Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All carbohydrates cause weight gain. [SEP] Text: 7 10 31 32 33Our findings agree with those of a recent meta-analysis, including about 30 million participants, that showed that overweight and obesity are associated with increased risk of all cause mortality, with the nadir of the curve observed at BMI 23-24 among those who had never smoked, 22-23 among healthy people who had never smoked, and 20-22 in studies with a follow-up over 20 years. 34 In our study, the nadir of the curve was observed at BMI 18. 5-22. 4 among people who had never smoked and a follow-up period up to 32 years. Of note, in a recent study conducted among three Danish cohorts, the BMI associated with the lowest all cause mortality increased by 3. 3 units from cohorts enrolled from 1976-78 to 2003-13. 35 The average duration of follow-up for the 2003-13 cohort, however, was only 4. 6 years, and thus the shift to higher BMI associated with the lowest mortality in this cohort is possibly because of reverse causation bias (that is, individuals with pre-existing or preclinical diseases have increased mortality but lower BMI because of weight loss). It should be noted that these studies, unlike ours, did not take into account diet and lifestyle factors. Potential mechanismsBMI is a crude but practical and inexpensive tool to measure adiposity in large population studies. 23 36 It does not, however, measure the ratio of lean to fat or the distribution of fat and, most importantly, the relative contribution of lifestyle and other metabolic factors on the risk of developing a chronic disease and dying prematurely. In this study, we showed that in each of the four categories of BMI (18. 5-22. 4, 22. 5-24. 9, 25-29. 9, ≥30), men and women with healthy lifestyles had significantly lower cardiovascular disease, cancer, and total mortality. Interestingly, even within the obese category, individuals who did not smoke, ate healthier diets, drank a moderate quantity of alcohol, and exercised regularly had a much lower risk of mortality than those who had none of above low risk lifestyle factors. The mechanisms responsible for the protective effects of healthy lifestyles in these individuals are not completely known but probably encompass a series of metabolic and molecular alterations induced by exercise training, healthier diets rich in vitamins and phytochemicals, and avoidance of smoking. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by emphasizing the importance of various factors, such as diet, lifestyle, and metabolic health, on body weight and mortality risk. The findings highlight that individuals with healthy lifestyles, regardless of their BMI category, had lower risks of mortality, suggesting that weight gain cannot be solely attributed to carbohydrate intake but is influenced by overall lifestyle choices.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases influence decision-making and perception. [SEP] Text: Reference Ziauddeen, Chamberlain and Nathan 45 The same MOR drug also decreased putaminal and pallidal activity and motivational responding (grip force task) specifically to viewing high-calorie foods. Although the drug did not increase subjective liking for passively viewed food images, it increased liking for the high-calorie food images in the grip force task, suggesting a potential relationship between liking and wanting related to motivational processes. Reference Cambridge, Ziauddeen and Nathan 46 Although motivation and liking correlated prior to drug administration and in the placebo group, this relationship was lost following mu-opioid antagonism. The MOR antagonist also showed a selective decrease in attentional bias to food cues as measured using the visual task. Reference Chamberlain, Mogg and Bradley 47 MOR antagonism had a specific effect on later inhibition processes rather than on the earlier facilitation process of the dot probe. There was no effect on a Stroop food-cue task, working memory, or attention. The lack of difference in the Stroop food-cue task but not the dot probe task may reflect the complexity of the Stroop task, as it involves enhanced processing, inhibition, conflict, and shifting. A general mechanism of a decrease in motivational responding to food cues might suggest that both the dot probe and Stroop food-cue tasks might be similarly affected; alternatively, MOR antagonism might have a specific influence by improving inhibitory mechanisms to food cues. Thus, MOR antagonism appears to play a role in (i) decreasing motivational responding to highly salient food cues, and may thus secondarily improve inhibitory processes toward these cues; (ii) a complex relationship with hedonic response by having no effect to passive viewing of highly salient food cues, increasing hedonic ratings to highly salient food cues for which effort or motivation is expended, and decreasing subjective hedonic ratings to consummation of sweetened foods thus the influence of MOR on hedonic responses is dissociable as a function of motivation (passive versus the object of effort) and stage (e. g. during anticipation compared to consummatory stage); and (iii) improving inhibitory mechanisms to food cues. The role of the MOR in anticipatory motivational responding to hedonic food cues is extensively discussed in this series. The following briefly discusses the role of the MOR in impulsivity. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim directly related to cognitive biases or their impact on decision-making and perception. Instead, it discusses the effects of the MOR drug on motivational responding and hedonic ratings associated with food cues, which does not correlate with cognitive biases. Therefore, it is deemed irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Invasive species can disrupt local ecosystems and wildlife. [SEP] Text: in ecology and wildlife biology remains crucial for increasing our knowledge and improving species management and conservation in the midst of the current biodiversity crisis. However, obtaining information on population status often involves invasive sampling of a certain number of individual animals. Marking and sampling practices include taking blood and tissue samples, toe-clipping of amphibians and rodents, or using implants and radio-transmitters – techniques that can negatively affect the animal. Wildlife research may then result in a fundamental conflict between individual animal welfare and the welfare of the population or ecosystem, which could be significantly reduced if non-invasive research practices were more broadly implemented. Implementation of non-invasive methods could be guided by the so-called 3Rs principles for animal research (replace, reduce, refine), which were proposed by Russell and Burch 60 years ago and have become a part of many animal protection legislations worldwide. However, the process of incorporating the 3Rs principles into wildlife research has been unfortunately rather slow and their importance overlooked. In order to help alleviate this situation, here I provide an overview of the most common practices in wildlife research, discuss their potential impact on animal welfare, and present available non-invasive alternatives. Ecosystems worldwide are currently experiencing a dramatic species extinction process, which has been largely attributed to human activities (Harrop 2011, Ceballos et al. 2015). Recognizing the critical situation, several international conventions have been implemented with the aim to halt the biodiversity crisis and support conservation measures (e. g. Convention on Biological Diversity, on the Conservation of of Wild Animals, on the Conservation of Convention on in of and Flora). These conservation efforts depend on accurate data on species distribution, population size and impact of global changes, and it is therefore necessary to continuously monitor populations of various plant and animal species. In the noble pursuit of knowledge that is important for preserving wildlife populations, scientists can unfortunately inflict distress on animals, because wildlife biodiversity monitoring has traditionally employed some invasive or even destructive techniques (Vucetich and Nelson 2007, Minteer et al. 2014b, Field et al. 2019). Examples of research activities that might influence animal welfare are chasing, capturing, blood and tissue sampling, marking, attachment of data loggers and lethal sampling (Donnelly et al. 1994, Sutherland et al. 2004, Wilson and McMahon 2006, Walker et al. 2010). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by highlighting the negative effects that invasive sampling techniques can have on wildlife, indicating that these practices influence animal welfare and could potentially disrupt ecosystem dynamics. It states that traditional monitoring of wildlife often involves invasive methods, which can adversely affect individual animals and their populations. This aligns with the claim that invasive species management can disrupt local ecosystems.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All carbohydrates cause weight gain. [SEP] Text: The 5 additional studies (1 prospective and 4 retrospective, including 1 in women only) examined weight changes in virologically suppressed, treatment-experienced persons who switched to or added an INSTI; 4 of 5 found significantly greater weight gain with INSTIs compared to non-INSTIs [7–11]. Data from randomized clinical trials (RCTs) have been summarized recently [12]. Though not designed to compare weight changes, RCTs that reported comparisons of weight substantiate the cohort study findings. Turning to critical questions: lead to weight gain directly or indirectly? Does the exaggerated weight gain with INSTIs increase the risk of metabolic disturbances or cardiovascular events? Does it magnify the likelihood of neurocognitive impairment (since obesity and metabolic syndrome are risk factors)? In other words, is the weight gain a bothersome side effect or something more sinister? Answers remain unclear. Some studies identified specific risk factors for weight gain with INSTIs, including older age, female sex, and black or Hispanic ethnicity [8, 10]. The current Bourgi et al analysis found no difference between sex or race, but numbers of women were small [5]. Pharmacogenetics may predict weight changes with specific ARVs but are not fully understood. Per 1 retrospective investigation, CYPB26 EFV slow-metabolizers gained more weight than others after they switched to an INSTI; however, this finding varied based on racial characteristics and specific INSTI [13]. Why would EFV slow-metabolizers gain more weight after changing to an INSTI? It was suggested that slower EFV metabolism before switching correlates with feeling better after switching and thus consumption of more calories; however, no study to date has controlled for activity level or caloric intake. In addition, generalized weight gain seems to occur after the switch to an INSTI from a variety of preswitch agents, so this explanation seems far from complete [7, 10]. It has also been proposed that perhaps INSTIs lead to exaggerated weight gain due to faster viral load suppression. Perhaps this induces more rapid reduction of HIV-related inflammation and basal energy expenditure [4]? A compelling part of Bourgi et al’s data addresses this question [5]. Viral load reductions between specific INSTIs were not significantly different over the first 12 months, yet weight change differed. At 18 months, viral loads were the same across ART classes, but weight change varied. Thus, viral kinetics do not explain the weight findings. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the relationship between weight gain and the use of integrase strand transfer inhibitors (INSTIs) in treatment-experienced individuals, which does not directly address carbohydrates or affirm that all carbohydrates cause weight gain. Instead, it highlights that various factors, including specific medications and demographic characteristics, impact weight changes. The claim simplifies the issue by generalizing all carbohydrates, while the text emphasizes a complex interplay of medical treatments and individual factors influencing weight gain.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases influence decision-making and perception. [SEP] Text: Morphine, a MOR agonist, increases premature responding or waiting impulsivity in the 5-task and also increases preference for immediate over delayed rewards, with both measures blocked by naloxone, a MOR antagonist. Reference Pattij, Schetters, Janssen, Wiskerke and Schoffelmeer 48 Naloxone by itself does not affect waiting impulsivity or delay discounting. Morphine, but not naloxone, appears to have a baseline-dependent influence on the stop signal task. MOR antagonism, but not kappa-opioid receptor antagonism, has also been shown to selectively remediate the amphetamine-induced impairments in premature responding, but to have no effect on delay discounting. Reference Wiskerke, Schetters and van Es 49 The MOR modulating effect on inhibition appears to be in the nucleus accumbens shell and may interact with the mesolimbic dopaminergic system. Thus, the observation of the improvement by MOR antagonism in the dot probe task to food cues may be related to improvements in anticipatory responding, or a baseline-dependent effect on response inhibition by improving stopping in individuals with impaired stopping abilities. Reference Pattij, Schetters, Janssen, Wiskerke and Schoffelmeer 48 to obesity without BED, impulsivity in BED does not appear to be as critically impaired across multiple domains as observed across disorders of addiction. Whereas drugs of abuse have been shown to enhance impulsivity, the pattern of food intake, or food itself, may be less likely to cause impulsivity. Behavioral inflexibility or compulsivity and attentional bias toward food cues are more prominently impaired in BED. Behavioral regulation appears to be influenced by the context of motivationally salient food cues and the degree of obesity. Deficits in decisional impulsivity, including delay discounting and risk taking under ambiguity, are impaired in obesity irrespective of BED status. Whether these forms of impulsivity are predictive of or a consequence of obesity is not known. However, these findings are influenced by the severity of obesity: compared to non-BED obese subjects, in BED subjects with milder forms of obesity, greater risk seeking under explicit probabilistic risk is observed to monetary rewards, whereas this shifts to risk aversion and greater discounting of delayed rewards in BED subjects with more severe obesity. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it primarily discusses the effects of morphine and naloxone on impulsivity and decision-making in the context of food intake and obesity. While there are mentions of impulsivity and decision-making, the focus is on biochemical and behavioral observations rather than on cognitive biases specifically. Therefore, it does not provide any direct evidence or discussion regarding cognitive biases or their influence on decision-making and perception.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Invasive species can disrupt local ecosystems and wildlife. [SEP] Text: , Geomalacus maculosus) (Morinha et al. 2014), intertidal snails (Nucella spp. ) (Kawai et al. 2004), polyplacophoran molluscs (Ischnochiton spp. ) (Palmer et al. 2008), freshwater pearl mussels Margaritifera margaritifera (Karlsson et al. 2013) and fish (Manta birostris, Oreochromis niloticus) (Kashiwagi et al. 2015, Taslima et al. 2016). In birds, eggshells (Strausberger and Ashley 2001, Egloff et al. 2009, Kjelland and Kraemer 2012, Maia et al. 2017) or feathers (Rudnick et al. 2007, Kjelland and Kraemer 2012, Olah et al. 2016) can be used as a source of DNA. Feathers can be collected opportunistically or through a feather-trap (Maurer et al. 2010). Saliva is also a great source of DNA that can be collected non-invasively by using e. g. baits and porous material (Vargas et al. 2009, Lobo et al. 2015). Additionally, DNA samples can be obtained from mineral lick (Schoenecker et al. 2015), rests of prey (Harms et al. 2015, Wheat et al. 2016) or damaged crop (Saito et al. 2008). Other potential sources of DNA include scent marks (Malherbe et al. 2009), snow footprints (Dalen et al. 2007), urine (Nagai et al. 2014, Nakamura et al. 2017), insect exuviae (Kranzfelder et al. 2016, Nguyen et al. 2017), spider webs (Xu et al. 2015, Blake et al. 2016), antlers (Hoffmann and Griebeler 2013, Kim et al. 2015) or shed skin (Swanson et al. 2006, Horreo et al. 2015). As organisms move through the environment, they also leave some DNA traces behind. This environmental DNA (eDNA) can be used for detection of targeted organisms, and it is particularly useful for detection of invasive (Collins et al. 2013, Hunter et al. 2015) or rare species (Jerde et al. 2011). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the use of environmental DNA (eDNA) for detecting invasive species, which highlights the importance of monitoring their presence. This detection can be critical for understanding how invasive species impact local ecosystems, as indicated by the emphasis on identifying invasive species through various DNA collection methods.