be proven". He says it is a possibility that very un-libertarian laws may result, such as laws against drugs, but he thinks this would be rare. He reasons that "if the value of a law to its supporters is less than its cost to its victims, that law ... will not survive in an anarcho-capitalist society". Anarcho-capitalists only accept the collective defense of individual liberty (i.e. courts, military, or police forces) insofar as such groups are formed and paid for on an explicitly voluntary basis. However, their complaint is not just that the state's defensive services are funded by taxation, but that the state assumes it is the only legitimate practitioner of physical force—that is, they believe it forcibly prevents the private sector from providing comprehensive security, such as a police, judicial and prison systems to protect individuals from aggressors. Anarcho-capitalists believe that there is nothing morally superior about the state which would grant it, but not private individuals, a right to use physical force to restrain aggressors. If competition in security provision were allowed to exist, prices would also be lower and services would be better according to anarcho-capitalists. According to Molinari: "Under a regime of liberty, the natural organization of the security industry would not be different from that of other industries". Proponents believe that private systems of justice and defense already exist, naturally forming where the market is allowed to "compensate for the failure of the state", namely private arbitration, security guards, neighborhood watch groups and so on. These private courts and police are sometimes referred to generically as private defense agencies. The defense of those unable to pay for such protection might be financed by charitable organizations relying on voluntary donation rather than by state institutions relying on taxation, or by cooperative self-help by groups of individuals. Edward Stringham argues that private adjudication of disputes could enable the market to internalize externalities and provide services that customers desire. Rothbard stated that the American Revolutionary War and the War of Southern Secession were the only two just wars in American military history. Some anarcho-capitalists such as Rothbard feel that violent revolution is counter-productive and prefer voluntary forms of economic secession to the extent possible. Retributive justice is often a component of the contracts imagined for an anarcho-capitalist society. According to Matthew O'Keefee, some anarcho-capitalists believe prisons or indentured servitude would be justifiable institutions to deal with those who violate anarcho-capitalist property relations while others believe exile or forced restitution are sufficient. Rothbard stressed the importance of restitution as the primary focus of a libertarian legal order and advocated for corporal punishment for petty vandals and the death penalty for murders. American economist Bruce L. Benson argues that legal codes may impose punitive damages for intentional torts in the interest of deterring crime. Benson gives the example of a thief who breaks into a house by picking a lock. Even if caught before taking anything, Benson argues that the thief would still owe the victim for violating the sanctity of his property rights. Benson opines that despite the lack of objectively measurable losses in such cases, "standardized rules that are generally perceived to be fair by members of the community would, in all likelihood, be established through precedent, allowing judgments to specify payments that are reasonably appropriate for most criminal offenses". Morris and Linda Tannehill raise a similar example, saying that a bank robber who had an attack of conscience and returned the money would still owe reparations for endangering the employees' and customers' lives and safety, in addition to the costs of the defense agency answering the teller's call for help. However, they believe that the robber's loss of reputation would be even more damaging. They suggest that specialized companies would list aggressors so that anyone wishing to do business with a man could first check his record, provided they trust the veracity of the companies' records. They further theorise that the bank robber would find insurance companies listing him as a very poor risk and other firms would be reluctant to enter into contracts with him. == Influences == Murray Rothbard has listed different ideologies of which his interpretations, he said, have influenced anarcho-capitalism. This includes his interpretation of anarchism, and more precisely individualist anarchism; classical liberalism and the Austrian School of economic thought. Scholars additionally associate anarcho-capitalism with neo-classical liberalism, radical neoliberalism and right-libertarianism. === Anarchism === In both its social and individualist forms, anarchism is usually considered an anti-capitalist and radical left-wing or far-left movement that promotes libertarian socialist economic theories such as collectivism, communism, individualism, mutualism and syndicalism. Because anarchism is usually described alongside libertarian Marxism as the libertarian wing of the socialist movement and as having a historical association with anti-capitalism and socialism, anarchists believe that capitalism is incompatible with social and economic equality and therefore do not recognize anarcho-capitalism as an anarchist school of thought. In particular, anarchists argue that capitalist transactions are not voluntary and that maintaining the class structure of a capitalist society requires coercion which is incompatible with an anarchist society. The usage of "libertarian" is also in dispute. While both anarchists and anarcho-capitalists have used it, "libertarian" was synonymous with "anarchist" until the mid-20th century, when anarcho-capitalist theory developed. Anarcho-capitalists are distinguished from the dominant anarchist tradition by their relation to property and capital. While both anarchism and anarcho-capitalism share general antipathy towards government authority, anarcho-capitalism favors free-market capitalism. Anarchists, including egoists such as Max Stirner, have supported the protection of an individual's freedom from powers of both government and private property owners. In contrast, while condemning governmental encroachment on personal liberties, anarcho-capitalists support freedoms based on private property rights. Anarcho-capitalist theorist Murray Rothbard argued that protesters should rent a street for protest from its owners. The abolition of public amenities is a common theme in some anarcho-capitalist writings. As anarcho-capitalism puts "laissez-faire" economics before economic equality, it is commonly viewed as incompatible with the anti-capitalist and egalitarian tradition of anarchism. Although anarcho-capitalist theory implies the abolition of the state in favour of a fully "laissez-faire" economy, it lies outside the tradition of anarchism. While using the language of anarchism, anarcho-capitalism only shares anarchism's antipathy towards the state and not anarchism's antipathy towards hierarchy as theorists expect from anarcho-capitalist economic power relations. It follows a different paradigm from anarchism and has a fundamentally different approach and goals. In spite of the "anarcho-" in its title, anarcho-capitalism is more closely affiliated with capitalism, right-libertarianism, and liberalism than with anarchism. Some within this "laissez-faire" tradition reject the designation of "anarcho-capitalism", believing that "capitalism" may either refer to the "laissez-faire" market they support or the government-regulated system that they oppose. Rothbard argued that anarcho-capitalism is the only true form of anarchism—the only form of anarchism that could possibly exist in reality as he maintained that any other form presupposes authoritarian enforcement of a political ideology such as "redistribution of private property", which he attributed to anarchism. According to this argument, the capitalist free market is "the natural situation" that would result from people being free from state authority and entails the establishment of all voluntary associations in society such as cooperatives, non-profit organizations, businesses and so on. Moreover, anarcho-capitalists, as well as classical liberal minarchists, argue that the application of anarchist ideals as advocated by what they term "left-wing anarchists" would require an authoritarian body of some sort to impose it. Based on their understanding and interpretation of anarchism, in order to forcefully prevent people from accumulating capital, which they believe is a goal of anarchists, there would necessarily be a redistributive organization of some sort which would have the authority to in essence exact a tax and re-allocate the resulting resources to a larger group of people. They conclude that this theoretical body would inherently have political power and would be nothing short of a state. The difference between such an arrangement and an anarcho-capitalist system is what anarcho-capitalists see as the voluntary nature of organization within anarcho-capitalism contrasted with a "centralized ideology" and a "paired enforcement mechanism" which they believe would be necessary under what they describe as a "coercively" egalitarian-anarchist system. Rothbard also argued that the capitalist system of today is not properly anarchistic because it often colludes with the state. According to Rothbard, "what Marx and later writers have done is to lump together two extremely different and even contradictory concepts and actions under the same portmanteau term. These two contradictory concepts are what I would call 'free-market capitalism' on the one hand, and 'state capitalism' on the other". "The difference between free-market capitalism and state capitalism", writes Rothbard, "is precisely the difference between, on the one hand, peaceful, voluntary exchange, and on the other, violent expropriation". He continues: "State capitalism inevitably creates all sorts of problems which become insoluble". Traditional anarchists reject the notion of capitalism, hierarchies and private property. Albert Meltzer argued that anarcho-capitalism simply cannot be anarchism because capitalism and the state are inextricably interlinked and because capitalism exhibits domineering hierarchical structures such as that between an employer and an employee. Anna Morgenstern approaches this topic from the opposite perspective, arguing that anarcho-capitalists are not really capitalists because "mass concentration of capital is impossible" without the state. According to Jeremy Jennings, "[i]t is hard not to conclude that these ideas," referring to anarcho-capitalism, have "roots deep in classical liberalism" and "are described as anarchist only on the basis of a misunderstanding of what anarchism is." For Jennings, "anarchism does not stand for the untrammelled freedom of the individual (as the 'anarcho-capitalists' appear to believe) but, as we have already seen, for the extension of individuality and community." Similarly, Barbara Goodwin, Emeritus Professor of Politics at the University of East Anglia, Norwich, argues that anarcho-capitalism's "true place is in the group of right-wing libertarians", not in anarchism. Some right-libertarian scholars like Michael Huemer, who identify with the ideology, describe anarcho-capitalism as a "variety of anarchism". British author Andrew Heywood also believes that "individualist anarchism overlaps with libertarianism and is usually linked to a strong belief in the market as a self-regulating mechanism, most obviously manifest in the form of anarcho-capitalism". Frank H. Brooks, author of "The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908)", believes that "anarchism has always included a significant strain of radical individualism, from the hyperrationalism of Godwin, to the egoism of Stirner, to the libertarians and anarcho-capitalists of today". While both anarchism and anarcho-capitalism are in opposition to the state, it is a necessary but not sufficient condition because anarchists and anarcho-capitalists interpret state-rejection differently. Austrian school economist David Prychitko, in the context of anarcho-capitalism says that "while society without a state is necessary for full-fledged anarchy, it is nevertheless insufficient". According to Ruth Kinna, anarcho-capitalists are anti-statists who draw more on right-wing liberal theory and the Austrian School than anarchist traditions. Kinna writes that "[i]n order to highlight the clear distinction between the two positions", anarchists describe anarcho-capitalists as "propertarians". Anarcho-capitalism is usually seen as part of the New Right. Some anarcho-capitalists argue that, according to them, anarchists consider the word "anarchy" as to be the antithesis of hierarchy, and therefore, that "anarcho-capitalism" is sometimes considered to be a term with differences philosophically to what they personally consider to be true anarchism, as an anarcho-capitalist society would inherently contain hierarchy. Additionally, Rothbard discusses the difference between "government" and "governance" thus, proponents of anarcho-capitalism think the philosophy's common name is indeed consistent, as it promotes private governance, but is vehemently anti-government. === Classical liberalism === Historian and libertarian Ralph Raico argued that what liberal philosophers "had come up with was a form of individualist anarchism, or, as it would be called today, anarcho-capitalism or market anarchism". He also said that Gustave de Molinari was proposing a doctrine of the private production of security, a position which was later taken up by Murray Rothbard. Some anarcho-capitalists consider Molinari to be the first proponent of anarcho-capitalism. In the preface to the 1977 English translation by Murray Rothbard called "The Production of Security" the "first presentation anywhere in human history of what is now called anarcho-capitalism", although admitting that "Molinari did not use the terminology, and probably would have balked at the name". Hans-Hermann Hoppe said that "the 1849 article 'The Production of Security' is probably the single most important contribution to the modern theory of anarcho-capitalism". According to Hans-Hermann Hoppe, one of the 19th century precursors of anarcho-capitalism were philosopher Herbert Spencer, classical liberal Auberon Herbert and liberal socialist Franz Oppenheimer. Ruth Kinna credits Murray Rothbard with coining the term "anarcho-capitalism", which is – Kinna proposes – to describe "a commitment to unregulated private property and laissez-faire economics, prioritizing the liberty-rights of individuals, unfettered by government regulation, to accumulate, consume and determine the patterns of their lives as they see fit". According to Kinna, anarcho-capitalists "will sometimes label themselves market anarchists because they recognize the negative connotations of 'capitalism'. But the literature of anarcho-capitalism draws on classical liberal theory, particularly the Austrian School – Friedrich von Hayek and Ludwig von Mises – rather than recognizable anarchist traditions. Ayn Rand's laissez-faire, anti-government, corporate philosophy – Objectivism – is sometimes associated with anarcho-capitalism". Other scholars similarly associate anarcho-capitalism with anti-state classical liberalism, neo-classical liberalism, radical neoliberalism and right-libertarianism. Paul Dragos Aligica writes that there is a "foundational difference between the classical liberal and the anarcho-capitalist positions". Classical liberalism, while accepting critical arguments against collectivism, acknowledges a certain level of public ownership and collective governance as necessary to provide practical solutions to political problems. In contrast anarcho-capitalism, according to Aligica, denies any requirement for any form of public administration, and allows no meaningful role for the public sphere, which is seen as sub-optimal and illegitimate. === Individualist anarchism === Murray Rothbard, a student of Ludwig von Mises, stated that he was influenced by the work of the 19th-century American individualist anarchists. In the winter of 1949, Rothbard decided to reject minimal state "laissez-faire" and embrace his interpretation of individualist anarchism. In 1965, Rothbard wrote that "Lysander Spooner and Benjamin R. Tucker were unsurpassed as political philosophers and nothing is more needed today than a revival and development of the largely forgotten legacy they left to political philosophy". However, Rothbard thought that they had a faulty understanding of economics as the 19th-century individualist anarchists had a labor theory of value as influenced by the classical economists, while Rothbard was a student of Austrian School economics which does not agree with the labor theory of value. Rothbard sought to meld 19th-century American individualist anarchists' advocacy of economic individualism and free markets with the principles of Austrian School economics, arguing that "[t]here is, in the body of thought known as 'Austrian economics', a scientific explanation of the workings of the free market (and of the consequences of government intervention in that market) which individualist anarchists could easily incorporate into their political and social Weltanschauung". Rothbard held that the economic consequences of the political system they advocate would not result in an economy with people being paid in proportion to labor amounts, nor would profit and interest disappear as they expected. Tucker thought that unregulated banking and money issuance would cause increases in the money supply so that interest rates would drop to zero or near to it. Peter Marshall states that "anarcho-capitalism overlooks the egalitarian implications of traditional individualist anarchists like Spooner and Tucker". Stephanie Silberstein states that "While Spooner was no free-market capitalist, nor an anarcho-capitalist, he was not as opposed to capitalism as most socialists were." In "The Spooner-Tucker Doctrine: An Economist's View", Rothbard explained his disagreements. Rothbard disagreed with Tucker that it would cause the money supply to increase because he believed that the money supply in a free market would be self-regulating. If it were not, then Rothbard argued inflation would occur so it is not necessarily desirable to increase the money supply in the first place. Rothbard claimed that Tucker was wrong to think that interest would disappear regardless because he believed people, in general, do not wish to lend their money to others without compensation, so there is no reason why this would change just because banking was unregulated. Tucker held a labor theory of value and thought that in a free market people would be paid in proportion to how much labor they exerted and that exploitation or usury was taking place if they were not. As Tucker explained in "State Socialism and Anarchism", his theory was that unregulated banking would cause more money to be available and that this would allow the proliferation of new businesses which would, in turn, raise demand for labor. This led Tucker to believe that the labor theory of value would be vindicated and equal amounts of labor would receive equal pay. As an Austrian School economist, Rothbard did not agree with the labor theory and believed that prices of goods and services are proportional to marginal utility rather than to labor amounts in the free market. As opposed to Tucker he did not think that there was anything exploitative about people receiving an income according to how much "buyers of their services value their labor" or what that labor produces. Without the labor theory of value, some argue that 19th-century individualist anarchists approximate the modern movement of anarcho-capitalism, although this has been contested or rejected. As economic theory changed, the popularity of the labor theory of classical economics was superseded by the subjective theory of value of neoclassical economics and Rothbard combined Mises' Austrian School of economics with the absolutist views of human rights and rejection of the state he had absorbed from studying the individualist American anarchists of the 19th century such as Tucker and Spooner. In the mid-1950s, Rothbard wrote an unpublished article named "Are Libertarians 'Anarchists'?" under the pseudonym "Aubrey Herbert", concerned with differentiating himself from communist and socialistic economic views of anarchists, including the individualist anarchists of the 19th century, concluding that "we are "not" anarchists and that those who call us anarchists are not on firm etymological ground and are being completely unhistorical. On the other hand, it is clear that we are not archists either: we do not believe in establishing a tyrannical central authority that will coerce the noninvasive as well as the invasive. Perhaps, then, we could call ourselves by a new name: "non"archist." Joe Peacott, an American individualist anarchist in the mutualist tradition, criticizes anarcho-capitalists for trying to hegemonize the individualist anarchism label and make appear as if all individualist anarchists are in favor of capitalism. Peacott states that "individualists, both past and present, agree with the communist anarchists that present-day capitalism is based on economic coercion, not on voluntary contract. Rent and interest are the mainstays of modern capitalism and are protected and enforced by the state. Without these two unjust institutions, capitalism could not exist". Anarchist activists and scholars do not consider anarcho-capitalism as a part of the anarchist movement, arguing that anarchism has historically been an anti-capitalist movement and see it as incompatible with capitalist forms. Although some regard anarcho-capitalism as a form of individualist anarchism, many others disagree or contest the existence of an individualist–socialist divide. In coming to terms that anarchists mostly identified with socialism, Rothbard wrote that individualist anarchism is different from anarcho-capitalism and other capitalist theories due to the individualist anarchists retaining the labor theory of value and socialist doctrines. Similarly, many writers deny that anarcho-capitalism is a form of anarchism or that capitalism is compatible with anarchism. "The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism" writes that "[a]s Benjamin Franks rightly points out, individualisms that defend or reinforce hierarchical forms such as the economic-power relations of anarcho-capitalism are incompatible with practices of social anarchism based on developing immanent goods which contest such as inequalities". Laurence Davis cautiously asks "[I]s anarcho-capitalism really a form of anarchism or instead a wholly different ideological paradigm whose adherents have attempted to expropriate the language of anarchism for their own anti-anarchist ends?" Davis cites Iain McKay, "whom Franks cites as an authority to support his contention that 'academic analysis has followed activist currents in rejecting the view that anarcho-capitalism has anything to do with social anarchism, as arguing "quite emphatically on the very pages cited by Franks that anarcho-capitalism is by no means a type of anarchism". McKay writes that "[i]t is important to stress that anarchist opposition to the so-called capitalist 'anarchists' does "not" reflect some kind of debate within anarchism, as many of these types like to pretend, but a debate between anarchism and its old enemy capitalism. ... Equally, given that anarchists and 'anarcho'-capitalists have fundamentally "different" analyses and goals it is hardly 'sectarian' to point this out". Davis writes that "Franks asserts without supporting evidence that most major forms of individualist anarchism have been largely anarcho-capitalist in content, and concludes from this premise that most forms of individualism are incompatible with anarchism". Davis argues that "the conclusion is unsustainable because the premise is false, depending as it does for any validity it might have on the further assumption that anarcho-capitalism is indeed a form of anarchism. If we reject this view, then we must also reject the individual anarchist versus the communal anarchist 'chasm' style of argument that follows from it". Davis maintains that "the ideological core of anarchism is the belief that society can and should be organised without hierarchy and domination. Historically, anarchists have struggles against a wide range of regimes of domination, from capitalism, the state system, patriarchy, heterosexism, and the domination of nature to colonialism, the war system, slavery, fascism, white supremacy, and certain forms of organised religion". According to Davis, "[w]hile these visions range from the predominantly individualistic to the predominantly communitarian, features common to virtually all include an emphasis on self-management and self-regulatory methods of organisation, voluntary association, decentralised society, based on the principle of free association, in which people will manage and govern themselves". Finally, Davis includes a footnote stating that "[i]ndividualist anarchism may plausibly be re regarded as a form of both socialism and anarchism. Whether the individualist anarchists were "consistent" anarchists (and socialists) is another question entirely. ... McKay comments as follows: 'any individualist anarchism which supports wage labour is "inconsistent" anarchism. It "can" easily be made "consistent" anarchism by applying its own principles consistently. In contrast 'anarcho'-capitalism rejects so many of the basic, underlying, principles of anarchism ... that it cannot be made consistent with the ideals of anarchism. == Historical precedents == Several anarcho-capitalists and right-libertarians have discussed historical precedents of what they believe were examples of anarcho-capitalism. === Free cities of medieval Europe === Economist and libertarian scholar Bryan Caplan considers the free cities of medieval Europe as examples of "anarchist" or "nearly anarchistic" societies, further arguing: === Medieval Iceland === According to the libertarian theorist David D. Friedman, "[m]edieval Icelandic institutions have several peculiar and interesting characteristics; they might almost have been invented by a mad economist to test the lengths to which market systems could supplant government in its most fundamental functions". While not directly labeling it anarcho-capitalist, Friedman argues that the legal system of the Icelandic Commonwealth comes close to being a real-world anarcho-capitalist legal system. Although noting that there was a single legal system, Friedman argues that enforcement of the law was entirely private and highly capitalist, providing some evidence of how such a society would function. Friedman further wrote that "[e]ven where the Icelandic legal system recognized an essentially 'public' offense, it dealt with it by giving some individual (in some cases chosen by lot from those affected) the right to pursue the case and collect the resulting fine, thus fitting it into an essentially private system". Friedman and Bruce L. Benson argued that the Icelandic Commonwealth saw significant economic and social progress in the absence of systems of criminal law, an executive, or bureaucracy. This commonwealth was led by chieftains, whose position could be bought and sold like that of private property. Being a member of the chieftainship was also completely voluntary. === American Old West === According to Terry L. Anderson and P. J. Hill, the Old West in the United States in the period of 1830 to 1900 was similar to anarcho-capitalism in that "private agencies provided the necessary basis for an orderly society in which property was protected and conflicts were resolved" and that the common popular perception that the Old West was chaotic with little respect for property rights is incorrect. Since squatters had no claim to western lands under federal law, extra-legal organizations formed to fill the void. Benson explains: According to Anderson, "[d]efining anarcho-capitalist to mean minimal government with property rights developed from the bottom up, the western frontier was anarcho-capitalistic. People on the frontier invented institutions that fit the resource constraints they faced". === Gaelic Ireland === In his work "For a New Liberty", Murray Rothbard has claimed ancient Gaelic Ireland as an example of nearly anarcho-capitalist society. In his depiction, citing the work of Professor Joseph Peden, the basic political unit of ancient Ireland was the tuath, which is portrayed as "a body of persons voluntarily united for socially beneficial purposes" with its territorial claim being limited to "the sum total of the landed properties of its members". Civil disputes were settled by private arbiters called "brehons" and the compensation to be paid to the wronged party was insured through voluntary surety relationships. Commenting on the "kings" of tuaths, Rothbard stated: === Law merchant, admiralty law, and early common law === Some libertarians have cited law merchant, admiralty law and early common law as examples of anarcho-capitalism. In his work "Power and Market", Rothbard stated: === Somalia from 1991 to 2006 === Economist Alex Tabarrok argued that Somalia in its stateless period provided a "unique test of the theory of anarchy", in some aspects near of that espoused by anarcho-capitalists David D. Friedman and Murray Rothbard. Nonetheless, both anarchists and some anarcho-capitalists argue that Somalia was not an anarchist society. === Argentina === The first anarcho-capitalist president in history is Javier Milei, president of Argentina, elected in 2023. == Analysis and criticism == === State, justice and defense === Anarchists such as Brian Morris argue that anarcho-capitalism does not in fact get rid of the state. He says that anarcho-capitalists "simply replaced the state with private security firms, and can hardly be described as anarchists as the term is normally understood". In "Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy", anarchist Peter Sabatini notes: Similarly, Bob Black argues that an anarcho-capitalist wants to "abolish the state to his own satisfaction by calling it something else". He states that they do not denounce what the state does, they just "object to who's doing it". Paul Birch argues that legal disputes involving several jurisdictions and different legal systems will be too complex and costly. He therefore argues that anarcho-capitalism is inherently unstable, and would evolve, entirely through the operation of free market forces, into either a single dominant private court with a natural monopoly of justice over the territory (a "de facto" state), a society of multiple city states, each with a territorial monopoly, or a 'pure anarchy' that would rapidly descend into chaos. Randall G. Holcombe argues that anarcho-capitalism turns justice into a commodity as private defense and court firms would favour those who pay more for their services. He argues that defense agencies could form cartels and oppress people without fear of competition. Philosopher Albert Meltzer argued that since anarcho-capitalism promotes the idea of private armies, it actually supports a "limited State". He contends that it "is only possible to conceive of Anarchism which is free, communistic and offering no economic necessity for repression of countering it". Libertarian Robert Nozick argues that a competitive legal system would evolve toward a monopoly government—even without violating individuals' rights in the process. In "Anarchy, State, and Utopia", Nozick defends minarchism and argues that an anarcho-capitalist society would inevitably transform into a minarchist state through the eventual emergence of a monopolistic private defense and judicial agency that no longer faces competition. He argues that anarcho-capitalism results in an unstable system that would not endure in the real world. While anarcho-capitalists such as Roy Childs and Murray Rothbard have rejected Nozick's arguments, with Rothbard arguing that the process described by Nozick, with the dominant protection agency outlawing its competitors, in fact violates its own clients' rights, John Jefferson actually advocates Nozick's argument and states that such events would best operate in "laissez-faire". Robert Ellickson presented a Hayekian case against anarcho-capitalism, calling it a "pipe-dream" and stating that anarcho-capitalists "by imagining a stable system of competing private associations, ignore both the inevitability of territorial monopolists in governance, and the importance of institutions to constrain those monopolists' abuses". Some libertarians argue that anarcho-capitalism would result in different standards of justice and law due to relying too much on the market. Friedman responded to this criticism by arguing that it assumes the state is controlled by a majority group that has similar legal ideals. If the populace is diverse, different legal standards would therefore be appropriate. === Rights and freedom === Negative and positive rights are rights that oblige either action (positive rights) or inaction (negative rights). Anarcho-capitalists believe that negative rights should be recognized as legitimate, but positive rights should be rejected as an intrusion. Some critics reject the distinction between positive and negative rights. Peter Marshall also states that the anarcho-capitalist definition of freedom is entirely negative and that it cannot guarantee the positive freedom of individual autonomy and independence. About anarcho-capitalism, anarcho-syndicalist and anti-capitalist intellectual Noam Chomsky says: === Economics and property === Social anarchists argue that anarcho-capitalism allows individuals to accumulate significant power through free markets and private property. Friedman responded by arguing that the Icelandic Commonwealth was able to prevent the wealthy from abusing the poor by requiring individuals who engaged in acts of violence to compensate their victims financially. Anarchists argue that certain capitalist transactions are not voluntary and that maintaining the class structure of a capitalist society requires coercion which violates anarchist principles. Anthropologist David Graeber noted his skepticism about anarcho-capitalism along the same lines, arguing: Some critics argue that the anarcho-capitalist concept of voluntary choice ignores constraints due to both human and non-human factors such as the need for food and shelter as well as active restriction of both used and unused resources by those enforcing property claims. If a person requires employment in order to feed and house himself, the employer-employee relationship could be considered involuntary. Another criticism is that employment is involuntary because the economic system that makes it necessary for some individuals to serve others is supported by the enforcement of coercive private property relations. Some philosophies view any ownership claims on land and natural resources as immoral and illegitimate. Objectivist philosopher Harry Binswanger criticizes anarcho-capitalism by arguing that "capitalism requires government", questioning who or what would enforce treaties and contracts. Some right-libertarian critics of anarcho-capitalism who support the full privatization of capital such as geolibertarians argue that land and the raw materials of nature remain a distinct factor of production and cannot be justly converted to private property because they are not products of human labor. Some socialists, including market anarchists and mutualists, adamantly oppose absentee ownership. Anarcho-capitalists have strong abandonment criteria, namely that one maintains ownership until one agrees to trade or gift it. Anti-state critics of this view posit comparatively weak abandonment criteria, arguing that one loses ownership when one stops personally occupying and using it as well as the idea of perpetually binding original appropriation is anathema to traditional schools of anarchism. == Literature == The following is a partial list of notable nonfiction works discussing anarcho-capitalism. - Bruce L. Benson, "The Enterprise of Law: Justice Without The State" - "To Serve and Protect: Privatization and Community in Criminal Justice" - David D. Friedman, "The Machinery of Freedom" - Edward P. Stringham, "Anarchy and the Law: The Political Economy of Choice" - George H. Smith, "Justice Entrepreneurship in a Free Market" - Gerard Casey, "Libertarian Anarchy: Against the State" - Hans-Hermann Hoppe, "Anarcho-Capitalism: An Annotated Bibliography" - "A Theory of Socialism and Capitalism" - "The Economics and Ethics of Private Property" - Linda and Morris Tannehill, "The Market for Liberty" - Michael Huemer, "The Problem of Political Authority" - Murray Rothbard, founder of anarcho-capitalism: - "For a New Liberty" - "Man, Economy, and State" - "Power and Market" - "The Ethics of Liberty"

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==Events== ===Pre-1600=== *48 BC – Caesar's Civil War: Battle of Pharsalus: Julius Caesar decisively defeats Pompey at Pharsalus and Pompey flees to Egypt. - 378 – Gothic War: Battle of Adrianople: A large Roman army led by Emperor Valens is defeated by the Visigoths. Valens is killed along with over half of his army. - 1173 – Construction of the campanile of the Cathedral of Pisa (now known as the Leaning Tower of Pisa) begins; it will take two centuries to complete. - 1329 – Quilon, the first Indian Christian Diocese, is erected by Pope John XXII; the French-born Jordanus is appointed the first Bishop. - 1428 – Sources cite biggest caravan trade between Podvisoki and Republic of Ragusa. Vlachs committed to Ragusan lord Tomo Bunić, that they will with 600 horses deliver 1,500 modius of salt. Delivery was meant for Dobrašin Veseoković, and Vlachs price was half of delivered salt. - 1500 – Ottoman–Venetian War (1499–1503): The Ottomans capture Methoni, Messenia. ===1601–1900=== *1610 – The First Anglo-Powhatan War begins in colonial Virginia. - 1810 – Napoleon annexes Westphalia as part of the First French Empire. - 1814 – American Indian Wars: The Creek sign the Treaty of Fort Jackson, giving up huge parts of Alabama and Georgia. - 1830 – Louis Philippe becomes the king of the French following abdication of Charles X. - 1842 – The Webster–Ashburton Treaty is signed, establishing the United States–Canada border east of the Rocky Mountains. - 1854 – American Transcendentalist philosopher Henry David Thoreau publishes his memoir "Walden". - 1855 – Åland War: The Battle of Suomenlinna begins. - 1862 – American Civil War: Battle of Cedar Mountain: At Cedar Mountain, Virginia, Confederate General Stonewall Jackson narrowly defeats Union forces under General John Pope. - 1877 – American Indian Wars: Battle of the Big Hole: A small band of Nez Percé Indians clash with the United States Army. - 1892 – Thomas Edison receives a patent for a two-way telegraph. - 1897 – The first International Congress of Mathematicians is held in Zürich, Switzerland. ===1901–present=== *1902 – Edward VII and Alexandra of Denmark are crowned King and Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. - 1907 – The first Boy Scout encampment concludes at Brownsea Island in southern England. - 1925 – A train robbery takes place in Kakori, near Lucknow, India, by the Indian independence revolutionaries, against British government. - 1936 – Summer Olympics: Jesse Owens wins his fourth gold medal at the games. - 1942 – World War II: Battle of Savo Island: Allied naval forces protecting their amphibious forces during the initial stages of the Battle of Guadalcanal are surprised and defeated by an Imperial Japanese Navy cruiser force. - 1942 – Dmitri Shostakovich's 7th symphony is premiered in a besieged Leningrad. - 1944 – The United States Forest Service and the Wartime Advertising Council release posters featuring Smokey Bear for the first time. - 1944 – World War II: Continuation War: The Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive, the largest offensive launched by Soviet Union against Finland during the Second World War, ends to a strategic stalemate. Both Finnish and Soviet troops at the Finnish front dug to defensive positions, and the front remains stable until the end of the war. - 1945 – World War II: Nagasaki is devastated when an atomic bomb, "Fat Man", is dropped by the United States B-29 "Bockscar". Thirty-five thousand people are killed outright, including 23,200–28,200 Japanese war workers, 2,000 Korean forced workers, and 150 Japanese soldiers. - 1945 – The Red Army invades Japanese-occupied Manchuria. - 1960 – South Kasai secedes from the Congo. - 1965 – Singapore is expelled from Malaysia and becomes the only country to date to gain independence unwillingly. - 1969 – Tate–LaBianca murders: Followers of Charles Manson murder pregnant actress Sharon Tate (wife of Roman Polanski), coffee heiress Abigail Folger, Polish actor Wojciech Frykowski, men's hairstylist Jay Sebring and recent high-school graduate Steven Parent. - 1970 – LANSA Flight 502 crashes after takeoff from Alejandro Velasco Astete International Airport in Cusco, Peru, killing 99 of the 100 people on board, as well as two people on the ground. - 1971 – The Troubles: In Northern Ireland, the British authorities launch Operation Demetrius. The operation involves the mass arrest and internment without trial of individuals suspected of being affiliated with the Irish Republican Army (PIRA). Mass riots follow, and thousands of people flee or are forced out of their homes. - 1973 – Mars 7 is launched from the USSR. - 1974 – As a direct result of the Watergate scandal, Richard Nixon becomes the first President of the United States to resign from office. Vice President Gerald Ford becomes president. - 1991 – The Italian prosecuting magistrate Antonino Scopelliti is murdered by the 'Ndrangheta on behalf of the Sicilian Mafia while preparing the government's case in the final appeal of the Maxi Trial. - 1993 – The Liberal Democratic Party of Japan loses a 38-year hold on national leadership. - 1995 – Aviateca Flight 901 crashes into the San Vicente volcano in El Salvador, killing all 65 people on board. - 1999 – Russian President Boris Yeltsin fires his Prime Minister, Sergei Stepashin, and for the fourth time fires his entire cabinet. - 2006 – At least 21 suspected terrorists are arrested in the 2006 transatlantic aircraft plot that happened in the United Kingdom. The arrests are made in London, Birmingham, and High Wycombe in an overnight operation. - 2007 – Air Moorea Flight 1121 crashes after takeoff from Moorea Airport in French Polynesia, killing all 20 people on board. - 2012 – Shannon Eastin becomes the first woman to officiate an NFL game. - 2013 – Gunmen open fire at a Sunni mosque in the city of Quetta killing at least ten people and injuring 30. - 2014 – Michael Brown, an 18-year-old African American male in Ferguson, Missouri, is shot and killed by a Ferguson police officer after reportedly assaulting the officer and attempting to steal his weapon, sparking protests and unrest in the city. - 2021 – The Tampere light rail officially starts operating. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== *1201 – Arnold Fitz Thedmar, English historian and merchant (d. 1274) - 1537 – Francesco Barozzi, Italian mathematician and astronomer (d. 1604) - 1544 – Bogislaw XIII, Duke of Pomerania (d. 1606) - 1590 – John Webster, colonial settler and governor of Connecticut (d. 1661) ===1601–1900=== *1603 – Johannes Cocceius, German-Dutch theologian and academic (d. 1669) - 1611 – Henry of Nassau-Siegen, German count, officer in the Dutch Army, diplomat for the Dutch Republic (b. 1611) - 1648 – Johann Michael Bach, German composer (d. 1694) - 1653 – John Oldham, English poet and translator (d. 1683) - 1674 – František Maxmilián Kaňka, Czech architect, designed the Veltrusy Mansion (d. 1766) - 1696 – Joseph Wenzel I, Prince of Liechtenstein (d. 1772) - 1722 – Prince Augustus William of Prussia (d. 1758) - 1726 – Francesco Cetti, Italian priest, zoologist, and mathematician (d. 1778) - 1748 – Bernhard Schott, German music publisher (d. 1809) - 1757 – Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton, American humanitarian; wife of Alexander Hamilton (d. 1854) - 1757 – Thomas Telford, Scottish architect and engineer, designed the Menai Suspension Bridge (d. 1834) - 1776 – Amedeo Avogadro, Italian physicist and chemist (d. 1856) - 1783 – Grand Duchess Alexandra Pavlovna of Russia (d. 1801) - 1788 – Adoniram Judson, American missionary and lexicographer (d. 1850) - 1797 – Charles Robert Malden, English lieutenant and surveyor (d. 1855) - 1805 – Joseph Locke, English engineer and politician (d. 1860) - 1845 – André Bessette, Canadian saint (d. 1937) - 1847 – Maria Vittoria dal Pozzo, French-Italian wife of Amadeo I of Spain (d. 1876) - 1848 – Alfred David Benjamin, Australian-born businessman and philanthropist. (d. 1900) - 1861 – Dorothea Klumpke, American astronomer and academic (d. 1942) - 1867 – Evelina Haverfield, Scottish nurse and activist (d. 1920) - 1872 – Archduke Joseph August of Austria (d. 1962) - 1874 – Reynaldo Hahn, Venezuelan composer and conductor (d. 1947) - 1875 – Albert Ketèlbey, English pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1959) - 1878 – Eileen Gray, Irish architect and furniture designer (d. 1976) - 1879 – John Willcock, Australian politician, 15th Premier of Western Australia, (d. 1956) - 1881 – Prince Antônio Gastão of Orléans-Braganza, Brazilian prince (d. 1918) - 1890 – Eino Kaila, Finnish philosopher and psychologist, attendant of the Vienna circle (d. 1958) - 1896 – Erich Hückel, German physicist and chemist (d. 1980) - 1896 – Jean Piaget, Swiss psychologist and philosopher (d. 1980) - 1899 – P. L. Travers, Australian-English author and actress (d. 1996) - 1900 – Charles Farrell, American actor and singer (d. 1990) ===1901–present=== *1902 – Zino Francescatti, French violinist (d. 1991) - 1902 – Panteleimon Ponomarenko, Russian general and politician (d. 1984) - 1905 – Leo Genn, British actor and barrister (d. 1978) - 1909 – Vinayaka Krishna Gokak, Indian scholar, author, and academic (d. 1992) - 1909 – Willa Beatrice Player, American educator, first Black woman college president (d. 2003) - 1909 – Adam von Trott zu Solz, German lawyer and diplomat (d. 1944) - 1911 – William Alfred Fowler, American astronomer and astrophysicist, Nobel Laureate (d. 1996) - 1911 – Eddie Futch, American boxer and trainer (d. 2001) - 1911 – John McQuade, Northern Irish soldier, boxer, and politician (d. 1984) - 1913 – Wilbur Norman Christiansen, Australian astronomer and engineer (d. 2007) - 1914 – Ferenc Fricsay, Hungarian-Austrian conductor and director (d. 1963) - 1914 – Tove Jansson, Finnish author and illustrator (d. 2001) - 1914 – Joe Mercer, English footballer and manager (d. 1990) - 1915 – Mareta West, American astronomer and geologist (d. 1998) - 1918 – Kermit Beahan, American colonel (d. 1989) - 1918 – Giles Cooper, Irish soldier and playwright (d. 1966) - 1918 – Albert Seedman, American police officer (d. 2013) - 1919 – Joop den Uyl, Dutch journalist, economist, and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 1987) - 1919 – Ralph Houk, American baseball player and manager (d. 2010) - 1920 – Enzo Biagi, Italian journalist and author (d. 2007) - 1921 – Ernest Angley, American evangelist and author (d. 2021) - 1921 – J. James Exon, American soldier and politician, 33rd Governor of Nebraska (d. 2005) - 1922 – Philip Larkin, English poet and novelist (d. 1985) - 1924 – Mathews Mar Barnabas, Indian metropolitan (d. 2012) - 1924 – Frank Martínez, American soldier and painter (d. 2013) - 1925 – David A. Huffman, American computer scientist, developed Huffman coding (d. 1999) - 1926 – Denis Atkinson, Barbadian cricketer (d. 2001) - 1927 – Daniel Keyes, American short story writer and novelist (d. 2014) - 1927 – Robert Shaw, English actor and screenwriter (d. 1978) - 1928 – Bob Cousy, American basketball player and coach - 1928 – Camilla Wicks, American violinist and educator (d. 2020) - 1928 – Dolores Wilson, American soprano and actress (d. 2010) - 1929 – Abdi İpekçi, Turkish journalist and activist (d. 1979) - 1930 – Milt Bolling, American baseball player and scout (d. 2013) - 1930 – Jacques Parizeau, Canadian economist and politician, 26th Premier of Quebec (d. 2015) - 1931 – Chuck Essegian, American baseball player and lawyer - 1931 – James Freeman Gilbert, American geophysicist and academic (d. 2014) - 1931 – Paula Kent Meehan, American businesswoman, co-founded Redken (d. 2014) - 1931 – Mário Zagallo, Brazilian footballer and coach - 1932 – Tam Dalyell, Scottish academic and politician (d. 2017) - 1932 – John Gomery, Canadian lawyer and jurist (d. 2021) - 1933 – Tetsuko Kuroyanagi, Japanese actress, talk show host, and author - 1935 – Beverlee McKinsey, American actress (d. 2008) - 1936 – Julián Javier, Dominican-American baseball player - 1936 – Patrick Tse, Chinese-Hong Kong actor, director, producer, and screenwriter - 1938 – Leonid Kuchma, Ukrainian engineer and politician, 2nd President of Ukraine - 1938 – Rod Laver, Australian tennis player and coach - 1938 – Otto Rehhagel, German footballer, coach, and manager - 1939 – Hércules Brito Ruas, Brazilian footballer - 1939 – Vincent Hanna, Northern Irish journalist (d. 1997) - 1939 – The Mighty Hannibal, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2014) - 1939 – Billy Henderson, American singer (d. 2007) - 1939 – Bulle Ogier, French actress and screenwriter - 1939 – Romano Prodi, Italian academic and politician, 52nd Prime Minister of Italy - 1939 – Butch Warren, American bassist (d. 2013) - 1940 – Linda Keen, American mathematician and academic - 1942 – David Steinberg, Canadian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter - 1943 – Ken Norton, American boxer and actor (d. 2013) - 1944 – George Armstrong, English footballer (d. 2000) - 1944 – Patrick Depailler, French racing driver (d. 1980) - 1944 – Sam Elliott, American actor and producer - 1944 – Patricia McKissack, American soldier, engineer, and author (d. 2017) - 1945 – Barbara Delinsky, American author - 1945 – Aleksandr Gorelik, Russian figure skater and sportscaster (d. 2012) - 1945 – Posy Simmonds, English author and illustrator - 1946 – Rinus Gerritsen, Dutch rock bass player - 1947 – Roy Hodgson, English footballer and manager - 1947 – Barbara Mason, American R&B/soul singer-songwriter - 1947 – John Varley, American author - 1948 – Bill Campbell, American baseball player and coach (d. 2023) - 1949 – Jonathan Kellerman, American psychologist and author - 1949 – Ted Simmons, American baseball player and coach - 1951 – James Naughtie, Scottish journalist and radio host - 1951 – Steve Swisher, American baseball player and manager - 1952 – Prateep Ungsongtham Hata, Thai activist and politician - 1953 – Kay Stenshjemmet, Norwegian speed skater - 1953 – Jean Tirole, French economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate - 1954 – Ray Jennings, South African cricketer and coach - 1954 – Pete Thomas, English drummer - 1955 – John E. Sweeney, American lawyer and politician - 1956 – Gordon Singleton, Canadian Olympic cyclist - 1957 – Melanie Griffith, American actress and producer - 1958 – Amanda Bearse, American actress, comedian and director - 1958 – Calie Pistorius, South African engineer and academic - 1959 – Kurtis Blow, American rapper, producer, and actor - 1959 – Michael Kors, American fashion designer - 1961 – Brad Gilbert, American tennis player and sportscaster - 1961 – John Key, New Zealand businessman and politician, 38th Prime Minister of New Zealand - 1962 – Louis Lipps, American football player and radio host - 1962 – Kevin Mack, American football player - 1962 – John "Hot Rod" Williams, American basketball player (d. 2015) - 1963 – Whitney Houston, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress (d. 2012) - 1963 – Jay Leggett, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2013) - 1963 – Barton Lynch, Australian surfer - 1964 – Brett Hull, Canadian-American ice hockey player and manager - 1964 – Hoda Kotb, American journalist and television personality - 1965 – Nitin Chandrakant Desai, Indian art director, production designer, and film and television producer (d. 2023) - 1966 – Vinny Del Negro, American basketball player and coach - 1966 – Linn Ullmann, Norwegian journalist and author - 1967 – Deion Sanders, American football and baseball player - 1968 – Gillian Anderson, American-British actress, activist and writer - 1968 – Eric Bana, Australian actor, comedian, producer, and screenwriter - 1968 – Sam Fogarino, American drummer - 1968 – McG, American director and producer - 1969 – Troy Percival, American baseball player and coach - 1970 – Rod Brind'Amour, Canadian ice hockey player and coach - 1970 – Chris Cuomo, American lawyer and journalist - 1970 – Thomas Lennon, American actor and comedian - 1972 – Juanes, Colombian singer and songwriter - 1973 – Filippo Inzaghi, Italian footballer and manager - 1973 – Kevin McKidd, Scottish actor and director - 1973 – Gene Luen Yang, American author and illustrator - 1974 – Derek Fisher, American basketball player and coach - 1974 – Stephen Fung, Hong Kong actor, singer, director, and screenwriter - 1974 – Lesley McKenna, Scottish snowboarder - 1974 – Matt Morris, American baseball player - 1974 – Kirill Reznik, American lawyer and politician - 1974 – Raphaël Poirée, French biathlete - 1975 – Mahesh Babu, Indian actor and producer - 1975 – Valentin Kovalenko, Uzbek football referee - 1975 – Mike Lamb, American baseball player - 1975 – Robbie Middleby, Australian soccer player - 1976 – Rhona Mitra, English actress and singer - 1976 – Audrey Tautou, French model and actress - 1976 – Jessica Capshaw, American actress - 1977 – Jason Frasor, American baseball player - 1977 – Chamique Holdsclaw, American basketball player - 1977 – Ravshan Irmatov, Uzbek football referee - 1977 – Adewale Ogunleye, American football player - 1977 – Ime Udoka, American basketball player and coach - 1977 – Mikaël Silvestre, French footballer - 1978 – Dorin Chirtoacă, Moldavian lawyer and politician, Mayor of Chișinău - 1978 – Ana Serradilla, Mexican actress and producer - 1978 – Wesley Sonck, Belgian footballer - 1979 – Michael Kingma, Australian basketball player - 1979 – Lisa Nandy, British politician - 1979 – Tony Stewart, American football player - 1981 – Jarvis Hayes, American basketball player - 1981 – Li Jiawei, Singaporean table tennis player - 1982 – Joel Anthony, American basketball player - 1982 – Tyson Gay, American sprinter - 1982 – Yekaterina Samutsevich, Russian singer and activist - 1982 – Kanstantsin Sivtsov, Belarusian cyclist - 1983 – Dan Levy, Canadian actor and comedian - 1983 – Hamilton Masakadza, Zimbabwean cricketer - 1983 – Shane O'Brien, Canadian ice hockey player - 1983 – Alicja Smietana, Polish-English violinist - 1984 – Paul Gallagher, Scottish footballer - 1985 – Luca Filippi, Italian racing driver - 1985 – Filipe Luís, Brazilian footballer - 1985 – Anna Kendrick, American actress and singer - 1985 – Hayley Peirsol, American swimmer - 1985 – JaMarcus Russell, American football player - 1985 – Chandler Williams, American football player (d. 2013) - 1986 – Michael Lerchl, German footballer - 1986 – Daniel Preussner, German rugby player - 1986 – Tyler Smith, American singer-songwriter and bass player - 1987 – Marek Niit, Estonian sprinter - 1988 – Anthony Castonzo, American football player - 1988 – Willian, Brazilian footballer - 1988 – Vasilios Koutsianikoulis, Greek footballer - 1989 – Jason Heyward, American baseball player - 1989 – Stefano Okaka, Italian footballer - 1989 – Kento Ono, Japanese actor and model - 1990 – İshak Doğan, Turkish footballer - 1990 – Sarah McBride, American LGBT activist - 1990 – Stuart McInally, Scottish rugby player - 1990 – Brice Roger, French skier - 1990 – D'Arcy Short, Australian cricketer - 1990 – Bill Skarsgård, Swedish actor - 1991 – Alice Barlow, English actress - 1991 – Alexa Bliss, American bodybuilder and wrestler - 1991 – Hansika Motwani, Indian actress - 1992 – Farahnaz Forotan, Afghan journalist - 1993 – Jun.Q, South Korean singer and actor - 1993 – Dipa Karmakar, Indian gymnast - 1994 – Kelli Hubly, American soccer player - 1994 – King Von, American rapper (d. 2020) - 1995 – Eli Apple, American football player - 1995 – Justice Smith, American actor - 1996 – Sanya Lopez, Filipino actress and model - 1999 – Deniss Vasiļjevs, Latvian figure skater - 2000 – Arlo Parks, British singer-songwriter - 2005 – Victoria Jiménez Kasintseva, Andorran tennis player ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== * 378 – Traianus, Roman general - 378 – Valens, Roman emperor (b. 328) - 803 – Irene of Athens, Byzantine ruler (b. 752) - 833 – Al-Ma'mun, Iraqi caliph (b. 786) - 1048 – Pope Damasus II - 1107 – Emperor Horikawa of Japan (b. 1079) - 1173 – Najm ad-Din Ayyub, Kurdish soldier and politician - 1211 – William de Braose, 4th Lord of Bramber, exiled Anglo-Norman baron (b. 1144/53) - 1260 – Walter of Kirkham, Bishop of Durham - 1296 – Hugh, Count of Brienne, French crusader - 1341 – Eleanor of Anjou, queen consort of Sicily (b. 1289) - 1354 – Stephen, Duke of Slavonia, Hungarian prince (b. 1332) - 1420 – Pierre d'Ailly, French theologian and cardinal (b. 1351) - 1516 – Hieronymus Bosch, Early Netherlandish painter (b. circa 1450) - 1534 – Thomas Cajetan, Italian cardinal and philosopher (b. 1470) - 1580 – Metrophanes III of Constantinople (b. 1520) ===1601–1900=== *1601 – Michael the Brave, Romanian prince (b. 1558) - 1634 – William Noy, English lawyer and judge (b. 1577) - 1720 – Simon Ockley, English orientalist and academic (b. 1678) - 1744 – James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos, English academic and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Radnorshire (b. 1673) - 1816 – Johann August Apel, German jurist and author (b. 1771) - 1861 – Vincent Novello, English composer and publisher (b. 1781) - 1886 – Samuel Ferguson, Irish lawyer and poet (b. 1810) ===1901–present=== *1910 – Huo Yuanjia, Chinese martial artist, co-founded the Chin Woo Athletic Association (b. 1868) - 1919 – Ruggero Leoncavallo, Italian composer and educator (b. 1857) - 1920 – Samuel Griffith, Welsh-Australian politician, 9th Premier of Queensland (b. 1845) - 1932 – John Charles Fields, Canadian mathematician, founder of the Fields Medal (b. 1863) - 1941 – Richard Goss, Executed Irish Republican (b. 1915) - 1942 – Edith Stein, German nun and saint (b. 1891) - 1943 – Chaïm Soutine, Belarusian-French painter and educator (b. 1893) - 1945 – Robert Hampton Gray, Canadian lieutenant and pilot, Victoria Cross recipient (b. 1917) - 1945 – Harry Hillman, American runner and coach (b. 1881) - 1946 – Bert Vogler, South African cricketer (b. 1876) - 1948 – Hugo Boss, German fashion designer, founded Hugo Boss (b. 1885) - 1949 – Edward Thorndike, American psychologist and academic (b. 1874) - 1957 – Carl Clauberg, German Nazi physician (b. 1898) - 1962 – Hermann Hesse, German-born Swiss poet, novelist, and painter, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877) - 1963 – Patrick Bouvier Kennedy, American son of John F. Kennedy (b. 1963) - 1967 – Joe Orton, English author and playwright (b. 1933) - 1969 – Wojciech Frykowski, Polish-American actor and author (b. 1936) - 1969 – Sharon Tate, American model and actress (b. 1943) - 1969 – C. F. Powell, English physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1903) - 1972 – Sıddık Sami Onar, Turkish lawyer and academic (b. 1897) - 1974 – Bill Chase, American trumpet player and bandleader (b. 1934) - 1975 – Dmitri Shostakovich, Russian pianist and composer (b. 1906) - 1978 – James Gould Cozzens, American novelist and short story writer (b. 1903) - 1979 – Walter O'Malley, American businessman (b. 1903) - 1979 – Raymond Washington, American gang leader, founded the Crips (b. 1953) - 1980 – Jacqueline Cochran, American pilot (b. 1906) - 1980 – Ruby Hurley, American civil rights activist (b. 1909) - 1981 – Max Hoffman, Austrian-born car importer and businessman (b. 1904) - 1985 – Clive Churchill, Australian rugby league player and coach (b. 1927) - 1988 – M. Carl Holman, American author, educator, poet, and playwright (b. 1919) - 1988 – Giacinto Scelsi, Italian composer (b. 1905) - 1990 – Joe Mercer, English footballer and manager (b. 1914) - 1992 – Fereydoun Farrokhzad, Iranian singer and actor (b. 1938) - 1995 – Jerry Garcia, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1942) - 1996 – Frank Whittle, English soldier and engineer, invented the jet engine (b. 1907) - 1999 – Helen Rollason, English sports journalist and sportscaster (b. 1956) - 1999 – Fouad Serageddin, Egyptian journalist and politician (b. 1910) - 2000 – John Harsanyi, Hungarian-American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1920) - 2000 – Nicholas Markowitz, American murder victim (b. 1984) - 2002 – Paul Samson, English guitarist (b. 1953) - 2003 – Jacques Deray, French director and screenwriter (b. 1929) - 2003 – Ray Harford, English footballer and manager (b. 1945) - 2003 – Gregory Hines, American actor, dancer, and choreographer (b. 1946) - 2003 – R. Sivagurunathan, Sri Lankan lawyer, journalist, and academic (b. 1931) - 2004 – Robert Lecourt, French lawyer and politician, Lord Chancellor of France (b. 1908) - 2004 – Tony Mottola, American guitarist and composer (b. 1918) - 2004 – David Raksin, American composer and educator (b. 1912) - 2005 – Judith Rossner, American author (b. 1935) - 2006 – Philip E. High, English author (b. 1914) - 2006 – James Van Allen, American physicist and academic (b. 1914) - 2007 – Joe O'Donnell, American photographer and journalist (b. 1922) - 2008 – Bernie Mac, American comedian, actor, screenwriter, and producer (b. 1957) - 2008 – Mahmoud Darwish, Palestinian author and poet (b. 1941) - 2010 – Calvin "Fuzz" Jones, American singer and bass player (b. 1926) - 2010 – Ted Stevens, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (b. 1923) - 2012 – Carl Davis, American record producer (b. 1934) - 2012 – Gene F. Franklin, American engineer, theorist, and academic (b. 1927) - 2012 – Al Freeman, Jr., American actor, director, and educator (b. 1934) - 2012 – David Rakoff, Canadian-American actor and journalist (b. 1964) - 2012 – Carmen Belen Richardson, Puerto Rican-American actress (b. 1930) - 2012 – Mel Stuart, American director and producer (b. 1928) - 2013 – Harry Elliott, American baseball player and coach (b. 1923) - 2013 – Eduardo Falú, Argentinian guitarist and composer (b. 1923) - 2013 – William Lynch, Jr., American lawyer and politician (b. 1947) - 2014 – J. F. Ade Ajayi, Nigerian historian and academic (b. 1929) - 2014 – Andriy Bal, Ukrainian footballer and coach (b. 1958) - 2014 – Arthur G. Cohen, American businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Arlen Realty and Development Corporation (b. 1930) - 2014 – Ed Nelson, American actor (b. 1928) - 2015 – Frank Gifford, American football player, sportscaster, and actor (b. 1930) - 2015 – John Henry Holland, American computer scientist and academic (b. 1929) - 2015 – Walter Nahún López, Honduran footballer (b. 1977) - 2015 – David Nobbs, English author and screenwriter (b. 1935) - 2015 – Kayyar Kinhanna Rai, Indian journalist, author, and poet (b. 1915) - 2015 – Fikret Otyam, Turkish painter and journalist (b. 1926) - 2016 – Gerald Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster, third-richest British citizen (b. 1951) - 2021 – Pat Hitchcock, English actress and producer (b. 1928) - 2021 – Killer Kau, South African rapper, dancer and record producer (b. 1998) - 2021 – Zairaini Sarbini, Malaysian voice actress (b. 1972) - 2023 – Robbie Robertson, Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actor (b. 1943) ==Holidays and observances== *Battle of Gangut Day (Russia) - Christian feast day: - Candida Maria of Jesus - Edith Stein (St Teresa Benedicta of the Cross) - Firmus and Rusticus - Herman of Alaska (Russian Orthodox Church and related congregations; Episcopal Church (USA)) - John Vianney (1950s – currently August 4) - Mary Sumner (Church of England) - Nath Í of Achonry - Romanus Ostiarius - Secundian, Marcellian and Verian - August 9 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) - International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples (United Nations) - Meyboom (Brussels and Leuven, Belgium) - National Day, celebrates the independence of Singapore from Malaysia in 1965. - National Peacekeepers' Day, celebrated on Sunday closest to the day (Canada) - National Women's Day (South Africa)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1028

