Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: , that part of the corpus callosum that we identified as speech-relevant in this study. More interesting than the localization of the callosal metabolic changes, however, are the organization and direction of callosal information transfer that our data imply. If the transcallosal auditory communication was a direct projection and simply excitatory, the metabolic increase of callosal fibers would parallel the activation of cortical neurons. We found, however, a negative correlation between callosal and cortical energy consumption during word repetition, i. e. , the cortical metabolism of functionally asymmetric areas increased as the callosal metabolism decreased. It has to be emphasized in this context that our sample of individuals only included consistent right-handers, predominantly men, i. e. , individuals with presumably left-dominant, asymmetrically organized brains (Shaywitz et al. , 1995; Geschwind and Galaburda, 1984). In these brains, we found significant negative corticocallosal correlations. Because the deoxyglucose method directly reflects the local energy utilization accompanying membrane depolarization (Mata et al. , 1980), our findings suggest that the activation of specially asymmetric cortex areas reduces the overall number of activated callosal fibers. Finding a modification of activity in such a large part of the corpus callosum, furthermore, indicates that key regions of brain functional asymmetry may be able basically to adjust the interhemispheric information exchange beyond a simple one-to-one talk with their contralateral mate. That means that lateralized mental operations can only be executed when the transcallosal activity is reduced to the actual operational needs, or in other words, that the orchestra has to decrease in volume when the soloist is playing. Figure 3 schematically illustrates this concept of transcallosal mediation of functional brain asymmetry. FIG. 3. Schematic diagrams of symmetric and asymmetric interhemispheric information processing. The left diagram shows the symmetric transmission of nonlateralized information. Neurons of both hemispheres (filled circles) reciprocally excite neurons in their contralateral projection field. Inhibitory neurons (crossed circles) and specific neurons with functional dominance (large circle) are not involved. The right diagram shows the excitation of a functionally dominant neuron of the left hemisphere (large circle) during specific information processing. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim about functional MRI measuring brain activity through blood flow changes. Instead, it delves into discussions about the corpus callosum, cortical function, and interhemispheric information processing, which are not related to the mechanics of functional MRI.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation contributes to habitat loss and climate change. [SEP] Text: less prevalent but very powerful greenhouse gases are hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). Table 1: Countries with Loss 2011-2013*. Source: https:// global forest watch. Org 2018. *Tree cover Deforestation and Losses. The leading country in greenhouse gas emissions from 2005 until now is China. It’s GHG emissions from 2005 to 2014 increased from 6. 9 G. T. to 12 G. T. Then come U. S and E. U. The least and stable GHG emissions in these years had only Canada and Mexico (Table 2). Presently there are about 390,900 plants known to science, of which about 369,400 are flowering. Over 96,000 species have been assessed for their conservation status with the latest update to the. 96,951, including 27,514 plant species i. e. around 26 % from them are threatened with extinction. Scientists believe that these threats come from climate change, habitat loss, diseases and invasive species. Climate change commonly refers to influences on climate resulting from human practices. Increases in the concentration of so-called greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere resulting greatly from burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, have led to observed and projected warming of the earth, known as greenhouse effect. But it isn’t easy to distinguish this anthropogenic climate threats of climate change from the natural variations of the climate change drivers described above. In the 5th Assessment Report, the IPCC (intergovernmental panel on Climate Change), a group of 1,300 independent scientific experts from countries all over the world under the auspices of the United Nations, concluded that there is more than 95 percent probability that human activities over the last 50 years have warmed our planet [6]. Table 2: Emissions. Source:. 2017. Gas Emissions. Washington, D. C. . 2017 It is obvious that in order to constrain the impacts of climate change within limits that the society will reasonably be able to tolerate the global average temperatures must be kept below two degrees Celsius. At the 48th session of the IPCC (on Climate Change) in Incheon, South Korea, in 2018, was underlined that global warming is already reaching 1. 5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. They warned that the planet is already on two/thirds of the way to there. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how deforestation significantly contributes to climate change. It mentions that increases in greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere resulting from human activities, specifically the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, have contributed to the observed warming of the Earth, characterized as the greenhouse effect. This directly supports the assertion that deforestation plays a role in climate change, aligning with the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: These results confirmed that the processing speed of CF showed a consistent pattern of contributions to UF across speaking task types, whereas the role of linguistic resource of CF in UF tends to vary, depending on task characteristics. The current findings offer some insights into what linguistic objectives should be prioritized in relation to L2 fluency development. The CFA model of CF showed that vocabulary size was found to be the primary component of linguistic resource, whereas sentence construction speed was the primary component of processing speed. Accordingly, vocabulary instruction should emphasize widening students’ lexical repertoires for productive use (Webb et al. , Reference Webb, Yanagisawa and Uchihara2020), and grammar instruction should focus not only on accuracy but also on the speed and efficiency of grammatical encoding which can be enhanced through meaningful and engaging practice activities (Y. Suzuki & DeKeyser, and DeKeyser2017). Articulatory speed was also found to be another component of the processing speed of CF, indicating that training on some suprasegmental features, such as linking and vowel reduction, may also facilitate students’ fluent speech production (Saito et al. , Reference Saito, Suzukida and Sun2019). In addition, our SEM model showed that the construct of breakdown fluency may be consistent across tasks, whereas that of speed fluency and repair fluency could vary, depending on task characteristics. Therefore, breakdown fluency measures, such as mid-clause pause ratio (for predictive validity in perceived fluency, see S. Suzuki et al. , Reference Suzuki, Kormos and Uchihara2021), could be adopted as a representative feature in automated scoring systems for oral proficiency. Two significant methodological limitations need to be acknowledged in interpreting the current findings. First, we did not include measures of multiword sequences and pronunciation accuracy (cf. et al. , and Hulstijn2013; Kahng, Reference Kahng2020). The processing advantage of multiword sequences in L2 speech production has been advocated in L2 fluency research (Tavakoli & Uchihara, and Uchihara2020). Similarly, despite the substantive difficulty in identifying targetlike pronunciation, previous studies have found some unique contributions of pronunciation, such as syllable structure errors, to listener-based judgments of fluency (S. Suzuki & Kormos, and Kormos2020). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that developing L2 fluency requires more than just what language apps can provide. It emphasizes the importance of various linguistic objectives, such as vocabulary size and grammatical accuracy, along with processing skills like sentence construction speed and articulatory speed. These insights suggest that comprehensive language instruction involves targeted practice and considerations beyond what language apps offer.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: The excitation of the dominant neuron is transmitted to local inhibitory interneurons, ipsilaterally and contralaterally. The information transfer to the contralateral projection field uses a disynaptic feed-forward circuit of excitatory/inhibitory transcallosal transmission. Thus inhibitory neurons bilaterally suppress the background activity of symmetric interhemispheric information exchange. Because the excitation of inhibitory neurons is also energy consuming, the activation of the dominant neuron (large filled circle) induces a significant bilateral metabolic increase that is closely correlated. Callosal metabolism decreases at the same time because the overall number of excited transcallosal fibers decreases in favor of the transmission of excitatory/inhibitory information through the specific transcallosal axon. Interestingly, callosal metabolism increased to some extent in 4 of 10 individuals during word repetition in comparison with the resting state (Fig. 2). Moreover, this finding smoothly fits our model of collateral inhibition proposed in Fig. 3, because the corpus callosum presumably includes fibers that transmit specific, task-related information and others that transmit unrelated activity. In asymmetrically organized brains, a few callosal fibers that transmit specific information may suppress unrelated interhemispheric activity through the corpus callosum to such an extent that the overall callosal activity is reduced in comparison with the resting state. In more symmetrically organized brains, however, both hemispheres actively contribute to the mental processing. Thus, the bilateral execution of mental operations needs less energy-consuming activation of inhibitory neurons in the cortex but more specific information exchange through the corpus callosum. The callosal energy consumption because of the task-related information transmission may therefore exceed the reduction of unrelated transcallosal activity in individuals with minor functional lateralization. Our results bear direct relevance to the debate on the ontogenic development and function of callosal fibers with respect to cerebral hemisphere dominance (Witelson, 1985; Kertesz et al. , 1987). Studies of human and mammalian brains suggest that the more asymmetric a region is, the smaller the number of neurons and callosal axons (Galaburda et al. , 1990; Aboitiz, 1992). This decrease of neuronal density is probably caused by specific neuronal degeneration, which adjusts the magnitude of each neuronal population to the size of functional needs of its projection field during brain development (Cowan et al. , 1984). The concept shown in Fig. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it does not discuss functional MRI or its method of measuring brain activity via changes in blood flow. Instead, it focuses on neuronal firing, inhibitory interneurons, and metabolic changes without mentioning functional MRI or blood flow directly.