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: A vegan diet is automatically healthier than other diets. [SEP] Text: To this end, we operationalize two quantitative measures of dietary quality using the recent EAT-Lancet commission on Food, Planet, and Health’s dietary guidelines and food availability data from the database [22] to benchmark the “health and sustainability” of country-level diets today—or the degree to which diets can satisfy human nutritional needs while respecting an environmental “safe operating space” for food systems [23]. Then, using output from an agricultural projection model, and building on the results initially developed by [24], we produce future projections of the dietary quality of country-level food availability to 2050 under different scenarios of global economic and demographic trends to: a) explore whether diets become more (or less) healthy and sustainable over time under uncertain socioeconomic futures, and b) explore the effect of traded agricultural products on dietary health and sustainability. Understanding the evolution of dietary qualityUnhealthy diets are one of the largest risk factors driving the global disease burden [25]. As there is no universally agreed-upon notion of what constitutes a healthy diet, there is also no clear agreement on what constitutes best-practice metrics to measure dietary quality from a holistic and global perspective. A variety of approaches exist to measure dietary quality (for a recent overview, see [26], but many of these are not applicable at the global level. The challenge is compounded when looking at food system sustainability, as the measurements of different aspects of human nutrition at the global scale often do not address the goals of dietary health and environmental sustainability in tandem [27–29]. The transition from a food security focus to a food system emphasis in food policy includes the recognition of a need to develop and track quantitative indicators of multiple facets of global food systems functions. In order to ensure that progress is being made towards ambitious system-level goals, consistent and comparable measures are required to understand whether food systems are functioning in a healthy, equitable, and sustainable manner [30, 31]. Consideration of dietary sustainability in assessments of global diets was a major motivating factor of the EAT-report on eating within planetary boundaries [23], and the report provided global dietary guidelines to that effect. The EAT-Lancet report motivated a variety of complementary studies [32], and critical discussions [33, 34] as well as comparisons with existing dietary patterns and guidelines [35]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim as it discusses the challenges of defining a universally healthy diet and highlights that there is no clear agreement on what constitutes a healthy diet. It emphasizes the complexities and various metrics involved in assessing dietary quality globally, thus suggesting that a vegan diet is not automatically healthier since the notion of dietary quality is subjective and context-dependent.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases influence decision-making and perception. [SEP] Text: Davis, C, Carter, JC. Compulsive overeating as an addiction disorder: a review of theory and evidence. Appetite. 2009; 53(1): 1–8. 8. Ziauddeen, H, Fletcher, PC. Is food addiction a valid and useful concept? Obes Rev. 2013; 14(1): 19–28. 9. . Psychiatric aspects of impulsivity. Psychiatry. 2001; 158(11): 1783–1793. CrossRef10. . Impulsivity, compulsivity, and top-down cognitive control. Neuron. 2011; 69(4): 680–694. CrossRef11. Lipszyc, J, Schachar, R. Inhibitory control and psychopathology: a meta-analysis of studies using the stop signal task. J Soc. 2010; 16(6): 1064–1076. CrossRef12. . Deficits in behavioural inhibition in substance abuse and addiction: a meta-analysis. Depend. 2014; 145: 1–33. 13. . Abnormal brain structure implicated in stimulant drug addiction. Science. 2012; 335(6068): 601–604. 14. der Linden, M. Cognitive deficits in obese persons with and without binge eating disorder: investigation using a mental flexibility task. Appetite. 2011; 57(1): 263–271. 15. . General and food-specific inhibitory deficits in binge eating disorder. Eat Disord. 2014; 47(5): 534–542. 16. Inhibitory control and decision making under risk in bulimia nervosa and binge-eating disorder. Eat Disord. 2013; 46(7): 721–728. 17. Impulsivity in disorders of food and drug misuse. Psychol Med. 2015; 45(4): 771–782. 18. . Timing deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): evidence from neurocognitive and neuroimaging studies. Neuropsychologia. 2013; 51(2): 235–266. CrossRef19. . The behavioral- and neuro-economic process of temporal discounting: a candidate behavioral marker of addiction. Neuropharmacology. 2014; 76(Pt B): 518–527. 20. . Immediate pleasures and future consequences: a neuropsychological study of binge eating and obesity. Appetite. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text primarily lists various academic papers and studies related to compulsive behaviors, impulsivity, and addiction. However, it does not directly discuss cognitive biases or how they might influence decision-making and perception. Therefore, the content is irrelevant to the claim presented.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Invasive species can disrupt local ecosystems and wildlife. [SEP] Text: Controlling invasive species by empowering environmental stakeholders: ecotourism boat operators as potential guardians of wildlife against the invasive American mink Published online by Press: 19 February 2014 Elaine J. FraserDavid W. MacdonaldandShow author details Elaine J. Fraser Affiliation: School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, AB24 2TZ, UK. David W. Macdonald Affiliation: Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of : School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, AB24 2TZ, UK. Xavier Lambin* Affiliation: School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, AB24 2TZ, UK. * (Corresponding author) E-mail x. lambin@abdn. ac. uk 0. 36 mb) View PDF [Opens in a new window] Save to to Save to & Permissions [Opens in a new window] who have a stake in their environment are more likely to volunteer to assist conservation but they must be empowered to do so. This study explored the possibility of harnessing volunteers in the control of an invasive predator, the American mink Neovison vison, which decimates seabird colonies in coastal west Scotland. A questionnaire was sent to ecotourism boat operators, a group assumed to have an economic interest in wildlife biodiversity and a stake in their environment, to gauge their opinion on lethal control of American mink. The majority (64%) of respondents were concerned about the presence of mink in their area, agreed with control in principle and were willing to become involved in a volunteer capacity. Respondents who would not volunteer but agreed with control (21%) might reconsider if mink had a visible impact on their local wildlife. The minimum level of support people expected was information on where to get, and how to deploy, monitoring and trapping equipment. This study confirms that people with an intrinsic interest in wildlife consider themselves willing to protect their local biodiversity, with only limited resource input, such as an information pack, from external sources. minkcontrolenvironmental stakeholdersinvasive speciesnative species conservationNeovison visonScotlandvolunteer involvement Issue 4 October 2014 10. 1017/S003060531300046X [Opens in a new window] © Fauna & 2014 species are those introduced by human agency and which subsequently spread and cause damage to the ecosystems in which they have been introduced. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing evidence that the presence of the invasive American mink negatively impacts seabird colonies, which indicates disruption to local ecosystems. It highlights the concern of ecotourism boat operators regarding the presence of the mink and their willingness to engage in control measures to protect wildlife. This supports the idea that invasive species can lead to damage in the ecosystems they infiltrate.