Aristophanes

Aristophanes (; , ; c. 446 – c. 386 BC), son of Philippus, of the deme Kydathenaion (), was a comic playwright or comedy-writer of ancient Athens and a poet of Old Attic Comedy. Eleven of his forty plays survive virtually complete. These provide the most valuable examples of a genre of comic drama known as Old Comedy and are used to define it, along with fragments from dozens of lost plays by Aristophanes and his contemporaries. Also known as "The Father of Comedy" and "the Prince of Ancient Comedy", Aristophanes has been said to recreate the life of ancient Athens more convincingly than any other author. His powers of ridicule were feared and acknowledged by influential contemporaries; Plato singled out Aristophanes' play "The Clouds" as slander that contributed to the trial and subsequent condemning to death of Socrates, although other satirical playwrights had also caricatured the philosopher. Aristophanes' second play, "The Babylonians" (now lost), was denounced by Cleon as a slander against the Athenian "polis". It is possible that the case was argued in court, but details of the trial are not recorded and Aristophanes caricatured Cleon mercilessly in his subsequent plays, especially "The Knights", the first of many plays that he directed himself. "In my opinion," he says through that play's Chorus, "the author-director of comedies has the hardest job of all." ==Etymology== Aristophanes's name means 'one who appears best', from the Greek 'ἄριστος' (Aristos) meaning "best" and 'φαίνομαι', meaning "appear". ==Biography== Less is known about Aristophanes than about his plays. In fact, his plays are the main source of information about him and his life. It was conventional in Old Comedy for the chorus to speak on behalf of the author during an address called the parabasis and thus some biographical facts can be found there. However, these facts relate almost entirely to his career as a dramatist and the plays contain few clear and unambiguous clues about his personal beliefs or his private life. He was a comic poet in an age when it was conventional for a poet to assume the role of teacher (didaskalos), and though this specifically referred to his training of the Chorus in rehearsal, it also covered his relationship with the audience as a commentator on significant issues. Aristophanes claimed to be writing for a clever and discerning audience, yet he also declared that "other times" would judge the audience according to its reception of his plays. He sometimes boasts of his originality as a dramatist yet his plays consistently espouse opposition to radical new influences in Athenian society. He caricatured leading figures in the arts (notably Euripides, whose influence on his own work however he once grudgingly acknowledged), in politics (especially the populist Cleon), and in philosophy/religion (where Socrates was the most obvious target). Such caricatures seem to imply that Aristophanes was an old-fashioned conservative, yet that view of him leads to contradictions. It has been argued that Aristophanes produced plays mainly to entertain the audience and to win prestigious competitions. His plays were written for production at the great dramatic festivals of Athens, the Lenaia and City Dionysia, where they were judged and awarded prizes in competition with the works of other comic dramatists. An elaborate series of lotteries, designed to prevent prejudice and corruption, reduced the voting judges at the City Dionysia to just five. These judges probably reflected the mood of the audiences yet there is much uncertainty about the composition of those audiences. The theatres were certainly huge, with seating for at least 10,000 at the Theatre of Dionysus. The day's program at the City Dionysia for example was crowded, with three tragedies and a satyr play ahead of a comedy, but it is possible that many of the poorer citizens (typically the main supporters of demagogues like Cleon) occupied the festival holiday with other pursuits. The conservative views expressed in the plays might therefore reflect the attitudes of the dominant group in an unrepresentative audience. The production process might also have influenced the views expressed in the plays. Throughout most of Aristophanes' career, the Chorus was essential to a play's success and it was recruited and funded by a "choregus", a wealthy citizen appointed to the task by one of the archons. A choregus could regard his personal expenditure on the Chorus as a civic duty and a public honour, but Aristophanes showed in "The Knights" that wealthy citizens might regard civic responsibilities as punishment imposed on them by demagogues and populists like Cleon. Thus the political conservatism of the plays may reflect the views of the wealthiest section of Athenian society, on whose generosity all dramatists depended for putting on their plays. When Aristophanes' first play "The Banqueters" was produced, Athens was an ambitious, imperial power and the Peloponnesian War was only in its fourth year. His plays often express pride in the achievement of the older generation (the victors at Marathon) yet they are not jingoistic, and they are staunchly opposed to the war with Sparta. The plays are particularly scathing in criticism of war profiteers, among whom populists such as Cleon figure prominently. By the time his last play was produced (around 386 BC) Athens had been defeated in war, its empire had been dismantled and it had undergone a transformation from being the political to the intellectual centre of Greece. Aristophanes was part of this transformation and he shared in the intellectual fashions of the period—the structure of his plays evolves from Old Comedy until, in his last surviving play, "Wealth II", it more closely resembles New Comedy. However it is uncertain whether he led or merely responded to changes in audience expectations. Aristophanes won second prize at the City Dionysia in 427 BC with his first play "The Banqueters" (now lost). He won first prize there with his next play, "The Babylonians" (also now lost). It was usual for foreign dignitaries to attend the City Dionysia, and "The Babylonians" caused some embarrassment for the Athenian authorities since it depicted the cities of the Delian League as slaves grinding at a mill. Some influential citizens, notably Cleon, reviled the play as slander against the "polis" and possibly took legal action against the author. The details of the trial are unrecorded but, speaking through the hero of his third play "The Acharnians" (staged at the Lenaia, where there were few or no foreign dignitaries), the poet carefully distinguishes between the "polis" and the real targets of his acerbic wit: Aristophanes repeatedly savages Cleon in his later plays. But these satirical diatribes appear to have had no effect on Cleon's political career—a few weeks after the performance of "The Knights"—a play full of anti-Cleon jokes—Cleon was elected to the prestigious board of ten generals. Cleon also seems to have had no real power to limit or control Aristophanes: the caricatures of him continued up to and even beyond his death. In the absence of clear biographical facts about Aristophanes, scholars make educated guesses based on interpretation of the language in the plays. Inscriptions and summaries or comments by Hellenistic and Byzantine scholars can also provide useful clues. We know from a combination of these sources, and especially from comments in "The Knights" and "The Clouds", that Aristophanes' first three plays were not directed by him; they were instead directed by Callistratus and Philoneides, an arrangement that seemed to suit Aristophanes since he appears to have used these same directors in many later plays as well (Philoneides for example later directed "The Frogs" and he was also credited, perhaps wrongly, with directing "The Wasps"). Aristophanes's use of directors complicates our reliance on the plays as sources of biographical information, because apparent self-references might have been made with reference to his directors instead. Thus, for example, a statement by the chorus in "The Acharnians" seems to indicate that the "poet" had a close, personal association with the island of Aegina. Similarly, the hero in "The Acharnians" complains about Cleon "dragging me into court" over "last year's play." Comments made by the Chorus referring to Aristophanes in "The Clouds" have been interpreted as evidence that he can hardly have been more than 18 years old when his first play "The Banqueters" was produced. The second parabasis in "Wasps" appears to indicate that he reached some kind of temporary accommodation with Cleon following either the controversy over "The Babylonians" or a subsequent controversy over "The Knights". It has been inferred from statements in "The Clouds" and "Peace" that Aristophanes was prematurely bald. Aristophanes was probably victorious at least once at the City Dionysia, with "Babylonians" in 427, and at least three times at the Lenaia, with "The Acharnians" in 425, "Knights" in 424, and "Frogs" in 405. "Frogs" in fact won the unique distinction of a repeat performance at a subsequent festival. A son of Aristophanes, Araros, was also a comic poet and he could have been heavily involved in the production of his father's play "Wealth II" in 388. Araros is also thought to have been responsible for the posthumous performances of the now lost plays "Aeolosicon II" and "Cocalus", and it is possible that the last of these won the prize at the City Dionysia in 387. It appears that a second son, Philippus, was twice victorious at the Lenaia and he could have directed some of Eubulus' comedies. A third son was called either Nicostratus or Philetaerus, and a man by the latter name appears in the catalogue of Lenaia victors with two victories, the first probably in the late 370s. Plato's "The Symposium" appears to be a useful source of biographical information about Aristophanes, but its reliability is open to doubt. It purports to be a record of conversations at a dinner party at which both Aristophanes and Socrates are guests, held some seven years after the performance of "The Clouds", the play in which Socrates was cruelly caricatured. One of the guests, Alcibiades, even quotes from the play when teasing Socrates over his appearance and yet there is no indication of any ill-feeling between Socrates and Aristophanes. Plato's Aristophanes is in fact a genial character and this has been interpreted as evidence of Plato's own friendship with him (their friendship appears to be corroborated by an epitaph for Aristophanes, "reputedly" written by Plato, in which the playwright's soul is compared to an eternal shrine for the Graces). Plato was only a boy when the events in "The Symposium" are supposed to have occurred and it is possible that his Aristophanes is in fact based on a reading of the plays. For example, conversation among the guests turns to the subject of Love and Aristophanes explains his notion of it in terms of an amusing allegory, a device he often uses in his plays. He is represented as suffering an attack of hiccups and this might be a humorous reference to the crude physical jokes in his plays. He tells the other guests that he is quite happy to be thought amusing but he is wary of appearing ridiculous. This fear of being ridiculed is consistent with his declaration in "The Knights" that he embarked on the career of comic playwright warily after witnessing the public contempt and ridicule that other dramatists had incurred. Aristophanes survived The Peloponnesian War, two oligarchic revolutions and two democratic restorations; this has been interpreted as evidence that he was not actively involved in politics, despite his highly political plays. He was probably appointed to the Council of Five Hundred for a year at the beginning of the fourth century, but such appointments were very common in democratic Athens. ==Use of language== The language of Aristophanes' plays, and in Old Comedy generally, was valued by ancient commentators as a model of the Attic dialect. The orator Quintilian believed that the charm and grandeur of the Attic dialect made Old Comedy an example for orators to study and follow, and he considered it inferior in these respects only to the works of Homer. A revival of interest in the Attic dialect may have been responsible for the recovery and circulation of Aristophanes' plays during the fourth and fifth centuries AD, resulting in their survival today. In Aristophanes' plays, the Attic dialect is couched in verse and his plays can be appreciated for their poetic qualities. For Aristophanes' contemporaries the works of Homer and Hesiod formed the cornerstones of Hellenic history and culture. Thus poetry had a moral and social significance that made it an inevitable topic of comic satire. Aristophanes was very conscious of literary fashions and traditions and his plays feature numerous references to other poets. These include not only rival comic dramatists such as Eupolis and Hermippus and predecessors such as Magnes, Crates and Cratinus, but also tragedians, notably Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, all three of whom are mentioned in e.g. "The Frogs". Aristophanes was the equal of these great tragedians in his subtle use of lyrics. He appears to have modelled his approach to language on that of Euripides in particular, so much so that the comic dramatist Cratinus labelled him a 'Euripidaristophanist' addicted to hair-splitting niceties. A full appreciation of Aristophanes' plays requires an understanding of the poetic forms he employed with virtuoso skill, and of their different rhythms and associations. There were three broad poetic forms: iambic dialogue, tetrameter verses and lyrics: - Iambic dialogue: Aristophanes achieves an effect resembling natural speech through the use of the iambic trimeter (corresponding to the effects achieved by English poets such as Shakespeare using iambic pentameters). His realistic use of the meter makes it ideal for both dialogue and soliloquy, as for instance in the prologue, before the arrival of the Chorus, when the audience is introduced to the main issues in the plot. "The Acharnians" opens with these three lines by the hero, Dikaiopolis (rendered here in English as iambic pentameters): How many are the things that vex my heart! Pleasures are few, so very few – just four – But stressful things are manysandthousandsandheaps! Here Aristophanes employs a frequent device, arranging the syntax so that the final word in a line comes as a comic climax. The hero's pleasures are so few he can number them (, four) but his causes for complaint are so many they beggar numerical description and he must invent his own word for them (, literally "sandhundredheaps", here paraphrased "manysandthousandsandheaps"). The use of invented compound words is another comic device frequently found in the plays. - Tetrameter catalectic verses: These are long lines of anapests, trochees or iambs (where each line is ideally measured in four "dipodes" or pairs of feet), used in various situations within each play such as: - formal debates or "agons" between characters (typically in anapestic rhythm); - excited dialogue or heated argument (typically trochaic rhythm, the same as in early tragedy); - long speeches declaimed by the Chorus in parabases (in either anapestic or trochaic rhythms); - informal debates barely above the level of ordinary dialogue (typically iambic). Anapestic rhythms are naturally jaunty (as in many limericks) and trochaic meter is suited to rapid delivery (the word "trochee" is in fact derived from "trechein", "to run", as demonstrated for example by choruses who enter at speed, often in aggressive mood) However, even though both these rhythms can seem to "bowl along" Aristophanes often varies them through use of complex syntax and substituted meters, adapting the rhythms to the requirements of serious argument. In an anapestic passage in "The Frogs", for instance, the character Aeschylus presents a view of poetry that is supposed to be serious but which leads to a comic interruption by the god, Dionysus: AES.:It was Orpheus singing who taught us religion and how wrong people are when they kill, And we learned from Musaeus medicinal cures and the science of divination. If it's farming you want, Hesiod knows it all, when to plant, when to harvest. How godlike Homer got to be famous, I'll tell if you ask: he taught us what all good men should know, Discipline, fortitude, battle-readiness. DIO.: But no-one taught Pantocles – yesterday He was marching his men up and down on parade when the crest of his helmet fell off! The rhythm begins at a typical anapestic gallop, slows down to consider the revered poets Hesiod and Homer, then gallops off again to its comic conclusion at the expense of the unfortunate Pantocles. Such subtle variations in rhythm are common in the plays, allowing for serious points to be made while still whetting the audience's appetite for the next joke. - Lyrics: Almost nothing is known about the music that accompanied Greek lyrics, and the meter is often so varied and complex that it is difficult for modern readers or audiences to get a feel for the intended effects, yet Aristophanes still impresses with the charm and simplicity of his lyrics. Some of the most memorable and haunting lyrics are dignified hymns set free of the comic action. In the example below, taken from "The Wasps", the lyric is merely a comic interlude and the rhythm is steadily trochaic. The syntax in the original Greek is natural and unforced and it was probably accompanied by brisk and cheerful music, gliding to a concluding pun at the expense of Amynias, who is thought to have lost his fortune gambling. <poem style="margin-left:2em"> Though to myself I often seem A bright chap and not awkward, None comes close to Amynias, Son of Sellos of the Bigwig Clan, a man I once saw Dine with rich Leogorus. Now as poor as Antiphon, He lives on apples and pomegranates Yet he got himself appointed Ambassador to Pharsalus, Way up there in Thessaly, Home of the poor Penestes: Happy to be where everyone Is as penniless as he is!</poem> The pun here in English translation ("Penestes"–"penniless") is a weak version of the Greek pun , "Penéstaisi-penéstĕs", "destitute". Many of the puns in the plays are based on words that are similar rather than identical, and it has been observed that there could be more of them than scholars have yet been able to identify. Others are based on double meanings. Sometimes entire scenes are constructed on puns, as in "The Acharnians" with the Megarian farmer and his pigs: the Megarian farmer defies the Athenian embargo against Megarian trade, and tries to trade his daughters disguised as pigs, except "pig" was ancient slang for "vagina". Since the embargo against Megara was the pretext for the Peloponnesian War, Aristophanes naturally concludes that this whole mess happened because of "three cunts". It can be argued that the most important feature of the language of the plays is imagery, particularly the use of similes, metaphors and pictorial expressions. In "The Knights", for example, the ears of a character with selective hearing are represented as parasols that open and close. In "The Frogs", Aeschylus is said to compose verses in the manner of a horse rolling in a sandpit. Some plays feature revelations of human perfectibility that are poetic rather than religious in character, such as the marriage of the hero Pisthetairos to Zeus's paramour in "The Birds" and the "recreation" of old Athens, crowned with roses, at the end of "The Knights". ==Rhetoric== It is widely believed that Aristophanes condemned rhetoric on both moral and political grounds. He states, "a speaker trained in the new rhetoric may use his talents to deceive the jury and bewilder his opponents so thoroughly that the trial loses all semblance of fairness" He is speaking to the "art" of flattery, and evidence points towards the fact that many of Aristophanes' plays were actually created with the intent to attack the view of rhetoric. The most noticeable attack can be seen in his play Banqueters, in which two brothers from different educational backgrounds argue over which education is better. One brother comes from a background of "old-fashioned" education while the other brother appears to be a product of the sophistic education The chorus was mainly used by Aristophanes as a defense against rhetoric and would often talk about topics such as the civic duty of those who were educated in classical teachings. In Aristophanes' opinion it was the job of those educated adults to protect the public from deception and to stand as a beacon of light for those who were more gullible than others. One of the main reasons why Aristophanes was so against the sophists came into existence from the requirements listed by the leaders of the organization. Money was essential, which meant that roughly all of the pupils studying with the sophists came from upper-class backgrounds and excluded the rest of the polis. Aristophanes believed that education and knowledge was a public service and that anything that excluded willing minds was nothing but an abomination. He concludes that all politicians that study rhetoric must have "doubtful citizenships, unspeakable morals, and too much arrogance". ==Aristophanes and Old Comedy== The plays of Aristophanes are among the defining examples of Old Comedy. Aristophanes' plays are also the only full length Old Comedy plays that have survived from antiquity. Thus making them literally among the most defining elements, for defining Old Comedy... For this reason, an understanding of Old Comedy and Aristophanes' place in it is useful to comprehend his plays in their historical and cultural context. The themes of Old Comedy included: - Inclusive comedy: Old Comedy provided a variety of entertainments for a diverse audience. It accommodated a serious purpose, light entertainment, hauntingly beautiful lyrics, the buffoonery of puns and invented words, obscenities, disciplined verse, wildly absurd plots and a formal, dramatic structure. - Fantasy and absurdity: Fantasy in Old Comedy is unrestricted and impossibilities are ignored. Situations are developed logically to absurd conclusions, an approach to humour that is echoed for instance in the works of Lewis Carroll and Eugène Ionesco (the Theatre of the Absurd). The crazy costume worn by Dionysus in "The Frogs" is typical of an absurd result obtained on logical grounds—he wears a woman's saffron-coloured tunic because effeminacy is an aspect of his divinity, buskin boots because he is interested in reviving the art of tragedy, and a lion skin cape because, like Heracles, his mission leads him into Hades. Absurdities develop logically from initial premises in a plot. In "The Knights" for instance, Cleon's corrupt service to the people of Athens is originally depicted as a household relationship in which the slave dupes his master. The introduction of a rival, who is not a member of the household, leads to an absurd shift in the metaphor, so that Cleon and his rival become erastai competing for the affections of an eromenos, hawkers of oracles competing for the attention of a credulous public, athletes in a race for approval and orators competing for the popular vote. - The resourceful hero: In Aristophanic comedy, the hero is an independent-minded and self-reliant individual. He has something of the ingenuity of Homer's Odysseus and much of the shrewdness of the farmer idealized in Hesiod's "Works and Days", subjected to corrupt leaders and unreliable neighbours. Typically he devises a complicated and highly fanciful escape from an intolerable situation. Thus Dikaiopolis in "The Acharnians" contrives a "private" peace treaty with the Spartans; Bdelucleon in "The Wasps" turns his own house into a private law court in order to keep his jury-addicted father safely at home; Trygaeus in "Peace" flies to Olympus on a giant dung beetle to obtain an end to the Peloponnesian War; Pisthetairus in "Birds" sets off to establish his own colony and becomes instead the ruler of the bird kingdom and a rival to the gods. - The resourceful cast: The numerous surprising developments in an Aristophanic plot, the changes in scene, and the farcical comings and goings of minor characters towards the end of a play, were managed according to theatrical convention with only three principal actors (a fourth actor, often the leader of the chorus, was permitted to deliver short speeches). Songs and addresses to the audience by the Chorus gave the actors hardly enough time off-stage to draw breath and to prepare for changes in scene. - Complex structure: The action of an Aristophanic play obeyed a crazy logic of its own and yet it always unfolded within a formal, dramatic structure that was repeated with minor variations from one play to another. The different, structural elements are associated with different poetic meters and rhythms and these are generally lost in English translations. ===Dramatic structure of Aristophanes' plots=== The structural elements of a typical Aristophanic plot can be summarized as follows: - prologue – an introductory scene with a dialogue and/or soliloquy addressed to the audience, expressed in iambic trimeter and explaining the situation that is to be resolved in the play; - parodos – the arrival of the chorus, dancing and singing, sometimes followed by a choreographed skirmish with one or more actors, often expressed in long lines of tetrameters; - symmetrical scenes – passages featuring songs and declaimed verses in long lines of tetrameters, arranged symmetrically in two sections such that each half resembles the other in meter and line length; the agon and parabasis can be considered specific instances of symmetrical scenes: - parabasis – verses through which the Chorus addresses the audience directly, firstly in the middle of the play and again near the end (see the section below, Parabasis); - agon – a formal debate that decides the outcome of the play, typically in anapestic tetrameter, though iambs are sometimes used to delineate inferior arguments; - episodes – sections of dialogue in iambic trimeter, often in a succession of scenes featuring minor characters towards the end of a play; - songs ('strophes'/'antistrophes' or 'odes'/'antodes') – often in symmetrical pairs where each half has the same meter and number of lines as the other, used as transitions between other structural elements, or between scenes while actors change costume, and often commenting on the action; - exodus – the departure of the Chorus and the actors, in song and dance celebrating the hero's victory and sometimes celebrating a symbolic marriage. The rules of competition did not prevent a playwright arranging and adjusting these elements to suit his particular needs. In "The Acharnians" and "Peace", for example, there is no formal agon whereas in "The Clouds" there are two agons. ====Parabasis==== The parabasis is an address to the audience by the chorus or chorus leader while the actors leave or have left the stage. In this role, the chorus is sometimes out of character, as the author's voice, and sometimes in character, although these capacities are often difficult to distinguish. Generally the parabasis occurs somewhere in the middle of a play and often there is a second parabasis towards the end. The elements of a parabasis have been defined and named by scholars but it is probable that Aristophanes' own understanding was less formal. The selection of elements can vary from play to play and it varies considerably within plays between first and second parabasis. The early plays ("The Acharnians" to "The Birds") are fairly uniform in their approach however and the following elements of a parabasis can be found within them. - kommation: This is a brief prelude, comprising short lines and often including a valediction to the departing actors, such as (Go rejoicing!). - parabasis proper: This is usually a defense of the author's work and it includes criticism of the audience's attitude. It is declaimed in long lines of 'anapestic tetrameters'. Aristophanes himself refers to the parabasis proper only as 'anapests'. - pnigos: Sometimes known as 'a choker', it comprises a few short lines appended to the parabasis proper as a kind of rapid patter (it has been suggested that some of the effects achieved in a pnigos can be heard in "The Lord Chancellor's Nightmare Song", in act 2 of Gilbert and Sullivan's "Iolanthe"). - epirrhematic syzygies: These are symmetrical scenes that mirror each other in meter and number of lines. They form part of the first parabasis and they often comprise the entire second parabasis. They are characterized by the following elements: - "strophe" or "ode": These are lyrics in a variety of meters, sung by the Chorus in the first parabasis as an invocation to the gods and as a comic interlude in the second parabasis. - "epirrhema": These are usually long lines of trochaic tetrameters. Broadly political in their significance, they were probably spoken by the leader of the Chorus in character. - "antistrophe" or "antode": These are songs that mirror the strophe/ode in meter, length and function. - "antepirrhema". This is another declaimed passage and it mirrors the epirrhema in meter, length and function. "The Wasps" is thought to offer the best example of a conventional approach and the elements of a parabasis can be identified and located in that play as follows. Textual corruption is probably the reason for the absence of the antistrophe in the second parabasis. However, there are several variations from the ideal even within the early plays. For example, the parabasis proper in "The Clouds" (lines 518–562) is composed in eupolidean meter rather than in anapests and the second parabasis includes a kommation but it lacks strophe, antistrophe and antepirrhema ("The Clouds" lines 1113–1130). The second parabasis in "The Acharnians" lines 971–999 can be considered a hybrid parabasis/song (i.e. the declaimed sections are merely continuations of the strophe and antistrophe) and, unlike the typical parabasis, it seems to comment on actions that occur on stage during the address. An understanding of Old Comedy conventions such as the parabasis is necessary for a proper understanding of Aristophanes' plays; on the other hand, a sensitive appreciation of the plays is necessary for a proper understanding of the conventions. ==Influence and legacy== The tragic dramatists, Sophocles and Euripides, died near the end of the Peloponnesian War and the art of tragedy thereafter ceased to develop, yet comedy did continue to evolve after the defeat of Athens and it is possible that it did so because, in Aristophanes, it had a master craftsman who lived long enough to help usher it into a new age. Indeed, according to one ancient source (Platonius, c.9th century AD), one of Aristophanes's last plays, "Aioliskon", had neither a parabasis nor any choral lyrics (making it a type of Middle Comedy), while "Kolakos" anticipated all the elements of New Comedy, including a rape and a recognition scene. Aristophanes seems to have had some appreciation of his formative role in the development of comedy, as indicated by his comment in "Clouds" that his audience would be judged by other times according to its reception of his plays. "Clouds" was awarded third (i.e. last) place after its original performance and the text that has come down to the modern age was a subsequent draft that Aristophanes intended to be read rather than acted. The circulation of his plays in manuscript extended their influence beyond the original audience, over whom in fact they seem to have had little or no practical influence: they did not affect the career of Cleon, they failed to persuade the Athenians to pursue an honourable peace with Sparta and it is not clear that they were instrumental in the trial and execution of Socrates, whose death probably resulted from public animosity towards the philosopher's disgraced associates (such as Alcibiades), exacerbated of course by his own intransigence during the trial. The plays, in manuscript form, have been put to some surprising uses—as indicated earlier, they were used in the study of rhetoric on the recommendation of Quintilian and by students of the Attic dialect in the Fourth and Fifth Centuries AD. It is possible that Plato sent copies of the plays to Dionysius of Syracuse so that he might learn about Athenian life and government. Latin translations of the plays by Andreas Divus (Venice 1528) were circulated widely throughout Europe in the Renaissance and these were soon followed by translations and adaptations in modern languages. Racine, for example, drew "Les Plaideurs" (1668) from "The Wasps". Goethe (who turned to Aristophanes for a warmer and more vivid form of comedy than he could derive from readings of Terence and Plautus) adapted a short play "Die Vögel" from "The Birds" for performance in Weimar. Aristophanes has appealed to both conservatives and radicals in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries—Anatoly Lunacharsky, first Commissar of Enlightenment for the USSR in 1917, declared that the ancient dramatist would have a permanent place in proletarian theatre and yet conservative, Prussian intellectuals interpreted Aristophanes as a satirical opponent of social reform. The avant-gardist stage-director Karolos Koun directed a version of "The Birds" under the Acropolis in 1959 that established a trend in modern Greek history of breaking taboos through the voice of Aristophanes. The plays have a significance that goes beyond their artistic function, as historical documents that open the window on life and politics in classical Athens, in which respect they are perhaps as important as the writings of Thucydides. The artistic influence of the plays is immeasurable. They have contributed to the history of European theatre and that history in turn shapes our understanding of the plays. Thus for example the operettas of Gilbert and Sullivan can give us insights into Aristophanes' plays and similarly the plays can give us insights into the operettas. The plays are a source of famous sayings, such as "By words the mind is winged." Listed below are some of the many works influenced (more or less) by Aristophanes. ===Drama=== * 1909: "Wasps", original Greek, Cambridge University undergraduate production, music by Vaughan Williams; - 2004, July–October: "The Frogs" (musical), adapted by Nathan Lane, music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim, performed at The Vivian Beaumont Theater Broadway; - 1962–2006: various plays by students and staff, King's College London, in the original Greek: "Frogs" 1962, 1971, 1988; "Thesmophoriazusae" 1965, 1974, 1985; "The Acharnians" 1968, 1992, 2004; "Clouds" 1977, 1990; "Birds" 1982, 2000; "Ecclesiazusae" 2006; "Peace" 1970; "Wasps" 1981 - 2002: "Lysistrata", adapted by Robert Brustein, music by Galt MacDermot, performed by American Repertory Theatre, Boston US; - 2008, May–June: "Frogs", adapted by David Greenspan, music by Thomas Cabaniss, performed by Classic Stage Company, New York, US. - 2023, May: "The Wasps," adapted by the NSW Arts Unit Drama Company, directed by Genevieve de Souza, NIDA ===Literature=== * The romantic poet, Percy Shelley, wrote a comic, lyrical drama ("Swellfoot the Tyrant") in imitation of Aristophanes' play "The Frogs" after he was reminded of the Chorus in that play by a herd of pigs passing to market under the window of his lodgings in San Giuliano, Italy. - Aristophanes (particularly in reference to "The Clouds") is mentioned frequently by the character Menedemos in the Hellenic Traders series of novels by H. N. Turteltaub. - A liberal version of the comedies have been published in comic book format, initially by "Agrotikes Ekdoseis" during the 1980s and republished over the years by other companies. The plot was written by Tasos Apostolidis and the sketches were of George Akokalidis. The stories feature either Aristophanes narrating them, directing the play, or even as a character inside one of his stories. ===Radio shows=== * "Acropolis Now" is a comedy radio show for the BBC set in Ancient Greece. It features Aristophanes, Socrates and many other famous Greeks. (Not to be confused with the Australian sitcom of the same name.) Aristophanes is characterised as a celebrity playwright, and most of his plays have the title formula: "One of Our" [e.g] "Slaves has an Enormous Knob" (a reference to the exaggerated appendages worn by Greek comic actors) - "Aristophanes Against the World" was a radio play by Martyn Wade and broadcast on BBC Radio 4. Loosely based on several of his plays, it featured Clive Merrison as Aristophanes. - "The Wasps", radio play adapted by David Pountney, music by Vaughan Williams, recorded 26–28 July 2005, Albert Halls, Bolten, in association with BBC, under Halle label ===Music=== * "Satiric Dances for a Comedy by Aristophanes" is a three-movement piece for concert band composed by Norman Dello Joio. It was commissioned in commemoration of the Bicentennial of 19 April 1775 (the start of the American Revolutionary War) by the Concord (Massachusetts) Band. The commission was funded by the Town of Concord and assistance was given by the Eastern National Park and Monument Association in cooperation with the National Park Service. - Ralph Vaughan Williams wrote "The Wasps" for a 1909 Cambridge University production of the play. == Translation of Aristophanes == Alan H. Sommerstein believes that although there are good translations of Aristophanes' comedies, none could be flawless, "for there is much truth in the paradox that the only really perfect translation is the original." Nevertheless, there are competent, respectable translations in many languages. Despite the fact that translations of Aristophanes may not be perfect, "the reception of Aristophanes has gained extraordinary momentum as a topic of academic interest in the last few years." ==Works== ===Surviving plays=== Most of these are traditionally referred to by abbreviations of their "Latin" titles; Latin remains a customary language of scholarship in classical studies. - "The Acharnians" ( "Akharneis"; Attic ; ")", 425 BC - "The Knights" ( "Hippeis"; Attic ; Latin: ""), 424 BC - "The Clouds" ( "Nephelai"; Latin: ""), original 423 BC, uncompleted revised version from 419 to 416 BC survives - "The Wasps" ( "Sphekes"; Latin: ""), 422 BC - "Peace" ( "Eirene"; Latin: ""), first version, 421 BC - "The Birds" ( "Ornithes"; Latin: ""), 414 BC - "Lysistrata" ( "Lysistrate"), 411 BC - "Thesmophoriazusae" or "The Women Celebrating the Thesmophoria" ( "Thesmophoriazousai"), first version - "The Frogs" ( "Batrakhoi"; Latin: ""), 405 BC - "Ecclesiazusae" or "The Assemblywomen"; ( "Ekklesiazousai"), - "Wealth" ( "Ploutos"; Latin "Plutus") second version, 388 BC ===Datable non-surviving (lost) plays=== The standard modern edition of the fragments is Rudolf Kassel and Colin François Lloyd Austin's, "Poetae Comici Graeci" III.2. - "Banqueters" (Δαιταλεῖς "Daitaleis", 427 BC) - "Babylonians" (Βαβυλώνιοι "Babylonioi", 426 BC) - "Farmers" (Γεωργοί "Georgoi", 424 BC) - "Merchant Ships" (Ὁλκάδες "Holkades", 423 BC) - "Clouds" (first version, 423 BC) - "Proagon" (Προάγων, 422 BC) - "Amphiaraus" (Ἀμφιάραος, 414 BC) - "Plutus" ("Wealth", first version, 408 BC) - "Gerytades" (Γηρυτάδης, uncertain, probably 407 BC) - "Cocalus" (Κώκαλος, 387 BC) - "Aiolosicon" (Αἰολοσίκων, second version, 386 BC) ===Undated non-surviving (lost) plays=== * "Aiolosicon" (first version) - "Anagyrus" (Ἀνάγυρος) - "Frying-Pan Men" (Ταγηνισταί "Tagenistai") - "Daedalus" (Δαίδαλος) - "Danaids" (Δαναΐδες "Danaides") - "Centaur" (Κένταυρος "Kentauros") - "Heroes" (Ἥρωες) - "Lemnian Women" (Λήμνιαι "Lemniai") - "Old Age" (Γῆρας "Geras") - "Peace" (second version) - "Phoenician Women" (Φοίνισσαι "Phoinissai") - "Polyidus" (Πολύιδος) - "Seasons" (Ὧραι "Horai") - "Storks" (Πελαργοί "Pelargoi") - "Telmessians" (Τελμησσεῖς "Telmesseis") - "Triphales" (Τριφάλης) - "Thesmophoriazusae" ("Women at the Thesmophoria Festival", second version) - "Women in Tents" (Σκηνὰς Καταλαμβάνουσαι "Skenas Katalambanousai")

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Albert Schweitzer

Ludwig Philipp Albert Schweitzer (; 14 January 1875 – 4 September 1965) was an Alsatian polymath. He was a theologian, organist, musicologist, writer, humanitarian, philosopher, and physician. A Lutheran minister, Schweitzer challenged both the secular view of Jesus as depicted by the historical-critical method current at this time, as well as the traditional Christian view. His contributions to the interpretation of Pauline Christianity concern the role of Paul's mysticism of "being in Christ" as primary and the doctrine of justification by faith as secondary. He received the 1952 Nobel Peace Prize for his philosophy of "Reverence for Life", becoming the eighth Frenchman to be awarded that prize. His philosophy was expressed in many ways, but most famously in founding and sustaining the Hôpital Albert Schweitzer in Lambaréné, French Equatorial Africa (now Gabon). As a music scholar and organist, he studied the music of German composer Johann Sebastian Bach and influenced the Organ Reform Movement ("Orgelbewegung"). ==Early years== Schweitzer was born 14 January 1875 in Kaysersberg in Alsace, in what had less than four years previously become the Imperial Territory of Alsace-Lorraine in the German Empire after being French for more than two centuries; he later became a citizen of France after World War I, when Alsace became French territory again. He was the son of Adèle (née Schillinger) and Louis Théophile Schweitzer. He spent his childhood in Gunsbach, also in Alsace, where his father, the local Lutheran-Evangelical pastor of the EPCAAL, taught him how to play music. The tiny village would become home to the Association Internationale Albert Schweitzer (AIAS). The medieval parish church of Gunsbach was shared by the Protestant and Catholic congregations, which held their prayers in different areas at different times on Sundays. This compromise arose after the Protestant Reformation and the Thirty Years' War. Schweitzer, the pastor's son, grew up in this exceptional environment of religious tolerance, and developed the belief that true Christianity should always work towards a unity of faith and purpose. Schweitzer's first language was the Alsatian dialect of German. At the Mulhouse gymnasium he received his "Abitur" (the certificate at the end of secondary education) in 1893. He studied organ in Mulhouse from 1885 to 1893 with Eugène Munch, organist at the Protestant cathedral, who inspired Schweitzer with his enthusiasm for the music of German composer Richard Wagner. In 1893, he played for the French organist Charles-Marie Widor (at Saint-Sulpice, Paris), for whom Johann Sebastian Bach's organ music contained a mystic sense of the eternal. Widor, deeply impressed, agreed to teach Schweitzer without fee, and a great and influential friendship thus began. From 1893 Schweitzer studied Protestant theology at the Kaiser Wilhelm University in Strasbourg. There he also received instruction in piano and counterpoint from professor Gustav Jacobsthal, and associated closely with Ernest Munch, the brother of his former teacher, organist of St William church, who was also a passionate admirer of J. S. Bach's music. Schweitzer served his one-year compulsory military service in 1894. Schweitzer saw many operas of Richard Wagner in Strasbourg (under Otto Lohse) and in 1896 he managed to afford a visit to the Bayreuth Festival to see Wagner's "Der Ring des Nibelungen" and "Parsifal", both of which impressed him. In 1898, he returned to Paris to write a PhD dissertation on "The Religious Philosophy of Kant" at the Sorbonne, and to study in earnest with Widor. Here he often met with the elderly Aristide Cavaillé-Coll. He also studied piano at that time with Marie Jaëll. In 1899, Schweitzer spent the summer semester at the University of Berlin and eventually obtained his theology degree at the University of Strasbourg. He published his PhD thesis at the University of Tübingen in 1899. In 1905, Schweitzer began his study of medicine at the University of Strasbourg, culminating in the degree of M.D. in 1913. ==Music== Schweitzer rapidly gained prominence as a musical scholar and organist, dedicated also to the rescue, restoration and study of historic pipe organs. With theological insight, he interpreted the use of pictorial and symbolical representation in J. S. Bach's religious music. In 1899, he astonished Widor by explaining figures and motifs in Bach's Chorale Preludes as painter-like tonal and rhythmic imagery illustrating themes from the words of the hymns on which they were based. They were works of devotional contemplation in which the musical design corresponded to literary ideas, conceived visually. Widor had not grown up with knowledge of the old Lutheran hymns. The exposition of these ideas, encouraged by Widor and Munch, became Schweitzer's last task, and appeared in the masterly study "J. S. Bach: Le Musicien-Poète", written in French and published in 1905. There was great demand for a German edition, but, instead of translating it, he decided to rewrite it. The result was two volumes ("J. S. Bach"), which were published in 1908 and translated into English by Ernest Newman in 1911. Ernst Cassirer, a contemporaneous German philosopher, called it "one of the best interpretations" of Bach. During its preparation Schweitzer became a friend of Cosima Wagner, then resident in Strasbourg, with whom he had many theological and musical conversations, exploring his view of Bach's descriptive music, and playing the major Chorale Preludes for her at the Temple Neuf. Schweitzer's interpretative approach greatly influenced the modern understanding of Bach's music. He became a welcome guest at the Wagners' home, Wahnfried. He also corresponded with composer Clara Faisst, who became a good friend. His pamphlet "The Art of Organ Building and Organ Playing in Germany and France" (1906, republished with an appendix on the state of the organ-building industry in 1927) effectively launched the 20th-century "Orgelbewegung", which turned away from romantic extremes and rediscovered baroque principles—although this sweeping reform movement in organ building eventually went further than Schweitzer had intended. In 1909, he addressed the "Third Congress of the International Society of Music" at Vienna on the subject. Having circulated a questionnaire among players and organ-builders in several European countries, he produced a very considered report. This provided the basis for the "International Regulations for Organ Building". He envisaged instruments in which the French late-romantic full-organ sound should work integrally with the English and German romantic reed pipes, and with the classical Alsace Silbermann organ resources and baroque flue pipes, all in registers regulated (by stops) to access distinct voices in fugue or counterpoint capable of combination without loss of distinctness: different voices singing the same music together. Schweitzer also studied piano under Isidor Philipp, head of the piano department at the Paris Conservatory. In 1905, Widor and Schweitzer were among the six musicians who founded the Paris Bach Society, a choir dedicated to performing J. S. Bach's music, for whose concerts Schweitzer took the organ part regularly until 1913. He was also appointed organist for the Bach Concerts of the Orféo Català at Barcelona, Spain, and often travelled there for that purpose. He and Widor collaborated on a new edition of Bach's organ works, with detailed analysis of each work in three languages (English, French, German). Schweitzer, who insisted that the score should show Bach's notation with no additional markings, wrote the commentaries for the Preludes and Fugues, and Widor those for the Sonatas and Concertos: six volumes were published in 1912–14. Three more, to contain the Chorale Preludes with Schweitzer's analyses, were to be worked on in Africa, but these were never completed, perhaps because for him they were inseparable from his evolving theological thought. On departure for Lambaréné in 1913, he was presented with a pedal piano, a piano with pedal attachments to operate like an organ pedal-keyboard. Built especially for the tropics, it was delivered by river in a huge dug-out canoe to Lambaréné, packed in a zinc-lined case. At first, he regarded his new life as a renunciation of his art, and fell out of practice, but after some time he resolved to study and learn by heart the works of Bach, Mendelssohn, Widor, César Franck, and Max Reger systematically. It became his custom to play during the lunch hour and on Sunday afternoons. Schweitzer's pedal piano was still in use at Lambaréné in 1946. According to a visitor, Dr. Gaine Cannon, of Balsam Grove, N.C., the old, dilapidated piano-organ was still being played by Dr. Schweitzer in 1962, and stories told that "his fingers were still lively" on the old instrument at 88 years of age. Sir Donald Tovey dedicated his conjectural completion of Bach's "The Art of Fugue" to Schweitzer. Schweitzer's recordings of organ-music, and his innovative recording technique, are described below. One of his pupils was conductor and composer Hans Münch. == Theology == In 1899, Schweitzer became a deacon at the church of Saint Nicholas in Strasbourg. In 1900, with the completion of his licentiate in theology, he was ordained as curate, and that year he witnessed the Oberammergau Passion Play. In the following year he became provisional Principal of the Theological College of Saint Thomas, from which he had just graduated, and in 1903 his appointment was made permanent. In 1906, he published "Geschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung" [History of Life-of-Jesus research]. This book, which established his reputation, was first published in English in 1910 as "The Quest of the Historical Jesus". Under this title the book became famous in the English-speaking world. A second German edition was published in 1913, containing theologically significant revisions and expansions: this revised edition did not appear in English until 2001. In 1931, he published "Mystik des Apostels Paulus" ("The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle"); a second edition was published in 1953. ==="The Quest of the Historical Jesus" (1906)=== In "The Quest", Schweitzer criticised the liberal view put forward by liberal and romantic scholars during the first quest for the historical Jesus. Schweitzer maintained that the life of Jesus must be interpreted in the light of Jesus' own convictions, which reflected late Jewish eschatology and apocalypticism. Schweitzer writes: Instead of these liberal and romantic views, Schweitzer wrote that Jesus and his followers expected the imminent end of the world. Schweitzer cross-referenced the many New Testament verses declaring imminent fulfilment of the promise of the World's ending within the lifetime of Jesus's original followers. He wrote that in his view, in the Gospel of Mark, Jesus speaks of a "tribulation", with his "coming in the clouds with great power and glory" (St. Mark), and states that it will happen but it has not: "This generation shall not pass, till all these things be fulfilled" (St. Matthew, 24:34) or, "have taken place" (Luke 21:32). Similarly, in 1st Peter 1:20, "Christ, who verily was foreordained before the foundation of the world but was manifest in these last times for you", as well as "But the end of all things is at hand" (1 Peter 4:7) and "Surely, I come quickly." (Revelation 22:20). Schweitzer concluded his treatment of Jesus with what has been called the most famous words of twentieth-century theology: "He comes to us as One unknown, without a name, as of old, by the lake-side, He came to those men who knew him not. He speaks to us the same word: 'Follow thou me' and sets us to the task which He has to fulfill for our time. He commands. And to those who obey Him, whether they be wise or simple, He will reveal Himself in the toils, the conflicts, the sufferings which they shall pass through in His fellowship, and as an ineffable mystery, they shall learn in their own experience Who He is." ==="The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle" (1931)=== In "The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle", Schweitzer first distinguishes between two categories of mysticism: primitive and developed. Primitive mysticism "has not yet risen to a conception of the universal, and is still confined to naive views of earthly and super-earthly, temporal and eternal". Additionally, he argues that this view of a "union with the divinity, brought about by efficacious ceremonies, is found even in quite primitive religions". On the other hand, a more developed form of mysticism can be found in the Greek mystery-cults that were popular in first-century A.D. society. These included the cults of Attis, Osiris, and Mithras. A developed form of mysticism is attained when the "conception of the universal is reached and a man reflects upon his relation to the totality of being and to Being in itself". Schweitzer claims that this form of mysticism is more intellectual and can be found "among the Brahmans and in the Buddha, in Platonism, in Stoicism, in Spinoza, Schopenhauer, and Hegel". Next, Schweitzer poses the question: "Of what precise kind then is the mysticism of Paul?" He locates Paul between the two extremes of primitive mysticism and developed mysticism. Paul stands high above primitive mysticism, due to his intellectual writings, but never speaks of being one with God or being in God. Instead, he conceives of sonship to God as "mediated and effected by means of the mystical union with Christ". He summarizes Pauline mysticism as "being in Christ" rather than "being in God". Paul's imminent eschatology (from his background in Jewish eschatology) causes him to believe that the kingdom of God has not yet come and that Christians are now living in the time of Christ. Christ-mysticism holds the field until God-mysticism becomes possible, which is in the near future. Therefore, Schweitzer argues that Paul is the only theologian who does not claim that Christians can have an experience of "being-in-God". Rather, Paul uses the phrase "being-in-Christ" to illustrate how Jesus is a mediator between the Christian community and God. Additionally, Schweitzer explains how the experience of "being-in-Christ" is not a "static partaking in the spiritual being of Christ, but as the real co-experiencing of His dying and rising again". The "realistic" partaking in the mystery of Jesus is only possible within the solidarity of the Christian community. One of Schweitzer's major arguments in "The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle" is that Paul's mysticism, marked by his phrase "being in Christ", gives the clue to the whole of Pauline theology. Rather than reading justification by faith as the main topic of Pauline thought, which has been the most popular argument set forward by Martin Luther, Schweitzer argues that Paul's emphasis was on the mystical union with God by "being in Christ". Jaroslav Pelikan, in his foreword to "The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle", points out that: ====Paul's "realism" versus Hellenistic "symbolism"==== Schweitzer contrasts Paul's "realistic" dying and rising with Christ to the "symbolism" of Hellenism. Although Paul is widely influenced by Hellenistic thought, he is not controlled by it. Schweitzer explains that Paul focused on the idea of fellowship with the divine being through the "realistic" dying and rising with Christ rather than the "symbolic" Hellenistic act of becoming like Christ through deification. After baptism, Christians are continually renewed throughout their lifetimes due to participation in the dying and rising with Christ (most notably through the Sacraments). On the other hand, the Hellenist "lives on the store of experience which he acquired in the initiation" and is not continually affected by a shared communal experience. Another major difference between Paul's "realism" and Hellenistic "symbolism" is the exclusive nature of the former and the inclusive nature of the latter. Schweitzer unabashedly emphasizes the fact that "Paul's thought follows predestinarian lines". He explains, "only the man who is elected thereto can enter into relation with God". Although every human being is invited to become a Christian, only those who have undergone the initiation into the Christian community through baptism can share in the "realistic" dying and rising with Christ. ==Medicine== At the age of 30, in 1905, Schweitzer answered the call of The Society of the Evangelist Missions of Paris, which was looking for a physician. The committee of this missionary society was not ready to accept his offer, considering his Lutheran theology to be "incorrect". He could easily have obtained a place in a German evangelical mission, but wished to follow the original call despite the doctrinal difficulties. Amid a hail of protests from his friends, family and colleagues, he resigned his post and re-entered the university as a student in a three-year course towards the degree of Doctorate in Medicine, a subject in which he had little knowledge or previous aptitude. He planned to spread the Gospel by the example of his Christian labour of healing, rather than through the verbal process of preaching, and believed that this service should be acceptable within any branch of Christian teaching. Even in his study of medicine, and through his clinical course, Schweitzer pursued the ideal of the philosopher-scientist. By extreme application and hard work, he completed his studies successfully at the end of 1911. His medical degree dissertation was another work on the historical Jesus, "Die psychiatrische Beurteilung Jesu. Darstellung und Kritik" [The psychiatric evaluation of Jesus. Description and criticism] (published in English in 1948 as "The Psychiatric Study of Jesus. Exposition and Criticism"). He defended Jesus' mental health in it. In June 1912, he married Helene Bresslau, municipal inspector for orphans and daughter of the Jewish pan-Germanist historian Harry Bresslau. In 1912, now armed with a medical degree, Schweitzer made a definite proposal to go as a physician to work at his own expense in the Paris Missionary Society's mission at Lambaréné on the Ogooué river, in what is now Gabon, in Africa (then a French colony). He refused to attend a committee to inquire into his doctrine, but met each committee member personally and was at last accepted. Through concerts and other fund-raising, he was ready to equip a small hospital. In early 1913, he and his wife set off to establish a hospital (the Hôpital Albert Schweitzer) near an existing mission post. The site was nearly 200 miles (14 days by raft) upstream from the mouth of the Ogooué at Port Gentil (Cape Lopez) (and so accessible to external communications), but downstream of most tributaries, so that internal communications within Gabon converged towards Lambaréné. In the first nine months, he and his wife had about 2,000 patients to examine, some travelling many days and hundreds of kilometres to reach him. In addition to injuries, he was often treating severe sandflea and crawcraw infections, "yaws", tropical eating sores, heart disease, tropical dysentery, tropical malaria, sleeping sickness, leprosy, fevers, strangulated hernias, necrosis, abdominal tumours and chronic constipation and nicotine poisoning, while also attempting to deal with deliberate poisonings, fetishism and fear of cannibalism among the Mbahouin. Schweitzer's wife, Helene Schweitzer, served as an anaesthetist for surgical operations. After briefly occupying a shed formerly used as a chicken hut, in late 1913 they built their first hospital of corrugated iron, with a consulting room and operating theatre and with a dispensary and sterilising room. The waiting room and dormitory were built, like native huts, of unhewn logs along a path leading to the boat landing. The Schweitzers had their own bungalow and employed as their assistant Joseph, a French-speaking Mpongwe, who first came to Lambaréné as a patient. After World War I broke out in July 1914, Schweitzer and his wife, German citizens in a French colony when the countries were at war, were put under supervision by the French military at Lambaréné, where Schweitzer continued his work. In 1917, exhausted by over four years' work and by tropical anaemia, they were taken to Bordeaux and interned first in Garaison and then from March 1918 in Saint-Rémy-de-Provence. In July 1918, after being transferred to his home in Alsace, he was a free man again. At this time Schweitzer, born a German citizen, had his parents' former (pre-1871) French citizenship reinstated and became a French citizen. Then, working as medical assistant and assistant-pastor in Strasbourg, he advanced his project on the philosophy of civilization, which had occupied his mind since 1900. By 1920, his health recovering, he was giving organ recitals and doing other fund-raising work to repay borrowings and raise funds for returning to Gabon. In 1922, he delivered the Dale Memorial Lectures in the University of Oxford, and from these in the following year appeared Volumes I and II of his great work, "The Decay and Restoration of Civilization" and "Civilization and Ethics". The two remaining volumes, on "The World-View of Reverence for Life " and a fourth on the Civilized State, were never completed. In 1924, Schweitzer returned to Africa without his wife, but with an Oxford undergraduate, Noel Gillespie, as his assistant. Everything was heavily decayed, and building and doctoring progressed together for months. He now had salvarsan for treating syphilitic ulcers and framboesia. Additional medical staff, nurse (Miss) Kottmann and Dr. Victor Nessmann, joined him in 1924, and Dr. Mark Lauterberg in 1925; the growing hospital was manned by native orderlies. Later Dr. Trensz replaced Nessmann, and Martha Lauterberg and Hans Muggenstorm joined them. Joseph also returned. In 1925–6, new hospital buildings were constructed, and also a ward for white patients, so that the site became like a village. The onset of famine and a dysentery epidemic created fresh problems. Much of the building work was carried out with the help of local people and patients. Drug advances for sleeping sickness included Germanin and . Trensz conducted experiments showing that the non-amoebic strain of dysentery was caused by a paracholera vibrion (facultative anaerobic bacteria). With the new hospital built and the medical team established, Schweitzer returned to Europe in 1927, this time leaving a functioning hospital at work. He was there again from 1929 to 1932. Gradually his opinions and concepts became acknowledged, not only in Europe, but worldwide. There was a further period of work in 1935. In January 1937, he returned again to Lambaréné and continued working there throughout World War II. ===Hospital conditions=== The journalist James Cameron visited Lambaréné in 1953 (when Schweitzer was 78) and found significant flaws in the practices and attitudes of Schweitzer and his staff. The hospital suffered from squalor and was without modern amenities, and Schweitzer had little contact with the local people. Cameron did not make public what he had seen at the time: according to a BBC dramatisation, he made the unusual journalistic decision to withhold the story, and resisted the expressed wish of his employers to publish an exposé. The poor conditions of the hospital in Lambaréné were also famously criticized by Nigerian professor and novelist Chinua Achebe in his essay on Joseph Conrad's novel "Heart of Darkness": "In a comment which has often been quoted Schweitzer says: 'The African is indeed my brother but my junior brother.' And so he proceeded to build a hospital appropriate to the needs of junior brothers with standards of hygiene reminiscent of medical practice in the days before the germ theory of disease came into being." Schweitzer's biographer Edgar Berman, who was a volunteer surgeon at Lambarene for several months and had extended conversations with Schweitzer, has a different perspective. Schweitzer felt that patients were better off, and the hospital functioned better given the severe lack of funding, if patients' families lived on the hospital grounds during treatment. Surgical survival rates were, Berman asserts, as high as in many fully-equipped western hospitals. The volume of patients needing care, the difficulty of obtaining materials and supplies, and the scarcity of trained medical staff willing to work long hours in the remote setting for almost no pay all argued for a spartan setting with an emphasis on high medical standards nevertheless. ==Schweitzer's views== ===Colonialism=== Schweitzer considered his work as a medical missionary in Africa to be his response to Jesus' call to become "fishers of men". Schweitzer was one of colonialism's harshest critics. In a sermon that he preached on 6 January 1905, before he had told anyone of his plans to dedicate the rest of his life to work as a physician in Africa, he said: ===Paternalism=== Schweitzer was nonetheless still sometimes accused of being paternalistic in his attitude towards Africans. For instance, he thought that Gabonese independence came too early, without adequate education or accommodation to local circumstances. Edgar Berman quotes Schweitzer as having said in 1960, "No society can go from the primeval directly to an industrial state without losing the leavening that time and an agricultural period allow." Schweitzer believed dignity and respect must be extended to blacks, while also sometimes characterizing them as children. He summarized his views on European-African relations by saying "With regard to the negroes, then, I have coined the formula: 'I am your brother, it is true, but your elder brother.'" Chinua Achebe has criticized him for this characterization, though Achebe acknowledges that Schweitzer's use of the word "brother" at all was, for a European of the early 20th century, an unusual expression of human solidarity between Europeans and Africans. Schweitzer eventually emended and complicated this notion with his later statement that "The time for speaking of older and younger brothers has passed". American journalist John Gunther visited Lambaréné in the 1950s and reported Schweitzer's patronizing attitude towards Africans. He also noted the lack of Africans trained to be skilled workers. By comparison, his English contemporary Albert Ruskin Cook in Uganda had been training nurses and midwives since the 1910s, and had published a manual of midwifery in the local language of Luganda. After three decades in Africa, Schweitzer still depended on Europe for nurses. ==Reverence for life== The keynote of Schweitzer's personal philosophy (which he considered to be his greatest contribution to mankind) was the idea of "Reverence for Life" (). He thought that Western civilization was decaying because it had abandoned affirmation of life as its ethical foundation. In the Preface to "Civilization and Ethics" (1923) he argued that Western philosophy from Descartes to Kant had set out to explain the objective world expecting that humanity would be found to have a special meaning within it. But no such meaning was found, and the rational, life-affirming optimism of the Age of Enlightenment began to evaporate. A rift opened between this world-view, as material knowledge, and the life-view, understood as Will, expressed in the pessimist philosophies from Schopenhauer onward. Scientific materialism (advanced by Herbert Spencer and Charles Darwin) portrayed an objective world process devoid of ethics, entirely an expression of the will-to-live. Schweitzer wrote, "True philosophy must start from the most immediate and comprehensive fact of consciousness, and this may be formulated as follows: 'I am life which wills to live, and I exist in the midst of life which wills to live. In nature one form of life must always prey upon another. However, human consciousness holds an awareness of, and sympathy for, the will of other beings to live. An ethical human strives to escape from this contradiction so far as possible. Though we cannot perfect the endeavour we should strive for it: the will-to-live constantly renews itself, for it is both an evolutionary necessity and a spiritual phenomenon. Life and love are rooted in this same principle, in a personal spiritual relationship to the universe. Ethics themselves proceed from the need to respect the wish of other beings to exist as one does towards oneself. Even so, Schweitzer found many instances in world religions and philosophies in which the principle was denied, not least in the European Middle Ages, and in the Indian Brahminic philosophy. For Schweitzer, mankind had to accept that objective reality is ethically neutral. It could then affirm a new Enlightenment through spiritual rationalism, by giving priority to volition or ethical will as the primary meaning of life. Mankind had to choose to create the moral structures of civilization: the world-view must derive from the life-view, not vice versa. Respect for life, overcoming coarser impulses and hollow doctrines, leads the individual to live in the service of other people and of every living creature. In contemplation of the will-to-life, respect for the life of others becomes the highest principle and the defining purpose of humanity. Such was the theory which Schweitzer sought to put into practice in his own life. According to some authors, Schweitzer's thought, and specifically his development of reverence for life, was influenced by Indian religious thought and in particular the Jain principle of ahimsa, or non-violence. Albert Schweitzer noted the contribution of Indian influence in his book "Indian Thought and Its Development": Further on ahimsa and the reverence for life in the same book, he elaborates on the ancient Indian didactic work of the Tirukkural, which he observed that, like the Buddha and the Bhagavad Gita, "stands for the commandment not to kill and not to damage". Translating several couplets from the work, he remarked that the Kural insists on the idea that "good must be done for its own sake" and said, "There hardly exists in the literature of the world a collection of maxims in which we find so much lofty wisdom." ==Later life== After the birth of their daughter (Rhena Schweitzer Miller), Albert's wife, Helene Schweitzer was no longer able to live in Lambaréné due to her health. In 1923, the family moved to Königsfeld im Schwarzwald, Baden-Württemberg, where he was building a house for the family. This house is now maintained as a Schweitzer museum. From 1939 to 1948, he stayed in Lambaréné, unable to go back to Europe because of the war. Three years after the end of World War II, in 1948, he returned for the first time to Europe and kept travelling back and forth (and once to the US) as long as he was able. During his return visits to his home village of Gunsbach, Schweitzer continued to make use of the family house, which after his death became an archive and museum to his life and work. His life was portrayed in the 1952 movie "Il est minuit, Docteur Schweitzer", starring Pierre Fresnay as Albert Schweitzer and Jeanne Moreau as his nurse Marie. Schweitzer inspired actor Hugh O'Brian when O'Brian visited in Africa. O'Brian returned to the United States and founded the Hugh O'Brian Youth Leadership Foundation (HOBY). Schweitzer was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize of 1952, accepting the prize with the speech, "The Problem of Peace". With the $33,000 prize money, he started the leprosarium at Lambaréné. From 1952 until his death he worked against nuclear tests and nuclear weapons with Albert Einstein, Otto Hahn and Bertrand Russell. In 1957 and 1958, he broadcast four speeches over Radio Oslo which were published in "Peace or Atomic War". In 1957, Schweitzer was one of the founders of The Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy. On 23 April 1957, Schweitzer made his "Declaration of Conscience" speech; it was broadcast to the world over Radio Oslo, pleading for the abolition of nuclear weapons. His speech ended, "The end of further experiments with atom bombs would be like the early sunrays of hope which suffering humanity is longing for." Weeks prior to his death, an American film crew was allowed to visit Schweitzer and Drs. Muntz and Friedman, both Holocaust survivors, to record his work and daily life at the hospital. The film "The Legacy of Albert Schweitzer", narrated by Henry Fonda, was produced by Warner Brothers and aired once. It resides in their vault today in deteriorating condition. Although several attempts have been made to restore and re-air the film, all access has been denied. In 1955, he was made an honorary member of the Order of Merit (OM) by Queen Elizabeth II. He was also a chevalier of the Military and Hospitaller Order of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem. Schweitzer died on 4 September 1965 at his beloved hospital in Lambaréné, now in independent Gabon. His grave, on the banks of the Ogooué River, is marked by a cross he made himself. His cousin Anne-Marie Schweitzer Sartre was the mother of Jean-Paul Sartre. Her father, Charles Schweitzer, was the older brother of Albert Schweitzer's father, Louis Théophile. Schweitzer is often cited in vegetarian literature as being an advocate of vegetarianism in his later years. Schweitzer was not a vegetarian in his earlier life. For example, in 1950, biographer Magnus C. Ratter commented that Schweitzer never "commit[ted] himself to the anti-vivisection, vegetarian, or pacifist positions, though his thought leads in this direction". Biographer James Bentley has written that Schweitzer became a vegetarian after his wife's death in 1957 and he was "living almost entirely on lentil soup". In contrast to this, historian David N. Stamos has written that Schweitzer was not a vegetarian in his personal life nor imposed it on his missionary hospital but he did help animals and was opposed to hunting. Stamos noted that Schweitzer held the view that evolution ingrained humans with an instinct for meat so it was useless in trying to deny it. The Albert Schweitzer Fellowship was founded in 1940 by Schweitzer to unite US supporters in filling the gap in support for his Hospital when his European supply lines were cut off by war, and continues to support the Lambaréné Hospital today. Schweitzer considered his ethic of Reverence for Life, not his hospital, his most important legacy, saying that his Lambaréné Hospital was just "my own improvisation on the theme of Reverence for Life. Everyone can have their own Lambaréné". Today ASF helps large numbers of young Americans in health-related professional fields find or create "their own Lambaréné" in the US or internationally. ASF selects and supports nearly 250 new US and Africa Schweitzer Fellows each year from over 100 of the leading US schools of medicine, nursing, public health, and every other field with some relation to health (including music, law, and divinity). The peer-supporting lifelong network of "Schweitzer Fellows for Life" numbered over 2,000 members in 2008, and is growing by nearly 1,000 every four years. Nearly 150 of these Schweitzer Fellows have served at the Hospital in Lambaréné, for three-month periods during their last year of medical school. - Schweitzer eponyms Schweitzer's writings and life are often quoted, resulting in a number of eponyms, such as the 'Schweitzer technique' (discussed below), and the 'Schweitzer effect'. The 'Schweitzer effect' refers to his statement that 'Example is not the main thing in influencing others; it is the only thing'. This eponym is used in medical education to highlight the relationship between lived experience/example and medical students' opinions on professional behaviours. ==International Albert Schweitzer Prize== The prize was first awarded on 29 May 2011 to Eugen Drewermann and the physician couple Rolf and Raphaela Maibach in Königsfeld im Schwarzwald, where Schweitzer's former residence now houses the Albert Schweitzer Museum. ==Sound recordings== Recordings of Schweitzer playing the music of Bach are available on CD. During 1934 and 1935 he resided in Britain, delivering the Gifford Lectures at Edinburgh University, and those on "Religion in Modern Civilization" at Oxford and London. He had originally conducted trials for recordings for HMV on the organ of the old Queen's Hall in London. These records did not satisfy him, the instrument being too harsh. In mid-December 1935 he began to record for Columbia Records on the organ of All Hallows, Barking-by-the-Tower, London. Then at his suggestion the sessions were transferred to the church of Ste Aurélie in Strasbourg, on a mid-18th-century organ by Johann Andreas Silbermann (brother of Gottfried), an organ-builder greatly revered by Bach, which had been restored by the Lorraine organ-builder Frédéric Härpfer shortly before the First World War. These recordings were made in the course of a fortnight in October 1936. ===Schweitzer Technique=== Schweitzer developed a technique for recording the performances of Bach's music. Known as the "Schweitzer Technique", it is a slight improvement on what is commonly known as mid-side. The mid-side sees a figure-8 microphone pointed off-axis, perpendicular to the sound source. Then a single cardioid microphone is placed on axis, bisecting the figure-8 pattern. The signal from the figure-8 is muted, panned hard left and right, one of the signals being flipped out of polarity. In the Schweitzer method, the figure-8 is replaced by two small diaphragm condenser microphones pointed directly away from each other. The information that each capsule collects is unique, unlike the identical out-of-polarity information generated from the figure-8 in a regular mid-side. The on-axis microphone is often a large diaphragm condenser. The technique has since been used to record many modern instruments. ===Columbia recordings=== Altogether his early Columbia discs included 25 records of Bach and eight of César Franck. The Bach titles were mainly distributed as follows: - Queen's Hall: Organ Prelude and Fugue in E minor (Edition Peters Vol 3, 10); (BWV 727); (Vol 7, 58 (Leipzig 18)). - All Hallows: Prelude and Fugue in C major; Fantasia and Fugue in G minor (the Great); Prelude and Fugue in G major; Prelude and Fugue in F minor; Little Fugue in G minor; Toccata and Fugue in D minor. - Ste Aurélie: Prelude and Fugue in C minor; Prelude and Fugue in E minor; Toccata and Fugue in D minor. Chorale Preludes: (Peters Vol 7, 49 (Leipzig 4)); (Vol 5, 45); (Vol 7, 48 (Leipzig 6)); (Vol 5, 8); (Vol 5, 9); (Vol 6, 12b); (Vol 5, 6); (Vol 5, app 5); (Vol 5, 4); (Var 11, Vol 5, app. 3); (Vol 6, 31 (Leipzig 15)); Christ lag in Todesbanden (Vol 5, 5); Erschienen ist der herrlich Tag (Vol 5, 15). Later recordings were made at Parish church, Günsbach: These recordings were made by C. Robert Fine during the time Dr. Schweitzer was being filmed in Günsbach for the documentary "Albert Schweitzer". Fine originally self-released the recordings but later licensed the masters to Columbia. - Fugue in A minor (Peters, Vol 2, 8); Fantasia and Fugue in G minor (Great) (Vol 2, 4); Toccata, Adagio and Fugue in C major (Vol 3, 8). - Prelude in C major (Vol 4, 1); Prelude in D major (Vol 4, 3); Canzona in D minor (Vol 4, 10) (with Mendelssohn, Sonata in D minor op 65.6). - Chorale-Preludes: (1st and 2nd versions, Peters Vol 5, 45); (vol 7, 58 (Leipzig 18)); (Vol 5, 30); (Vol 5, 17); (Vol 5, 27); (vol 7, 45 (BWV 659a)). The above were released in the United States as Columbia Masterworks boxed set SL-175. ===Philips recordings=== * J. S. Bach: Prelude and Fugue in A major, BWV 536; Prelude and Fugue in F minor, BWV 534; Prelude and Fugue in B minor, BWV 544; Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 538. - J. S. Bach: Passacaglia in C minor, BWV 582; Prelude and Fugue in E minor, BWV 533; Prelude and Fugue in A minor, BWV 543; Prelude and Fugue in G major, BWV 541; Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565. - César Franck: Organ Chorales, no. 1 in E major; no. 2 in B minor; no. 3 in A minor. ==Portrayals== Dramatisations of Schweitzer's life include: - The 1952 biographical film "Il est minuit, Docteur Schweitzer", with Pierre Fresnay as Schweitzer. - The 1957 biographical film "Albert Schweitzer" in which Schweitzer appears as himself and Phillip Eckert portrays him. - The 1962 TV remake of "Il est minuit, Docteur Schweitzer", with Jean-Pierre Marielle as Schweitzer. - The 1990 biographical film "The Light in the Jungle", with Malcolm McDowell as Schweitzer. - Two 1992 episodes of the television series "The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles" ("German East Africa, December 1916" and "Congo, January 1917"), with Friedrich von Thun as Schweitzer. The episodes were later combined to create "Oganga, Giver and Taker of Life." - The 1995 biographical film "Le Grand blanc de Lambaréné", with André Wilms as Schweitzer. - The 2006 TV biographical film "Albert Schweitzer: Called to Africa", with Jeff McCarthy as Schweitzer. - The 2009 biographical film "", with Jeroen Krabbé as Schweitzer. ==Bibliography== * - . English translation by Ernest Newman, with author's alterations and additions, London 1911. Fulltext scans (English): Vol. 1, Vol. 2. - (first printed in "Musik", vols 13 and 14 (5th year)). - (translation of "Zwischen Wasser und Urwald", 1921) - "The Decay and the Restoration of Civilization" and "Civilization and Ethics" ("The Philosophy of Civilization", Vols I & II of the projected but not completed four-volume work), A. & C. Black, London 1923. Material from these volumes is rearranged in a modern compilation, "The Philosophy of Civilization" (Prometheus Books, 1987), - translated as ; - "Afrikanische Geschichten" (Felix Meiner, Leipzig and Hamburg 1938): tr. Mrs C. E. B. Russell as "From My African Notebook" (George Allen and Unwin, London 1938/Henry Holt, New York 1939). Modern edition with foreword by L. Forrow (Syracuse University Press, 2002).