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation contributes to habitat loss and climate change. [SEP] Text: Presently the average global temperature already increased on one degree Celsius. According to the report, the planet will reach this crucial threshold as early as 2030 based on the calculations of current levels of greenhouse gas emissions. The global net emissions of carbon dioxide would need to fall by 45% from 2010 levels by 2030 and reach net zero around 2050 in order to keep the warming around 1. 5 degrees Celsius. But they also noted that even if warming will be able to keep at 1. 5 degrees Celsius, the adverse impacts will be widespread and significant on many regions of the world. This goal will be impossible to achieve without reduction of emissions from the forest sector, in addition to other mitigation actions. The REDD+ (from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) program goes beyond deforestation and forest degradation and includes the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks. Forestry offers potential mitigation through sequestration in growing forests and use of forest biomass for bio-energy. There is potential for bio-fuels to reduce emissions from the transport sector. Reforestation can also contribute to mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions though sequestration of carbon from the atmosphere. Forests sequester carbon as they grow, until they reach maturity, after which carbon stock remains essentially constant unless they are disturbed by harvest or fire. The sequestration rate of planted forests depends on climate, soil factors and forest sustainable management. Forests’ 3: Summery of the data on forest species from the 25 countries. Source: FAO, of Pests and Diseases. FAO, Forestry Paper. 156. Rome, Italy [21]. Forests have always been under different threats by variety of destructive natural disasters, like fires, hurricanes, droughts, ice-storms and insect pests and diseases outbreaks. But today all these threats shifting aside by the result of human activities and the global climate change making forest ecosystems more vulnerable for damage. Among forest threats are natural and human-induced once. Major natural forest threats are natural destructive wild fires, climate change, insect pests and diseases epidemics, loss of plant biodiversity. Anthropogenic drivers are considered: overexploitation, human induced fires, invasive plant species, illegal loggings, non-sustainable forest management, agricultural expansion, infrastructure development, enlargement of towns [5,7]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by highlighting the significant impact of deforestation and forest degradation on global warming and greenhouse gas emissions. It states that 'this goal will be impossible to achieve without reduction of emissions from the forest sector' and discusses various anthropogenic drivers, including 'illegal loggings' and 'non-sustainable forest management,' which are directly linked to deforestation. Additionally, the mention of reforestation contributing to the 'mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions' reinforces the connection between deforestation, habitat loss, and climate change.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: Longitudinal development of second language utterance fluency, cognitive fluency, and their relationship Published online by Press: 26 February 2024 [Opens in a new window] Show author details Jimin Kahng* Affiliation: Department of Modern Languages, University of * Email: jkahng@olemiss. edu 0. 16 mb) View PDF [Opens in a new window] Save to to Save to & Permissions [Opens in a new window] development of L2 utterance fluency has been extensively researched, whereas that of cognitive fluency has rarely been examined. This study investigated the longitudinal development of L2 utterance and cognitive fluency and their relationship. Thirty-one Chinese learners of English completed speaking tasks and a set of tasks for cognitive fluency before and after 5 months’ study abroad. The results showed that participants made a significant improvement in mean syllable duration, end-clause pause frequency, and the speed of syntactic encoding and articulation but not in mid-clause pause frequency or lexical retrieval speed. Mixed-effects modeling confirmed a significant relationship between syntactic encoding speed and mean syllable duration and mid-clause pausing. Furthermore, the significant relationships were maintained over time. The findings highlight (a) the differences between mid-clause and end-clause pausing in terms of their developmental patterns and relationship with cognitive fluency and (b) a significant role of syntactic encoding speed in L2 utterance fluency. Studies in Acquisition Issue 2 May 2024 10. 1017/S0272263123000591 [Opens in a new window] This is an 4. 0), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution and reproduction, provided the original 2024. Published by fluency can be defined various ways (e. g. , Fillmore, Reference Fillmore, Fillmore, Kempler and Wang1979; Freed, and Riggenbach2000), a narrow sense of fluency—how smoothly oral speech is delivered (Lennon, Reference Lennon1990)—has recently been examined extensively based on its significance in understanding of second language (L2) proficiency (Iwashita et al. , Reference Iwashita, Brown, McNamara and O’Hagan2008). Segalowitz (Reference Segalowitz2010) further distinguishes three facets of fluency—utterance, cognitive, and perceived fluency. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by focusing on the longitudinal development of second language (L2) utterance and cognitive fluency, which implies that factors beyond language apps are critical for achieving fluency. The study results, which highlight significant improvements in several fluency measures after a study abroad experience, suggest that immersive experiences and additional cognitive tasks play a crucial role in achieving fluency, contrary to the idea that language apps alone are sufficient.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: 5 mins). Combined CBF and BOLD measurements were made using the continuous arterial spin-labeling technique with single-shot, gradient-echo, EPI acquisition. Paired images were acquired alternately—one with arterial spin labeling and the other without (control). MR parameters were as follows: data matrix = 64 × 64, FOV = 2. 56 cm × 2. 56 cm, eight 1. 5-mm slices, TE=20 ms, and TR=2 secs (90° flip angle). Continuous arterial spin labeling employed a 1. 78-s square radiofrequency pulse to the labeling coil in the presence of 1. 0 G/cm gradient along the flow direction such that the condition of adiabatic inversion was satisfied. The sign of the frequency offset was switched for control (nonlabeled) images. For each set of CBF and BOLD measurements, 60 pairs of images (4 mins) were acquired during baseline and 30 pairs (2 mins) during hypercapnic challenge or forepaw stimulation. Data AnalysisData analysis used codes written in Matlab (MathWorks Inc. , ) and the (University of Minnesota) software. Coregistration of images obtained during the acute phase and at 24 h used an in-house software, which involved both manual and automatic alignment without spatial interpolation, as described previously (Liu et al, 2004a). Calculation of basal ADC and CBF maps: Apparent diffusion coefficient maps with intensity in unit of mm2/sec were calculated pixel-by-pixel by using (Stejskal and Tanner, 1965), ADC = –ln (S1/S0)/(b1–b0) where bi = γ2G2i δ2(Δ–δ/3), where ln is the natural logarithm, S0 and S1 are the signal intensities obtained with b0 and b1, respectively. The b-value is proportional to the gradient strength (G), magnetogyric ratio (γ), duration of each gradient pulse (δ), and the time (Δ) between applications of the two gradient pulses. Apparent diffusion coefficient maps were calculated at each time point. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim directly. Instead, it provides technical details on measurement techniques, data acquisition, and analysis methods used in an fMRI study, but it does not confirm or deny the ability of functional MRI to measure brain activity through blood flow changes.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation contributes to habitat loss and climate change. [SEP] Text: The increase in carbon stock is primarily due to plantations and the quality of plantations from the ecological point of view cannot match the composition of a natural forests. The other cause of the degradation and poor quality of forests is the raging annual forest fires. Though the involvement of communities in forest management through India’s famous Management definitely prevented rapid degradation of forests, it however, failed to elicit the cooperation of villagers in controlling the forest fires as more than 90% fires are manmade and lit by villagers. Though this author was responsible for setting up of the national fire fighting and monitoring mechanism during 2001–2002 in the country due to policy deficiencies administrative commitments and also due to extreme heat caused by climatic changes the forest fires are causing huge damages to the forest and bio–diversity. This year alone in the of Uttarakhand 35,000 ha areas are affected by fires with 3000 ha completely destroyed by raging fires due to intense heat waves. Thus the regeneration of the dominant species in natural forests is deficient in many forest types leading to heavy loss of bio–diversity. The government of India in the year 2006 in the midst of political heat had enacted Act 20069 under which the traditional rights of the forest dwellers mainly of tribal people were recognized. If seen purely on professional ground it was an attempt to regularise encroachments on forest lands. So far as on January 2018; around 5. 7 million ha forest land has been vested with 4 million people. According to records at hand in 2004 in the government of India when this writer as of Forests compiled the data on encroachments around 1. 2 million ha forest land was under encroachments and only around 3,00,000 ha genuinely belonged to the disputed settlement category the buzz for which led to the creation of this Act. But four times more land was released for settlement of rights and the process is still on. Though the land has been vested with the people, it is a herculean task to make it productive to retain the tribal on the land and prevent further encroachments. (TERI), Delhi scrutinized about 66,300 on 10, 7897 ha are spread across 19 Maharashtra districts. Based on this study till 2012, Maharashtra has emitted 5, 70881 tonnes of Gases (GHG) on account of deforestation due to recognition of rights under the ACT. Thus carbon sequestration has been lost in 14,669 ha of forests. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by discussing how deforestation leads to significant losses in biodiversity and carbon sequestration. It highlights the negative impacts of manmade forest fires and poor forest quality, underscoring that deforestation contributes to both habitat loss and the release of greenhouse gases, which directly ties to climate change.