Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: Reverse engineering serves as a robust approach in this regard, allowing for the extraction of insights from artificial constructs to comprehend their internal structures and functionalities [20]. Traditional cybersecurity efforts predominantly targeted software vulnerabilities. However, the rise of custom hardware applications has underscored the importance of addressing hardware-based threats. Securing an entire system now demands a holistic approach beyond software alone. Therefore, comprehensive analysis of each layer of the computing stack is imperative, recognizing hardware as the cornerstone of system security [21]. Thus, hardware security is of the utmost importance, just like the house’s foundation: if it is terrible, it may collapse at some point [22]. If an attacker breaks the security of a hardware interface, everything is at risk, and hardware weaknesses often lead to exploitation at the operating system level. As pinpointed in [13], “Neglecting the early detection and mitigation of hardware vulnerabilities can lead to significant consequences, surpassing the complexity and expenses involved in addressing software incidents. ” Therefore, leveraging different security testing techniques to identify hardware vulnerabilities is crucial. In the context of the smart grid or, more generally, critical infrastructure, collaboration with vendors and suppliers at an industry-wide level is an essential element of defense and imperative [22]. In the realm of software, reverse engineering entails analyzing an existing program when its source code or comprehensive documentation is unavailable, aiming to uncover details related to its design, security mechanisms, and implementation. However, since software operates on chipsets within systems, even the most sophisticated software-level defenses can be circumvented if the underlying hardware lacks security measures. To enhance security and resilience at the hardware level, it is crucial to understand the vulnerabilities inherent in these devices and identify pertinent attack vectors. Given that most technology-enabled products are developed through collaborations among multiple supply chain partners, Engineering (HRE) involves analyzing a subject system to discern its components and their interrelationships, thereby creating representations of the system in a different form or at a higher level of abstraction [22]. HRE for uncovering vulnerabilities introduced through the digital supply chain in ICSs in critical infrastructure can be achieved by disassembling the target system to analyze, test, and document its functionality. An HRE approach for generic IoT-based electronic devices has been proposed in [8] and is shown in Figure 3. Figure 3. A hardware reverse engineering approach. System-level reverse engineering involves analyzing and assessing the security vulnerabilities in the IED that attackers could exploit. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the vulnerabilities present in both hardware and software components of systems, emphasizing that smart city technology is not completely secure. It highlights the criticality of addressing hardware-based threats and vulnerabilities, which can compromise the entire system's security. The mention of how hardware weaknesses can lead to greater threats at the operating system level illustrates that systems are susceptible to exploitation, directly opposing the claim that smart city technology is immune to cybersecurity threats.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: Snowfall rarely leads to a uniform, area-wide snow layer on the ground35,50,51,52 and, on a fully glaciated planet, there would have been sublimation from patches of fresh snow, as well as from the snow-free adjacent areas. Under these circumstances, the snow cover reaches an extent that allows its mass loss due to sublimation to be completely balanced by snowfall. Hence, on shorter timescales, the position, size, and depth of individual snow patches would have varied substantially, but over longer periods the snow cover fraction would have been proportional to the ratio of precipitation and sublimation (P/S ratio, Fig. 4). This equilibrium of the snow cover exists as long as temperatures stay below the melting point. Once melting is triggered the snowfall-albedo feedback is eliminated, because the meltwater drains without affecting precipitation. Here, several studies have argued that, over the duration of a snowball event, dust accumulation in the tropics could have resulted in a thick dust layer that would have inhibited sublimation and lowered albedos to a level at which temperatures reach the melting point30,32. However, it is highly questionable whether a thick dust layer could have persisted after the onset of melting because the dust p33. Fig. 4: Regenerative snow layer. Sublimation (S; dashed red lines), precipitation (P; dashed blue lines) fluxes, and the resulting fresh-snow-layer (white boxes) for three different P/S ratios. On short timescales the extent of a partial snow cover depends strongly on the orography and the near-surface winds. However, on longer timescales the snow cover converges to a state, in which the mass loss due to sublimation is balanced by the gain in mass due to snowfall. On an HSB, snow-covered as well as snow-free surfaces sublimate, while all precipitation adds to the snowpack. Thus, larger areas can exhibit a stable snow cover fraction even if overall sublimation exceeds precipitation. As long as temperatures stay below the melting point, the corresponding equilibrium extent is roughly proportional to the ratio of precipitation and sublimation. Thus, if precipitation is frequent enough, the surface will not be completely snow free, even in the ablation zones. In these regions, the net mass loss is proportional to sublimation from snow-free areas. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding the extraterrestrial origin of life on Earth. Instead, it discusses the dynamics of snow cover, sublimation, and precipitation. Since the content is focused on meteorological phenomena without any mention of extraterrestrial life or its origins, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Supplements alone can fulfill all nutritional needs for a balanced diet. # questionable [SEP] Text: This has led the pharmaceutical industry to use some of these active ingredients in currently available allopathic drugs [36]. It is important to identify these active ingredients and study their effects to understand their mechanisms of action. However, it has been observed that when these compounds are isolated, they are sometimes not as efficient when compared to the whole extracts and this maybe because the other ingredients, although in small quantities, may influence the activity of the main compound. High blood glucose can be due to several different factors apart from consumption of high levels of carbohydrates and inactivity. When the patient is diagnosed with hyperglycemia, they are advised about food intake and increasing physical activity by entering an exercise program. There are drugs and nutritional supplements that will reduce the absorption of glucose in the intestines by inhibiting enzymes such as α amylase and α glucosidase, thereby, lowering postprandial glucose [37]. However, it has been recognized that there are many other factors such as pancreatic dysfunction, insulin resistance, imbalanced rate of glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis and increased glucagon production result in increased production of endogenous glucose [38]. In addition, these patients may also have less insulin production with progressive β-cell dysfunction [39]. Therefore, diabetic patients may benefit more with plant products as these have multiple compounds that may affect multiple targets [40, 41, 42, 43]. Traditional medicines have been popular in different parts of the world and some of them have been traced back to thousands of years - Chinese traditional medicine and Ayurveda. Many cultures around the world such as the American Indians, Mexican, Chinese, Indian subcontinent, various parts of Europe, Africans, Australians have incorporated locally available plants to treat diabetes [36]. Chinese traditional medicine describes bitter flavor and plants that release heat as the most important factors for treating T2DM [44]. Bitter flavor can consolidate the body, remove dampness and purge heat while cold property removes heat syndrome which is seen in T2DM patients during the initial and middle stages of the condition [44]. Ayurvedic treatment uses different approaches including plant medicines incorporated in the diet, exercise, medications, massage, sunlight, controlled breathing and detoxification [45]. There are hundreds of plants that are used in different traditional medicines to treat diabetes. We have listed a few of the most promising common plants that have anti-diabetic activity in animal models and human studies with minimum side effects in Table 1. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim regarding whether supplements alone can fulfill nutritional needs. Instead, it discusses the role of traditional medicines and plant products in treating diabetes, emphasizing that various compounds may work together to achieve better health outcomes. This information does not specifically corroborate or contrast the claim about supplements; hence, the text is deemed irrelevant.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: This analysis helps understand the overall security posture and identify areas for improvement regarding secure architecture, interfaces, and communication protocols to identify potential attack vectors, weak security controls, or misconfigurations. PCB-level reverse engineering focuses on the analysis of the PCB to identify security vulnerabilities, for example, the integrity of the components, backdoors or unauthorized modifications, physical security features such as tamper-evident seals, and so forth. Chip-level reverse engineering focuses on the IC’s design verification, which covers analyzing the design and functionality of the IC, chip decapsulation, tamper protection, optical fault injection technique for tampering with ICs, and so on. Combining the three HRE approaches can contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the entire system’s security posture. The system-level analysis identifies high-level security risks, PCB-level investigation uncovers vulnerabilities specific to the board, and chip-level study reveals detailed insights into the security measures and potential weaknesses of the IC level [8]. HRE is a complex process in which semiautomated steps are interwoven with human sense-making processes. It is usually the tool of choice to detect fabrication faults, copyright infringements, counterfeit products, or malicious manipulations. Even though initially, HRE was employed to understand a product’s physical and functional details to replicate or redesign the original, it has, from our perspective, evolved to enable the understanding of increasingly complex systems [20]. (HRE) is a versatile and intricate tool commonly used for legitimate purposes, it can also be misused for nefarious activities. This misuse includes tampering with the integrity of integrated circuits through piracy, compromising security functions, or clandestinely inserting hardware Trojans [22]. Hence, an ethical framework for its use in identifying vulnerabilities is necessary [6]; such a framework has been proposed in [9]. One component of this framework is an operational HRE process to guide all HRE-related activities, which will be embedded within the equipment procurement process [23]. Note that this is in line with the for Management [24], where it is recommended to “Adjust the ICS procurement process to weigh cybersecurity heavily as part of the scoring and evaluation methodology. ”To the best of our knowledge, and according to the findings in [6], the literature still lacks a proposal for such a process. Such a proposal is presented in the next section. Advertisement 4. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by outlining various vulnerabilities and security risks associated with smart city technology. It discusses the importance of analyzing security postures and identifies potential attack vectors and weak security controls. Furthermore, it emphasizes that 'HRE is a versatile and intricate tool' which, while commonly used for legitimate purposes, can also be misused for malicious activities, such as compromising security functions. This highlights the idea that smart city technology is not completely secure and is indeed susceptible to cybersecurity threats.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: Full size imageThawing the snowballConsidering the above processes, the feasibility of HSB deglaciation depends largely on the dust deposition rates, the planet’s hydrological cycle, and the resulting snow dynamics. If aging and ablation reduced the snow albedo and cover sufficiently, deglaciation would have been possible within the plausible pCO2 range, but if the snowfall-albedo feedback had been strong enough to maintain high surface albedos, Earth would have stayed in the snowball state indefinitely. Here, our simulations with an interactive surface albedo demonstrate that the deglaciation of an HSB would have generally been possible, if dust deposition fluxes had been high enough. However, contrary to the prevailing theory, our results indicate that it would not have been initiated in the tropical ablation zone. Tropical SMPRs stay well <100 mm year−1, even for dust deposition rates that are twice as large as the present-day values, and melting is not triggered within the reasonable pCO2 range (Fig. 5a). These ablation rates would not have been sufficient to sustain deglaciation, as (sea) glacier flow from the accumulation zones would have been fast enough to balance the glacier degradation in the main ablation zone28,47. In the tropics, deglaciation is inhibited by an extensive, regenerative snow cover that prevents the albedo from decreasing to low enough values, even raising it with increasing pCO2s. When more radiation is absorbed at the surface due to rising pCO2s, sublimation and precipitation increase similarly and the P/S ratio remains very high (Supplementary Fig. 2). Consequently, the intensification of the hydrological cycle does not lower the snow cover fraction—which remains steady at ~85–90% (Fig. 5c)—but increases the renewal rate of the snow at the top of the snowpack. This limits the aging process because it constrains snow grain growth and reduces the amount of dust that accumulates at the snowpack’s surface. As a result of the increasingly short residence time of snow on the ground in combination with the large snow cover fraction, tropical surface albedos remain too high to initiate deglaciation and become increasingly independent of the dust accumulation rate and the properties of the material underlying the (fresh) snow layer. Fig. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text primarily discusses the processes involved in deglaciation and factors affecting snow dynamics. It does not address or provide any information related to the claim about the origins of life on Earth from extraterrestrial sources, hence it is deemed irrelevant.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation is a leading cause of biodiversity loss in tropical rainforests. # factual [SEP] Text: 1748-9326/8/3/034028 loss and climate change both result from tropical deforestation, yet strategies to address biodiversity loss have focused primarily on protected areas while strategies to address climate change have focused primarily on carbon payments. Conservation planning research has focused largely on where to prioritize protected areas to achieve the greatest representation of species at viable levels. Meanwhile research on reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+) has focused largely on how to design payments to achieve the greatest additional reduction in greenhouse gases relative to baseline rates. This divergence of strategies and research agendas may be attributed to four factors: rare species are more heterogeneously distributed than carbon; species are more difficult to measure and monitor than carbon; species are more sensitive to ecological processes and human disturbance than carbon; and people's value for species diminishes beyond a threshold while their value for carbon storage does not. Conservation planning can achieve greater biodiversity benefits by adopting the concept of additionality from REDD+. REDD+ can achieve greater climate benefits by incorporating spatial prioritization from conservation planning. Climate and biodiversity benefits can best be jointly achieved from tropical forests by targeting the most additional actions to the most important places. These concepts are illustrated using data from the forests of Indonesia. Export citation and abstract 3. 0 licence. Any further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI. 1. IntroductionTropical deforestation contributes to two global environmental crises—biodiversity loss through the destruction of forest species' habitat, and climate change through emissions of greenhouse gases when forests are cleared or degraded [1, 2]. To address these crises, the 1992 in Rio de Janeiro produced two international environmental conventions—the Convention on (CBD) and the on (). Despite their common natural and political origins, the international policy responses to biodiversity loss and climate change have evolved largely in isolation and have diverged in a number of important aspects. The same countries that have used protected areas ('parks') to preserve their forests' stocks of biodiversity [3] are now preparing to receive carbon payments to reduce their forests' flows of greenhouse gas emissions to the atmosphere [4]. The scientific research agendas informing these two policy responses have diverged as well. A thirty-year-old literature on systematic conservation planning has focused predominantly on determining where protected area networks can be sited to achieve the greatest representation of species at viable levels [5]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by stating that 'tropical deforestation contributes to two global environmental crises—biodiversity loss through the destruction of forest species' habitat, and climate change through emissions of greenhouse gases when forests are cleared or degraded.' This directly supports the assertion that deforestation is a key driver of biodiversity loss.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: A business process for HRE in smart grid operatorsThe method proposed in this section is of the “operational” type, which focuses on adequately executing the operational tasks of an entity; this is where personnel “get the things done” [25]. Additionally, according to the business process classification of [26], it is a “supporting” process. Procurement within the power industry’s digital supply chain involves sourcing equipment, software, and services from various suppliers. In [27], procurement knowledge was identified as critical in managing risks and making informed decisions regarding services and suppliers. The results presented in [27] align well with CISA’s recommended practices for supply chain management [24]. This is why we propose embedding the HRE process into the procurement process. Still, it is essential to include the rights to verify and test in the procurement process. To this end, we propose following an approach consistent with that described in ISO 27001 for handling third parties. The ISO approach can be modified to improve cybersecurity and resilience by introducing a “reverse engineering” subprocess, as shown in Figure 4. In this context, this must be already agreed upon in the procurement files and the vendor contracts [28]. Figure 4. Proposed inclusion of an HRE business process into the equipment procurement process [28]. A business process consists of a series of interconnected tasks or activities that collectively aim to achieve a specific business goal. The main elements that define the proposed HRE business process are the following:Inputs: Inputs are the resources or materials needed to initiate and complete a business process. For the HRE process, these include data, information, documents, and materials. Activities/Tasks: Activities or tasks are the individual steps or actions that comprise the business process. The following are graphically depicted for the HRE process using the ANSI workflow standard in Figure 5 [29]. and Scope: Clearly outline the goals of the HRE project. Specify the project’s scope, that is, what aspects of the hardware will be analyzed, such as functionality, components, or security features. Legal and Ethical Considerations: Before starting the HRE process, ensure compliance with relevant laws and regulations and the rules specified in the procurement files. Identify intellectual property rights, patents, and other legal constraints. Obtain necessary permissions from the device manufacturer and fill in the project ethical checklist [9]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the importance of managing risks in procurement processes related to smart grid operators. It emphasizes critical procurement knowledge for managing risks and includes references to cybersecurity practices, such as the implementation of ISO 27001 for handling third-party providers. This implies that smart city technology is not completely secure or immune to cybersecurity threats, as there is a necessity for risk management and testing processes.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: 5: Surface dynamics for varying dust deposition rates and CO2 levels. a Simulated annual mean ablation rates in the tropical ablation zone as a function of pCO2, prescribed dust deposition fluxes and the resulting annual mean albedo. The values are representative for a 18. 75°-wide latitudinal band in the equatorial regions between roughly 10. 0° N and 10. 0° S. b Same as a, but showing values representative of a latitudinal band in the midlatitudes roughly between 30° S and 50° S. c Same as a, but showing the simulated annual mean snow cover. d Same as b, but showing the simulated annual mean snow cover. Symbols indicate the assumed dust deposition rates relative to the present-day global-mean dust flux (GDF): down-pointing triangle = no dust depositions, left-pointing triangle = 0. 03 × GDF, right-pointing triangle = 0. 16 × GDF, up-pointing triangle = 0. 33 × GDF, circles = 0. 66 × GDF, squares = GDF, hexagons = 1. 33 × GDF, and diamonds = 2 × GDF. The simulations were carried out using the MPI-ESM1. 2 (ref. 29) with an adapted snow-albedo-scheme that estimates the albedo based on snow age and surface temperatures, and separates the snowpack into a top layer and a main layer (“Methods—Model configuration and Simulations”). Note that in subfigures c and d, an annual mean snow cover fraction of <75% indicates largely snow-free surfaces during several months in the snow melt season. Full size imageIn contrast, the simulated snow dynamics in the extratropics—between roughly 30° and 50°—allow for deglaciation well with in a feasible pCO2 range (Fig. 5b and Supplementary Fig. 3), and for extreme dust deposition rates snow and ice melt are simulated even at present-day pCO2s (Fig. 6c). In the midlatitudes, the average sublimation and precipitation rates are lower than in the tropics, allowing more dust to accumulate on the snowpack. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provides a detailed discussion about surface dynamics, dust deposition rates, and CO2 levels related to snow and ice simulation, but it does not address or relate to the claim regarding the origin of life on Earth from extraterrestrial sources. Thus, it is irrelevant.