Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are affected by ocean acidification and warming. [SEP] Text: Lagoon areas exhibit similar patterns, but are warmer by about 0. 5°C. Climbing from the winter low, the highest annual temperatures occur around early June. Shortly after that peak, temperatures decrease by 0. 5°–1. 0°C over the next two months. The drops usually occur in concert with strong west to southwest monsoon winds that often persist for many days. During autumn, temperatures again climb slowly to a second lower peak in mid-November, then start falling toward the next annual low in February. The relative forces driving the observed patterns, particularly the summer decrease, remain to be fully determined. Also, this shallow-water pattern does not extend onto reefs at or deeper than 35 m. The summer decrease in temperature, while usually associated with monsoon storms, does not always occur. 2010 as temperatures reached the level where coral bleaching had previously been observed to start (30°C), the west and southwest monsoon winds failed to occur. Shallow temperatures continued to climb when they normally would have dropped (Figure 5), and bleaching occurred. From 1999 to 2017, 2010 was the only year in which this anomalous pattern occurred, but it may be typical of what occurs during bleaching years. Figure 5. Annual pattern of water temperature at (ULR) and Off (SDO) for the period 1999–2017 from temperatures measured at 30-minute intervals averaged for all years, except 2010. Monthly mean values are shown as circles. The red curve shows all 30-minute 2010 data, including June–October bleaching, from May 20 to the end of the year, with monthly means indicated by circles. > High res figure 2. There is no deep reef refuge from bleaching conditions. It has been suggested that deeper (“mesophotic”) reefs may serve as refugia from conditions that negatively impact shallow reefs (Baker et al. , 2016), allowing survival of reef organisms/communities eliminated by unfavorable conditions in shallow areas. However, the experience in Palau has been that bleaching also impacts deep reefs, and this observation, as well as other factors (Colin and Lindfield, in press), question their potential as climate change refugia. The occurrence of rapid shifts in outer slope temperatures due to internal waves/tides, first described for Palau by Wolanski et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how temperature changes, particularly warming leading to conditions that result in coral bleaching, affect coral reefs. It mentions that the peak temperatures reaching levels where coral bleaching starts aligns with increased water temperatures, indicating a direct impact of warming on coral health. Additionally, it highlights that both shallow and deeper reefs are adversely affected by these temperature changes, thus supporting the claim about the vulnerabilities of coral reefs to climate change factors such as ocean warming.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Composting food waste has no environmental impact. [SEP] Text: -19 PreprintsProtocolsVideosJournalsTools & a 10. 21203/rs. 3. rs-1548107/v1This work is licensed under a CC BY 4. 0 LicenseStatus:PostedVersion 1posted You are reading this latest preprint versionAbstractSawdust and food waste have been part of solid organic waste causing great environmental pollution. Composting is a popular utilization method of converting waste like sawdust and food waste to sanitized and stabilized soil amendment. Unfortunately, many composting systems failed due to a dearth of information as a result of little or no scientific research focused on the effects of the physical properties of composting materials on the composting process. To fill this knowledge gap, three composting experiments of food wastes mixed with sawdust at ratio 20:80, 30:70, and 40:60 and compacted to different initial bulk densities of 15, 20, and 25 kg/m3 respectively was carried out. Physicochemical parameters monitored throughout the composting process include bulk density; porosity; p65. 3 oC) was recorded by trial 3 while trial 1 recorded the lowest temperature (49. 3 0C). A steady decrease in temperature after the thermophilic stage was observed throughout the composting process. Among trials 1, 2, and 3, the maximum pH (9. 2) and EC (5. 1 mS/cm) were observed in compost trial 3. Additionally, the lowest pH (5. 3) and EC (1. 4 mS/cm) was observed in trial 1. Moisture content ranged from 60–15%. Trial 3 had the highest percentage finest and lowest fibrosity content. A significant increase in bulk density, porosity, and p2. CompostingSawdustFood wastePhysical propertiesBulk densityFibrosityFiguresFigure 1Figure 2Figure 3Figure 4Figure 5Figure 6Figure 7Figure 8Figure 9Figure 10Figure 111. 0 IntroductionA large amount of waste generated from agriculture and food waste from households is one of the global serious issues (Hadi et al. 2021). The rate at which solid organic waste is being generated worldwide due to the rise in population and industrialization is alarming (Wu et al. , 2014). Many of these wastes are disposed of untreated and it has caused environmental and health challenges (Lukashe et al. 2019; Awasthi et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that food waste and other organic materials contribute significantly to environmental pollution. It states that 'sawdust and food waste have been part of solid organic waste causing great environmental pollution' and notes that untreated waste disposal has resulted in environmental and health challenges. This implies that composting, as a method of utilizing food waste, does in fact have an environmental impact, contrary to the claim that it has none.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The discovery of exoplanets has expanded the search for extraterrestrial life. [SEP] Text: However, to call life forms perpetually metabolizing things would be a step too far. We’re all familiar with hibernation – in hedgehogs, for example. This is a state of reduced metabolic activity in cold weather. And there’s the related phenomenon of aestivation – reduced metabolic activity in hot dry weather, as is found in some Mediterranean snails. But these two states are eclipsed by a more extreme one called cryptobiosis (‘hidden life’), in which metabolism may be reduced to zero, or very nearly so. The best example of animals exhibiting cryptobiosis are the tiny invertebrates called tardigrades, or water bears. These have played an interesting role in astrobiology, as we’ll see later. So it’s appropriate that they should feature in our discussion here of the definition of life. When environmental conditions become too extreme for a tardigrade to maintain normal, active, rapidly metabolizing life, it converts itself into a static, low-or-zero metabolizing structure called a tun. Both this state and the normal active state are shown in Figure 1. 2. When conditions improve again, it can convert back from a tun into an active, mobile, metabolizing tardigrade. But this fact doesn’t really cause us difficulties of definition. As long as we stick with a view of organisms as ‘intrinsically metabolizing’ rather than ‘perpetually metabolizing’, then we’re ok. Figure 1. 2 Two forms of the tiny invertebrate called a tardigrade or water bear. Upper right: how the animal looks under benign environmental conditions, when it is active. Lower left: a tardigrade tun, which is a resistant, non-metabolizing form that the animal converts itself into under extreme environmental conditions such as very low temperatures or lack of water. If conditions become less extreme, the tun can revert to the active form. That was a quick look at ‘metabolism’. Now, what about reproduction? Cars don’t reproduce. Neither do rocks or clouds of smoke. Organisms do. Perhaps this is more straightforward, then, than the case of metabolism? Well, not entirely. Regrettably, not all adult humans can reproduce. But those who can’t are no less alive than those who can. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses biological concepts related to metabolism and reproduction, particularly focusing on tardigrades and their resilience under extreme conditions. It does not mention exoplanets, extraterrestrial life, or the broader implications of exoplanet discovery.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are affected by ocean acidification and warming. [SEP] Text: (2004), has proven to be the dominant condition on reef faces from 35 m to 90 m. Their interactions with steep slopes imply that water is regularly upwelled during El Niño periods when thermoclines are shallow (Figure 4b) and there are phytoplankton blooms in the mesophotic reef zone (Figure 3c). Niña induced coral bleaching, internal waves may still occur, but much deeper (below 100 m depth), so they are not detected by thermograph arrays in shallower reef waters. There is no question now that temperatures associated with bleaching (near 30°C) can occur in Palau to depths at the lower limits of coral growth. The often unithermal profile from surface to 90 m depth during the bleaching event of 2010 (Figure 3d,e) indicates that the normal stratification in the water column disappears. While there may be mechanisms operating during El Niño and ENSO neutral periods that potentially provide cooling to reef waters through upwelling, these break down during La Niña, preventing any cooling potential to reefs from deeper waters. 3. The comparison of SSST with in situ records over years indicates a need to recalibrate their relationships. Long-term in situ temperature monitoring provides the data sets necessary to fully evaluate the accuracy of SSST and its relationship to deeper reef environments. If the assumption is made that in situ data are accurate within the limits of their precision and their calibration, this allows the critical comparison with remote-sensing-derived values. A preliminary analysis indicates that the accuracy of SSST compared to in situ values decreases with increasing depth (Figure 6). Comparing daily mean temperatures for three years with different ENSO conditions (2010 – La Niña, 2015 – El Niño, 2013 – neutral) provides an informative perspective. During 2010 (a bleaching year), daily means to 35 m were highly correlated with SSST (Figure 6), understandable since the water column was nearly unithermal much of the time. However, 2015 with its El Niño and cool water relatively shallow, did not have a close correlation, reflecting the cooler temperatures found at 15 m and 35 m depth. The ENSO neutral year (2013) was intermediate, but still demonstrated a decreasing correlation between in situ and daily SSST with depth. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing coral bleaching events linked to rising temperatures, particularly referencing a critical temperature of near 30°C that influences coral viability in Palau. It highlights that during bleaching years, such temperatures can occur at depths relevant to coral growth, indicating the impact of warming. Additionally, the relation between sea surface temperature anomalies and coral health points toward the effects of both warming and potentially acidification, as changes in temperature profiles during El Niño and La Niña have direct implications for coral ecosystems.