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: Utterance fluency (UF) refers to the temporal and repair features of speech, whereas cognitive fluency (CF) refers to the underlying cognitive processes responsible for fluent speech production. The current study investigates the development of utterance and cognitive fluency, and its interrelationship in L2. L2 utterance fluency and its development Compared with L1 speech, L2 speech tends to be slower and have more pauses and repairs (e. g. , Kahng, Reference Kahng2014; Riazantseva, Reference Riazantseva2001). Importantly, L2 speech often has more pauses within clauses (Kahng, Reference Kahng2014; Tavakoli, Reference Tavakoli2011) and within analysis of speech (AS) unitsFootnote 1 (De Jong, Jong2016) than L1 speech does. L2 UF has been found to exhibit significant correlations with L2 oral proficiency. Among various linguistic measures (e. g. , grammatical accuracy, complexity, pronunciation), speech rate exhibited the strongest influence on distinguishing a range of L2 speaking proficiency levels (Iwashita et al. , Reference Iwashita, Brown, McNamara and O’Hagan2008). Speech rate, articulation rate, and mean length of run in Ginther et al. (Reference Ginther, Dimova and Yang2010) and mean syllable duration and mid-clause silent pause ratio in Kahng (Reference Kahng2014) were moderately to strongly correlated with speaking scores. In longitudinal studies, O’Brien et al. (Reference O’Brien, Segalowitz, Freed and Collentine2007) found that the L1-English L2-Spanish learners improved speech rate and mean length of run without fillers after a semester of study abroad. and Valls-Ferrer (and Valls-Ferrer2012), Catalan-Spanish bilingual learners of English showed gains in speech rate, mean length of run, and pause frequency and duration after a 3-month stay abroad. In their 2-year-long study with L1-English L2-Spanish learners, Huensch and Tracy-Ventura (and Tracy-Ventura2017) reported gains in mean syllable duration appeared quickly and were maintained after return from 9 months’ study abroad, whereas gains in pause frequency appeared later and were sensitive to attrition after return home. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting that achieving fluency involves multiple elements beyond just language apps. It discusses various aspects of fluency such as utterance fluency (UF) and cognitive fluency (CF), emphasizing the need for practice and experiences, such as study abroad, to develop these skills. Longitudinal studies indicate that learners improve their speaking rates and fluency measures significantly after immersive experiences, suggesting language apps alone may not suffice for achieving full fluency.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Errors in CBF MeasurementsAlthough consistent with many established techniques, the accuracy of this CBF technique could be subject to errors from magnetization-transfer (Silva et al, 1995), transit-time (Calamante et al, 1996; Zhou et al, 2001), and water-exchange (Silva et al, 1997; Zhou et al, 2001; Parkes and Tofts, 2002) effects. The magnetization-transfer effect was not an issue with the actively decoupled two-coil system (Duong et al, 2000; Silva et al, 2000). Transit-time effect in small animals and water-exchange effect are small (Silva et al, 1997; Zhou et al, 2001; Parkes and Tofts, 2002) and unlikely to alter the conclusions of this study. Ischemia-induced changes in transit time, however, could result in significant errors and remains to be vigorously validated. In the control experiments in which the CCA was occluded, it was estimated that the upper limit of CBF error was ~20% (whole brain). Despite the potential error associated with delayed transit time in stroke, quantitative CBF fMRI arguably is a better measure considering the alternative fMRI percent changes, which incorrectly reflect neural activity because of the marked changes in baseline values under ischemic conditions. Advantages and Disadvantages of fMRI of stimulation is a good model for assessing the functional integrity in the rat stroke model herein because the primary somatosensory cortices generally experience an evolving perfusion—diffusion mismatch, most of which will inevitably become infarcted if left untreated. Although widely used in fMRI studies of normal animals, α-chloralose is less suited for fMRI studies of both acute and chronic ischemic brain injury. In this study, we chose to use isoflurane under spontaneously breathing condition which has been previously optimized to yield robust responses (Liu et al, 2004a). As this study shows, fMRI studies could be performed during the acute and chronic phase of ischemic brain injury. The disadvantage is that isoflurane is a potent vasodilator and a strong neural suppressant, which could attenuate the hemodynamic and neural responses, respectively. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the accuracy of CBF measurements and various techniques associated with it but does not directly address the claim about functional MRI measuring brain activity through blood flow changes. Therefore, it is considered irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation contributes to habitat loss and climate change. [SEP] Text: The wrong implementation of this ACT is encouraging encroachments and depriving the tribal population of life sustaining resource for which it was enacted. This is a serious matter for sustainable forest management in India as so far no cut off date has been finalized by the government to settle the rights. What is a matter of ecological concern is the fact that the very people who are responsible for the encroachments will be deciding their own case as members of the village council. The land vested must yield productive resources for livelihood in a planned manner. Impact of climate change India being a tropical country has started feeling the heat of global warming during the five years with increasing intensity every year. This author had headed the of India task force constituted by the of and Education (ICFRE) during 2011–2013 to assess the impact of management interventions, climate change and anthropogenic factors on the forests of the country. After 18 months field work by more than 2500 scientific and technical staff a change matrix was prepared on the status of vegetation to compare the present status with the last reassessment done by Champion and Seth in 1968. Impact of climate change on the vegetation was critically examined to see the species level responses to the changes in the rainfall and temperature regimes over the past years. For assessing the impact of climate change over more than 90 years (from 1931 to 2010 in three time series) meteorological data on temperature and rainfall over 83 meteorological stations in the forest type’s areas was compared. The results indicated a clear climate change impact on the forests. The changes were more pronounced and discernible especially during the last 30 years from 1991 to 2010. There has been on an average 0. 7 degree Celsius increase in the temperature and in some localities even more up to 1 degree Celsius. As for the rainfall, it was noticed that in most part of the country’s forests both the quantity and number of rainy days have decreased (rainfall reduced by 241 mm and 5 days on an average). There have been erratic rainfall (excess rainfall in few days with prolong draught for many days during the monsoon period) and intense heat waves engulfing the large part of the country. Now after publication of the report in 2013 during last five years the intensity of heat wave, moisture variations and consequent climatic disturbances storms and gusty winds with devastating effects on life from have become a routine now in India during pre–monsoon season. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the impact of climate change on forests in India. It states that significant changes in temperature and rainfall have been observed, which correlate with deforestation and habitat loss. The text specifically mentions the analysis of vegetation status over time and identifies a clear climate change impact on forests, evidenced by increasing temperatures and decreased rainy days, further linking these environmental changes to anthropogenic factors, which includes deforestation.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: L2 cognitive fluency and its relation to utterance fluency Although L2 CF and its relation to UF has been underexamined, a couple of proposals (Kormos, Reference Kormos2006; Skehan et al. , Reference Skehan, Foster and Shum2016) have been made regarding the connection between different UF measures and speech production stages. According to Levelt (Reference Levelt1989), speech production consists of three main stages. First, a preverbal message is generated using world knowledge (conceptualization). Second, this message is put into words through lexical, grammatical, morphophonological, and phonetic encoding (formulation). Third, the generated utterance is articulated (articulation). During speech planning and after speech articulation, one’s own speech is monitored. Kormos (Reference Kormos2006) proposed that end-clause pausing can reflect L2 speaker’s conceptualization, mid-clause pausing relates to formulation, repairs may reflect speech monitoring, and speed measures can involve all dimensions of L2 speech production. The proposal has been used by Saito et al. (Reference Saito, Ilkan, Magne, Tran and Suzuki2018) in interpreting their cross-sectional findings on UF correlates of different levels of perceived fluency. Based on the distinctive length of residence profile of their fluency groups, they argued that L2 fluency development could initially be observed in end-clause pause frequency (relating to conceptualization), followed by mid-clause pause frequency (relating to formulation), and articulation rate. On the other hand, in examining UF–CF relationship, only a handful of studies have measured CF and related them to UF measures. and Freed (and Freed2004), L1-English L2-Spanish speakers completed an oral proficiency interview, a semantic classification task, and an attention control test before and after a semester either at a home university (AH) or a study-abroad (SA) setting. They found both groups improved in the speed and efficiency of L2 lexical access but only the SA group made gains in UF (e. g. , speech rate, mean length of run without fillers). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts with the claim by discussing the complexities of L2 (second language) fluency, which involves cognitive and production stages that cannot be fully captured by language apps. It mentions the importance of contextual factors like speech production stages (conceptualization, formulation, articulation) and the impact of study-abroad experiences on fluency outcomes, suggesting that comprehensive language acquisition goes beyond what apps can offer alone.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Differences in Hypercapnic and Functional ResponsesIn some animals, there was persistent mismatch at 180 mins and the RH forepaw somatosensory cortex did not show ADC lesions at 180 mins and 24 h. It was also noted that the RH forepaw somatosensory cortices did respond to CO2 challenge but did not respond to forepaw stimulation (Figures 1A and Figure 2B) in some animals. One potential explanation is that the RH forepaw somatosensory cortex was functional silence because of the systemic ischemic shock although the RH forepaw somatosensory cortex was not injured. The other potential explanation is that the functional connection from which the cortex receives its inputs (i. e. , thalamus) was severed, although both vascular coupling and functions of the RH forepaw somatosensory cortex were intact. As such, no forepaw-stimulation fMRI responses in the RH somatosensory cortices were detected despite their normal ADC and CO2 fMRI responses. This notion is supported by the extended subcortical injury but remains to be validated. Differences between CBF and BOLD fMRI ResponsesIn the ischemic RH, the CO2 BOLD activated areas were larger than the CO2 CBF activated areas (Figure 1A) and the CO2 and forepaw BOLD responses were attenuated less than the CO2 and forepaw CBF responses (Figure 2B). This observation suggests uncoupling of metabolism, CBV and/or CBF associated with ischemia. For example, CMRO2 could be reduced, leading to a larger BOLD increase. There is evident that basal CBV elevates in ischemic injury (Roussel et al, 1995; van der Toorn et al, 1995), which could modulate the BOLD percent changes. It should be noted that activated areas in Figure 1B are dependent on the precise thresholds used. Because the BOLD and CBF contrast-to-noise ratios were different, different thresholds were used which could potentially lead to bias. 1B, thresholds in the CO2 challenge studies were judicially set for display such that the central ischemic core showed no activated pixels. 