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Austrian school of economics

The Austrian School is heterodox school of economic thought that advocates strict adherence to methodological individualism, the concept that social phenomena result primarily from the motivations and actions of individuals and their self interest. Austrian school theorists hold that economic theory should be exclusively derived from basic principles of human action. The Austrian School originated in Vienna with the work of Carl Menger, Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, Friedrich von Wieser, and others. It was methodologically opposed to the Historical School (based in Germany), in a dispute known as "Methodenstreit", or methodology quarrel. Current-day economists working in this tradition are located in many countries, but their work is still referred to as Austrian economics. Among the theoretical contributions of the early years of the Austrian School are the subjective theory of value, marginalism in price theory and the formulation of the economic calculation problem, each of which has become an accepted part of mainstream economics. In the 1970s, the Austrian School attracted some renewed interest after Friedrich Hayek shared the 1974 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with Gunnar Myrdal. == History == === Etymology === The Austrian School owes its name to members of the German historical school of economics, who argued against the Austrians during the late 19th-century "Methodenstreit" ("methodology struggle"), in which the Austrians defended the role of theory in economics as distinct from the study or compilation of historical circumstance. In 1883, Menger published "Investigations into the Method of the Social Sciences with Special Reference to Economics", which attacked the methods of the historical school. Gustav von Schmoller, a leader of the historical school, responded with an unfavorable review, coining the term "Austrian School" in an attempt to characterize the school as outcast and provincial. The label endured and was adopted by the adherents themselves. === First wave === The school originated in Vienna in the Austrian Empire. Carl Menger's 1871 book "Principles of Economics" is generally considered the founding of the Austrian School. The book was one of the first modern treatises to advance the theory of marginal utility. The Austrian School was one of three founding currents of the marginalist revolution of the 1870s, with its major contribution being the introduction of the subjectivist approach in economics. Despite such claim, John Stuart Mill had used "value in use" in this sense in 1848 in "Principles of Political Economy", where he wrote: "Value in use, or as Mr. De Quincey calls it, "teleologic" value, is the extreme limit of value in exchange. The exchange value of a thing may fall short, to any amount, of its value in use; but that it can ever exceed the value in use, implies a contradiction; it supposes that persons will give, to possess a thing, more than the utmost value which they themselves put upon it as a means of gratifying their inclinations." While marginalism was generally influential, there was also a more specific school that began to coalesce around Menger's work, which came to be known as the "Psychological School", "Vienna School", or "Austrian School". Menger's contributions to economic theory were closely followed by those of Eugen Böhm von Bawerk and Friedrich von Wieser. These three economists became what is known as the "first wave" of the Austrian School. Böhm-Bawerk wrote extensive critiques of Karl Marx in the 1880s and 1890s and was part of the Austrians' participation in the late 19th-century "Methodenstreit", during which they attacked the Hegelian doctrines of the historical school. === Early 20th century === Frank Albert Fetter (1863–1949) was a leader in the United States of Austrian thought. He obtained his PhD in 1894 from the University of Halle and then was made Professor of Political Economy and Finance at Cornell University in 1901. Several important Austrian economists trained at the University of Vienna in the 1920s and later participated in private seminars held by Ludwig von Mises. These included Gottfried Haberler, Friedrich Hayek, Fritz Machlup, Karl Menger (son of Carl Menger), Oskar Morgenstern, Paul Rosenstein-Rodan, Abraham Wald, and Michael A. Heilperin, among others, as well as the sociologist Alfred Schütz. === Later 20th century === By the mid-1930s, most economists had embraced what they considered the important contributions of the early Austrians. Fritz Machlup quoted Hayek's statement that "the greatest success of a school is that it stops existing because its fundamental teachings have become parts of the general body of commonly accepted thought". Sometime during the middle of the 20th century, Austrian economics became disregarded or derided by mainstream economists because it rejected model building and mathematical and statistical methods in the study of economics. Mises' student Israel Kirzner recalled that in 1954, when Kirzner was pursuing his PhD, there was no separate Austrian School as such. When Kirzner was deciding which graduate school to attend, Mises had advised him to accept an offer of admission at Johns Hopkins because it was a prestigious university and Fritz Machlup taught there. After the 1940s, Austrian economics can be divided into two schools of economic thought and the school "split" to some degree in the late 20th century. One camp of Austrians, exemplified by Mises, regards neoclassical methodology to be irredeemably flawed; the other camp, exemplified by Friedrich Hayek, accepts a large part of neoclassical methodology and is more accepting of government intervention in the economy. Henry Hazlitt wrote economics columns and editorials for a number of publications and wrote many books on the topic of Austrian economics from the 1930s to the 1980s. Hazlitt's thinking was influenced by Mises. His book "Economics in One Lesson" (1946) sold over a million copies and he is also known for "The Failure of the "New Economics"" (1959), a line-by-line critique of John Maynard Keynes's "General Theory". The reputation of the Austrian School rose in the late 20th century due in part to the work of Israel Kirzner and Ludwig Lachmann at New York University and to renewed public awareness of the work of Hayek after he won the 1974 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. Hayek's work was influential in the revival of "laissez-faire" thought in the 20th century. === Split among contemporary Austrians === Economist Leland Yeager discussed the late 20th-century rift and referred to a discussion written by Murray Rothbard, Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Joseph Salerno and others in which they attack and disparage Hayek. Yeager stated: "To try to drive a wedge between Mises and Hayek on [the role of knowledge in economic calculation], especially to the disparagement of Hayek, is unfair to these two great men, unfaithful to the history of economic thought". He went on to call the rift subversive to economic analysis and the historical understanding of the fall of Eastern European communism. In a 1999 book published by the Ludwig von Mises Institute, Hoppe asserted that Rothbard was the leader of the "mainstream within Austrian Economics" and contrasted Rothbard with Nobel Laureate Friedrich Hayek, whom he identified as a British empiricist and an opponent of the thought of Mises and Rothbard. Hoppe acknowledged that Hayek was the most prominent Austrian economist within academia, but stated that Hayek was an opponent of the Austrian tradition which led from Carl Menger and Böhm-Bawerk through Mises to Rothbard. Austrian economist Walter Block says that the Austrian School can be distinguished from other schools of economic thought through two categories—economic theory and political theory. According to Block, while Hayek can be considered an Austrian economist, his views on political theory clash with the libertarian political theory which Block sees as an integral part of the Austrian School. Both criticism from Hoppe and Block to Hayek apply to Carl Menger, the founder of the Austrian School. Hoppe emphasizes that Hayek, which for him is from the English empirical tradition, is an opponent of the supposed rationalist tradition of the Austrian School; Menger made strong critiques to rationalism in his works in similar vein as Hayek's. He emphasized the idea that there are several institutions which were not deliberately created, have a kind of "superior wisdom" and serve important functions to society. He also talked about Burke and the English tradition to sustain these positions. When saying that the libertarian political theory is an integral part of the Austrian School and supposing Hayek is not a libertarian, Block excludes Menger from the Austrian School too since Menger seems to defend broader state activity than Hayek—for example, progressive taxation and extensive labour legislation. Economists of the Hayekian view are affiliated with the Cato Institute, George Mason University (GMU) and New York University, among other institutions. They include Peter Boettke, Roger Garrison, Steven Horwitz, Peter Leeson and George Reisman. Economists of the Mises–Rothbard view include Walter Block, Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Jesús Huerta de Soto and Robert P. Murphy, each of whom is associated with the Mises Institute and some of them also with academic institutions. According to Murphy, a "truce between (for lack of better terms) the GMU Austro-libertarians and the Auburn Austro-libertarians" was signed around 2011. === Influence === Many theories developed by "first wave" Austrian economists have long been absorbed into mainstream economics. These include Carl Menger's theories on marginal utility, Friedrich von Wieser's theories on opportunity cost and Eugen Böhm von Bawerk's theories on time preference, as well as Menger and Böhm-Bawerk's criticisms of Marxian economics. Former American Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan said that the founders of the Austrian School "reached far into the future from when most of them practiced and have had a profound and, in my judgment, probably an irreversible effect on how most mainstream economists think in this country". In 1987, Nobel Laureate James M. Buchanan told an interviewer: "I have no objections to being called an Austrian. Hayek and Mises might consider me an Austrian but, surely some of the others would not". Currently, universities with a significant Austrian presence are George Mason University, New York University, Grove City College, Loyola University New Orleans, Monmouth College, and Auburn University in the United States; King Juan Carlos University in Spain; and Universidad Francisco Marroquín in Guatemala. Austrian economic ideas are also promoted by privately funded organizations such as the Mises Institute and the Cato Institute. == Theory == The Austrian School theorizes that the subjective choices of individuals including individual knowledge, time, expectation and other subjective factors cause all economic phenomena. Austrians seek to understand the economy by examining the social ramifications of individual choice, an approach called methodological individualism. It differs from other schools of economic thought, which have focused on aggregate variables, equilibrium analysis and societal groups rather than individuals. In the 20th and 21st centuries, economists with a methodological lineage to the early Austrian School developed many diverse approaches and theoretical orientations. Ludwig von Mises organized his version of the subjectivist approach, which he called "praxeology", in a book published in English as "Human Action" in 1949. In it, Mises stated that praxeology could be used to deduce "a priori" theoretical economic truths and that deductive economic thought experiments could yield conclusions which follow irrefutably from the underlying assumptions. He wrote that conclusions could not be inferred from empirical observation or statistical analysis and argued against the use of probabilities in economic models. Since Mises' time, some Austrian thinkers have accepted his praxeological approach while others have adopted alternative methodologies. For example, Fritz Machlup, Friedrich Hayek and others did not take Mises' strong "a priori" approach to economics. Ludwig Lachmann, a radical subjectivist, also largely rejected Mises' formulation of Praxeology in favor of the "verstehende Methode" ("interpretive method") articulated by Max Weber. In the 20th century, various Austrians incorporated models and mathematics into their analysis. Austrian economist Steven Horwitz argued in 2000 that Austrian methodology is consistent with macroeconomics and that Austrian macroeconomics can be expressed in terms of microeconomic foundations. Austrian economist Roger Garrison writes that Austrian macroeconomic theory can be correctly expressed in terms of diagrammatic models. In 1944, Austrian economist Oskar Morgenstern presented a rigorous schematization of an ordinal utility function (the Von Neumann–Morgenstern utility theorem) in "Theory of Games and Economic Behavior". === Fundamental tenets === In 1981, Fritz Machlup listed the typical views of Austrian economic thinking as such: - Methodological individualism: in the explanation of economic phenomena, we have to go back to the actions (or inaction) of individuals; groups or "collectives" cannot act except through the actions of individual members. Groups do not think; people think. - Methodological subjectivism: the judgments and choices made by individuals on the basis of whatever knowledge they have or believe to have, and whatever expectations they have regarding external developments and the consequences of their actions. - Tastes and preferences: subjective valuations of goods and services determine the demand for them so that their prices are influenced by consumers. - Opportunity costs: the costs of the alternative opportunities that must be foregone; as productive services are employed for one purpose, all alternative uses have to be sacrificed. - Marginalism: in all economic designs, the values, costs, revenues, productivity and so on are determined by the significance of the last unit added to or subtracted from the total. - Time structure of production and consumption: decisions to save reflect "time preferences" regarding consumption in the immediate, distant, or indefinite future and investments are made in view of larger outputs expected to be obtained if more time-taking production processes are undertaken. He included two additional tenets held by the Mises branch of Austrian economics: - Consumer sovereignty: the influence consumers have on the effective demand for goods and services and through the prices which result in free competitive markets, on the production plans of producers and investors, is not merely a hard fact but also an important objective, attainable only by complete avoidance of governmental interference with the markets and of restrictions on the freedom of sellers and buyers to follow their own judgment regarding quantities, qualities and prices of products and services. - Political individualism: only when individuals are given full economic freedom will it be possible to secure political and moral freedom. Restrictions on economic freedom lead, sooner or later, to an extension of the coercive activities of the state into the political domain, undermining and eventually destroying the essential individual liberties which the capitalistic societies were able to attain in the 19th century. == Contributions to economic thought == === Opportunity cost === The opportunity cost doctrine was first explicitly formulated by the Austrian economist Friedrich von Wieser in the late 19th century. Opportunity cost is the cost of any activity measured in terms of the value of the next best alternative foregone (that is not chosen). It is the sacrifice related to the second best choice available to someone, or group, who has picked among several mutually exclusive choices. Although a more ephemeral scarcity, expectations of the future must also be considered. Quantified as time preference, opportunity cost must also be valued with respect to one’s preference for present versus future investments. Opportunity cost is a key concept in mainstream economics and has been described as expressing "the basic relationship between scarcity and choice". The notion of opportunity cost plays a crucial part in ensuring that resources are used efficiently. === Capital and interest === The Austrian theory of capital and interest was first developed by Eugen Böhm von Bawerk. He stated that interest rates and profits are determined by two factors, namely supply and demand in the market for final goods and time preference. Böhm-Bawerk's theory equates capital intensity with the degree of roundaboutness of production processes. Böhm-Bawerk also argued that the law of marginal utility necessarily implies the classical law of costs. Some Austrian economists therefore entirely reject the notion that interest rates are affected by liquidity preference. === Inflation === In Mises's definition, inflation is an increase in the supply of money: Hayek claimed that inflationary stimulation exploits the lag between an increase in money supply and the consequent increase in the prices of goods and services: Even prominent Austrian economists have been confused since Austrians define inflation as 'increase in money supply' while most people including most economists define inflation as 'rising prices'. === Economic calculation problem === The economic calculation problem refers to a criticism of planned economies which was first stated by Max Weber in 1920. Mises subsequently discussed Weber's idea with his student Friedrich Hayek, who developed it in various works including "The Road to Serfdom". What the calculation problem essentially states is that without price signals, the factors of production cannot be allocated in the most efficient way possible, rendering planned economies inefficacious. Austrian theory emphasizes the organizing power of markets. Hayek stated that market prices reflect information, the totality of which is not known to any single individual, which determines the allocation of resources in an economy. Because socialist systems lack the individual incentives and price discovery processes by which individuals act on their personal information, Hayek argued that socialist economic planners lack all of the knowledge required to make optimal decisions. Those who agree with this criticism view it as a refutation of socialism, showing that socialism is not a viable or sustainable form of economic organization. The debate rose to prominence in the 1920s and 1930s and that specific period of the debate has come to be known by historians of economic thought as the socialist calculation debate. Mises argued in a 1920 essay "Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth" that the pricing systems in socialist economies were necessarily deficient because if the government owned the means of production, then no prices could be obtained for capital goods as they were merely internal transfers of goods in a socialist system and not "objects of exchange", unlike final goods. Therefore, they were unpriced and hence the system would be necessarily inefficient since the central planners would not know how to allocate the available resources efficiently. This led him to write "that rational economic activity is impossible in a socialist commonwealth". === Business cycles === The Austrian theory of the business cycle (ABCT) focuses on banks' issuance of credit as the cause of economic fluctuations. Although later elaborated by Hayek and others, the theory was first set forth by Mises, who posited that fractional reserve banks extend credit at artificially low interest rates, causing businesses to invest in relatively roundabout production processes which leads to an artificial "boom". Mises stated that this artificial "boom" then led to a misallocation of resources which he called "malinvestment" – which eventually must end in a "bust". Mises surmised that government manipulation of money and credit in the banking system throws savings and investment out of balance, resulting in misdirected investment projects that are eventually found to be unsustainable, at which point the economy has to rebalance itself through a period of corrective recession. Austrian economist Fritz Machlup summarized the Austrian view by stating, "monetary factors cause the cycle but real phenomena constitute it." This may be unrealistic since successful entrepreneurs will realise that interest rates are artificially low and will adjust their investment decisions based on projected long term interest rates. For Austrians, the only prudent strategy for government is to leave money and the financial system to the free market's competitive forces to eradicate the business cycle's inflationary booms and recessionary busts, allowing markets to keep people's saving and investment decisions in place for well-coordinated economic stability and growth. A Keynesian would suggest government intervention during a recession to inject spending into the economy when people will not. However, the heart of Austrian macroeconomic theory assumes the government "fine tuning" through expansions and contractions in the money supply orchestrated by the government are actually the cause of business cycles because of the differing impact of the resulting interest rate changes on different stages in the structure of production. Austrian economist Thomas Woods further supports this view by arguing it is not consumption, but rather production that should be emphasized. A country cannot become rich by consuming, and therefore, by using up all their resources. Instead, production is what enables consumption as a possibility in the first place, since a producer would be working for nothing, if not for the desire to consume. ====Central banks==== According to Ludwig von Mises, central banks enable the commercial banks to fund loans at artificially low interest rates, thereby inducing an unsustainable expansion of bank credit and impeding any subsequent contraction and argued for a gold standard to constrain growth in fiduciary media. Friedrich Hayek took a different perspective not focusing on gold but focusing on regulation of the banking sector via strong central banking. == Criticism == === General === Mainstream economists generally reject modern-day Austrian economics, and argue that modern-day Austrian economists are too unwilling to use mathematics and statistics in economics. The Austrian Economics school is a small group involving largely online Libertarians, with not much academic support and mainstream economists disagree with many of the views its adherents accept. The Austrian School publishes few articles in mainstream journals because they lack testable hypotheses in their propositions. The Austrian economists also publish relatively little in mainstream journals because they rarely use mathematics. Austrian opposition to mathematization extends to economic theorizing only, as they argue that human behavior is too variable for overarching mathematical models to hold true across time and context. Austrians do, however, support analyzing revealed preference via mathematization to aid business and finance. Economist Paul Krugman has stated that Austrians are unaware of holes in their own thinking because they do not use "explicit models". In reality during a recession a strong negative multiplier effect reduces output in all parts of the economy. Economist Benjamin Klein has criticized the economic methodological work of Austrian economist Israel M. Kirzner. While praising Kirzner for highlighting shortcomings in traditional methodology, Klein argued that Kirzner did not provide a viable alternative for economic methodology. Economist Tyler Cowen has written that Kirzner's theory of entrepreneurship can ultimately be reduced to a neoclassical search model and is thus not in the radical subjectivist tradition of Austrian praxeology. Cowen states that Kirzner's entrepreneurs can be modeled in mainstream terms of search. Economist Bryan Caplan has noted that Mises has been criticized for overstating the strength of his case in describing socialism as "impossible" rather than as something that would need to establish non-market institutions to deal with the inefficiency. ===Taxation and welfare=== Economist Jeffrey Sachs argues that among developed countries, those with high rates of taxation and high social welfare spending perform better on most measures of economic performance compared to countries with low rates of taxation and low social outlays. He concludes that Friedrich Hayek was wrong to argue that high levels of government spending harm an economy and "a generous social-welfare state is not a road to serfdom but rather to fairness, economic equality and international competitiveness". Nordic countries, Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden promote industrial flexibility by public sector education and retraining to eliminate declining industries. These nations also do research and development and create new sectors. Nordic nations have higher employment rates than the English speaking nations. Austrian economists can at most maintain it is impossible to determine the effects of government on "social utility". Some people lose while the intervener gains, therefore one cannot make claims over social utility without comparing interpersonal welfare, which Austrian economics denies is possible. If state action cannot be endodrsed through claiming efficiency logically state action cannot be denied either claiming efficiency. Austrian economics at most leads to total uncertainty over possible benefits of statism. === Methodology === Critics generally argue that Austrian economics lacks scientific rigor and rejects scientific methods and the use of empirical data in modelling economic behavior. Some economists describe Austrian methodology as being "a priori" or non-empirical. Economist Mark Blaug has criticized over-reliance on methodological individualism, arguing it would rule out all macroeconomic propositions that cannot be reduced to microeconomic ones, and hence reject almost the whole of received macroeconomics. Economist Thomas Mayer has stated that Austrians advocate a rejection of the scientific method which involves the development of empirically falsifiable theories. Furthermore, economists have developed numerous experiments that elicit useful information about individual preferences. Although economist Leland Yeager is sympathetic to Austrian economics, he rejects many favorite views of the Misesian group of Austrians, in particular "the specifics of their business-cycle theory, ultra-subjectivism in value theory and particularly in interest-rate theory, their insistence on unidirectional causality rather than general interdependence, and their fondness for methodological brooding, pointless profundities, and verbal gymnastics". Economist Paul A. Samuelson wrote in 1964 that most economists believe that economic conclusions reached by pure logical deduction are limited and weak. According to Samuelson and Caplan, Mises' deductive methodology, also embraced by Murray Rothbard and to a lesser extent by Mises' student Israel Kirzner was not sufficient in and of itself. === Business cycle theory === Mainstream economic research regarding Austrian business cycle theory finds that it is inconsistent with empirical evidence. Noted economists such as Gordon Tullock, Milton Friedman and Paul Krugman have said that they regard the theory as incorrect. Austrian economist Ludwig Lachmann noted that the Austrian theory was rejected during the 1930s: ==== Theoretical objections ==== Some economists have argued that Austrian business cycle theory requires bankers and investors to exhibit a kind of irrationality because the Austrian theory posits that investors will be fooled repeatedly (by temporarily low interest rates) into making unprofitable investment decisions. Milton Friedman objected to the policy implications of the theory, stating the following in a 1998 interview: ==== Empirical objections ==== In 1969, Milton Friedman examined the history of business cycles in the United States and wrote that there "appears to be no systematic connection between the size of an expansion and of the succeeding contraction", contradicting business cycle theories (such as the Austrian business cycle theory) which rely on that premise. He analyzed the issue using newer data in 1993, and again reached the same conclusion. Referring to Friedman's discussion of the business cycle, Austrian economist Roger Garrison argued that Friedman's empirical findings are "broadly consistent with both Monetarist and Austrian views" and goes on to argue that although Friedman's model "describes the economy's performance at the highest level of aggregation, Austrian theory offers an insightful account of the market process that might underlie those aggregates". Markets are less efficient than the Austrian School maintains, shown by many cases of market failure such as the way subprime mortgages and securitisation earlier grew generating the subprime mortgage crisis in 2008.

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Abscess

An abscess is a collection of pus that has built up within the tissue of the body. Signs and symptoms of abscesses include redness, pain, warmth, and swelling. The swelling may feel fluid-filled when pressed. The area of redness often extends beyond the swelling. Carbuncles and boils are types of abscess that often involve hair follicles, with carbuncles being larger. A cyst is related to an abscess, but it contains a material other than pus, and a cyst has a clearly defined wall. They are usually caused by a bacterial infection. Often many different types of bacteria are involved in a single infection. In many areas of the world, the most common bacteria present is "methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus". Rarely, parasites can cause abscesses; this is more common in the developing world. Diagnosis of a skin abscess is usually made based on what it looks like and is confirmed by cutting it open. Ultrasound imaging may be useful in cases in which the diagnosis is not clear. In abscesses around the anus, computer tomography (CT) may be important to look for deeper infection. Standard treatment for most skin or soft tissue abscesses is cutting it open and drainage. There appears to be some benefit from also using antibiotics. A small amount of evidence supports not packing the cavity that remains with gauze after drainage. Closing this cavity right after draining it rather than leaving it open may speed healing without increasing the risk of the abscess returning. Sucking out the pus with a needle is often not sufficient. Skin abscesses are common and have become more common in recent years. Risk factors include intravenous drug use, with rates reported as high as 65% among users. In 2005, 3.2 million people went to American emergency departments for abscesses. In Australia, around 13,000 people were hospitalized in 2008 with the condition. ==Signs and symptoms== Abscesses may occur in any kind of tissue but most frequently within the skin surface (where they may be superficial pustules known as boils or deep skin abscesses), in the lungs, brain, teeth, kidneys, and tonsils. Major complications may include spreading of the abscess material to adjacent or remote tissues, and extensive regional tissue death (gangrene). The main symptoms and signs of a skin abscess are redness, heat, swelling, pain, and loss of function. There may also be high temperature (fever) and chills. If superficial, abscesses may be fluctuant when palpated; this wave-like motion is caused by movement of the pus inside the abscess. An internal abscess is more difficult to identify, but signs include pain in the affected area, a high temperature, and generally feeling unwell. Internal abscesses rarely heal themselves, so prompt medical attention is indicated if such an abscess is suspected. An abscess can potentially be fatal depending on where it is located. ==Causes== Risk factors for abscess formation include intravenous drug use. Another possible risk factor is a prior history of disc herniation or other spinal abnormality, though this has not been proven. Abscesses are caused by bacterial infection, parasites, or foreign substances. Bacterial infection is the most common cause, particularly Staphylococcus aureus. The more invasive "methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus" (MRSA) may also be a source of infection, though is much rarer. Among spinal subdural abscesses, methicillin-sensitive "Staphylococcus aureus" is the most common organism involved. Rarely parasites can cause abscesses and this is more common in the developing world. Specific parasites known to do this include dracunculiasis and myiasis. ===Perianal abscess=== Surgery of the anal fistula to drain an abscess treats the fistula and reduces likelihood of its recurrence and the need for repeated surgery. There is no evidence that fecal incontinence is a consequence of this surgery for abscess drainage. Perianal abscesses can be seen in people with, for example, inflammatory bowel disease (such as Crohn's disease) or diabetes. Often the abscess will start as an internal wound caused by ulceration, hard stool, or penetrative objects with insufficient lubrication. This wound typically becomes infected as a result of the normal presence of feces in the rectal area, and then develops into an abscess. This often presents itself as a lump of tissue near the anus which grows larger and more painful with time. Like other abscesses, perianal abscesses may require prompt medical treatment, such as an incision and debridement or lancing. ===Incisional abscess=== An "incisional abscess" is one that develops as a complication secondary to a surgical incision. It presents as redness and warmth at the margins of the incision with purulent drainage from it. If the diagnosis is uncertain, the wound should be aspirated with a needle, with aspiration of pus confirming the diagnosis and availing for Gram stain and bacterial culture. ==Pathophysiology== An abscess is a defensive reaction of the tissue to prevent the spread of infectious materials to other parts of the body. Organisms or foreign materials destroy the local cells, which results in the release of cytokines. The cytokines trigger an inflammatory response, which draws large numbers of white blood cells to the area and increases the regional blood flow. The final structure of the abscess is an abscess wall, or capsule, that is formed by the adjacent healthy cells in an attempt to keep the pus from infecting neighboring structures. However, such encapsulation tends to prevent immune cells from attacking bacteria in the pus, or from reaching the causative organism or foreign object. ==Diagnosis== An abscess is a localized collection of pus (purulent inflammatory tissue) caused by suppuration buried in a tissue, an organ, or a confined space, lined by the pyogenic membrane. Ultrasound imaging can help in a diagnosis. ===Classification=== Abscesses may be classified as either "skin abscesses" or "internal abscesses". Skin abscesses are common; internal abscesses tend to be harder to diagnose, and more serious. Skin abscesses are also called cutaneous or subcutaneous abscesses. ===IV drug use=== For those with a history of intravenous drug use, an X-ray is recommended before treatment to verify that no needle fragments are present. If there is also a fever present in this population, infectious endocarditis should be considered. ===Differential=== Abscesses should be differentiated from empyemas, which are accumulations of pus in a preexisting, rather than a newly formed, anatomical cavity. Other conditions that can cause similar symptoms include: cellulitis, a sebaceous cyst, and necrotising fasciitis. Cellulitis typically also has an erythematous reaction, but does not confer any purulent drainage. ==Treatment== The standard treatment for an uncomplicated skin or soft tissue abscess is the act of opening and draining. There does not appear to be any benefit from also using antibiotics in most cases. A small amount of evidence did not find a benefit from packing the abscess with gauze. ===Incision and drainage=== The abscess should be inspected to identify if foreign objects are a cause, which may require their removal. If foreign objects are not the cause, incising and draining the abscess is standard treatment. In critical areas where surgery presents a high risk, it may be delayed or used as a last resort. The drainage of a lung abscess may be performed by positioning the affected individual in a way that enables the contents to be discharged via the respiratory tract. Warm compresses and elevation of the limb may be beneficial for a skin abscess. === Antibiotics === Most people who have an uncomplicated skin abscess should not use antibiotics. Antibiotics in addition to standard incision and drainage is recommended in persons with severe abscesses, many sites of infection, rapid disease progression, the presence of cellulitis, symptoms indicating bacterial illness throughout the body, or a health condition causing immunosuppression. People who are very young or very old may also need antibiotics. If the abscess does not heal only with incision and drainage, or if the abscess is in a place that is difficult to drain such as the face, hands, or genitals, then antibiotics may be indicated. In those cases of abscess which do require antibiotic treatment, "Staphylococcus aureus" bacteria is a common cause and an anti-staphylococcus antibiotic such as flucloxacillin or dicloxacillin is used. The Infectious Diseases Society of America advises that the draining of an abscess is not enough to address community-acquired methicillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" (MRSA), and in those cases, traditional antibiotics may be ineffective. Alternative antibiotics effective against community-acquired MRSA often include clindamycin, doxycycline, minocycline, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. The American College of Emergency Physicians advises that typical cases of abscess from MRSA get no benefit from having antibiotic treatment in addition to the standard treatment. If the condition is thought to be cellulitis rather than an abscess, consideration should be given to the possibility of the strep species as a cause, that are still sensitive to traditional anti-staphylococcus agents such as dicloxacillin or cephalexin. This would be in the case of people that are able to tolerate penicillin. Antibiotic therapy alone without surgical drainage of the abscess is seldom effective due to antibiotics often being unable to get into the abscess and their ineffectiveness at low pH levels. Culturing the wound is not needed if standard follow-up care can be provided after the incision and drainage. Performing a wound culture is unnecessary because it rarely gives information which can be used to guide treatment. ===Packing=== In North America, after drainage, an abscess cavity is usually packed, often with special iodoform-treated cloth. This is done to absorb and neutralize any remaining exudate as well as to promote draining and prevent premature closure. Prolonged draining is thought to promote healing. The hypothesis is that though the heart's pumping action can deliver immune and regenerative cells to the edge of an injury, an abscess is by definition a void in which no blood vessels are present. Packing is thought to provide a wicking action that continuously draws beneficial factors and cells from the body into the void that must be healed. Discharge is then absorbed by cutaneous bandages and further wicking promoted by changing these bandages regularly. However, evidence from emergency medicine literature reports that packing wounds after draining, especially smaller wounds, causes pain to the person and does not decrease the rate of recurrence, nor bring faster healing, or fewer physician visits. ===Loop drainage=== More recently, several North American hospitals have opted for less-invasive loop drainage over standard drainage and wound packing. In one study of 143 pediatric outcomes, a failure rate of 1.4% was reported in the loop group versus 10.5% in the packing group (P<.030), while a separate study reported a 5.5% failure rate among the loop group. ===Primary closure=== Closing an abscess immediately after draining it appears to speed healing without increasing the risk of recurrence. This may not apply to anorectal abscesses as while they may heal faster, there may be a higher rate of recurrence than those left open. ==Prognosis== Even without treatment, skin abscesses rarely result in death, as they will naturally break through the skin. Other types of abscess are more dangerous. Brain abscesses may be fatal if untreated. When treated, the mortality rate reduces to 5–10%, but is higher if the abscess ruptures. ==Epidemiology== Skin abscesses are common and have become more common in recent years. Risk factors include intravenous drug use, with rates reported as high as 65% among users. In 2005, in the United States 3.2 million people went to the emergency department for an abscess. In Australia around 13,000 people were hospitalized in 2008 for the disease. ==Society and culture== The Latin medical aphorism "ubi pus, ibi evacua" expresses "where there is pus, there evacuate it" and is classical advice in the culture of Western medicine. Needle exchange programmes often administer or provide referrals for abscess treatment to injection drug users as part of a harm reduction public health strategy. ===Etymology=== An abscess is so called "abscess" because there is an "abscessus" (a going away or departure) of portions of the animal tissue from each other to make room for the suppurated matter lodged between them. The word carbuncle is believed to have originated from the Latin: "carbunculus", originally a small coal; diminutive of "carbon-", "carbo": charcoal or ember, but also a carbuncle stone, "precious stones of a red or fiery colour", usually garnets. ==Other types== The following types of abscess are listed in the medical dictionary:

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Aalborg Municipality

Aalborg Municipality () is a municipality in North Jutland Region on the Jutland peninsula in northern Denmark. The municipality straddles the Limfjord, the waterway which connects the North Sea and the Kattegat east-to-west, and which separates the main body of the Jutland peninsula from the island of Vendsyssel-Thy north-to-south. It has a land area of and a population of 222,571 (1. January 2023). It is also the name of the municipality's main city Aalborg and the site of its municipal council, as well as the name of a seaport. The municipality and the town have chosen to retain the traditional spelling of the name as "Aalborg", although the new spelling "Ålborg" is used in other contexts, such as Ålborg Bight ("Ålborg Bugt"), the body of water which lies to the east of the Jutland peninsula. ==Municipal reform of 2007== As of 1 January 2007 Aalborg municipality joined with the municipalities of Hals, Nibe, and Sejlflod to form a new Aalborg municipality. The former Aalborg municipality, including the island of Egholm, covered an area of , with a total population of 192,353 (2005). Its last mayor was Henning G. Jensen, a member of the Social Democrats ("") political party. The former municipality was bordered by Sejlflod and Hals to the east, Dronninglund and Brønderslev to the north, Aabybro and Nibe to the west, and Støvring and Skørping to the south. It belonged to North Jutland County. ==Geography== ===Surroundings=== The waters in the Limfjord splitting the municipality are called Langerak to the east and "Gjøl Bredning" to the west. The island of Egholm is located in "Gjøl Bredning", and is connected by ferry to the city of Aalborg at its southern shore. The area is typical for the north of Jutland. To the west, the Limfjord broadens into an irregular lake (salt water), with low, marshy shores and many islands. Northwest is Store Vildmose ("Greater Wild bog"), a swamp where a mirage is sometimes seen in summer. Southeast lies the similar Lille Vildmose ("Lesser Wild bog"). Store Vildmose was drained and farmed in the beginning of the 20th century, and Lille Vildmose is now the largest moor in Denmark. ===Urban areas in Aalborg Municipality=== Aalborg City has a total population of 123,432. The metropolitan area is a conurbation of the Aalborg urban area in Himmerland (102,312) and the urban area in (21,120). ==Economy== North Flying has its head office on the property of Aalborg Airport in , Aalborg Municipality. ==Politics== ===Municipal council=== Aalborg's municipal council consists of 31 members, elected every four years. Below are the municipal councils elected since the Municipal Reform of 2007. ==Twin towns – sister cities== Aalborg is twinned with 34 cities, more than any other city in Denmark. Every four years, Aalborg gathers young people from most of its twin towns for a week of sports, known as Ungdomslegene (Youth Games). - , Netherlands - Antibes, France - Büdelsdorf, Germany - Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom - , Norway - Fuglafjørður, Faroe Islands - Galway, Ireland - Gdynia, Poland - Haifa, Israel - Hefei, China - , Austria - , Greenland - Karlskoga, Sweden - Lancaster, England - Lerum, Sweden - Liperi, Finland - , Iceland - Orsa, Sweden - Orust, Sweden - Ośno Lubuskie, Poland - , Russia - Racine, United States - Rapperswil-Jona, Switzerland - Rendalen, Norway - Rendsburg, Germany - Riga, Latvia - Riihimäki, Finland - , Greenland - Solvang, United States - , Romania - , Bulgaria - Vilnius, Lithuania - , Germany