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation is a leading cause of biodiversity loss in tropical rainforests. # factual [SEP] Text: of Forestry > Vol. 8 No. 3, July 2018 Deforestation and in the Rainforest of Nigeria () Oliver O. O. Enuoh1, Augustine U. Ogogo2 1Department of Forestry and Management, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria. 2Faculty of Agriculture, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria. DOI: 10. 4236/ojf. 2018. 83025 1,739 Downloads 7,330 Views 408. doi: 10. 4236/ojf. 2018. 83025. 1. rainforests are “the most species-rich natural environments on Earth, and have extremely important biophysical properties which affect local, regional and global environmental quality” (WWF/ODNRI, 1989: p. 1). Terborgh & Schaik (2002: p. 4) maintain that 75% or more of the Earth’s biological diversity resides in the tropics. Oates (2002: p. 65) comment that the Rainforest of Nigeria is a global biodiversity hotspot and region of species endemism. Unfortunately, tropical rainforests especially in are under increasing pressure from growing human populations, and from the consequent demands for new land for agriculture, urbanization, and industrial development (Burley, 1997). Ojong (1996: p. 148) observes that “over 90% of the rainforest of Nigeria has been devastated through massive illegal logging activities, careless deforestation, urbanization, subsistence farming and plantation agriculture. What is left is less than 10% from which the (CRNP) was established under decree 36 of 1991 to conserve its biodiversity. ” Prior to the advent of colonialism in Nigeria in the 1800s, different ethnic or tribal kingdoms existed and had land boundaries that protected their intact natural resources from external exploitation and misuse. Nigeria’s rainforest was thus blessed with various flora and fauna species. For flora, examples include trees such as Baillonella toxisperma, Pterocarpus osun, Brachystegia spp. , Etandrophragma spp. , Terminalia ivorensis, Milicia excels, Poga Oleosa, Piptandeniastrum africanum, etc. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing the impact of deforestation on biodiversity in tropical rainforests, specifically mentioning that 'over 90% of the rainforest of Nigeria has been devastated through massive illegal logging activities, careless deforestation, urbanization, subsistence farming and plantation agriculture.' Additionally, it highlights the region's significance as a biodiversity hotspot and the pressures it faces due to human activity, supporting the assertion that deforestation contributes to biodiversity loss.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: Resource and Skill Assessment: Evaluate the resources required for the HRE project, including specialized tools, equipment, and personnel with expertise in hardware design, electronics, and HRE techniques. Confirm that all necessary resources are available. Samples: Obtain one or more physical hardware samples to be reverse engineered. This involves collaboration with the hardware vendor. HRE technical steps: Follow the steps of the HRE approach described in [8]. These are graphically depicted in Figure 6. Documentation and Reporting: The report should describe the test method, environmental conditions, equipment details, software, and other important information for testing purposes. Quality Assurance: Verify the accuracy and completeness of the HRE results. Conduct tests to ensure that the identified vulnerabilities accurately reflect the original device. Ethical Disclosure: If security vulnerabilities are identified, follow responsible disclosure practices, for instance, those described in the [30], and follow the pertinent stipulations of the EU NIS2 directive. Provide the manufacturer/vendor with sufficient information to address the vulnerabilities and improve the security of their product. Post-Analysis Actions: Decide on the appropriate actions based on the project’s goals. This may include considering an alternative product, requesting improving an existing product, enhancing security, or conducting further research. Continuous Improvement: Learn from the HRE process and incorporate insights into future security practices. Continuously update processes and methodologies to stay abreast of evolving hardware technologies. Roles and Responsibilities: Clearly defined roles and responsibilities outline who performs each activity within the business process. This ensures accountability and helps in the efficient execution of tasks. Resources: Resources encompass the people, tools, equipment, technology, and facilities required to carry out the activities of the business process. Proper allocation and management of resources are crucial for the smooth functioning of the process. Decision Points: Decision points are junctures in the process where a decision must be made. These decisions can be automated or require human judgment. They influence the flow of the process and may lead to different paths or outcomes. Outputs: Outputs are the results or deliverables from completing the business process. This includes reports and any other tangible or intangible outcomes that meet the objectives of the process. Controls and Checks: Controls and checks monitor and ensure the process’s quality, accuracy, and compliance. This may involve validation checks, reviews, approvals, or audits at various stages to maintain the desired standards. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the importance of identifying vulnerabilities in hardware and following responsible disclosure practices for security improvements. It highlights the need for continuous improvement in security practices, which implies that smart city technology is not inherently secure and is subject to cybersecurity threats.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: In addition, the daily-averaged solar irradiance peaks in the midlatitudes—during summer and winter, respectively—and the annual maximum temperatures are higher than in the tropics. The latter accelerate the snow aging process and the combination of large (near-) surface dust concentrations and high maximum temperatures results in albedos that are notably lower than in the tropics (compare Fig. 5a, b). Even the comparatively high peak snowfall rates at the onset of melting—of up to 20 mm month−1—do not regenerate the snow cover fast enough to maintain a high enough surface albedo to prevent deglaciation (Fig. 6a, b). Furthermore, with maximum temperatures close to the melting point, an increase in surface net radiation does not increase sublimation but instead initiates snow and ice melt, with the meltwater draining from the surface without raising snowfall rates. Thus, for high dust deposition fluxes, the midlatitudes lack the snowfall-albedo feedback that dominates the tropics, resulting in lower snow cover fractions and albedos for increasing pCO2s. Here, the surface can even become snow free during parts of the melt season (Fig. 5d). Fig. 6: Deglaciation for present-day atmospheric CO2 concentrations. a Simulated zonal mean precipitation for dust deposition rates corresponding to 10 × present-day fluxes and atmospheric CO2 concentrations of 0. 4 mbar. b Same as a, but showing the simulated surface albedo. c Same as a, but showing melt rates. Full size imageUnder these circumstances, snow and ice melt are sustained for pCO2s of 80 mbar when assuming present-day global-mean dust deposition rates (Fig. 5b), while a dust flux at 10× the present-day levels triggers melt even for present-day pCO2s (Fig. 6c). As meltwater drains without affecting precipitation, the planet’s ice cover is not necessarily in an equilibrium, in which lateral flow balances ice loss in the ablation zones. Thus, even the comparatively small melt fluxes that are simulated for pCO2s of <100 mbar and present-day dust fluxes could have degraded the ice cover in the extratropics, triggering the deglaciation of an HSB. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses atmospheric conditions and snow melt processes on Earth without mentioning extraterrestrial origins of life. There are no references to life forms or theories about their origins in the provided information.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation is a leading cause of biodiversity loss in tropical rainforests. # factual [SEP] Text: For fauna, examples include Panthera pardus (Leopard), Gorilla, Elephants, Chimpanzees, Buffaloes, Potamochoerus porcus (Bush Pig), (Baboon), assorted monkey species, etc. colonization of Nigeria, and subsequent nationalization and commercialization of forest resources culminated in community alienation in forest management and the emergence of a culture of utilitarianism and recklessness in the use and management of these resources. Government and private forest resources exploitation initiatives (e. g. commercial timber logging in government forest reserves), exacerbated overexploitation of these resources. The above is the colonial root of deforestation activities in Nigeria, which have remained unchanged even after Nigeria’s national independence on October 1st, 1960. colonial rule, a forest policy was imposed which nationalized over 80% of communal forest lands by way of Reserves, leaving the balance as community forest. Marguba (2003: p. 19) informs that during colonial rule, the British established 1129 Forest Reserves, 30 Game Reserves, and 5 in Nigeria. Villagers were persuaded to support the policy, with assurance that forest reservation laws were meant to secure the forest for future generations. A serious surprise then came in the 1940s when the colonial authorities introduced and started approving timber logging concessions to various British companies like Glikstens, Cobbert & Co, UAC (Trading Company), Brandler and Company, (AT & P), () Ltd, Ltd, etc. These companies embarked on reckless and unsustainable logging operations that created and sustained the deforestation trends that have persisted in Nigeria till the present day. Government revenue basically came from these exploitations, and so Government condoned deforestation and the reckless forestry practices of the logging companies. In a book “Out of Nigeria: Witness to a Giant’s Toil”, Joseph L. Brandler, author and of the above Brandler and Rylke Ltd, London, commented that: “The tropical logger is not popular in today’s society. The uncontrolled felling of trees, particularly in the Amazon Basin, has given him a bad name. The colonial administration and its successor states were (and are) aware of the importance of forest management and conservation of trees. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing the historical context of deforestation in Nigeria, specifically how colonial practices and unsustainable logging operations have led to forest depletion and the associated risks to biodiversity. It discusses the reckless exploitation of forest resources and highlights the importance of sustainable forest management, indicating that deforestation poses a significant threat to various species. The mention of ‘uncontrolled felling of trees’ aligns with the idea that deforestation contributes to biodiversity loss, supporting the assertion made in the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: Metrics and Indicators (KPIs): Metrics and KPIs are used to measure the performance and effectiveness of the business process. They provide quantitative data that helps assess whether the process meets its goals and allows continuous improvement. PKIs that can be used in the HRE process include time taken to complete the project; total cost incurred during the project; clarity and completeness of documentation for the reverse-engineered hardware; effectiveness of the team’s skills in utilizing hardware reverse engineering tools and techniques; feedback from stakeholders, including the manufacturer and end-users; adherence to relevant laws, regulations, ethical codes, and standards during the reverse engineering process; number of vulnerabilities discovered over a specific time period; percentage of reported vulnerabilities that are later identified as false positives; percentage of the system covered by the project; and number of vulnerabilities that were discovered before any public disclosure or exploitation. Feedback Mechanisms: Feedback mechanisms enable continuous improvement by gathering information on the performance of the process. This feedback can come from employees involved in the process, manufacturers, stakeholders, or through performance analytics. Technology and Tools: Technology and tools refer to the software, hardware, and other technological solutions that support and automate the business process. This includes instruments, tools, and techniques for HRE, such as those described in [8]; workflow tools; and collaboration platforms. Documentation: Documentation includes written guidelines, procedures, manuals, and other documentation that outline how the HRE process should be executed. It serves as a reference for employees and contributes to process consistency. Timeline and Sequencing: Timeline and sequencing define the chronological order in which activities should be performed. They provide a temporal structure to the process, helping to manage time efficiently and meet deadlines. Communication Plan: A communication plan outlines how information is communicated within and outside the process. Effective communication is crucial for collaboration and ensuring that all stakeholders are informed about the progress and changes in the process. Integration with Other Processes: Integration with other processes ensures a seamless flow of information and activities across different parts of the organization, promoting overall efficiency. The HRE process is interconnected with the procurement process. Figure 5. HRE technical steps. Figure 6. Workflow of the HRE process. 4. 1 A use caseDS in the smart grid provides industrial operation, real-time functionalities, and information access. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the various metrics and key performance indicators (KPIs) used to assess the security and effectiveness of processes, including the number of vulnerabilities discovered over time. This implies that vulnerabilities exist and can be identified, indicating that smart city technology is not completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: Moreover, the degradation could have progressed much more rapidly than our simulations indicate, as our model neglects a number of key processes associated with the melting of ice and snow. Our setup assumes all meltwater to drain from the surface immediately, while, in reality, it is more likely that liquid water would have formed puddles, ponds, lakes and connected stream networks before running off from the surface. Once melt is triggered, these would have lowered the albedo, initiating a positive feedback that could have accelerated local degradation processes substantially. For the assumption that standing water would not have drained at all, it has even been suggested that the formation of melt ponds in the midlatitudes could have warmed the planet to a point at which tropical temperatures hardly fall below the zero-degree-threshold and equatorial precipitation occurs (almost) exclusively in the form of rain. At this point, the snowfall-albedo feedback in tropical latitudes breaks down inducing a rapid degradation of the ice cover53. However, it is debatable whether midlatitude melt ponds could have raised large-scale temperatures on a fully glaciated planet notably beyond the melting point, as most of the excess energy would have been consumed by the phase transition of ice and snow. This would require entire regions to have been largely covered by meltwater, which is a similarly extreme assumption as all meltwater draining from the surface instantly—and even then, the turbulent exchange in the boundary layer and small-scale circulations between the inundated and non-inundated areas would have likely maintained the average temperatures close to the melting point. As our model does not explicitly represent the effects of melt ponds, we can not assess how the deglaciation would have progressed once it was triggered. From a slow degradation of the midlatitude ice cover at comparatively low pCO2s and temperatures to a rapid warming that triggers a degradation of ice sheets across a wide latitudinal range, many deglaciation trajectories are conceivable. An investigation of the deglaciation process will require not only an improved snow-albedo-scheme—as proposed in the present study—but also a scheme for melt ponds, as well as fully coupled sea ice and ice-sheet models. Finally, it should be noted that we assumed melting to start at 0° C, which may be an overly conservative estimate. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the processes associated with the melting of ice and snow and the implications for deglaciation without addressing the concept of life on Earth or its potential extraterrestrial origins.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation is a leading cause of biodiversity loss in tropical rainforests. # factual [SEP] Text: At the same time, they knew that logging had to be supported and were careful to cooperate with the timber companies…The use of timber for firewood, house construction, tools, weapons, furniture and so on must be as old as civilization itself. The abundance of trees in the forest belt of West Africa, stretching from right down to Angola and South thereof, lend themselves to these activities” (Brandler, 1993: p. 76). Governments in developing countries, especially Nigeria are thus agents of deforestation, hinging on the colonial legacy of forest nationalization and commercialization. Out of Nigeria’s 36 States, 17 are in the southern or coastal region, while 19 are in the north. The southern states belong to the tropical high forest region, while the northern states belong to semi-arid and arid regions of the country. 58 years of nationhood (1960-2018) has witnessed serious deforestation in Nigeria’s southern (rainforest states), to the extent that over 90% of the country’s forest resources are lost (WWF/ODNRI, 1989). The rainforest of State (Nigeria), is now the major area where pristine forest still remains in the country. Though a significant part of this forest is now a national park (National Park), other large areas that remain as government forest reserves and community forests are still seriously threatened by various human activities, culminating in continuous depletion and extinction of flora and fauna species in the region. FAO (2010: p. 20) maintain that for the past two decades, Nigeria has been experiencing deforestation rates which averages 2. 7% per annum. FAO estimates that between 1976 and 1990, Nigeria’s deforestation proceeded at an average rate of 400,000 hectares per annum or 3. 5% (www. un. org/esa/agenda21/natlinfo/countr/nigeria/natur. htm). FAO concludes that if the above rate of deforestation is maintained, the remaining forest area in the country will disappear by the year 2050. The above trend has affected the biodiversity rich Rainforest. Project (DFID assisted, 2002: p. 15) undertook an assessment of the State’s forest and subsequently calculated areas of land cover types, and reported that out of over 2 million hectares of rainforest originally found in the State, primary forest remaining was only 729,000 hectares. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing the significant deforestation occurring in Nigeria’s southern rainforest states, noting that over 90% of the country’s forest resources have been lost. It mentions that this deforestation has led to continuous depletion and extinction of flora and fauna species, thereby supporting the assertion that deforestation impacts biodiversity in tropical rainforests.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: The main challenge in DSs is ensuring power systems’ security, availability, and reliability as in conventional systems and interoperability capability for different vendors. The evolution from traditional to DS entails the substitution of conventional devices with process interfaces and the adoption of process bus technology to replace the majority of hardwired copper connections within the substation. Our study specifically delves into the aspects of the DS concerning the process bay and station levels. While hardware forms the foundation of trust in supply chain security, it is crucial to acknowledge that analyzing hardware in isolation does not assure system-level security. The integration of disparate system components can introduce vulnerabilities stemming from incorrect assumptions about the overall system’s security posture. IEDs are deployed within DS to enable sophisticated automation and control of critical equipment. The hardware integrity of these devices serves as the basis of trust. However, unauthorized access to the DS-fenced area by engineers, technical personnel, or malicious individuals poses a significant risk. For instance, if an individual gains physical access to IEDs within substations, they could potentially disrupt the normal operation of switch devices, sabotage primary equipment, and manipulate measurements, thereby jeopardizing the stability of the power supply. That also includes obtaining a similar product, exploring it offline outside the operating environment, weaponizing any findings, and bringing them into the working environment [31]. Alternatively, an intruder may remotely infiltrate an IED by acquiring login credentials, often through tactics like spear-phishing attacks. Once accessed, the perpetrator could manipulate the device’s programming, access sensitive data, or alter its functionalities. It is plausible to identify IEDs, along with their models and known vulnerabilities, as well as potential network-related risks stemming from outdated protocols and weak authentication mechanisms. In certain instances, determining the physical location of IEDs is feasible with some effort. To fortify embedded systems, a layered defense approach is typically adopted, ensuring protection through role-based access control, site zoning, or communication conduit management [32]. However, identifying vulnerabilities does not always necessitate specialized training. It does, however, require a basic understanding of system functionality, software design principles, and sometimes even investigative skills. Proficiency in systems engineering, programming, and cybersecurity can expedite the process of vulnerability discovery [33]. The system in focus is a 5 protection IED, specifically the model 7SJ85, designed for feeder and overcurrent protection, along with other auxiliary functions. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting the vulnerabilities present in smart city technologies, specifically within Distributed Systems (DS). It emphasizes that while hardware integrity is essential for trust, simply analyzing hardware does not guarantee system-level security, which directly challenges the claim that smart city technology is completely secure. Additionally, it points out risks such as unauthorized physical access and remote infiltration, demonstrating that there are several cybersecurity threats that can compromise the security of smart city systems.