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: A vegan diet is automatically healthier than other diets. [SEP] Text: For upper-middle income countries especially, and low-income countries to a lesser degree, global agricultural trade may exacerbate a dietary double-burden dynamic under some scenarios (SSP2, SSP3, SSP4 for upper-middle income, SSP2, SSP5 for low-income—Tables 4 and 5). While this dynamic does not persist clearly across other income groups, some geographic heterogeneity is observed (Fig 5). This can be most clearly seen in the region, where a “no-trade” diet is expected to continue to outperform actual diets including traded goods in some scenarios. Implications for food trade policies Looking beyond overall diet to dietary components (Fig 6), we can observe that the composition of traded goods over time are not necessarily aligned with improved dietary quality over the course of business-as-usual scenario conditions (SSP2). For example, some regions () might be expected to expand imports of sugars or meats even while the per capita availability of these products continues to be much higher than that recommended by the EAT-Lancet diet. Other regions () see availability of legumes, nuts, and seeds much lower than what would be needed to satisfy the EAT-Lancet diet, at the same time as the import share of these commodities is expected to fall over time. Levels of legumes, nuts, and seeds in diets across regions into the future are generally consistently lower than the EAT-Lancet dietary guidelines, and this is important to consider in tandem with concerns that the production environments necessary to satisfy these levels may exacerbate water stress [34]. Our category-based measurements of dietary health and sustainability nuances the narratives that trade advances malnutrition reduction in certain regions of the world [61] and draws attention to a more heterogenous role of trade in securing healthy and sustainable diets [62–64]. Countries which are expected to not experience dietary benefit from trade on either the overshoot or undershoot side of the equation may actually see dietary benefits from more limited engagement with global agricultural markets, or reformed trade policies that promote nutritional goals [63, 65–69]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the complexities of diet quality and agricultural trade, suggesting that not all dietary components and trade practices lead to healthier outcomes. It points out that certain regions may experience poorer dietary quality due to the trade of specific goods, indicating that a simple vegan diet may not be universally healthier without considering these factors.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases influence decision-making and perception. [SEP] Text: 2010; 54(1): 208–213. 21. . Discounting of various types of rewards by women with and without binge eating disorder: evidence for general rather than specific differences. Psychol Rec. 2011; 61(4): 561–582. 22. Danner, UN, Ouwehand, C, van Haastert, NL, Hornsveld, H, de Ridder, DT. Decision-making impairments in women with binge eating disorder in comparison with obese and normal weight women. Disord Rev. 2012; 20(1): e56–e62. 23. Decision making, central coherence and set-shifting: a comparison between binge eating disorder, anorexia nervosa and healthy controls. BMC Psychiatry. 2015; 15: 6. 24. Svaldi, J, Brand, M, Tuschen-Caffier, B. Decision-making impairments in women with binge eating disorder. Appetite. 2010; 54(1): 84–92. 25. Risk-taking in disorders of natural and drug rewards: neural correlates and effects of probability, valence, and magnitude. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2015; 40(4): 804–812. 26. Compromised sensitivity to monetary reward in current cocaine users: an ERP study. Psychophysiology. 2008; 45(5): 705–713. 27. -Klein, N, et al. Subjective sensitivity to monetary gradients is associated with frontolimbic activation to reward in cocaine abusers. Depend. 2007; 87(2–3): 233–240. 28. . High impulsivity predicts the switch to compulsive cocaine-taking. Science. 2008; 320(5881): 1352–1355. CrossRef29. Voon, V. Models of impulsivity with a focus on waiting impulsivity: translational potential for neuropsychiatric disorders. Rep. 2014; 1(4): 281–288. 30. Measuring “waiting” impulsivity in substance addictions and binge eating disorder in a novel analogue of rodent serial reaction time task. Biol Psychiatry. 2014; 75(2): 148–155. 31. Assessment of executive functions in obese individuals with binge eating disorder. Psiquiatr. 2010; 32(4): 381–388. 32. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provided contains a list of references and studies relating to decision-making in various psychological disorders, particularly binge eating disorder and other addictions. However, it does not explicitly address cognitive biases nor make a clear connection to the claim about their influence on decision-making and perception. Therefore, it is considered irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Invasive species can disrupt local ecosystems and wildlife. [SEP] Text: Biological invasions are a major global threat to biodiversity and ecosystem function (Kolar & Lodge, and Lodge2001). Invasive predatory species can have a devastating impact on native species (Simberloff, Reference Simberloff2001) and biodiversity conservation (Macdonald et al. , Reference Macdonald, King, Strachan, Macdonald and Service2007) and there is an increasing awareness of, and necessity for, management to minimize these impacts (Bryce et al. , and Lambin2011). Control of invasive species on a large scale has been attempted using various methods. For example, successful eradication of the coypu Myocastor coypus in Britain was accomplished using salaried trappers who were given bonuses for early completion (Gosling & Baker, and Baker1989). Eradications of introduced rats and cats on islands, using poison baiting, have proven successful (Howald et al. , and Tershy2010; Ratcliffe et al. , and White2010) but the use of poison for controlling carnivores in populated areas of Europe is unlikely to be acceptable to the public (Genovesi, Reference Genovesi2005). Nevertheless, public support can be gained for control efforts, particularly when humans are viewed as responsible for the invasion (Selge et al. , Reference Selge, Fischer and van der Wal2011). Attempts to control the American mink Neovison vison in Europe have been conducted using dedicated salaried trappers, paying a bounty to hunters, and through the use of volunteers who have an interest in removing mink (Bonesi & Palazon, and Palazon2007; Bryce et al. , and Lambin2011; Heritage, 2012). Involving unpaid volunteers in collating information on the distribution (e. g. Delaney et al. , Reference Delaney, Sperling, Adams and Leung2008; Dickinson et al. , Reference Dickinson, Zuckerberg and Bonter2010; Gallo & Waitt, and Waitt2011) and control of invasive species on a large scale is a feasible alternative to the costly use of professional staff (Tidwell & Brunson, and Brunson2008; Bryce et al. , and Lambin2011; Macdonald & Burnham, and Burnham2011). People willing to participate in invasive species management often have a stake in the environment (Tidwell & Brunson, and Brunson2008; Selge et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how biological invasions threaten biodiversity and ecosystem function. It highlights the devastating impact of invasive predatory species on native species and biodiversity conservation, thus directly supporting the assertion that invasive species disrupt local ecosystems.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: A vegan diet is automatically healthier than other diets. [SEP] Text: For instance, the significant dietary overshoot in the Sub-region is mostly associated with a large portion of dietary energy coming from roots and tuberous foods—for which the EAT-Lancet dietary guidelines set a relatively low maximum threshold (100 g/cap/day) citing high glycemic load associated with the consumption of tubers and starchy vegetables [23, 74]. Processing of grains into highly refined foods such as white bread makes grain-derived foods comparable to tubers in terms of glycemic load [75], and because our study does not consider food preparation method, it is almost certainly the case that the health benefits from grains versus tubers are skewed here in favor of grains. Future avenues for study into cross-country trends in dietary health using EAT-Lancet should be sensitive to the role of food processing in driving overshoot or undershoot of different category-based dietary thresholds. ConclusionThe world today faces challenges on two distinct fronts of dietary health and sustainability—with countries both undershooting (falling short) and overshooting (exceeding) many dietary health and sustainability goals and limits. The dietary metrics constructed