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Aarhus

Aarhus (, , ; officially spelled Århus from 1948 until 1 January 2011) is the second-largest city in Denmark and the seat of Aarhus Municipality. It is located on the eastern shore of Jutland in the Kattegat sea and approximately northwest of Copenhagen. Dating back to the late 8th century, Aarhus was founded as a harbour settlement at the mouth of the Aarhus River and quickly became a trade hub. The first Christian church was built here around the year 900 and later in the Viking Age the town was fortified with defensive ramparts. The bishopric of Aarhus grew steadily stronger and more prosperous, building several religious institutions in the town during the early Middle Ages. Trade continued to improve, although it was not until 1441 that Aarhus was granted market town privileges, and the population of Aarhus remained relatively stable until the 19th century. The city began to grow significantly as trade prospered in the mid-18th century, but not until the mid-19th century did the Industrial Revolution bring real growth in population. The first railway line in Jutland was built here in 1862. In 1928, the first university in Jutland was founded in Aarhus and today it is a university city and the largest centre for trade, services, industry, and tourism in Jutland. Aarhus Cathedral is the longest cathedral in Denmark with a total length of . The Church of our Lady ("Vor Frue Kirke") was originally built in 1060, making it the oldest stone church in Scandinavia. The City Hall, designed by Arne Jacobsen and Erik Møller, was completed in 1941 in a modern Functionalist style. Aarhus Theatre, the largest provincial theatre in Denmark, opposite the cathedral on Bispetorvet, was built by Hack Kampmann in the Art Nouveau style and completed in 1916. Musikhuset Aarhus (concert hall) and Det Jyske Musikkonservatorium (Royal Academy of Music, Aarhus/Aalborg) are also of note, as are its museums including the open-air museum Den Gamle By, the art museum ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum, the Moesgård Museum and the women's museum Kvindemuseet. The city's major cultural institutions include Den Gamle By, ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum, the Moesgård Museum, Gender Museum Denmark, Musikhuset Aarhus and Aarhus Theatre. Known as "" (lit. City of Smiles) it is the Danish city with the youngest demographics and home to Scandinavia's largest university, Aarhus University. Commercially, the city is the principal container port in the country, and major Danish companies such as Vestas, Arla Foods, Salling Group, and Jysk have their headquarters there. ==Etymology== Aarhus is a compound of the two words , genitive of ("river", Modern Danish ), and ("mouth") referencing the city's location at the mouth of (Aarhus River). ===Spelling=== In Valdemar's Census Book (1231) the city was called "Arus", and in Icelandic it was known as , later written as Aars. The spelling "Aarhus" is first found in 1406 and gradually became the norm in the 17th century. With the Danish spelling reform of 1948, "Aa" was changed to "Å". Some Danish cities resisted the change but Aarhus city council opted to change the name. In 2010, the city council voted to change the name back from to again with effect from 1 January 2011. It is still grammatically correct to write geographical names with the letter Å and local councils are allowed to use the Aa spelling as an alternative and most newspapers and public institutions will accept either. Some official authorities such as the Danish Language Committee, publisher of the Danish Orthographic Dictionary, still retain as the main name, providing as a second option, in brackets and some institutions are still using explicitly in their official name, such as the local newspaper and the schools and . "Aa" was used by some major institutions between 1948 and 2011 as well, such as Aarhus University or the largest local sports club, (AGF), which has never used the "Å"-spelling. Certain geographically affiliated names have been updated to reflect the name of the city, such as the Aarhus River, changed from to . ==History== ===Early history=== Founded in the early Viking Age, Aarhus is one of the oldest cities in Denmark, along with Ribe and Hedeby. The original Aros settlement was situated on the northern shores of a fjord by the mouth of the Aarhus River, right where the city center is today. It quickly became a hub for sea-going trade due to its position on intersecting trade routes in the Danish straits and the fertile countryside. The trade, however, was not nearly as prominent as that in Ribe and Hedeby during the Viking Age, and it was primarily linked to Norway as evidenced by archaeological finds. A shipbuilding yard from the Viking Age was uncovered upriver in 2002 by archaeologists. It was located at a place formerly known as "Snekkeeng", or Snekke Meadow in English ('Snekke' is a type of longship), east of the Brabrand Lake close to Viby, and it was in use for more than 400 years from the late 700s till around the mid-1200s. Archaeological evidence indicates that Aarhus was a town as early as the last quarter of the 8th century. Discoveries after a 2003 archaeological dig included half-buried longhouses, firepits, glass pearls and a road dated to the late 700s. Several excavations in the inner city since the 1960s have revealed wells, streets, homes and workshops, and inside the buildings and adjoining archaeological layers, everyday utensils like combs, jewellery and basic multi-purpose tools from approximately the year 900 have been unearthed. The early town was fortified with defensive earthen ramparts in the first part of the 900s, possibly in the year 934 on order from king Gorm the Old. The fortifications were later improved and expanded by his son Harald Bluetooth, encircling the settlement much like the defence structures found at Viking ring fortresses elsewhere. Together with the town's geographical placement, this suggests that Aros became an important military centre in the Viking Age. There are also strong indications of a former royal residence from the same period in Viby, a few kilometres south of the Aarhus city centre. The centre of Aarhus was originally a pagan burial site until Aarhus's first Christian church, Holy Trinity Church, a timber structure, was built upon it during the reign of Frode, King of Jutland, around 900. The bishopric of Aarhus dates back to at least 948 when Adam of Bremen reported that the missionary bishop Reginbrand of Aros attended the synod of Ingelheim in Germany, but the late Viking Age during the Christianization of Scandinavia was a turbulent and violent time with several naval attacks on the town, such as Harald Hardrada's assault around 1050, when the Holy Trinity Church was burned to the ground. Despite the conflicts, Aarhus continued to prosper from the trade and the finding of six runestones in and around Aarhus indicates the city had some significance around the year 1000, as only wealthy nobles traditionally used them. The bishopric diocese was obliterated for almost a hundred years after Reginbrand in 988, but in 1060 a new bishop Christian was ordained and he founded a new church in Aarhus, "Sankt Nicolai Domkirke" (St. Nicholas Cathedral), this time in stone. It was erected outside the town fortifications, and stood finished in 1070 at the site where Church of Our Lady stands today, but only an underground crypt remains. ===Middle Ages=== The growing influence of the Church during the Middle Ages gradually turned Aarhus, with its bishopric, into a prosperous religious centre. Many public and religious buildings were built in and around the town; notably Aarhus Cathedral was initiated in the late 12th century by the influential bishop Peder Vognsen, and around 1200, Aros had a total of four churches. The 13th century also marks a thorough reorganisation, erasing most of the town's original layout with new streets, relocations, dismantling and new constructions. The Church clearly had the upper hand in the Aarhus region during medieval times, and the large bishopric of Aarhus prospered and expanded territory, reaching as far as Viborg in extent. In 1441, Christopher III issued the oldest known charter granting market town status, although similar privileges may have existed as far back as the 12th century. The charter is the first official recognition of the town as a regional power and is by some considered Aarhus's birth certificate. The commercial and religious status spurred town growth, and in 1477 the defensive earthen ramparts, which had ringed the town since the Viking Age, were abandoned to accommodate expansion. Parts of the ramparts still exist today and can be experienced as steep slopes at the riverside, and they have also survived in some place names of the inner city, including the streets of Volden (The Rampart) and Graven (The Moat). Aarhus grew to become one of the largest cities in the country by the early 16th century. In 1657, octroi was imposed in larger Danish cities which changed the layout and face of Aarhus over the following decades. Wooden city walls were erected to prevent smuggling, with gates and toll booths on the major thoroughfares, Mejlgade and Studsgade. The city gates funnelled most traffic through a few streets where merchant quarters were built. In the 17th century, Aarhus entered a period of recession as it suffered blockades and bombardments during the Swedish wars and trade was dampened by the preferential treatment of the capital by the state. Not until the middle of the 18th century did growth return, in large part due to trade with the large agricultural catchment areas around the city; grain, particularly, proved to be a remunerative export. The first factories were established at this time, as the Industrial Revolution reached the country, and in 1810 the harbour was expanded to accommodate growing trade. ===Industrialisation=== Aarhus began to prosper in the 1830s as the industrial revolution reached the city and factories with steam-driven machinery became more productive. In 1838, the electoral laws were reformed leading to elections for the 15 seats on the city council. The rules were initially very strict, allowing only the wealthiest citizens to run. In the 1844 elections, only 174 citizens qualified out of a total population of more than 7,000. The first city council, mainly composed of wealthy merchants and industrialists, quickly looked to improve the harbour, situated along the Aarhus River. Larger ships and growing freight volumes made a river harbour increasingly impractical. In 1840, the harbour was moved to the coast, north of the river, where it became the largest industrial harbour outside Copenhagen over the following 15 years. From the outset, the new harbour was controlled by the city council, as it is to this day. During the First Schleswig War, Aarhus was occupied by German troops from 21 June to 24 July 1849. The city was spared any fighting, but in Vejlby north of the city a cavalry skirmish known as Rytterfægtningen took place which stopped the German advance through Jutland. The war and occupation left a notable impact on the city as many streets, particularly on Frederiksbjerg, are named after Danish officers of the time. Fifteen years later, in 1864, the city was occupied again, this time for seven months, during the Second Schleswig War. In spite of wars and occupation, the city continued to expand and develop. In 1851, the octroi was abolished and the city walls were removed to provide easier access for trade. Regular steamship links with Copenhagen had begun with the "Jylland" in 1825–26 and the "Dania" (1827–36), and in 1862 Jutland's first railway was established between Aarhus and Randers. In the second half of the 19th century, industrialisation came into full effect and a number of new industries emerged around production and refinement of agricultural products, especially oil and butter. Many companies from this time would come to leave permanent iconic marks on Aarhus. The Ceres Brewery was established in 1856 and served as Aarhus's local brewery for more than 150 years, gradually expanding into an industrial district known as "Ceres-grunden" (lit.: the Ceres-ground). In 1896, local farmers and businessmen created Korn- og Foderstof Kompagniet (KFK), focused on grain and feedstuffs. KFK established departments all over the country, while its headquarters remained in Aarhus where its large grain silos still stand today. Otto Mønsted created the Danish Preserved Butter Company in 1874, focusing on butter export to England, China and Africa and later founded the Aarhus Butterine Company in 1883, the first Danish margarine factory. His company became an important local employer, with factory employees increasing from 100 in 1896 to 1,000 in 1931, partaking in the effective transformation of the city from a regional trade hub to an industrial centre. Other new factories of note included the dockyard Aarhus Flydedok and the oil mill Århus Oliefabrik. Aarhus became the largest provincial city in the country by the turn of the century and the city marketed itself as the "Capital of Jutland". The population increased from 15,000 in 1870 to 52,000 in 1901 and, in response, the city annexed large land areas to develop new residential quarters such as Trøjborg, Frederiksbjerg and Marselisborg. Many of its cultural institutions were also established at this time such as Aarhus Theatre (1900), the original State Library (1902), Aarhus University (1928) and several hospitals. ===Second World War=== On 9 April 1940, Nazi Germany invaded Denmark, occupying Aarhus the following day; the occuption lasted for five years. This was a destructive period with major disasters, loss of life and economic depression. The Port of Aarhus became a hub for supplies to the Baltics and Norway, while the surrounding rail network supplied the Atlantic Wall in west Jutland and cargo headed for Germany. Combined, these factors resulted in a strong German presence, especially in 1944–45. Small resistance groups first appeared in 1941–42 but the first to co-ordinate with the Freedom Council was the Samsing Group, responsible for most operations from early 1943. The Samsing group, along with others in and around Aarhus, was dismantled in June 1944 when Grethe "Thora" Bartram turned her family and acquaintances over to German authorities. In response, requests for assistance were sent to contacts in England and in October 1944 the Royal Air Force bombed the Gestapo headquarters successfully destroying archives and obstructing the ongoing investigation. In the summer of 1944 the Copenhagen-based resistance group Holger Danske helped establish the 5 Kolonne group and an SOE agent arrived from England to liaison with the L-groups. Subsequently, resistance operations escalated which was countered with Schalburgtage terror operations by the Peter group. The increasingly destructive occupation was compounded when an ammunition barge exploded in July 1944, destroying much of the harbour area. On 5 May 1945 German forces in Denmark surrendered but during the transitional period fighting broke out resulting in 22 dead. On 8 May the British Royal Dragoons entered the city. ===Post-World War II years=== In the 1970s and 1980s the city entered a period of rapid economic growth and the service sector overtook trade, industry and crafts as the leading sector of employment for the first time. Workers gradually began commuting to the city from most of east and central Jutland as the region became more interconnected. The student population tripled between 1965 and 1977 turning the city into a Danish centre of research and education. The growing and comparably young population initiated a period of creativity and optimism; Gaffa and the KaosPilot school were founded in 1983 and 1991 respectively, and Aarhus was at the centre of a renaissance in Danish rock and pop music launching bands and musicians such as TV2, Gnags, Thomas Helmig, Bamses Venner, Anne Dorte Michelsen, Mek Pek and Shit & Chanel. === The 2000s === Since the turn of the millennium, Aarhus has seen an unprecedented building boom with many new institutions, infrastructure projects, city districts and recreational areas. Several of the construction projects are among the largest in Europe, such as the New University Hospital (DNU) and the harbourfront redevelopment. Both the skyline and land use of the inner city is changing, as former industrial sites are being redeveloped into new city districts and neighbourhoods. Starting in 2008, the former docklands known as "De Bynære Havnearealer" (The Peri-urban Harbour-areas), and closest to the city seaside, are being converted to new mixed-use districts. It is among the largest harbourfront projects in Europe. The northern part dubbed "Aarhus Ø" (Aarhus Docklands) is almost finished as of 2018, while the southern district dubbed "Sydhavnskvarteret" (The South-harbour neighbourhood) is only starting to be developed. The adjacent site of Frederiks Plads at the former DSB repair facilities have been under construction since 2014 as a new business and residential quarter. The main bus terminal close by is planned to be moved to the central railway station and the site will be redeveloped to a new residential neighbourhood. Elsewhere in the inner city, the site of the former Ceres breweries was redeveloped in 2012-2019 as a new mixed use neighbourhood known as CeresByen. Construction of Aarhus Letbane, the first light rail system in the country, commenced in 2013, and the first increment was finished in December 2017. Since then, the lightrail service has been expanded with two intercity sections to the towns of Odder and Grenå, respectively, and also includes a northward leg to the suburb of Lisbjerg. The light rail system is planned to tie many other suburbs closer to central Aarhus in the future, with the next phase including local lines to Brabrand in the east and Hinnerup to the north. Accelerating growth since the early 2000s, brought the inner urban area to roughly 260,000 inhabitants by 2014. The rapid growth is expected to continue until at least 2030 when Aarhus municipality has set an ambitious target for 375,000 inhabitants. ==Geography== Aarhus is located at the Bay of Aarhus facing the Kattegat sea in the east with the peninsulas of Mols and Helgenæs across the bay to the northeast. Mols and Helgenæs are both part of the larger regional peninsula of Djursland. A number of larger cities and towns is within easy reach from Aarhus by road and rail, including Randers ( by road north), Grenå (northeast), Horsens ( south) and Silkeborg ( east). ===Topography=== At Aarhus's location, the Bay of Aarhus provides a natural harbour with a depth of quite close to the shore. Aarhus was founded at the mouth of a brackish water fjord, but the original fjord no longer exists, as it has gradually narrowed into what is now the Aarhus River and the Brabrand Lake, due to natural sedimentation. The land around Aarhus was once covered by forests, remains of which exist in parts of Marselisborg Forest to the south and Riis Skov to the north. Several lakes extend west from the inner city as the landscape merges with the larger region of Søhøjlandet with heights exceeding at Himmelbjerget between Skanderborg and Silkeborg. The highest natural point in Aarhus Municipality is Jelshøj at 128 metres above sea level, in the southern district of Højbjerg. The hilltop is home to a Bronze Age barrow shrouded in local myths and legends. The hilly area around Aarhus consists of a morainal plateau from the last ice age, broken by a complex system of tunnel valleys. The most prominent valleys of this network are the Aarhus Valley in the south, stretching inland east–west with the Aarhus River, Brabrand Lake, Årslev Lake and Tåstrup Lake, and the Egå Valley to the north, with the stream of Egåen, Egå Engsø, the bog of Geding-Kasted Mose and Geding Lake. Most parts of the two valleys have been drained and subsequently farmed, but in the early 2000s some of the drainage was removed and parts of the wetlands were restored for environmental reasons. The valley system also includes the stream of Lyngbygård Å in the west and valleys to the south of the city, following erosion channels from the pre-quaternary. By contrast, the Aarhus River Valley and the Giber River Valley are late glacial meltwater valleys. The coastal cliffs along the Bay of Aarhus consist of shallow tertiary clay from the Eocene and Oligocene (57 to 24 million years ago). ===Climate=== Aarhus has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen: "Cfb") and the weather is constantly influenced by major weather systems from all four ordinal directions, resulting in unstable conditions throughout the year. Temperature varies a great deal across the seasons with a mild spring in April and May, warmer summer months from June to August, frequently rainy and windy autumn months in October and September and cooler winter months, often with frost and occasional snow, from December to March. The city centre experiences the same climatic effects as other larger cities with higher wind speeds, more fog, less precipitation and higher temperatures than the surrounding, open land. Western winds from the Atlantic and North Sea are dominant resulting in more precipitation in western Denmark. In addition, Jutland rises sufficiently in the centre to lift air to higher, colder altitudes contributing to increased precipitation in eastern Jutland. Combined, these factors make east and south Jutland comparatively wetter than other parts of the country. Average temperature over the year is with February being the coldest month () and August the warmest (). Temperatures in the sea can reach in June to August, but it is not uncommon for beaches to register locally. The geography in the area affects the local climate of the city with the Aarhus Bay imposing a temperate effect on the low-lying valley floor where central Aarhus is located. Brabrand Lake to the west further contributes to this effect and as a result, the valley has a comparably mild, temperate climate. The sandy ground on the valley floor dries up quickly after winter and warms faster in the summer than the surrounding hills of moist-retaining boulder clay. These conditions affect crops and plants that often bloom 1–2 weeks earlier in the valley than on the northern and southern hillsides. Because of the northern latitude, the number of daylight hours varies considerably between summer and winter. On the summer solstice, the sun rises at 04:26 and sets at 21:58, providing 17 hours 32 minutes of daylight. On the winter solstice, it rises at 08:37 and sets at 15:39 with 7 hours and 2 minutes of daylight. The difference in length of days and nights between summer and winter solstices is 10 hours and 30 minutes. ==Politics and administration== Aarhus is the seat of Aarhus Municipality, and Aarhus City Council ("Aarhus Byråd") is also the municipal government with headquarters in Aarhus City Hall. The Mayor of Aarhus since 2010 is Jacob Bundsgaard of the Social Democrats. Municipal elections are held every fourth year on the third Tuesday of November with the next election in 2021. The city council consists of 31 members elected for four-year terms. When an election has determined the composition of the council, it elects a mayor, two deputy mayors and five aldermen from their ranks. Anyone who is eligible to vote and who resides within the municipality can run for a seat on the city council provided they can secure endorsements and signatures from 50 inhabitants of the municipality. The first publicly elected mayor of Aarhus was appointed in 1919. In the 1970 Danish Municipal Reform the current Aarhus municipality was created by merging 20 municipalities. Aarhus was the seat of Aarhus County until the 2007 Danish municipal reform, which substituted the Danish counties with five regions and replaced Aarhus County with Central Denmark Region ("Region Midtjylland"), seated in Viborg. ===Subdivisions=== Aarhus Municipality has 45 electoral wards and polling stations in four electoral districts for the Folketing (national Parliament). The diocese of Aarhus has four deaneries composed of 60 parishes within Aarhus municipality. Aarhus municipality contains 21 postal districts and some parts of another 9. The urban area of Aarhus and the immediate suburbs are divided into the districts Aarhus C, Aarhus N, Aarhus V, Viby J, Højbjerg and Brabrand. === Environmental planning === Aarhus has increasingly been investing in environmental planning and, in accordance with national policy, aims to be -neutral and independent of fossil fuels for heating by 2030. The municipal power plants were adapted for this purpose in the 2010s. In 2015, the municipality took over three private straw-fired heating plants and the year after, a new 77 MW combined heat and power biomass plant at Lisbjerg Power Station was completed while Studstrup Power Station finished a refit to move from coal to wood chips. In conjunction with the development of the Docklands district there are plans for a utility-scale seawater heat pump which will take advantage of fluctuating electricity prices to supply the district heating system. Since 2015, the city has been implementing energy-saving LED technology in street lighting; by January 2019, about half of the municipal street lighting had been changed. Apart from reducing the city's CO2 emissions, it saves 30% on the electricity bill, thereby making it a self-financed project over a 20-year period. The municipality aims for a coherent and holistic administration of the water cycle to protect against, and clean up previous, pollution as well as encourage green growth and self-sufficiency. The main issues are excessive nutrients, adapting to increased (and increasing) levels of precipitation brought on by climate change, and securing the water supply. These goals have manifested in a number of large water treatment projects often in collaboration with private partners. In the 2000s, underground rainwater basins were built across the city while the two lakes Årslev Engsø and Egå Engsø were created in 2003 and 2006 respectively. The number of sewage treatment plants is planned to be reduced from 17 to 2 by 2025, as the treatment plants in Marselisborg and Egå are scheduled for expansion to take over all waste water treatment. They have already been refitted for biogas production to become net producers of electricity and heat. To aid the new treatment plants, and avoid floodings, sewage and stormwater throughout the municipality is planned to be separated into two different drainage systems. Construction began in 2017 in several areas, but it is a long process that is scheduled to be finished by 2085. Afforestation projects have been undertaken to prevent groundwater pollution, secure drinking water, sequester, increase biodiversity, create an attractive countryside, provide easy access to nature and offer outdoor activities to the public. In 2000, the first project, the New Forests of Aarhus, was completed, which aimed to double the forest cover in the municipality and, in 2009, another phase was announced to double forest cover once more before the year 2030. The afforestation plans were realised as a local project in collaboration with private landowners, under a larger national agenda. Other projects to expand natural habitats include a rewilding effort in Geding-Kasted Bog and continuous monitoring of the four Natura 2000 areas in the municipality. ==Demographics== Aarhus has a population of 261,570 on for a density of 2,874/km2 (7,444/sq mi). Aarhus municipality has a population of 330,639 on 468 km2 with a density of 706/km2 (1,829/sq mi). Less than a fifth of the municipal population resides beyond city limits and almost all live in an urban area. The population of Aarhus is both younger and better-educated than the national average which can be attributed to the high concentration of educational institutions. More than 40% of the population have an academic degree while only some 14% have no secondary education or trade. The largest age group is 20- to 29-year-olds and the average age is 37.5, making it the youngest city in the country and one of its youngest municipalities. Women have slightly outnumbered men for many years. The city is home to 75 different religious groups and denominations, most of which are Christian or Muslim with a smaller number of Buddhist, Hindu, and Jewish communities. Since the 1990s there has been a marked growth in diverse new spiritual groups although the total number of followers remains small. The majority of the population are members of the Protestant state church, Church of Denmark, which is by far the largest religious institution both in the city and the country as a whole. Some 20% of the population are not officially affiliated with any religion, a percentage that has been slowly rising for many years. During the 1990s there was significant immigration from Turkey and in the 2000s, there was a fast growth in the overall immigrant community, from 27,783 people in 1999 to 40,431 in 2008. The majority of immigrants have roots outside Europe and the developed world, comprising some 25,000 people from 130 different nationalities, with the largest groups coming from the Middle East and North Africa. Some 15,000 have come from within Europe, with Poland, Germany, Romania and Norway being the largest contributors. Many immigrants have established themselves in the suburbs of Brabrand, Hasle and Viby, where the percentage of inhabitants with foreign origins has risen by 66% since 2000. This has resulted in a few so-called ghettos, defined as residential areas with more than half of inhabitants from non-Western countries and with relatively high levels of poverty and/or crime. Gellerup is the most notable neighbourhood in that respect. The ghetto-labelling has been criticized as unnecessarily stigmatising and counterproductive for social and economical development of the related areas. ==Economy== The economy of Aarhus is predominantly knowledge- and service-based, strongly influenced by the University of Aarhus and the large healthcare industry. The service sector dominates the economy and is growing as the city transitions away from manufacturing. Trade and transportation remain important sectors, benefiting from the large port and central position on the rail network. Manufacturing has been in slow but steady decline since the 1960s while agriculture has long been a marginal sector within the municipality. The municipality is home to 175,000 jobs with some 100,000 in the private sector and the rest split between state, region and municipality. The region is a major agricultural producer, with many large farms in the outlying districts. People commute to Aarhus from as far away as Randers, Silkeborg and Skanderborg and almost a third of those employed within the Aarhus municipality commute from neighbouring communities. Aarhus is a centre for retail in the Nordic and Baltic countries, with expansive shopping centres, the busiest commercial street in the country and a dense urban core with many speciality shops. The job market is knowledge- and service-based, and the largest employment sectors are healthcare and social services, trade, education, consulting, research, industry and telecommunications. The municipality has more high- and middle-income jobs, and fewer low-income jobs, than the national average. Today, te majority of the largest companies in the municipality are in the sectors of trade, transport and media. The wind power industry has strong roots in Aarhus and the larger region of Central Jutland, and nationally, most of the revenue in the industry is generated by companies in the greater Aarhus area. The wind industry employs about a thousand people within the municipality, making it a central component in the local economy. The biotech industry is well-established in the city, with many small- and medium-sized companies mainly focused on research and development. There are multiple Big Tech companies with offices in the city, including Uber and Google. Several major companies are headquartered in Aarhus, including four of the ten largest in the country. These include Arla Foods, one of the largest dairy groups in Europe, Salling Group, Denmark's largest retailer, Jysk, a worldwide retailer of household goods, Vestas, a global wind turbine manufacturer, Terma A/S, a major defence and aerospace manufacturer, Per Aarsleff, a civil engineering company and several large retail companies. Other large employers of note include Krifa, Systematic A/S,), and Bestseller A/S. Since the early 2000s, the city has experienced an influx of larger companies moving from other parts of the Jutland peninsula. ===Port of Aarhus=== The Port of Aarhus is one of the largest industrial ports in northern Europe with the largest container terminal in Denmark, processing more than 50% of Denmark's container traffic and accommodating the largest container vessels in the world. It is a municipal self-governing port with independent finances. The facilities handle some 9.5 million tonnes of cargo a year (2012). Grain is the principal export, while feedstuffs, stone, cement and coal are among the chief imports. Since 2012 the port has faced increasing competition from the Port of Hamburg and freight volumes have decreased somewhat from the peak in 2008. The ferry terminal presents the only alternative to the Great Belt Link for passenger transport between Jutland and Zealand. It has served different ferry companies since the first steamship route to Copenhagen opened in 1830. Currently, Mols-Linien operates the route and annually transports some two million passengers and a million vehicles. Additional roll-on/roll-off cargo ferries serve Finland and Kalundborg on a weekly basis and smaller outlying Danish ports at irregular intervals. Since the early 2000s the port has increasingly become a destination for cruise lines operating in the Baltic Sea. ===Tourism=== The ARoS Art Museum, the Old Town Museum and Tivoli Friheden are among Denmark's top tourist attractions. With a combined total of almost 1.4 million visitors they represent the driving force behind tourism but other venues such as Moesgård Museum and Kvindemuseet are also popular. The city's extensive shopping facilities are also said to be a major attraction for tourists, as are festivals, especially NorthSide and SPOT. Many visitors arrive on cruise ships: in 2012, 18 vessels visited the port with over 38,000 passengers. In the 2010s, there was a significant expansion of tourist facilities, culminating in the opening of the 240-room Comwell Hotel in July 2014, which increased the number of hotel rooms in the city by 25%. Some estimates put the number of visitors spending at least one night as high as 750,000 a year, most of them Danes from other regions, with the remainder coming mainly from Norway, Sweden, northern Germany and the United Kingdom. Overall, they spend roughly DKK 3 billion (€402 million) in the city each year. The primary motivation for tourists choosing Aarhus as a destination is experiencing the city and culture, family and couples vacation or as a part of a round trip in Denmark. The average stay is little more than three days on average. There are more than 30 tourist information spots across the city. Some of them are staffed, while others are online, publicly accessible touchscreens. The official tourist information service in Aarhus is organised under VisitAarhus, a corporate foundation initiated in 1994 by Aarhus Municipality and local commercial interest organisations. ===Research parks=== The largest research park in Aarhus is INCUBA Science Park, focused on IT and biomedical research, It is based on Denmark's first research park, "Forskerpark Aarhus" (Research Park Aarhus), founded in 1986, which in 2007 merged with another research park to form INCUBA Science Park. The organisation is owned partly by Aarhus University and private investors and aims to foster close relationships between public institutions and startup companies. It is physically divided across 4 locations after a new department was inaugurated in Navitas Park in 2015, which it will share with the Aarhus School of Marine and Technical Engineering and AU Engineering. Another major centre for knowledge is Agro Food Park in Skejby, established to facilitate co-operation between companies and public institutions working within food science and agriculture. In January 2017 Arla Foods will open the global innovation centre "Arla Nativa" in Agro Food Park and in 2018 Aarhus University is moving the "Danish Centre for Food and Agriculture" there as well. In 2016, some 1000 people worked at Agro Food Park, spread across 50 companies and institutions and in August 2016 Agro Food Park management published plans to expand facilities from 92,000 m2 to . In addition, Aarhus is home to the Aarhus School of Architecture, one of two Danish Ministry of Education institutions that provide degree programs in architecture, and some of the largest architecture firms in the Nordic countries such as Schmidt Hammer Lassen Architects, Arkitema Architects and C. F. Møller Architects. Taken together these organisations form a unique concentration of expertise and knowledge in architecture outside Copenhagen, which the Danish Ministry of Business and Growth refers to as (the architecture cluster). To promote the "cluster", the School of Architecture will be given new school buildings centrally in the new Freight Station Neighborhood, planned for development in the 2020s. In the interim, the city council supports a culture, business and education centre in the area, which may continue in the future neighbourhood in some form. The future occupants of the neighbourhood will be businesses and organisations selected for their ability to be involved in the local community, and it is hoped that the area will evolve into a hotspot for creativity and design. ==Cityscape== Aarhus has developed in stages, from the Viking Age to modern times, all visible in the city today. Many architectural styles are represented in different parts of the city such as Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, National Romantic, Nordic Classicism, Neoclassical, Empire and Functionalism. The city has developed around the main transport hubs – the river, the harbour, and later the railway station – and as a result, the oldest parts are also the most central and busiest today. The streets of Volden (The Rampart) and Graven (The Moat) testify to the defences of the initial Viking town, and "Allégaderingen" in Midtbyen roughly follows the boundaries of that settlement. The street network in the inner city formed during the Middle Ages with narrow, curved streets and low, dense housing by the river and the coast. "Vesterport" (Westward Gate) still bears the name of the medieval city gate and the narrow alleyways "Posthussmøgen" and "Telefonsmøgen" are remnants of toll stations from that time. The inner city has the oldest preserved buildings, especially the Latin Quarter, with houses dating back to the early 17th century in Mejlgade and Skolegade. Medieval merchants' mansions with courtyards can be seen in Klostergade, Studsgade and Skolegade. By far, the largest part of the present-day city was built during and after the industrialization of the late 1800s, and the most represented architectural styles today are historicism and modernism, especially the subgenre of Danish functionalism of which there are many fine examples. The building boom of the 2000s has imprinted itself on Aarhus with a redeveloped harbourfront, many new neighbourhoods (also in the inner city), and a revitalized public space. It is also beginning to change the skyline with several dominating high-rises. ===Developments=== In recent years, Aarhus has experienced a large demand in housing and offices, spurring a construction boom in some parts of the city. The newly built city district of Aarhus Ø, formerly docklands, includes major housing developments, mostly consisting of privately owned apartments, designed by architects such as CEBRA, and JDS Architects. In the second quarter of 2012, the population of the area stood at only 5; however, that number had risen to 3,940 by October 2019. The main public transportation service is bus line 23, as well as Østbanetorvet train station. Plans to service the area by the light rail line Aarhus Letbane have now been shelved. ===Landmarks=== Aarhus Cathedral ("Århus Domkirke") in the centre of Aarhus, is the longest and tallest church in Denmark at and in length and height respectively. Originally built as a Romanesque basilica in the 13th century, it was rebuilt and enlarged as a Gothic cathedral in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. Even though the cathedral stood finished around 1300, it took more than a century to build; the associated cathedral school of "Aarhus Katedralskole" was already founded in 1195 and ranks as the 44th oldest school in the world. Another important and historic landmark in the inner city, is the Church of Our Lady ("Vor Frue Kirke") also from the 13th century in Romanesque and Gothic style. It is smaller and less impressive, but it was the first cathedral of Aarhus and founded on an even older church constructed in 1060; the oldest stone church in Scandinavia. Langelandsgade Kaserne in National Romantic Style from 1889 is the oldest former military barracks left in the country; home to the university Department of Aesthetics and Communication since 1989. Marselisborg Palace ("Marselisborg Slot"), designed by Hack Kampmann in Neoclassical and Art Nouveau styles, was donated by the city to Prince Christian and Princess Alexandrine as a wedding present in 1898. The Aarhus Custom House ("Toldkammeret") from 1898, is said to be Hack Kampmann's finest work. Tivoli Friheden (Tivoli Freedom) opened in 1903 and has since been the largest amusement park in the city and a tourist attraction. Aarhus Theatre from 1916 in the Art Nouveau style is the largest provincial theatre in Denmark. The early buildings of Aarhus University, especially the main building completed in 1932, designed by Kay Fisker, Povl Stegmann and by C.F. Møller have gained an international reputation for their contribution to functionalist architecture. The City Hall ("Aarhus Rådhus") from 1941 with an iconic tower clad in marble, was designed by Arne Jacobsen and Erik Møller in a modern Functionalist style. ==Culture== Aarhus is home to many annual cultural events and festivals, museums, theatres, and sports events of both national and international importance, and presents some of the largest cultural attractions in Denmark. There is a long tradition of music from all genres, and many Danish bands have emerged from Aarhus. Libraries, cultural centres and educational institutions present free or easy opportunities for the citizens to participate in, engage in, or be creative with cultural events and productions of all kinds. Since 1938, Aarhus has marketed itself as "Smilets by" (City of smiles) which has become both an informal moniker and official slogan. In 2011, the city council opted to change the slogan to "Aarhus. Danish for Progress" but it was unpopular and abandoned after just a few years. Other slogans that have occasionally been used are "Byen ved havet" (City by the sea), "Mellem bugt og bøgeskov" (Between bay and beechwood) and "Verdens mindste storby" (World's smallest big city). Aarhus is featured in popular songs such as "Hjem til Aarhus" by På Slaget 12, "Lav sol over Aarhus" by Gnags, "8000 Aarhus C" by Flemming Jørgensen, "Pigen ud af Aarhus" by Tina Dickow and "Slingrer ned ad Vestergade" by Gnags. In 1919, the number "Sangen til Aarhus" (Song to Aarhus) had become a popular hit for a time, but the oldest and perhaps best known "national anthem" for the city is the classical "Aarhus Tappenstreg" from 1872 by Carl Christian Møller which is occasionally played at official events or at performances by local marching bands and orchestras. ===Museums=== Aarhus has a range of museums, including two of the largest in the country, measured by the number of paying guests, "Den Gamle By" and "ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum". "Den Gamle By" (The Old Town), officially "Danmarks Købstadmuseum" (Denmark's Market Town Museum), presents Danish townscapes from the 16th century to the 1970s with individual areas focused on different time periods. 75 historic buildings collected from different parts of the country have been brought here to create a small town in its own right. ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum, the city's main art museum, is one of the largest art museums in Scandinavia with a collection covering Danish art from the 18th century to the present day as well as paintings, installations and sculptures representing international art movements and artists from all over the world. The iconic glass structure on the roof, "Your Rainbow Panorama", was designed by Olafur Eliasson and features a promenade offering a colourful panorama of the city. The Moesgård Museum specialises in archaeology and ethnography in collaboration with Aarhus University with exhibits on Denmark's prehistory, including weapon sacrifices from Illerup Ådal and the Grauballe Man. Kvindemuseet, the Women's Museum, from 1984 contains collections of the lives and works of women in Danish cultural history. The Occupation Museum ("Besættelsesmuseum") presents exhibits illustrating the German occupation of the city during the Second World War; the University Park on the campus of Aarhus University includes the Natural History Museum with 5,000 species of animals, many in their natural surroundings; and the Steno Museum is a museum of the history of science and medicine with a planetarium. Kunsthal Aarhus (Aarhus Art Hall) hosts exhibitions of contemporary art including painting, sculpture, photography, performance art, film and video. Strictly speaking it is not a museum but an arts centre, one of the oldest in Europe, built and founded in 1917. ===Libraries and community centres=== Public libraries in Denmark are also cultural and community centres. They play an active role in cultural life and host many events, exhibitions, discussion groups, workshops, educational courses and facilitate everyday cultural activities for and by the citizens. In June 2015, the large central library and cultural centre of Dokk1 opened at the harbour front. Dokk1 also includes civil administrations and services, commercial office rentals and a large underground robotic car park and aims to be a landmark for the city and a public meeting place. The building of Dokk1 and the associated squares and streetscape is also collectively known as Urban Mediaspace Aarhus and it is the largest construction project Aarhus municipality has yet undertaken. Apart from this large main library, some neighbourhoods in Aarhus have a local library engaged in similar cultural and educational activities, but on a more local scale. The State Library ("Statsbiblioteket") at the university campus has status of a national library. The city is a member of the ICORN organisation (International Cities of Refuge Network) in an effort to provide a safe haven to authors and writers persecuted in their countries of origin. There are several cultural and community centres throughout the city. This includes Folkestedet in the central Åparken, facilitating events for and by non-commercial associations, organisations and clubs, and activities for the elderly, the nearby Godsbanen at the railway yard, with workshops, events and exhibitions, and Globus1 in Brabrand facilitating sports and various cultural activities. ===Performing arts=== The city enjoys strong musical traditions, both classical and alternative, underground and popular, with educational and performance institutions such as the concert halls of Musikhuset, the opera of Den Jyske Opera, Aarhus Symfoniorkester (Aarhus Symphony Orchestra) and Det Jyske Musikkonservatorium (Royal Academy of Music, Aarhus/Aalborg). Musikhuset is the largest concert hall in Scandinavia, with seating for more than 3,600 people. Other major music venues include VoxHall, rebuilt in 1999, and the associated venue of Atlas, Train nightclub at the harbourfront, and Godsbanen, a former rail freight station. The acting scene in Aarhus is diverse, with many groups and venues engaged in a broad span of genres, from animation theatre and children's theatre to classical theatre and improvisational theatre. Aarhus Teater is the oldest and largest venue with mostly professional classical acting performances. Svalegangen, the second largest theatre, is more experimental with its performances and other notable groups and venues includes EntréScenen, Katapult, Gruppe 38, Helsingør Teater, Det Andet Teater and Teater Refleksion as well as dance venues like Bora Bora. The cultural center of Godsbanen includes several scenes and stages and the Concert Halls of "Musikhuset" also stage theatrical plays regularly and is home to the children's theatre Filuren and a comedy club. The city hosts a biannual international theatre festival, International Living Theatre (ILT), with the next event being scheduled for 2021. Since 2010 the music production centre of PROMUS ("Produktionscentret for Rytmisk Musik") has supported the rock scene in the city along with the publicly funded ROSA ("Dansk Rock Samråd"), which promotes Danish rock music in general. Aarhus is known for its musical history. Fuelled by a relatively young population jazz clubs sprang up in the 1950s which became a tour stop for many iconic American Jazz musicians. By the 1960s, the music scene diversified into rock and other genres and in the 1970s and 1980s, Aarhus became a centre for rock music, fostering iconic bands such as Kliché, TV-2 and Gnags and artists such as Thomas Helmig and Anne Linnet. Acclaimed bands since the 1970s include Under Byen, Michael Learns to Rock, Nephew, Carpark North, Spleen United, VETO, Hatesphere and Illdisposed in addition to individual performers such as Medina and Tina Dico. ===Events and festivals=== Aarhus hosts many annual or recurring festivals, concerts and events, with the festival of Aarhus Festuge as the most popular and wide-ranging, along with large sports events. Aarhus Festuge is the largest multicultural festival in Scandinavia, always based on a special theme and takes place every year for ten days between late August and early September, transforming the inner city with festive activities and decorations of all kinds. There are numerous music festivals; the eight-day Aarhus Jazz Festival features jazz in many venues across the city. It was founded in 1988 and usually takes place in July every year, occasionally August or September. There are several annually recurring music festivals for contemporary popular music in Aarhus. NorthSide Festival presents well-known bands every year in mid-June on large outdoor scenes. It is a relatively new event, founded in 2010, but grew from a one-day event to a three-day festival in its first three years, now with 35,000 paying guests in 2015. Spot festival is aiming to showcase up-and-coming Danish and Scandinavian talents at selected venues of the inner city. The outdoor Grøn Koncert music festival takes place every year in many cities across Denmark, including Aarhus. Danmarks grimmeste festival (lit. Denmark's ugliest Festival) is a small summer music festival held in Skjoldhøjkilen, Brabrand. Aarhus also hosts recurring events dedicated to specific art genres. International Living Theatre (ILT) is a bi-annual festival, established in 2009, with performing arts and stage art on a broad scale. The festival has a vision of showing the best plays and stage art experiences of the world, while at the same time attracting thespians and stage art interested people from both Aarhus and Europe at large. LiteratureXchange is a new annual festival from 2018, focused on literature from around the world as well as regional talents. The city actively promotes its gay and lesbian community and celebrates the annual Aarhus Pride gay pride festival while Aarhus Festuge usually includes exhibits, concerts and events designed for the LGBT communities. Notable events of a local scope include the university boat-race, held in the University Park since 1991, which has become a local spectator event attracting some 20,000 people. The boat race pits costumed teams from the university departments against each other in inflatable boats in a challenge to win the "Gyldne Bækken" (Golden Chamber Pot) trophy. The annual lighting of the Christmas lights on the Salling department store in Søndergade has also become an attraction in recent times, packing the pedestrianised city centre with thousands of revellers. Significant dates such as Saint Lucy's Day, "Sankt Hans" (Saint John's Eve) and Fastelavn are traditionally celebrated with numerous events across the city. ===Parks, nature, and recreation=== The beech forests of Riis Skov and Marselisborg occupy the hills along the coast to the north and south, and apart from the city centre, sandy beaches form the coastline of the entire municipality. There are two public sea baths, the northern "Den Permanente" below Riis Skov and close to the harbour area, and the southern Ballehage Beach in the Marselisborg Forests. As in most of Denmark, there are no private beaches in the municipality, but access to "Den Permanente" requires a membership, except in the summer. The relatively mild, temperate marine climate, allows for outdoor recreation year round, including walking, hiking, cycling, and outdoor team sports. Mountain biking is usually restricted to marked routes. Watersports like sailing, kayaking, motor boating, etc. are also popular, and since the bay rarely freezes up in winter, they can also be practised most of the year. Recreational and transportational pathways for pedestrians and cyclists, radiate from the city centre to the countryside, providing safety from motorised vehicles and a more tranquil experience. This includes the 19 kilometre long pathway of "Brabrandstien", encircling the Brabrand Lake. The long-range hiking route Aarhus-Silkeborg, starts off from Brabrandstien. Aarhus has an unusually high number of parks and green spaces, 134 of them, covering a total area of around . The central Botanical Gardens ("Botanisk Have") from 1875 are a popular destination, as they include The Old Town open-air museum and host a number of events throughout the year. Originally used to cultivate fruit trees and other useful plants for the local citizens, there are now a significant collection of trees and bushes from different habitats and regions of the world, including a section devoted to native Danish plants. Recently renovated tropical and subtropical greenhouses, exhibit exotic plants from throughout the world. Also in the city centre is the undulating University Park, recognised for its unique landscaped design with large old oak trees. The Memorial Park ("Mindeparken") at the coast below Marselisborg Palace, offers a panoramic view across the Bay of Aarhus and is popular with locals for outings, picnics or events. Other notable parks include the small central City Hall Park ("Rådhusparken") and Marienlyst Park ("Marienlystparken"). Marienlyst Park is a relatively new park from 1988, situated in Hasle out of the inner city and is less crowded, but it is the largest park in Aarhus, including woodlands, large open grasslands and soccer fields. Marselisborg Forests and Riis Skov, has a long history of recreational activities of all kinds, including several restaurants, hotels and opportunities for green exercise. There are marked routes here for jogging, running and mountain biking and large events are hosted regularly. This includes running events, cycle racing and orienteering, the annual Classic Race Aarhus with historic racing cars, all attracting thousands of people. Marselisborg Deer Park ("Marselisborg Dyrehave") in Marselisborg Forests, comprises of fenced woodland pastures with free-roaming sika and roe deer. Below the Moesgård Museum in the southern parts of the Marselisborg Forests, is a large historical landscape of pastures and woodlands, presenting different eras of Denmark's prehistory. Sections of the forest comprise trees and vegetation representing specific climatic epochs from the last Ice Age to the present. Dotted across the landscape are reconstructed Stone Age and Bronze Age graves, buildings from the Iron Age, Viking Age and medieval times, with grazing goats, sheep and horses in between. ===Food, drink, and nightlife=== Aarhus has a large variety of restaurants and eateries offering food from cultures all over the world, especially Mediterranean and Asian, but also international gourmet cuisine, traditional Danish food and New Nordic Cuisine. Among the oldest restaurants are "Rådhuscafeen" (lit. The City Hall Café), opened in 1924, serving a menu of traditional Danish meals, and "Peter Gift" from 1906, a tavern with a broad beer selection and a menu of smørrebrød and other Danish dishes. In Aarhus, New Nordic can be experienced at "Kähler Villa Dining", "Hærværk" and "Domestic", but local produce can be had at many places, especially at the twice-weekly food markets in Frederiksbjerg. Aarhus and Central Denmark Region was selected as European Region of Gastronomy in 2017. The city (and municipality) is a member of the Délice Network, an international non-profit organization nurturing and facilitating knowledge exchange in gastronomy. Appraised high-end restaurants serving international gourmet cuisine include Frederikshøj, Substans, Gastromé, Det Glade Vanvid, Nordisk Spisehus, Restaurant Varna, Restaurant ET, Gäst, Brasserie Belli, Møf. Restaurants in Aarhus were the first in provincial Denmark to receive Michelin stars since 2015, when Michelin inspectors ventured outside Copenhagen for the first time. Vendors of street food are numerous throughout the centre, often selling from small trailers on permanent locations formally known as "Pølsevogne" (lit. sausage wagons), traditionally serving a Danish variety of hot dogs, sausages and other fast food. There are increasingly more outlets inspired by other cultural flavours such as sushi, kebab and currywurst. The city centre is packed with cafés, especially along the river and the Latin quarter. Some of them also include an evening restaurant, such as "Café Casablanca", "Café Carlton", "Café Cross" and "Gyngen". Aarhus Street Food and Aarhus Central Food Market are two indoor food courts from 2016 in the city centre, comprising a variety of street food restaurants, cafés and bars. Aarhus has a robust and diverse nightlife. The action tends to concentrate in the inner city, with the pedestrianised riverside, Frederiksgade, the Latin Quarter, and Jægergårdsgade on Frederiksbjerg as the most active centres at night, but things are stirring elsewhere around the city too. The nightlife scene offers everything from small joints with cheap alcohol and a homely atmosphere to fashionable nightclubs serving champagne and cocktails or small and large music venues with bars, dance floors and lounges. A short selection of well-established places where you can have a drink and socialise, include the fashionable lounge and night club Kupé at the harbourfront, the relaxed Ris Ras Filliongongong offering waterpipes and an award-winning beer selection, Fatter Eskild with a broad selection of Danish bands playing mostly blues and rock, the wine and book café Løve's in Nørregade, "Sherlock Holmes", a British-style pub with live music, and the brew pub of Sct. Clemens, with A Hereford Beefstouw restaurant across the cathedral. A few nightlife spots are aimed at gays and lesbians specifically, including Gbar (nightclub) and Café Sappho. The "Århus Set" (Danish: Århus Sæt) is a set of drinks often ordered together, named for the city and consisting of two beverages, one Ceres Top beer and one shot Arnbitter, both originally from Aarhus. Ordering "a set" suffices in most bars and pubs. Aarhus Bryghus is a local craft brewery with a sizeable production. The brewery is located in the southern district of Viby and a large variety of their craft brews are available there, in most larger well-assorted stores in the city, and in some bars and restaurants as well. They also export. ===Local dialect=== The Aarhus dialect, commonly called "Aarhusiansk" (Aarhusian in English), is a Jutlandic dialect in the Mid-Eastern Jutland dialect area, traditionally spoken in and around Aarhus. Aarhusian, as with most local dialects in Denmark, has diminished in use through the 20th century and most Danes today speak some version of Standard Danish with slight regional features. Aarhusian, however, still has a strong presence in older segments of the population and in areas with high numbers of immigrants. Some examples of common, traditional and unique Aarhusian words are: "træls" ('tiresome'), "noller" ('silly' or 'dumb') and "dælme" (excl. 'damn me!'). The dialect is notable for single-syllable words ending in "d" being pronounced with stød while the same letter in multiple-syllable words is pronounced as "j", i.e., Odder is pronounced "Ojjer". Like other dialects in East Jutland, it has two grammatical genders, similar to Standard Danish, but different from West Jutlandic dialects, which have only one. In 2009, the University of Aarhus compiled a list of contemporary public figures who best exemplify the dialect, including Jacob Haugaard, Thomas Helmig, Steffen Brandt, Stig Tøfting, Flemming Jørgensen, Tina Dickow and Camilla Martin. In popular culture, the dialect features prominently in Niels Malmros's movie "Aarhus by Night" and in 90s comedy sketches by Jacob Haugaard and Finn Nørbygaard. ==Sports== Aarhus has three major men's professional sports teams: the Superliga team Aarhus Gymnastikforening (AGF), Danish Handball League's Aarhus GF Håndbold, and Danish Basketball League's Bakken Bears. Notable or historic clubs include Aarhus 1900, Aarhus Fremad, Idrætsklubben Skovbakken and Aarhus Sejlklub. Aarhus Idrætspark has hosted matches in the premiere Danish soccer league since it was formed in 1920 and matches for the national men's soccer team in 2006 and 2007. The five sailing clubs routinely win national and international titles in a range of disciplines and the future national watersports stadium will be located on the Aarhus Docklands in the city centre. The Bakken Bears won the Danish basketball championships in 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. The municipality actively supports sports organisations in and around the city, providing public organisations that aim to attract major sporting events and strengthen professional sports. The National Olympic Committee and Sports Confederation of Denmark counts some 380 sports organisations within the municipality and about one third of the population are members of one. Soccer is by far the most popular sport followed by Gymnastics, Handball and Badminton. In recent decades, many free and public sports facilities have sprung up across the city, such as street football, basketball, climbing walls, skateboarding and beach volley. Several natural sites also offer green exercise, with exercise equipment installed along the paths and tracks reserved for mountain biking. The newly reconstructed area of Skjoldhøjkilen is a prime example. Aarhus has hosted many sporting events including the 2010 European Women's Handball Championship, the 2014 European Men's Handball Championship, the 2013 Men's European Volleyball Championships, the 2005 European Table Tennis Championships, the Denmark Open in badminton, the UCI Women's Road Cycling World Cup, the 2006 World Orienteering Championships, the 2006 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships and the GF World Cup (women's handball). On average, Aarhus is hosting one or two international sailing competitions every year. In 2008, the city hosted the ISAF Youth Sailing World Championships and in 2018 it was host to the ISAF Sailing World Championships, the world championship for the 12 Olympic sailing disciplines. Aarhus is an important qualifier for the 2020 Olympics. ==Education== Aarhus is the principal centre for education in the Jutland region. It draws students from a large area, especially from the western and southern parts of the peninsula. The relatively large influx of young people and students creates a natural base for cultural activities. Aarhus has the greatest concentration of students in Denmark, fully 12% of citizens attending short, medium or long courses of study. In addition to around 25 institutions of higher education, several research forums have evolved to assist in the transfer of expertise from education to business. The city is home to more than 52,000 students. Since 2012, Aarhus University (AU) has been the largest university in Denmark by number of students enrolled. It is ranked among the top 100 universities in the world by several of the most influential and respected rankings. The university has approximately 41,500 Bachelor and Master students enrolled as well as about 1,500 PhD students. It is possible to engage in higher academic studies in many areas, from the traditional spheres of natural science, humanities and theology to more vocational academic areas like engineering and dentistry. Aarhus Tech is one of the largest technical colleges in Denmark, teaching undergraduate study programmes in English, including vocational education and training (VET), continuing vocational training (CVT), and human resource development. Business Academy Aarhus is among the largest business academies in Denmark and offers undergraduate and some academic degrees, in IT, business and technical fields. The academic level technical aspects are covered in a collaboration with Aarhus Tech, Aarhus School of Marine and Technical Engineering and Aarhus Educational Centre for Agriculture. The Danish School of Media and Journalism (DMJX) is the oldest and largest of the colleges, offering journalism courses since 1946, with approximately 1,700 students as of 2014. DMJX has been an independent institution since 1974, conducting research and teaching at undergraduate level, and in 2004, master's courses in journalism was established in a collaboration with Aarhus University. The latter is offered through the Centre for University studies in journalism, granting degrees through the university. The Royal Academy of Music in Aarhus ("Det Jyske Musikkonservatorium") is a conservatoire, established under the auspices of the Danish Ministry of Culture in 1927. In 2010, it merged administratively with the Royal Academy of Music in Aalborg, which was founded in 1930. Under the patronage of His Royal Highness Crown Prince Frederik, it offers graduate level studies in areas such as music teaching, and solo and professional musicianship. VIA University College was established in January 2008 and is one of eight new regional organisations offering bachelor courses of all kinds, throughout the Central Denmark Region. It offers over 50 higher educations, taught in Danish or sometimes in English, with vocational education and it participates in various research and development projects. Aarhus School of Architecture ("Arkitektskolen Aarhus") was founded in 1965. Along with the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts of Copenhagen, it is responsible for the education of architects in Denmark. With an enrolment of approximately 900 students, it teaches in five main departments: architecture and aesthetics, urban and landscape, architectonic heritage, design and architectural design. ==Transport== Aarhus has two ring roads; Ring 1, roughly encircling the central district of Aarhus C, and the outlying Ring 2. Six major intercity motorways radiate from the city centre, connecting with nearby cities Grenå, Randers, Viborg, Silkeborg, Skanderborg and Odder. In the inner city, motorised traffic is highly regulated, larger parts are pedestrianised and in the 2000s, a system of roads prioritised for cyclists have been implemented, connecting to suburban areas. The main railway station in Aarhus is Aarhus Central Station located in the city centre. DSB has connections to destinations throughout Denmark and also services to Flensburg and Hamburg in Germany. Aarhus Letbane is a local electric tram-train system that opened in December 2017, connecting the central station and the inner city with the University Hospital in Skejby and also replaced local railway services to Grenaa and Odder in late 2018. It is the first electric light rail system in Denmark and more routes are planned to open in coming years. Tickets for the light rail are also available in local yellow bus lines. Most city bus lines go through the inner city and pass through either Park Allé or Banegårdspladsen, or both, right at the central station. Regional and Inter-city buses terminate at Aarhus Bus Terminal, just east of the central station. FlixBus provides long-distance buses that travel to other cities in Denmark and Europe. Ferries administered by Danish ferry company Mols-Linien transports passengers and motorvehicles between Aarhus and Sjællands Odde on Zealand. The ferries comprises "HSC KatExpress 1" and "HSC KatExpress 2", the world's largest diesel-powered catamarans, and "HSC Max Mols". Aarhus Airport is located on Djursland, north-east of Aarhus near Tirstrup, and provides links to both Copenhagen and international destinations. The larger Billund Airport is situated south-west of Aarhus. There has been much discussion about constructing a new airport closer to the city for many years, but so far no plans have been realised. In August 2014, the city council officially initiated a process to assert the viability of a new international airport. A small seaplane now operates four flights daily between Aarhus harbour and Copenhagen harbour. Aarhus has a free bike sharing system, Aarhus Bycykler (Aarhus City Bikes). The bicycles are available from 1 April to 30 October at 57 stands throughout the city and can be obtained by placing a DKK 20 coin in a release slot, like caddies in a supermarket. The coin can be retrieved when the bike is returned at a random stand. Bicycles can also be hired from many shops. ==Healthcare== Aarhus is home to Aarhus University Hospital, one of six Danish "Super Hospitals" officially established in 2007 when the regions reformed the Danish healthcare sector. The university hospital is the result of a series of mergers in the 2000s between the local hospitals of Skejby Sygehus, the Municipal Hospital, the County Hospital, Marselisborg Hospital and Risskov Psychiatric Hospital. It is today the largest hospital in Denmark with a combined staff of some 10,000 and 1,150 patient beds, and has been ranked the best hospital in Denmark consecutively since 2008. In 2012, construction of a new large hospital building began, known as Det Nye Universitetshospital (DNU) or 'The New University Hospital' in English, and it is centralising and accommodating all of the former departments, ending in 2019. The new hospital is divided in four clinical centres, a service centre and one administrative unit along with twelve research centres. Private hospitals specialised in different areas from plastic surgery to fertility treatments operate in Aarhus as well. "Ciconia Aarhus Private Hospital" founded in 1984 is a leading Danish fertility clinic and the first of its kind in Denmark. Ciconia has provided for the birth of 6,000 children by artificial insemination and continually conducts research into the field of fertility. "Aagaard Clinic", established in 2004, is another private fertility and gynaecology clinic which since 2004 has undertaken fertility treatments that has resulted in 1550 births. Aarhus Municipality also offers a number of specialised services in the areas of nutrition, exercise, sex, smoking and drinking, activities for the elderly, health courses and lifestyle. ==Media== The first daily newspaper to appear in Aarhus was "Århus Stiftstidende", established in 1794 as "Aarhuus Stifts Adresse-Contoirs Tidender", with a moderately conservative approach. Once one of Denmark's largest, it was a leading provincial newspaper for a time, but after the Second World War it increasingly faced competition from "Demokraten" (1884–1974) and , both published in Aarhus. In 1998, it merged with "Randers Amtsavis" and is now run by Midtjyske Medier, part of Berlingske Media. The daily newspaper of was established in 1871 in Aarhus, and takes a generally right-wing editorial approach. With a reputation as a serious news publication, the paper has always included news from Jutland in particular, but somewhat less so since its promotion as a national newspaper in the 1960s. Today it is one of the three bestselling serious newspapers in Denmark, the others being "Berlingske" and "Politiken". Jyllands-Posten publishes "JP Aarhus", a section dedicated to news in and around Aarhus, and hosted a free cityguide website from 2010 to 2016. The Copenhagen-based media company of "Politiken", also publishes several free local papers once a week in parts of Denmark and Sweden. In Aarhus, they publish a total of five local newspapers; "Aarhus Midt", "Aarhus Nord", "Aarhus Vest", "Aarhus Syd" and "Aarhus Onsdag". "Aarhus Onsdag" (Aarhus Wednesday) is financed completely by advertisements and available in both paperform and online. It was bought from "Århus Stiftstidende" in June 2017, but has been published for many years previous. Danmarks Radio has a large department in Aarhus with over 200 employees. It runs the DR Østjylland radio programme, provides local contributions to DR P4, and produces local regional television programmes. In 1999, TV 2 moved its Jutland headquarters from Randers to Skejby in northern Aarhus. The station broadcasts regional news and current affairs television and radio programmes. Since 2012, it has run its own TV channel, TV 2 Østjylland. Aarhus has its own local TV channel TVAarhus, transmitting since 1984. After an agreement on 1 July 2014, TVAarhus can be watched by 130,000 households in Aarhus, making it the largest cable-transmitted local TV channel in Denmark. With over 1,700 students, the Danish School of Media and Journalism ("Danmarks Medie- og Journalisthøjskole") is the country's largest and oldest school of journalism. The school works closely with Aarhus University, where the first journalism course was established in 1946. In 2004, the two institutions established the Centre for University Studies in Journalism, which offers master's courses. ==International relations== Aarhus is home to 32 consulates: Aarhus practices twinning on the municipal level. For the twin towns, see twin towns of Aarhus Municipality.