2B, however, ROI analysis of the primary forepaw somatosensory cortices was performed without using thresholds and thus there was no bias. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim regarding functional MRI's ability to measure brain activity through blood flow changes. Instead, it discusses specific experimental observations related to CO2 and forepaw stimulation responses in animal models and touches on issues like ischemic injury, BOLD and CBF responses, and methodological considerations. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation contributes to habitat loss and climate change. [SEP] Text: The study had revealed that a big change has occurred in the composition of forests and the old classification of 16 major Types and 200 types and sub–types is no longer relevant. The new classification of forest types was proposed by the task force reflecting the present ecological, climatic, bio–geographic and edaphic influences on the vegetation composition and stand formation. In the proposed new classification, 10 major groups and 44 sub–groups were identified. There have been considerable impacts on the vegetation particularly in Alpine flora in the higher Himalayas the hot spot of Bio–diversity. The study has indicated many changes occurring at species and forest subtypes levels. The species level changes were observed largely in Shorea robusta (Sal), Tectona grandis (Teak) and Bamboo forests with regard to their distribution and species density. The study has indicated the absence of teak from very moist and moist teak sub–type and occurrence of many moist deciduous and semi–evergreen species. In central India, the low rainfall regime has shown the decline of Sal and occurrence of dry deciduous species. The study revealed that both positive and negative changes have been witnessed in various forest types. have both remained as climatic climax without any disturbances, while the semi–evergreen and all types of deciduous forest have shown changes in species composition. The study had further revealed that most of the forests specially the Himalayan forests are turning xeric as the hydrology is being massively impacted by the climate and consequent vegetation changes. The mineral and forests map together with tribal population overlap each other. Further, the overlapping mineral, forests and tribal/poverty map poses serious challenges. sustainable forest management in India is in the eyes of vortex as the changing dimensions of forests are posing a great challenge for the foresters, policy makers and people at large. Any complacency and ignoring the ecological consequences of poor management of forests will deal a body blow to the India’s (INDCs) in Paris deal and more so to its quest for water and food for the ever increasing population. The sector needs reforms and national consensus on the management of forests for achieving millennium development goals. One of the greatest challenges before the planners is to balance the needs of development with conservation especially the requirement of industry for infrastructure of minerals, water and electricity. Acknowledgements None. Conflict of interest The author declares there is no conflict of interest. 404. of 2017. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how changes in forest composition, particularly in the Himalayan region, are leading to ecological impacts. It mentions the radical changes due to climatic influences and how these shifts in vegetation, such as the decline of specific species like Sal and Teak, reflect broader environmental challenges. The text also highlights how forests are becoming more xeric, indicating a direct relationship between forest management practices and the impacts on climate and habitats, thereby supporting the argument that deforestation contributes to habitat loss and changes in climate.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: A few recent studies on L2 CF discussed above have started revealing its complex relationships with L2 UF, suggesting mean syllable duration and mid-clause pause frequency be potential correlates of L2 CF. However, the seminal research by Segalowitz and Freed (and Freed2004) appears to be the only study that investigated the development of CF along with that of UF. We need more empirical research to examine the proposals on UF–CF relationship (Kormos, Reference Kormos2006; Skehan et al. , Reference Skehan, Foster and Shum2016) and the development of CF, which can contribute to the development of L2 speech-production model. Therefore, the current study investigated the development of UF and CF and their relationship with the following research questions: RQ1. Which aspects of L2 utterance and cognitive fluency demonstrate changes after 5 months’ study abroad? RQ2. Which aspects of L2 utterance and cognitive fluency have significant relationships? Are the relationships maintained over time? Regarding UF, although it has been extensively researched, the selection of UF measures has often not been comparable across studies. In particular, pause location has rarely been examined in the longitudinal development of UF. As discussed earlier, pauses between clauses and within clauses have been proposed to involve different stages of speech production (e. g. , Kormos, Reference Kormos2006; Skehan et al. , Reference Skehan, Foster and Shum2016). Considering that pause location has been suggested to be an important indicator of development (Kahng, Reference Kahng2014; Saito et al. , Reference Saito, Ilkan, Magne, Tran and Suzuki2018) and be closely related to CF (Kahng, Reference Kahng2020; Kormos, Reference Kormos2006; Skehan et al. , Reference Skehan, Foster and Shum2016), the current study categorized pauses into mid-clause versus end-clause pauses and examined their relationship with CF measures. Furthermore, as the oft-cited UF measures in the previous studies such as speech rate and mean length of run involve multiple fluency features (e. g. , speed and frequency and/or duration of pauses), even if gains are observed it is difficult to identify to which aspect of UF the gains are attributable. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the complexity of language fluency development (L2 CF) and how various elements and their relationships are essential for achieving fluency rather than relying solely on language apps. It highlights the need for ongoing empirical research and suggests that understanding aspects such as utterance and cognitive fluency, along with measuring various indicators, is vital for developing fluency. It implies that language apps may not provide a comprehensive solution but rather a component of a broader framework necessary to achieve fluency.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Each subject performed the Valsalva maneuver at varying durations and pressures by forcibly exhaling into a custom-built mechanism that provided real-time feedback regarding pressure. Subjects exhaled into an apparatus consisting of a noncompliant tube (polyethylene tubing, 1/16” internal diameter), connected to a Honeywell 142PC05G pressure sensor () outside the MRI scanner room. The transducer interfaced with a computer using a analog-to-digital converter (). During breathing challenges, a visual display changed from red to green when the target pressure range was reached (-2 to +5 mm Hg of the target pressure), and a scale continuously displayed the pressure attained in the tube. Stimulus presentation and pressure data recordings were implemented in LabVIEW (www. ni. com/labview). In addition to the pressure data, task compliance was monitored using a pneumatic belt around the chest to measure relative thoracic circumference, and a pulse oximeter on a finger was used to record the heartbeat. Pressure trials. Volunteers performed the Valsalva maneuver at varying pressures and constant duration. At each pressure level, five total Valsalva holds were performed, and each Valsalva hold began and ended with a paced breathing period. During hold periods, subjects held their breath for 20 seconds while exhaling into the tube to maintain a pressure of 10, 20, 30, or 40 mm Hg after inhalation. During the breathing periods before and after hold periods, subjects received instructions to breathe in and out at 1/6 Hz for 39 seconds, starting and ending on inspiration. Instructed pacing of the breathing cycle helped subjects enter the Valsalva hold more calmly, and with less head motion. Each breathing challenge run lasted 334 seconds (835 fMRI volumes). The first 29. 2 seconds (73 fMRI volumes) of the first paced-breathing period of each pressure challenge were excluded from all analyses so that the volunteers' MRI signal changes represented a steady breathing rate. Each of the five trials included 146 volumes (58. 4 seconds). Duration trials. To isolate the effect of breath hold duration, the Valsalva maneuver was also performed at varying durations at a constant pressure of 30 mm Hg. As with pressure runs, each run included five breathing challenges that began and ended with a 39-second paced-breathing period. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text passes in its relevance to the claim as it does not mention functional MRI or its ability to measure brain activity through blood flow changes. Instead, it describes a series of procedures involving the Valsalva maneuver and how it was conducted with pressure measurement and breathing challenges without connecting this information to functional MRI or the measurement of brain activity.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation contributes to habitat loss and climate change. [SEP] Text: AbstractThe paper estimates and compares the level of from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD+) payments required to compensate for the opportunity costs (OCs) of stopping the conversion of montane forest and miombo woodlands into cropland in two agro-ecological zones in in Tanzania. Data collected from 250 households were used for OC estimation. REDD+ payment was estimated as the net present value (NPV) of agricultural rent and forest rent during land clearing, minus net returns from sustainable wood harvest, divided by the corresponding reduction in carbon stock. The median compensation required to protect the current carbon stock in the two vegetation types ranged from USD 1 tCO2e−1 for the montane forest to USD 39 tCO2e−1 for the degraded miombo woodlands, of which up to 70 % and 16 %, respectively, were for compensating OCs from forest rent during land clearing. The figures were significantly higher when the cost of farmers’ own labor was not taken into account in NPV calculations. The results also highlighted that incentives in the form of sustainable harvests could offset up to 55 % of the total median OC to protect the montane forest and up to 45 % to protect the miombo woodlands, depending on the wage rates. The findings suggest that given the possible factors that can potentially affect estimates of REDD+ payments, avoiding deforestation of the montane forest would be feasible under the REDD+ scheme. However, implementation of the policy in villages around the miombo area would require very high compensation levels. Similar content being viewed by others Potential effects of future adoption of the REDD mechanism as a preventive measure against deforestation and forest degradation in 1. 6 billion people depend on tropical forests for their daily needs (2004), and about 13 million ha of forest are cleared annually to provide livelihoods, incomes, and employment for millions of people in the tropics (FAO 2010; Kissinger et al. 2012). REDD+ will therefore impose considerable opportunity costs (OCs) on local communities (Wollenberg and Springate-Baginski 2009; Springate-Baginski and Wollenberg 2010). The OCs refer to the net benefits forgone by landowners/users as a result of not deforesting or degrading forests. The idea behind the REDD+ scheme is that such costs should be compensated in order to eliminate or reduce deforestation and forest degradation without affecting the livelihoods of local communities. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the REDD+ scheme, which aims to reduce deforestation and forest degradation. It highlights the opportunity costs associated with deforestation, emphasizing that 13 million hectares of forest are cleared annually, which contributes to habitat loss. The reference to the need for compensation to prevent deforestation further supports the idea that deforestation impacts both ecosystems and climate, aligning with the assertion that it contributes to habitat loss and climate change.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: Task for speaking proficiency: Elicited imitation task (EIT) The EIT consisted of 29 sentences with a wide range of syllables (M syllable = 13, range = 8–20 syllables) to achieve a high discriminability. The EIT was individually administered using PsychoPy (Peirce et al. , öchenberger, Sogo, Kastman and Lindeløv2019) with a laptop and a headset in a quiet room. First, participants heard stimulus sentences in a random order, repeated each of the sentences, and pressed a spacebar to move on to the next sentence. Participants’ responses were transcribed and coded for the percentage of accurately repeated words. Randomly selected 30% of the data was transcribed by an additional coder, and interrater reliability was high (Cronbach’s alpha = 0. 97). There was a significant positive correlation between the EIT scores and the composite scores of the grammar and vocabulary sections of r =. 51, p <. 05 (see Kahng & Otonya, and Otonya2021, for the instrument and analysis). recordings of the speaking tasks and picture-naming tasks were first transcribed, annotated, and measured by a research assistant. Next, the accuracy of the transcription, annotation, and measures was checked by another research assistant and corrections were made when necessary. The two research questions were examined using two sets of linear mixed-effects modeling using the lme4 (Bates et al. , Reference Bates, Mächler, Bolker and Walker2015), parameters (Lüdecke, et al. , Reference Lüdecke, Ben-Shachar, Patil and Makowski2020), and MuMln (Bartoń, Reference Bartoń2022) packages in R (R Core Team, 2020). The data satisfied the assumptions in linear mixed models including linearity, normality of the residuals, homoscedasticity, and multicollinearity. When fitting models, once significant random intercepts to each model have been established, each set of fixed variables (e. g. , time, CF, and Time × CF) was incorporated into the baseline model. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by detailing a research methodology focused on speaking proficiency tasks like the Elicited Imitation Task (EIT). This methodology highlights that achieving proficiency involves structured tasks and assessments, indicating that fluency requires more than just language apps. The reference to data collection, transcription accuracy, and statistical analysis suggests that effective language learning involves comprehensive methodologies and not solely reliance on apps.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Hold durations lasted for 5, 10, 15, or 25 seconds. Responses during these durations were compared against the 20-second trial collected at 30 mm Hg described earlier. Breath hold only. Volunteers were also asked to perform the breath hold with no pressure feedback. Breath holds were performed after a final exhalation, as well as after a final inhalation. For the breath hold after exhalation, a 3-second exhalation preceded a 17-second breath hold, so that the total time between inhalation of air was 20 seconds. Breath hold, duration, and pressure runs were randomized for each subject. When describing results, the breath hold trials without pressure feedback are called ‘breath hold,’ and the breath hold trials with pressure feedback are called ‘Valsalva’. Data AnalysisPreprocessing. The echo planar imaging (EPI) time series data were corrected for head motion via a rigid-body volume registration, time shifted to align slices in each volume to the same temporal origin, and converted to percent change from the mean. Low frequency drifts were removed using 0 to 3rd order polynomials. For each condition, the MRI time series were averaged across the five trials, starting 9. 8 seconds before the hold period. Signal change maps were calculated for each breathing challenge within the regions-of-interest (ROIs) of each tissue type. The trial-averaged data were temporally smoothed (0. 5 Hz low-pass filter) to increase the temporal signal-to-noise ratio and to decrease the effect of fluctuations that are faster than hemodynamic responses on estimates of response timing and magnitudes. AFNI ( an open source software package for the analysis and display of functional MRI data, was used for image processing and brain image visualization. 11Regions of interest. Region-of-interest maps were created from the T1- weighted anatomic images using Freesurfer ( to produce masks for cortical gray matter, subcortical gray matter, white matter, and cerebral spinal fluid (ventricles) areas. The T1-weighted anatomic images were registered to the EPI data using a 12-parameter affine transformation. The tissue ROI masks were transformed and down-sampled to the voxel resolution of the EPI data. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it focuses on specific details regarding breath hold trials, data preprocessing in functional MRI analysis, and technical processes involved in image processing, without providing information about the fundamental principle of functional MRI regarding blood flow and brain activity.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation contributes to habitat loss and climate change. [SEP] Text: About 52 % of the forests and woodlands in the country are within protected areas, and the remaining percentage is on village or general (de facto open access) lands (Zahabu et al. 2007; Mbwambo et al. 2012). Tanzania is one of a number of countries currently experiencing a high rate of deforestation and is planning to implement a REDD+ policy. It has been estimated that the country lost an average of 403,000 ha (about 1. 02 %) of its forests and woodlands per year during the period 1990–2000 (FAO 2010). During the same period, the percentage loss was higher for miombo woodlands (13 %) compared to the coastal forest mosaic (7 %), mangrove forest (2 %), and forests of the Mountains (EAM) (1 %) (Burgess et al. 2010). Between 2000 and 2010, the annual forest loss increased to 1. 1 % (FAO 2010). Agricultural expansion has been identified as one of the main drivers of deforestation in Tanzania (Makundi and Okiting’ati 1995; Angelsen et al. 1999; Burgess et al. 2002; Luoga et al. 2005; Kissinger et al. 2012). In addition, particularly the miombo woodlands have been subject to extensive extraction of wood for charcoal making (Monela et al. 1993; Luoga et al. 2005; Nduwamungu et al. 2008). It has been suggested that REDD+ monetary incentives may help to reduce the problem of deforestation and degradation in the Tanzania (Zahabu et al. 2007). 3 Materials and methods3. 1 Study sitesOur socioeconomic survey was conducted in seven villages within Morogoro Region: Kunke, Maseyu, Mlimbilo, Ng’ungulu, Nyandira, Tchenzema, and Vinile (Fig. 1). The first three aforementioned villages are located at an average altitude of 400 m a. s. l. , hereafter referred to as the lowland zone. The remaining four villages are located between 1,000 m a. s. l. and 2,668 m a. s. l. , hereafter referred to as the highland zone. The two agro-ecological zones comprise two distinct vegetation types: miombo woodlands in the lowland zone and montane forest in the highland zone. Fig. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing the high rates of deforestation in Tanzania and the corresponding loss of forests and woodlands, which supports the notion that deforestation leads to habitat loss. It describes the significant annual forest loss and highlights agricultural expansion and charcoal production as major drivers of this deforestation, further linking it to potential environmental impacts such as habitat loss and climate change.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: Based on previous studies on the development of L2 UF and its relationship with proficiency (Huensch & Tracy-Ventura, and Tracy-Ventura2017; Kahng, Reference Kahng2014), gains found in mean syllable duration are expected. On the other hand, a lack of changes in mid-clause pause frequency and an improvement in end-clause pause frequency may appear somewhat unexpected. Considering that most previous studies on the relationship between L2 UF and proficiency were cross-sectional including participants with a range of proficiency levels, the current findings may suggest that improvement in mid-clause pausing can take longer (e. g. , more than 5 months) than those in end-clause pausing. Saito et al. (Reference Saito, Ilkan, Magne, Tran and Suzuki2018) also suggest that the frequency of end-clause pauses reaches native-like levels before that of mid-clause pauses and is the first aspect of UF that L2 learners develop. In addition, the lack of changes in the number of mid-clause pauses seem to align with a lack of changes in lexical-retrieval speed, which has been associated with mid-clause and mid-AS pausing (e. g. , De Jong, Jong2016, Kahng, Reference Kahng2014, Reference Kahng2020). With respect to CF, the current study is one of the first to investigate the development of the syntactic-encoding speed and articulation speed, and the findings captured L2 speakers’ improvement after 5-months’ study abroad. For lexical retrieval speed, in Segalowitz and Freed (and Freed2004) speed and efficiency of L2 lexical access improved after a semester of study abroad. On the other hand, in this study statistical changes were not observed, which might partly be related to the materials. Although the picture-naming tasks used oft-cited standardized pictures (Snodgrass & Vanderwart, and Vanderwart1980), some of the words such as animals may not have been ideal for some Chinese undergraduate/graduate student participants, who grew up in large cities and have been learning English for academic purpose. Even if they had known the words, their mental representation of those words might not have been as robust as that for other words they used more often. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the complexities and nuances of language proficiency development, particularly emphasizing the need for more than just language apps to achieve fluency. It references studies that show improvement in features of language usage among L2 (second language) learners during long-term immersion abroad, implying that true fluency cannot be achieved solely through apps, as aspects like syntactic-encoding speed and articulation speed are influenced by real-world language use and context.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: To account for partial volume effects and potential misregistration due to spatial distortion in the EPI images, voxels that included more than 25% of two types of tissue were excluded from analysis. The cortical gray, subcortical gray, white, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) masks across volunteers had a range of 2,413 to 3,884, 165 to 775, 3,857 to 4,905, and 94 to 759 voxels (3. 75 × 3. 