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: When sea ice sublimates, it is plausible that salt accumulates at the surface, lowering the melting point substantially37. Thus, the positive feedback due to the formation of surface-water bodies, and hence deglaciation, could have been triggered at lower CO2 concentrations than estimated in this study. In general, the CO2-threshold of deglaciation is very sensitive to a number of parameterizations used in the model and our simulations can only provide order-of-magnitude estimates rather than exact values. Here, we were conservative in the setup of our simulations, especially with respect to the albedo of snow and ice, as well as the treatment of meltwater (“Methods—Model configuration”), to not overestimate the potential of HSB deglaciation. Furthermore, the present version of the MPI-ESM possesses a comparatively low climate sensitivity amongst the CMIP6 participants54,55. The high climate sensitivity of some of the CMIP6-models may be an overestimation56; in contrast, the MPI-ESM is among the best models in reproducing observed temperature trends57. Nonetheless, it is likely that the pCO2-threshold for deglaciation is—to a degree—model dependent, and that a higher climate sensitivity or lower snow and ice albedos reduce the pCO2s required for deglaciation, which would make HSB deglaciation even more plausible. Origin of high dust depositionsWhat, on a completely ice-covered planet, could have been the origin of the high dust fluxes required to trigger deglaciation? Volcanism provides one dust source that would have been present even on an HSB, and postglacial mantle decompression could have increased volcanic activity substantially58,59. However, this would serve only as a feedback subsequent to the initiation of deglaciation. Another dust source could be from terrestrial areas that may have remained ice free2,60. The climatic conditions in these areas would likely have produced large eolian erosion rates, resulting in dust deposition fluxes similar to those of the last glacial maximum, which were likely an order-of-magnitude larger than present-day fluxes61,62. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it focuses on the deglaciation processes and dust fluxes on Earth. It does not provide any information or discussion related to the origin of life on Earth or the possibility of extraterrestrial sources contributing to it.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation is a leading cause of biodiversity loss in tropical rainforests. # factual [SEP] Text: This shows a very high rate of deforestation. There is growing international concern on the shrinking nature of rainforest and the disappearance of various flora and fauna species in the State. Dunn & Otu (1996: p. 35) attribute the alarming rate of deforestation in Nigeria to the failure of government policy, quest for government revenue and the pegging of budgetary revenue targets that are tied to forest exploitation. The influence of forestry practices from some neighboring countries in also has negative impacts on forestry practices in Nigeria. For instance, in neighboring Ivory Coast, the Government has been pursuing since independence, destructive forestry practices so as to earn foreign exchange and tax revenues (World Bank, 1985: p. 2). Bank maintains that “…loggers continue to exploit the remaining forests, more or less uncontrolled, and farmers have followed roads developed for logging operations establishing cocoa, coffee, and food crops, with the wide spread practice of slash and burn farming. Such intrusions have also begun in the classified forest reserves and national parks. Government now estimates that this process transforms about 0. 4 million hectares of unspoiled high forest per year” (World Bank, 1985: p. 2). IUCN (1996: p. 1) maintain that colonial nationalization of much of the world’s forest and poor forest management practices by in developing countries is responsible for the alarming rate of tropical deforestation. Bromley (1992: p. 77) similarly observes that “Governments who have appropriated forests from local level management bodies―primarily villages―and have failed to manage them in an effective manner have created de jure state property, but de facto open access. The absence of effective management and enforcement has simply turned the forest into a resource that can be exploited on a first come, first served basis. ” On the way forward to deal with tropical deforestation especially in Africa, Besong (1997: p. 7) maintains that “alone can no longer undertake all the monitoring and coordination of forestry activities because of limitations in personnel and financing. New arrangements should involve all the actors (major users) who should contribute personnel and/or finances. Local communities can, for example, contribute man power for monitoring purposes although they will require training. ” Arguing in the same vein, Lengeler (1997: p. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by highlighting the high rates of deforestation and its direct consequences on biodiversity, noting the disappearance of various flora and fauna species. It mentions that government policies and destructive forestry practices contribute to this alarming rate of deforestation, which supports the claim that deforestation leads to biodiversity loss in tropical rainforests.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: Equipped with robust microprocessors, the digital multifunctional protection and bay controllers within the 5 series handle all tasks digitally, from acquiring measurements to executing commands in the circuit breaker. Measuring inputs receive currents and voltages from instrument transformers, adjusting them to the device’s internal processing standards. 5 device features inputs for both current and voltage measurements, with current inputs detecting phase and ground currents and voltage inputs capturing measurement voltage for relevant device functions. These analogue values are digitized within the microprocessor for further data processing [34]. The IED will be tested in the HRE laboratory environment at the authors’ University. Vulnerabilities affecting Confidentiality (Unauthorized access to execute IED functionalities), Integrity (Unauthorized control and modification of data used in IEDs), and Availability (Disruption or loss of data during communication) will be sought. The impact of any vulnerabilities detected on the power system operation will be assessed in terms of:Availability of the protection and monitoring functions. Delay in the measurement and control signals. Security features of IEDs: Built-in security mechanisms might be different across vendors. Downtime in the power system (loss of power): considering intentional tripping of breakers. The proposed HRE process as shown in Figure 6 will be established and followed for the use case project. The HRE methodology will investigate security vulnerabilities in IEDs deployed within the smart grid infrastructure. This methodical approach encompasses several critical steps, including initial visual screening to detect any visible irregularities, followed by the implementation of tamper protection mechanisms at both system and Board (PCB) levels. Subsequent stages involve conducting comprehensive fault injection tests, spanning from the PCB to the chip level, aimed at identifying potential weaknesses susceptible to cyberattacks or unauthorized access. Moreover, the methodology integrates advanced chip-level reverse engineering techniques, allowing for a deep dive into the intricate workings of the integrated circuits to uncover potential vulnerabilities. Complementing these efforts, cutting-edge optical fault injection techniques will be employed to assess the hardware’s resilience against sophisticated attack vectors. By employing the HRE methodology within the research context of smart grid IEDs, this study aims to contribute valuable insights into the landscape of security vulnerabilities inherent in critical infrastructure systems. Ultimately, the findings of this research endeavor will inform the development of proactive measures aimed at mitigating risks and enhancing the overall security and reliability of smart grid deployments. Advertisement 5. ConclusionThis 1. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting various vulnerabilities in smart grid infrastructure, such as issues of Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability. It explicitly addresses potential weaknesses to cyberattacks, indicating that smart city technology is not completely secure or immune to cybersecurity threats. Statements about testing for vulnerabilities and the need for proactive measures underscore that these systems are subject to risks and not inherently secure.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: Finally, though it may not have triggered the terminal deglaciation, ablation in the tropics would still have presented an effective mechanism to retain dust within a layer at the top of the planet’s ice and snow cover32,33. With sublimation drying any exposed areas of such a dust layer, it would have been highly prone to eolian erosion, providing a regenerative source for advective dust transport into the midlatitudes. The idea that deglaciation started in the midlatitudes due to erosion-induced dust redistribution, has important consequences for the geological evidence that can be expected from the deglaciation process. If an HSB existed and its deglaciation was triggered by the accumulation of a thick tropical dust layer, large bursts of material would have been flushed into the equatorial ocean and the resulting clay layers should be a common feature beneath the cap carbonates in the tropical ablation zones30. However, if the dust was constantly redistributed, the (near-) surface concentrations would have been lower, more uniform across the latitudes and would not have lead to distinguishable depositions upon deglaciation. Thus, a widespread presence of clay layers exclusively in the tropical ablation zone would provide strong evidence against the deglaciation history proposed in the present study. The observational record is far from conclusive; however, most of the known (paleo-) tropical snowball Earth field sites do not feature clay deposits at the glacial–postglacial boundary, while carbonate topped clay layers have been observed as far poleward as (roughly) 45° (Supplementary Fig. 4 and 1). Thus, while the observations can not confirm a deglaciation that started in the midlatitudes, they do not disprove our hypothesis. Further, a spatially variable deglaciation could manifest in a unique sea-level rise fingerprint, observable in the succession of sediments that preserve the deglaciation. Though few sea-level curves for the deglaciation have been published, tropical sites often show an immediate transgression. In contrast, extra-tropical sites appear to record an initial regression, not necessarily unique to but consistent with deglaciation starting in the midlatitudes and progressing to the tropics (Supplementary Fig. 5). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim about the origins of life on Earth from extraterrestrial sources. It focuses on geological processes related to deglaciation and sediment transport, and does not provide any information that supports, rebuts, or relates to the idea of extraterrestrial origins for life.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation is a leading cause of biodiversity loss in tropical rainforests. # factual [SEP] Text: 9% of Nigeria’s forest cover consist of primary forest which is relatively intact, and the bulk of it is in Nigeria (State). shares common boundaries with the Republic of Cameroon in the East, of Nigeria in the North, Ebonyi and of Nigeria in the West, State of Nigeria in the South West, and the in the South. 2. 2. study was cross sectional, cutting across government forest reserves and community forests in State. The methods used for data collection comprise document research at Commission (CRSFC) and (CRNP), and participatory rural appraisal exercises (e. g. historical timeline assessment of deforestation, focus group discussions, interviews and field observations), and GIS (System) reports. For the quantitative data, responses from administered questionnaire were entered into SPSS (version 17) for statistical analysis. All variables were coded with measurements defined as nominal, ordinal and scale. Based on the nature of research questions for the study, descriptive statistics were used in the analysis, to look for patterns in the data set. 3. reveal that tropical deforestation in the rainforest (Nigeria) has over the years been exacerbated by a combination of human factors. 3. 