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Northern cavefish

The northern cavefish or northern blindfish (Amblyopsis spelaea) is found in caves through Kentucky and southern Indiana. The International Union for Conservation of Nature lists the species as near threatened. The life cycle of northern cavefish includes a protolarval stage. In this stage, eggs and those that have recently hatched into protolarvae are kept by the mother internally in a gill chamber. Juveniles become free swimming and can leave. The northern cavefish lives to a maximum age of at least ten years and reaches sexual maturity at approximately six years of age. During a 2013 study of "Amblyopsis spelaea", scientists found that the species was divided into two distinct evolutionary lineages: one north of the Ohio River, in Indiana, and one south of the river, in Kentucky. The southern population retained the name "A. spelaea" and the northern was re-designated "Amblyopsis hoosieri" in a 2014 paper published in the journal "ZooKeys". Neither species is found north of the White River, flowing east to west south of Bedford, Indiana. The northern cavefish was under consideration for listing under the Endangered Species Act, however, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service found in 2023 that despite the loss of two metapopulations of "A. spelaea", listing was not warranted, as the four metapopulations that still exist had sufficient redundancy of subpopulations to mitigate threats. The metapopulations are divided among two units that are separated by the Rough Creek Fault Zone. Threats to the species include habitat degradation, especially by groundwater contamination from encroaching agricultural operations, cities and industry, forest loss and surface water impoundment.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1046

Abatement

Abatement refers generally to a lessening, diminution, reduction, or moderation; specifically, it may refer to: - 421-a tax abatement, property tax exemption in the U.S. state of New York - Abatement of debts and legacies, a common law doctrine of wills - Abatement in pleading, a legal defense to civil and criminal actions - Abatement (heraldry), a modification of the shield or coat of arms imposed by authority for misconduct - Asbestos abatement, removal of asbestos from structures - Bird abatement, driving or removing undesired birds from an area - Dust abatement, the process of inhibiting the creation of excess soil dust - Graffiti abatement, a joint effort between groups to eliminate graffiti - Marginal abatement cost, the marginal cost of reducing pollution - Noise abatement, strategies to reduce noise pollution or its impact - Nuisance abatement, regulatory compliance methodology - Tax abatement, temporary reduction or elimination of a tax

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1049

Amateur

An amateur () is generally considered a person who pursues an avocation independent from their source of income. Amateurs and their pursuits are also described as popular, informal, self-taught, user-generated, DIY, and hobbyist. == History == Historically, the amateur was considered to be the ideal balance between pure intent, open mind, and the interest or passion for a subject. That ideology spanned many different fields of interest. It may have its roots in the ancient Greek philosophy of amateur athletes competing in the Olympics. The ancient Greek citizens spent most of their time in other pursuits, but competed according to their natural talents and abilities. The "gentleman amateur" was a phenomenon among the gentry of Great Britain from the 17th century until the 20th century. With the start of the Age of Reason, with people thinking more about how the world works around them, (see science in the Age of Enlightenment), things like the cabinets of curiosities, and the writing of the book "The Christian Virtuoso", started to shape the idea of the gentleman amateur. He was vastly interested in a particular topic, and studied, observed, and collected things and information on his topic of choice. The Royal Society in Great Britain was generally composed of these "gentleman amateurs", and is one of the reasons science today exists the way it does. A few examples of these gentleman amateurs are Francis Bacon, Isaac Newton, and Sir Robert Cotton, 1st Baronet, of Connington. Amateurism can be seen in both a negative and positive light. Since amateurs often lack formal training and are self-taught, some amateur work may be considered sub-par. For example, amateur athletes in sports such as basketball, baseball, or football are regarded as possessing a lower level of ability than professional athletes. On the other hand, an amateur may be in a position to approach a subject with an open mind (as a result of the lack of formal training) and in a financially disinterested manner. An amateur who dabbles in a field out of interest rather than as a profession, or possesses a general but superficial interest in any art or a branch of knowledge, is often referred to as a dilettante. ==Olympics== Through most of the 20th century the Olympics allowed only amateur athletes to participate and this amateur code was strictly enforced, Jim Thorpe was stripped of track and field medals for having taken expense money for playing baseball in 1912. Later on, the nations of the Communist Bloc entered teams of Olympians who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full-time basis. Near the end of the 1960s, the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association (CAHA) felt their amateur players could no longer be competitive against the Soviet team's full-time athletes and the other constantly improving European teams. They pushed for the ability to use players from professional leagues but met opposition from the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) and the International Olympic Committee (IOC). At the IIHF Congress in 1969, the IIHF decided to allow Canada to use nine non-NHL professional hockey players at the 1970 World Championships in Montreal and Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. The decision was reversed in January 1970 after IOC President Avery Brundage said that ice hockey's status as an Olympic sport would be in jeopardy if the change was made. In response, Canada withdrew from all international ice hockey competitions and officials stated that they would not return until "open competition" was instituted. Günther Sabetzki became president of the IIHF in 1975 and helped to resolve the dispute with the CAHA. In 1976, the IIHF agreed to allow "open competition" between all players in the World Championships. However, NHL players were still not allowed to play in the Olympics, because of the unwillingness of the NHL to take a break mid-season and the IOC's amateur-only policy. Before the 1984 Winter Olympics, a dispute formed over what made a player a professional. The IOC had adopted a rule that made any player who had signed an NHL contract but played less than ten games in the league eligible. However, the United States Olympic Committee maintained that any player contracted with an NHL team was a professional and therefore not eligible to play. The IOC held an emergency meeting that ruled NHL-contracted players were eligible, as long as they had not played in any NHL games. This made five players on Olympic rosters—one Austrian, two Italians and two Canadians—ineligible. Players who had played in other professional leagues—such as the World Hockey Association—were allowed to play. Canadian hockey official Alan Eagleson stated that the rule was only applied to the NHL and that professionally contracted players in European leagues were still considered amateurs. Murray Costello of the CAHA suggested that a Canadian withdrawal was possible. In 1986, the IOC voted to allow all athletes to compete in Olympic Games starting in 1988, but let the individual sport federations decide if they wanted to allow professionals. After the 1972 retirement of IOC President Brundage, the Olympic amateurism rules were steadily relaxed, amounting only to technicalities and lip service, until being completely abandoned in the 1990s (in the United States, the Amateur Sports Act of 1978 prohibits national governing bodies from having more stringent standards of amateur status than required by international governing bodies of respective sports. The act caused the breakup of the Amateur Athletic Union as a wholesale sports governing body at the Olympic level). Olympic regulations regarding amateur status of athletes were eventually abandoned in the 1990s with the exception of wrestling, where the amateur fight rules are used due to the fact that professional wrestling is largely staged with pre-determined outcomes. Starting from the 2016 Summer Olympics, professionals were allowed to compete in boxing, though amateur fight rules are still used for the tournament. == Contribution of amateurs == Many amateurs make valuable contributions in the field of computer programming through the open source movement. Amateur dramatics is the performance of plays or musical theater, often to high standards, but lacking the budgets of professional West End or Broadway performances. Astronomy, chemistry, history, linguistics, and the natural sciences are among the fields that have benefited from the activities of amateurs. Gregor Mendel was an amateur scientist who never held a position in his field of study. Radio astronomy was founded by Grote Reber, an amateur radio operator. Radio itself was greatly advanced by Guglielmo Marconi, a young Italian man who started out by tinkering with a coherer and a spark coil as an amateur electrician. Pierre de Fermat was a highly influential mathematician whose primary vocation was law. In the 2000s and 2010s, the distinction between amateur and professional has become increasingly blurred, especially in areas such as computer programming, music and astronomy. The term amateur professionalism, or pro-am, is used to describe these activities. == List of amateur pursuits == * Amateur astronomy, including a list of notable amateur astronomers - Amateur chemistry, including a list of notable amateur chemists - Amateur film - Amateur geology or rockhounding, including a list of notable amateur geologists - Amateur journalism - Amateur radio - Amateur sports - Amateur theatre - Amateur pornography - Arts and crafts or handicraft, including a list of handicrafts carried out by amateurs - Fan fiction - Fan art - Independent scholar - Independent scientist or gentleman scientist, including a list of notable amateur scientists

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Alexis Carrel

Alexis Carrel (; 28 June 1873 – 5 November 1944) was a French surgeon and biologist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1912 for pioneering vascular suturing techniques. He invented the first perfusion pump with Charles Lindbergh opening the way to organ transplantation. Carrel was also a pioneer in transplantology and thoracic surgery. He is known for his leading role in implementing eugenic policies in Vichy France. == Biography == Born in Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon, Rhône, Carrel was raised in a devout Catholic family and was educated by Jesuits, though he had become an agnostic by the time he became a university student. He was a member of learned societies in the U.S., Spain, Russia, Sweden, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Vatican City, Germany, Italy, and Greece, and was elected twice, in 1924 and 1927, as an honorary member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. He also received honorary doctorates from Queen's University of Belfast, Princeton University, California, New York, Brown University, and Columbia University. In 1902, he was claimed to have witnessed the miraculous cure of Marie Bailly at Lourdes, which became famous in part because she named Carrel as a witness of her cure. After the notoriety surrounding the event, Carrel could not obtain a hospital appointment because of the pervasive anticlericalism in the French university system at the time. In 1903, he emigrated to Montreal, Canada, but soon relocated to Chicago, Illinois, to work for Hull Laboratory. While there he collaborated with American physician Charles Claude Guthrie in work on vascular suture and the transplantation of blood vessels and organs as well as the head, and Carrel was awarded the 1912 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for these efforts. In 1906, he joined the newly formed Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research in New York where he spent the rest of his career. There he did significant work on tissue cultures with pathologist Montrose Thomas Burrows. Carrel was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1909 and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1914. In the 1930s, Carrel and Charles Lindbergh became close friends not only because of the years they worked together but also because they shared personal, political, and social views. Lindbergh initially sought out Carrel to see if his sister-in-law's heart, damaged by rheumatic fever, could be repaired. When Lindbergh saw the crudeness of Carrel's machinery, he offered to build new equipment for the scientist. Eventually they built the first perfusion pump, an invention instrumental to the development of organ transplantation and open heart surgery. Lindbergh considered Carrel his closest friend, and said he would preserve and promote Carrel's ideals after his death. Due to his close proximity with Jacques Doriot's fascist Parti Populaire Français (PPF) during the 1930s and his role in implementing eugenics policies during Vichy France, he was accused after the Liberation of collaboration, but died before the trial. In his later life he returned to his Catholic roots. In 1939, he met with Trappist monk Alexis Presse on a recommendation. Although Carrel was skeptical about meeting with a priest, Presse ended up having a profound influence on the rest of Carrel's life. In 1942, he said "I believe in the existence of God, in the immortality of the soul, in Revelation and in all the Catholic Church teaches." He summoned Presse to administer the Catholic Sacraments on his death bed in November 1944. For much of his life, Carrel and his wife spent their summers on the which they owned. After he and Lindbergh became close friends, Carrel persuaded him to also buy a neighboring island, the Ile Illiec, where the Lindberghs often resided in the late 1930s. == Contributions to science == === Vascular suture === Carrel was a young surgeon who was deeply affected by the 1894 assassination of the French president, Sadi Carnot, who died from a severed portal vein that surgeons believed was irreparable. This tragedy inspired Carrel to develop new techniques for suturing blood vessels, such as the "triangulation" technique using three stay-sutures to minimize damage to the vascular wall during suturing. Carrel learned this technique from an embroideress, and later incorporated it into his work. According to Julius Comroe, Carrel performed every feat and developed every technique in vascular surgery using experimental animals between 1901 and 1910, leading to his great success in reconnecting arteries and veins and performing surgical grafts. These achievements earned him the Nobel Prize in 1912. === Wound antisepsis === During World War I (1914–1918), Carrel and the English chemist Henry Drysdale Dakin developed the Carrel–Dakin method of treating wounds with an antiseptic solution based on chlorine, known as Dakin's solution. This method, which involved wound debridement and irrigation with a high volume of antiseptic fluid, was a significant medical advancement in the absence of antibiotics. For his contributions, Carrel was awarded the Légion d'honneur. The Carrel–Dakin method became widely used in hospitals. The mechanical irrigation technique developed by Carrel is still used today. === Organ transplants === Carrel co-authored a book with pilot Charles Lindbergh, "The Culture of Organs." Together, they developed the perfusion pump in the mid-1930s, which made it possible for organs to remain viable outside of the body during surgical procedures. This innovation is considered to be a significant advancement in the fields of open-heart surgery and organ transplantation, and it paved the way for the development of the artificial heart, which became a reality many years later. Although some critics accused Carrel of exaggerating Lindbergh's contributions to gain publicity, other sources indicate that Lindbergh played a significant role in the device's development. In recognition of their groundbreaking work, both Carrel and Lindbergh appeared on the cover of Time magazine on June 13, 1938. === Cellular senescence === Carrel was interested in the phenomenon of senescence or aging. He believed that all cells continued to grow indefinitely, which became a widely accepted view in the early 20th century. In 1912, Carrel began an experiment at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, where he cultured tissue from an embryonic chicken heart in a stoppered Pyrex flask of his own design. He supplied the culture with nutrients regularly and maintained it for over 20 years, longer than a chicken's normal lifespan. This experiment received significant popular and scientific attention, but it was never successfully replicated. In the 1960s, Leonard Hayflick and Paul Moorhead proposed the concept of the Hayflick limit, which states that differentiated cells undergo only a limited number of divisions before dying. Hayflick suggested that Carrel's daily feeding of nutrients continually introduced new living cells to the culture, resulting in anomalous results. J. A. Witkowski argued that the deliberate introduction of new cells into the culture, possibly without Carrel's knowledge, could also explain the results. Despite the doubts surrounding Carrel's experiment, it remains an important part of scientific history, and his work on tissue culture had a significant impact on the development of modern medicine. === Honors === In 1972, the Swedish Post Office honored Carrel with a stamp that was part of its Nobel stamp series. Seven years later, in 1979, the lunar crater Carrel was named after him as a tribute to his breakthroughs. In February 2002, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of Charles Lindbergh's birth, the Lindbergh-Carrel Prize was established by the Medical University of South Carolina at Charleston. Michael DeBakey and nine other scientists were the first recipients of the prise, a bronze statuette, named "Elisabeth" after Elisabeth Morrow, the sister of Lindbergh's wife Anne Morrow who died from heart disease. Lindbergh's frustration with the limitations of medical technology, specifically the lack of an artificial heart pump for heart surgery, led him to reach out to Carrel. == Alexis Carrel and Lourdes == In 1902, Carrel underwent a transformative experience that led him from being a skeptic of the reported visions and miracles at Lourdes to a believer in spiritual cures. This conversion came about after he witnessed the inexplicable healing of Marie Bailly. The Catholic journal "Le Nouvelliste" reported that she identified Carrel as the principal witness of her cure. Despite facing opposition from his peers in the medical community, Carrel refused to dismiss a supernatural explanation for the event and went on to publish his account of the experience in the book, "The Voyage to Lourdes", which was released four years after his death. However, his beliefs proved to be a hindrance to his career and reputation in academic medicine in France. As a result, Carrel moved to Canada with plans of farming and raising cattle. But, shortly after, he accepted a position at the University of Chicago, where he remained for two years before taking up a post at the Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research. == "Man, the Unknown" (1935, 1939) == In 1935, Carrel's book, "L'Homme, cet inconnu" (Man, the Unknown), became a best-seller. The book attempted to comprehensively outline what is known, and unknown, of the human body and human life "in light of discoveries in biology, physics, and medicine", to shed light on the problems of the modern world, and to provide possible routes to a better life for human beings. In the book, Carrel advocated for an elite group of intellectuals to guide mankind and to incorporate eugenics into the social framework. He argued for an aristocracy that would come from individuals of potential and advocated for euthanasia for criminals and the criminally insane. Notably, Carrel's endorsement of euthanasia for criminals and the criminally insane was published in the mid-1930s, prior to the implementation of death camps and gas chambers in Nazi Germany. In the 1936 German introduction of his book, Carrel added praise for the Nazi regime at the publisher's request, which did not appear in other language editions. After the second world war the book and his role with the Vichy regime would stain his reputation such that his name was removed from streets in more than 20 French cities and the Alexis Carrel Medical Faculty in Lyon was renamed in 1996. == French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems == In 1937, Carrel joined the Centre d'Etudes des Problèmes Humains, which was led by Jean Coutrot. Coutrot's goal was to develop what he called an "economic humanism" through "collective thinking." However, in 1941, Carrel went on to advocate for the creation of the French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems (Fondation Française pour l'Etude des Problèmes Humains). This foundation was created by decree of the Vichy regime in 1941, and Carrel served as a "regent." Carrel's connections to the cabinet of Vichy France president Philippe Pétain, specifically French industrial physicians André Gros and Jacques Ménétrier, helped pave the way for the creation of the foundation. The foundation played a significant role in the establishment of the field of occupational medicine, which was institutionalized by the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF) through the 11 October 1946 law. The foundation's efforts were not limited to occupational medicine and extended to other areas such as demographics, economics, nutrition, habitation, and opinion polls. Notable figures associated with the foundation's work include Robert Gessain, Paul Vincent, Jean Bourgeois-Pichat, François Perroux, Jean Sutter, and Jean Stoetzel. The foundation achieved several notable accomplishments throughout its history. It played a crucial role in the promotion of the 16 December 1942 Act, which mandated the use of a prenuptial certificate before marriage. This certificate aimed to ensure the good health of spouses, particularly regarding sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and "life hygiene." Additionally, the institute created the livret scolaire, a document that recorded the grades of French secondary school students, allowing for the classification and selection of students based on academic performance. Gwen Terrenoire's book, ""Eugenics in France (1913–1941): a review of research findings"," describes the Foundation for the Study of Human Problems as a pluridisciplinary center that employed approximately 300 researchers, primarily statisticians, psychologists, and physicians, from the summer of 1942 until the end of autumn 1944. Following the liberation of Paris, Alexis Carrel, the founder, was suspended by the Minister of Health, and he died in November 1944. However, the Foundation underwent a purge and emerged shortly afterward as the Institut national d'études démographiques (INED), which is still active today. Although Carrel had passed away, most of his team transferred to INED, which was headed by demographer Alfred Sauvy, who coined the term "Third World." Other team members joined the Institut national d'hygiène (National Hygiene Institute), later known as INSERM.

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All Souls' Day

All Souls' Day, also called The Commemoration of All the Faithful Departed, is a day of prayer and remembrance for the faithful departed, observed by Christians on 2 November. Through prayer, intercessions, alms and visits to cemeteries, people commemorate the poor souls in purgatory and gain them indulgences. In Western Christianity, including Roman Catholicism and certain parts of Lutheranism and Anglicanism, All Souls' Day is the third day of Allhallowtide, after All Saints' Day (1 November) and All Hallows' Eve (31 October). Before the standardization of Western Christian observance on 2 November by St. Odilo of Cluny in the 10th century, many Catholic congregations celebrated All Souls Day on various dates during the Easter season as it is still observed in some Eastern Orthodox Church, Eastern Catholic and Eastern Lutheran churches. Churches of the East Syriac Rite (Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, Chaldean Catholic Church, Assyrian Church of the East, Ancient Church of the East) commemorate all the faithful departed on the Friday before Lent. == In other languages == Known in Latin as "Commemoratio Omnium Fidelium Defunctorum", All Souls' Day is known - in other Germanic languages as "Allerseelen" (German), "Allerzielen" (Dutch), "Alla själars dag" (Swedish), and "Alle Sjæles Dag" (Danish); - in the Romance languages as "Dia de Finados" or "Dia dos Fiéis Defuntos" (Portuguese), "Commémoration de tous les fidèles Défunts" (French), "Día de los Fieles Difuntos" (Spanish), "Commemorazione di tutti i fedeli defunti" (Italian), and "Ziua morților" or "Luminația" (Romanian); - in the Slavic languages as "Wspomnienie Wszystkich Wiernych Zmarłych" or "Zaduszki" (Polish), "Vzpomínka na všechny věrné zesnulé", "Památka zesnulých" or "Dušičky" (Czech), "Pamiatka zosnulých" or "Dušičky" (Slovak), "Spomen svih vjernih mrtvih" (Croatian), and "День всех усопших верных" or "День поминовения всех усопших" ("Den' vsekh usopshikh vernykh"; "Den' pominoveniya vsekh usopshih") (Russian) - in the or - and in . ==Background== In the Catholic Church, "the faithful" refers essentially to baptized Catholics; "all souls" commemorates the church penitent of souls in purgatory, whereas "all saints" commemorates the church triumphant of saints in heaven. In the liturgical books of the Latin Church it is called the "Commemoration of All the Faithful Departed" (). The Catholic Church teaches that the purification of the souls in purgatory can be assisted by the actions of the faithful on earth. Its teaching is based also on the practice of prayer for the dead mentioned as far back as 2 Maccabees 12:42–46. The theological basis for the feast is the doctrine that the souls which, on departing from the body, are not perfectly cleansed from venial sins, or have not fully atoned for past transgressions, are debarred from the Beatific vision, and that the faithful on earth can help them by prayers, alms, deeds, and especially by the sacrifice of the Holy Mass. == Religious observance by denomination == ===Byzantine (Greek) Catholic and Eastern Orthodox=== Saturday of Souls (or Soul Saturday) is a day set aside for the commemoration of the dead within the liturgical year of the Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic Churches. Saturday is a traditional day of prayer for the dead, because Christ lay dead in the Tomb on Saturday. These days are devoted to prayer for departed relatives and others among the faithful who would not be commemorated specifically as saints. The Divine Services on these days have special hymns added to them to commemorate the departed. There is often a Panikhida (Memorial Service) either after the Divine Liturgy on Saturday morning or after Vespers on Friday evening, for which Koliva (a dish made of boiled wheatberries or rice and honey) is prepared and placed on the Panikhida table. After the Service, the priest blesses the Koliva. It is then eaten as a memorial by all present. ====Radonitsa==== Another Memorial Day in the East, Radonitsa, does not fall on a Saturday, but on either Monday or Tuesday of the second week after Pascha (Easter). Radonitsa does not have special hymns for the dead at the Divine Services. Instead a Panikhida will follow the Divine Liturgy, and then all will bring paschal foods to the cemeteries to greet the departed with the joy of the Resurrection. ===East Syriac tradition=== East Syriac churches including the Syro Malabar Church and Chaldean Catholic Church commemorates the feast of departed faithful on the last Friday of Epiphany season (which means Friday just before start of Great Lent). The season of Epiphany remembers the revelation of Christ to the world. Each Friday of Epiphany season, the church remembers important evangelistic figures. In the Syro Malabar Church, the Friday before the parish festival is also celebrated as feast of departed faithful when the parish remembers the activities of forebears who worked for the parish and faithful. They also request the intercession of all departed souls for the faithful celebration of parish festival. In East Syriac liturgy, the church remembers departed souls including saints on every Friday throughout the year since the Christ was crucified and died on Friday. ===Latin Catholicism=== ====History==== In Western Christianity, there is ample evidence of the custom of praying for the dead in the inscriptions of the catacombs, with their constant prayers for the peace of the souls of the departed and in the early liturgies, which commonly contain commemorations of the dead. Tertullian, Cyprian and other early Western Fathers witness to the regular practice of praying for the dead among the early Christians. In the sixth century, it was customary in Benedictine monasteries to hold a commemoration of the deceased members at Whitsuntide. In the time of St. Isidore of Seville (d. 636) who lived in what is today Spain, the Monday after Pentecost was designated to remember the deceased. At the beginning of the ninth century, Abbot Eigil of Fulda set 17 December as commemoration of all deceased in part of what is today Germany. According to Widukind of Corvey (c. 975), there also existed a ceremony praying for the dead on 1 October in Saxony. But it was the day after All Saints' Day that Saint Odilo of Cluny chose when in the 11th century he instituted for all the monasteries dependent on the Abbey of Cluny an annual commemoration of all the faithful departed, to be observed with alms, prayers, and sacrifices for the relief of the suffering souls in purgatory. Odilo decreed that those requesting a Mass be offered for the departed should make an offering for the poor, thus linking almsgiving with fasting and prayer for the dead. The 2 November date and customs spread from the Cluniac monasteries to other Benedictine monasteries and thence to the Western Church in general. The Diocese of Liège was the first diocese to adopt the practice under Bishop Notger (d. 1008). 2 November was adopted in Italy and Rome in the thirteenth century. In the 15th century the Dominicans instituted a custom of each priest offering three Masses on the Feast of All Souls. During World War I, given the great number of war dead and the many destroyed churches where Mass could no longer be said, Pope Benedict XV, granted all priests the privilege of offering three Masses on All Souls Day. ====Liturgical practice==== If 2 November falls on a Sunday, All Souls' Day is observed on that day. In the Liturgy of the hours of All Souls' day the sequence "Dies irae" can be used ad libitum. Every priest is allowed to celebrate three holy Masses on All Souls' Day. In the minor propers (Introit, Gradual, Tract, Sequence, Offertory, and Communion) are those used for Renaissance and Classical musical requiem settings, including the Dies Irae. This permits the performance of traditional requiem settings in the context of the Divine Worship Form of the Roman Rite on All Souls Day as well as at funerals, votive celebrations of all faithful departed, and anniversaries of deaths. In the ordinary form of the Roman Rite, as well as in the Personal Ordinariates established by Benedict XVI for former Anglicans, it remains on 2 November if this date falls on a Sunday; in the 1962–1969 form of the Roman Rite, use of which is still authorized, it is transferred to Monday, 3 November. According to the sacred tradition of the Catholic Church, from Nov. 1 to Nov. 8, it is possible to gain plenary indulgence for the benefit of the souls of the departed who are in Purgatory. ====All Souls' indulgence==== According to the "Enchiridion of Indulgences", an indulgence applicable only to the souls in purgatory (commonly called the poor souls) is granted to the faithful who devoutly visit on All souls Day a church or chapel and pray the Our Father and the Credo or the Lauds or Vespers of the Office of the Dead and the eternal rest prayer for the dead. The indulgence can be gained from noon of All Saints' Day on as well as a plenary indulgence is each day from the first to the eighth of November; a partial indulgence is granted on other days of the year. ===Lutheran Churches=== Among continental lutherans its tradition has been more tenaciously maintained. During Luther's lifetime, All Souls' Day was widely observed in Saxony although the Roman Catholic meaning of the day was discarded; ecclesiastically in the Lutheran Church, the day was merged with, and is often seen as an extension of All Saints' Day, with many Lutherans still visiting and decorating graves on all the days of Allhallowtide, including All Souls' Day. Just as it is the custom of French people, of all ranks and creeds, to decorate the graves of their dead on the "jour des morts", Germans stream to the graveyards once a year with offerings of flowers and special grave lights. In 1816, Prussia introduced a new date for the remembrance of the Dead among its Lutheran citizens: Totensonntag, the last Sunday before Advent. ===Anglican Communion=== In the Church of England it is called The Commemoration of the Faithful Departed and is an optional celebration; Anglicans view All Souls' Day as an extension of the observance of All Saints' Day and it serves to "remember those who have died", in connection with the theological doctrines of the resurrection of the body and the Communion of Saints. In the Anglican Communion, All Souls' Day is known liturgically as the Commemoration of All Faithful Departed, and is an optional observance seen as "an extension of All Saints' Day", the latter of which marks the second day of Allhallowtide. Historically and at present, several Anglican churches are dedicated to All Souls. During the English Reformation, the observance of All Souls' Day lapsed, although a new Anglican theological understanding of the day has "led to a widespread acceptance of this commemoration among Anglicans". Patricia Bays, with regard to the Anglican view of All Souls' Day, wrote that: As such, Anglican parishes "now commemorate all the faithful departed in the context of the All Saints' Day celebration", in keeping with this fresh perspective. Contributing to the revival was the need "to help Anglicans mourn the deaths of millions of soldiers in World War I". Members of the Guild of All Souls, an Anglican devotional society founded in 1873, "are encouraged to pray for the dying and the dead, to participate in a requiem of All Souls' Day and say a Litany of the Faithful Departed at least once a month". At the Reformation the celebration of All Souls' Day was fused with All Saints' Day in the Church of England or, in the judgement of some, it was "deservedly abrogated". It was reinstated in certain parishes in connection with the Oxford Movement of the 19th century and is acknowledged in United States Anglicanism in the "Holy Women, Holy Men" calendar and in the Church of England with the 1980 "Alternative Service Book". It features in "Common Worship" as a Lesser Festival called "Commemoration of the Faithful Departed (All Souls' Day)". ===Methodist Churches=== In the Methodist Church, saints refer to all Christians and therefore, on All Saint's Day, the Church Universal, as well as the deceased members of a local congregation are honoured and remembered. In Methodist congregations that celebrate the liturgy on All Souls Day, the observance, as with Anglicanism and Lutheranism, is viewed as an extension of All Saints' Day and as such, Methodists "remember our loved ones who had died" in their observance of this feast. == Popular customs == Many All Souls' Day traditions are associated with popular notions about purgatory. Bell tolling is meant to comfort those being cleansed. Lighting candles serves to kindle a light for the poor souls languishing in the darkness. Soul cakes are given to children coming to sing or pray for the dead (cf. trick-or-treating), giving rise to the traditions of "going souling" and the baking of special types of bread or cakes (cf. Pão-por-Deus). ===Europe=== All Souls' Day is celebrated in many European countries with vigils, candles, the decoration of graves, and special prayers as well as many regional customs. Examples of regional customs include leaving cakes for departed loved ones on the table and keeping the room warm for their comfort in Tirol and the custom in Brittany, where people flock to the cemeteries at nightfall to kneel, bareheaded, at the graves of their loved ones and anoint the hollow of the tombstone with holy water or to pour libations of milk on it. At bedtime, supper is left on the table for the souls. All Souls' Day is known in Maltese as "Jum il-Mejtin", and is accompanied a traditional supper including roasted pig, based on a custom of letting a pig loose on the streets with a bell around its neck, to be fed by the entire neighborhood and cooked on that day to feed the poor. In Linz, funereal musical pieces known as aequales were played from tower tops on All Souls' Day and the evening before. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia All Souls' Day is called Dušičky, or "little souls". Traditionally, candles are left on graves on Dušičky. In Sicily and other regions of southern Italy, All Souls' Day is celebrated as the "Festa dei Morti" or "U juornu rii morti", the "Commemoration of the Dead" or the "Day of the Dead", which according to Joshua Nicolosi of the "Sicilian Post" could be seen "halfway between Christian and pagan traditions". Families visit and clean grave sites, home altars are decorated with family photos and votive candles, and children are gifted a special basket or "cannistru" of chocolates, pomegranate, and other gifts from their ancestors. Because of the gifting of sugary sweets and the emphasis on sugar puppet decorations, the Commemoration Day has spurred local Sicilian events such as the "Notte di Zucchero" ("Night of Sugar") in which communities celebrate the dead. ===Philippines=== In the Philippines, Hallow mas is variously called ""Undás", "Todos los Santos"" (Spanish, "All Saints"), and sometimes "Araw ng mga Patay / Yumao" (Tagalog, "Day of the dead / those who have passed away"), which incorporates All Saints' Day and All Souls' Day. Filipinos traditionally observe this day by visiting the family dead to clean and repair their tombs. Offerings of prayers, flowers, candles, and food. Chinese Filipinos additionally burn incense and "kim". Many also spend the day and ensuing night holding reunions at the cemetery with feasts and merriment.

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Anatole France

' (; born ', ; 16 April 1844 – 12 October 1924) was a French poet, journalist, and novelist with several best-sellers. Ironic and skeptical, he was considered in his day the ideal French man of letters. He was a member of the Académie Française, and won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Literature "in recognition of his brilliant literary achievements, characterized as they are by a nobility of style, a profound human sympathy, grace, and a true Gallic temperament". France is also widely believed to be the model for narrator Marcel's literary idol Bergotte in Marcel Proust's "In Search of Lost Time". ==Early years== The son of a bookseller, France, a bibliophile, spent most of his life around books. His father's bookstore specialized in books and papers on the French Revolution and was frequented by many writers and scholars. France studied at the Collège Stanislas, a private Catholic school, and after graduation he helped his father by working in his bookstore. After several years, he secured the position of cataloguer at Bacheline-Deflorenne and at Lemerre. In 1876, he was appointed librarian for the French Senate. ==Literary career== France began his literary career as a poet and a journalist. In 1869, "Le Parnasse contemporain" published one of his poems, "". In 1875, he sat on the committee in charge of the third "Parnasse contemporain" compilation. As a journalist, from 1867, he wrote many articles and notices. He became known with the novel " (1881). Its protagonist, skeptical old scholar Sylvester Bonnard, embodied France's own personality. The novel was praised for its elegant prose and won him a prize from the Académie Française. In ' (1893) France ridiculed belief in the occult, and in ' (1893), France captured the atmosphere of the ". He was elected to the Académie Française in 1896. France took a part in the Dreyfus affair. He signed Émile Zola's manifesto supporting Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish army officer who had been falsely convicted of espionage. France wrote about the affair in his 1901 novel "Monsieur Bergeret". France's later works include "Penguin Island" ("," 1908) which satirizes human nature by depicting the transformation of penguins into humans – after the birds have been baptized by mistake by the almost-blind Abbot Mael. It is a satirical history of France, starting in Medieval times, going on to the author's own time with special attention to the Dreyfus affair and concluding with a dystopian future. "The Gods Are Athirst" ("", 1912) is a novel, set in Paris during the French Revolution, about a true-believing follower of Maximilien Robespierre and his contribution to the bloody events of the Reign of Terror of 1793–94. It is a wake-up call against political and ideological fanaticism and explores various other philosophical approaches to the events of the time. "The Revolt of the Angels (", 1914) is often considered France's most profound and ironic novel. Loosely based on the Christian understanding of the War in Heaven, it tells the story of Arcade, the guardian angel of Maurice d'Esparvieu. Bored because Bishop d'Esparvieu is sinless, Arcade begins reading the bishop's books on theology and becomes an atheist. He moves to Paris, meets a woman, falls in love, and loses his virginity causing his wings to fall off, joins the revolutionary movement of fallen angels, and meets the Devil, who realizes that if he overthrew God, he would become just like God. Arcade realizes that replacing God with another is meaningless unless "in ourselves and in ourselves alone we attack and destroy Ialdabaoth." "Ialdabaoth", according to France, is God's secret name and means "the child who wanders". He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921. He died in 1924 and is buried in the Neuilly-sur-Seine Old Communal Cemetery near Paris. On 31 May 1922, France's entire works were put on the "Index Librorum Prohibitorum" ("List of Prohibited Books") of the Catholic Church. He regarded this as a "distinction". This Index was abolished in 1966. ==Personal life== In 1877, France married Valérie Guérin de Sauville, a granddaughter of Jean-Urbain Guérin, a miniaturist who painted Louis XVI. Their daughter Suzanne was born in 1881 (and died in 1918). France's relations with women were always turbulent, and in 1888 he began a relationship with Madame Arman de Caillavet, who conducted a celebrated literary salon of the Third Republic. The affair lasted until shortly before her death in 1910. After his divorce, in 1893, France had many liaisons, notably with a Madame Gagey, who committed suicide in 1911. In 1920, France married for the second time, to Emma Laprévotte. France was a socialist and an outspoken supporter of the 1917 Russian Revolution. In 1920, he gave his support to the newly founded French Communist Party. In his book "The Red Lily", France famously wrote, "The law, in its majestic equality, forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, to beg in the streets, and to steal loaves of bread." ==Reputation== The English writer George Orwell defended France and declared that his work remained very readable, and that "it is unquestionable that he was attacked partly from political motives". ==Works== ===Poetry=== * , poem published in 1867 in the "Gazette rimée". - " (1873) - " ("The Bride of Corinth") (1876) ===Prose fiction=== * "" ("Jocasta and the Famished Cat") (1879) - "" ("The Crime of Sylvestre Bonnard") (1881) - "" ("The Aspirations of Jean Servien") (1882) - ("Honey-Bee") (1883) - (1889) - " (1890) - " ("Mother of Pearl") (1892) - "" ("At the Sign of the Reine Pédauque") (1892) - "" ("Our Children: Scenes from the Country and the Town") (1886) illustrated by Louis-Maurice Boutet de Monvel - "" ("The Opinions of Jerome Coignard") (1893) - "" ("The Red Lily") (1894) - "" ("The Well of Saint Clare") (1895) - "" ("A Chronicle of Our Own Times") - 1: "" ("The Elm-Tree on the Mall")(1897) - 2: "" ("The Wicker-Work Woman") (1897) - 3: ("The Amethyst Ring") (1899) - 4: "" ("Monsieur Bergeret in Paris") (1901) - "Clio" (1900) - "" ("A Mummer's Tale") (1903) - "" ("The White Stone") (1905) - " (1901) - " ("Penguin Island") (1908) - "" ("The Merrie Tales of Jacques Tournebroche") (1908) - "" ("The Seven Wives of Bluebeard and Other Marvelous Tales") (1909) - "Bee The Princess of the Dwarfs (1912) - "" ("The Gods Are Athirst") (1912) - "" ("The Revolt of the Angels") (1914) - " (1920) illustrated by Fernand Siméon ===Memoirs=== * " ("My Friend's Book") (1885) - (1899) - "" ("Little Pierre") (1918) - "" ("The Bloom of Life") (1922) ===Plays=== * " (1898) - " (1903) - "" ("The Man Who Married A Dumb Wife") (1908) - "" ("The Wicker Woman") (1928) ===Historical biography=== * "" ("The Life of Joan of Arc") (1908) ===Literary criticism=== * "Alfred de Vigny" (1869) - " (1888) - " ("The Latin Genius") (1909) ===Social criticism=== * "" ("The Garden of Epicurus") (1895) - " (1902) - " (1904) - " (1906) - " (1915) - "", in four volumes, (1949, 1953, 1964, 1973)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1058

André Gide

André Paul Guillaume Gide (; 22 November 1869 – 19 February 1951) was a French author whose writings spanned a wide variety of styles and topics. He was awarded the 1947 Nobel Prize in Literature. Gide's career ranged from his beginnings in the symbolist movement, to criticising imperialism between the two World Wars. The author of more than fifty books, he was described in his obituary in "The New York Times" as "France's greatest contemporary man of letters" and "judged the greatest French writer of this century by the literary cognoscenti." Known for his fiction as well as his autobiographical works, Gide expressed the conflict and eventual reconciliation of the two sides of his personality (characterized by a Protestant austerity and a transgressive sexual adventurousness, respectively). He suggested that a strict and moralistic education had helped set these facets at odds. Gide's work can be seen as an investigation of freedom and empowerment in the face of moralistic and puritanical constraints. He worked to achieve intellectual honesty. As a self-professed pederast, he used his writing to explore his struggle to be fully oneself, including owning one's sexual nature, without betraying one's values. His political activity was shaped by the same ethos. While sympathetic to Communism in the early 1930s, as were many intellectuals, after his 1936 journey to the USSR he supported the anti-Stalinist left; during the 1940s he shifted towards more traditional values and repudiated Communism as an idea that breaks up with the traditions of the Christian civilization. ==Early life== Gide was born in Paris on 22 November 1869, into a middle-class Protestant family. His father Jean Paul Guillaume Gide was a professor of law at University of Paris; he died in 1880, when the boy was eleven years old. His mother was Juliette Maria Rondeaux. His uncle was political economist Charles Gide. His paternal family traced its roots to Italy. The ancestral Guidos had moved to France and other western and northern European countries after converting to Protestantism during the 16th century, and facing persecution in Catholic Italy. Gide was brought up in isolated conditions in Normandy. He became a prolific writer at an early age, publishing his first novel "The Notebooks of André Walter" (French: "Les Cahiers d'André Walter"), in 1891, at the age of twenty-one. In 1893 and 1894, Gide traveled in Northern Africa. There he came to accept his attraction to boys and youths. Gide befriended Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in Paris, where the latter was in exile. In 1895 the two men met in Algiers. Wilde had the impression that he had introduced Gide to homosexuality, but Gide had discovered homosexuality on his own. ==The middle years== In 1895, after his mother's death, Gide married his cousin Madeleine Rondeaux, but the marriage remained unconsummated. In 1896, he was elected mayor of La Roque-Baignard, a commune in Normandy. In 1901, Gide rented the property Maderia in St. Brélade's Bay and lived there while residing on the island of Jersey. This period, 1901–07, is commonly seen as a time of apathy and turmoil for him. In 1908, Gide helped found the literary magazine "Nouvelle Revue Française" ("The New French Review"). During World War I, Gide visited England. One of his friends there was artist William Rothenstein. Rothenstein described Gide's visit to his Gloucestershire home in his autobiography: In 1916, Gide was about 47 years old when he took Marc Allégret, age 15, as a lover. Marc was one of five children of Élie Allégret and his wife. Gide had become friends with the senior Allégret during his own school years when Gide's mother had hired Allégret as a tutor for her son. Élie Allégret had been best man at Gide's wedding. After Gide fled with Marc to London, his wife Madeleine burned all his correspondence in retaliation– "the best part of myself," Gide later commented. In 1918, Gide met and befriended Dorothy Bussy; they were friends for more than 30 years, and she translated many of his works into English. Gide also became close friends with the critic Charles Du Bos. Together they were part of the "Foyer Franco-Belge", in which capacity they worked to find employment, food and housing for Franco-Belgian refugees who arrived in Paris following the 1914 German invasion of Belgium. Their friendship later declined, due to Du Bos's perception that Gide had disavowed or betrayed his spiritual faith, in contrast to Du Bos's own return to faith. Du Bos's essay "Dialogue avec André Gide" was published in 1929. The essay, informed by Du Bos's Catholic convictions, condemned Gide's homosexuality. Gide and Du Bos's mutual friend Ernst Robert Curtius criticised the book in a letter to Gide, writing that "he [Du Bos] judges you according to Catholic morals suffices to neglect his complete indictment. It can only touch those who think like him and are convinced in advance. He has abdicated his intellectual liberty." In the 1920s, Gide became an inspiration for such writers as Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre. In 1923, he published a book on Fyodor Dostoyevsky. When he defended homosexuality in the public edition of "Corydon" (1924), he received widespread condemnation. He later considered this his most important work. In 1923, Gide sired a daughter, Catherine, by Elisabeth van Rysselberghe, a much younger woman. He had known her for a long time, as she was the daughter of his friends Maria Monnom and Théo van Rysselberghe, a Belgian neo-impressionist painter. This caused the only crisis in the long-standing relationship between Allégret and Gide, and damaged his friendship with van Rysselberghe. This was possibly Gide's only sexual relationship with a woman, and it was brief in the extreme. Catherine was his only descendant by blood. He liked to call Elisabeth "La Dame Blanche" ("The White Lady"). Elisabeth eventually left her husband to move to Paris and manage the practical aspects of Gide's life (they had adjoining apartments built on the rue Vavin). She worshipped him, but evidently they no longer had a sexual relationship. In 1924, he published an autobiography "If it Die..." (French: "Si le grain ne meurt"). In the same year, he produced the first French-language editions of Joseph Conrad's "Heart of Darkness" and "Lord Jim". After 1925, Gide began to campaign for more humane conditions for convicted criminals. His legal wife, Madeleine Gide, died in 1938. Later he explored their unconsummated marriage in "Et nunc manet in te", his memoir of Madeleine, published in English in the United States in 1952. ==Africa== From July 1926 to May 1927, Gide traveled through the colony of French Equatorial Africa with his lover Marc Allégret. They went successively to Middle Congo (now the Republic of the Congo), Ubangi-Shari (now the Central African Republic), briefly to Chad and then to Cameroon. He kept a journal, which he published as "Travels in the Congo" (French: "Voyage au Congo") and "Return from Chad" (French: "Retour du Tchad"). In this work, he criticized the behavior of French business interests in the Congo and inspired reform. In particular, he strongly criticized the "Large Concessions" regime (French: "Régime des Grandes Concessions"). The government had conceded part of the colony to French companies, allowing them to exploit the area's natural resources, in particular rubber. He related that native workers were forced to leave their village for several weeks to collect rubber in the forest, and compared their exploitation by the companies to slavery. The book contributed to the growing anti-colonialism movements in France and helped thinkers to re-evaluate the effects of colonialism in Africa. ==Political views and the Soviet Union== During the 1930s, Gide briefly became a Communist, or more precisely, a fellow traveler (he never formally joined any Communist party), but he, an individualist himself, advocated the idea of Communist individualism. Despite supporting the Soviet Union, he acknowledged the political repression in the USSR. Gide insisted on the release of Victor Serge, a Soviet writer and a member of the Left Opposition who was prosecuted by the Stalinist regime for his views. As a distinguished writer sympathizing with the cause of Communism, he was invited to speak at Maxim Gorky's funeral and to tour the Soviet Union as a guest of the Soviet Union of Writers. He encountered censorship of his speeches and was particularly disillusioned with the state of culture under Soviet Communism. In his work, "Retour de L'U.R.S.S." ("Return from the USSR", 1936), he broke with such socialist friends as Jean-Paul Sartre; the book was addressed to pro-Soviet readers, so the purpose was to expose a reader to doubts instead of presenting harsh criticism. While admitting the economic and social achievements of the USSR compared to the Russian Empire, he noted the decay of culture, the erasure of the individuality of Soviet citizens, and the suppression of any dissent: Gide does not express his attitude towards Stalin, but he describes the signs of his personality cult: "in each [home], ... the same portrait of Stalin, and nothing else"; "portrait of Stalin... , in the same place no doubt where the icon used to be. Is it adoration, love, or fear? I do not know; always and everywhere he is present." However, Gide wrote that these problems could be solved by raising the cultural level of the Soviet society. When Gide began preparing his manuscript for publication, the Kremlin was immediately informed about it, and the soon Gide would be visited by the Soviet author Ilya Ehrenburg, who said that he agreed with Gide, but asked to postpone the publication, as the Soviet Union assisted the Republicans in Spain; two days later, Louis Aragon delivered a letter from Jef Last asking to postpone the publication. These measures didn't help, and as the book was published, Gide was condemned in the Soviet press and by the "friends of the USSR": Nordahl Grieg wrote that the reason of writing the book was Gide's impatience, and that with his book he made a favour to the Fascists, who greeted it with joy. In 1937, in response, Gide published "Afterthoughts on the U. S. S. R."; earlier, Gide read Trotsky's "The Revolution Betrayed" and met Victor Serge who provided him more information about the Soviet Union. In "Afterthoughts", Gide is more direct in his criticism of the Soviet society: "Citrine, Trotsky, Mercier, Yvon, Victor Serge, Leguay, Rudolf and many others have helped me with their documentation. Everything they have taught me so far I had only suspected it – has confirmed and reinforced my fears". The main points of "Afterthoughts" were that the dictatorship of the proletariat became the dictatorship of Stalin, and that the privileged bureaucracy became the new ruling class which profited by the workers' surplus labour, spending the state budget on projects like the Palace of Soviets or to raise its own standards of living, while the working class lived in extreme poverty; Gide cited the official Soviet newspapers to prove his statements. During the World War II Gide came to a conclusion that "absolute liberty destroys the individual and also society unless it be closely linked to tradition and discipline"; he rejected the revolutionary idea of Communism as breaking with the traditions, and wrote that "if civilization depended solely on those who initiated revolutionary theories, then it would perish, since culture needs for its survival a continuous and developing tradition." In "Thesee", written in 1946, he showed that an individual may safely leave the Maze only if "he had clung tightly to the thread which linked him with the past". In 1947, he said that although during the human history the civilizations rose up and died, the Christian civilization may be saved from doom "if we accepted the responsibility of the sacred charge laid on us by our traditions and our past." He also said that he remained an individualist and protested against "the submersion of individual responsibility in organized authority, in that escape from freedom which is characteristic of our age." Gide contributed to the 1949 anthology "The God That Failed". He could not write an essay because of his state of health, so the text was written by Enid Starkie, based on paraphrases of "Return from the USSR", "Afterthoughts", from a discussion held in Paris at l'Union pour la Verite in 1935, and from his "Journal"; the text was approved by Gide. ==1930s and 1940s== In 1930 Gide published a book about the Blanche Monnier case titled "La Séquestrée de Poitiers", changing little but the names of the protagonists. Monnier was a young woman who was kept captive by her own mother for more than 25 years. In 1939, Gide became the first living author to be published in the prestigious "Bibliothèque de la Pléiade". He left France for Africa in 1942 and lived in Tunis from December 1942 until it was re-taken by French, British and American forces in May 1943 and he was able to travel to Algiers where he stayed until the end of World War II. In 1947, he received the Nobel Prize in Literature "for his comprehensive and artistically significant writings, in which human problems and conditions have been presented with a fearless love of truth and keen psychological insight". He devoted much of his last years to publishing his Journal. Gide died in Paris on 19 February 1951. The Roman Catholic Church placed his works on the "Index of Forbidden Books" in 1952. ==Gide's life as a writer== Gide's biographer Alan Sheridan summed up Gide's life as a writer and an intellectual: "Gide's fame rested ultimately, of course, on his literary works. But, unlike many writers, he was no recluse: he had a need of friendship and a genius for sustaining it." But his "capacity for love was not confined to his friends: it spilled over into a concern for others less fortunate than himself." ===Writings=== André Gide's writings spanned many genres – "As a master of prose narrative, occasional dramatist and translator, literary critic, letter writer, essayist, and diarist, André Gide provided twentieth-century French literature with one of its most intriguing examples of the man of letters." But as Gide's biographer Alan Sheridan points out, "It is the fiction that lies at the summit of Gide's work." "Here, as in the "oeuvre" as a whole, what strikes one first is the variety. Here, too, we see Gide's curiosity, his youthfulness, at work: a refusal to mine only one seam, to repeat successful formulas...The fiction spans the early years of Symbolism, to the "comic, more inventive, even fantastic" pieces, to the later "serious, heavily autobiographical, first-person narratives"...In France Gide was considered a great stylist in the classical sense, "with his clear, succinct, spare, deliberately, subtly phrased sentences." Gide's surviving letters run into the thousands. But it is the "Journal" that Sheridan calls "the pre-eminently Gidean mode of expression." "His first novel emerged from Gide's own journal, and many of the first-person narratives read more or less like journals. In "Les faux-monnayeurs", Edouard's journal provides an alternative voice to the narrator's." "In 1946, when Pierre Herbert asked Gide which of his books he would choose if only one were to survive," Gide replied, 'I think it would be my "Journal."'" Beginning at the age of 18 or 19, Gide kept a journal all of his life and when these were first made available to the public, they ran to 1,300 pages. ===Struggle for values=== "Each volume that Gide wrote was intended to challenge itself, what had preceded it, and what could conceivably follow it. This characteristic, according to Daniel Moutote in his "Cahiers de André Gide" essay, is what makes Gide's work 'essentially modern': the 'perpetual renewal of the values by which one lives.'" Gide wrote in his "Journal" in 1930: "The only drama that really interests me and that I should always be willing to depict anew, is the debate of the individual with whatever keeps him from being authentic, with whatever is opposed to his integrity, to his integration. Most often the obstacle is within him. And all the rest is merely accidental." As a whole, "The works of André Gide reveal his passionate revolt against the restraints and conventions inherited from 19th-century France. He sought to uncover the authentic self beneath its contradictory masks." ==Sexuality== In his journal, Gide distinguishes between adult-attracted "sodomites" and boy-loving "pederasts", categorizing himself as the latter. Gide's journal documents his behavior in the company of Oscar Wilde. Gide's novel "Corydon", which he considered his most important work, includes a defense of pederasty. At that time, the age of consent for any type of sexual activity was set at 13.