75 × 4 mm3), respectively. Region-of-interest analyses were conducted in native spatial orientation and resolution. Some analyses averaged measures across the population. For these analyses, the T1-weighted anatomic images were aligned to a common space that was mapped to the Talairach-Tournoux atlas. All values were calculated in native spatial orientation and then warped to the common space. Data analysis. The global fMRI response to the Valsalva included a decline below baseline during the Valsalva-hold period (response valley), followed by an increase above baseline soon after the end of the hold (response peak). The minimal response during valleys and the maximal response during peaks were calculated on a voxel-wise basis. For 20-second breathing challenges, the valley response was defined as the minimum response magnitude in the first 15 seconds of the breath hold onset, and the maximum amplitude between 5 and 39 seconds after the hold onset was selected as the peak signal response. These windows were adjusted accordingly for longer and shorter duration trials. Valley and peak response magnitudes were calculated as the difference between maximal or minimal response amplitudes and the magnitude during the 13-second breathing period before the hold period or the baseline period. For ROI analyses, response magnitudes and timings were calculated using the average time series for all voxels within each ROI. In addition, the slopes of peak and valley magnitude changes versus chest pressure were also calculated, using linear regression. These slopes were calculated on a voxelwise basis for the whole brain, or within the average signal in an ROI. Heart rate calculations. Heart rate was calculated as the inverse of time between arterial oxygen saturation (SaO2) peaks from pulse oximeter traces using a custom script. Since hand movement and other factors added noise in automatic peak detection, detected peaks were manually examined and edited to confirm accuracy. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text describes various methodological aspects of imaging protocols, data analysis techniques, and example responses from functional MRI, but it does not address or support the claim regarding functional MRI's capability to measure brain activity through blood flow changes. Hence, it is considered irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation contributes to habitat loss and climate change. [SEP] Text: 1Tanzania (a), the location of Morogoro region (b), and the study villages and protected forests within the region (c)Full size image Kunke and Mlimbilo are located in Mtibwa Ward, 120 km north of Morogoro town. The villages cover an area of about 24,000 and 13,600 ha and have about 3,500 and 2,000 inhabitants, respectively. The climate of the area is sub-humid tropical, with a mean annual rainfall in the range of 800–1,200 mm. There are two rainy seasons, the short rains from October to December and the long rains from March to June. Mean annual temperature varies between 28 °C and 31 °C. The area includes settlements, a sugar factory, croplands, sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L. ) and teak (Tectona grandis L. leaf) plantations, grazing land, open scattered miombo woodlands, and part of a protected miombo woodland known as the Wami-Mbiki wild animals management area (WMA). The inhabitants depend mainly on agriculture for their livelihoods. They practice small-scale and medium-scale farming and cultivate crops for subsistence [maize (Zea mays L. )] and for marketing [rice (Oryza glaberrima S. ), sesame (Sesamum indicum L. ), and sugarcane]. WMA is a community-based conservation area that was established in 1999. The area is located in two regions,. It covers a core area of about 3,000 km2 and a buffer area of about 1,200 km2 (Madulu 2005). The WMA is surrounded by 24 villages including Kunke and Mlimbilo, and houses about 65,000 people in total; it covers 65 % of Kunke and 47 % of Mlimbilo. The woodlands inside the WMA have suffered from extensive tree cutting for charcoal production, and agricultural expansion and encroachment. Maseyu is located in Gwata Ward, about 50 km northeast of Morogoro town and 150 km west of Dar es Salaam (Fig. 1). The climatic conditions and rainfall pattern in are similar to those in Mtibwa Ward. The village of Maseyu covers approximately 36,000 ha and has about 2,000 inhabitants. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim as it describes the impact of tree cutting for activities like charcoal production and agricultural expansion in the protected miombo woodland. This deforestation leads to habitat loss, as suggested by the extensive tree cutting mentioned, which aligns with the claim that deforestation contributes to habitat loss and climate change.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: “No one has done it, and there's no known technology that appears to be able to do it. ” But, he added, “I don't think it's impossible in the future with better technology that it might be achieved. ”Skeptics previously doubted that recording from the surface of the brain could produce sufficiently accurate decoding, because the distance to the underlying neurons results in a noisy blur from hundreds to thousands of neurons at once. “We basically proved the skeptics wrong,” Dr. Chang told Neurology Today. “A lot of those assumptions were based on using far fewer electrodes than the 253 we use now. ”It may be five to 10 years before a fully implantable wireless system is capable of decoding speech in a person's home rather than only at a laboratory, Dr. Chang said, adding, however, that neurologists need to prepare themselves for the BCI revolution. “There is no known way right now to record thoughts. No one has done it, and there's no known technology that appears to be able to do it. [But] I don't think it's impossible in the future with better technology that it might be achieved. ”—DR. “Our field is about to change dramatically with the use of AI to help many of our patients living with disability,” he said. “There is great hope to restore function. ”A video of the system, including its use of a face avatar, can be viewed online at ElectrodesThe second study used two devices known as Utah Arrays—each the size of an aspirin pill and carrying a total of 128 electrodes that penetrated a couple of millimeters into the left sensorimotor face area. The participant in their study had bulbar-onset ALS that had eventually left her unable to speak intelligibly. Lead author Frank Willett, PhD, a research scientist in the at Stanford University, and his colleagues also used an RNN combined with a language model to decode their participant's intended speech. The program eventually was able to decode the speech at an average rate of 62 decoded words per minute. With a 50-word vocabulary, the system had a word-error rate of 9. 1 percent. With a vocabulary of 125,000 words, the error rate was 23. 8 percent. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that current technology, including language-based decoding systems, is not yet capable of fully enabling communication or fluency in speech as per the statement, 'there's no known technology that appears to be able to do it.' This suggests that language apps, which may currently rely on such technology, cannot provide everything needed for fluency.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: If a few-second span was too noisy to clearly detect peaks, then peak locations were estimated based on neighboring peak spacing. To decrease the potential of experimenter bias, the review and editing processes were blinded to task condition for each time course, and without checks whether errors occurred during breathing or hold periods. Under normal conditions, the typical pulse oximeter heart beat trace included a peak in SaO2 during left ventricular systolic ejection, followed by the dicrotic notch, and a dip in SaO2 caused by the closure of the aortic valve. A second peak then occurs in SaO2 after the dicrotic notch. 13 In some volunteers, peaks after the dicrotic notch were falsely labeled as ‘true’ heart beats when the heart rate increased and ventricular systolic ejection volume probably decreased during the Valsalva challenge. Manual edits were able to accurately distinguish true SaO2 peaks. all subjects successfully completed the tasks (Figures 2A, Figures 2B, 2H and 2I). One subject was unable to maintain the target pressure during the 40 mm Hg 20-second run and the 30 mm Hg 25-second run. Another subject failed to reach 30 mm Hg for one of five 10-second duration trials. Based on the respiratory belt data, five subjects may have taken a breath during 1 to 3 trials of the 40 total trials, with no more than one possible breath during each task condition. Head motion was calculated as the Euclidian norm of the six motion parameters. The maximum head motion in any single run in any subject was only 1. 8 mm. In some subjects, there was a slight trend toward increased head motion with increasing pressure, but this was small, and not consistent across the group. Figure 2. Group averaged responses during Valsalva and breath hold challenges. (A–G) Responses when the breath hold duration is always 20 seconds, but intrathoracic pressure is changing. The vertical dashed lines show the onset and offset of the hold, and the inset shows the signals after the breath hold after the exhalation response is subtracted from the other responses. The inset boxes are proportionally scaled from the larger figures. (H–N) Responses when intrathoracic pressure is always 30 mm Hg, but the breath hold duration is changing. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address or provide any information related to functional MRI or its capability to measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. Instead, it discusses the effects of heartbeats and respiratory challenges, which are unrelated to the claim about functional MRI.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation contributes to habitat loss and climate change. [SEP] Text: It comprises settlements, croplands, open miombo woodlands, village reserves, part of Reserve (KFR), and a part of the WMA. About 80 % of the households depend on crop production (Nduwamungu et al. 2008). The local farming system is characterized by small-scale rain-fed crop cultivation for both subsistence consumption [maize, millet (Eleusine coracana L. ), and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. )] and for marketing (sesame). The inhabitants are highly dependent on forest resources in protected and unprotected woodlands, both for their own consumption (firewood, fruit and vegetables, and wood for poles) and for commercial purposes (charcoal). The KFR spans two villages: Gwata and Maseyu. The reserve covers an area of about 435 ha in Gwata and 1,705 ha in Maseyu. The vegetation type is generally characterized as open, dry miombo that is dominated by the tree species Julbernadia globiflora, Brachystegia boehmii, and Pterocarpus rotundifolius (Luoga et al. 2000). The part of the forest reserve located in Maseyu is managed jointly by the central government and the village, while the part in Gwata is managed by the central government through of Agriculture in Morogoro town. The KFR was established in 1985 (Luoga et al. 2002). However, the current management systems have been practiced since 1995 in Gwata and since 2000 in Maseyu. The reserve is formally protected, but in practice, tree cutting is common practice and there have been some cases of conversion into agricultural land. An estimated 1. 2 m3 ha−1 of wood is illegally harvested from the reserve annually (Luoga et al. 2002). Moreover, in the period 1975–2000, closed woodland in the reserve and the surrounding area declined by 45 %, while open woodland in the surrounding area increased by 42 % (Nduwamungu et al. 2008). Ng’ungulu, Nyandira, Tchenzema, and Vinile are located in Mgeta Division, about 200 km west of Dar es Salaam (Fig. 1). covers an area of 1,800 km2 and includes four wards and 28 villages with a total population of about 46,000. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by highlighting the effects of tree cutting and land conversion in protected areas, stating that 'tree cutting is common practice' and that there has been a decrease in closed woodland by 45% from 1975 to 2000, along with increases in agricultural land. This indicates that deforestation is contributing to habitat loss.