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Composting food waste has no environmental impact. [SEP] Text: 2014; Sukholthaman et al. 2016). Traditional waste disposal methods and inappropriate waste management make the case even worst in developing countries. Household wastes are mixed with other wastes and are disposed of at dumpsites without any efficient material or energy recovery (Oudal et al. 2016). Recently in Nigeria, there is an increase in demand for wood for furniture and other construction purposes, as a result, a considerable amount of sawdust from timber is generated from sawmills. Sawdust is a waste product in form of a tiny piece or powder from wood as wood is cut by hand saw or machine of different sizes (Hadi et al. 2021). South-west Nigeria alone with over 10,000 sawmills is currently processing over 500,000 logs of woods per year, with about 50–55% as waste informs of sawdust (Adegoke et al. , 2014). As a result, a huge landfill of sawdust is been created at the sawmill and it poses a threat to humans and the environment. Getting rid of sawdust requires maximum operational cost, as a result, many were dumped to form sawdust piles and many were burnt on regular basis. Abdul-Halim et al. , (2019) reported that improper disposal and or indiscriminate burning of biomass are responsible for depleting quality of air, contributing to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions, and significantly contributing to global warming and climate change. In addition, it has become a source of contaminant to drinking water, soil pollution (Hwang et al. 2020) and constitutes a major threat to the environment and human health. Therefore, the need for more effective waste management and reasonable plan should be adopted to overcome this environmental concern (Moh et al. 2017). Concerning food waste, it forms a major threat globally because it increases daily due to the increase in human population and improvement in the global economy. FAO statistics report of 2020 indicated that about one-third of food produced is wasted globally (FAO, 2020) and Nigeria alone contributed about 32 million tones of wasted food (Adebayo et al. , 2020). The statistics indicated that 57% are wasted during the cooking and distribution process, 30% are wasted as a leftover, 13% are on storage and disposal (FAO, 2020). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the environmental threats posed by improper waste management and especially food waste, which contributes significantly to global pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. It states that food waste is a major environmental concern, and that a significant portion of food produced is wasted globally, indicating a clear environmental impact.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The discovery of exoplanets has expanded the search for extraterrestrial life. [SEP] Text: In bees and ants, there are whole castes that can’t reproduce – workers, for example. These are no less alive than reproductive drones and queens. Also, cases are known where two species occasionally interbreed, producing offspring that are typically sterile – such as the mule, a hybrid between a horse and a donkey. So, we have to use reproduction as a characteristic of a species rather than of every individual, in our attempts to draw a line between life and non-life. Now we come to the third attribute included in the RIM definition of life – inheritance. This applies to all life forms on Earth, though in different ways to some than to others. We humans are most familiar with the sort of inheritance that is associated with sexual reproduction, in which, as we can plainly see, offspring tend to resemble one or both parents more than they do other members of the overall population. Most other animal species have sexual reproduction, so the same phenomenon applies, even though, for example, we humans find it hard to distinguish degrees of similarity among different individual houseflies. Inheritance still applies in the world of asexual reproduction, which is much more common in bacteria and other microbes than it is in animals. A population of a particular kind of bacterium that reproduces in this way can be thought of us a collection of clones. Each parent, on its own, produces progeny that are genetically identical to itself, so the within-clone variation is zero at the level of the gene (unless a mutation occurs), and may be quite small at the level of the organism. In contrast, the between-clone variation is greater. Since clones are to all intents and purposes families, the situation regarding inheritance is broadly the same. Finally, we must be equally careful in deciding what entity to apply inheritance to, as we were in using the term reproduction. Inheritance applies to the relationship between generations, not to individual organisms taken alone. Of the three RIM attributes, metabolism is the only one that can be applied to individuals considered in isolation from other members of their family, population, or species. In summary, the RIM definition of life can be constructed something like this. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses concepts related to life, reproduction, and inheritance, primarily focusing on biological definitions and characteristics, without addressing the claim about exoplanets or the search for extraterrestrial life. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are affected by ocean acidification and warming. [SEP] Text: Gathering extensive data, which might seem excessive and unneeded at present, ensures that when and if such data are needed to help explain unanticipated events, the data will be there. Compared to the costs of doing many types of oceanographic monitoring, those related to starting and maintaining a water temperature monitoring network are relatively low. Vertical arrays of thermographs can be installed on outer reef areas with steep slopes at specific depths, ideally in holders attached permanently to the reefs, with each station marked by subsurface floats for easy relocation. Instruments can be exchanged at intervals of months to years. If properly set up, it only requires a few seconds for a diver to exchange instruments at a given depth. The quick-exchange capability allows installation at deeper depths, including those accessible by mixed gas rebreather diving, for improved collection of data on internal waves and ENSO thermal shifts. 1. There is a need for enhanced understanding of the relationship between remote-sensing and in situ temperature data. Since the 1980s, perhaps no group of environmental researchers has more thoroughly embraced the globality of SSST measurements than coral reef scientists (Mumby et al. , 2004), with numerous bleaching studies relying almost exclusively on SSST data (e. g. , Peñaflor et al. , 2009; Guest et al. , 2012; Ainsworth et al. , 2016). Despite this acceptance, there are some important caveats with regard to using SSST values. Data from established in situ reef stations using accurate calibrated instruments are the gold standard temperature records for coral reefs, and increased in situ monitoring on coral reefs at all depths is needed. Other types of new oceanographic technology, such as profiling gliders, can provide additional important thermal data not available from instrument arrays. Sea level data from tide gauges and satellite-derived SSH information holds promise for improving understanding of remotely monitored coral bleaching conditions and should be incorporated into the systems in place for assessing bleaching risk. The relationships between remote-sensing and in situ instrument temperature data need to be reexamined, with the goal of increasing accuracy of remote data to reflect thermal conditions throughout the water column where reefs exist. To truly understand the implications of a warming ocean on coral reefs and other tropical marine habitats requires more attention to gathering baseline information and understanding present-day thermal dynamics. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the need for enhanced understanding of the effects of a warming ocean on coral reefs, stating, 'To truly understand the implications of a warming ocean on coral reefs... requires more attention to gathering baseline information and understanding present-day thermal dynamics.' This indicates that warming ocean temperatures have significant implications for coral reefs, supporting the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Composting food waste has no environmental impact. [SEP] Text: Food waste is widely defined as solid or liquid matter, processed or unprocessed, and unintended or intended dump as a leftover during the processing and distribution process (FAO, 2020). However, food waste is becoming an environmental challenge that threatens man and environmental resources (land and water resources) if it is discharged into the environment without prior treatments. It may cause pollution and harmful effects on human and animal health (Ghosh et al. 2019). It is however important to find effective management of these wastes to promote the effort concerning the development of a sustainable society. Researches has proved that organic waste products can be recycled using different technologies such as aerobic digestion, composting, fermentation, refuse-derived-fuels, and gasification (Kelleher, 2007; Mashat, 2014; Nizami et al. , 2017). All these methods require the service of an expert which is an additional cost to the processing of these wastes. Composting has several advantages over other methods of recycling organic waste and it is also considered as a sustainable treatment of converting organic wastes into valuable end products. Converting waste to valuable end products through composting is eco-friendly, in addition to its cost-effectiveness, the valuable end product among others makes composting the most widely adopted method (Al-Rhumaihi et al. 2020). It is also considered the best option for recycling waste without causing environmental hazards (Chen et al. 2018; Calaby-Floody et al. 2019). Composting is gaining more attention as many of the developed nations has reported having adopted composting as a method of recycling and processing the wastes being generated in their country. For example in Europe, over 4 million tonnes of organic waste were recycled by more than 124 compost facilities. Similarly, European countries like; Holland, Spain, and France composted 24, 33, and 14% of the total waste generated in the year 2005 alone (Kelleher, 2007). Composting by-products has been extensively used as organic fertilizer to replenish loss soil nutrients (Wang et al. 2019) and as bioremediation to remove soil organic contaminants (Chen et al. 2015; Purnomo et al. 2011). Composting is a biological process of converting organic waste into a stable and hummus-like organic product through microbial decomposition under aerobic conditions to produce a good quality organic soil conditioner (Fernandez et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the environmental challenges posed by food waste, indicating that improper disposal can lead to pollution and health issues. It further highlights that composting is a sustainable method with several benefits, suggesting it does have a positive environmental impact. Statements like 'Composting is considered the best option for recycling waste without causing environmental hazards' directly oppose the claim that composting has no environmental impact, asserting that composting helps mitigate these environmental challenges.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The discovery of exoplanets has expanded the search for extraterrestrial life. [SEP] Text: An entity is alive if (1) it has intrinsic metabolism; (2) it belongs to, or is descended from, a group (species) that reproduces sexually, asexually, or through a mixture of the two; and (3) there is inheritance of organismic features from one generation to the next. If it has none of these features, it is not alive. Now we get to the grey area mentioned above. What happens if an entity has one or two of these attributes, rather than zero or three? I’m quite confident that most entities on planet Earth can be classified as living or non-living on the basis of the RIM definition, as given above. However, there is an important exception: viruses. Are these entities tiny subcellular organisms, or very large and complex, but non-living, molecules? Most people think of them as being alive, but is this intuitive feeling justified? Viruses have no metabolism. At its simplest, a virus is a piece of hereditary material made of nucleic acid (sometimes DNA, sometimes RNA) wrapped in a protein coat. Its size is orders of magnitude less than that of a single cell. Viruses operate by entering host cells and hijacking their molecular machinery to make offspring viruses. It’s clear from this brief description that viruses have the R and the I of RIM, but not the M. So they possess two out of the three attributes of life. However, this statement has to be qualified in an important way. Viruses can’t reproduce outside of a living cell of their host organism, be it an animal, a plant, a fungus, or a microbe. So their reproduction, and hence their inheritance, is not intrinsic. Perhaps we could conclude that they score half, half, and zero on the RIM scale, thus giving them an overall score of one rather than two. Whatever exact score we give them, the conclusion is inescapable: viruses inhabit a grey area between life and non-life. A of searches for alien life in general, and intelligent alien life in particular, are very different endeavours. We’ve already seen that they involve different wavelengths on the electromagnetic spectrum, and consequently different designs of telescope. Searching for signatures of oxygen is centred on the visible and infrared parts of the spectrum. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the characteristics that define life and the unique case of viruses, but it does not address the claim about exoplanets or their role in the search for extraterrestrial life. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are affected by ocean acidification and warming. [SEP] Text: Given global trajectories, the preliminary indication of increasing temperatures on shallow and deep reefs in Palau is not surprising, yet the large and unpredictable variations there produce uncertainty about the reliability of trends. 2. The thermal conditions on shallow-flat reefs need more attention. Shallow reef areas generally have elevated temperature regimes and need increased attention to determine whether they have the potential to be the drivers of evolution and/or adaptation toward increased temperature tolerance through a combination of symbiont-host factors. Shallow reefs are very important locations where “greater high-frequency temperature variability may represent particularly important opportunities to conserve coral ecosystems against the major threat posed by warming ocean temperatures” (Safaie et al. , 2018). Studies looking at areas with highly elevated temperatures in isolated pools along island shores, a relatively rare habitat, have found evidence for adaptation on several levels (Thomas et al. , 2018). Shallow reef areas are a much more widespread habitat, found along the thousands of kilometers of barrier reefs of Indo-reefs, and need more attention in this regard, as they are a nearby potential source for new propagules if deeper outer slope coral communities are devastated by bleaching. 3. The importance and effects of upwelling on coral reef futures need attention. It has been suggested that the upwelling of cool water from deeper environments may produce areas where coral bleaching is less likely in a given reef area (Skirving et al. , 2010; Guest et al. , 2012). Identifying such areas as “resistant” to bleaching conditions, potentially to be preserved as marine protected areas, is appealing, but relies on the upwelling of cool water during bleaching events. Our data show this is unlikely in Palau. Prior to the 2010 bleaching event, the occurrence of ~30°C water at 60–90 m depth had never been quantified on Indo-Pacific reefs, and now there is a need to examine other locations for similar attributes. In addition to long-term vertical arrays and extensive lagoon deployments, we now have a network of 28 thermograph stations (Figure 1b) covering the entire outer slope of the main island group and sampling once per minute at 57 m depth. That depth was chosen because initial studies indicated 57 m was the depth of near maximal thermal dynamics and was a feasible depth for diving deployments. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the increasing temperatures on shallow and deep reefs and the need for attention regarding thermal conditions. It mentions that shallow reef areas generally have elevated temperature regimes, which indicates that warming is a critical factor affecting coral ecosystems. Furthermore, it highlights the uncertainties in trends due to large and unpredictable variations in thermal conditions, emphasizing the importance of understanding how temperature and potentially acidification may impact coral reefs.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Composting food waste has no environmental impact. [SEP] Text: , 2014; Hemidat et al. 2018; Bao et al. 2016). The composting process starts with the mixing of an organic substrate which is the prerequisite for every composting management condition (Cao et al. 2020). However, setting up good management composting system requires good knowledge about the physical properties of the substrates and the bulking agents. Knowing this could necessitate efficient maintenance and run of a composting plant. Inadequate information about the physical properties of compost material has made many composting systems fail. It is, therefore, necessary to have vital information about the physical properties of the materials involved and understand the composting system. Composting is a biological process that needs oxygen and moisture for microbial activities (Assandri et al. , 2021). The distribution of moisture, oxygen, and temperature within compost is an important factor in maintaining aerobic conditions during composting. The movement of moisture and air across the compost is greatly affected by the geometry and arrangement of the bulking agent where physical properties play a major role (Orthodoxou et al. 2015; Agnew et al. 2005). Moisture and air are required in moderate proportion during composting. Too much moisture and air could lead to excessive cooling and could prevent the compost from reaching the thermophilic condition that is necessary for optimum decomposition and sanitization of the matured compost. Also, inadequate moisture and air in the compost could result in to decrease in oxygen availability to microorganisms and heat evenly distributed across the compost matrix and this could lead to anaerobic conditions. Moisture and air transfer in the composting system are greatly controlled by the physical properties of the substrate. Good knowledge of these physical parameters is important for the analysis and process control of the composting systems. Most of the physical properties of composting materials that attracted great attention are bulk density, porosity, and p2. 0 forming a compost pile, the physical properties of the composting mixture must be taken into consideration for optimal performance of the moisture content, carbon to nitrogen ratio, and to provide a favourable condition for microorganisms (Mayur et al. , 2018). Mayur et al. , (2018) have identified some of the important physical parameters that affect the optimal performance of the composting process such as bulk density, moisture content and air-filled-porosity or free air space. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by detailing the importance of physical properties and environmental conditions (moisture, air, temperature) in the composting process, emphasizing that these factors are critical for effective composting. It highlights that the composting process requires careful management of physical properties, indicating that composting does have environmental implications as it affects the efficiency and sustainability of waste management practices.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The discovery of exoplanets has expanded the search for extraterrestrial life. [SEP] Text: In contrast, searching for the technosignatures of intelligent civilizations is centred on longer wavelengths – those of the radio range. I’m going to use radio as a pragmatic way of defining intelligence from a SETI perspective. But let’s first look at the span of intelligences among animals on Earth from a different perspective. Intelligence is a continuous variable, not a binary one. Life forms here, and probably elsewhere too, show a wide range of behaviours that can be interpreted as indicating a wide range of intelligence underlying them. The construction of a scale for the measurement of intelligence is notoriously difficult, even within the confines of a particular species – humans. How intelligent someone is cannot be completely captured on a single scale; intelligence is a multidimensional property. Paradoxically, though, in a multi-species context the job actually gets easier rather than harder. The reason for this is that the differences we’re dealing with are much greater. A scale for intelligence in the context of life on Earth starts from zero and extends indefinitely upwards. Organisms that lack nervous systems are deemed to have no intelligence. These include all microbes and plants, as well as the most primitive of animals – sponges and a little-known group called placozoans (which translates as ‘flat animals’). Slightly more advanced animals such as jellyfish have diffuse nervous systems but lack brains, and don’t really exhibit any behaviour that merits the description intelligent. There are many animals that have small brains, including insects and arachnids. These typically have rather fixed, instinctive behaviour patterns, but some seem more intelligent than others. Jumping spiders – for example those of the genus Portia – have been put forward as the most intelligent arthropods, owing to their complex patterns of hunting behaviour. The most intelligent invertebrates of all are octopuses; there’s a great book about octopus intelligence by Peter Godfrey-Smith, called Other Minds. Many studies on these wonderful creatures, both in the lab and in the field, have illustrated complex behaviours that are clearly learned rather than instinctive. Octopuses exceed many vertebrates in intelligence. However, some groups of birds seem to be particularly intelligent – notably crows and parrots. And many mammalian groups show high intelligence, especially cetaceans (dolphins and whales) and primates. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim directly. Instead, it discusses various forms of intelligence found in life on Earth and the challenges in defining intelligence, without making any definitive connection to the discovery of exoplanets or its implications for the search for extraterrestrial life.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are affected by ocean acidification and warming. [SEP] Text: The network was installed in 2014 and is now generating around 15 million data points per year, providing the data to answer questions concerning the existence of island-trapped internal waves, the effects of storm passage, and the relationship between ENSO and thermal activity. We have also extended the 57 m network to all six of the southwest islands of Palau, with one array at each island group, giving the network a latitudinal expanse of over 500 km and crossing the main flow of the Countercurrent. 4. New approaches to measuring thermal stress are needed. In Palau, the relationship between SSST and temperature regimes on deeper areas breaks down starting at 10–15 m depth (Figure 6). MMSL from tide gauges or SSH from satellite measurements may provide needed insight into reef temperatures below the surface. Data from Palau support using SSH, along with SSST, to remotely measure thermal conditions associated with coral bleaching (Travis Schramek, of Oceanography, pers. comm. , 2018). The realization that temperatures inducing bleaching extend into deep water during La Niña events is important; in many locations, deeper reefs may have already been severely degraded by undetected bleaching. Unquestioned use by some of SSST data for most considerations of thermal regimes on reefs needs to be reexamined. There is also a risk in assuming that relatively short data collection periods provide information that is representative of temporal dynamics. Experience in Palau indicates periods of a year or less provide little understanding of the longer-term conditions found on reefs. This is particularly true for deeper reef areas. Citation Colin, P. L. 2018. Ocean warming and the reefs of Palau. Oceanography 31(2):126–135, 2016. Climate change disables coral bleaching protection on the Reef. Science 352(6283):338–342, Baker, E. K. , K. A. Puglise, and P. T. Harris, eds. 2016. Ecosystems: A Lifeboat for Coral Reefs? Programme and GRID-Arendal, Nairobi and Arendal, 98 pp. and M. A. Toscano. 