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26270034

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1059

Applied statistics

Statistics#Applied statistics, theoretical statistics and mathematical statistics

1061

20836525

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1061

Analysis of variance/Random effects models

Analysis of variance#Random-effects models

1062

9784415

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1062

Analysis of variance/Degrees of freedom

Analysis of variance

1063

31339567

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1063

Algorithms for calculating variance

Algorithms for calculating variance play a major role in computational statistics. A key difficulty in the design of good algorithms for this problem is that formulas for the variance may involve sums of squares, which can lead to numerical instability as well as to arithmetic overflow when dealing with large values. ==Naïve algorithm== A formula for calculating the variance of an entire population of size "N" is: formula_1 Using Bessel's correction to calculate an unbiased estimate of the population variance from a finite sample of "n" observations, the formula is: formula_2 Therefore, a naïve algorithm to calculate the estimated variance is given by the following: - Let - For each datum : This algorithm can easily be adapted to compute the variance of a finite population: simply divide by "n" instead of "n" − 1 on the last line. Because and can be very similar numbers, cancellation can lead to the precision of the result to be much less than the inherent precision of the floating-point arithmetic used to perform the computation. Thus this algorithm should not be used in practice, and several alternate, numerically stable, algorithms have been proposed. This is particularly bad if the standard deviation is small relative to the mean. ===Computing shifted data=== The variance is invariant with respect to changes in a location parameter, a property which can be used to avoid the catastrophic cancellation in this formula. formula_3 with formula_4 any constant, which leads to the new formula formula_5 the closer formula_4 is to the mean value the more accurate the result will be, but just choosing a value inside the samples range will guarantee the desired stability. If the values formula_7 are small then there are no problems with the sum of its squares, on the contrary, if they are large it necessarily means that the variance is large as well. In any case the second term in the formula is always smaller than the first one therefore no cancellation may occur. If just the first sample is taken as formula_4 the algorithm can be written in Python programming language as def shifted_data_variance(data): if len(data) < 2: return 0.0 K = data[0] n = Ex = Ex2 = 0.0 for x in data: n += 1 Ex += x - K Ex2 += (x - K) ** 2 variance = (Ex2 - Ex**2 / n) / (n - 1) # use n instead of (n-1) if want to compute the exact variance of the given data # use (n-1) if data are samples of a larger population return variance This formula also facilitates the incremental computation that can be expressed as K = Ex = Ex2 = 0.0 n = 0 def add_variable(x): global K, n, Ex, Ex2 if n == 0: K = x n += 1 Ex += x - K Ex2 += (x - K) ** 2 def remove_variable(x): global K, n, Ex, Ex2 n -= 1 Ex -= x - K Ex2 -= (x - K) ** 2 def get_mean(): global K, n, Ex return K + Ex / n def get_variance(): global n, Ex, Ex2 return (Ex2 - Ex**2 / n) / (n - 1) ==Two-pass algorithm== An alternative approach, using a different formula for the variance, first computes the sample mean, formula_9 and then computes the sum of the squares of the differences from the mean, formula_10 where "s" is the standard deviation. This is given by the following code: def two_pass_variance(data): n = len(data) mean = sum(data) / n variance = sum((x - mean) ** 2 for x in data) / (n - 1) return variance This algorithm is numerically stable if "n" is small. However, the results of both of these simple algorithms ("naïve" and "two-pass") can depend inordinately on the ordering of the data and can give poor results for very large data sets due to repeated roundoff error in the accumulation of the sums. Techniques such as compensated summation can be used to combat this error to a degree. ==Welford's online algorithm== It is often useful to be able to compute the variance in a single pass, inspecting each value formula_11 only once; for example, when the data is being collected without enough storage to keep all the values, or when costs of memory access dominate those of computation. For such an online algorithm, a recurrence relation is required between quantities from which the required statistics can be calculated in a numerically stable fashion. The following formulas can be used to update the mean and (estimated) variance of the sequence, for an additional element "x""n". Here, formula_12 denotes the sample mean of the first "n" samples formula_13, formula_14 their biased sample variance, and formula_15 their unbiased sample variance. formula_16 formula_17 formula_18 These formulas suffer from numerical instability , as they repeatedly subtract a small number from a big number which scales with "n". A better quantity for updating is the sum of squares of differences from the current mean, formula_19, here denoted formula_20: formula_21 This algorithm was found by Welford, and it has been thoroughly analyzed. It is also common to denote formula_22 and formula_23. An example Python implementation for Welford's algorithm is given below. - For a new value new_value, compute the new count, new mean, the new M2. - mean accumulates the mean of the entire dataset - M2 aggregates the squared distance from the mean - count aggregates the number of samples seen so far def update(existing_aggregate, new_value): (count, mean, M2) = existing_aggregate count += 1 delta = new_value - mean mean += delta / count delta2 = new_value - mean M2 += delta * delta2 return (count, mean, M2) - Retrieve the mean, variance and sample variance from an aggregate def finalize(existing_aggregate): (count, mean, M2) = existing_aggregate if count < 2: return float("nan") else: (mean, variance, sample_variance) = (mean, M2 / count, M2 / (count - 1)) return (mean, variance, sample_variance) This algorithm is much less prone to loss of precision due to catastrophic cancellation, but might not be as efficient because of the division operation inside the loop. For a particularly robust two-pass algorithm for computing the variance, one can first compute and subtract an estimate of the mean, and then use this algorithm on the residuals. The parallel algorithm below illustrates how to merge multiple sets of statistics calculated online. ==Weighted incremental algorithm== The algorithm can be extended to handle unequal sample weights, replacing the simple counter "n" with the sum of weights seen so far. West (1979) suggests this incremental algorithm: def weighted_incremental_variance(data_weight_pairs): w_sum = w_sum2 = mean = S = 0 for x, w in data_weight_pairs: w_sum = w_sum + w w_sum2 = w_sum2 + w**2 mean_old = mean mean = mean_old + (w / w_sum) * (x - mean_old) S = S + w * (x - mean_old) * (x - mean) population_variance = S / w_sum # Bessel's correction for weighted samples # Frequency weights sample_frequency_variance = S / (w_sum - 1) # Reliability weights sample_reliability_variance = S / (w_sum - w_sum2 / w_sum) ==Parallel algorithm== Chan et al. note that Welford's online algorithm detailed above is a special case of an algorithm that works for combining arbitrary sets formula_24 and formula_25: formula_26. This may be useful when, for example, multiple processing units may be assigned to discrete parts of the input. Chan's method for estimating the mean is numerically unstable when formula_27 and both are large, because the numerical error in formula_28 is not scaled down in the way that it is in the formula_29 case. In such cases, prefer formula_30. def parallel_variance(n_a, avg_a, M2_a, n_b, avg_b, M2_b): n = n_a + n_b delta = avg_b - avg_a M2 = M2_a + M2_b + delta**2 * n_a * n_b / n var_ab = M2 / (n - 1) return var_ab This can be generalized to allow parallelization with AVX, with GPUs, and computer clusters, and to covariance. ==Example== Assume that all floating point operations use standard IEEE 754 double-precision arithmetic. Consider the sample (4, 7, 13, 16) from an infinite population. Based on this sample, the estimated population mean is 10, and the unbiased estimate of population variance is 30. Both the naïve algorithm and two-pass algorithm compute these values correctly. Next consider the sample (, , , ), which gives rise to the same estimated variance as the first sample. The two-pass algorithm computes this variance estimate correctly, but the naïve algorithm returns 29.333333333333332 instead of 30. While this loss of precision may be tolerable and viewed as a minor flaw of the naïve algorithm, further increasing the offset makes the error catastrophic. Consider the sample (, , , ). Again the estimated population variance of 30 is computed correctly by the two-pass algorithm, but the naïve algorithm now computes it as −170.66666666666666. This is a serious problem with naïve algorithm and is due to catastrophic cancellation in the subtraction of two similar numbers at the final stage of the algorithm. ==Higher-order statistics== Terriberry extends Chan's formulae to calculating the third and fourth central moments, needed for example when estimating skewness and kurtosis: formula_31 Here the formula_32 are again the sums of powers of differences from the mean formula_33, giving formula_34 For the incremental case (i.e., formula_35), this simplifies to: formula_36 By preserving the value formula_37, only one division operation is needed and the higher-order statistics can thus be calculated for little incremental cost. An example of the online algorithm for kurtosis implemented as described is: def online_kurtosis(data): n = mean = M2 = M3 = M4 = 0 for x in data: n1 = n n = n + 1 delta = x - mean delta_n = delta / n delta_n2 = delta_n**2 term1 = delta * delta_n * n1 mean = mean + delta_n M4 = M4 + term1 * delta_n2 * (n**2 - 3*n + 3) + 6 * delta_n2 * M2 - 4 * delta_n * M3 M3 = M3 + term1 * delta_n * (n - 2) - 3 * delta_n * M2 M2 = M2 + term1 # Note, you may also calculate variance using M2, and skewness using M3 # Caution: If all the inputs are the same, M2 will be 0, resulting in a division by 0. kurtosis = (n * M4) / (M2**2) - 3 return kurtosis Pébaÿ further extends these results to arbitrary-order central moments, for the incremental and the pairwise cases, and subsequently Pébaÿ et al. for weighted and compound moments. One can also find there similar formulas for covariance. Choi and Sweetman offer two alternative methods to compute the skewness and kurtosis, each of which can save substantial computer memory requirements and CPU time in certain applications. The first approach is to compute the statistical moments by separating the data into bins and then computing the moments from the geometry of the resulting histogram, which effectively becomes a one-pass algorithm for higher moments. One benefit is that the statistical moment calculations can be carried out to arbitrary accuracy such that the computations can be tuned to the precision of, e.g., the data storage format or the original measurement hardware. A relative histogram of a random variable can be constructed in the conventional way: the range of potential values is divided into bins and the number of occurrences within each bin are counted and plotted such that the area of each rectangle equals the portion of the sample values within that bin: formula_38 where formula_39 and formula_40 represent the frequency and the relative frequency at bin formula_41 and formula_42 is the total area of the histogram. After this normalization, the formula_43 raw moments and central moments of formula_44 can be calculated from the relative histogram: formula_45 formula_46 where the superscript formula_47 indicates the moments are calculated from the histogram. For constant bin width formula_48 these two expressions can be simplified using formula_49: formula_50 formula_51 The second approach from Choi and Sweetman is an analytical methodology to combine statistical moments from individual segments of a time-history such that the resulting overall moments are those of the complete time-history. This methodology could be used for parallel computation of statistical moments with subsequent combination of those moments, or for combination of statistical moments computed at sequential times. If formula_52 sets of statistical moments are known: formula_53 for formula_54, then each formula_55 can be expressed in terms of the equivalent formula_43 raw moments: formula_57 where formula_58 is generally taken to be the duration of the formula_59 time-history, or the number of points if formula_60 is constant. The benefit of expressing the statistical moments in terms of formula_61 is that the formula_52 sets can be combined by addition, and there is no upper limit on the value of formula_52. formula_64 where the subscript formula_65 represents the concatenated time-history or combined formula_61. These combined values of formula_61 can then be inversely transformed into raw moments representing the complete concatenated time-history formula_68 Known relationships between the raw moments (formula_69) and the central moments (formula_70) are then used to compute the central moments of the concatenated time-history. Finally, the statistical moments of the concatenated history are computed from the central moments: formula_71 ==Covariance== Very similar algorithms can be used to compute the covariance. ===Naïve algorithm=== The naïve algorithm is formula_72 For the algorithm above, one could use the following Python code: def naive_covariance(data1, data2): n = len(data1) sum1 = sum(data1) sum2 = sum(data2) sum12 = sum([i1 * i2 for i1, i2 in zip(data1, data2)]) covariance = (sum12 - sum1 * sum2 / n) / n return covariance ===With estimate of the mean=== As for the variance, the covariance of two random variables is also shift-invariant, so given any two constant values formula_73 and formula_74 it can be written: formula_75 and again choosing a value inside the range of values will stabilize the formula against catastrophic cancellation as well as make it more robust against big sums. Taking the first value of each data set, the algorithm can be written as: def shifted_data_covariance(data_x, data_y): n = len(data_x) if n < 2: return 0 kx = data_x[0] ky = data_y[0] Ex = Ey = Exy = 0 for ix, iy in zip(data_x, data_y): Ex += ix - kx Ey += iy - ky Exy += (ix - kx) * (iy - ky) return (Exy - Ex * Ey / n) / n ===Two-pass=== The two-pass algorithm first computes the sample means, and then the covariance: formula_76 formula_77 formula_78 The two-pass algorithm may be written as: def two_pass_covariance(data1, data2): n = len(data1) mean1 = sum(data1) / n mean2 = sum(data2) / n covariance = 0 for i1, i2 in zip(data1, data2): a = i1 - mean1 b = i2 - mean2 covariance += a * b / n return covariance A slightly more accurate compensated version performs the full naive algorithm on the residuals. The final sums formula_79 and formula_80 "should" be zero, but the second pass compensates for any small error. ===Online=== A stable one-pass algorithm exists, similar to the online algorithm for computing the variance, that computes co-moment formula_81: formula_82 The apparent asymmetry in that last equation is due to the fact that formula_83, so both update terms are equal to formula_84. Even greater accuracy can be achieved by first computing the means, then using the stable one-pass algorithm on the residuals. Thus the covariance can be computed as formula_85 def online_covariance(data1, data2): meanx = meany = C = n = 0 for x, y in zip(data1, data2): n += 1 dx = x - meanx meanx += dx / n meany += (y - meany) / n C += dx * (y - meany) population_covar = C / n # Bessel's correction for sample variance sample_covar = C / (n - 1) A small modification can also be made to compute the weighted covariance: def online_weighted_covariance(data1, data2, data3): meanx = meany = 0 wsum = wsum2 = 0 C = 0 for x, y, w in zip(data1, data2, data3): wsum += w wsum2 += w * w dx = x - meanx meanx += (w / wsum) * dx meany += (w / wsum) * (y - meany) C += w * dx * (y - meany) population_covar = C / wsum # Bessel's correction for sample variance # Frequency weights sample_frequency_covar = C / (wsum - 1) # Reliability weights sample_reliability_covar = C / (wsum - wsum2 / wsum) Likewise, there is a formula for combining the covariances of two sets that can be used to parallelize the computation: formula_86 ===Weighted batched version=== A version of the weighted online algorithm that does batched updated also exists: let formula_87 denote the weights, and write formula_88 The covariance can then be computed as formula_89

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1064

Almond

The almond (Prunus amygdalus, syn. Prunus dulcis) is a species of small tree from the genus "Prunus", cultivated worldwide for its seed, a culinary nut. Along with the peach, it is classified in the subgenus "Amygdalus", distinguished from the other subgenera by corrugations on the shell (endocarp) surrounding the seed. The fruit of the almond is a drupe, consisting of an outer hull and a hard shell with the seed, which is not a true nut. "Shelling" almonds refers to removing the shell to reveal the seed. Almonds are sold shelled or unshelled. Blanched almonds are shelled almonds that have been treated with hot water to soften the seedcoat, which is then removed to reveal the white embryo. Once almonds are cleaned and processed, they can be stored over time. Almonds are used in many cuisines, often featuring prominently in desserts, such as marzipan. The almond tree prospers in a moderate Mediterranean climate with cool winter weather. Native to Iran and surrounding countries including the Levant, today it is rarely found wild in its original setting. Almonds were one of the earliest domesticated fruit trees, due to the ability to produce quality offspring entirely from seed, without using suckers and cuttings. Evidence of domesticated almonds in the Early Bronze Age has been found in the archeological sites of the Middle East, and subsequently across the Mediterranean region and similar arid climates with cool winters. California produces over half of the world's almond supply. Due to high acreage and water demand for almond cultivation, and need for pesticides, California almond production may be unsustainable, especially during the persistent drought and heat from climate change in the 21st century. Droughts in California have caused some producers to leave the industry, leading to lower supply and increased prices. == Description == The almond is a deciduous tree growing to in height, with a trunk of up to in diameter. The young twigs are green at first, becoming purplish where exposed to sunlight, then gray in their second year. The leaves are long, with a serrated margin and a petiole. The flowers are white to pale pink, diameter with five petals, produced singly or in pairs and appearing before the leaves in early spring. Almond grows best in Mediterranean climates with warm, dry summers and mild, wet winters. The optimal temperature for their growth is between and the tree buds have a chilling requirement of 200 to 700 hours below to break dormancy. Almonds begin bearing an economic crop in the third year after planting. Trees reach full bearing five to six years after planting. The fruit matures in the autumn, 7–8 months after flowering. The almond fruit is long. It is not a nut but a drupe. The outer covering, consisting of an outer exocarp, or skin, and mesocarp, or flesh, fleshy in other members of "Prunus" such as the plum and cherry, is instead a thick, leathery, gray-green coat (with a downy exterior), called the hull. Inside the hull is a woody endocarp which forms a reticulated, hard shell (like the outside of a peach pit) called the pyrena. Inside the shell is the edible seed, commonly called a nut. Generally, one seed is present, but occasionally two occur. After the fruit matures, the hull splits and separates from the shell, and an abscission layer forms between the stem and the fruit so that the fruit can fall from the tree. == Taxonomy == === Sweet and bitter almonds === The seeds of "Prunus dulcis" var. "dulcis" are predominantly sweet but some individual trees produce seeds that are somewhat more bitter. The genetic basis for bitterness involves a single gene, the bitter flavor furthermore being recessive, both aspects making this trait easier to domesticate. The fruits from "Prunus dulcis" var. "amara" are always bitter, as are the kernels from other species of genus "Prunus", such as apricot, peach and cherry (although to a lesser extent). The bitter almond is slightly broader and shorter than the sweet almond and contains about 50% of the fixed oil that occurs in sweet almonds. It also contains the enzyme emulsin which, in the presence of water, acts on the two soluble glucosides amygdalin and prunasin yielding glucose, cyanide and the essential oil of bitter almonds, which is nearly pure benzaldehyde, the chemical causing the bitter flavor. Bitter almonds may yield 4–9 milligrams of hydrogen cyanide per almond and contain 42 times higher amounts of cyanide than the trace levels found in sweet almonds. The origin of cyanide content in bitter almonds is via the enzymatic hydrolysis of amygdalin. P450 monooxygenases are involved in the amygdalin biosynthetic pathway. A point mutation in a bHLH transcription factor prevents transcription of the two cytochrome P450 genes, resulting in the sweet kernel trait. === Etymology === The word "almond" comes from Old French or , Late Latin , , derived from from the Ancient Greek () (cf. amygdala, an almond-shaped portion of the brain). Late Old English had "amygdales", "almonds". The adjective "amygdaloid" (literally 'like an almond') is used to describe objects which are roughly almond-shaped, particularly a shape which is part way between a triangle and an ellipse. For example, the amygdala of the brain uses a direct borrowing of the Greek term . == Distribution and habitat == Almond is native to Iran and its surrounding regions, including the Levant area. It was spread by humans in ancient times along the shores of the Mediterranean into northern Africa and southern Europe, and more recently transported to other parts of the world, notably California, United States. The wild form of domesticated almond grows in parts of the Levant. Selection of the sweet type from the many bitter types in the wild marked the beginning of almond domestication. It is unclear as to which wild ancestor of the almond created the domesticated species. The species "Prunus fenzliana" may be the most likely wild ancestor of the almond, in part because it is native to Armenia and western Azerbaijan, where it was apparently domesticated. Wild almond species were grown by early farmers, "at first unintentionally in the garbage heaps, and later intentionally in their orchards". ==Cultivation== Almonds were one of the earliest domesticated fruit trees, due to "the ability of the grower to raise attractive almonds from seed. Thus, in spite of the fact that this plant does not lend itself to propagation from suckers or from cuttings, it could have been domesticated even before the introduction of grafting". Domesticated almonds appear in the Early Bronze Age (3000–2000 BC), such as the archaeological sites of Numeira (Jordan), or possibly earlier. Another well-known archaeological example of the almond is the fruit found in Tutankhamun's tomb in Egypt (c. 1325 BC), probably imported from the Levant. An article on almond tree cultivation in Spain is brought down in Ibn al-'Awwam's 12th-century agricultural work, "Book on Agriculture". Of the European countries that the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh reported as cultivating almonds, Germany is the northernmost, though the domesticated form can be found as far north as Iceland. ===Varieties=== Almond trees are small to medium sized but commercial cultivars can be grafted onto a different root-stock to produce smaller trees. Varieties include: - – originates in the 1800s. A large tree that produces large, smooth, thin-shelled almonds with 60–65% edible kernel per nut. Requires pollination from other almond varieties for good nut production. - – originates in Italy. Has thicker, hairier shells with only 32% of edible kernel per nut. The thicker shell gives some protection from pests such as the navel orangeworm. Does not require pollination by other almond varieties. - Mariana – used as a rootstock to result in smaller trees ===Breeding=== Breeding programmes have found the high shell-seal trait. === Pollination === The most widely planted varieties of almond are self-incompatible; hence these trees require pollen from a tree with different genetic characters to produce seeds. Almond orchards therefore must grow mixtures of almond varieties. In addition, the pollen is transferred from flower to flower by insects; therefore commercial growers must ensure there are enough insects to perform this task. The large scale of almond production in the U.S. creates a significant problem of providing enough pollinating insects. Additional pollinating insects are therefore brought to the trees. The pollination of California's almonds is the largest annual managed pollination event in the world, with 1.4 million hives (nearly half of all beehives in the US) being brought to the almond orchards each February. Much of the supply of bees is managed by pollination brokers, who contract with migratory beekeepers from at least 49 states for the event. This business was heavily affected by colony collapse disorder at the turn of the 21st century, causing a nationwide shortage of honey bees and increasing the price of insect pollination. To partially protect almond growers from these costs, researchers at the Agricultural Research Service, part of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), developed self-pollinating almond trees that combine this character with quality characters such as a flavor and yield. Self-pollinating almond varieties exist, but they lack some commercial characters. However, through natural hybridisation between different almond varieties, a new variety that was self-pollinating with a high yield of commercial quality nuts was produced. === Diseases === Almond trees can be attacked by an array of damaging microbes, fungal pathogens, plant viruses, and bacteria. === Pests === Pavement ants ("Tetramorium caespitum"), southern fire ants ("Solenopsis xyloni"), and thief ants ("Solenopsis molesta") are seed predators. "Bryobia rubrioculus" mites are most known for their damage to this crop. === Sustainability === Almond production in California is concentrated mainly in the Central Valley, where the mild climate, rich soil, abundant sunshine and water supply make for ideal growing conditions. Due to the persistent droughts in California in the early 21st century, it became more difficult to raise almonds in a sustainable manner. The issue is complex because of the high amount of water needed to produce almonds: a single almond requires roughly of water to grow properly. Regulations related to water supplies are changing so some growers have destroyed their current almond orchards to replace with either younger trees or a different crop such as pistachio that needs less water. Sustainability strategies implemented by the Almond Board of California and almond farmers include: - tree and soil health, and other farming practices - minimizing dust production during the harvest - bee health - irrigation guidelines for farmers - food safety - use of waste biomass as coproducts with a goal to achieve zero waste - use of solar energy during processing - job development - support of scientific research to investigate potential health benefits of consuming almonds - international education about sustainability practices === Production === In 2020, world production of almonds was 4.1 million tonnes, led by the United States providing 57% of the world total (table). Other leading producers were Spain, Australia, and Iran. ==== United States ==== In the United States, production is concentrated in California where and six different almond varieties were under cultivation in 2017, with a yield of of shelled almonds. California production is marked by a period of intense pollination during late winter by rented commercial bees transported by truck across the U.S. to almond groves, requiring more than half of the total U.S. commercial honeybee population. The value of total U.S. exports of shelled almonds in 2016 was $3.2 billion. All commercially grown almonds sold as food in the U.S. are sweet cultivars. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration reported in 2010 that some fractions of imported sweet almonds were contaminated with bitter almonds, which contain cyanide. ==== Spain ==== Spain has diverse commercial cultivars of almonds grown in Catalonia, Valencia, Murcia, Andalusia, and Aragón regions, and the Balearic Islands. Production in 2016 declined 2% nationally compared to 2015 production data. The 'Marcona' almond cultivar is recognizably different from other almonds and is marketed by name. The kernel is short, round, relatively sweet, and delicate in texture. Its origin is unknown and has been grown in Spain for a long time; the tree is very productive, and the shell of the nut is very hard. ==== Australia ==== Australia is the largest almond production region in the Southern Hemisphere. Most of the almond orchards are located along the Murray River corridor in New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. == Toxicity == Bitter almonds contain 42 times higher amounts of cyanide than the trace levels found in sweet almonds. Extract of bitter almond was once used medicinally but even in small doses, effects are severe or lethal, especially in children; the cyanide must be removed before consumption. The acute oral lethal dose of cyanide for adult humans is reported to be of body weight (approximately 50 bitter almonds), so that for children consuming 5–10 bitter almonds may be fatal. Symptoms of eating such almonds include vertigo and other typical cyanide poisoning effects. Almonds may cause allergy or intolerance. Cross-reactivity is common with peach allergens (lipid transfer proteins) and tree nut allergens. Symptoms range from local signs and symptoms (e.g., oral allergy syndrome, contact urticaria) to systemic signs and symptoms including anaphylaxis (e.g., urticaria, angioedema, gastrointestinal and respiratory symptoms). Almonds are susceptible to aflatoxin-producing molds. Aflatoxins are potent carcinogenic chemicals produced by molds such as "Aspergillus flavus" and "Aspergillus parasiticus". The mold contamination may occur from soil, previously infested almonds, and almond pests such as navel-orange worm. High levels of mold growth typically appear as gray to black filament-like growth. It is unsafe to eat mold-infected tree nuts. Some countries have strict limits on allowable levels of aflatoxin contamination of almonds and require adequate testing before the nuts can be marketed to their citizens. The European Union, for example, introduced a requirement since 2007 that all almond shipments to the EU be tested for aflatoxin. If aflatoxin does not meet the strict safety regulations, the entire consignment may be reprocessed to eliminate the aflatoxin or it must be destroyed. Breeding programs have found the trait. High shell-seal provides resistance against these "Aspergillus" species and so against the development of their toxins. === Mandatory pasteurization in California === After tracing cases of salmonellosis to almonds, the USDA approved a proposal by the Almond Board of California to pasteurize almonds sold to the public. After publishing the rule in March 2007, the almond pasteurization program became mandatory for California companies effective 1 September 2007. Raw, untreated California almonds have not been available in the U.S. since then. California almonds labeled "raw" must be steam-pasteurized or chemically treated with propylene oxide (PPO). This does not apply to imported almonds or almonds sold from the grower directly to the consumer in small quantities. The treatment also is not required for raw almonds sold for export outside of North America. The Almond Board of California states: "PPO residue dissipates after treatment". The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has reported: "Propylene oxide has been detected in fumigated food products; consumption of contaminated food is another possible route of exposure". PPO is classified as Group 2B ("possibly carcinogenic to humans"). The USDA-approved marketing order was challenged in court by organic farmers organized by the Cornucopia Institute, a Wisconsin-based farm policy research group which filed a lawsuit in September 2008. According to the institute, this almond marketing order has imposed significant financial burdens on small-scale and organic growers and damaged domestic almond markets. A federal judge dismissed the lawsuit in early 2009 on procedural grounds. In August 2010, a federal appeals court ruled that the farmers have a right to appeal the USDA regulation. In March 2013, the court vacated the suit on the basis that the objections should have been raised in 2007 when the regulation was first proposed. ==Uses== === Nutrition === Almonds are 4% water, 22% carbohydrates, 21% protein, and 50% fat (table). In a reference amount, almonds supply of food energy. The almond is a nutritionally dense food (table), providing a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of the B vitamins riboflavin and niacin, vitamin E, and the essential minerals calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, and zinc. Almonds are a moderate source (10–19% DV) of the B vitamins thiamine, vitamin B6, and folate, choline, and the essential mineral potassium. They also contain substantial dietary fiber, the monounsaturated fat, oleic acid, and the polyunsaturated fat, linoleic acid. Typical of nuts and seeds, almonds are a source of phytosterols such as beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, sitostanol, and campestanol. ===Health=== Almonds are included as a good source of protein among recommended healthy foods by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). A 2016 review of clinical research indicated that regular consumption of almonds may reduce the risk of heart disease by lowering blood levels of LDL cholesterol. === Culinary === While the almond is often eaten on its own, raw or toasted, it is also a component of various dishes. Almonds are available in many forms, such as whole, slivered, and ground into flour. Almond pieces around in size, called "nibs", are used for special purposes such as decoration. Almonds are a common addition to breakfast muesli or oatmeal. ====Desserts==== A wide range of classic sweets feature almonds as a central ingredient. Marzipan was developed in the Middle Ages. Since the 19th century almonds have been used to make bread, almond butter, cakes and puddings, candied confections, almond cream-filled pastries, nougat, cookies (macaroons, biscotti and qurabiya), and cakes (financiers, Esterházy torte), and other sweets and desserts. The young, developing fruit of the almond tree can be eaten whole (green almonds) when they are still green and fleshy on the outside and the inner shell has not yet hardened. The fruit is somewhat sour, but is a popular snack in parts of the Middle East, eaten dipped in salt to balance the sour taste. Also in the Middle East they are often eaten with dates. They are available only from mid-April to mid-June in the Northern Hemisphere; pickling or brining extends the fruit's shelf life. =====Marzipan===== Marzipan, a smooth, sweetened almond paste, is used in a number of elegant cakes and desserts. Princess cake is covered by marzipan (similar to fondant), as is Battenberg cake. In Sicily, sponge cake is covered with marzipan to make cassatella di sant'Agata and cassata siciliana, and marzipan is dyed and crafted into realistic fruit shapes to make frutta martorana. The Andalusian Christmas pastry "pan de Cádiz" is filled with marzipan and candied fruit. ====World cuisines==== *In French cuisine, alternating layers of almond and hazelnut meringue are used to make the dessert "dacquoise". Pithivier is one of many almond cream-filled pastries. - In Germany, Easter bread called "Deutsches Osterbrot" is baked with raisins and almonds. - In Greece almond flour is used to make "amygdalopita", a "glyka tapsiou" dessert cake baking in a tray. Almonds are used for "kourabiedes", a Greek version of the traditional "quarabiya" almond biscuits. A soft drink known as "soumada" is made from almonds in various regions. - In Saudi Arabia, almonds are a typical embellishment for the rice dish kabsa. - In Iran, green almonds are dipped in sea salt and eaten as snacks on street markets; they are called "chaqale bâdam". Candied almonds called noghl are served alongside tea and coffee. Also, sweet almonds are used to prepare special food for babies, named "harire badam". Almonds are added to some foods, cookies, and desserts, or are used to decorate foods. People in Iran consume roasted nuts for special events, for example, during New Year (Nowruz) parties. - In Italy, "colomba di Pasqua" is a traditional Easter cake made with almonds. Bitter almonds are the base for "amaretti" cookies, a common dessert. Almonds are also a common choice as the nuts to include in "torrone". - In Morocco, almonds in the form of sweet almond paste are the main ingredient in pastry fillings, and several other desserts. Fried blanched whole almonds are also used to decorate sweet "tajines" such as lamb with prunes. Southwestern Berber regions of Essaouira and Souss are also known for "amlou", a spread made of almond paste, argan oil, and honey. Almond paste is also mixed with toasted flour and among others, honey, olive oil or butter, anise, fennel, sesame seeds, and cinnamon to make "sellou" (also called "zamita" in Meknes or "slilou" in Marrakech), a sweet snack known for its long shelf life and high nutritive value. - In Indian cuisine, almonds are the base ingredients of "pasanda"-style and Mughlai curries. "Badam halva" is a sweet made from almonds with added coloring. Almond flakes are added to many sweets (such as "sohan barfi"), and are usually visible sticking to the outer surface. Almonds form the base of various drinks which are supposed to have cooling properties. Almond sherbet or "sherbet-e-badaam", is a popular summer drink. Almonds are also sold as a snack with added salt. - In Israel almonds are used as a topping for tahini cookies or eaten as a snack. - In Spain "Marcona" almonds are usually toasted in oil and lightly salted. They are used by Spanish confectioners to prepare a sweet called "turrón". - In Arabian cuisine, almonds are commonly used as garnishing for Mansaf. Certain natural food stores sell "bitter almonds" or "apricot kernels" labeled as such, requiring significant caution by consumers for how to prepare and eat these products. ==== Milk ==== Almonds can be processed into a milk substitute called almond milk; the nut's soft texture, mild flavor, and light coloring (when skinned) make for an efficient analog to dairy, and a soy-free choice for lactose intolerant people and vegans. Raw, blanched, and lightly toasted almonds work well for different production techniques, some of which are similar to that of soy milk and some of which use no heat, resulting in raw milk. Almond milk, along with almond butter and almond oil, are versatile products used in both sweet and savoury dishes. In Moroccan cuisine, sharbat billooz, a common beverage, is made by blending blanched almonds with milk, sugar and other flavorings. ==== Flour and skins ==== Almond flour or ground almond meal combined with sugar or honey as marzipan is often used as a gluten-free alternative to wheat flour in cooking and baking. Almonds contain polyphenols in their skins consisting of flavonols, flavan-3-ols, hydroxybenzoic acids and flavanones analogous to those of certain fruits and vegetables. These phenolic compounds and almond skin prebiotic dietary fiber have commercial interest as food additives or dietary supplements. ==== Syrup ==== Historically, almond syrup was an emulsion of sweet and bitter almonds, usually made with barley syrup (orgeat syrup) or in a syrup of orange flower water and sugar, often flavored with a synthetic aroma of almonds. Orgeat syrup is an important ingredient in the Mai Tai and many other Tiki drinks. Due to the cyanide found in bitter almonds, modern syrups generally are produced only from sweet almonds. Such syrup products do not contain significant levels of hydrocyanic acid, so are generally considered safe for human consumption. === Oils === Almonds are a rich source of oil, with 50% of kernel dry mass as fat (whole almond nutrition table). In relation to total dry mass of the kernel, almond oil contains 32% monounsaturated oleic acid (an omega-9 fatty acid), 13% linoleic acid (a polyunsaturated omega-6 essential fatty acid), and 10% saturated fatty acid (mainly as palmitic acid). Linolenic acid, a polyunsaturated omega-3 fat, is not present (table). Almond oil is a rich source of vitamin E, providing 261% of the Daily Value per 100 millilitres. When almond oil is analyzed separately and expressed per 100 grams as a reference mass, the oil provides of food energy, 8 grams of saturated fat (81% of which is palmitic acid), 70 grams of oleic acid, and 17 grams of linoleic acid (oil table). "Oleum amygdalae", the fixed oil, is prepared from either sweet or bitter almonds, and is a glyceryl oleate with a slight odour and a nutty taste. It is almost insoluble in alcohol but readily soluble in chloroform or ether. Almond oil is obtained from the dried kernel of almonds. Sweet almond oil is used as a carrier oil in aromatherapy and cosmetics while bitter almond oil, containing benzaldehyde, is used as a food flavouring and in perfume. == In culture == The almond is highly revered in some cultures. The tree originated in the Middle East. In the Bible, the almond is mentioned ten times, beginning with Genesis 43:11, where it is described as "among the best of fruits". In Numbers 17, Levi is chosen from the other tribes of Israel by Aaron's rod, which brought forth almond flowers. The almond blossom supplied a model for the menorah which stood in the Holy Temple, "Three cups, shaped like almond blossoms, were on one branch, with a knob and a flower; and three cups, shaped like almond blossoms, were on the other … on the candlestick itself were four cups, shaped like almond blossoms, with its knobs and flowers" (Exodus 25:33–34; 37:19–20). Many Sephardic Jews give five almonds to each guest before special occasions like weddings. Similarly, Christian symbolism often uses almond branches as a symbol of the virgin birth of Jesus; paintings and icons often include almond-shaped haloes encircling the Christ Child and as a symbol of Mary. The word "luz", which appears in Genesis 30:37, sometimes translated as "hazel", may actually be derived from the Aramaic name for almond (Luz), and is translated as such in the New International Version and other versions of the Bible. The Arabic name for almond is لوز "lauz" or "lūz". In some parts of the Levant and North Africa, it is pronounced "loz", which is very close to its Aramaic origin. The Entrance of the flower ("La entrada de la flor") is an event celebrated on 1 February in Torrent, Spain, in which the clavarios and members of the Confrerie of the Mother of God deliver a branch of the first-blooming almond-tree to the Virgin.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1069

Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda

This article is a demography of the population of Antigua and Barbuda including population density, ethnicity, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. ==Population== According to the 2011 census the estimated resident population of Antigua and Barbuda was 86,295. The estimated population of is (). ==Ethnic groups== The population of Antigua and Barbuda, is predominantly black (91.0%) or mixed (4.4%). 1.9% of the population is white and 0.7% East Indian. There is also a small Amerindian population: 177 in 1991 and 214 in 2001 (0.3% of the total population). The remaining 1.6% of the population includes people from the Middle East (0.6%) and China (0.2%). The 2001 census disclosed that 19,425, or 30 per cent of the total population of Antigua and Barbuda, reported their place of birth as a foreign country. Over 15,000 of these persons were from other Caribbean states, representing 80 of the total foreign born. The main countries of origin were Guyana, Dominica and Jamaica. Approximately 4,500 or 23 per cent of all foreign born came from Guyana, 3,300 or 17 per cent came from Dominica and 2,800 or 14 per cent came from Jamaica. The largest single group from a country outside the region came from the United States. Of the total of 1,715 persons, nine per cent of the foreign born, came from the United States while three per cent and one per cent came from the United Kingdom and Canada, respectively. Many of these are the children of Antiguans and Barbudans who had emigrated to these countries, mainly during the 1980s, and subsequently returned. ==Other demographics statistics== Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2019. - One birth every 360 minutes - One death every 720 minutes - One net migrant every Infinity minutes - Net gain of one person every 720 minutes Demographic statistics according to the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. - Population: 99,287 (Feb. 2022 est.) - Nationality: Noun: Antiguan(s), Barbudan(s) Adjective: Antiguan, Barbudan - Ethnic groups: African descent 87.3%, mixed 4.7%, Hispanic 2.7%, white 1.6%, other 2.7%, unspecified 0.9% (2011 est.) note: data represent population by ethnic group - Age structure: 0-14 years: 22.52% (male 11,243/female 10,871) 15-24 years: 16.15% (male 7,891/female 7,961) 25-54 years: 41.68% (male 18,757/female 22,167) 55-64 years: 10.74% (male 4,693/female 5,848) 65 years and over: 8.91% (male 3,736/female 5,012) (2020 est.) - Median age: Total: 32.7 years Country comparison to the world: 106th Male: 30.7 years Female: 34.4 years (2020 est.) - Birth rate: 15.3 births/1,000 population (2021 est.) Country comparison to the world: 113th - Death rate: 5.63 deaths/1,000 population (2021 est.) Country comparison to the world: 177th - Total fertility rate: 1.96 children born/woman (2021 est.) Country comparison to the world: 117th - Net migration rate: 2.06 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2021 est.) Country comparison to the world: 49th - Population growth rate: 1.17% (2021 est.) Country comparison to the world: 84th - Population distribution: The island of Antigua is home to approximately 97% of the population; nearly the entire population of Barbuda lives in Codrington - Languages: English (official), Antiguan creole - Religions: Protestant 68.3% (Anglican 17.6%, Seventh Day Adventist 12.4%, Pentecostal 12.2%, Moravian 8.3%, Methodist 5.6%, Wesleyan Holiness 4.5%, Church of God 4.1%, Baptist 3.6%), Roman Catholic 8.2%, other 12.2%, unspecified 5.5%, none 5.9% (2011 est.) - Life expectancy at birth: Total population: 77.6 years Country comparison to the world: 92nd male: 75.4 years female: 79.9 years (2021 est.) - Urbanization: urban population: 24.4% of total population (2020) rate of urbanization: 0.55% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.) - Dependency ratios: Total dependency ratio: 45.3 (2020 est.) Youth dependency ratio: 31.8 (2020 est.) Elderly dependency ratio: 13.6 (2020 est.) Potential support ratio: 7.4 (2020 est.) - Education expenditures: 2.5% of GDP (2009) Country comparison to the world: 160th - Obesity - adult prevalence rate: 18.9% (2016) Country comparison to the world: 113rd - Literacy: Definition: age 15 and over has completed five or more years of schooling Total population: 99% Male: 98.4% Female: 99.4% (2015) - School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education): Total: 15 years Male: 14 years Female: 16 years (2012)

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Politics of Antigua and Barbuda

The politics of Antigua and Barbuda takes place in a framework of a unitary parliamentary representative democratic monarchy, wherein the sovereign of Antigua and Barbuda is the head of state, appointing a governor-general to act as vice-regal representative in the nation. A prime minister is appointed by the governor-general as the head of government, and of a multi-party system; the prime minister advises the governor-general on the appointment of a Council of Ministers. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the Parliament. The bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (seventeen-member body appointed by the governor-general) and the House of Representatives (seventeen seats; members are elected by proportional representation to serve five-year terms). Antigua and Barbuda has a long history of free elections, three of which have resulted in peaceful changes of government. Since the 1951 general election, the party system has been dominated by the Antigua and Barbuda Labour Party (ABLP), for a long time was dominated by the Bird family, particularly Prime Ministers Vere and Lester Bird. The opposition claimed to be disadvantaged by the ABLP's longstanding monopoly on patronage and its control of the media, especially in the 1999 general election. The opposition United Progressive Party (UPP) won the 2004 election, and its leader Winston Baldwin Spencer was prime minister of Antigua and Barbuda from 2004 to 2014. The elections to the House of Representatives were held on 12 June 2014. The Antigua and Barbuda Labour Party government was elected with fourteen seats. The United Progressive Party had three seats in the House of Representatives. ABLP won 15 of the 17 seats in the 2018 snap election under the leadership of incumbent Prime Minister Gaston Browne. Constitutional safeguards include freedom of speech, press, worship, movement, and association. Antigua and Barbuda is a member of the eastern Caribbean court system. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Jurisprudence is based on English common law. ==Executive branch== === Executive branch leadership === As head of state, King Charles III is represented in Antigua and Barbuda by a governor-general who acts on the advice of the prime minister and the cabinet. ==Legislative branch== Antigua and Barbuda elects on national level a legislature. Parliament has two chambers. The House of Representatives has 19 members: 17 members elected for a five-year term in single-seat constituencies, and 2 ex officio members (president and speaker). The Senate has 17 appointed members. The prime minister is the leader of the majority party in the House and conducts affairs of state with the cabinet. The prime minister and the cabinet are responsible to the Parliament. Elections must be held at least every five years but may be called by the prime minister at any time. There are special legislative provisions to account for Barbuda's low population relative to that of Antigua. Barbuda is guaranteed one member of the House of Representatives and two members of the Senate. In addition, there is a Barbuda Council to govern the internal affairs of the island. ==Administrative divisions== The country is divided into six parishes, Saint George, John, Mary, Paul, Peter, and Phillip which are all on the island of Antigua. Additionally, the islands of Barbuda and Redonda are considered dependencies. ==Judicial branch== Antigua and Barbuda is a member of the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court. This court is headquartered in Saint Lucia, but at least one judge of the Supreme Court resides in Antigua and Barbuda, and presides over the High Court of Justice. The current High Court judges are Jennifer Remy and Keith Thom. Antigua is also a member of the Caribbean Court of Justice, although it has not yet acceded to Part III of the 2001 Agreement Establishing a Caribbean Court of Justice. Its supreme appellate court therefore remains the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Indeed, of the signatories to the Agreement, as of December 2010, only Barbados has replaced appeals to Her Majesty in Council with the Caribbean Court of Justice. In addition to the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court, Antigua and Barbuda has a Magistrates' Court, which deals with lesser civil and criminal cases. == Movements == * Republicanism in Antigua and Barbuda ==Political pressure groups and leaders== * Antigua Trades and Labour Union - People's Democratic Movement ==International organisation participation== * Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States - ALBA - Caribbean Community - Caribbean Development Bank - Community of Latin American and Caribbean States - Commonwealth of Nations - United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean - Food and Agriculture Organization - Group of 77 - International Bank for Reconstruction and Development - International Civil Aviation Organization - International Criminal Court - International Confederation of Free Trade Unions - International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement - International Fund for Agricultural Development - International Finance Corporation - International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies - International Labour Organization - International Monetary Fund - International Maritime Organization - Intelsat (nonsignatory user) - Interpol - International Olympic Committee - International Telecommunication Union - Non-Aligned Movement (observer) - Organization of American States - Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States - OPANAL - United Nations - United Nations Conference on Trade and Development - UNESCO - Universal Postal Union - World Confederation of Labour - World Federation of Trade Unions - World Health Organization - World Meteorological Organization - World Trade Organization

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Telecommunications in Antigua and Barbuda

Telecommunications in Antigua and Barbuda are via media in the telecommunications industry. ==Telephone== Telephones – main lines in use: 37,500 (2006) "country comparison to the world:" 168 Telephones – mobile cellular: 110,200 (2006) (APUA PCS, Cable & Wireless, Digicel) "country comparison to the world:" 177 Telephone system: <br>"domestic:" good automatic telephone system <br>"international:" 3 fiber optic submarine cables (2 to Saint Kitts and 1 to Guadeloupe); satellite earth station – 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) ==Radio== Radio broadcast stations: AM 4, FM 6, shortwave 0 (2002) Radios: 36,000 (1997) ==Television== Television broadcast stations: 2 (1997) (including ABS-TV) Televisions: 31,000 (1997) ==Internet== Internet Service Providers (ISPs): Cable & Wireless, Antigua Computer Technologies (ACT), Antigua Public Utilities Authority (APUA INET) Internet hosts: 2,215 (2008) "country comparison to the world:" 140 Internet users: 60,000 (2007) "country comparison to the world:" 158 Country codes: AG

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Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force

The Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force (ABDF) is the armed forces of Antigua and Barbuda. The ABDF has responsibility for several different roles: internal security, prevention of drug smuggling, the protection and support of fishing rights, prevention of marine pollution, search and rescue, ceremonial duties, assistance to government programs, provision of relief during natural disasters, assistance in the maintenance of essential services, and support of the police in maintaining law and order. The ABDF is one of the world's smallest militaries, consisting of 245 personnel. It is much better equipped for fulfilling its civil roles, as opposed to providing a deterrence against would-be aggressors or in defending the nation during a war. ==Organisation== The ABDF consists of five major units: - Regiment – comprises four line companies and is the infantry unit and fighting arm of the defence force. - Service and Support Unit – provides administrative, logistic and engineer support to the rest of the defence force. - Coast Guard – the maritime element of the defence force, and is divided into four units: - Commanding Officer's Office - Engineer Unit - Administration Unit - Flotilla – the flotilla is the operational part of the Coast Guard, and consists of the following water-craft: - 1 Swiftships Shipbuilders 19.81-metre Commercial Cruiser-class patrol boat (P-01 "Liberta"), in service since 1984 - 1 SeaArk Boats Dauntless-class patrol boat (P-02 "Palmetto"), in service since 1995 - 1 Point-class cutter (P-03 "Hermitage"), transferred from the U.S. Coast Guard in 1998 - 1 Defender 380X-class all-weather interceptor (D-8), date of acquisition unknown - 2 Boston Whaler 8.23-metre launches (071 and 072), in service since 1988 - 1 Zodiac Marine & Pool 8.23-metre Hurricane-type rigid-hulled inflatable boat in service since 1998 - Air Wing - Cadet Corps === Defence Board === The Defence Board is in charge of overseeing the leadership, management, and discipline of the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force as well as all other matters pertaining to it. The Defence Board has the authority to govern its work, how it will carry out its duties, and the responsibilities of its members. It can also assign any member of the Board any authority or duty, by publishing a notice in the Official Gazette; consult with non-members as appropriate, including officers commanding units of the Force, regarding matters pertaining to their units; and the officers are required to attend the meetings as the Board requests; decide on the protocol to be followed in conducting its business; and provide for any other matter that it deems necessary or desirable for achieving the better performance of its functions. === Officers === A person cannot be appointed to the force unless they have received a recommendation from a board, known as the Commissions Board in the Defence Act. This board is made up of the Chairman, who is appointed by the Chief of Defence Staff; the Chairman of the Public Service Commission, or in his absence, the Vice Chairman of the Public Service Commission; and an individual appointed by the Defence Board for a duration determined by the Board. His Majesty has the authority to appoint people to the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force, and the Governor-General may act in that capacity. A commission may be awarded for a predetermined amount of time or for an unlimited amount of time. === Reserve forces === There are two classes in the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force Reserve. The soldiers enlisted, deemed to be enlisted, or re-engaged in accordance with this Part for service in that class; the Reserve soldiers of the second class who have, upon written application to the appropriate military authority, been accepted by that authority for service in the first class; and the soldiers transferred to the first class in accordance with section 31 of the Defence Act comprise the first class. The soldiers who are members of the second class by virtue of Part IV of the Defence Act, the officers who are appointed or transferred to that class, and the soldiers who are enlisted, deemed to be enlisted, or re-engaged in accordance with Part IX of the Defence Act for service in that class are all included in the second class. Each officer and soldier in the first class of the Reserve is required to report for duty at the location and for the duration determined by the Defence Board. They are also required to meet all training-related requirements. Subject to any general directives from the Defence Board, the requirements of the related section may be disregarded in whole or in part with regard to any unit of the first class of the Reserve, as well as with regard to any individual officer or soldier of the first class of the Reserve, by his commanding officer. Nothing stops a Reserve officer or soldier from participating in optional training in addition to any mandated training. The first class of the Reserve, or as many officers and soldiers of that class as the Board deems necessary, may be called out on temporary duty by the Defence Board when needed. Under section 203, officers and soldiers who are called out for duty are not required to serve for more than ninety days at a time. Because the worker is a Reserve member who is called out in accordance with the section, no employer may fire or give notice of termination to any worker. When an employer violates, they are guilty of a crime and face a maximum fine of $5,000, a maximum sentence of two (2) years in jail, or both. This applies even in cases of summary conviction. The Governor-General may, on the advice of the Prime Minister, by proclamation order that the Reserve, or any class thereof, be called out on permanent service in the event of a state of war, insurrection, hostilities, or public emergency; the Defence Board will then take appropriate action. When called out on permanent duty, every Reserve officer and soldier is eligible to stay on permanent duty until told otherwise. Every officer and soldier belonging to such a class, as the case may be, to the part of any class so called out, shall attend in person at the designated location whenever the whole or any part of the first class of the Reserve is called out on temporary or permanent service; or whenever the whole or any part of the second class of the Reserve is called out on permanent service. The Defence Board shall cause every officer or soldier subject to such call-out to be served with a notice requiring him to attend at the time and place specified in the notice in the event that the first class of the Reserve is called out on temporary service or the Reserve is called out on permanent service. An officer of the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force may file a summarily complaint against a person who willfully takes away pawns, wrongfully destroys or damages, carelessly loses anything issued to him as an officer or soldier of the Reserve, or willfully refuses or fails to deliver up anything issued to him as an officer or soldier as a debt owed to the Crown. This applies even if the amount exceeds the normal monetary limit on a magistrate's jurisdiction. A Reserve soldier may be released at any point during the duration of their service in the Reserve by the appropriate military authority under the prescribed conditions. == Enlistment and terms of service == A recruiting officer will not enlist anyone in the Force unless they are satisfied that the potential recruit has received, comprehended, and wishes to be enlisted after receiving a notice in the prescribed form from anyone who wants to join the regular Force. A recruiting officer is not allowed to enlist a minor under the age of eighteen into the regular force unless written consent has been obtained from at least one parent, from any parent who may have parental rights and powers over the minor, from any person whose whereabouts are known or can be determined with reasonable effort, or from any person who is in fact or legally responsible for the minor. For the purposes of the Defence Act, an individual who is willing to enlist will be considered to have reached, or not reached, the age of eighteen if the recruiting officer is satisfied—either through the production of a certified copy of an entry in the register of births, or by any other evidence that seems sufficient to them. The period of time that an individual may enlist in the regular force is as follows: in the case of an individual who is 18 years of age or older at the time of enlistment, a term of colour service that does not exceed 12 years as prescribed; in this case, the term of service in the Reserve will apply to the portion of the term that is prescribed as a term of colour service, and the remaining portion will apply to a term of service. In the case of an individual who is younger at the time of enlistment, the period of time that is prescribed will begin on the date that the individual reaches the age of eighteen years or a term not to exceed 12 years, as specified, starting on the day he reaches that age and consisting of the portion of it that is prescribed as a term of colour service and the remaining portion as a term in the reserve. Any soldier of good character who has served their full term of colour service or who will be serving in the Reserve in two years may, with permission from the appropriate military authority, re-engage for an additional period of colour service and Reserve duty as prescribed; however, the additional period of colour service, when combined with the original period of colour service, may not exceed a total continuous period of 22 years colour service from the date of the soldier's original attestation or the date he became eighteen years old, whichever comes first. Any soldier who has completed 22 years of colour service may, if he so chooses and with the consent of the appropriate military authority, continue to serve in all capacities as if his colour service term had not yet expired. However, on the date that he notifies his commanding officer that he wishes to be discharged, he may be eligible for discharge at the end of the three-month period. Any soldier whose term of colour service expires during a public emergency, war, insurrection, hostilities, or other exigency of duty may be kept in the Force and have their service extended for an additional period of time as directed by the Defence Board and the appropriate military authority. Every regular force soldier who is eligible for discharge will be released as soon as possible, subject to the Defence Act. However, until they are released, they are subject to military law as stipulated by the Act. When a regular force soldier is serving outside of Antigua and Barbuda at the time of his discharge, he has two options: if he wants to be discharged in Antigua and Barbuda, he will be sent there at no cost as soon as possible, and he will be released either when he arrives in Antigua and Barbuda or, if he agrees to a delay in discharge, six months after arriving; else, he will be released where he is currently serving. Releasing a soldier from the regular force requires authorization from the appropriate military authority, unless they are being released in accordance with a court-martial sentence. Upon their release from active duty, all regular force soldiers will receive a certificate of discharge that includes the necessary information. Every regular Force soldier who is scheduled to be transferred to the Reserve may do so in accordance with the Act, but they will remain subject to military law until they are transferred. When a regular Force soldier serving outside of Antigua and Barbuda is scheduled to be transferred to the Reserve, he will be sent there at no cost to him and will be transferred to the Reserve upon arrival, or within six months of his arrival if he agrees to a delay in transfer; he may, however, choose to be transferred to the Reserve without having to return to Antigua and Barbuda. When a regular Force soldier is being transferred to the Reserve, the appropriate military authority has the authority to immediately discharge him without providing a reason. A court-martial sentence, a Defence Board order, or an order from an officer not lower than Major or a corresponding rank who has been given permission by the commanding officer may be the only ways that a warrant officer or non-commissioned officer's rank may be lowered. If a regular force warrant officer is demoted to the ranks, he or she may request to be discharged, barring a state of war, insurrection, hostilities, or public emergency. Anytime during the duration of the soldier's term of engagement, the competent military authority may release a regular force soldier for the prescribed reasons. Regular Force soldiers have the right to request their discharge at any point within three months of the date of their first attestation. If they do so, they will be released as soon as possible after paying a sum not to exceed EC$500. However, they will still be subject to military law until their discharge under the Act. A soldier of the regular Force who was a member of a Commonwealth Force at any point within three months prior to the date of his first attestation is exempt from this. ==Former deployments== * In 1983, fourteen men of the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force were deployed to Grenada during the Operation Urgent Fury. - In 1990, twelve soldiers were sent to Trinidad and Tobago after a failed coup attempt by a radical group against the constitutionally elected government headed by Prime Minister A.N.R. Robinson. - In 1995, members of the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force were deployed in Haiti as a part of Operation Uphold Democracy. == Future deployments == * In 2024, Multinational Security Support Mission in Haiti ==Alliances== * – Mercian Regiment