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: “Technology-wise, it will take probably 10 years before a commercial product has proven its value to the target population and is regarded as safe enough by regulatory institutions to be offered to the public and prescribed by a neurologist,” said Dr. Ramsey, professor of cognitive neuroscience at the Centre in Utrecht, the Netherlands. “The way I see it, the field has barely scratched the surface of what will be required. ”Perhaps bigger than the technological problems for reaching a large market are the financial considerations, said a neuroscientist who has worked for years with intracranial implants. The obvious patients to benefit from a speech prosthesis are those with brainstem stroke or ALS,” said Lee E. Miller, PhD, distinguished professor of neuroscience in the departments of neuroscience, physical medicine and rehabilitation, and biomedical engineering at Northwestern University's of Medicine. “These patients typically have a short lifespan. That means companies and insurers will have a hard time making any money. That's a bit of a reality check. ”Fortunately, he said, the technology needed for a speech prosthesis is very similar to that being developed to restore movement following spinal cord injury or limb amputation. “The hope is that shared technology could be developed to address all these disorders,” he said. Dr. Miller said he initially considered the facial avatar used by Chang's group to be “cute but not essential. But then again, we all know that talking on Zoom rather than on the phone can be a big advantage. should not dismiss the facial avatar. ”a professor of neurology, neuroscience, physical medicine and rehabilitation, and biomedical engineering at of Medicine, where he researches the use of BCIs, said he would have been impressed if a single paper demonstrating advances in voice neuroprosthetics had been published. “To have two come out simultaneously is really exciting for the field,” he said. “As a neurologist who designs and studies BCIs, it's great to see that we're getting so much closer to clinically viable performance speed. ”He noted that multiple companies are seeking to commercialize BCIs, which is a welcome development. DisclosuresDrs. Chang, Hochberg, Rubin, and Wolpaw had no disclosures. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the technological and financial challenges in the development of voice neuroprosthetics and BCIs (brain-computer interfaces). It suggests that while there is progress in technology relating to speech and communication, there remains considerable complexity and additional needs beyond just language apps. For example, Dr. Ramsey mentions that the field has barely scratched the surface of what will be required, indicating that achieving fluency likely involves more than language apps alone.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: The black dashed line is the onset of the breath hold, and the colored dashed lines mark the end of each breath hold duration. In all regions of interest, the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) responses decreased below baseline (the valley) during the hold, and increased to a peak after the end of the hold. The magnitude of the responses scaled with thoracic pressure. CSF, cerebrospinal fluid. the Figure 1 shows the heart rate changes during different phases of the Valsalva. maneuver elicited a rise in heart rate during phase II (which is the phase during the breath hold), a peak rate in phase III (upon release), and a subsequent return to baseline in Valsalva phase IV. 5 Mean heart rates across volunteers showed the expected standard four-phase Valsalva autonomic response5 during the 20-, 30-, and 40-mm Hg challenges (Figure 2C) and during the 5- to 25-second duration challenges at 30 mm Hg (Figure 2J). Individual subject heart rate responses largely showed similar Valsalva phases as the group mean, but 3 to 4 subjects did not show Valsalva phase-induced heart rate changes in the 5-second duration and the 20 mm Hg runs, respectively. While the mean breath hold after exhalation trials revealed a short heart rate increase after the challenge (phase III), heart rate did not increase during the breath hold (phase II). Figure 1. Heart rate changes during the four phases of the Valsalva maneuver. Mean and standard deviation of 4 Valsalva maneuvers across 57 volunteers. The gray-shaded area marks the breath holding period. These data were collected as part of another study, and the figure is adapted from a previously published figure. 26with Increases in signal response to the Valsalva was characterized by an initial decline, followed by a rise (Figures 2D-2G and 2K-2N). Across subjects, in all tissues and hold trials, average responses reached a valley 10 to 11 seconds after the start of the hold, and then rose to reach a maximum 7 to 9 seconds after the breath hold period ended. The signal changes in gray matter, white matter, and CSF were correlated with load pressure. (P < 0. 001; Figure 2, Figures 3A−3D). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses heart rate changes during the Valsalva maneuver and does not address functional MRI or its ability to measure brain activity through changes in blood flow.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation contributes to habitat loss and climate change. [SEP] Text: Moreover, between 1955 and 2000, 25 % of the forest was lost, mainly due to agricultural expansion (Burgess et al. 2002). To mitigate the impact, the government allowed households in the surrounding villages to collect firewood, fruits, herbs, and other non-wood forest products for their own consumption, two times per week (FBD 2009). Reserve comprises four separate forest reserves, and FR. Our study was conducted in Mgeta Division, which covers the southwestern side of the Uluguru Mountains, within FR. 3. 2 DataThe data were collected over the course of 5 months, between September 2011 and January 2012, from communities located in the seven study villages. A total of 112 households were randomly selected from the four villages in (Ng’ungulu, Nyandira, Tchenzema, and Vinile), 65 from the two villages in (Kunke and Mlimbilo), and 54 from the village of Maseyu in Gwata Ward. Basic demographic information, as well as information relating to costs and revenues associated with crop production and forestry, local prices of all inputs and outputs, as well as labor costs, was obtained using structured questionnaires. Further information was collected through focus group discussions to triangulate and verify the information obtained from households as well as to obtain qualitative information. In addition, we visited local market places to gather information on prices of inputs and outputs. Moreover, secondary sources were used to obtain data on the carbon storage potential of different types of vegetation and land uses. 3. 2. 1 Estimating REDD+ payments to offset OCsThe OC of forest protection can be defined as the forgone net benefits from the best alternative land uses (Bond et al. 2009; Olsen and Bishop 2009; Angelsen et al. 2012) and are payments required to compensate forest owners or users for their forgone benefits (Angelsen 2008). REDD+ payments to offset OCs can be estimated as the net present value (NPV) of the next best use of forestland divided by the associated reduction in carbon stock (Wertz-Kanounnikoff 2008). OC estimates will depend on the rules that apply to forest use after the REDD+ contract has been signed. For simplicity, we assumed that deforestation should stop immediately, while wood harvesting could continue in a sustainable way. Here we defined sustainable harvest as the mean annual increment (MAI) of the forest or woodland under consideration. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provides evidence that supports the claim of deforestation contributing to habitat loss and climate change. It mentions that between 1955 and 2000, 25% of the forest was lost, primarily due to agricultural expansion, which implies a direct impact of deforestation on habitats. Additionally, it discusses the implementation of REDD+ payments to offset opportunity costs of forest protection, indicating recognition of the negative consequences of deforestation, thus corroborating the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Every language has a direct one-to-one translation for each word. [SEP] Text: Unfortunately, both the total amount of cells used, as well as the efficiency of the reverse transcription, can fluctuate significantly outside of our control, and this will make the total number of molecules detected fluctuate as well. To control for this, we always quantify the absolute number of molecules of two types of mRNAs in parallel for each sample: the mRNAs of the gene of interest and the mRNAs of a reference gene which we are confident is constantly expressed. The reference gene we used was ihfB. For each promoter of interest p, we obtained measured mRNA molecule numbers together with mRNA molecule numbers for the reference gene in three separate biological replicates and in three technical replicates for each biological replicate, that is, nine pairs of measurements in total. We denote the log-quantity of the mRNA of promoter p in biological replicate r and technical replicate i as xpri, and the log-quantity of the reference gene in the same replicate as ypri (note that this depends on the promoter p because these quantities come from a common sample). To estimate a single log-ratio xp − yp between the expression of the gene of interest and the reference gene, we will proceed as follows. First, we will integrate the data from the technical replicates to obtain biological replicate expression xpr and ypr. We then combine the differences dpr = xpr − ypr across the biological replicates to obtain the final dp = xp − yp. The statistical model that we use assumes that the difference between the value xpri measured in technical replicate i and the true expression xpr is Gaussian distributed with mean zero and an unknown variance σr2. Note that we assume that this ‘noise’ is the same for all promoters p, but may fluctuate between biological replicates. We similarly assume the difference between ypri and ypr is Gaussian distributed with variance σ˜r2. We noted that there is a small fraction of measurements that deviate by large amounts from the measurements in other replicates. We assume that there is a small fraction of measurements that failed in some way, giving erroneous measurement values. To take this into account we will use a mixture model that assumes a small fraction of the measurements come from a uniform distribution that spans the observed range of the data. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses statistical methods for quantifying gene expression and the limitations of biological replicate measurements. There is no mention of language, translation, or related concepts that could support or contrast the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: The magnitude of response minima also scaled with thoracic pressure (Figures 3E−3H). Figure 3. Peak (A–D) and valley (E–H) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) signal amplitudes, scaled with Valsalva pressure in all brain tissues. Each colored line represents data from a single subject. The solid black lines show the linear regression fits of these data across subjects. To characterize the effect of hypercapnia versus load pressure, the breath hold ending on exhale response was subtracted from the 10 to 40 mm Hg responses. The dashed lines show the linear regression fits after the breath holds-on-exhalation responses were subtracted. The slope, r2, and P-values for each regression are shown in solid lettering for the original data, and in outline lettering after subtracting the breath hold on exhalation. CSF, cerebrospinal fluid. To disambiguate the effects of hypercapnia and intrathoracic pressure on the response, we subtracted the response for breath hold initiation-on-exhalation from the responses to all other hold trials. Here, we assumed that a breath hold initiating on exhalation resulted in a comparably minimal increase in thoracic pressure, thus having none of the blood pressure and flow changes associated with increased thoracic pressure. The hold-on-exhale has a very small undershoot during the hold, and the signal peak after the hold termination has a similar peak magnitude to the hold-on-inhale and 10 mm Hg breath hold responses (Figures 2D-2G). The group-averaged responses are shown in the insets of Figures 2D–2G. The solid black lines in Figure 3 show the linear regression fits across subjects before subtracting the ‘hold-on-exhalation,’ or non-Valsalva-time series. The dashed black lines show the fit after subtraction. Subtracting the hold-on-exhale response for each subject did not alter the average slope between intrathoracic pressure and MRI signal magnitude. The intercept moved closer to zero, particularly for gray and subcortical gray-matter voxels (Figures 3A and 3D). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not provide information supporting or contradicting the claim about functional MRI measuring brain activity through blood flow changes. Instead, it focuses on technical aspects of MRI signal amplitudes in relation to thoracic pressure and hypercapnia, which is not directly related to measuring brain activity.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation contributes to habitat loss and climate change. [SEP] Text: Based on the information gathered from the growers, we anticipate that the prices of the crops will increase in the near future and may thus increase the profitability of cultivating these crops, which would imply that the potential change in the prices of some crops should be taken into account when designing a REDD+ policy. Our results suggest that implementing a REDD+ policy may be feasible in the highland agro-ecological zone, where considerable emission reduction could be achieved for a payment of less than the current carbon price (USD 5 tCO2 −1) in the European market (McGrath 2013). Regarding the miombo woodlands, we found that it would be comparatively cheaper to protect the denser miombo woodlands in the forest reserves than the more degraded miombo woodlands on public land. However, the implementation of the REDD+ policy in the lowland zone would generally require higher compensation payments. Further, the analysis was based on assumed carbon payments at stump, which means that the actual carbon payment might be higher than our estimates. Moreover, incorporating implementation costs which according to Fisher et al. (2011) are estimated to be USD 6. 50 CO2 −1 on average would further increase the cost of the policy measure. Our results suggest that implementing the REDD+ scheme may be feasible if the biomass (carbon) density in the studied vegetation is high. However, the relatively dense miombo woodlands and intact montane forest are currently protected as forest reserves, and the present REDD+ schemes do not distinguish official protection status of areas. Nevertheless, implementing REDD+ in the existing protected forests could be an effective and a feasible measure to cut CO2 emissions, mainly for three reasons. First, deforestation and degradation is significant in protected areas. For example, between 1975 and 2000, 3. 4 % of forest and 28. 3 % of miombo woodland were lost from the EAM (Green et al. 2013). Currently, respectively 74 % and 32 % of the remaining forest and woodland in the EAM are within protected areas (Green et al. 2013). Coastal forests in protected areas have been declining too, at a rate of 0. 2 % per year since the 1990s (Godoy et al. 2011). Similarly, miombo woodland in the KFR has declined by 6 % between 1964 and 1996 (Luoga et al. 2005). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by highlighting significant rates of deforestation and degradation in protected areas, such as the loss of 3.4% of forest and 28.3% of miombo woodland in the EAM between 1975 and 2000. This explicitly links deforestation to the degradation of habitats, which underscores its role in habitat loss. Additionally, the mention of declining coastal forests and miombo woodlands further supports the idea that deforestation is a serious concern impacting ecosystems and contributing to climate change.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Every language has a direct one-to-one translation for each word. [SEP] Text: Although, unfortunately, we could not determine whether the interaction between hnRNP Q and the mCry1 5′UTR is sequence-specific or structure-based, or both, this interaction is critical for translational regulation of mCry1. One important thing is that the translation kinetics of mCry1 mRNA should be controlled in a phase-dependent manner. mCry1 mRNA needs to be efficiently translated into proteins when mCRY1 protein is approaching its peak level. When the mCRY1 protein level is decreasing, the translation of mCry1 mRNA should be less active. This dynamic regulation is possible only if the level or binding affinity of a trans-acting factor is precisely controlled. We already confirmed that the total level of hnRNP Q remains unchanged during circadian oscillation. However, we previously showed that the binding affinity of hnRNP Q to target mRNA is dynamically regulated, raising a possibility that the translation of mCry1 mRNA can be dynamically regulated by hnRNP Q. It is commonly considered that the nucleotide sequence of UTR regions is less conservative across species than that of protein-coding regions. Interestingly, however, the nucleotide sequence of the Cry1 5′UTR is highly conserved among species (S4 Fig), suggesting that 5′UTR-mediated regulation is critical for Cry1 mRNA fate decision. It remains to be determined whether hnRNP Q-mediated translational regulation of Cry1 mRNA also exists in other species including human. Although we provided some evidence that hnRNP Q is important for mCRY1 protein expression, we cannot exclude the possibility that other RNA-binding proteins are also involved in the translation of mCry1 mRNA. Indeed, as shown in Fig 2B, several unidentified proteins interact with the mCry1 5′UTR, and the binding pattern of those proteins to the mCry1 5′UTR resemble that of hnRNP Q. We further analyzed the binding patterns of other hnRNPs and found that binding pattern of hnRNP I is similar to that of hnRNP Q (S5A Fig). However, reduction of hnRNP I did not affect endogenous level of mCRY1 protein (S5B Fig) and translational efficiency (S5C Fig). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the molecular interactions and translational regulation of mCry1 mRNA in biological systems, without mentioning language or translation of words. Therefore, it does not provide any support or contrast to the claim about language translation.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: An intercept that is close to zero after removing hold-on-exhalation values implies that the 10 mm Hg response across subjects has a similar magnitude to the hold-on-exhalation trials. The subtraction changed the r2 fits to the peak magnitudes by less than 0. 02, and did not alter statistical significance (Figures 3A-3D). After subtraction, the fits to the valley magnitudes had lower r2 values, and the P values for gray matter, subcortical gray matter, and CSF are no longer significant (P < 0. 05 Bonferroni, correcting for eight regressions). The intercepts were also similar, implying that subtracting the hold-on-exhalation response did not significantly alter the valley magnitudes (Figures 3E-3H). Duration and the duration of breath holds with a 30 mm Hg intrathoracic pressure was increased from 5 to 25 seconds, the average MRI signal response showed a consistent MRI signal undershoot during the hold and an increase above baseline after release (Figures 2K-2N). The relationship between hold duration and the maximum or minimum MRI signal magnitudes was assessed. Maximal MRI signal amplitudes increased with hold duration in gray matter (P < 0. 001), and white matter ROIs (P = 0. 002); no relationship appeared between the minimal magnitude and hold duration in any tissue type. The relationship between hold duration and the time-to-MRI signal maxima or minima was also assessed (Table 1). The time-to-peaks from the end of the breath holds decreased with increasing hold duration in all tissues (P < = 0. 006). For example, the mean time-to-peak line is 8. 6 seconds for a 5-second duration hold, and 6. 9 seconds for a 25-second duration hold. The time-to-valley did not vary with hold duration across trials, with one exception. The 5-second hold showed a significantly earlier time-to-valley in the gray- and white-matter ROIs, compared with the 10-second hold (P < 0. 001), because the fMRI signal was still on its initial downward descent upon breath release. Table 1 Time-to-peak and valley for different duration breath holds 5 seconds10 seconds15 seconds20 seconds25 secondsTime-to-peak8. 6±0. 97. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim regarding functional MRI measuring brain activity through blood flow changes. Instead, it discusses various results related to MRI signal responses to breath-hold durations and statistical significance of these responses without explicitly linking this to the fundamental principles of functional MRI technology.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation contributes to habitat loss and climate change. [SEP] Text: Atmospheric and > Vol. 13 No. 1, January 2023 Change, Deforestation and () Chunji Liu1, Qinghua Li2 1. 2. DOI: 10. 4236/acs. 2023. 131002 186 Downloads 1,044 Views 7. 72 times of that from TSI, and the impact from GHP on GMST is 7. 9 times of that from TSI. The growth rate of global surface temperature was slower from 1998 to 2012, which was mainly caused by the decadal cooling of the tropical Pacific Ocean-La Niña. Deforestation and vegetation degradation affect climate change, feedback radiation between the atmosphere and the biosphere account for 30% of the variation in global surface radiation and precipitation. The share of renewable energy remains small in primary energy consumption due to their disadvantages. and Cite: Liu, C. J. and Li, Q. H. (2023) Change, Deforestation and Renewable Energy. Atmospheric and Climate Sciences, 13, 10-18. doi: 10. 4236/acs. 2023. 131002. 1. is observational evidence that global mean surface temperature (GMST) has been rising since 1950, such as global temperature records since 1880, rising sea levels, shrinking glaciers in the polar regions [1]. GMST was −0. 16˚C in 1880, and it was 1. 02˚C in 2020, thus an increase of 1. 18˚C [2]. GMST in 2020 was the year with the second highest temperature, second only to 2016. GMST in August 2021 was the 6th highest on record since 1880. The growth rate of GMST was 0. 08˚C per decade from 1880 to 1980, and it was 0. 18˚C per decade from 1981 to 2020 [3]. The annual growth rate of GMST was 0. 13˚C from 1880 to 1900, −0. 05˚C from 1901 to 1950, 0. 18˚C from 1951 to 2000, and 0. 04˚C from 2000 to 2018 [4]. Overall, GMST is on the rise. The top seven hot years in Europe occurred between 2014 and 2020, 2020 was the hottest year on record, and summer of 2021 was the 4th hottest season on record. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by stating that 'Deforestation and vegetation degradation affect climate change' and mentioning the significant impact of feedback radiation between the atmosphere and the biosphere on global climate variations. It highlights the interconnectedness of deforestation and climate change, which aligns with the assertion in the claim.