2001. El Niño related coral bleaching in Palau, western Caroline Islands. 20:127–136, Castillo, K. D. , and F. P. Lima. 2010. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how the analysis of thermal conditions is important for understanding coral bleaching, particularly in relation to warming temperatures. It mentions that 'the realization that temperatures inducing bleaching extend into deep water during La Niña events is important,' indicating that rising temperatures (a product of warming) impact coral reefs significantly. Additionally, it highlights the need for new approaches to measuring thermal stress, reinforcing the idea that warming affects the health of coral reefs.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Composting food waste has no environmental impact. [SEP] Text: As soon as the compost pile is formed, difficulties are often observed because the effects of some physical properties are always ignored or information about it is not available. For example, bulk density plays a crucial role in the strength and porosity of the compost pile. If the pore space gets filled with water in the presence of high moisture content, then there would be an increase in air space resistance, which results in oxygen deficit in the pile, and anaerobes started dominating aerobes. Bulk density is the ratio of the mass of compost to its volume. Its mathematical expression is kilogram per cubic meter (Kg/m3) (Eq. 1). Another physical parameter that determines the distribution of air and moisture across the compost matrix is porosity. Porosity or air-filled porosity as popularly called in compost literature can be expressed in terms of bulk density and moisture content as described in Eq. (3) Where pd is the p3. 0 Methods 3. 1 Experimental materials 3. 1. 1 The compost bin 60 liters, low-cost, and non-biodegradable plastic containers were used in this study (Fig. 1). The plastic container was light, easy to handle and control, and was water resistant. The inner diameter of the container was 290 mm while the height was 380 mm. The filled line of 300 mm was marked from the bottom of the compost bin. Holes of 3 mm diameter separated by 10 cm was drilled on the side and bottom of the container corresponding to 10% surface porosity, this was necessary for proper aeration and the drainage of the leachate during the composting process. The bins were then placed on a wooden support to minimize heat loss. 3. 1. 2 Food waste and sawdust The food wastes were collected from University of Ilorin canteens and were made up of leftover cooked rice, breads and waste vegetable. The bigger food p1. 5 cm. The sawdust was from soft tree (Malaina tree) and was packed from local sawmill. It was sieved by 5 cm aperture size sieve to obtain the same materials size. The two were then mixed together at different proportions with spade, and was then loaded into bins. Three different composting mixtures at three different initial bulk densities were formulated. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the physical properties of composting, such as bulk density and porosity, which directly affect the composting process and its efficiency. It highlights that high moisture content can lead to oxygen deficits, resulting in anaerobic conditions that negatively impact the compost pile. This indicates that composting is a complex process with significant environmental considerations.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The discovery of exoplanets has expanded the search for extraterrestrial life. [SEP] Text: Among the primates, the great apes stand out, and among these, of course, humans represent an apex. Rather than pretend that it’s possible to create a cross-species numerical scale of intelligence, let’s simply acknowledge five broad-brush levels: zero (e. g. sponges), little if any (e. g. worms), some (e. g. jumping spiders), a lot (e. g. octopuses, crows, most mammals), and ‘high’ (humans). Counterparts of these may well eventually be found among the life forms of other planets, though there may also be a further category (‘very high’) on some of them, the nature of which we can only dimly conjecture. Now let’s poke further into the ‘high’ category here on Earth. Human tool-making is thought to have originated about three million years ago – in the form of stones fashioned for hammering and chopping. That was a significant milestone. Wheels and writing – two further important milestones – were invented thousands rather than millions of years ago. Telescopes were invented a few hundred years ago – around 1600, as we’ve already seen. And radio transmission was achieved in the years around 1900, with the Italian scientist being a key figure. Here’s an important caveat. The pattern of increasing sophistication of human inventions over time can’t be mapped directly to a pattern of increasing intelligence in time. Human brain size reached its present level more than 100,000 years ago. Brain size is a very blunt instrument, but even when more subtle aspects of the brain, such as its shape, are taken into account, the brains of members of our species – Homo sapiens – seem to have reached something resembling the present-day condition by about 50,000 years ago. Not only that, but the Neanderthals alive at that time had brains that were at least as big as ours. So humans of 50,000 years ago probably had an intelligence level not dissimilar to that of an average human alive today. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses intelligence levels among primates and human inventions, without addressing exoplanets or their relation to the search for extraterrestrial life.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are affected by ocean acidification and warming. [SEP] Text: Comparison of in situ and satellite-derived (MODIS-Aqua/Terra) methods for assessing temperatures on coral reefs. Limnology and Oceanography: Methods 8:107–117, Colin, P. L. 2009. of Palau. Indo-Pacific Press, 414 pp, Colin, P. L. , and S. G. Lindfield. In press. Palau. of the World. Y. Loya, K. Puglise, and T. Bridge, eds, Springer. Golbuu, Y. , S. Victor, L. Penland, D. Idip, C. Emaurois, K. Okaji, H. Yukihira, A. Iwase, and R. Van Woesik. 2007. Palau’s coral reefs show differential habitat recovery following the 1998-bleaching event. 26:319–332,. . Yewdall, and Y. A. Affendi. 2012. Contrasting patterns of coral bleaching susceptibility in 2010 suggest adaptive response to the thermal stress. PLoS One 7(3):e33353, Hausfather, Z. , K. Cowtan, D. C. Clarke, P. Jacobs, M. Richardson, and R. Rohde. 2017. Assessing recent warming using instrumentally homogeneous sea surface temperature records. 3(1):e1601207, Heron, S. F. , J. A. Maynard, R. van Hooidonk, and C. M. Eakin. 2016. Warming trends and bleaching stress of the world’s coral reefs 1985–2012. 6:38402, Hsin, Y. , and B. Qui. 2012. Seasonal fluctuations of the surface Countercurrent (NECC) across the Pacific basin. Journal of 117, C06001, Hughes, T. P. , J. T. Kerry, M. Álvarez-Noriega, J. G. Álvarez-. Beger, D. R. Bellwood, R. Berkelmans, and T. C. Bridge. 2018. Global warming and recurrent mass bleaching of corals. Nature 543(7645):373–377, Kleypas, J. A. , J. W. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by mentioning various studies on coral reefs related to thermal stress and warming. It cites research that indicates 'Global warming and recurrent mass bleaching of corals,' which supports the notion that warming significantly affects coral reefs. Additionally, it discusses 'contrasting patterns of coral bleaching susceptibility' likely due to thermal stress, reinforcing the impact of ocean warming on these ecosystems.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Composting food waste has no environmental impact. [SEP] Text: 1 Percentage finest determination The percentage finest determination of the matured compost was done using a mechanical shaking method. From each of the compost, a known representative sample of dried compost was placed on a stack of 5 standard test sieves arranged on the shaker and shaken for 10 minutes. The mass (g) of compost retained on each sieve was measured and was recorded. The procedure was repeated three times for each of the samples compost. The retained compost samples on each sieve were classified into four different fraction sizes: oversize, coarse, pin, and fine. P3. 4. 2 Fibrosity content determination The fibrosity content of each of the matured compost trials was measured by the method described by Boylan et al. , (2009). A compost sample with Known volume and water content was saturated overnight in a concentration of 40g/L solution of sodium hexametaphosphate (Calgon) to disperse the fibers. The sample was then washed in a 150µm sieve with distilled water. The retained material on the sieve was then gently rubbed by hand and the remaining fibers with a diameter greater than 0. 5 mm were removed using tweezers. This was then oven-dried at 80oC to a constant mass. Percentage fiber was then calculated using Eq. (5) fibre−dry is dry mass of fibres M Original−dry is the original dry specimen mass 3. 5 Statistical analysis All the experiments were repeated three times and for each sampling; the mean and standard deviation were reported in this study. All the calculations and graphical analysis were done using Microsoft excel 2010. 4. 0 Discussion 4. 1 Characterization of the Raw materials The composting materials have different physical and chemical properties. The moisture contents were found to be approximately 10. 23% for sawdust and 64. 23% for food waste. In composting experiment, the total organic carbon and nitrogen content of the materials is the nutritional characteristics of the composting materials, the ratio of the two (C:N ratio) is used to assess the nutritional balance for the microorganism. However, the C:N ratio of sawdust was 49. 59, while that of food waste was 34. 95. The C:N ratio of sawdust was slightly higher than that of the food waste. In addition, the two composting materials were slightly acidic with pH of 5. 6 and 5. 3 for sawdust and food waste respectively. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the physical and chemical properties of composting materials, including the nutritional characteristics of food waste, and indicating that composting alters properties like moisture content and C:N ratio, which implies environmental effects. The mention of different materials and their properties suggests that composting food waste has significant implications, countering the assertion that it has no environmental impact.