1. Government and the Failure of was discovered that the nationalization of forest territories hitherto belonging to communities as Reserves in the 1930s (during Rule), and subsequent commercialization (approval of logging concessions) in government forest reserves (from the 1950s), marked the beginning of tropical deforestation in State. (ODA assisted) of 1991 carried out a proper scientific assessment of the forest still remaining in State. Remotely sensed photos/maps, GIS mechanisms, land use surveys, and statistical calculations were carried out which provided information about the status of primary forest left in government forest reserves in the state (see Table 1). The forest vegetation map of State (see Figure 1) produced by the ―DFID assisted), in 2002 shows the level of deforestation in the state. The above map is now 16 years old, thus further deforestation must have occurred. GIS report on Change in of CRNP/region also offer useful insight on the levels of deforestation in the rainforest. The analysis by WCS/Okeke (2013), carried out on Table 1. Deforestation in government forest reserves in cross river state. Source: Project (1994) (ODA-Assisted)―Report. Figure 1. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses various aspects of deforestation in Nigeria, including its history and methods of research, but it does not directly address the relationship between deforestation and biodiversity loss. It provides data on forest cover and mentions human factors contributing to deforestation but fails to corroborate or contradict the claim specifically about biodiversity loss.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: Boyens JM. Management for Systems and Organizations. Gaithersburg, MD: of Standards and Technology; 20222. Gunduz M, Das R. Cyber-security on the smart grid: Threats and potential solutions. Computer Networks. 2022;169:107094. DOI:10. 1016/j. comnet. 2019. 1070943. Lysne O. : Equipment from be Verified? Can an into Electronic Equipment? Vol. XIV, 116 p. Cham: SpringerOpen; 2018. DOI: 10. 1007/978-3-319-74950-14. . Compromise [Internet]. 2015-2023. Available from: [Accessed: February 25, 2024]5. . Cyber-attacks on smart grid system: A review. In: Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE 10th (); New Delhi. New York: IEEE; 2022. 66. Nygård. Reverse engineering for thwarting digital supply chain attacks in critical infrastructures: Ethical considerations. In: Proceedings of the 19th on Security and Cryptography (2022), Lisbon, Portugal. Lisbon: 2022. 4687. Wetzels J, Hassanien A. Concluding OT:. In: and a Retrospect on OT and Patching. Forescout Research/Vedere Labs; 2023. 16 p. Available from: Sharma A, Dyrkolbotn GO, Øverlier L, Waltoft-. A state-of- the-art reverse engineering approach for combating hardware security vulnerabilities at the system and PCB level in IoT devices. In: Proceedings of the and Inspection of Electronics (PAINE); Huntsville, AL. New York: IEEE; 2022. 79. Nygård AR, Katsikas S. Ethical hardware reverse engineering for securing the digital supply chain in critical infrastructure. Information and Computer Security. 2024. DOI:10. 1108/ICS-10-2023-0182 [Ahead-of-print]10. . Cyber-physical systems(CPS): Security issues, challenges and solutions. In: Proceedings of the 2017 on (ICCIC); Coimbatore, India. New York: IEEE; 2017. 411. . Research on intelligent cyber security protection for electric power dispatching and control system. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting various cybersecurity issues and vulnerabilities related to smart grid systems and cyber-physical systems. It mentions threats, challenges, and the need for security solutions in smart technology implementations, directly undermining the assertion that such technologies are completely secure and immune to threats.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: A number of factors will modify when and where sea-level rises during the deglaciation—including the length of the deglaciation and the size of the continental ice sheets, among other factors—and the geological evidence is far from conclusive. However, additional work constraining the relative timing of transgressive and regressive sequences may be able to test the hypotheses put forward here. The modeling results presented here suggest that escape from an HSB is possible within a reasonable range of atmospheric CO2, demonstrating that the theoretical implausibility of an HSB deglaciation is no longer a reason to reject such a possibility in Earth history. These results also hold implications for other solar systems—the outer-edge of the habitable zone, for example, is characterized by snowball-like states on rocky, water-rich planets63. Depending upon the tectonic mode of the planet and its volcanic CO2 rates, the potential for a midlatitude deglaciation—shown by our result—may expand the outer limit upon which life-bearing planets can be found. MethodsModel configurationFor our study, we used the land and the atmospheric component of the MPI-ESM1. 2 (ref. 29), the latest release of the Max-Planck-Institute for Meteorology’s Earth system model. We ran these models in a terra-planet configuration with a global ice cover and in all grid boxes the land model is used to simulate the (near-) surface processes, with the parametrizations corresponding to those of glacier points. Thus, the setup does not account for the soil, bedrock, or ocean underlying the ice cover and the modeled surface consists of a 10-m-column of ice at the bottom of which a zero-flux condition is assumed. With the model configuration, we can simulate the complex atmospheric dynamics on a moderate spatiotemporal resolution with a reasonable amount of computational resources, as the simulated climate adapts to changes in the forcing comparatively quickly and the simulations come to an equilibrium within a spin-up period of <10 years. Before giving a more detailed description of the modifications that were made to the MPI-ESM, it should be noted that our setup does not capture the entirety of the deglaciation-related processes, which would have required at least a sophisticated glacier- and coupled ocean-sea-ice model. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses factors affecting sea-level rises, glaciers, and modeling of the Earth system without addressing the concept of life on Earth originating from extraterrestrial sources. There is no mention of extraterrestrial influences or origins of life in the provided text.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation is a leading cause of biodiversity loss in tropical rainforests. [SEP] Text: Map of cross river state showing the level of deforestation in the state. multi-temporal change for two periods (1986-2000 and 2000-2010), demonstrate that there is significant increase in deforestation rate in the 2000-2010 period (2. 22%) when compared with the rate seen in the 1986-2000 period (0. 09%). Overall, the result shows a staggering loss of 21. 15% of the forest in the Afi-Mbe-Okwangwo landscape from 1986 to 2010. Deforestation appears to be highest in the (ARFR) where annual deforestation increased twelve-fold from only 227 ha between 1986 and 2000 to 2760 ha from 2000 to 2010, followed by (AMWS) where annual deforestation doubled for the same period. Mountains had the lowest rate of deforestation (0. 04% and 0. 19% for the two time periods respectively), followed by Okwangwo (0. 04% and 0. 27%). As the was only designated a community forest in 2005, its protection effort by the community with support from WCS may explain this low rate. However, given the double-fold increase in the deforestation rate from one time period to the next, it seems that the is becoming vulnerable to increased pressure in the area (Figure 2). Figure 2. Comparison of Land cover change in of CRNP and region for 1986 (Landsat TM data), 2000 (Landsat ETM + data) and 2010 (Landsat ETM + data). Source: WCS/Okeke, 2013. 3. 2. Establishment of the colonial days up to the present period, several tree crops such as rubber, cocoa, palm trees, cashew, cotton, etc. , and non-tree crop plantations such as banana, plantain, cassava, pineapple, etc. , were established by government all over Nigeria. River State, examples include oil palm estates at Calaro, Ibiae, Oban, Borum and Nsadop; rubber plantations at Uyanga―Akamkpa, Nko, Biakpan, Ikot Okpora, and Agoi; cocoa plantations at at Ikom and Etung group of estates; and Gmelina arborea plantations at Awi and Edondon group of communities/estates. These plantations were established to broaden or diversify the revenue base of government which resulted in massive primary forest clearance across several Areas (Local Counties) in Nigeria. 3. 3. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by detailing the significant increase in deforestation rates in the Cross River State from 1986 to 2010, which correlates with the loss of forest area. The narrative explains that deforestation has dramatically escalated, particularly in certain regions, which contributes to the vulnerability of the forests. This aligns with the notion that deforestation is a leading cause of biodiversity loss, as highlighted in the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: In: Proceedings of the 2nd on Machine Learning, (), Taiyuan, China. New York: IEEE; 2020. 4312. Csanyi E. the it Digital? [Internet]. EEP-Portal; 2023. Available from: [Accessed: February 25, 2024]13. øros J, Istad M. Cyber-security gaps in a digital substation: From sensors to SCADA. In: Proceedings of the 9th on (MECO), Budva, Montenegro. New York: IEEE; 2020. 414. . Intelligent electronic device functionality and interfacing: An experimental examination of smart grid. of and Engineering (IJRTE). 2019;8:3922-392615. Torres BS, Borges da de Moraes CHV. Integrating smart grid devices into the traditional protection of distribution networks. Energies. 2022;15:2518. DOI: 10. 3390/en1507251816. Laaksonen H, Suomi F. New functionalities and features of IEDs to realise active control and protection of smart grids. In: Proceedings of the 22nd and Exhibition on (CIRED 2013), Stockholm, Sweden. New York: IEEE; 2013. 417. Csanyi E. IED (Device) our Live Better. EEP-Portal [Internet]. Available from: [Accessed: February 25, 2024]18. U. S. Department of Cybersecurity & Agency. CISA and [Internet]. U. S. Department of Cybersecurity & Agency; 2023. Available from: [Accessed: February 25, 2024]19. Jacobs N, Hossain-McKenzie S, Vugrin E. Measurement and analysis of cyber resilience for control systems: An illustrative example. In: Proceedings of the 2018 (RWS), Denver, CO, US. New York: IEEE; 2018. 4620. Cycuity. Cybersecurity is a Journey. is the [Internet]. Available from: [Accessed: February 25, 2024]21. Cycuity. Detect and Vulnerabilities in your of Trust [Internet]. Available from: [Accessed: February 25, 2024]22. Witteman M, Goncharov K. The roots of Riscure, device security, and pre-silicon [Internet]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by referencing the existence of cybersecurity gaps in digital substations and the ongoing journey of improving cybersecurity resilience. This indicates that smart city technology is not completely secure and is susceptible to cybersecurity threats, directly opposing the claim of immunity.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: Consequently, our approach has similar limitations as previous studies that relied on simulations with general circulation models28 and the second part of our investigation, namely the feasibility of deglaciation, is only valid in the case that the overall behavior of the system is dominated by the processes modulating the snow albedo and cover. To confirm the applicability of our approach, we conducted a series of tests, in which we varied a number of key parameters, e. g. , we prescribed an albedo of 0. 