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Antigua and Barbuda/Transnational issues

Foreign relations of Antigua and Barbuda

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Antisemitism

Antisemitism (also spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism) is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. This sentiment is a form of racism, and a person who harbours it is called an antisemite. Though antisemitism is overwhelmingly perpetrated by non-Jews, it may occasionally be perpetrated by Jews in a phenomenon known as auto-antisemitism (i.e., self-hating Jews). Primarily, antisemitic tendencies may be motivated by negative sentiment towards Jews as a people or by negative sentiment towards Jews with regard to Judaism. In the former case, usually presented as racial antisemitism, a person's hostility is driven by the belief that Jews constitute a distinct race with inherent traits or characteristics that are repulsive or inferior to the preferred traits or characteristics within that person's society. In the latter case, known as religious antisemitism, a person's hostility is driven by their religion's perception of Jews and Judaism, typically encompassing doctrines of supersession that expect or demand Jews to turn away from Judaism and submit to the religion presenting itself as Judaism's successor faith—this is a common theme within the other Abrahamic religions. The development of racial and religious antisemitism has historically been encouraged by anti-Judaism, though the concept itself is distinct from antisemitism. There are various ways in which antisemitism is manifested, ranging in the level of severity of Jewish persecution. On the more subtle end, it consists of expressions of hatred or discrimination against individual Jews, and may or may not be accompanied by violence. On the most extreme end, it consists of pogroms or genocide, which may or may not be state-sponsored. Although the term "antisemitism" did not come into common usage until the 19th century, it is also applied to previous and later anti-Jewish incidents. Notable instances of antisemitic persecution include the Rhineland massacres in 1096; the Edict of Expulsion in 1290; the European persecution of Jews during the Black Death, between 1348 and 1351; the massacre of Spanish Jews in 1391, the crackdown of the Spanish Inquisition, and the expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492; the Cossack massacres in Ukraine, between 1648 and 1657; various anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire, between 1821 and 1906; the Dreyfus affair, between 1894 and 1906; the Holocaust by the Axis powers during World War II; and various Soviet anti-Jewish policies. Historically, most of the world's violent antisemitic events have taken place in Christian Europe. However, since the early 20th century, there has been a sharp rise in antisemitic incidents across the Arab world, largely due to the surge in Arab antisemitic conspiracy theories, which have been cultivated to an extent under the aegis of European antisemitic conspiracy theories. In the contemporary era, a manifestation known as "new antisemitism" was identified. This concept argues the exploitation of the Arab–Israeli conflict by a large number of concealed antisemites, who may attempt to gain traction or legitimacy for their antisemitic hoaxes by portraying themselves as criticizing the Israeli government's actions; this is distinct from people who view Israeli government policies negatively, which is not inherently antisemitic. Likewise, as the State of Israel has a Jewish-majority population, it is common for antisemitic rhetoric to be manifested in expressions of anti-Israeli sentiment, though this is not always the case and such expressions may sometimes be part of wider anti–Middle Eastern sentiment without an exclusively antisemitic motive. Due to the root word "", the term is prone to being invoked as a misnomer by those who interpret it as referring to racist hatred directed at all "Semitic people" (i.e., those who speak Semitic languages, such as Arabs, Assyrians, and Arameans). This usage is erroneous; the compound word () was first used in print in Germany in 1879 as a "scientific-sounding term" for (), and it has since been used to refer to anti-Jewish sentiment alone. ==Origin and usage== ===Etymology=== The origin of "antisemitic" terminologies is found in the responses of Moritz Steinschneider to the views of Ernest Renan. As Alex Bein writes: "The compound anti-Semitism appears to have been used first by Steinschneider, who challenged Renan on account of his 'anti-Semitic prejudices' [i.e., his derogation of the "Semites" as a race]." Avner Falk similarly writes: "The German word "" was first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider (1816–1907) in the phrase "antisemitische Vorurteile" (antisemitic prejudices). Steinschneider used this phrase to characterise the French philosopher Ernest Renan's false ideas about how 'Semitic races' were inferior to 'Aryan races. Pseudoscientific theories concerning race, civilization, and "progress" had become quite widespread in Europe in the second half of the 19th century, especially as Prussian nationalistic historian Heinrich von Treitschke did much to promote this form of racism. He coined the phrase "the Jews are our misfortune" which would later be widely used by Nazis. According to Avner Falk, Treitschke uses the term "Semitic" almost synonymously with "Jewish", in contrast to Renan's use of it to refer to a whole range of peoples, based generally on linguistic criteria. According to Jonathan M. Hess, the term was originally used by its authors to "stress the radical difference between their own 'antisemitism' and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism." In 1879, German journalist Wilhelm Marr published a pamphlet, ("The Victory of the Jewish Spirit over the Germanic Spirit. Observed from a non-religious perspective") in which he used the word "Semitismus" interchangeably with the word "Judentum" to denote both "Jewry" (the Jews as a collective) and "Jewishness" (the quality of being Jewish, or the Jewish spirit). This use of " was followed by a coining of " which was used to indicate opposition to the Jews as a people and opposition to the Jewish spirit, which Marr interpreted as infiltrating German culture. His next pamphlet, ("The Way to Victory of the Germanic Spirit over the Jewish Spirit", 1880), presents a development of Marr's ideas further and may present the first published use of the German word" ", "antisemitism". The pamphlet became very popular, and in the same year Marr founded the "Antisemiten-Liga" (League of Antisemites), apparently named to follow the "Anti-Kanzler-Liga" (Anti-Chancellor League). The league was the first German organization committed specifically to combating the alleged threat to Germany and German culture posed by the Jews and their influence and advocating their forced removal from the country. So far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr published "Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte", and Wilhelm Scherer used the term "Antisemiten" in the January issue of "Neue Freie Presse". The "Jewish Encyclopedia" reports, "In February 1881, a correspondent of the "Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums" speaks of 'Anti-Semitism' as a designation which recently came into use ("Allg. Zeit. d. Jud." 1881, p. 138). On 19 July 1882, the editor says, 'This quite recent Anti-Semitism is hardly three years old. The word "antisemitism" was borrowed into English from German in 1881. "Oxford English Dictionary" editor James Murray wrote that it was not included in the first edition because "Anti-Semite and its family were then probably very new in English use, and not thought likely to be more than passing nonce-words... Would that anti-Semitism had had no more than a fleeting interest!" The related term "philosemitism" was used by 1881. ===Usage=== From the outset the term "anti-Semitism" bore special racial connotations and meant specifically prejudice against Jews. The term is confusing, for in modern usage 'Semitic' designates a language group, not a race. In this sense, the term is a misnomer, since there are many speakers of Semitic languages (e.g., Arabs, Ethiopians, and Arameans) who are not the objects of antisemitic prejudices, while there are many Jews who do not speak Hebrew, a Semitic language. Though 'antisemitism' could be construed as prejudice against people who speak other Semitic languages, this is not how the term is commonly used. The term may be spelled with or without a hyphen (antisemitism or anti-Semitism). Many scholars and institutions favor the unhyphenated form. Shmuel Almog argued, "If you use the hyphenated form, you consider the words 'Semitism', 'Semite', 'Semitic' as meaningful ... [I]n antisemitic parlance, 'Semites' really stands for Jews, just that." Emil Fackenheim supported the unhyphenated spelling, in order to "[dispel] the notion that there is an entity 'Semitism' which 'anti-Semitism' opposes." Others endorsing an unhyphenated term for the same reason include the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance, historian Deborah Lipstadt, Padraic O'Hare, professor of Religious and Theological Studies and Director of the Center for the Study of Jewish-Christian-Muslim Relations at Merrimack College; and historians Yehuda Bauer and James Carroll. According to Carroll, who first cites O'Hare and Bauer on "the existence of something called 'Semitism, "the hyphenated word thus reflects the bipolarity that is at the heart of the problem of antisemitism". The Associated Press and its accompanying "AP Stylebook" adopted the unhyphenated spelling in 2021. Style guides for other news organizations such as the "New York Times" and "Wall Street Journal" later adopted this spelling as well. It has also been adopted by many Holocaust museums, such as the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum and Yad Vashem. ===Definition=== Though the general definition of antisemitism is hostility or prejudice against Jews, and, according to Olaf Blaschke, has become an "umbrella term for negative stereotypes about Jews", a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions. Holocaust scholar and City University of New York professor Helen Fein defines it as "a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards Jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes, and in culture as myth, ideology, folklore and imagery, and in actions—social or legal discrimination, political mobilization against the Jews, and collective or state violence—which results in and/or is designed to distance, displace, or destroy Jews as Jews." Elaborating on Fein's definition, Dietz Bering of the University of Cologne writes that, to antisemites, "Jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible. Because of this bad nature: (1) Jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective. (2) Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies. (3) Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character." For Sonja Weinberg, as distinct from economic and religious anti-Judaism, antisemitism in its modern form shows conceptual innovation, a resort to 'science' to defend itself, new functional forms, and organisational differences. It was anti-liberal, racialist and nationalist. It promoted the myth that Jews conspired to 'judaise' the world; it served to consolidate social identity; it channeled dissatisfactions among victims of the capitalist system; and it was used as a conservative cultural code to fight emancipation and liberalism. Bernard Lewis defined antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest. According to Lewis, antisemitism is marked by two distinct features: Jews are judged according to a standard different from that applied to others, and they are accused of "cosmic evil." Thus, "it is perfectly possible to hate and even to persecute Jews without necessarily being anti-Semitic" unless this hatred or persecution displays one of the two features specific to antisemitism. There have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to define antisemitism formally. The United States Department of State states that "while there is no universally accepted definition, there is a generally clear understanding of what the term encompasses." For the purposes of its 2005 Report on Global Anti-Semitism, the term was considered to mean "hatred toward Jews—individually and as a group—that can be attributed to the Jewish religion and/or ethnicity." In 2005, the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (now the Fundamental Rights Agency), then an agency of the European Union, developed a more detailed working definition, which states: "Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities." It also adds that "such manifestations could also target the state of Israel, conceived as a Jewish collectivity," but that "criticism of Israel similar to that leveled against any other country cannot be regarded as antisemitic." It provides contemporary examples of ways in which antisemitism may manifest itself, including promoting the harming of Jews in the name of an ideology or religion; promoting negative stereotypes of Jews; holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of an individual Jewish person or group; denying the Holocaust or accusing Jews or Israel of exaggerating it; and accusing Jews of dual loyalty or a greater allegiance to Israel than their own country. It also lists ways in which attacking Israel could be antisemitic, and states that denying the Jewish people their right to self-determination, e.g. by claiming that the existence of a state of Israel is a racist endeavor, can be a manifestation of antisemitism—as can applying double standards by requiring of Israel a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation, or holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of the State of Israel. The definition "wrong and negative perception of people with Jewish descent" has been adopted by the European Parliament Working Group on Antisemitism, in 2010, a similar definition that avoided using the word "wrong" was adopted by the United States Department of State, in 2014, that definition was adopted in the Operational Hate Crime Guidance of the UK College of Policing and was also adopted by the Campaign Against Antisemitism. In 2016, the U.S. State Department definition was adopted by the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance. The Working Definition of Antisemitism is among the most controversial documents related to opposition to antisemitism, and critics argue that it has been used to censor criticism of Israel. ===Evolution of usage=== In 1879, Wilhelm Marr founded the "Antisemiten-Liga" (Anti-Semitic League). Identification with antisemitism and as an antisemite was politically advantageous in Europe during the late 19th century. For example, Karl Lueger, the popular mayor of fin de siècle Vienna, skillfully exploited antisemitism as a way of channeling public discontent to his political advantage. In its 1910 obituary of Lueger, "The New York Times" notes that Lueger was "Chairman of the Christian Social Union of the Parliament and of the Anti-Semitic Union of the Diet of Lower Austria. In 1895, A. C. Cuza organized the "Alliance Anti-semitique Universelle" in Bucharest. In the period before World War II, when animosity towards Jews was far more commonplace, it was not uncommon for a person, an organization, or a political party to self-identify as an antisemite or antisemitic. The early Zionist pioneer Leon Pinsker, a professional physician, preferred the clinical-sounding term "Judeophobia" to antisemitism, which he regarded as a misnomer. The word "Judeophobia" first appeared in his pamphlet "Auto-Emancipation", published anonymously in German in September 1882, where it was described as an irrational fear or hatred of Jews. According to Pinsker, this irrational fear was an inherited predisposition. In the aftermath of the Kristallnacht pogrom in 1938, German propaganda minister Goebbels announced: "The German people is anti-Semitic. It has no desire to have its rights restricted or to be provoked in the future by parasites of the Jewish race." After 1945 victory of the Allies over Nazi Germany, and particularly after the full extent of the Nazi genocide against the Jews became known, the term "antisemitism" acquired pejorative connotations. This marked a full circle shift in usage, from an era just decades earlier when "Jew" was used as a pejorative term. Yehuda Bauer wrote in 1984: "There are no anti-Semites in the world ... Nobody says, 'I am anti-Semitic.' You cannot, after Hitler. The word has gone out of fashion." ===Eternalism–contextualism debate=== The study of antisemitism has become politically controversial because of differing interpretations of the Holocaust and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. There are two competing views of antisemitism, eternalism, and contextualism. The eternalist view sees antisemitism as separate from other forms of racism and prejudice and an exceptionalist, transhistorical force teleologically culminating in the Holocaust. Hannah Arendt criticized this approach, writing that it provoked "the uncomfortable question: 'Why the Jews of all people?' ... with the question begging reply: Eternal hostility." Zionist thinkers and antisemites draw different conclusions from what they perceive as the eternal hatred of Jews; according to antisemites, it proves the inferiority of Jews, while for Zionists it means that Jews need their own state as a refuge. Most Zionists do not believe that antisemitism can be combatted with education or other means. The contextual approach treats antisemitism as a type of racism and focuses on the historical context in which hatred of Jews emerges. Some contextualists restrict the use of "antisemitism" to refer exclusively to the era of modern racism, treating anti-Judaism as a separate phenomenon. Historian David Engel has challenged the project to define antisemitism, arguing that it essentializes Jewish history as one of persecution and discrimination. Engel argues that the term "antisemitism" is not useful in historical analysis because it implies that there are links between anti-Jewish prejudices expressed in different contexts, without evidence of such a connection. ==Manifestations== Antisemitism manifests itself in a variety of ways. René König mentions social antisemitism, economic antisemitism, religious antisemitism, and political antisemitism as examples. König points out that these different forms demonstrate that the "origins of anti-Semitic prejudices are rooted in different historical periods." König asserts that differences in the chronology of different antisemitic prejudices and the irregular distribution of such prejudices over different segments of the population create "serious difficulties in the definition of the different kinds of anti-Semitism." These difficulties may contribute to the existence of different taxonomies that have been developed to categorize the forms of antisemitism. The forms identified are substantially the same; it is primarily the number of forms and their definitions that differ. Bernard Lazare identifies three forms of antisemitism: Christian antisemitism, economic antisemitism, and ethnologic antisemitism. William Brustein names four categories: religious, racial, economic, and political. The Roman Catholic historian Edward Flannery distinguished four varieties of antisemitism: - Political and economic antisemitism, giving as examples Cicero and Charles Lindbergh; - Theological or religious antisemitism, also called "traditional antisemitism" and sometimes known as anti-Judaism; - Nationalistic antisemitism, citing Voltaire and other Enlightenment thinkers, who attacked Jews for supposedly having certain characteristics, such as greed and arrogance, and for observing customs such as kashrut and Shabbat; - Racial antisemitism, with its extreme form resulting in the Holocaust by the Nazis. Louis Harap separates "economic antisemitism" and merges "political" and "nationalistic" antisemitism into "ideological antisemitism". Harap also adds a category of "social antisemitism". - Religious (Jew as Christ-killer), - Economic (Jew as banker, usurer, money-obsessed), - Social (Jew as social inferior, "pushy", vulgar, therefore excluded from personal contact), - Racist (Jews as an inferior "race"), - Ideological (Jews regarded as subversive or revolutionary), - Cultural (Jews regarded as undermining the moral and structural fiber of civilization). ===Cultural antisemitism=== Louis Harap defines cultural antisemitism as "that species of anti-Semitism that charges the Jews with corrupting a given culture and attempting to supplant or succeeding in supplanting the preferred culture with a uniform, crude, "Jewish" culture." Similarly, Eric Kandel characterizes cultural antisemitism as being based on the idea of "Jewishness" as a "religious or cultural tradition that is acquired through learning, through distinctive traditions and education." According to Kandel, this form of antisemitism views Jews as possessing "unattractive psychological and social characteristics that are acquired through acculturation." Niewyk and Nicosia characterize cultural antisemitism as focusing on and condemning "the Jews' aloofness from the societies in which they live." An important feature of cultural antisemitism is that it considers the negative attributes of Judaism to be redeemable by education or by religious conversion. ===Religious antisemitism=== Religious antisemitism, also known as anti-Judaism, is antipathy towards Jews because of their perceived religious beliefs. In theory, antisemitism and attacks against individual Jews would stop if Jews stopped practicing Judaism or changed their public faith, especially by conversion to the official or right religion. However, in some cases, discrimination continues after conversion, as in the case of "Marranos" (Christianized Jews in Spain and Portugal) in the late 15th century and 16th century, who were suspected of secretly practising Judaism or Jewish customs. Although the origins of antisemitism are rooted in the Judeo-Christian conflict, other forms of antisemitism have developed in modern times. Frederick Schweitzer asserts that "most scholars ignore the Christian foundation on which the modern antisemitic edifice rests and invoke political antisemitism, cultural antisemitism, racism or racial antisemitism, economic antisemitism, and the like." William Nichols draws a distinction between religious antisemitism and modern antisemitism based on racial or ethnic grounds: "The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion [...] a Jew ceased to be a Jew upon baptism." From the perspective of racial antisemitism, however, "the assimilated Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism.[...] From the Enlightenment onward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews[...] Once Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear." Some Christians such as the Catholic priest Ernest Jouin, who published the first French translation of the "Protocols", combined religious and racial antisemitism, as in his statement that "From the triple viewpoint of race, of nationality, and of religion, the Jew has become the enemy of humanity." The virulent antisemitism of Édouard Drumont, one of the most widely read Catholic writers in France during the Dreyfus Affair, likewise combined religious and racial antisemitism. Drumont founded the Antisemitic League of France. ===Economic antisemitism=== The underlying premise of economic antisemitism is that Jews perform harmful economic activities or that economic activities become harmful when they are performed by Jews. Linking Jews and money underpins the most damaging and lasting antisemitic canards. Antisemites claim that Jews control the world finances, a theory promoted in the fraudulent Protocols of the Elders of Zion, and later repeated by Henry Ford and his Dearborn Independent. In the modern era, such myths continue to be spread in books such as "The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews" published by the Nation of Islam, and on the internet. Derek Penslar writes that there are two components to the financial canards: a) Jews are savages that "are temperamentally incapable of performing honest labor" b) Jews are "leaders of a financial cabal seeking world domination" Abraham Foxman describes six facets of the financial canards: - All Jews are wealthy - Jews are stingy and greedy - Powerful Jews control the business world - Jewish religion emphasizes profit and materialism - It is okay for Jews to cheat non-Jews - Jews use their power to benefit "their own kind" Gerald Krefetz summarizes the myth as "[Jews] control the banks, the money supply, the economy, and businesses—of the community, of the country, of the world". Krefetz gives, as illustrations, many slurs and proverbs (in several different languages) which suggest that Jews are stingy, or greedy, or miserly, or aggressive bargainers. During the nineteenth century, Jews were described as "scurrilous, stupid, and tight-fisted", but after the Jewish Emancipation and the rise of Jews to the middle- or upper-class in Europe were portrayed as "clever, devious, and manipulative financiers out to dominate [world finances]". Léon Poliakov asserts that economic antisemitism is not a distinct form of antisemitism, but merely a manifestation of theologic antisemitism (because, without the theological causes of economic antisemitism, there would be no economic antisemitism). In opposition to this view, Derek Penslar contends that in the modern era, economic antisemitism is "distinct and nearly constant" but theological antisemitism is "often subdued". An academic study by Francesco D'Acunto, Marcel Prokopczuk, and Michael Weber showed that people who live in areas of Germany that contain the most brutal history of antisemitic persecution are more likely to be distrustful of finance in general. Therefore, they tended to invest less money in the stock market and make poor financial decisions. The study concluded, "that the persecution of minorities reduces not only the long-term wealth of the persecuted but of the persecutors as well." ===Racial antisemitism=== Racial antisemitism is prejudice against Jews as a racial/ethnic group, rather than Judaism as a religion. Racial antisemitism is the idea that the Jews are a distinct and inferior race compared to their host nations. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, it gained mainstream acceptance as part of the eugenics movement, which categorized non-Europeans as inferior. It more specifically claimed that Northern Europeans, or "Aryans", were superior. Racial antisemites saw the Jews as part of a Semitic race and emphasized their non-European origins and culture. They saw Jews as beyond redemption even if they converted to the majority religion. Racial antisemitism replaced the hatred of Judaism with the hatred of Jews as a group. In the context of the Industrial Revolution, following the Jewish Emancipation, Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious antisemitism, a combination of growing nationalism, the rise of eugenics, and resentment at the socio-economic success of the Jews led to the newer, and more virulent, racist antisemitism. According to William Nichols, religious antisemitism may be distinguished from modern antisemitism based on racial or ethnic grounds. "The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion... a Jew ceased to be a Jew upon baptism." However, with racial antisemitism, "Now the assimilated Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism... From the Enlightenment onward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews... Once Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear." In the early 19th century, a number of laws enabling the emancipation of the Jews were enacted in Western European countries. The old laws restricting them to ghettos, as well as the many laws that limited their property rights, rights of worship and occupation, were rescinded. Despite this, traditional discrimination and hostility to Jews on religious grounds persisted and was supplemented by racial antisemitism, encouraged by the work of racial theorists such as Joseph Arthur de Gobineau and particularly his "Essay on the Inequality of the Human Race" of 1853–1855. Nationalist agendas based on ethnicity, known as ethnonationalism, usually excluded the Jews from the national community as an alien race. Allied to this were theories of Social Darwinism, which stressed a putative conflict between higher and lower races of human beings. Such theories, usually posited by northern Europeans, advocated the superiority of white Aryans to Semitic Jews. ===Political antisemitism=== William Brustein defines political antisemitism as hostility toward Jews based on the belief that Jews seek national or world power. Yisrael Gutman characterizes political antisemitism as tending to "lay responsibility on the Jews for defeats and political economic crises" while seeking to "exploit opposition and resistance to Jewish influence as elements in political party platforms." Derek J. Penslar wrote, "Political antisemitism identified the Jews as responsible for all the anxiety-provoking social forces that characterized modernity." According to Viktor Karády, political antisemitism became widespread after the legal emancipation of the Jews and sought to reverse some of the consequences of that emancipation. ===Conspiracy theories=== Holocaust denial and Jewish conspiracy theories are also considered forms of antisemitism. Zoological conspiracy theories have been propagated by Arab media and Arabic language websites, alleging a "Zionist plot" behind the use of animals to attack civilians or to conduct espionage. ===New antisemitism=== Starting in the 1990s, some scholars have advanced the concept of new antisemitism, coming simultaneously from the left, the right, and radical Islam, which tends to focus on opposition to the creation of a Jewish homeland in the State of Israel, and they argue that the language of anti-Zionism and criticism of Israel are used to attack Jews more broadly. In this view, the proponents of the new concept believe that criticisms of Israel and Zionism are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and they attribute this to antisemitism. Jewish scholar Gustavo Perednik posited in 2004 that anti-Zionism in itself represents a form of discrimination against Jews, in that it singles out Jewish national aspirations as an illegitimate and racist endeavor, and "proposes actions that would result in the death of millions of Jews". It is asserted that the new antisemitism deploys traditional antisemitic motifs, including older motifs such as the blood libel. Critics of the concept view it as trivializing the meaning of antisemitism, and as exploiting antisemitism in order to silence debate and to deflect attention from legitimate criticism of the State of Israel, and, by associating anti-Zionism with antisemitism, misusing it to taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies. ==History== Many authors see the roots of modern antisemitism in both pagan antiquity and early Christianity. Jerome Chanes identifies six stages in the historical development of antisemitism: - Pre-Christian anti-Judaism in ancient Greece and Rome which was primarily ethnic in nature - Christian antisemitism in antiquity and the Middle Ages which was religious in nature and has extended into modern times - Traditional Muslim antisemitism which was—at least, in its classical form—nuanced in that Jews were a protected class - Political, social and economic antisemitism of Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment Europe which laid the groundwork for racial antisemitism - Racial antisemitism that arose in the 19th century and culminated in Nazism in the 20th century - Contemporary antisemitism which has been labeled by some as the New Antisemitism Chanes suggests that these six stages could be merged into three categories: "ancient antisemitism, which was primarily ethnic in nature; Christian antisemitism, which was religious; and the racial antisemitism of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries." ===Ancient world=== The first clear examples of anti-Jewish sentiment can be traced to the 3rd century BCE to Alexandria, the home to the largest Jewish diaspora community in the world at the time and where the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, was produced. Manetho, an Egyptian priest and historian of that era, wrote scathingly of the Jews. His themes are repeated in the works of Chaeremon, Lysimachus, Poseidonius, Apollonius Molon, and in Apion and Tacitus. Agatharchides of Cnidus ridiculed the practices of the Jews and the "absurdity of their Law", making a mocking reference to how Ptolemy Lagus was able to invade Jerusalem in 320 BCE because its inhabitants were observing the "Shabbat". One of the earliest anti-Jewish edicts, promulgated by Antiochus IV Epiphanes in about 170–167 BCE, sparked a revolt of the Maccabees in Judea. In view of Manetho's anti-Jewish writings, antisemitism may have originated in Egypt and been spread by "the Greek retelling of Ancient Egyptian prejudices". The ancient Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria describes an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in which thousands of Jews died. The violence in Alexandria may have been caused by the Jews being portrayed as misanthropes. Tcherikover argues that the reason for hatred of Jews in the Hellenistic period was their separateness in the Greek cities, the "poleis". Bohak has argued, however, that early animosity against the Jews cannot be regarded as being anti-Judaic or antisemitic unless it arose from attitudes that were held against the Jews alone, and that many Greeks showed animosity toward any group they regarded as barbarians. Statements exhibiting prejudice against Jews and their religion can be found in the works of many pagan Greek and Roman writers. Edward Flannery writes that it was the Jews' refusal to accept Greek religious and social standards that marked them out. Hecataetus of Abdera, a Greek historian of the early third century BCE, wrote that Moses "in remembrance of the exile of his people, instituted for them a misanthropic and inhospitable way of life." Manetho, an Egyptian historian, wrote that the Jews were expelled Egyptian lepers who had been taught by Moses "not to adore the gods." Edward Flannery describes antisemitism in ancient times as essentially "cultural, taking the shape of a national xenophobia played out in political settings." There are examples of Hellenistic rulers desecrating the Temple and banning Jewish religious practices, such as circumcision, Shabbat observance, the study of Jewish religious books, etc. Examples may also be found in anti-Jewish riots in Alexandria in the 3rd century BCE. The Jewish diaspora on the Nile island Elephantine, which was founded by mercenaries, experienced the destruction of its temple in 410 BCE. Relationships between the Jewish people and the occupying Roman Empire were at times antagonistic and resulted in several rebellions. According to Suetonius, the emperor Tiberius expelled from Rome Jews who had gone to live there. The 18th-century English historian Edward Gibbon identified a more tolerant period in Roman-Jewish relations beginning in about 160 CE. However, when Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire, the state's attitude towards the Jews gradually worsened. James Carroll asserted: "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors such as pogroms and conversions had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million." ===Persecutions during the Middle Ages=== In the late 6th century CE, the newly Catholicised Visigothic kingdom in Hispania issued a series of anti-Jewish edicts which forbade Jews from marrying Christians, practicing circumcision, and observing Jewish holy days. Continuing throughout the 7th century, both Visigothic kings and the Church were active in creating social aggression and towards Jews with "civic and ecclesiastic punishments", ranging between forced conversion, slavery, exile and death. From the 9th century, the medieval Islamic world classified Jews and Christians as "dhimmis" and allowed Jews to practice their religion more freely than they could do in medieval Christian Europe. Under Islamic rule, there was a Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain that lasted until at least the 11th century. It ended when several Muslim pogroms against Jews took place on the Iberian Peninsula, including those that occurred in Córdoba in 1011 and in Granada in 1066. Several decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were also enacted in Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen from the 11th century. In addition, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and Baghdad several times between the 12th and 18th centuries. The Almohads, who had taken control of the Almoravids' Maghribi and Andalusian territories by 1147, were far more fundamentalist in outlook compared to their predecessors, and they treated the "dhimmis" harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated. Some, such as the family of Maimonides, fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands, while some others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms. In medieval Europe, Jews were persecuted with blood libels, expulsions, forced conversions and massacres. These persecutions were often justified on religious grounds and reached a first peak during the Crusades. In 1096, hundreds or thousands of Jews were killed during the First Crusade. This was the first major outbreak of anti-Jewish violence in Christian Europe outside Spain and was cited by Zionists in the 19th century as indicating the need for a state of Israel. In 1147, there were several massacres of Jews during the Second Crusade. The Shepherds' Crusades of 1251 and 1320 both involved attacks, as did the Rintfleisch massacres in 1298. Expulsions followed, such as the 1290 banishment of Jews from England, the expulsion of 100,000 Jews from France in 1394, and the 1421 expulsion of thousands of Jews from Austria. Many of the expelled Jews fled to Poland. In medieval and Renaissance Europe, a major contributor to the deepening of antisemitic sentiment and legal action among the Christian populations was the popular preaching of the zealous reform religious orders, the Franciscans (especially Bernardino of Feltre) and Dominicans (especially Vincent Ferrer), who combed Europe and promoted antisemitism through their often fiery, emotional appeals. As the Black Death epidemics devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, causing the death of a large part of the population, Jews were used as scapegoats. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed in numerous persecutions. Although Pope Clement VI tried to protect them by issuing two papal bulls in 1348, the first on 6 July and an additional one several months later, 900 Jews were burned alive in Strasbourg, where the plague had not yet affected the city. ===Reformation=== Martin Luther, an ecclesiastical reformer whose teachings inspired the Reformation, wrote antagonistically about Jews in his pamphlet "On the Jews and their Lies", written in 1543. He portrays the Jews in extremely harsh terms, excoriates them and provides detailed recommendations for a pogrom against them, calling for their permanent oppression and expulsion. At one point he writes: "...we are at fault in not slaying them...", a passage that, according to historian Paul Johnson, "may be termed the first work of modern antisemitism, and a giant step forward on the road to the Holocaust." ===17th century=== During the mid-to-late 17th century the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was devastated by several conflicts, in which the Commonwealth lost over a third of its population (over 3 million people), and Jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands. The first of these conflicts was the Khmelnytsky Uprising, when Bohdan Khmelnytsky's supporters massacred tens of thousands of Jews in the eastern and southern areas he controlled (today's Ukraine). The precise number of dead may never be known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during that period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases, and captivity in the Ottoman Empire, called "jasyr". European immigrants to the United States brought antisemitism to the country as early as the 17th century. Peter Stuyvesant, the Dutch governor of New Amsterdam, implemented plans to prevent Jews from settling in the city. During the Colonial Era, the American government limited the political and economic rights of Jews. It was not until the American Revolutionary War that Jews gained legal rights, including the right to vote. However, even at their peak, the restrictions on Jews in the United States were never as stringent as they had been in Europe. In the Zaydi imamate of Yemen, Jews were also singled out for discrimination in the 17th century, which culminated in the general expulsion of all Jews from places in Yemen to the arid coastal plain of Tihamah and which became known as the Mawza Exile. ===Enlightenment=== In 1744, Archduchess of Austria Maria Theresa ordered Jews out of Bohemia but soon reversed her position, on the condition that Jews pay for their readmission every ten years. This extortion was known among the Jews as "malke-geld" ("queen's money" in Yiddish). In 1752, she introduced the law limiting each Jewish family to one son. In 1782, Joseph II abolished most of these persecution practices in his "Toleranzpatent", on the condition that Yiddish and Hebrew were eliminated from public records and that judicial autonomy was annulled. Moses Mendelssohn wrote that "Such a tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution." ===Voltaire=== According to Arnold Ages, Voltaire's "Lettres philosophiques, Dictionnaire philosophique, and Candide, to name but a few of his better known works, are saturated with comments on Jews and Judaism and the vast majority are negative". Paul H. Meyer adds: "There is no question but that Voltaire, particularly in his latter years, nursed a violent hatred of the Jews and it is equally certain that his animosity...did have a considerable impact on public opinion in France." Thirty of the 118 articles in Voltaire's "Dictionnaire Philosophique" concerned Jews and described them in consistently negative ways. ===Louis de Bonald and the Catholic Counter-Revolution=== The counter-revolutionary Catholic royalist Louis de Bonald stands out among the earliest figures to explicitly call for the reversal of Jewish emancipation in the wake of the French Revolution. Bonald's attacks on the Jews are likely to have influenced Napoleon's decision to limit the civil rights of Alsatian Jews. Bonald's article "Sur les juifs" (1806) was one of the most venomous screeds of its era and furnished a paradigm which combined anti-liberalism, a defense of a rural society, traditional Christian antisemitism, and the identification of Jews with bankers and finance capital, which would in turn influence many subsequent right-wing reactionaries such as Roger Gougenot des Mousseaux, Charles Maurras, and Édouard Drumont, nationalists such as Maurice Barrès and Paolo Orano, and antisemitic socialists such as Alphonse Toussenel. Bonald furthermore declared that the Jews were an "alien" people, a "state within a state", and should be forced to wear a distinctive mark to more easily identify and discriminate against them. Under the French Second Empire, the popular counter-revolutionary Catholic journalist Louis Veuillot propagated Bonald's arguments against the Jewish "financial aristocracy" along with vicious attacks against the Talmud and the Jews as a "deicidal people" driven by hatred to "enslave" Christians. Between 1882 and 1886 alone, French priests published twenty antisemitic books blaming France's ills on the Jews and urging the government to consign them back to the ghettos, expel them, or hang them from the gallows. Gougenot des Mousseaux's "Le Juif, le judaïsme et la judaïsation des peuples chrétiens" (1869) has been called a "Bible of modern antisemitism" and was translated into German by Nazi ideologue Alfred Rosenberg. ===Imperial Russia=== Thousands of Jews were slaughtered by Cossack Haidamaks in the 1768 massacre of Uman in the Kingdom of Poland. In 1772, the empress of Russia Catherine II forced the Jews into the Pale of Settlement – which was located primarily in present-day Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus – and to stay in their shtetls and forbade them from returning to the towns that they occupied before the partition of Poland. From 1804, Jews were banned from their villages and began to stream into the towns. A decree by emperor Nicholas I of Russia in 1827 conscripted Jews under 18 years of age into the cantonist schools for a 25-year military service in order to promote baptism. Policy towards Jews was liberalised somewhat under Czar Alexander II (). However, his assassination in 1881 served as a pretext for further repression such as the May Laws of 1882. Konstantin Pobedonostsev, nicknamed the "black czar" and tutor to the czarevitch, later crowned Czar Nicholas II, declared that "One-third of the Jews must die, one-third must emigrate, and one third be converted to Christianity". ===Islamic antisemitism in the 19th century=== Historian Martin Gilbert writes that it was in the 19th century that the position of Jews worsened in Muslim countries. Benny Morris writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th-century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching [them] to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish gaberdine. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan." In the middle of the 19th century, J. J. Benjamin wrote about the life of Persian Jews, describing conditions and beliefs that went back to the 16th century: "…they are obliged to live in a separate part of town… Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated with the greatest severity and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt…." In Jerusalem at least, conditions for some Jews improved. Moses Montefiore, on his seventh visit in 1875, noted that fine new buildings had sprung up and, "surely we're approaching the time to witness God's hallowed promise unto Zion." Muslim and Christian Arabs participated in Purim and Passover; Arabs called the Sephardis 'Jews, sons of Arabs'; the Ulema and the Rabbis offered joint prayers for rain in time of drought. At the time of the Dreyfus trial in France, "Muslim comments usually favoured the persecuted Jew against his Christian persecutors". ===Secular or racial antisemitism=== In 1850, the German composer Richard Wagner – who has been called "the inventor of modern antisemitism" – published "Das Judenthum in der Musik" (roughly "Jewishness in Music") under a pseudonym in the "Neue Zeitschrift für Musik". The essay began as an attack on Jewish composers, particularly Wagner's contemporaries, and rivals, Felix Mendelssohn and Giacomo Meyerbeer, but expanded to accuse Jews of being a harmful and alien element in German culture, who corrupted morals and were, in fact, parasites incapable of creating truly "German" art. The crux was the manipulation and control by the Jews of the money economy: Although originally published anonymously, when the essay was republished 19 years later, in 1869, the concept of the corrupting Jew had become so widely held that Wagner's name was affixed to it. Antisemitism can also be found in many of the Grimms' Fairy Tales by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, published from 1812 to 1857. It is mainly characterized by Jews being the villain of a story, such as in "The Good Bargain" ("Der gute Handel") and "The Jew Among Thorns" ("Der Jude im Dorn"). The middle 19th century saw continued official harassment of the Jews, especially in Eastern Europe under Czarist influence. For example, in 1846, 80 Jews approached the governor in Warsaw to retain the right to wear their traditional dress but were immediately rebuffed by having their hair and beards forcefully cut, at their own expense. Even such influential figures as Walt Whitman tolerated bigotry toward the Jews in America. During his time as editor of the Brooklyn Eagle (1846–1848), the newspaper published historical sketches casting Jews in a bad light. The Dreyfus Affair was an infamous antisemitic event of the late 19th century and early 20th century. Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish artillery captain in the French Army, was accused in 1894 of passing secrets to the Germans. As a result of these charges, Dreyfus was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island. The actual spy, Marie Charles Esterhazy, was acquitted. The event caused great uproar among the French, with the public choosing sides on the issue of whether Dreyfus was actually guilty or not. Émile Zola accused the army of corrupting the French justice system. However, general consensus held that Dreyfus was guilty: 80% of the press in France condemned him. This attitude among the majority of the French population reveals the underlying antisemitism of the time period. Adolf Stoecker (1835–1909), the Lutheran court chaplain to Kaiser Wilhelm I, founded in 1878 an antisemitic, anti-liberal political party called the Christian Social Party. This party always remained small, and its support dwindled after Stoecker's death, with most of its members eventually joining larger conservative groups such as the German National People's Party. Some scholars view Karl Marx's essay "On The Jewish Question" as antisemitic, and argue that he often used antisemitic epithets in his published and private writings. These scholars argue that Marx equated Judaism with capitalism in his essay, helping to spread that idea. Some further argue that the essay influenced National Socialist, as well as Soviet and Arab antisemites. Marx himself had Jewish ancestry, and Albert Lindemann and Hyam Maccoby have suggested that he was embarrassed by it. Others argue that Marx consistently supported Prussian Jewish communities' struggles to achieve equal political rights. These scholars argue that "On the Jewish Question" is a critique of Bruno Bauer's arguments that Jews must convert to Christianity before being emancipated, and is more generally a critique of liberal rights discourses and capitalism. Iain Hamphsher-Monk wrote that "This work [On The Jewish Question] has been cited as evidence for Marx's supposed anti-semitism, but only the most superficial reading of it could sustain such an interpretation." David McLellan and Francis Wheen argue that readers should interpret "On the Jewish Question" in the deeper context of Marx's debates with Bruno Bauer, author of "The Jewish Question", about Jewish emancipation in Germany. Wheen says that "Those critics, who see this as a foretaste of 'Mein Kampf', overlook one, essential point: in spite of the clumsy phraseology and crude stereotyping, the essay was actually written as a defense of the Jews. It was a retort to Bruno Bauer, who had argued that Jews should not be granted full civic rights and freedoms unless they were baptised as Christians". According to McLellan, Marx used the word "Judentum" colloquially, as meaning "commerce", arguing that Germans must be emancipated from the capitalist mode of production not Judaism or Jews in particular. McLellan concludes that readers should interpret the essay's second half as "an extended pun at Bauer's expense". ===20th century=== Between 1900 and 1924, approximately 1.75 million Jews migrated to America, the bulk from Eastern Europe escaping the pogroms. Before 1900 American Jews had always amounted to less than 1% of America's total population, but by 1930 Jews formed about 3.5%. This increase, combined with the upward social mobility of some Jews, contributed to a resurgence of antisemitism. In the first half of the 20th century, in the US, Jews were discriminated against in employment, access to residential and resort areas, membership in clubs and organizations, and in tightened quotas on Jewish enrolment and teaching positions in colleges and universities. The lynching of Leo Frank by a mob of prominent citizens in Marietta, Georgia, in 1915 turned the spotlight on antisemitism in the United States. The case was also used to build support for the renewal of the Ku Klux Klan which had been inactive since 1870. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Beilis Trial in Russia represented modern incidents of blood-libels in Europe. During the Russian Civil War, close to 50,000 Jews were killed in pogroms. Antisemitism in America reached its peak during the interwar period. The pioneer automobile manufacturer Henry Ford propagated antisemitic ideas in his newspaper "The Dearborn Independent" (published by Ford from 1919 to 1927). The radio speeches of Father Coughlin in the late 1930s attacked Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal and promoted the notion of a Jewish financial conspiracy. Some prominent politicians shared such views: Louis T. McFadden, Chairman of the United States House Committee on Banking and Currency, blamed Jews for Roosevelt's decision to abandon the gold standard, and claimed that "in the United States today, the Gentiles have the slips of paper while the Jews have the lawful money". In Germany, shortly after Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power in 1933, the government instituted repressive legislation which denied Jews basic civil rights. In September 1935, the Nuremberg Laws prohibited sexual relations and marriages between "Aryans" and Jews as "Rassenschande" ("race disgrace") and stripped all German Jews, even quarter- and half-Jews, of their citizenship (their official title became "subjects of the state"). It instituted a pogrom on the night of 9–10 November 1938, dubbed "Kristallnacht", in which Jews were killed, their property destroyed and their synagogues torched. Antisemitic laws, agitation and propaganda were extended to German-occupied Europe in the wake of conquest, often building on local antisemitic traditions. In 1940, the famous aviator Charles Lindbergh and many prominent Americans led the America First Committee in opposing any involvement in a European war. Lindbergh alleged that Jews were pushing America to go to war against Germany. Lindbergh adamantly denied being antisemitic, and yet he refers numerous times in his private writings – his letters and diary – to Jewish control of the media being used to pressure the U.S. to get involved in the European war. In one diary entry in November 1938, he responded to "Kristallnacht" by writing "I do not understand these riots on the part of the Germans. ... They have undoubtedly had a difficult Jewish problem, but why is it necessary to handle it so unreasonably?", acknowledgement on Lindbergh's part that he agreed with the Nazis that Germany had a "Jewish problem". An article by Jonathan Marwil in "Antisemitism, A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution" claims that "no one who ever knew Lindbergh thought him antisemitic" and that claims of his antisemitism were solely tied to the remarks he made in that one speech. In the east the Third Reich forced Jews into ghettos in Warsaw, in Kraków, in Lvov, in Lublin and in Radom. After the beginning of the war between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in 1941, a campaign of mass murder, conducted by the Einsatzgruppen, culminated from 1942 to 1945 in systematic genocide: the Holocaust. Eleven million Jews were targeted for extermination by the Nazis, and some six million were eventually killed. == Contemporary antisemitism == ===Post-WWII antisemitism=== There have continued to be antisemitic incidents since WWII, some of which had been state-sponsored. In the Soviet Union, antisemitism has been used as an instrument for settling personal conflicts starting with the conflict between Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky and continuing through numerous conspiracy theories spread by official propaganda. Antisemitism in the USSR reached new heights after 1948 during the campaign against the "rootless cosmopolitan" (euphemism for "Jew") in which numerous Yiddish-language poets, writers, painters, and sculptors were killed or arrested. This culminated in the so-called Doctors' Plot in 1952. Similar antisemitic propaganda in Poland resulted in the flight of Polish Jewish survivors from the country. After the war, the Kielce pogrom and the "March 1968 events" in communist Poland represented further incidents of antisemitism in Europe. The anti-Jewish violence in postwar Poland had a common theme of blood libel rumours. === 21st-century European antisemitism === Physical assaults against Jews in Europe have included beatings, stabbings, and other violence, which increased markedly, sometimes resulting in serious injury and death. A 2015 report by the US State Department on religious freedom declared that "European anti-Israel sentiment crossed the line into anti-Semitism." This rise in antisemitic attacks is associated with both Muslim antisemitism and the rise of far-right political parties as a result of the economic crisis of 2008. This rise in the support for far-right ideas in western and eastern Europe has resulted in the increase of antisemitic acts, mostly attacks on Jewish memorials, synagogues and cemeteries but also a number of physical attacks against Jews. In Eastern Europe the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the instability of the new states brought the rise of nationalist movements and the accusation against Jews for the economic crisis, taking over the local economy and bribing the government, along with traditional and religious motives for antisemitism such as blood libels. Writing on the rhetoric surrounding the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Jason Stanley relates these perceptions to broader historical narratives: "the dominant version of antisemitism alive in parts of eastern Europe today is that Jews employ the Holocaust to seize the victimhood narrative from the 'real' victims of the Nazis, who are Russian Christians (or other non-Jewish eastern Europeans)". He calls out the "myths of contemporary eastern European antisemitism – that a global cabal of Jews were (and are) the real agents of violence against Russian Christians and the real victims of the Nazis were not the Jews, but rather this group." Most of the antisemitic incidents in Eastern Europe are against Jewish cemeteries and buildings (community centers and synagogues). Nevertheless, there were several violent attacks against Jews in Moscow in 2006 when a neo-Nazi stabbed 9 people at the Bolshaya Bronnaya Synagogue, the failed bomb attack on the same synagogue in 1999, the threats against Jewish pilgrims in Uman, Ukraine and the attack against a menorah by extremist Christian organization in Moldova in 2009. According to Paul Johnson, antisemitic policies are a sign of a state which is poorly governed. While no European state currently has such policies, the Economist Intelligence Unit notes the rise in political uncertainty, notably populism and nationalism, as something that is particularly alarming for Jews. === 21st-century Arab antisemitism === Robert Bernstein, founder of Human Rights Watch, says that antisemitism is "deeply ingrained and institutionalized" in "Arab nations in modern times". In a 2011 survey by the Pew Research Center, all of the Muslim-majority Middle Eastern countries polled held significantly negative opinions of Jews. In the questionnaire, only 2% of Egyptians, 3% of Lebanese Muslims, and 2% of Jordanians reported having a positive view of Jews. Muslim-majority countries outside the Middle East similarly held markedly negative views of Jews, with 4% of Turks and 9% of Indonesians viewing Jews favorably. According to a 2011 exhibition at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, United States, some of the dialogue from Middle East media and commentators about Jews bear a striking resemblance to Nazi propaganda. According to Josef Joffe of "Newsweek", "anti-Semitism—the real stuff, not just bad-mouthing particular Israeli policies—is as much part of Arab life today as the hijab or the hookah. Whereas this darkest of creeds is no longer tolerated in polite society in the West, in the Arab world, Jew hatred remains culturally endemic." Muslim clerics in the Middle East have frequently referred to Jews as descendants of apes and pigs, which are conventional epithets for Jews and Christians. According to professor Robert Wistrich, director of the Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA), the calls for the destruction of Israel by Iran or by Hamas, Hezbollah, Islamic Jihad, or the Muslim Brotherhood, represent a contemporary mode of genocidal antisemitism. === Black Hebrew Israelite antisemitism === In 2022, the American Jewish Committee stated that the Black Hebrew Israelite claim that "we are the real Jews" is a "troubling anti-Semitic trope with dangerous potential". Black Hebrew Israelite followers have sought out and attacked Jewish people in the United States on more than one occasion. Between 2019 and 2022, individuals motivated by Black Hebrew Israelitism committed five religiously motivated murders. Black Hebrew Israelites believe that Jewish people are "imposters", who have "stolen" Black Americans' true racial and religious identity. Black Hebrew Israelites promote the Khazar theory about Ashkenazi Jewish origins. In 2019, 4% of African-Americans self-identified as being Black Hebrew Israelites. ==Causes== Antisemitism has been explained in terms of racism, xenophobia, projected guilt, displaced aggression, and the search for a scapegoat. Some explanations assign partial blame to the perception of Jewish people as unsociable. Such a perception may have arisen by many Jews having strictly kept to their own communities, with their own practices and laws. Adorno wrote that 'Anti-Semitism is the rumour about Jews'. It has also been suggested that parts of antisemitism arose from a perception of Jewish people as greedy (as often used in stereotypes of Jews), and this perception has probably evolved in Europe during medieval times where a large portion of money lending was operated by Jews. Factors contributing to this situation included that Jews were restricted from other professions, while the Christian Church declared for their followers that money lending constituted immoral "usury". == Prevention through education == Education plays an important role in addressing and overcoming prejudice and countering social discrimination. However, education is not only about challenging the conditions of intolerance and ignorance in which antisemitism manifests itself; it is also about building a sense of global citizenship and solidarity, respect for, and enjoyment of diversity and the ability to live peacefully together as active, democratic citizens. Education equips learners with the knowledge to identify antisemitism and biased or prejudiced messages and raises awareness about the forms, manifestations, and impact of antisemitism faced by Jews and Jewish communities. ==Geographical variation== A March 2008 report by the U.S. State Department found that there was an increase in antisemitism across the world, and that both old and new expressions of antisemitism persist. A 2012 report by the U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor also noted a continued global increase in antisemitism, and found that Holocaust denial and opposition to Israeli policy at times was used to promote or justify blatant antisemitism. In 2014, the Anti-Defamation League conducted a study titled "Global 100: An Index of Anti-Semitism", which also reported high antisemitism figures around the world and, among other findings, that as many as "27% of people who have never met a Jew nevertheless harbor strong prejudices against him".