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The discovery of exoplanets has expanded the search for extraterrestrial life. [SEP] Text: Marconi’s ability to send radio signals across the Atlantic in the early twentieth century was probably not so much a consequence of human evolution in the last 50,000 years as it was a consequence of being able to build on a wide range of discoveries and inventions that had taken place in previous history, and on the prediction of radio waves by the Scottish physicist Maxwell in the 1860s. It’s important to keep in mind this point that the mapping of the level of technology of a society to the level of intelligence of its members is complex. However, it’s also important to be pragmatic when trying to come up with a working definition. I’m going to use the ability to send and receive radio waves as indicating that a certain threshold of intelligence has been reached, because searches of a SETI type are largely conducted using radio, and the only beings we’ll detect by conducting these searches are those who can send out powerful signals (radio or possibly laser) into space. The relevant intelligence threshold may have been reached thousands of years earlier, but that’s not important from a practical perspective. Questions We’ve now considered what we’re looking with – telescopes plus various associated techniques including spectroscopy. And we’ve also thought carefully about what we’re looking for – both life in general, as defined by reproduction, inheritance and metabolism, and intelligent life with advanced technology in particular, as defined by the ability to send and receive radio signals. Our final job, before venturing out into the cosmos to take its measure, is to be clear about the key questions we’re asking in our endeavour to understand what has sometimes been called ‘the biological universe’. There are two of these questions, or perhaps more accurately two groups of questions, as follows. First, a group that I think of as being about the geography of alien life. These are questions about distribution in space. For example: Is life only found on planets orbiting stars, or might it be found in other places too, such as rogue planets (which don’t orbit anything) or moons, which orbit planets? Where is the closest life – and the closest intelligent life – to us? How many inhabited bodies are there, at various levels of spatial scale from the solar system through the galaxy to the universe as a whole? Are there planetary systems in which more than one planet is inhabited? [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is largely irrelevant to the claim as it primarily discusses the historical development of radio technology and its implications for detecting extraterrestrial intelligence through signal transmission. While it briefly mentions observations related to alien life and the distribution of life in the universe, it does not specifically address the discovery of exoplanets or how those discoveries impact the search for extraterrestrial life.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are affected by ocean acidification and warming. [SEP] Text: Many endolithic macroborers are filter feeders (Smith et al. 1981), and eutrophication and high water turbidity have been shown to increase substrate infestation rates through enhanced food availability (Chazottes et al. 2002; Silbiger et al. 2014, 2017). However, high sedimentation can have negative impacts on some macrobioeroders through smothering and shading (Macdonald and Perry 2003). Light levels are a major control on the abundance and composition of microendolithic communities (Gektidis 1999; Perry and Macdonald 2002), as many euendolithic species are phototrophic. Simulated ocean acidification scenarios have also been shown to accelerate both macrobioerosion (DeCarlo et al. 2015) and microbioerosion (Reyes-Nivia et al. 2013) through a weakening of the carbonate substrate. These interacting environmental controls result in marked differences in endolithic erosion rates between locations, but a more complete understanding of the causes and implications is hampered by the relative paucity of quantitative data on erosion rates and the taxa driving erosion. Here we contribute to this increasingly important topic through the quantification of bioerosion rates, and the contributing taxa, in the remote Chagos Archipelago, Ocean. The remoteness and protected status of the archipelago mean that the confounding effects of direct human disturbance to reefs, including eutrophication, can largely be excluded (Hays et al. 2020). Based on experimental deployments of carbonate blocks across two different depths, we provide the first macro- and microendolithic bioerosion rate data for the region. We also assess the relative contributions of different organisms (macro-, micro-, and external bioeroders) to total bioerosion rates, data which enhances not only our understanding of variations in bioerosion across locations but can also improve local reef carbonate budget estimates. Study area and methodsTo quantify endolithic bioerosion rates, we deployed experimental carbonate blocks on stainless-steel racks at depths of 5 m and 10 m (n = 7 per depth and exposure period) on the fore-reef of Ile Poule, Atoll, in the Chagos Archipelago, Ocean in May 2018 (Fig. 1a). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by stating that simulated ocean acidification scenarios have been shown to accelerate both macrobioerosion and microbioerosion through a weakening of the carbonate substrate. This implies a direct impact of ocean acidification on coral reef health and structure, supporting the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Composting food waste has no environmental impact. [SEP] Text: The electrical conductivity of the composting materials was within the range of 7. 55 dS/m for sawdust and 41. 63 dS/m for food waste. The higher electrical conductivity recorded by food waste may be because of some salts present in the food materials. Fibrosity content was determined for sawdust only and was found to be 89. 0%. Bulk densities for both materials were 15. 12 and 10. 23 Kg/m3 for sawdust and food waste respectively. Table 1 Basic characterization of raw materials used in the composting experiments Food waste TN (%) 1. 62 ± 0. 16 1. 54 ± 0. 29 TOC (%) 80. 34 ± 1. 47 53. 83 ± 0. 20 C/N 49. 59 34. 95 pH 5. 65 ± 0. 11 5. 36 ± 0. 47 EC (dS/m) 7. 55 ± 0. 47 41. 63 ± 0. 65 Moisture content (%) 10. 23 ± 0. 23 64. 23 ± 0. 13 Fibrosity content (%) 89. 0 ± 0. 02 *density (Kg/m3) 15. 12 ± 0. 01 10. 23 ± 0. 14 Nd = not determine 4. 2 Composting temperature evolution Composting temperature is one of the key parameters of the stability index that indicate the stability and maturity of the compost (Mayur et al. , 2018). Temperature affects microbial activities during composting and it also indicates process change during composting. The breaking down of complex organic compounds into simpler units is enhanced by temperature (Waqsa et al. 2018). Figure 1 shows the temperature profile of trials 1, 2, and trial 3 for different bulk densities respectively. As shown in the figures, temperature ranges and duration at each stage differ in each of the experimental trials and this could attribute to the different experimental conditions of each of the composting trials. Microbes’ activities are responsible for an increase in temperature during an active composting period (Prashant et al. 2019). For it to perform at optimum, it should be provided with adequate nutrients, moisture, and oxygen. In this present study, it was observed that the temperature of the three composting trials increased rapidly from day 1 of the experiment, peaked at different days, and started cooling until they were stable and reached ambient temperature. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that composting involves various processes, including microbial activity that impacts temperature, which suggests an active environmental process. For instance, it mentions that 'temperature affects microbial activities during composting,' highlighting that composting food waste is an influential action affecting environmental conditions. This demonstrates that composting food waste has clear environmental impacts, such as changes in temperature and microbial processes, debunking the claim that it has no environmental impact.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The discovery of exoplanets has expanded the search for extraterrestrial life. [SEP] Text: Such a dip (or band) is interpreted as the result of absorption by a particular gas in the planet’s atmosphere, and is known as an absorption band. Since different gases have different patterns of absorption centred on different wavelengths – in other words different ‘signatures’ – they can be identified. Some gases, notably oxygen, are regarded as biosignatures. As we will see later (in 1. 2 Two forms of the tiny invertebrate called a tardigrade or water bear. Upper right: how the animal looks under benign environmental conditions, when it is active. Lower left: a tardigrade tun, which is a resistant, non-metabolizing form that the animal converts itself into under extreme environmental conditions such as very low temperatures or lack of water. If conditions become less extreme, the tun can revert to the active form. You have by Loading. . . [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text describes the process of identifying gases in a planet's atmosphere using absorption bands and mentions that some gases are regarded as biosignatures. However, it does not directly address the claim regarding the discovery of exoplanets and its impact on the search for extraterrestrial life. Therefore, the text is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are affected by ocean acidification and warming. [SEP] Text: IntroductionThe deposition of the calcium carbonate skeleton by scleractinian corals is a highly organized extracellular process. Skeletogenesis is not merely a product of inorganic precipitation out of a super-saturated solution, rather it is regulated by a process that combines organic matrix and mineral depositions in seasonal to diurnal growth layers (Barnes and Lough 1993; Cuif et al. 1999; Cohen and McConnaughey 2003; Allemand et al. 2004; Cuif and Dauphin 2005; Tambutté et al. 2007). Calcification rate is controlled by the calicoblastic epithelium, which provides the peri-crystalline fluid (i. e. , the fluid filling the space between epithelium and skeleton) with all necessary factors for calcification. The calicoblastic epithelium secretes the organic matrix (Johnston 1980; Allemand et al. 1998; Puverel et al. 2005; Tambutté et al. 2007), and transports calcium ions (Tambutté et al. 1996; Marshall 1996) and dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) (Goreau 1961; Furla et al. 2000). The experimental inhibition of any of these processes has been shown to inhibit calcification (Allemand et al. 2004). Inorganic precipitation of calcium carbonate was also found to be proportional to Ω, the saturation state of seawater, which is equal to [Ca2+] × [CO 2−3 ]/K, where K is the apparent solubility constant for a particular mineral phase of CaCO3. It is therefore largely assumed that Ω also controls coral calcification at the organismal level (Smith and Buddemeier 1992; Gattuso et al. 1998; Marubini et al. 2001, 2003; see review Raven et al. 2005). A solution with a low Ω is not energetically favourable for CaCO3 precipitation (Simkiss 1976), and warrants concern for reef health worldwide because Ω has already decreased over the last century from 5. 3 to 4. 4 and will keep on decreasing as atmospheric pCO2 increases (Kleypas et al. 1999, 2005; Orr et al. 2005). Such increase in pCO2 has already led to a decrease in pH of about 0. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by explaining how the calcification of corals is influenced by the saturation state of seawater (Ω), which is affected by the levels of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and pH. It notes that a low Ω is unfavorable for calcium carbonate precipitation, which relates directly to concerns about ocean acidification due to increasing atmospheric pCO2. Additionally, it underscores the impact of rising pCO2 and the resulting decrease in pH over the last century, highlighting the importance of these factors on reef health.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Composting food waste has no environmental impact. [SEP] Text: This shows that biodegradation of organic materials through the activities of microbial has started. Jakubus (2020) recorded the same in the study of comparative compost prepared from various organic wastes based on biological and chemical parameters. In this study, each of the composting trials recorded the three temperature phases i. e mesophilic < 45 oC, (heating period), thermophilic > 45 oC (high temperature period) and cooling phase < 45 oC (Mayur et al. , 2018). The optimum temperature range to kill pathogen is 40–65 oC (Wang et al. 2021, Bao et al. 2016) and it must last for three to four days to sanitize the compost. In this study, the observed temperature ranged between 42. 3oC and 65. 3oC throughout the experimental period and this is enough to kill pathogens in the compost. Compost trial 3 recorded the highest temperature (65. 