4 for the ice underlying the snow layer in order to simulate the impact of a very dark surface similar to a thick dust layer that accumulated due to lateral glacier flow. Here, we found that the snow-albedo-dynamics, and the respective feedbacks, indeed determine the behavior of the snowball system and while the ablation rates and deglaciation thresholds change slightly with varying parameters, the key findings remain unchanged, namely that the negative snow albedo feedback prohibits the onset of deglaciation in the tropics within the plausible CO2 range, while deglaciation could have occurred in the extratropics, provided that dust fluxes were high enough. Furthermore, it should be noted that the atmospheric component shares certain shortcomings with other models which affect the performance at extreme atmospheric CO2 concentrations24. For example, the radiation scheme does not account for the effects of pressure broadening on the opacity of the atmospheric greenhouse gases. However, within the geologically feasible CO2 range, these effects would still have been comparatively small and even for the maximum CO2 concentrations investigated in this study (400 mbar) neglecting them is still tolerable. In addition, for a spatially well mixed atmosphere, the respective effects would be similar for the tropics and the extratropics, hence they wouldn’t change the main finding—that the onset of deglaciation would have occurred in the midlatitudes before it started in the tropics. Our investigations did not require a great number of changes to the models’ code and we ran them largely with the same parametrizations that are being used for the sixth phase of the Intercomparison Project54. One important exception pertains to the land component’s snow-albedo-scheme, which we adapted to the specific requirements of a snowball Earth, and which we will describe in the following. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses limitations and findings of simulations related to snow albedo and deglaciation, without addressing or referencing extraterrestrial sources or the origin of life on Earth. There is no mention of life, extraterrestrial sources, or related hypotheses.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation is a leading cause of biodiversity loss in tropical rainforests. # factual [SEP] Text: Slash and Practices in wide practice of slash and burn agriculture in all local communities in the region, with no legal restrictions over the years, has culminated in perpetual destruction of the rainforest by local people. There are no land use plans guiding land use practices. There are over 2500 local communities with a population of 2. 1 million people in State. This high population has resulted in the continuous establishment and government recognition of new village settlements. Migrant populations from other parts of the country where forest has been exhausted are also adding to the pressure on the remaining forest resources in the area. 3. 4. Construction of Highways and Government development plans and determination to link all forest/local communities with good roads has impacted negatively on forest resources exploitation. For instance, the opening of the Calabar―Ikom―Ogoja―Obudu road (from north to south of the state), and a network of adjoining feeder roads have exposed hitherto inaccessible and intact forest to reckless illegal logging activities and hunting of wild animals. The ubiquity of logging roads, opened by logging companies is further attracting farmers and migrant populations to open new farm lands and hunting grounds in biodiversity rich pristine forest areas. In 2016, the government of State came up with a new proposal to construct a superhighway across the core area of the remaining pristine rainforest in the state. Ministry of Environment has on three occasions rejected all EIA (Assessment) reports on the superhighway, and NGOs, forest communities, and the international community have all protested against the project in different ways. So far the government of State is still determined to carry on with the project. The proposed superhighway poses the greatest threat to the rainforest of State in recent time. 3. 5. Mining and Granite quarrying activities in places like Old Nnetim, Obung, Nsan, Akamkpa urban, Awi, Mbarakom, Uyanga, Ojor, etc. ; and mining of limestone for the cement factory at Mfamosing, Aningeje, Mbobui, Abiati, and other Ojuk clan villages, have contributed immensely towards serious deforestation and depletion of valuable flora and fauna species in the affected communities. The absence of official regulations controlling ecological abuses by the quarrying and mining companies involved, have also aided rapid deforestation in the region. Government is hardly committed to the strict enforcement of environmental impacts assessment laws of Nigeria across the state. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing specific practices and activities that lead to deforestation in tropical rainforests, such as slash and burn agriculture, the construction of roads, and mining. It describes how these practices have resulted in a loss of flora and fauna, which directly relates to biodiversity loss. For instance, it states that 'mining and granite quarrying activities... have contributed immensely towards serious deforestation and depletion of valuable flora and fauna species.' These assertions support the claim that deforestation is a leading cause of biodiversity loss.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: Available from: [Accessed: February 25, 2024]23. Nygård AR, Katsikas S. SoK: Combating threats in the digital supply chain. In: Proceedings of the 17th on Availability, Reliability and Security (ARES22); Vienna. 2022. 824. U. S. Department of Cybersecurity & Agency. Practices for Systems [Internet]. 2023. Available from: www. cisa. gov/sites/default/files/publications/Cybersecurity_Best_Practices_for_Industrial_Control_Systems. pdf [Accessed: February 25, 2024]25. Kirchmer M. Business process management: What is it and why do you need it? In: Kirchmer M, editor. High-Performance through Management: in a Digital World. Cham: Springer; 2017. DOI: 10. 1007/978-3-319-51259-4_126. von. Process tagging—A process classification and categorization concept. In: von Rosing M, Scheer A-W, von Scheel H. Handbook. Burlington, MA: Morgan Kaufmann; 2015. 171. DOI: 10. 1016/B978-0-12-799959-3. 00008-227. Aarland M. in the Power Industry’s Chain: Strategies [Interview]; 202328. Nygård A, Katsikas S. Leveraging hardware reverse engineering to improve the cyber security and resilience of the smart grid. In: Proceedings of the 20th on Security and Cryptography, Rome, Italy. Lisbon: 2023. 1629. Chapin N. Flowcharting with the ANSI standard: A tutorial. ACM Computing Surveys. 1970;2:119-14630. U. S. Department of Cybersecurity & Agency. [Internet]. Available from: [Accessed: February 25, 2024]31. Brash R. Protecting embedded systems. Verve [Internet]. Available from: [Accessed: February 25, 2024]32. Norwegian Ministries. for Norway [Internet]. Available from: [Accessed: February 25, 2024]33. George T. Cyber Resilience: Strategy to Increased Threats. Security Week, 16 November 2022 [Internet]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by suggesting that there are ongoing efforts to improve cyber security in systems, specifically referencing a paper titled 'Leveraging hardware reverse engineering to improve the cyber security and resilience of the smart grid.' This implies that there are vulnerabilities and the need for continual improvement, indicating that smart city technology cannot be considered completely secure or immune to cybersecurity threats.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: For the second set of simulations, we adapted the snow-albedo-scheme and separated the snowpack into a main layer and a top layer, each possessing its own thickness, cover fraction, age, and albedo. Falling snow is added to the top layer, increasing the layer’s thickness, cover fraction, which is a function of the snow depth, and albedo while reducing the layer’s age. The main layer’s characteristics, however, are not affected by new snow. In our scheme, we assume that the top layer forms above the main layer and that the top layer’s cover fraction is necessarily smaller than that of the main layer. This allows us to calculate the two layer’s contributions to melt, sublimation and surface (mean) albedo simply by the fraction of the layer that is exposed to the atmosphere relative to the snow-covered fraction. Whenever the top layer covers >95% of the main layer, the snow contained in the top layer is added to the main layer, increasing the latter’s albedo, depth and cover fraction (if not already at 100%), while decreasing its age. After the top layer has been added to the main layer or has disappeared as a result of ablation, a new top layer, which is initiated with the albedo corresponding to that of fresh snow and a zero age, forms whenever there is fresh snowfall. The result is a thick darker main layer whose extent is relatively stable and whose albedo continuously decreases (to the point when the snow contained in the top layer is added or the minimum albedo is reached), on top of which a thin, brighter top layer is located, whose extent and albedo quickly varies depending on snowfall, melt, and sublimation rates. Dust deposition rates are one of the key factors determining the snow albedo, but our model setup does not allow us to explicitly account for the factors that determine the respective fluxes. Dust p0. 3 for present-day dust fluxes and 0. 6 for a doubling of the dust depositions. the dust concentrations within the snowpack are not simulated explicitly and the impact of impurities is only accounted for in the snow’s age and represented by a factor for the dust deposition rates in the respective calculations. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses a simulation model related to snowpack characteristics and does not provide any information or evidence regarding the origins of life on Earth or extraterrestrial influences.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation is a leading cause of biodiversity loss in tropical rainforests. # factual [SEP] Text: Hardly are quarrying and mining companies engaging in forest ecological restoration activities to address their negative environmental impacts. 3. 6. Hunting by The practice of some local people and communities setting large portions of primary forest ablaze for hunting purposes (to kill wild animals), has also impacted negatively on the integrity of State’s rainforest. The tragedy of the foregoing deforestation and loss of biodiversity problems in State, lies not in the excesses of the perpetrators, but in the failure of government to enforce the appropriate forestry and wildlife management laws of the state. 3. 7. Regimes and The communal ownership of forest lands designated as have also not helped matters. Such forests belong to all citizens of the affected communities, and so everybody have rights to go into the forest and undertake the extraction of timber and non timber forest products as they like. One can clear primary forest for new farm lands as much as what one desires. This free for all approach to forest resources management has culminated seriously in the present level of deforestation in the region. 3. 8. of Deforestation on the Flora and of the strength of the foregoing deforestation activities in State, there are serious consequences on the flora and fauna resources of the region. On the floral side of the coin, certain government forest reserves have either become seriously depleted, or wiped out almost completely. Dunn & Otu (1996: p. 35) report the case of in of the State: “Ekinta, an 11,000 hectares forest reserve in the of the State, provides a good example of accelerated high forest loss as a consequence of forest policy that favored forest exploitation and the establishment of fast growing exotic species. The reserve was good quality high forest until the late 1970s. The government owned logging company―cleared much of the forest in a salvage cut and opened up the entire reserve with a network of roads. A large number of farmers (from the then south-west of CRS, now the neighboring State of Akwa Ibom) were permitted to move into the area to establish plantations of Gmelina arborea using the taungya system. However, due to a shortage of funds for seedlings and supervision, virtually no plantations were established. In less than a decade, 90% of the forest reserve had become cassava farms instead of forest plantations, with hardly a tree standing. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing various activities that lead to deforestation and the subsequent biodiversity loss in the region. It mentions the clear-cutting of forests for agriculture and the negative impacts of hunting and lack of governmental enforcement regarding forestry management, which directly relate to the decline in biodiversity. The reference to the degradation of the Ekinta forest reserve illustrates how deforestation has dramatically reduced flora and fauna, supporting the claim about the detrimental effects of deforestation on biodiversity in tropical rainforests.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Smart cities can completely eliminate traffic and pollution issues. [SEP] Text: -19 PreprintsProtocolsVideosJournalsTools & a 10. 21203/rs. 3. rs-2893913/v1This work is licensed under a CC BY 4. 0 LicenseStatus:PostedVersion 1posted You are reading this latest preprint versionAbstractConsidering China's smart city pilot policy as a quasi-natural experiment, the panel data of 284 cities from 2003 to 2020 were selected to evaluate the effect of smart city construction on haze pollution by combining the propensity score matching method and the difference-in-difference model (PSM-DID). The research results show that: (1) smart city construction has effectively reduced the concentration of urban haze, which is still valid after a series of robustness tests. (2) the results of heterogeneous test show that the smart city pilot has a stronger inhibitory effect on eastern cities, large and medium-sized cities, and cities with high level of talent agglomeration and intelligence. (3) the mechanism test found that the smart city pilot can indirectly promote the city haze governance by improving the innovation capacity (collaborative innovation and green innovation), improving the efficiency of resource allocation, and increasing the entrepreneurship rate of modern service industries. (4) after further exploration, it was found that the construction of smart cities has a significant spatial spillover effect on haze pollution. While promoting haze control in the local city, it will also suppress the haze concentration of neighboring cities through "demonstration effect". Smart cityHaze pollutionDIDInnovationResource allocationEntrepreneurship rate of modern service industryFiguresFigure 11. IntroductionSince the reform and opening-up, China's economic development has achieved remarkable results, known as "China's miracle". However, according to the 2022 global environmental performance index, China ranked only 160th out of 180 countries and regions, indicating that China's rapid economic development has also led to huge energy consumption (Yu et al. , 2020; Wang. , 2020). The outcome of environmental pollution is not optimistic, especially the haze pollution. At present, haze pollution in China is characterized by a wide range of impacts, high frequency of occurrence and great difficulty in prevention and control. As a result, it is difficult to achieve the haze governance by terminal treatment alone, which poses a great threat to public health (Madrigano et al. , 2010; Cao et al. , 2021), traffic safety (Wan et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the findings of a study that indicates while smart city construction has effectively reduced haze pollution, it does not imply complete elimination of such issues. The research suggests that the smart city pilot has had a significant but limited impact, evidenced by the continuing challenges associated with haze pollution in China, which includes high frequency and difficulty in prevention and control.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: Thus, in order to simulate the effect of dust accumulation due to ablation, we allow the main layer to age at the same rate as the top layer, even though the main layer is not (fully) exposed to the surface dust deposition flux as it is (partly) covered by the top layer. Consequently, whenever the top layer disappears, as a result of snow melt or sublimation, and more of the main layer is exposed, the main layer has already received the same amount of dust as was embedded in the top layer and has aged accordingly. Here, it should be noted that this approach potentially overestimates the dust accumulation under the circumstances that ablation is mainly the result of melt. Whenever ablation is driven by sublimation, it can be assumed that the embedded p33. However, even the assumption that all the dust would be washed away with the meltwater would not change our results fundamentally. This is because the simulated melt rates are so large that melt does not only degrade the top layer, but also reduces the main layer substantially and in most simulations, in which melt is triggered the snow cover largely disappears during the snow melt season. And under the circumstances that also the main layer disappears it is assumed that the dust is removed from the surface. Besides these major structural changes, we made some minor adaptations mostly in the form of parameter modifications. Instead of using the weighted average of the temperature- and the age-based snow albedo, we use the minimum of the two, but at the same time we raised the maximum albedo of fresh snow to 0. 95 for visible and 0. 75 for near-infrared radiation. In addition, we changed the threshold above which the snow albedo is sensitive to surface temperature from −5 to −1 °C (corresponding to the temperature threshold employed for snow-covered sea ice in MPIOM, the MPI-ESM’s ocean component), but at the same time, we changed the formulation so that increasing temperatures can only lower the albedo, while decreasing temperatures do not increase it. Furthermore, we removed the factor representing the snowfall rate from the snow age calculation. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding the origins of life on Earth from extraterrestrial sources. Instead, it discusses technical aspects of dust accumulation and snow albedo effects, which are irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation is a leading cause of biodiversity loss in tropical rainforests. # factual [SEP] Text: ” Valuable timber species such as Iroko (Milicia excels), Mahogany (Khaya spp), (Terminalia ivorensis), Mimusups (Baillonella toxisperma), (Terminalia superba), Cedar (Lovoa trichilloides), Ebony, etc. that used to be very common in State, are now extremely scarce and difficult to find. If available, the prices are so astronomical that only those at the upper echelon of society can afford to buy them. In some local communities, people are beginning to roof their houses with Gmelina arborea, a thing that now surprise the local people themselves. Some people who are crazy of the above high profile timber species are beginning to import wood from the neighboring Republic of Cameroon for domestic furniture use. On the fauna side, several wild animal species have become extinct, some critically endangered, and some that were hitherto common have also become endangered. Extinct species include among others Leopards, Bush cow, African giant pangolin, etc. Critically endangered include Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), Drill (Mandrillus leucophaeus), Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla diehli), Preuss’s monkey (Cercopithecus preussi), Red bellied monkey (Cercopithecus erythrogaster), Sclater’s guenon (Cercopithecus sclateri―endemic to Nigeria), Wild dog (Lycaon pictus). The endangered list include African elephant (Loxodonta Africana), Cheeta (Acinonyx jubatus), Red eared guenon (Cercopithecus erythrotis), Pygmy hippopotamus (Hexaprotodon liberiensis), African pygmy squirrel (Myosciurus pumilio), mantee (Trichechus senegalensis), Spotted-necked otter (Lutra maculicollis), etc. (Enuoh, 2012: p. 221). 4. paper assesses the major factors underpinning tropical deforestation and biodiversity loss in the rainforest of Nigeria―a global biodiversity hotspot and region of species endemism. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing the scarcity of valuable timber species and the extinction and endangerment of various animal species in tropical rainforests, which supports the idea that deforestation is a major contributor to biodiversity loss. Specific examples of endangered and extinct species, along with the mention of factors underpinning tropical deforestation and biodiversity loss, reinforce the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Smart cities can completely eliminate traffic and pollution issues. [SEP] Text: , 2020) and social security (Bondy et al. , 2020). Therefore, the necessary issues to be discussed and explored by the government and academia includes clarifying the root causes of haze pollution, seeking ways to reduce haze pollution, maintaining public life and health, and improving the quality of economic development. From the perspective of economics, the intensifying of haze pollution is closely related to many factors such as unreasonable energy structure, imbalanced industrial structure, inefficient environmental governance, and excessive population density in large cities (Shao et al. , 2016). Although some studies have begun to focus on the above issues, compared with these end agents, the impact of extensive urbanization development on haze pollution should be paid more attention. Throughout China's urbanization process, environmental pollution problems mainly occur in areas with rapid urbanization. Especially in recent years, cities with relatively serious haze pollution are mostly concentrated in areas with high urbanization level, such as Beijing, Tianjin, Hebei, and Delta (Shao et al. , 2019). In fact, the traditional urbanization process is often accompanied by the pace of industrial agglomeration, which not only promotes the economic development, but also brings huge energy consumption and serious haze pollution. In this regard, the smart city pilot policy was born in order to break the urban development dilemma under haze pollution and achieve the "win-win" goal of economic development and ecological civilization construction. Smart city construction is a new development model based on the new generation of information technology such as big data and artificial intelligence, making urban construction, education, healthcare, and transportation more interconnected and intelligent (SumitaSarma and Sunny, 2017; Shi et al. , 2018; Capdevila and Zarlenga, 2015), and actively helping cities achieve green development. Specifically, as a new form of traditional urban development, smart city is a major innovation based on social technological progress and organizational change. With the continuous improvement of innovation capacity, it will drive the development of information services, R&D design, and high-end manufacturing. Thereafter, the transformation and upgrading of traditional industries is further accelerated (Wang and Deng, 2022) for realizing their optimization and rationalization of industrial structure. At the same time, industrial transformation and upgrading can provide permanent vitality for the construction of smart cities, thus forming a mutual promotion relationship between the smart city construction and the industrial structure upgrading (Andrea and Del, 2019). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by explaining that despite the potential of smart cities to improve ecological conditions through new technologies, the urbanization process often exacerbates pollution issues. It mentions that areas with rapid urbanization, such as Beijing and Tianjin, face significant haze pollution, and that traditional urbanization contributes to both economic development and environmental degradation. Therefore, while smart city initiatives aim to address these issues, they cannot completely eliminate pollution problems, highlighting the complex relationship between urbanization and environmental challenges.