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Economy of Azerbaijan

The economy of Azerbaijan is highly dependent on oil and gas exports, in particular since the completion of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Pipeline. The transition to oil production has led to remarkable growth figures as projects came online; reaching 26.4% in 2005 (second highest GDP growth in the world in 2005 only to Equatorial Guinea) and 34.6% in 2006 (world highest) before subsiding to 10.8% and 9.3% in 2008 and 2009 respectively. The real GDP growth rate for 2011 was expected at 3.7% but had dropped to 0.1%. Large oil reserves are a major contributor to Azerbaijan's economy. Gas and oil make up two-thirds of Azerbaijan's GDP, making it one of the top ten most fossil fuel-dependent economies in the world. Azerbaijan's economy is characterized by corruption and inequality. The country's oil wealth has significantly strengthened the stability of Ilham Aliyev's regime and enriched ruling elites in Azerbaijan. The country's oil wealth has enabled the state to host lavish international events, as well as engage in extensive lobbying efforts abroad. The national currency, the Azerbaijani manat, was stable in 2000, depreciating 3.8% against the dollar. The budget deficit equaled 1.3% of GDP in 2000. Since 2001, the economic activity in the country is regulated by the Ministry of Economy of Azerbaijan Republic. ==Economic history of Azerbaijan== ===Republic era=== Oil and gas are the most prominent products of Azerbaijan's economy. More than $60 billion was invested into Azerbaijan's oil by major international oil companies in AIOC consortium operated by BP. Oil production under the first of these PSAs, with the Azerbaijan International Operating Company, began in November 1997 and now is about 500,000 barrels per day. People visit petroleum spas (or "oil spas") to bathe in the local crude in Naftalan. A leading caviar producer and exporter in the past, Azerbaijan's fishing industry today is concentrated on the dwindling stocks of sturgeon and beluga in the Caspian Sea. Azerbaijan shares all the problems of the former Soviet republics in making the transition from a command to a market economy, but its energy resources brighten its long-term prospects. Azerbaijan has begun making progress on economic reform, and old economic ties and structures are slowly being replaced. An obstacle to economic progress, including stepped up foreign investment, is the continuing conflict with Armenia over the Nagorno-Karabakh region. In 1992, Azerbaijan became member of the Economic Cooperation Organization. In 2002, the Azerbaijani merchant marine had 54 ships. In March 2001, Azerbaijan concluded a natural gas agreement with Turkey, providing a future export market for Azerbaijan. Azerbaijan has concluded 21 production-sharing agreements with various oil companies. An export pipeline that transports Caspian oil to the Mediterranean from Baku through Tbilisi, Georgia to Ceyhan, Turkey (the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Pipeline) became operational in 2006. The pipeline is expected to generate as much as $160 billion in revenues for the country over the next 30 years. The recent high price of oil is highly beneficial to Azerbaijan's economy as the nation is in the midst of an oil boom. Eastern Caspian producers in Kazakhstan also have expressed interest in accessing this pipeline to transport a portion of their production. In 2010, Azerbaijan entered into the top eight biggest oil suppliers to EU countries with €9.46 billion. In 2011, the amount of foreign investments in Azerbaijan was $20 billion, a 61% increase from 2010. According to Minister of Economic Development of Azerbaijan, Shahin Mustafayev, in 2011, "$15.7 billion was invested in the non-oil sector, while the restin the oil sector". In 2012, because of its economic performance after the Soviet breakup, Azerbaijan was predicted to become "Tiger of Caucasus". In 2012, Globalization and World Cities Research Network study ranked Baku as a Gamma-level global city. In 2015, Turkey and Azerbaijan agreed to boost mutual trade to US$15 billion by 2023. ==Macro-economic trend== The following is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Azerbaijan at market prices with figures in USD. For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US dollar was exchanged at 1,565.88 Manats only. Currently, the new Manat is in use, with an exchange rate of about 1 manat = $1.10. Mean graduate pay was $5.76 per man-hour in 2010. The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017. Source: IMF For more than a century the backbone of the Azerbaijani economy has been petroleum, which represented 50 percent of Azerbaijan's GDP in 2005, and is projected to double to almost 125 percent of GDP in 2007. Now that Western oil companies are able to tap deepwater oilfields untouched by the Soviets because of poor technology, Azerbaijan is considered one of the most important areas in the world for oil exploration and development. Proven oil reserves in the Caspian Basin, which Azerbaijan shares with Russia, Kazakhstan, Iran, and Turkmenistan, are comparable in size to the North Sea, although exploration is still in the early stages. ==Sectors of the economy== ===Agriculture=== Azerbaijan has the largest agricultural basin in the region. About 54.9 percent of Azerbaijan is agricultural lands. At the beginning of 2007 there were of utilized agricultural area. In the same year the total wood resources counted . Azerbaijan's agricultural scientific research institutes are focused on meadows and pastures, horticulture and subtropical crops, leaf vegetables, viticulture and wine-making, cotton growing and medicinal plants. In some lands it is profitable to grow grain, potatoes, sugar beets, cotton and tobacco. Livestock, dairy products, and wine and spirits are also important farm products. The Caspian fishing industry is concentrated on the dwindling stocks of sturgeon and beluga. Some portions of most products that were previously imported from abroad have begun to be produced locally (among them are Coca-Cola by Coca-Cola Bottlers LTD, beer by Baki-Kastel, parquet by Nehir and oil pipes by EUPEC Pipe Coating Azerbaijan). A new program which is prepared by the European Union is aimed to support the economic diversification of Azerbaijan. ===Manufacturing=== In 2007, mining and hydrocarbon industries accounted for well over 95 percent of the Azerbaijani economy. Diversification of the economy into manufacturing industries remains a long-term issue. As of late 2000s, the defense industry of Azerbaijan has emerged as an autonomous entity with a growing defense production capability. The ministry is cooperating with the defense sectors of Ukraine, Belarus and Pakistan. Along with other contracts, Azerbaijani defence industries and Turkish companies, Azerbaijan will produce 40 mm revolver grenade launchers, 107 mm and 122 mm MLRS systems, Cobra 4×4 vehicles and joint modernization of BTR vehicles in Baku. ===Services=== In 2023, there were 1,708 registered companies in the Services sector. ====Financial and business services==== The GDP growth rates observed in Azerbaijan during the last years made the country one of the fastest growing economies in the world. But the banking sector of Azerbaijan has yet to tap the vast growth potential that should be achievable due to the continuation of the high economic growth. For this reason the banking sector remains small in relation to the size of the Azerbaijani economy. Since 2002, important stages of restructuring of the banking system have started to be carried out. Taking into consideration the entry of big oil revenues in the country, as a logical result of successful oil strategy, and in this base, as the banks were ready to an effective transfer of their financial resources to the strategic goals, development strategy was made for 2002–2005. ====Telecommunications==== In the 21st century, a new oil and gas boom helped to improve the situation in Azerbaijan's science and technology sectors, and the government launched a campaign aimed at modernization and innovation. The government estimates that profits from the information technology and communication industry will grow and become comparable with those from oil production. Azerbaijan has a large and steadily growing Internet sector, mostly uninfluenced by the financial crisis of 2007–2008; rapid growth is forecast for at least five more years. The country has also been making progress in developing its telecoms sector. The Ministry of Communications & Information Technologies (MCIT), as well as being an operator through its role in Aztelekom, is both a policy-maker and regulator. Public payphones are available for local calls and require the purchase of a token from the telephone exchange or some shops and kiosks. Tokens allow a call of indefinite duration. As of 2009, there were 1,397,000 main telephone lines and 1,485,000 internet users. There are five GSM providers: Azercell, Bakcell, Azerfon (Nar Mobile), Aztrank, Catel mobile network operators and one CDMA. ====Tourism==== Tourism is an important part of the economy of Azerbaijan. The country was a well-known tourist spot in the 1980s. However, the fall of the Soviet Union, and the First Nagorno-Karabakh War during the 1988–1994 period, damaged the tourist industry and the image of Azerbaijan as a tourist destination. It was not until the 2000s that the tourism industry began to recover, and the country has since experienced a high rate of growth in the number of tourist visits and overnight stays. In recent years, Azerbaijan has also become a popular destination for religious, spa, and health care tourism. During winter, the Shahdag Winter Complex offers skiing. The government of Azerbaijan has set the development of Azerbaijan as an elite tourist destination a top priority. It is a national strategy to make tourism a major, if not the single largest, contributor to the Azerbaijani economy. These activities are regulated by the State Tourism Agency and the Ministry of Culture. The Formula One Grand Prix is held in Baku, the capital city and has been held here for years. ==Currency system== The Azerbaijani manat is the currency of Azerbaijani, denominated as the manat, subdivided into 100 qapik. The manat is issued by the Central Bank of Azerbaijan, the monetary authority of Azerbaijan. The ISO 4217 abbreviation is AZN. The Latinised symbol is (). The manat is held in a floating exchange-rate system managed primarily against the US dollar. The rate of exchange (Azerbaijani manat per US$1) for 28 January 2016, was AZN 1.60. There is a complex relationship between Azerbaijan's balance of trade, inflation, measured by the consumer price index and the value of its currency. Despite allowing the value of the manat to "float", Azerbaijan's central bank has decisive ability to control its value with relationship to other currencies. ==Infrastructure== ===Energy=== Two-thirds of Azerbaijan is rich in oil and natural gas. The region of the Lesser Caucasus accounts for most of the country's gold, silver, iron, copper, titanium, chromium, manganese, cobalt, molybdenum, complex ore and antimony. In September 1994, a 30-year contract was signed between the State Oil Company of Azerbaijan Republic (SOCAR) and 13 oil companies, among them Amoco, BP, ExxonMobil, Lukoil and Statoil. As Western oil companies are able to tap deepwater oilfields untouched by the Soviet exploitation, Azerbaijan is considered one of the most important spots in the world for oil exploration and development. Azeriqaz, a sub-company of SOCAR, intends to ensure full gasification of the country by 2021. ===Transportation=== The convenient location of Azerbaijan on the crossroad of major international traffic arteries, such as the Silk Road and the south–north corridor, highlights the strategic importance of the transportation sector for the country's economy. The transport sector in the country includes roads, railways, aviation, and maritime transport. Azerbaijan is also an important economic hub in the transportation of raw materials. The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline (BTC) became operational in May 2006 and extends more than 1,774 kilometers through the territories of Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey. The BTC is designed to transport up to 50 million tons of crude oil annually and carries oil from the Caspian Sea oilfields to global markets. The South Caucasus Pipeline, also stretching through the territory of Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey, became operational at the end of 2006 and offers additional gas supplies to the European market from the Shah Deniz gas field. Shah Deniz is expected to produce up to 296 billion cubic meters of natural gas per year. Azerbaijan also plays a major role in the EU-sponsored Silk Road Project. In 2012, the construction of Kars–Tbilisi–Baku railway expected to provide transportation between Asia and Europe through connecting the railways of China and Kazakhstan in the east with Turkey's Marmaray to the European railway system in the west. Broad gauge railways in 2010 stretched for and electrified railways numbered . By 2010, there were 35 airports and one heliport. ===Regulation=== Single window system shares needed information through a single gateway with all organizations serving in trade field, as well as abolishes useless processes and raises the effectiveness of cooperation among different parties. 73 economies implement single window system in the world. Azerbaijan started to implement this system in 2009. It implemented an E-Government portal as well. A single-window system was established by a decree of the Azerbaijani President issued in 2007, 30 April, in order to simplify export-import procedures, innovate customs services, and improve the trade environment. The president appointed the State Customs Committee as the leading body of controlling goods and transportation passing through the borders of the country in 2008. The State Migration Service issues appropriate permits for foreigners and stateless persons coming to Azerbaijan to live and work. The "single window" principle has been applied on migration management processes starting from 1 July 2009 according to the Decree. ==Other economic indicators== :"Data from CIA World Factbook unless noted otherwise" - Investment (gross fixed): 17% of GDP (2011 est.) - Household income or consumption by percentage share: - "lowest 10%:" 3.4% - "highest 10%:" 27.4% (2008) - Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1.1% (2012 est.) - Agriculture: - "utilized agricultural land:" (2011) - "total wood resources:" 144,2 million cubic metres - "crops:" cotton, grain, rice, grapes, fruit, vegetables, tea, tobacco - "livestock products:" beef, mutton, poultry, milk, eggs - Industrial production growth rate: -3% (2011 est.) - Electricity: - "production:" 22,55 billion kWh (2008) - "consumption:" 18,8 billion kWh (2008) - "exports:" 812 million kWh (2008) - "imports:" 596 million kWh (2008) - Current account balance: - $11,12 billion (2011 est.) - Exports commodities: - petroleum and natural gas, petroleum products, oilfield equipment; steel, iron ore, cement; chemicals, petrochemicals, textiles, machinery, cotton, foodstuffs. - Reserves of foreign exchange and gold: - $7,146 billion (2011 est.) - Debt external: - $3.89 billion (2011 est.) - Currency: - 1 Manat = 100 gepik - Exchange rates: - Azerbaijani manat per US dollar 1.7 (for 22 November 2020) - Azerbaijani manat per Euro 2.01 (for 22 November 2020) - Fiscal year: - Calendar year

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Geography of Azerbaijan

Azerbaijan is a country in the Caucasus region, situated at the juncture of Eastern Europe and West Asia. Three physical features dominate Azerbaijan: the Caspian Sea, whose shoreline forms a natural boundary to the east; the Greater Caucasus mountain range to the north; and the extensive flatlands at the country's center. About the size of Portugal or the US state of Maine, Azerbaijan has a total land area of approximately 86,600 km², less than 1% of the land area of the former Soviet Union. Of the three Transcaucasian states, Azerbaijan has the greatest land area. Special administrative subdivisions are the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic, which is separated from the rest of Azerbaijan by a strip of Armenian territory, and the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region, entirely within Azerbaijan. The status of Nagorno-Karabakh is disputed by Armenia, but is internationally recognized as territory of Azerbaijan. Located in the region of the southern Caucasus Mountains, Azerbaijan borders the Caspian Sea to the east, Georgia and Russia to the north, Iran to the south, and Armenia to the southwest and west. A small part of Nakhchivan also borders Turkey to the northwest. The capital of Azerbaijan is the ancient city of Baku, which has the largest and best harbor on the Caspian Sea and has long been the center of the republic's oil industry. ==Topography and drainage== The elevation changes over a relatively short distance from lowlands to highlands; nearly half the country is considered mountainous. Notable physical features are the gently undulating hills of the subtropical southeastern coast, which are covered with tea plantations, orange groves, and lemon groves; numerous mud volcanoes and mineral springs in the ravines of Kobustan Mountain near Baku; and coastal terrain that lies as much as twenty-eight meters below sea level. Except for its eastern Caspian shoreline and some areas bordering Georgia and Iran, Azerbaijan is ringed by mountains. To the northeast, bordering Russia's Dagestan Autonomous Republic, is the Greater Caucasus range; to the west, bordering Armenia, is the Lesser Caucasus range. To the extreme southeast, the Talysh Mountains form part of the border with Iran. The highest elevations occur in the Greater Caucasus, where Mount Bazardüzü rises 4,466 meters above sea level. Eight large rivers flow down from the Caucasus ranges into the central Kura-Aras Lowlands, alluvial flatlands and low delta areas along the seacoast designated by the Azerbaijani name for the Mtkvari River (Kura) and its main tributary, the Aras. The Mtkvari, the longest river in the Caucasus region, forms the delta and drains into the Caspian a short distance downstream from the confluence with the Aras. The Mingechaur Reservoir, with an area of 605 square kilometers that makes it the largest body of water in Azerbaijan, was formed by damming the Kura in western Azerbaijan. The waters of the reservoir provide hydroelectric power and irrigation of the Kura-Aras plain. Most of the country's rivers are not navigable. About 15% of the land in Azerbaijan is arable. ==Mountains== The country's highest peak, Bazardüzü, rises to 4,485 m in this range at the Azerbaijan-Russia border. ==Climate== ===Temperature=== The climate varies from subtropical and humid in the southeast to subtropical and dry in central and eastern Azerbaijan, continental and humid in the mountains, and continental and dry in Nakhchivan. Baku, on the Caspian, enjoys mild weather that averages in January and in July. ===Precipitation=== Physiographic conditions and different atmosphere circulations admit 8 types of air currents including continental, sea, arctic, tropical currents of air that formulates the climate of the Republic. The maximum annual precipitation falls in Lenkeran (1,600 to 1,800 mm.) and the minimum in Absheron (200 to 350 mm.). The maximum daily precipitation of 334 mm was observed at the Bilieser Station in 1955. ==Environmental problems== Air and water pollution are widespread and pose great challenges to economic development. Major sources of pollution include oil refineries and chemical and metallurgical industries, which in the early 1990s continued to operate as inefficiently as they had in the Soviet era. Air quality is extremely poor in Baku, the center of oil refining. Some reports have described Baku's air as the most polluted in the former Soviet Union, and other industrial centers suffer similar problems. The Caspian Sea, including Baku Bay, has been polluted by oil leakages and the dumping of raw or inadequately treated sewage, reducing the yield of caviar and fish. In the Soviet period, Azerbaijan was pressed to use extremely heavy applications of pesticides to improve its output of scarce subtropical crops for the rest of the Soviet Union. The continued regular use of the pesticide DDT in the 1970s and 1980s was an egregious lapse, although that chemical was officially banned in the Soviet Union because of its toxicity to humans. Excessive application of pesticides and chemical fertilizers has caused extensive groundwater pollution and has been linked by Azerbaijani scientists to birth defects and illnesses. Rising water levels in the Caspian Sea, mainly caused by natural factors exacerbated by man-made structures, have reversed the decades-long drying trend and now threaten coastal areas; the average level rose 1.5 meters between 1978 and 1993. Because of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, large numbers of trees were felled, roads were built through pristine areas, and large expanses of agricultural land were occupied by military forces. Like other former Soviet republics, Azerbaijan faces a gigantic environmental cleanup complicated by the economic uncertainties left in the wake of the Moscow-centered planning system. The Committee for the Protection of the Natural Environment is part of the Azerbaijani government, but in the early 1990s it was ineffective at targeting critical applications of limited funds, establishing pollution standards, or monitoring compliance with environmental regulations. Early in 1994, plans called for Azerbaijan to participate in the international Caspian Sea Forum, sponsored by the European Union (EU). - Natural hazards: Droughts and floods; some lowland areas threatened by rising levels of the Caspian Sea - Environment—current issues: Local scientists consider the Abseron Yasaqligi (Apsheron Peninsula) (including Baky and Sumqayit) and the Caspian Sea to be the ecologically most devastated area in the world because of severe air, water, and soil pollution; soil pollution results from the use of DDT as a pesticide and also from toxic defoliants used in the production of cotton. - Environment - international agreements * Party to: Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands ==Area and boundaries== ; Area: * Total: 86,600 km² - "country comparison to the world:" 113 * Land: 82,629 km² * Water: 3,971 km² * Note: Includes the exclave of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic and the Nagorno-Karabakh region; the region's autonomy was abolished by Azerbaijani Supreme Soviet on November 26, 1991. - Area comparative * Australia comparative: larger than Tasmania * Canada comparative: larger than New Brunswick * United Kingdom comparative: slightly larger than Scotland * United States comparative: slightly smaller than Maine * EU comparative: slightly smaller than Portugal - Land boundaries: * Total: 2,468 km * Border countries: Armenia (with Azerbaijan-proper) 566 km, Armenia (with Azerbaijan-Nakhchivan exclave) 221 km, Georgia 428 km, Iran (with Azerbaijan-proper) 432 km, Iran (with Azerbaijan-Nakhchivan exclave) 700 km, Russia 338 km, Turkey 17 km - Coastline: Mostly landlocked, but has a 713 km coastline with the Caspian Sea. - Maritime claims: None - Terrain * large, flat lowland (much of it below sea-level) with Great Caucasus Mountains to the north, uplands in the west - Elevation extremes * Lowest point: Caspian Sea -28 m * Highest point: Bazardüzü 4,466 m (on the border with Russia) * Highest peak entirely within Azeri territory: Shah Dagi 4,243 m ==Resources and land use== ; Natural resources: Petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, nonferrous metals, bauxite - Land use: * Arable land: 22.95% * Permanent crops: 2.79% * Other: 74.26% (2012 est.) - Irrigated land: * 14,250 km² (2010) - Total renewable water resources: * 34.68 km3 (2011) - Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural) * Total: 12.21 km3/yr (4%/18%/78%) * Per capita: 1,384 cu m/yr (2010)

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Azerbaijan/People

Demographics of Azerbaijan

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Azerbaijan/Communications

Telecommunications in Azerbaijan

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Foreign relations of Azerbaijan

The Republic of Azerbaijan is a member of the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, NATO's Partnership for Peace, the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council, the World Health Organization, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development; the Council of Europe, CFE Treaty, the Community of Democracies; the International Monetary Fund; and the World Bank. ==Diplomatic relations== Azerbaijan maintains diplomatic relations with 185 United Nations member states, the State of Palestine and the Holy See. Azerbaijan does not have diplomatic relations with the following countries: - Armenia - Botswana - Central African Republic - Cyprus - Kiribati - Federated States of Micronesia - Tonga Azerbaijan also maintains good relations with the European Union, in the framework of its Eastern European Neighbourhood Policy ("See Azerbaijan and the European Union"). === List === List of countries which Azerbaijan maintains diplomatic relations with: ==International organizations== AsDB BSEC CE CIS EAPC EBRD ECE ECO ESCAP FAO GUAM IAEA IBRD ICAO ICRM IDA IDB IFAD IFC IFRCS ILO IMF IMO Interpol IOC, IOM ISO (correspondent) ITU ITUC OAS (observer) OIC OPCW OSCE PFP United Nations UNCTAD UNESCO UNIDO UPU WCO WFTU WHO WIPO WMO WToO WTO(observer) ===Other entities=== * Sovereign Military Order of Malta – there are no relations - States with limited recognition ==Disputes== ===Nagorno-Karabakh/Azerbaijan=== The frozen conflict over currently largely Armenian-populated region of Nagorno-Karabakh within the Republic of Azerbaijan began when in 1988 the Armenian majority of Nagorno-Karabakh demanded autonomy with demonstrations and persecutions against ethnic Azeris following in Armenia. This led to anti-Armenian rioting in Azerbaijan, with Azerbaijani militias beginning their effort to expel Armenians from the enclave. In 1992, a war broke out and pogroms of Armenians and Azeris forced both groups to flee their homes. In 1994, a Russian-brokered ceasefire ended the war but more than 1 million ethnic Armenians and Azeris are still not able to return home. The conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh remains unresolved despite negotiations, that are ongoing since 1992 under the aegis of the Minsk Group of the OSCE, to resolve the conflict peacefully. ===Caviar diplomacy=== The European Stability Initiative (ESI) has revealed in a report from 2012 with the title "Caviar diplomacy: How Azerbaijan silenced the Council of Europe", that since Azerbaijan's entry into the Council of Europe, each year 30 to 40 deputies are invited to Azerbaijan and generously paid with expensive gifts, including caviar (worth up to 1,400 euro), silk carpets, gold, silver and large amounts of money. In return they become lobbyists for Azerbaijan. This practice has been widely referred to as "Caviar diplomacy". ESI also published a report on 2013 Presidential elections in Azerbaijan titled "Disgraced: Azerbaijan and the end of election monitoring as we know it". The report revealed the ties between Azerbaijani government and the members of certain observation missions who praised the elections. Azerbaijan's "Caviar diplomacy" at 2013 presidential elections sparked a major international scandal, as the reports of two authoritative organizations Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe/European Parliament and OSCE/ODIHR completely contradicted one another in their assessments of elections. Non-governmental anti-corruption organization Transparency International has regularly judged Azerbaijan to be one of the most corrupt countries in the world and has also criticized Azerbaijan for the "Caviar diplomacy". At June 2016 the public prosecutor of Milan has accused the former leader of the (Christian) Union of the center and of the European People's Party of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe Luca Volonte of accepting large bribes from representatives of the Azerbaijani government. Two people with high-level experience of the Council of Europe's parliamentary assembly (Pace) have told the Guardian they believe its members have been offered bribes for votes by Azerbaijan. Former Azerbaijani diplomat, Arif Mammadov, alleged that a member of Azerbaijan's delegation at the Council of Europe had €30m (£25m) to spend on lobbying its institutions, including the Council of Europe assembly. PACE ratified the terms of reference of an independent external investigation body to carry out a detailed independent inquiry into the allegations of corruption at the council involving Azerbaijan. ====ESISC report==== On 6 March 2017, ESISC (European Strategic Intelligence and Security Center) published a scandalous report called "The Armenian Connection" where it veraciously attacked human rights NGOs and research organisations criticising human rights violations and corruption in Azerbaijan, Turkey, and Russia. ESISC in that report asserted that "Caviar diplomacy" report elaborated by ESI aimed to create climate of suspicion based on slander to form a network of MPs that would engage in a political war against Azerbaijan. In the Second Chapter of the report called "The Armenian Connection: «Mr X», Nils Muižnieks, Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights" that was published on 18 April 2017 ESISC asserted that the network composed of European PMs, Armenian officials and some NGOs: Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International, "Human Rights House Foundation", "Open Dialog", European Stability Initiative, and Helsinki Committee for Human Rights, was financed by the Soros Foundation. According to ESISC the key figure of the network since 2012 has been Nils Muižnieks, Commissioner for Human Rights of the Council of Europe and the network has served to the interests of George Soros and the Republic of Armenia. "The report is written in the worst traditions of authoritarian propaganda, makes absurd claims, and is clearly aimed at deflecting the wave of criticism against cover-up of unethical lobbying and corruption in PACE and demands for change in the Assembly", said Freedom Files Analytical Centre. According Robert Coalson (Radio Free Europe), ESISC is a part of Baku's lobbying efforts to extend to the use of front think tanks to shift public opinion. European Stability Initiative said that "ESISC report is full of lies (such as claiming that German PACE member Strasser holds pro-Armenian views and citing as evidence that he went to Yerevan in 2015 to commemorate the Armenian genocide, when Strasser has never in his life been to independent Armenia)".

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Azerbaijani Armed Forces

The Azerbaijani Armed Forces () is the military of the Republic of Azerbaijan. It was re-established according to the country’s Law of the Armed Forces on 9 October 1991. The original Azerbaijan Democratic Republic's armed forces were dissolved after Azerbaijan was absorbed into the Soviet Union as the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic from 28 April 1920. After the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991–92, Azerbaijan's armed forces were reformed based on Soviet bases and equipment left on Azerbaijani soil. The armed forces have three branches: the Azerbaijani Land Forces, the Azerbaijani Air and Air Defence Force, and the Azerbaijani Navy. Associated forces include the Azerbaijani National Guard, the Internal Troops of Azerbaijan, and the State Border Service, which can be involved in state defense under certain circumstances. According to the Azerbaijani media sources the military expenditures of Azerbaijan for 2009 were set at US$2.46 billion, however according to Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, only $1.473 billion was spent in that year. IISS also suggests that the defence budget in 2009 was $1.5 billion. The Ministry of Defence Industry of Azerbaijan supervises the design, manufacturing, regulation and maintenance of military equipment. In the future, Azerbaijan hopes to start building tanks, armored vehicles, military planes and military helicopters. ==Overview== Since the fall of the Soviet Union, Azerbaijan has been trying to further develop its armed forces into a professional, well trained, and mobile military. Azerbaijan has been undergoing extensive modernization and capacity expanding programs, with the military budget increasing from around $300 million in 2005 to $2.46 billion in 2009. The total armed forces number 56,840 men in the land forces, 7,900 men in the air force and air defence force, and 2,200 men in the navy. There are also 19,500 personnel in the National Guard, State Border Service, and Internal Troops. In addition, there are 300,000 former service personnel who have had military service in the last 15 years. The military hardware of Azerbaijan consists of 220 main battle tanks, an additional 162 T-80's were acquired between 2005 and 2010, 595 armored combat vehicles and 270 artillery systems. The air force has about 106 aircraft and 35 helicopters. Azerbaijan has acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear weapons state. Azerbaijan participates in NATO's Partnership for Peace. Azerbaijan joined the multi-national force in 2003. It sent 150 troops to Iraq, and later troops to Kosovo. Azerbaijani troops also served in Afghanistan. Despite the rise in Azerbaijan's defence budget, the armed forces were assessed in 2008 as not having a high state of battle readiness and being ill-prepared for wide scale combat operations. The Second Karabakh War demonstrated how Azerbaijan's military capabilities had risen. ==History of the Azerbaijani armed forces== ===Azerbaijan Democratic Republic=== The history of the modern Azerbaijan army dates back to Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in 1918, when the Armed Forces of the Republic of Azerbaijan were created on 26 June 1918. First "de facto" Minister of Defense of ADR was Dr. Khosrov bey Sultanov. When the Ministry was formally established Gen. Samedbey Mehmandarov became the minister, and then Lt-Gen. Ali-Agha Shikhlinski his deputy. Chiefs of Staff of ADR Army were Lt-Gen. Maciej Sulkiewicz (March 1919 – 10 December 1919) and Maj-Gen. Abdulhamid bey Gaitabashi (10 December 1919 – April 1920). The Red Army invaded Azerbaijan on 28 April 1920. Although the bulk of the newly formed Azerbaijani army was engaged in putting down an Armenian revolt that had just broken out in Karabakh, the Azerbaijanis did not surrender their brief independence of 1918–20 quickly or easily. As many as 20,000 of the total 30,000 soldiers died resisting what was effectively a Russian reconquest. The national Army of Azerbaijan was abolished by the Bolshevik government, 15 of the 21 army generals were executed by the Bolsheviks. === Russian Civil War === After the Sovietisation of Azerbaijan, the newly formed Azerbaijani Red Army replaced the previous army, taking part in the Russian Civil War, and the invasion of Georgia. === World War II === During World War II, Azerbaijan played a crucial role in the strategic energy policy of Soviet Union. Much of the Soviet Union's oil on the Eastern Front was supplied by Baku. By a decree of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR in February 1942, the commitment of more than 500 workers and employees of the oil industry of Azerbaijan was recognised with orders and medals. Operation Edelweiss carried out by the German Wehrmacht targeted Baku because of the importance of its oil fields to the USSR. Some 800,000 Azerbaijanis fought within the ranks of the Soviet Army of which 400,000 died. Azerbaijani national formations of the Red Army included the 223rd, 227th, 396th, 402nd, and 416th Rifle Divisions. Azerbaijani Major-General Hazi Aslanov was awarded a second Hero of the Soviet Union after a long post-war fight for recognition of his accomplishments. ===Dissolution of the Soviet armed forces=== During the Cold War, Azerbaijan had been the deployment area of units of the Soviet 4th Army whose principal formations in 1988 included four motor rifle divisions (23rd Guards, 60th, 75th, and 295th). The 75th Motor Rifle Division was isolated in Nakhchivan. The 4th Army also included missile and air defense brigades and artillery and rocket regiments. The 75th Division's stores and equipment were apparently transferred to the Nakhchivan authorities. Azerbaijan also hosted the 49th Arsenal of the Soviet Main Agency of Missiles and Artillery, which contained over 7,000 train-car loads of ammunition to the excess of one billion units. The first president of Azerbaijan, Ayaz Mutallibov, did not wish to build an independent army, wanting to rely instead largely on Soviet troops. Even when the Parliament decided that an army should be formed in September 1991, disagreements between the government and the opposition Azerbaijani Popular Front Party impeded creation of a unified force. Around this time, the first unit of the new army was formed on the basis of the 18–110 military unit of mechanized infantry of the Soviet Ground Forces (probably part of the 4th Army) located in Shikhov, south of Baku. At the time of the parliamentary decision, Lieutenant-General Valeh Barshadli became the first Minister of Defense of Azerbaijan, from 5 September to 11 December 1991. Later from May to 4 September 1992 he served as Chief of General Staff of Azerbaijani Armed Forces. === Newly formed military === In summer 1992, the nascent Defense Ministry received a resolution by the Azerbaijani president on the takeover of units and formations in Azerbaijani territory. It then forwarded an ultimatum to Moscow demanding control over vehicles and armaments of the 135th and 139th Motor Rifle Regiments of the 295th Motor Rifle Division. In July 1992, Azerbaijan ratified the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE), which establishes comprehensive limits on key categories of conventional military equipment. Azerbaijan approved the CFE flank agreement in May 1997. The transfer of the property of the 4th Army (except for part of the property of the 366th Motor Rifle Regiment of the 23rd Guards Motor Rifle Division captured by Armenian armed formations in 1992 during the regiment's withdrawal from Stepanakert) and the 49th arsenal was completed in 1992. Thus, by the end of 1992, Azerbaijan received arms and military hardware sufficient for approximately four motor rifle divisions with prescribed army units. It also inherited naval ships. There are also reports that 50 combat aircraft from the disbanded 19th Army of the Soviet Air Defence Forces came under Azerbaijani control. The Azerbaijani armed forces took a series of devastating defeats by Armenian forces during the 1992–1994 Nagorno-Karabakh War, which resulted in the loss of control of Nagorno-Karabakh proper and seven surrounding rayons, comprising roughly 20% of the territory of Azerbaijan. Azerbaijani sources insist that Armenian victory was largely due to military help from Russia and the wealthy Armenian diaspora. Armenians partially deny the allegation, claiming that Russian side was equally supplying Armenian and Azerbaijani sides with weapons and mercenaries. During the war, the Azerbaijani armed forces were also aided by Turkish military advisers, and Russian, Ukrainian, Chechen and Afghan mercenaries. ===21st century=== A number of Azerbaijani human rights groups have been tracking non-combat deaths and have noted an upward trend in early 2010s. Based on Defense Ministry statistics that had not been released to the public, the Group of Monitoring Compliance with Human Rights in the Army (GMCHRA) has recorded the deaths of 76 soldiers to date in non-combat incidents for 2011, and the injury of 91 others. In comparison, there were 62 non-combat deaths and 71 cases of injury in 2010. The string of non-combat deaths raises questions about the reform progress of the military. Factors behind the deaths include bullying, hazing, and the systemic corruption within the Azerbaijani military. In 2017, Azerbaijani authorities used large scale torture (the Tartar Case) on Azerbaijani military personnel accused of treason. Generals Nacmeddin Sadikhov and Hikmet Hasanov were accused of torturing Azerbaijani officers and soldiers and according to the authorities and human rights defenders, more than 400 people were subjected to torture in the course of the case. The Azerbaijani authorities claimed one person was killed as a result, while human rights defenders say the number is about 13, and many were wrongfully convicted and given hefty prison sentences. === Second Karabakh War === The Second Karabakh War (also known in Azerbaijan as "The Patriotic War" or "Operation Iron Fist") began on the morning of 27 September 2020 when Azerbaijan launched an offensive along the Line of Contact. On the seventh day of the war, a major offensive was launched by the ground forces, advancing in the north, making some territorial gains while the fighting gradually shifted to the south. Following the capture of Shusha, the second-largest settlement in Nagorno-Karabakh, by Azerbaijani forces, a ceasefire agreement was signed between Azerbaijan, and Armenia, ending all hostilities in the area. Under the agreement, Armenia returned the surrounding territories it occupied in 1994 to Azerbaijan while Azerbaijan gained land access to its Nakhchivan exclave. Total casualties were in the low thousands. During the war, the Azerbaijani army was widely accused of committing war crimes against Armenian soldiers and civilians. Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International both condemned Azerbaijan's “indiscriminate” shelling of Armenian civilians, including the use of cluster munitions. In addition, videos of Azerbaijani soldiers mistreating or executing captive Armenians were circulated online and received widespread condemnation. On 10 December, a victory parade was held in honor of the Azerbaijani Army on Azadliq Square, with 3,000 soldiers marching alongside military equipment, unmanned aerial vehicles and aircraft. In August 2022, the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination expressed deep concern regarding "severe and grave human rights violations committed during 2020 hostilities and beyond by the Azerbaijani military forces against prisoners of war and other protected persons of Armenian ethnic or national origin, including extrajudicial killings, torture and other ill-treatment and arbitrary detention as well as the destruction of houses, schools, and other civilian facilities." == Structure == === Command === Since the fall of the Soviet Union, there have been attempts in the defence ministry to reform the military to be more in line with the Turkish/NATO model, resulting in Soviet-legacy officers such as Rovshan Akbarov and Najmeddin Sadikov being removed from power. Azerbaijan periodically holds drills to improve interaction and combat coordination between the servicemen during operations, its military personnel’s combat readiness, as well as to develop commanders' military decision-making and unit management skills. ===Land Forces=== The Azerbaijani Land Forces number 85,000 strong, according to UK Advanced Research and Assessment Group estimates. The 2,500 men of the National Guard are also part of the ground forces. In addition, there are 300,000 former service personnel who have had military service in the last 15 years. Other paramilitary agencies consist of Interior Ministry Internal Troops of Azerbaijan, 12,000 strong, and the land component of the State Border Service, 5,000 strong. Azerbaijan has signed numerous contracts to strengthen its armed forces and to train its military with Turkey's assistance. Over the last 15 years, Azerbaijan has been preparing its military for possible action against Armenian forces in Nagorno-Karabakh. The Land Forces consist of five army corps: - 1st Army Corps also known as Barda Army Corps (concentrated near Ganja) - 2nd Army Corps also known as Beylagan Army Corps (concentrated against Armenian occupied territories and part is deployed on the Azerbaijan-Iranian border) - 3rd Army Corps also known as Shamkir Army Corps (concentrated against Armenian occupied territories) - 4th Army Corps also known as Baku Army Corps (covers Absheron Peninsula and the coast) - Nakhchivan Separate Combined Arms Army (deployed in Nakhchivan) The Land Forces include 23 motor rifle brigades, an artillery brigade, a multiple rocket launcher brigade, and an anti-tank regiment. The IISS Military Balance reported in 2007 that the Land Forces had an estimated 40 SA-13 Gopher, SA-4 Ganef, and SA-8 Gecko air defence missile systems, with '80–240 eff.' to support the army in the battlefield. (IISS 2007, p. 157) The peacekeeping forces of Azerbaijan are mostly supplied from the Land Forces, though the Internal Troops of Azerbaijan do also supply some. As of March 2011, 94 peacekeepers were deployed with the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan. In the past, it also actively supported the peacekeeping operation in Kosovo and Iraq. The Azerbaijani peacekeeping unit deployed in Iraq consisted of 14 officers, 16 sergeants and 120 privates, a total of 150 troops. The unit secured the hydroelectric power station and reservoir in Al Haditha from August 2003. In December 2008, Azerbaijan withdrew the unit from Iraq. Reportedly in December 2014 Azerbaijan created the Separate Combined Arms Army in Nakhchivan. Karam Mustafayev became commander of the corps. The army was created based on the Nakhchivan 5th Army Corps to strengthen defense capability of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic, increase of combat capability of military units and formations of the Armed Forces, improve central control, reports quoting the Defence Ministry said. ===Air forces=== The Azerbaijani Air and Air Defence Force is a single unified service branch. Some 8,000 men serve in the air force and air defence force. The Air and Air Defence Force has around 106 aircraft and 35 helicopters. The country has four major airbases. Nasosnaya (air base) has fighters, Kyurdamir Air Base a bomber regiment, Ganja Air Base transports, and Baku Kala Air Base the helicopter unit. There are also four other airbases which do not appear to have aircraft based there. These are Dollyar Air Base, Nakhchivan Airport, Sanqacal Air Base, and Sitalcay Air Base. The Azerbaijani Air Force using MiG-21, Su-24 and Su-25 aircraft, as well as the MiG-29 purchased from Ukraine in 2006 and Il-76 transport aircraft. The MiG-29 have been designated as the standard aircraft for the AzAF. Azerbaijan is holding talks with either the People's Republic of China or Pakistan to purchase JF-17 Thunder aircraft. MiG-25s previously in service have been retired seemingly in the 2007–09 period. Azerbaijan's helicopter force is concentrated at Baku Kala Air Base and according to the IISS consists of a single regiment with around 14–15 Mi-24, 12–13 Mi-8 and 7 Mi-2. Jane's Information Group and the IISS give figures which agree with only a single aircraft's difference. Recently, end of 2010 Russian Rosvertol announced that Azerbaijan armed forces signed a deal for 24 pieces of Mi-35M (Hind-E) gunships what would further enhance the Azerbaijani ground attack formations. The Air Force has L-39 advanced training aircraft in store. The Azerbaijan Border Guard and Voluntary Society of Defense, Patriotism and Sport have Yakovlev light training aircraft. Azerbaijan has missile and radar systems intended to defend Azerbaijani airspace. There are at least 2 divisions of S-300PMU2. Thereby the country has one of the most capable SAM surface-to-air missile system in the region. Azerbaijan also operates two S-200 (SA-5 GAMMON) batteries near Baku and Mingachevir; the S-300PMU-2 represents a logical replacement for these systems offering coverage of the majority of the nation. The country also has about 100 NATO designated SA-2 Guideline (original name S-75), SA-3 Goa (S-125 Pechora-2M), and the SA-5 Gammon (S-200) are in static installations. These may be around Baku and the central part to cover the whole Azerbaijani aerospace. However, August 2011 investigations shows that after purchase of S-300 surface-to-air missiles, the largest apparent gap in Azerbaijan's air defense system may have been filled. Also in Azerbaijan there was a former Soviet early warning radar. The Gabala Radar Station was a bistatic phased-array installation, operated by the Russian Space Forces. The contract was signed in 2002 and was due to expire in 2012 where it was to be given back to the Azerbaijani government. The contract costed Russia $7 million per year. The radar station had a range of up to , and was designed to detect intercontinental ballistic missile launches as far as from the Indian Ocean. In December 2012 Russia announced that negotiations had been unsuccessful and that they had stopped using the radar station. The site was given back to Azerbaijan and all the equipment dismantled and transported to Russia. Nowadays, Russia covers the area from the Armavir Radar Station. ===Navy=== The main naval base of the Soviet Union in the Caspian Sea was based in Baku. When the Soviet Union collapsed, Azerbaijan inherited the naval base and parts of the Caspian Sea Flotilla. The Azerbaijan Navy has about 2,200 personnel. In 2010, the navy had a Petya class light frigate, "Qusar" (G 121), and a number of patrol craft, including one Turk class, "Araz," P 223, one Brya (Project 722) class, P 218, one Shelon (Project 1388M) class, P 212, one Poluchat class (Project 368), P 219, one Luga class (Project 888), T 710, and four Petrushka (Polish UK-3 class), P 213, P 214, P 215, and P 216. There are four minesweepers consisting of 2 Sonya class minesweeper and 2 Yevgenya class minesweepers. (Jane's Fighting Ships 2010) The Navy is also attributed with 5 landing craft, 3 Polnochny and 2 Vydra (IISS 2007), plus three research ships, 1 Project 10470, A 671, ex Svyaga, 1 Balerian Uryvayev class survey vessel (AG) and one Vadim Popov class survey vessel (AG). The U.S. Navy has helped train the Azerbaijani Navy. There is also an agreement to provide US support to refurbish Azerbaijani warships in the Caspian Sea. In 2006, the US Government donated 3 motorboats to the Azerbaijani Navy. In 2007, an agreement between the Azerbaijani Navy and a US military company was concluded, which stated that a part of the Azerbaijani Navy would be equipped with advanced laser marksmanship systems. The US company specialists were also to give training on the use of the new equipment. A number of separate U.S. programmes are underway under the Caspian Guard Initiative, focused mostly on enhancing Azerbaijani and Kazakh maritime border security. In May 2011, the president of the State Oil Company of Azerbaijan Republic Rovnag Abdullayev stated that Azerbaijan would start production of national warships after 2013. The Naval Intelligence of Azerbaijan maintains the 641st Special Warfare Naval Unit. The special forces were trained by the U.S. Navy SEALs Unit 641 has several midget submarines such as Triton-1M and Triton 2 at their disposal as well as underwater tool motion for individual divers. The special unit is composed of 3 reconnaissance groups, 2 groups for mountainous warfare, and one diving group. Obligatory training includes parachute jumping day and night, on land and on water. ===Special forces=== The Special Forces of Azerbaijan are part of the Ministry of Defence. It was established in April 1999 with officers and warrant officers who had participated in the First Nagorno-Karabakh War of 1991–1994. The Turkish Special Forces Command played a role in the formation of the unit. During the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh War, personnel of the Special Forces reclaimed the city of Jebrayil and nine surrounding villages from the Armenian Army. On November 8, Aliyev congratulated the commander of the Special Forces on their "liberation of Shusha". The war was considered to be first time Azerbaijan has actively used all of its special forces units. ==Defense industry== The Ministry of Defence Industry of Azerbaijan directs domestic military supplies for Azerbaijan. It was established in 2005. The Defence Industries Ministry subsumed the State Department for Military Industry and for Armaments and the Military Science Center, each of which was formerly a separate agency within the Azerbaijani Defense Ministry. The defense industry has emerged as an autonomous entity with a growing production capability. The ministry is cooperating with the defense sectors of Ukraine, Belarus and Pakistan. Along with other contracts, Azerbaijani defence industries and Turkish companies, Azerbaijan will produce 40mm revolver grenade launchers, 107mm and 122mm MLRS systems, Cobra 4×4 vehicles and joint modernization of BTR vehicles in Baku. The major military companies of Azerbaijan are: - RPE Iglim, aviation and shipbuilding - Radiogurashdirma, communication means and radio-electronic - RPE Neftgazavtomat, devices and automation systems for monitoring technological processes - RPE Automatic Lines, non-standard equipment and products for application in electrotechnical and machine engineering - Avia-Agregat, multi-purpose aviation equipment, various airdrome conditioners, universal container of board conductor, air-to-air radiators, fuel-oil, air-to-air heat exchangers and ventilators In early 2008, reports indicated that an agreement with Turkey had been signed which would lead to Azerbaijan producing armoured personnel carriers, infantry fighting vehicles, and small calibre artillery pieces. ==International cooperation== Azerbaijan cooperates with about 60 countries in the military-technical sphere and has an agreement on military-technical cooperation with more than 30 countries. ===Turkey=== In December 2009, an agreement on military assistance was signed by Turkey and Azerbaijan. The agreement envisions Ankara supplying Azerbaijan with weapons, military equipment, and, if necessary, soldiers in case war with Armenia over Karabakh resumes. Turkey has provided Azerbaijan with infantry weapons, tactical vehicles (jeeps, trucks, etc.) professional training, military organization, technology transfer, licensed military hardware production, and other services. Due to help from Turkish specialists and instructors, thousands of Azerbaijani officers have been trained to western standards. The military position as international importance of Azerbaijan increased with an agreement between Azerbaijan and Turkey on the participation an Azerbaijani peacekeeping platoon in the staff of the Turkish battalion in Kosovo. Since 1992, Azerbaijan and Turkey have signed more than 100 military protocols, some of the major protocols include: - Cooperation of staff members - National security cooperation in the topographical area - Forming and training of professional school of forces in Baku - Carrying out of the material and technical purchasing - Military industry cooperation - Development of the 5th Army Corps also known as Nakhchivan Army Corps in Nakhchivan - Cooperation in the area of military history, military archives and museum work and military publication - Assistance on training, material and technical between the Azerbaijan Border Guard and the Turkish Armed Forces. - Long-term economical and military cooperation and application of the financial aid - Application of material and technical provision In May 2011, Azerbaijan had discussed the purchase of long-range rockets from two Chinese companies, the minister of the defence industry has said. Other arms deals were signed with Turkey. Turkish Defence Minister Vecdi Gonul and Yaver Jamalov signed a protocol of intent on future joint production of two types of output – 107-mm rockets and the national rifle, possibly the Mehmetçik-1. A protocol of intent was signed the same day with the Mechanical and Chemical Industry Corporation MKEK on the joint production of 120-mm mortar launchers. This project will come into force in a few months time. Agreement has also been reached with Turkish company Aselsan on the production of some types of defence output in Azerbaijan, specifically the latest types of weapons' sights. These projects will probably happen in the near future too. Recently, Turkish defense industries secretariat told that an export version of the T-155 Firtina self-propelled howitser is almost done and could start production. T-155 has been powered by a German MTU power pack, which restricts the sale to some countries like Azerbaijan. The Turkish manufacturer MKEK, has announced that they have found an alternate supplier for the power pack where Azerbaijan showed interest to buy the high tech, more capable 155mm 52 caliber from Turkish authorities. ===United States=== Section 907 of the United States Freedom Support Act bans any kind of direct United States aid to the Azerbaijani government. Since a waiver was made in 2001 there has been extensive U.S. military cooperation with Azerbaijan. This has included Special Forces and naval aid, consultations with United States European Command, and linkages through the U.S. National Guard State Partnership Program. On 19 May 2006, Azerbaijani Defense Minister Safar Abiyev and the then commander of United States Air Forces in Europe General Tom Hobbins met in Baku to discuss military cooperation. He said the objective of his visit was to become familiar with the state of Azerbaijani armed forces. Hobbins pointed to the progress made in the NATO-Azerbaijan relations, saying that the successful implementation of the NATO Partnership for Peace program in Azerbaijan has brought the country even closer to the alliance. He said that the two countries' air forces will expand cooperation. The U.S. state of Oklahoma is linked with Azerbaijan through the U.S. National Guard State Partnership Program (SPP). Oklahoma National Guard troops have been sent on training and humanitarian missions to Baku. ===Russia=== Russia is one of Azerbaijan's main suppliers of arms. "As of today, military and technical cooperation with Russia is measured at $4 billion and it tends to grow further," President Ilham Aliyev said after meeting with Russian President Vladimir Putin in Baku in 2013. ===Israel=== Azerbaijan and Israel cooperate on numerous areas of the defense industry. Israel is Azerbaijan's largest weapon supplier with $4.85 billion in sales during 2016 alone. Azerbaijan has shown great interest in Israeli technology over the years. In particular, an agreement was reached over the construction of the factory of intelligence and combat drones in Azerbaijan. The Israeli defense company Elta Systems Ltd has had cooperation from Azerbaijan in building the TecSAR reconnaissance satellite system, which can take high-definition photos of ground surfaces in all weather conditions. According to Azerbaijani military experts, the TecSAR system will be indispensable for military operations in the mountainous terrains of Azerbaijan. As of June 2009, Israel and Azerbaijan had been negotiating on the production of Namer armoured infantry fighting vehicles in Azerbaijan. There is no further information as to whether any agreement has been made. ===NATO=== The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and Azerbaijan actively cooperate on defence institutional reforms and have developed practical cooperation in many other areas. Azerbaijan's Individual Partnership Action Plan (IPAP) and its Partnership for Peace (PfP) linkages lay out the programme of cooperation between Azerbaijan and NATO. The Azerbaijani government has however delayed implementing IPAP-recommended reforms, however, in part at least because no decision had been taken to seek NATO membership. This is because Azerbaijan's foreign policy 'seeks to balance interests with the U.S., EU, Russia and Iran.' According to a NATO diplomatic source some key officials at NATO headquarters in Brussels were pushing hard for engaging Azerbaijan on the membership question. "Turkey, Romania, Italy, Poland, the United Kingdom and the Baltic states," are among the member-states also backing a fast track for Azerbaijan's NATO membership. However, Azerbaijan made its policy of not being aligned with a geopolitical/military structure official when it became a full member of the Non-Aligned Movement in 2011. There is also a limited amount of military cooperation with the other countries of GUAM: Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, and Moldova. == Personnel == === Educational system === The purpose of Azerbaijani military education & training is to train soldiers, officers, and non-commissioned officers to have independent and creative thinking and commitment to the Azerbaijani people and the government. Military education in the Azerbaijani Armed Forces have been described as either being Secondary education, Further education, or Higher education. Azerbaijani pilots were formerly trained in the Azerbaijan Air Force School, where they would then develop their skills in operational units. Azerbaijan has an experience exchange with Turkey, Ukraine, the United States and a number of NATO countries. The Turkish Air Force School has a great role in the training of Azerbaijani military pilots. Azerbaijani pilots are also trained in Ukraine's Pilot Training School. The following is a list of educational institutions in the armed forces, under the auspices of the National Defense University: - Military academies - War College of the Armed Forces - Training and Education Center of the Armed Forces - Azerbaijan Higher Military Academy - Azerbaijan Higher Naval Academy (former independent institution) - Azerbaijan High Military Aviation School (former independent institution) - Other educational institutions - Secondary Military Medical School of Azerbaijan - Military Medical Faculty of Azerbaijan Medical University - Military lyceums - Jamshid Nakhchivanski Military Lyceum - Heydar Aliyev Military Lyceum === Military Justice === Military Courts act as courts of first instance deals. The Military Court is composed of a President and judges. The following military courts exist in Azerbaijan: - Military Court of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic - Baku Military Court (formed in August 1992) - Ganja Military Court - Lankaran Military Court - Fuzuli-Gubadli Military Court - Tartar Military Court - Agdam Military Court - Gazakh Military Court - Sumgait Military Court === Women and ethnic minorities in the armed forces === During the first war, Russians, who were a large minority in Azerbaijan at the time, served in the units of the Azerbaijani Army, many of whom formerly served in the Soviet Army. According to the Russian Ministry of Defence more than 300 officers of the 7th Army, based in the capital of Baku, refused to leave Azerbaijan at the outset of the war. During the Second Karabakh War, the death of an ethnic Russian Azerbaijani soldier, Dmitry Solntsev, was reported. There was also Denis Aliyev (born as Denis Pronin) from the Xətai raion, who was killed in Jabrayil. He was later posthumously awarded the Medal "For the Liberation of Jabrayil" in December. Cossacks, associated with the Association of Cossacks of Azerbaijan, often join the Azerbaijani Armed Forces. Female military personnel in the military are generally involved in education, office work, medical care, and the development of international cooperation. They also serve in the rear, signal troops, and intelligence forces. Women are exempt from conscription, which means that female service is purely on a voluntary basis. There are currently 1,000 female personnel in the Azerbaijani military, accounting for 3% of the armed forces. During the Karabakh Conflict, 2,000 of the 74,000 Azerbaijani soldiers were women, and 600 of them directly took part in military operations, with a women's battalion being established in 1992. The enrollment of females in Azerbaijani higher military schools began in 1999. According to soldier Tehrana Bahruzi in her book, “Zakir Hasanov: the Ideal Minister", Defence Minister Zakir Hasanov was responsible for launching the first female unit in the Special Forces of Azerbaijan. In October 2020, the first female military casualty was reported, a combat medic who died while taking wounded soldiers from the battlefield. ===Personnel medals and awards=== * Medal "For Bravery" - Medal "For Fatherland" - Medal "For Faultless Service" - Medal "For blameless service" - Medal "For distinction in military service" - Medal "For distinction in the border" - Medal "For merit in military collaboration" - Medal "For military merit" - Veteran of the Armed Forces Medal - Brave Warrior Medal - For Distinction in Battle Medal - For Heroism Medal - For military services medal - Herbi Xidmlete Gore Medal - Anniversary medals - "10th Anniversary of the Armed Forces of Azerbaijan (1991–2001)" Medal - "90th Anniversary of the Armed Forces of Azerbaijan (1918–2008)" Medal - "95th Anniversary of the Armed Forces of Azerbaijan (1918–2013)" Medal - Azerbaijani Army 100th anniversary medal - Battle/war awards - Hero of the Patriotic War - Hero of the Patriotic War Medal - Participant of the Patriotic War Medal - For Services in the Rear in the Patriotic War Medal - For the Liberation of Aghdam Medal - For the Liberation of Fuzuli Medal - For the Liberation of Gubadly Medal - For the Liberation of Jabrayil Medal - For the Liberation of Kalbajar Medal - For the Liberation of Khojavend Medal - For the Liberation of Lachin Medal - For the Liberation of Shusha Medal - For the Liberation of Sugovushan Medal - For the Liberation of Zangilan Medal Today 'National Hero of Azerbaijan' is the highest national title in the country, awarded for outstanding services of national importance to Azerbaijan in defense, as well as other deeds in other spheres. == Traditions and military institutions == === Military oath === The military oath () is taken by conscripts as a legal basis of the beginning of their military service. The oath is administered by the commanding officer of the unit. The following is the text for the current version of the oath: === Battle flags and pennants === A battle flag for a military unit is a symbol of honor which remains forever in the unit unless it is dissolved. By military law, if the battle flag is lost in battle, the commander of the military unit and the servicemen under its command are brought to court, and the unit is abolished. Battle flags have the color of the State Flag, with the slogan "For Azerbaijan" being embroidered with golden silk on a blue stripe along the upper edge of the fabric. Outside the battle flag, the Azerbaijani military also utilizes the Turkish military tradition of pennants as symbols. === Military holidays === These are the military holidays observed by all service personnel the Armed Forces: - 14 February – Air Force Day - 9 May – Victory Day (Great Patriotic War) - 26 June – Day of the Armed Forces - 5 August – Day of the Azerbaijani Navy - 27 September – Memorial Day - 18 October – Day of the First Military Unit - 8 November – Victory Day === Azerbaijan Military History Museum === Azerbaijan Military History Museum is a structure under the Ministry of Defense. It was established on 10 December 1992 by the order of the Minister of Defense and in accordance with a decree signed on 29 October 1992 "On the transfer of the Museum of Combat Glory of the VI Army Garrison of the Commonwealth of Independent States". Today, the museum displays 5 tanks, 9 armored personnel carriers, 16 artillery pieces, 6 aircraft, 4 helicopters, 6 different military equipment of the Air Force. Currently, the number of exhibits totals 11,000. === Republican Veterans Organization === After the Second World War, veterans movements were launched in Azerbaijan, with the Baku Veterans Committee being established on 10 June 1960. The activity of the committee was limited to Baku until the early 1970s. During the leadership of First Secretary Heydar Aliyev, there was a revival in the veteran movement, during which the committee gradually expanded to the republic. The establishment of the Republican Veterans Organization took place on 21 March 1987. Despite the official registration of the RVO with the Ministry of Justice, the activity of the organization was largely formal due to the tensions in the country with the Karabakh War, as well as the attitude of the government towards Red Army veterans in general. One of the first laws signed by the President Aliyev was the Law "On Veterans" (28 June 1994), which restored the mandate for the RVO.