3 oC) and it lasted for more than three days. In compost trial 3, the initial bulk density was 25 Kg/m3; therefore the physical structure of this trial allows even distribution of oxygen and moisture for microorganisms. The increase in the activities of microorganisms in this trial leads to a rapid increase in temperature. Compost trial 1 recorded the lowest temperature during the high-temperature period (49. 3 oC). The lowest temperatures recorded in this trial indicate lower activities of microorganisms. In trial 1, the compost materials are closely packed together as a result of compaction, therefore, a high rate of biodegradation occurred and this led to high-temperature evolution within the compost. This shows that a bulk density of 25 Kgm3 is favourable for temperature rise as free air space is reduced therefore more oxygen and moisture is available for microorganisms. Therefore, it may be assumed that the high bulk density corresponds to less free air space. Microorganism decomposes organic matter and heat is released, the temperature of the composting trial increases at the beginning of the composting process. With the decrease in organic matter content of the composting materials and through heat loss by ventilation and evaporation (Arias et al. 2021), the temperatures of the trial gradually decreased and reach ambient temperature. However, the best bulk density from the perspective of temperature in this study was that of experiment trial 3. 4. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by detailing the scientific processes involved in composting, including the biodegradation of organic materials by microorganisms, which suggests an active environmental process. The mention of temperature phases during composting, as well as the microbial activities that generate heat and contribute to the sanitization of compost, indicates significant environmental impacts. Overall, the data highlight that composting leads to changes in temperature and microbial activity, challenging the claim that it has no environmental impact.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Liquid water is considered a key factor in determining a planet's habitability. [SEP] Text: Policy: ASTM International prohibits the entry of ASTM standards and related ASTM intellectual property (“”) into any form of (AI) tools, such as ChatGPT. Additionally, creating ----derivatives of using AI is also prohibited without express written permission from ASTM’s President. In the case of such use, ASTM will suspend a licensee’s access to and further legal action will be considered. Meetings & | Meetings & & & Standards and Papers & STPs Manuals, Monographs, & of ® (SOP) (TMA) and & & & & and ASTM What is and to to News and & -04. 12 Committee E06 $ 73. 00 In stock Significance and Use 5. 1 The dry indicator used in this test method is so strongly hygroscopic it will change color in a moderate- to high-humidity atmosphere without contacting liquid water. It will also change when in contact with liquid water. 5. 2 This test method is of value for materials that come in contact with water on one face and where it is important to evaluate the length of time for water vapor to pass through the material. Scope 1. 1 This test method covers the determination of the time required for water vapor to pass through a sheet membrane in contact with liquid water using the dry-indicator method. 1. 2 The method has been used to evaluate water resistive barriers, flexible flashing and other materials used in building construction in order to measure their resistance to water vapor transmission. 1. 3 The values stated in inch-pound units are to be regarded as standard. The values given in parentheses are mathematical conversions to SI units that are provided for information only and are not considered standard. 1. 4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. Version D0779-16 D0779-16R22 Active D0779-03 D0779-94R02 D0779-94R98 is a Redline? Why Redline? × A PDF redline is a quick and easy way to compare all of the changes between the current, active standard and the previous version. With a redline you'll immediately see: additions deletions and other changes between the two standards. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses ASTM standards related to moisture and water vapor transmission in materials but does not address the concept of habitability or the importance of liquid water in determining a planet's ability to support life. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are affected by ocean acidification and warming. [SEP] Text: 1 pH unit during the last century (IPCC 2007), resulting in a decrease in [CO 2−3 ] and thus Ω. Numerous laboratory experiments have demonstrated that a decrease in seawater Ω, by manipulating either calcium or DIC concentration, induced a correlative 10–30% decrease in coral calcification (Gattuso et al. 1998; Leclercq et al. 2002; Marubini et al. 2003; Ohde and Hossain 2004; Schneider and Erez 2006; Fine and Tchernov 2007). One of the main questions that remains to be answered is how can changes in seawater lead to consistent and significant differences in calcification when the magnitude of these changes is much smaller than the large fluctuations in Ω, pH, or DIC content and speciation that occur within the coelenteric environment between light and dark conditions (Furla et al. 1998, 2000; Al-Horani et al. 2003)? Indeed Furla et al. (1998) showed that the coelenteric pH fluctuates from 7. 4 at night to 8. 9 during the day, i. e. , a ΔpH far larger than that induced by ocean acidification. Furthermore, while two studies performed in the medium term (>1 week) have shown an enhancement of coral growth after an increase in DIC (Marubini and Thake 1999; Herfort et al. 2008), a different result has been found with experiments made on a scale of a few hours, which showed that coral growth was saturated at ∼1-mM DIC (Furla et al. 2000). A potential explanation for these contrasting results may be differences in the period of incubation in DIC-enriched medium, perhaps inducing acclimatization of corals. Since a decrease in Ω is always linked to a decrease in pH and in CO 2−3 as well as an increase in CO2 and HCO −3 it is difficult to decipher which parameter, CO 2−3 pH, or pCO2, is responsible for the observed decrease in calcification. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the impacts of changes in seawater pH and its correlation to coral calcification. It mentions a decrease in seawater Ω caused by ocean acidification, leading to a 10–30% decrease in coral calcification. This supports the idea that coral reefs are indeed affected by ocean acidification. Additionally, fluctuations in conditions between night and day are addressed, indicating how these environmental changes can influence coral health and growth.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Composting food waste has no environmental impact. [SEP] Text: 3 Moisture content Estimation of moisture requirement is important for optimum productivity of composting process and one of the major factors that need to be considered in the composting system design (Hemidat et al. , 2018). Moisture must flow for an adequate supply of oxygen to microorganisms for proper microbial activities. Literature reported different moisture content, for example, Liang et al. (2003) recommended moisture within the range of 70% for maximum microbial activities while Wang et al. (2021) recommended moisture within the range of 50–60%. Moisture content greater than 60% is not recommended as it prevents oxygen from the tiny pore of the compost pile and lowers its aerobic activities (Nahm, 2005). This is supported by Looper (2002) who found that moisture content above 60% produces odour and stops temperature to rise to thermophilic during composting. Bulk density directly influenced the moisture needed for effective composting. The theoretical volume of water needed is related to the initial bulk density and air-filled porosity of the compost (Equations 1 and 2). Concerning trials 1, 2, and 3, the initial moisture contents were adjusted to the required range of 60% (Wang et al. , 2021). Consistent with other reported data, this moisture range was the best to support microbial activities. Generally, the moisture content of the three compost trials decreased gradually during the composting process in the first four weeks of the composting period. This can be attributed to active microbial activities and the turning frequency of the compost (Cao et al. , 2020). The change in moisture content was more pronounced in compost trial 3, followed by trial 2, and least in compost trial 1. This result is in line with the findings of Pezzola et al. (2021) in the study of the use of new parameters to optimize the composting process of different organic waste. The moisture content of trials 2 and 3 were significantly decreased and the highest temperatures were also recorded in these trials. The decrease in moisture content in trials 2 and 3 may be due to the activities of microorganisms that consume moisture during their activities (Jae-Han et al. , 2020). In trial 3 which had the highest bulk density, a maximum moisture content reduction of more than 50% of the total moisture was observed. This could be as a result of the highest bulk density of the compost (Mayur et al. , 2018). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the factors influencing the composting process, such as moisture content, which is critical for microbial activity. It cites multiple sources indicating that moisture levels significantly affect the composting process's success, thus highlighting the environmental consequences of improper moisture management. This indicates that composting has measurable impacts, contradicting the claim that it has no environmental impact.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Liquid water is considered a key factor in determining a planet's habitability. [SEP] Text: and Trouble! With a Redline you no longer have to spend time trying to determine what has changed in the new standard! Redlines save you time and ensure you see what the changes are to the standard. you select the "Standard + Redline" option you get both documents! Best of all, the cost of a Standard + Redline is only slightly more than buying the by itself. Soon! Price: Add to & and Handling × Domestic orders are delivered via Service (UPS) or (USPS). Transit times average 3 to 5 business days. Please be aware that UPS will not deliver packages to Boxes. . orders are delivered via courier post services which can be either a postal service, courier service, or a combination of both. is untraceable. Please allow 4-7 weeks for delivery. . Please be aware that carriers will not deliver packages to Boxes. Because of the variability of customs processes and procedures in different countries, ASTM International cannot guarantee transit times to international destinations. Customs duty and taxes are the responsibility of the consignee. Shipping & Handling charges follow the rate schedule, below: Shipping & Up to $50. 00 $18. 00 $50. 01 to $100. 00 $20. 00 $100. 01 to $150. 00 $28. 38 $150. 01 to $250. 00 $37. 59 $250. 01 to $500. 00 $54. 09 $500. 01 to $750. 00 $73. 48 $750. 01 to $1000. 00 $89. 57 $1000. 01 to $1500. 00 $116. 61 $1500. 01 to $2500. 00 $152. 29 $2500. 01 to $4999. 00 $201. 00 $5000. 00 to $higher $225. 00 Shipping and Handling charges are approximate. Additional charges may be incurred if your order requires multiple shipments. This does not apply to complete sets and sections. × -. By purchasing a subscription and clicking through this agreement, you are entering into a contract, and acknowledge that you have read this License Agreement, that you understand it and agree to be bound by its terms. If you do not agree to the terms of this License Agreement, promptly exit this page without entering the ASTM Product. 1. Ownership:is copyrighted, both as a compilation and as individual standards, 2. Definitions. A. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant (pass) to the claim regarding liquid water and its role in planet habitability. It discusses shipping, handling, and licensing issues without addressing planetary science or habitability factors.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are affected by ocean acidification and warming. [SEP] Text: Indeed, decreased pH can change both the availability of nutrients (especially metals, Zeebe and Wolf-Gladrow 2001), and lead to the acidification of body fluids in marine animals, indirectly affecting their growth; increased CO2 concentrations also alter the level of bicarbonate used both in coral photosynthesis and calcification (Langdon and Atkinson 2005). By doubling the bicarbonate concentration in seawater, it is possible, however, to dissociate the effects of pH and Ω. If the decrease in calcification is related to Ω and not to pH, corals would be expected to grow faster under high Ω values. Conversely, if coral physiology and cellular processes are governed by pH, then, corals grown at the same pH should present the same growth rate, independent of Ω. To test this hypothesis, an 8-day experiment was performed maintaining the branching coral Stylophora pistillata in three different pH and two concentrations of total DIC for each pH. The effect of the changing seawater chemistry was monitored in both rates of photosynthesis and calcification, since the coupling between these two processes, which depend on the same substrate, HCO −3 (see review by Allemand et al. 2004), is well known (McConnaughey and Whelan 1997). If increased CO2 concentrations enhance photosynthesis (Goiran et al. 1996), this would be expected to have an effect on the rates of calcification. Materials and methodsColonies of S. pistillata were used in this study because its physiology is well known (Muscatine et al. 1989; Tambutté et al. 1996; Shick et al. 2005; Franklin et al. 2006; Stambler and Shashar 2007; Mass et al. 2007). Colonies were sampled in the Gulf of Aqaba in surface waters and maintained for 5 months under culture conditions. Similar sized tips, hereafter called nubbins (2. 5-cm length for calcification, 1-cm length for photosynthesis), were cut from parent colonies using bone cutters. The nubbins were hung by a nylon thread from a supporting structure above the culture aquaria, and were left to recover and grow in the same conditions as the parent colonies for 2 months prior to the start of the experiment. Nubbins were not fed. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how decreased pH, which is a consequence of ocean acidification, can affect the availability of nutrients and lead to the acidification of body fluids in marine animals, including corals. Additionally, the text mentions that increased CO2 concentrations affect both coral photosynthesis and calcification, further confirming the impact of ocean conditions on coral reef health.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Composting food waste has no environmental impact. [SEP] Text: During active composting, bulk density increases and eliminates or reduces the air-filled-porosity which is believed to be inaccessible to microorganisms (Mayur et al. , 2018) and this leads to a decrease in porosity; as a result, less moisture would be available for microorganisms and this would reduce their activities (Makan et al. , 2013). As the compost approached stability, the moisture content in all the compost trials gradually decreased to around 23. 33%, 21. 54%, and 18. 43% in trials 1, 2, and 3 respectively. There was no significant relation between mixing ratio and moisture content, but the compost trial 3 with the highest bulk density recorded the lowest reduction of moisture content. 4. 4 Evaluation of pH and electrical conductivity (EC) 4. 4. 1 pH Figure 4 shows the evaluation of the pH of the composts. The pH range during the composting period is used to assess the progress of composting as it influences the microorganism growth and gaseous loss of ammonia (Hemidat et al. 2018). Variation in pH tends to occur because of chemical changes in the chemical composition of composting materials. Changes in pH were observed in the three trials throughout the composting period in this study. Many researchers have reported that the initial pH value of the mixture should range from about 6. 0 to 7. 0 (Chang et al. , 2019; Varelas, 2019). However, the initial pH value of the compost trials after mixing in this study was slightly alkaline (6. 3–6. 9) which was optimum for microbial activities. This was in agreement with the finding of Abdul-Halim et al. , (2019) who recorded the same range of initial pH values. As the composting was progressing, pH value varies across the composting experiment. However, after the third week, i. e during the thermophilic stage of composting pH values in the trials significantly increased. The significant increase in pH value was more pronounced in experiment trial 3. The pH increase in all the trials may be as a result of volatilization of organic acid under high temperature (Manu et al. , 2019), consumption of organic acids by microorganisms, the production and accumulation of NH4+ and humic substances (Elkinci et al. , 2019, Manu et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing various factors that influence the composting process, such as bulk density, moisture content, pH, and the activities of microorganisms. These factors suggest that composting does have observable impacts on environmental conditions, specifically indicating that changes occur in pH and moisture levels during the composting process. The presence of chemical changes in the composting materials highlights that composting involves significant environmental interactions.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Liquid water is considered a key factor in determining a planet's habitability. [SEP] Text: Types of Licensees: (i) Individual User:a single unique computer, with an individual IP address; (ii) Single-Site:one geographic location or to multiple sites within one city that are part of a single organization unit administered centrally; for example, different campuses of the same university within the same city administered centrally. (iii) Multi-Site:an organization or company with independently administered multiple locations within one city; or an organization or company located in more than one city, state or country, with central administration for all locations. B. Authorized Users:any individual who has subscribed to this Product; if a Site License, also includes registered students, faculty or staff member, or employee of the Licensee, at the Single or Multiple Site. 3. Limited License. ASTM grants Licensee a limited, revocable, nonexclusive, non-transferable license to access, by means of one or more authorized IP addresses, and according to the terms of this Agreement, to make the uses permitted and described below, each ASTM Product to which Licensee has subscribed. A. Specific Licenses: (i) Individual User: (a) the right to browse, search, retrieve, display and view the Product; (b) the right to download, store or print single copies of individual Documents, or portions of such Documents, solely for Licensee's own use. That is, Licensee may access and download an electronic file of a Document (or portion of a Document) for temporary storage on one computer for purposes of viewing, and/or printing one copy of a Document for individual use. Neither the electronic file nor the single hard copy print may be reproduced in anyway. In addition, the electronic file may not be distributed elsewhere over computer networks or otherwise. That is, the electronic file cannot be emailed, downloaded to disk, copied to another hard drive or otherwise shared. The single hard copy print may only be distributed to others for their internal use within your organization; it may not be copied. The individual Document downloaded may not otherwise be sold or resold, rented, leased, lent or sub-licensed. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses licensing agreements and authorized user rights for an ASTM product, and does not mention liquid water or planetary habitability.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are affected by ocean acidification and warming. [SEP] Text: The tissue of S. pistillata accounted for ca. 1 ± 0. 5% of the total buoyant weight, and a small correction was therefore made to the results, as in Davies (1989). Growth rate was then calculated on a daily basis and standardized to initial skeletal weight. The effect of the water chemistry was tested using a two-way ANOVA using StatView software. Results were considered significantly different for values of P < 0. 05. ResultspH treatments were similar in bicarbonate-ambient and bicarbonate-enriched seawater (low pH = 7. 58 and 7. 56; medium pH = 7. 97 and 7. 95; high pH = 8. 19 and 8. 16). pH was maintained constant (maximum variability = 0. 05) throughout the experiment. There was no appreciable effect of coral metabolism on seawater chemistry due to the short residence time in the aquaria. Table 1 presents all other parameters of the carbon chemistry in the aquaria. Protein and chlorophyll a concentrations did not differ between treatments after 8 days (ca. 6 g and 80 mg g−1, respectively). Figure 1 shows the rates of photosynthesis measured in the experimental tanks. There was no effect of pH. However, rates of photosynthesis were significantly (F 1,50 = 46. 36, P < 0. 001) higher (by ca. 70%) in the bicarbonate-enriched compared to bicarbonate-ambient treatments (Fig. 1). Fig. 1Effect of seawater acidification on the photosynthetic rate of nubbins of Stylophora pistillata. Photosynthetic rates were measured after 8 days of incubation in bicarbonate-ambient (BA, 2 mM) and bicarbonate-enriched (BE, 4 mM) at 3 different pH: 7. 6, 8. 0, and 8. 2 (means ± SE)Full size image Coral calcification also varied between treatments (Fig. 2). It was lowest in the BA-7. 6 condition (14. 7 mg CaCO3 g−1 d−1) and maximum in the BE-8 and 8. 2 treatments (24. 6 and 24. 1 mg CaCO3 g−1d−1). There was an effect of both pH (F 2,60 = 12. 7, P < 0. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing experimental results that show the effects of seawater acidification and pH levels on the photosynthetic rates and calcification of the coral species Stylophora pistillata. Specifically, it mentions that coral calcification varied with different treatments of bicarbonate-ambient and bicarbonate-enriched seawater, indicating how ocean acidification can impact coral growth and health.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Composting food waste has no environmental impact. [SEP] Text: 2019), and mineralization of acidic compounds such as carboxylic and phenolic group (Madejon et al. 2021) and due to the breaks down of complex amino acids and peptides with the release of NH4+ (Sundberg et al. 2013). The pH changes in trials 1 and 2 followed a similar pattern. After then, pH values in all the trials were then decreased. According to Wang et al. , (2021), the production of NH3 gas from the decomposition of nitrogen tends to increase the pH value in the early weeks of composting but decreases later due to the decomposition of organic acid to organic matter. At the end of the composting experiment, the pH of the three trials of this study decreased and was observed to be lower than the initial values and almost alkaline. Trial 1 with an initial bulk density of 15 Kg/m3 showed the lowest final pH range (7. 4 ), while trial 2 and 3 was a little bit higher than trial 1 4. 4. 2 Electrical conductivity of the composting trials Electrical conductivity (EC) determination is crucial during composting as it indicates the salinity and the usability of final compost products. It also shows the number of soluble salts in the compost. An increase in EC would lead to phytoinhibitory effects (Zhou et al. 2019). The electrical conductivity greater than 4 mS/cm is considered injurious to plants (Manu et al. 2018) because the soluble salts can negatively affect seed germination. The electrical conductivity of each of the trials displays an irregular pattern throughout the composting period. It first increased then decreased and later increased at the end of the composting period. When the composting experiment was started, compost trial 3 recorded the highest EC (Fig. 4). This observation might be as a result of the highest proportion of food waste in trials 3 which leads to the buildup of soluble salt which is assumed to be as a result of food salinity or the presence of mineral salts like phosphates and NH4+ through the breakdown of compost materials (He et al. 2020). The initial EC of trial 3 is significantly higher than compost trials 1 (1. 