in this paper present a way to track progress towards, or movement away from, “ideal” dietary and sustainability states, and the results make clear that managing the balance between improving dietary undershoot and limiting dietary overshoot will continue to be a major challenge across countries and regions globally in the future. The results further show that trade, though expected to provide benefits for dietary health and sustainability to many countries, is also projected to exacerbate dietary harms in others under business-as-usual trade conditions. We find this to be true to varying degrees when accounting for potential socioeconomic uncertainty under the SSP framework, evidencing that socioeconomic patterns of development will have implications for both the impact of trade on dietary outcomes, and dietary outcomes themselves. In general, we find that scenarios with higher growth conditions imply far greater dietary overshoot potential across a number of regions (Fig 3) while sometimes making only very limited progress towards reducing dietary undershoot. Under such scenarios, new avenues for managing food demand and the dietary environment may need to be explored given the dearth of demand-side policy approaches combining human and planetary health concerns [76]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the complexities of dietary health, including how different food processing methods and types of dietary energy sources affect health outcomes. It emphasizes that a simplistic view—such as assuming a vegan diet is automatically healthier—overlooks the nuances in dietary composition and the impact of food preparation. The mention of glycemic load and the comparison between grains and tubers suggests that not all plant-based foods are equally beneficial, thereby challenging the claim of inherent superiority of a vegan diet.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases influence decision-making and perception. [SEP] Text: Cognitive function in morbidly obese individuals with and without binge eating disorder. Compr Psychiatry. 2012; 53(5): 490–495. 33. Divergent neural substrates of inhibitory control in binge eating disorder relative to other manifestations of obesity. Obesity. 2013; 21(2): 367–377. 34. . Inhibitory control in bulimic-type eating disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2013; 8(12): e83412. 35. . Neurocircuitry of addiction. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2010; 35(1): 217–238. CrossRef36. . Set-shifting ability across the spectrum of eating disorders and in overweight and obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychol Med. 2014; 44(16): 3365–3385. 37. . Model-based influences on humans’ choices and striatal prediction errors. Neuron. 2011; 69(6): 1204–1215. 38. Disorders of compulsivity: a common bias towards learning habits. Mol Psychiatry. 2015; 20(3): 345–352. CrossRef39. -Terpstra, J, Moreno, F. Prefrontal and striatal dopaminergic genes predict individual differences in exploration and exploitation. Nat Neurosci. 2009; 12(8): 1062–1068. CrossRef40. . Biases in the explore-exploit tradeoff in addictions: the role of avoidance of uncertainty. Neuropsychopharmacology. In press. DOI: 10. 1038/n208. 41. Svaldi, J, Tuschen-. Information processing of food pictures in binge eating disorder. Appetite. 2010; 55(3): 685–694. CrossRef42. Impulsivity in binge eating disorder: food cues elicit increased reward responses and disinhibition. PLoS One. 2013; 8(10): e76542. 43. -. Cognitive interference and a food-related memory bias in binge eating disorder. Appetite. 2014; 72: 28–36. 44. Svaldi, J, Bender, C, Tuschen-Caffier, B. Explicit memory bias for positively valenced body-related cues in women with binge eating disorder. J Exp Psychiatry. 2010; 41(3): 251–257. CrossRef45. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provides references to certain studies related to cognitive function, eating disorders, and biases but does not explicitly address the claim in question about cognitive biases influencing decision-making and perception. The content is focused on specific research findings without directly supporting or contrasting the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Invasive species can disrupt local ecosystems and wildlife. [SEP] Text: , Reference Selge, Fischer and van der Wal2011), making it possible to connect with the motivations of such stakeholders to promote voluntary participation in the management of invasive species. Success with volunteer-based invasive species control was demonstrated by Bryce et al. (and Lambin2011) for their mink control project. This project aimed to eradicate breeding mink from an area of north-east Scotland, to allow recovery of native species such as the water vole Arvicola amphibius. It involved a wide range of volunteers who had convergent economic and general interests in protecting vulnerable native species. The project has now expanded from its original coverage (Area 1, Fig. 1) and aims to replicate this success across a larger area of mainland Scotland (Area 2, Fig. 1). Fig. 1 Scotland, showing geographical locations mentioned in the text. Areas A–E show regional boundaries used to describe locations of west coast tour operators (A, North Highland; B, Skye and Lochalsh; C, and Lochaber; D, Oban and Mull; E, and Kintyre). The gradation of shading from south to north (areas E to A) represents the pattern of colonization by mink on the west coast. Other mink project areas are represented by numbers (1, original mink project area; 2, current mink project area; 3, project area). The locations of all businesses contacted for the questionnaire are indicated by black dots, where the size represents number of businesses at each location (small = 1, medium = 2, large = 3). Bar graphs show the number of tour boat operators who were contacted (Cont. ) and responded (Resp. ) and of those respondents, the number who were willing to volunteer (black section of bar), in each area (letters correspond as above). The invasive American mink was introduced to many locations outside its native range, including the UK, for fur farming (Cuthbert, Reference Cuthbert1973). Feral populations have established from escaped and released mink. Mink are opportunistic predators that feed on a range of native species including small mammals, fish, frogs, crustaceans, and birds and their eggs (Dunstone, Reference Dunstone1993; Macdonald & Harrington, and Harrington2003). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the introduction of the invasive American mink to the UK and highlighting its role as an opportunistic predator that threatens native species. Specifically, the text mentions that mink feed on a range of native species including small mammals, fish, frogs, crustaceans, and birds and their eggs, illustrating the disruption invasive species can cause to local ecosystems and wildlife.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: A vegan diet is automatically healthier than other diets. [SEP] Text: Nutrition and health outcomes are influenced by multiple factors, which makes it difficult to tease out and identify relevant entry points to bring a positive change or solution [25]. At the individual level, for example, the nutritional status is influenced by the consumption of single food components or other biological, socioeconomic, and psychological determinants [25]. From the environmental aspect, when developing FSIs to improve nu-trition and health outcomes, it is crucial to consider solutions that will not cause environmental degradation [24]. Moreover, for the food system as a whole, a multidisciplinary team and different actors from the private, public, and non-governmental sector must work toward a coherent objective and align priorities to design an FSI [25]. This can be challenging as all stakeholders have different personal and institutional interests. Nowadays, innovation must adopt a holistic approach that will allow the solution of linear cause–effect interactions as well as more-complex and systemic interactions that consider the environment and socioeconomic context. Second, food systems are dynamic, and nutritional and public health issues are changing at a rapid pace. Under these conditions, the rapid advancement of technology may not be sufficient to address these challenges, as providing robust evidence-based solutions from the development stage to validation and scale-up is time consuming [8, 26]. For example, in the past decade, plant-based products have been proposed as a sustainable and healthy innovation compared to livestock [27, 28]. Although the concept is