8 mS/cm) and 2 (1. 8 mS/cm). This may be due to the highest proportion of food waste in compost trial 1. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by detailing various chemical changes and effects that occur during the composting process, indicating that composting does have significant environmental impacts. It discusses how the decomposition of food waste leads to changes in pH and electrical conductivity, which can negatively affect seed germination and indicate the salinity of the final compost product. Specifically, mentions of organic acids, NH4+, and soluble salts show that composting alters environmental conditions, thereby rebutting the claim that it has no environmental impact.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Liquid water is considered a key factor in determining a planet's habitability. [SEP] Text: (ii) Single-Site and Multi-Site Licenses: (a) the right to browse, search, retrieve, display and view the Product; (b) the right to download, store or print single copies of individual Documents, or portions of such Documents for the Authorized User's personal use, and to share such copies with other of Licensee within Licensee's computer network; (c) if an educational institution, Licensee is permitted to provide a hard copy of individual Documents to individual students (Authorized Users) in a class at Licensee's location; (d) the right to display, download and distribute hard copies of Documents for training or groups of Authorized Users. (e) Licensee will undertake all necessary authentication and verification processes to ensure only can access the ASTM Product. (f) Licensee will provide ASTM with a list of authorized IP (numeric IP domain addresses) addresses and, if Multi-Site, a list of authorized sites. B. Prohibited Uses. (i) describes all permitted uses. Any other use is prohibited, is a violation of this Agreement and can result in immediate termination of this License. (ii) User may not make this Product, or Documents, available to anyone other than another Authorized User, whether by Internet link, or by permitting access through his or her terminal or computer; or by other similar or dissimilar means or arrangements. (iii) Specifically, no one is authorized to transmit, copy, or distribute any Document in any manner or for any purpose except as described in Section 3 of this License, without ASTM's prior express written permission. In particular, except as described in Section 3, no one may, without the prior express written permission of ASTM: (a) distribute or forward a copy (electronic or otherwise) of any 4. Detection of Prohibited Uses. A. Licensee is responsible for taking reasonable measures to prevent prohibited uses, and promptly notify ASTM of any infringements of copyright or prohibited use of which Licensee becomes aware. Licensee will cooperate with ASTM in investigating any such prohibited uses and will take reasonable steps to ensure the cessation of such activity and to prevent any reoccurrence. B. Licensee shall use all reasonable efforts to protect the Product from any use that is not permitted under this Agreement, and shall notify ASTM of any use of which it learns or is notified. 5. to Product. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses licensing rights and prohibited uses of products and documents, which has no connection to the concept of liquid water and its role in planetary habitability.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are affected by ocean acidification and warming. [SEP] Text: 0001) and DIC (F 1,60 = 23. 5, P < 0. 0001) on calcification with no interaction. On average for the same pH, corals in the bicarbonate-enriched seawater grew 27% faster (range 15–39%) than in bicarbonate-ambient seawater. Growth rates were also plotted against the different parameters involved in the DIC equilibrium, i. e. , HCO −3 CO 2−3 CO2 and pH (Fig. 3; Table 2). For CO 2−3 or Ωarag there was no significant relationship with growth rate for the data of the separate treatments (bicarbonate-ambient or bicarbonate-enriched) but using all data points, there was a positive relationship in both cases (Table 2, Fig. 3d, e) which tended towards an asymptote as CO 2−3 or Ω arag increased. For all other parameters except HCO −3 growth was linearly correlated for each treatment separately (Table 2, Fig. 3a–c and f). Fig. 2Effect of seawater acidification on the growth rate of nubbins of Stylophora pistillata. Growth rates (G) were measured after 8 days of incubation in bicarbonate-ambient (BA, 2 mM) and bicarbonate-enriched (BE, 4 mM) at 3 different pH: 7. 6, 8. 0, and 8. 2 (means ± SE)Full size image Fig. 3Growth rate (G) of nubbins of Stylophora pistillata as a function of (a) HCO −3 (b) dissolved CO2, (c) pH, (d) CO 2−3 (e) Ω, and (f) β (means ± SE). Experiments were carried out in bicarbonate-ambient (black symbols) or bicarbonate-enriched (white symbols) seawaterFull size image Table 2 Statistical models testing the shape and significance of the relationships of growth (G) to water parameters and their interactions (as shown in Fig. 3)Full size table DiscussionThe present study investigated the medium term (1-week incubation) effect of seawater acidification on calcification and photosynthesis of the branched coral, S. pistillata. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the effects of seawater acidification on the growth rate of the coral species Stylophora pistillata. It mentions that the study investigated the impact of seawater acidification, which is a direct consequence of increased carbon dioxide levels leading to ocean acidification. The results demonstrate changes in growth rates based on varying pH levels, thereby highlighting that coral reefs are indeed affected by ocean acidification.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Composting food waste has no environmental impact. [SEP] Text: Trial 1 had the smallest proportion of food waste so it had the smallest initial EC value. Early in the third week, compost trials 1 and 2 showed a similar value of EC, except trial 3 that still maintained a higher EC value than trials 1 and 2. After the 8th week of composting, no significant reduction was observed in EC of compost trial 3. It still maintained higher EC than trials 1 and 2. However, in the early 10th week, all the compost trials had similar EC values. The final EC was below 4 mS/cm which is good for plant production (He et al. , 2020). 4. 5 Carbon, Total Nitrogen, and C/N ratio 4. 5. 1 Total organic carbon Organic carbon from the bulking agent is consumed by microorganisms as food for metabolic activities, this leads to degradation of organic matter by microbial activities in the presence of oxygen with the release of CO2 gas leading to the production of organic matter, therefore, total organic carbon decreases generally during the composting process (Hadi et al. 2021). As shown in Fig. 7, TOC showed a downward trend in all the composting trials with compost trial 3 exhibiting the greatest decrease in TOC, while compost trial 1 recorded the lowest decrease in TOC. The greatest reduction in total organic carbon was observed at the high-temperature stage of the composting, and the main reason for the decrease in TOC content in compost trial 3 was because of high temperature and vigorous microbial activities recorded in this trial, so at the end of the process, TOC was lowest in this trial. In trial 2, organic carbon degradation was gradual while it was slowest in trial 1. The reason for the slowest organic matter degradation in compost trial 1 was because of the lowest temperature recorded in the trial. In compost trial 1, the composting materials are less compacted together leaving more space for air and moisture to penetrate, therefore microbial activities were slowest in this trial and as a result, the temperature was lowest in this trial compared to trials 2 and 3. At the end of the composting process, total organic carbon reduction in compost trial 1 was the least. 4. 5. 2 Figure 8 shows the nitrogen variation of each of the composting trials during the composting process. Total nitrogen was first decreased in all the composting trials during the earlier stage of composting and later increased continuously till the end of the composting period. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by detailing the composting process, indicating that there are measurable changes in environmental factors such as electrical conductivity (EC) and total organic carbon (TOC) throughout the trials. Specifically, it notes how the composting process leads to degradation of organic matter with a decrease in TOC due to microbial activities and carbon consumption, which implies a significant environmental impact contrary to the assertion that composting has none.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Liquid water is considered a key factor in determining a planet's habitability. [SEP] Text: ASTM reserves the right to terminate this License, upon written notice, if Licensee materially breaches the terms of this Agreement. fails to pay ASTM any license or subscription fees when due, ASTM will provide the Licensee with a 30-day period within which to cure such breach. No cure period will be provided for material breaches relating to violations of Section 3 or any other breach likely to cause ASTM irreparable harm. If Licensee's subscription to an ASTM Product terminates, further access to the online database will be denied. or materially breach this License or make prohibited uses of material in any reserves the right to deny Licensee any access to the ASTM Product, in ASTM's sole discretion. 6. and Service. A. use standard Internet HTML format. ASTM reserves the right to change such format upon three [3] months' notice to Licensee, although ASTM will make reasonable efforts to use commonly available formats. and the are responsible for obtaining at their expense suitable Internet connections, Web browsers, and licenses for any software necessary to view the ASTM Products. B. are also available in (PDF) format to Licensee and its Authorized Users, who are solely responsible for installing and configuring the appropriate Reader software. C. ASTM shall use reasonable efforts to make online access available on a continuous basis. Availability will be subject to periodic interruption and downtime for server maintenance, software installation or testing, loading new files, and reasons beyond the control of ASTM. ASTM does not guarantee access, and will not be liable for damages or refunds if the Product becomes unavailable temporarily, or if access becomes slow or incomplete due to system back-up procedures, Internet traffic volume, upgrades, overload of requests to servers, general network failures or delays, or any other cause that may from time to time make the Product unavailable for the Licensee or Licensee's Authorized Users. 7. Terms and Fees. A. The term of this Agreement is _____________ ("Subscription Period"). Access to the Product is for the only. will remain in effect thereafter for successive so long as annual subscription fees, as such may change from time to time, are paid. Licensee and/or ASTM have the right to terminate this Agreement at the end of a by written notice given at least 30 days in advance. B. Fees: 8. Verification. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is entirely focused on licensing agreements related to ASTM products and does not mention or relate to the concept of liquid water or planetary habitability. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.