not new and was already introduced in the 1960s [29], there are still evidence gaps around their environmental, nutritional, health impact, and safety characteristics. Another example relates to lab-grown meat that brings a potential solution to decrease livestock production. Cell-culture-related challenges around large-scale production, food safety standards, and expensive production inputs are still under discussion [30]. Lastly, complexity and dynamism within the food system can generate feedback loops and synergies, which can also influence the outcome of an FSI. Trade-offs among different components of the food system should, therefore, be considered. Indeed, trade-offs between food safety, affordability, and sustainable innovations toward food security and positive nutrition outcomes must be prior-itized, taking into account the local context, especially in LMICs [10]. In addition, the environmental and nutritional impact of food remains a controversial topic within food systems [31]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting that nutrition and health outcomes are influenced by multiple factors beyond just dietary choices. It states that identifying relevant entry points for positive change in nutrition is complex, indicating that a vegan diet alone does not ensure better health outcomes without considering other determinants such as biological, socioeconomic, and psychological factors. It also mentions the need for a holistic approach to food systems, suggesting that dietary impacts are not straightforward and that there are still gaps in evidence regarding plant-based diets' nutritional and health impacts, which challenges the idea of a vegan diet being automatically healthier.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases influence decision-making and perception. [SEP] Text: Effects of the mu-opioid receptor antagonist GSK1521498 on hedonic and consummatory eating behaviour: a proof of mechanism study in binge-eating obese subjects. Mol Psychiatry. 2013; 18(12): 1287–1293. 46. Neural and behavioral effects of a novel mu opioid receptor antagonist in binge-eating obese people. Biol Psychiatry. 2013; 73(9): 887–894. 47. Effects of mu opioid receptor antagonism on cognition in obese binge-eating individuals. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2012; 224(4): 501–509. 48. . Acute effects of morphine on distinct forms of impulsive behavior in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2009; 205(3): 489–502. 49. Wiskerke, J, Schetters, D, van Es, IE, et al. mu-Opioid receptors in the nucleus accumbens shell region mediate the effects of amphetamine on inhibitory control but not impulsive choice. J Neurosci. 2011; 31(1): 262–272. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the effects of mu-opioid receptor antagonists on eating behavior and impulsive behavior in various studies, without any mention or support related to cognitive biases or their influence on decision-making and perception.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Invasive species can disrupt local ecosystems and wildlife. [SEP] Text: They are highly dispersive and inhabit coastal and inland freshwater habitats, the former of which is assumed to be more productive and hence to accommodate denser mink populations (Dunstone, Reference Dunstone1993; Clode et al. , Reference Clode, Haliwell and Macdonald1995; Bodey et al. , Reference Bodey, Bearhop, Roy, Newton and McDonald2010). The detrimental impact of mink on native birds in the invaded range worldwide is well documented (e. g. Craik, Reference Craik1997; Nordström et al. , Reference Nordström, Högmander, Laine, Nummelin, Laanetu and Korpimäki2003; Peris et al. , Reference Peris, Sanguinetti and Pescador2009) and can involve direct killing, desertion of colonies, or breeding failures as a result of disturbance during incubation (Burness & Morris, and Morris1993; Clode & Macdonald, and Macdonald2002). Coastal areas are worst affected, exemplified by studies showing poor breeding success and loss or relocation of many seabird colonies (Clode & Macdonald, and Macdonald2002; Nordström & Korpimäki, Reference Nordström and Korpimäki2004; Ratcliffe et al. , Reference Ratcliffe, Craik, Helyar, Roy and Scott2008). However, mink control has proven successful in reversing this damage, resulting in increases in diversity and breeding densities of seabirds (Nordström et al. , Reference Nordström, Högmander, Laine, Nummelin, Laanetu and Korpimäki2003; Ratcliffe et al. , Reference Ratcliffe, Craik, Helyar, Roy and Scott2008) and re-establishment of colonies previously decimated by mink predation (Ratcliffe et al. , Reference Ratcliffe, Craik, Helyar, Roy and Scott2008). mink are present in all but far northern areas (2012; NBN Gateway, 2012). The north-west coast has been the most recently invaded, leading to growing concern about the impact of mink on wildlife, as well as the potential for further detriment if the far north of the country is colonized. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing the detrimental impacts of invasive mink on native bird populations, which includes direct killing and breeding failures due to disturbance. It highlights that coastal areas are particularly affected, indicating significant disruption to local ecosystems and wildlife. Additionally, the text points out that the presence of mink in various habitats poses further risks for wildlife, thus supporting the claim about invasive species disrupting ecosystems.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: A vegan diet is automatically healthier than other diets. [SEP] Text: Pattern analysis of vegan eating reveals healthy and unhealthy patterns within the vegan diet Published online by Press: 11 May 2021 GallagherandLane [Opens in a new window] Show author details Gallagher Affiliation: for Sport and Exercise Sciences, I. M. 17 6: for Sport and Exercise Sciences, I. M. 17 6* Affiliation: for Sport and Exercise Sciences, I. M. 17 6BD, UK * *Corresponding author: Email k. e. lane@ljmu. ac. uk 0. 47 mb) View PDF [Opens in a new window] Save to to Save to & Permissions [Opens in a new window] Abstract Objective:This study aimed to identify the types of foods that constitute a vegan diet and establish patterns within the diet. Dietary pattern analysis, a key instrument for exploring the correlation between health and disease, was used to identify patterns within the vegan diet. Design:A modified version of the EPIC-Norfolk FFQ was created and validated to include vegan foods and launched on social media. Setting:UK participants, recruited online. Participants:A convenience sample of 129 vegans voluntarily completed the FFQ. Collected data were converted to reflect weekly consumption to enable factor and cluster analyses. Results:Factor analysis identified four distinct dietary patterns including: (1) convenience (22 %); (2) health conscious (12 %); (3) unhealthy (9 %) and (4) traditional vegan (7 %). Whilst two healthy patterns were defined, the convenience pattern was the most identifiable pattern with a prominence of vegan convenience meals and snacks, vegan sweets and desserts, sauces, condiments and fats. Cluster analysis identified three clusters, cluster 1 ‘convenience’ (26·8 %), cluster 2 ‘traditional’ (22 %) and cluster 3 ‘health conscious’ (51·2 %). Clusters 1 and 2 consisted of an array of ultraprocessed vegan food items. Together, both clusters represent almost half of the participants and yielding similar results to the predominant dietary pattern, strengthens the factor analysis. Conclusions:These novel results highlight the need for further dietary pattern studies with full nutrition and blood metabolite analysis in larger samples of vegans to enhance and ratify these results. pattern analysisVegan dietConvenienceTraditionalHealthyUltraprocessed foods Issue 5 May 2022 10. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by showing that while there are healthy patterns within a vegan diet, there are also unhealthy patterns identified through dietary pattern analysis. Specifically, it indicates that a substantial portion of participants engaged in convenience eating, which consisted of processed vegan foods, thus implying that not all vegan diets are inherently healthier.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases influence decision-making and perception. [SEP] Text: New York: HarperOne; 2012. 20. Chapman GB. Time discounting of health outcomes. In: eds. Time and Decision: Economic and on Intertemporal Choice. New York: Foundation; 2003. p 395–418. 21. Croskerry P. The importance of cognitive errors in diagnosis and strategies to minimize them. Acad Med. 2003;78(8):775–80. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science22. Reporting guidelines for survey research: an analysis of published guidance and reporting practices. PLoS Med. 2011;8(8):e1001069. CrossrefWeb of Science23. . of Reporting (CORE) index identifies important deficiencies in observational study conference abstracts. J Clin Epidemiol. 2008;61(12):1241–9. Crossref24. Meyrick J. What is good qualitative research? A first step towards a comprehensive approach to judging rigour/quality. J Health Psychol. 2006;11(5):799–808. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science25. . The influence of positive affect on clinical problem solving. Making. 1991;11(3):221–7. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science26. Myers RE. Decision counseling in cancer prevention and control. Health Psychol. 2005;24(suppl 4):S71–7. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science27. Sharman SJ. Current negative mood encourages changes in end-of-life treatment decisions and is associated with false memories. Cogn Emot. 2011;25(1):132–9. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science28. . Affect, framing, and persuasion. J Market Res. 2003;40(1):54–64. CrossrefWeb of Science29. Action tendency emotions evoked by memorable breast cancer messages and their association with prevention and detection behaviors. Health Commun. 2010;25(8):737–46. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science30. Fox CR, Tversky A. Ambiguity aversion and comparative ignorance. In: Kahneman D, Tversky A, eds. Choices, Values, and Frames. New York: 2000. p 528–42. Crossref31. . Attitudes of obstetricians and gynecologists toward hormone replacement therapy. Making. 1998;18(4):406–11. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science32. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provides a series of references and citations related to various topics, but it does not directly address the claim about cognitive biases influencing decision-making and perception. Therefore, it is deemed irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Invasive species can disrupt local ecosystems and wildlife. [SEP] Text: Most businesses were > 6 years old, with five operating for > 20 years. All but one respondent reported either seeing mink or being aware of the presence of mink in their area. These are all areas where mink have been recorded (Fig. 1). All but two respondents stated that they agreed with the principle of mink control. Fig. 2 Number of ecotourism boat operators contacted (white bars) and number who responded (black bars), according to primary business type (cetacean watching, mixed wildlife watching, scenic tours, sea eagle watching, seal watching and other activities). The most common opinion expressed by respondents in relation to mink affecting business and local wildlife was the loss of ground-nesting birds from offshore islands and/or their failure to breed. spp. were mentioned specifically. Example comments were ‘terns no longer present’, ‘all ground-nesting birds on a local nest site produced zero chicks this year’, ‘adult birds remain but no chicks’, and ‘the declining number of species over the last few years has reduced customer enjoyment, and has been commented upon by them’. This concern was in line with their reports of the most common animals they expect to see on their trips (all 14 tour operators expect to see seals and seabirds). In response to the informative text provided throughout the questionnaire about mink and their control, respondents changed few of their original answers. Assuming that all respondents read the informative text, this suggests they were already well informed. After reading the informative text two respondents raised their level of concern about the presence of mink in their area and two other respondents increased the level of impact they thought mink could have on their business. One person decreased the impact level. When asked who should be responsible for mink control, the general consensus was that it should be shared amongst the suggested groups. These were government organizations, national conservation NGOs, local conservation NGOs and local individuals with a personal interest, with an additional option for other suggestions. Opinions did not change after reading about the various organizations and projects that already operate. Nine respondents would consider becoming involved in mink control. They were all concerned about the presence of mink, thought that mink had a visible or highly visible impact on their local wildlife and reported an impact, or potential impact, on their business. Six of these respondents had trapped mink before (Fig. 3). Fig. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing evidence that the presence of mink is affecting local wildlife, particularly ground-nesting birds. Respondents reported that 'the loss of ground-nesting birds from offshore islands and/or their failure to breed' can be directly linked to the presence of mink, indicating a disruption in the local ecosystem. This highlights the negative impact that an invasive species like the mink can have on native wildlife and thus supports the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: A vegan diet is automatically healthier than other diets. [SEP] Text: 1017/S136898002100197X [Opens in a new window] This is an 4. 0/), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Press on behalf of half a million people in the UK (≈1 % of the population) follow a vegan diet where all animal sources are substituted with plant-based alternatives. Veganism quadrupled between 2014 and 2019 in the UK(1) with 600 000 vegans reported in 2019(2,3) while the popularity in vegan diets continues to grow worldwide(Reference Kamiński, Skonieczna-Żydecka and Nowak4). The food industry is responding to this by producing more processed vegan food and drink products than ever before(2,5). 2021, ‘Veganuary’ saw over 440 000 people in the UK committing to a vegan diet(6), raising the profile of plant-based eating which has been associated with a range of health benefits(Reference Orlich, Jaceldo-Siegl and Sabaté7). It is reported that a well-planned vegan diet can meet all the nutritional requirements necessary for health(8). There is still some debate, however, about the nutritional quality of vegan diets and the risk of nutritional deficiencies, notably some key micronutrients such as vitamin B12, vitamin D, Fe, Ca, iodine, n-3, Se and Zn in poorly adapted or non-fortified vegan diets(Reference Craig9). In dietary terms, a traditional vegan diet refers to a diet that omits all products derived wholly or partly from animal origin. The diet focuses more on wholegrains, pulses, fruit and vegetables(10). It remains unclear if modern vegan dietary adaptation methods can deliver the same health advantages as traditional vegan diets. For example, if vegans are choosing ultraprocessed vegan products over more natural plant-based alternative sources, could this compromise the overall quality of the vegan diet? (Reference Bellard11). By way of definition, ultraprocessed foods refer to products mostly or entirely formulated from substances derived from foods that typically contain little or no whole foods(Reference Moubarac, Parra and Cannon12). These products are usually high in saturated fat, sugar and salt. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by stating that there is ongoing debate regarding the nutritional quality of vegan diets, particularly the risk of deficiencies in micronutrients like vitamin B12 and others. It indicates that while a well-planned vegan diet can meet nutritional needs, poorly adapted vegan diets may lead to poor health outcomes, thus challenging the notion that a vegan diet is inherently healthier.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases influence decision-making and perception. [SEP] Text: CrossrefWeb of Science45. Kahneman D, Tversky A. Introduction judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. In: eds. Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases. New York: Press; 1982. Crossref46. . Early adoption of BRCA1/2 testing: who and why. Genet Med. 2003;5(2):92–8. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science47. Parental angst making and revisiting decisions about treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics. 2009;124(2):580–9. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science48. . Barriers to physician adherence to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug guidelines: a qualitative study. Ther. 2008;28(6):789–98. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science49. -Degnan D, Normand S-LT, Soumerai SB. Impact of adverse events on prescribing warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation: matched pair analysis. BMJ. 2006;332(7534):141–5. CrossrefPubMed50. Cioffi J. A study of the use of past experiences in clinical decision making in emergency situations. Nurs Stud. 2001;38(5):591–9. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science51. . Can induced anxiety from a negative earlier experience influence vascular surgeons’ statistical decision-making? A randomized field experiment with an abdominal aortic aneurysm analog. J Surg. 2006;203(5):642–52. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science52. -. Narratives that address affective forecasting errors reduce perceived barriers to colorectal cancer screening. Med. 2010;71(1):45–52. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science53. . The cognitive structuring of patient delay in breast cancer. Med. 2006;63(12):3137–49. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science54. . How underlying patient beliefs can affect physician-patient communication about prostate-specific antigen testing. Pract. 2002;5(3):120–9. PubMed55. -Tsao G. What do patients consider when making decisions about treatment for hepatitis C? Med. 2005;118(12):1387–91. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science56. . [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text consists of references and citations to various studies and articles, but does not directly address or provide evidence related to the claim about cognitive biases influencing decision-making and perception. Instead, it lists published works without discussing the content of those works in relation to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Invasive species can disrupt local ecosystems and wildlife. [SEP] Text: Trust have conducted extensive research regarding the most efficient and humane ways to monitor, trap and dispatch mink, and this information is both publicly available (Game & Trust, 2012) and internationally recognized as being of high welfare standards (for Animal Welfare, 2012). Several mink control projects have received extensive media coverage (e. g. BBC, 2011a,b) and have been well received by the public and thus any project resulting from this study should be neither misinformed nor misconstrued. The level of response to the questionnaire reflects a high motivation amongst the target group but it must be remembered that respondents are self-sampled. This small study infers that people with a stake in their environment can be encouraged to act to control invasive species. It also suggests that current inaction may be attributed to lack of empowering information, rather than lack of interest. Respondents were given details on the cost of equipment and were initially not offered any financial support, thereby implying they would be responsible for financing their own involvement in mink control. Only one respondent asked for expenses to be paid and those who were offered equipment, after stating they would not volunteer, would not accept this as encouragement to be involved. The extent to which the economy of the tourism industry in Scotland is affected by the presence of invasive species is unknown. However, the annual cost of invasive species to the British economy in general has been estimated to be GBP1. 7 billion (Williams et al. , and Shaw2010). It is therefore difficult to predict whether the investment by tour operators in mink control would be recouped through increased business, or through preventing loss of business. However, respondents appeared to be more concerned about their local wildlife than the direct impact on their business (Table 1). Several respondents expressed the opinion that mink had a high level of impact on local wildlife, particularly seabirds. Whether this opinion is based on fact (e. g. Craik, Reference Craik1997) or perception, it is clearly a motivation for volunteering in mink control. The potential for 9 of 34 businesses to implement mink control may appear too few, especially considering several respondents were from the same area, but localized impacts are achievable and can contribute to wider-scale successes. Invasive species management relies on action at a local scale but can be more successful when coordinated as part of a larger scale strategic approach (Grice et al. , Reference Grice, Clarkson and Calvert2011). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by indicating that several respondents expressed the opinion that mink have a high level of impact on local wildlife, particularly seabirds. This suggests that invasive species, such as mink, can indeed disrupt local ecosystems, as the respondents' concerns reflect a recognition of the harm to local wildlife, supporting the idea that invasive species pose threats to native species and ecological balance.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: A vegan diet is automatically healthier than other diets. [SEP] Text: The majority of these food items are also considered poor sources of protein, fibre and micronutrients(Reference Gibney13,Reference Monteiro, Moubarac and Levy14). Studies over the past two decades have provided important information on the diet quality of various types of vegetarians, but no single study has addressed the quality of specific vegan diets. Orlich et al. (Reference Orlich, Jaceldo-Siegl and Sabaté7) reveal Adventist vegans consumed the lowest amounts of foods and snacks high in added sugars and saturated fats, in comparison with non-vegetarians and other vegetarian groups. This argument is consistent with much of the literature surrounding vegan diets(Reference Dyett, Sabaté and Haddad15−Reference Kwok, Umar and Myint18). However, the main weakness with this research is that it is outdated and perhaps not considering the increasing variety of processed food and drinks that are now available to vegans. In 2018, the UK developed more vegan products than any other nation(5). Popular UK supermarkets are reacting by producing vegan wines with a pledge to ensure their full range is suitable for vegans in the coming years(19). In 2019, Galaxy launched a vegan Mars bar in the UK(20), and in 2020, Mc Donald’s launched its first vegan meal(Reference Falcao21). Thus, the production of vegan alternatives including vegan snacks and fast foods is prevalent and represents one of the main product development trends within the food and retail industry. However, many of these food items can be high in saturated fats and sugars and if eaten regularly may pose a risk to health. Therefore, a review of current vegan dietary patterns is urgently required to address these uncertainties. Several studies have evaluated the dietary patterns of omnivores, pesco, lacto, ovo and semi-vegetarians in comparison with vegan diets(Reference Dinu, Abbate and Gensini22−Reference Clarys, Deriemaeker and Huybrechts26), but none to date has subjected vegan diets to dietary pattern analysis. It is important to establish whether the increased availability of processed vegan replacements for animal-based products is leading to habitual consumption of an array of ultraprocessed foods. The methodology for this unique study includes an innovative dietary pattern analysis of vegan diets. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that while vegan diets may reduce consumption of added sugars and saturated fats, it also notes that many vegan food items can be high in saturated fats and sugars, which could pose health risks if consumed regularly. The claim that a vegan diet is automatically healthier is challenged by the suggestion that a review of current vegan dietary patterns is urgently required to address uncertainties regarding their health impacts.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases influence decision-making and perception. [SEP] Text: JAMA. 2010;304(11):1198–203. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science68. . Stage of adoption of the human papillomavirus vaccine among college women. Prev Med. 2009;48(5):420–5. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science69. Parental attitudes about influenza immunization and school-based immunization for school-aged children. Dis J. 2010;29(8):751–5. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science70. . The simultaneous analysis of patient, physician and group practice influences on annual mammography performance. Med. 1996;43(3):315–24. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science71. Influenza among healthy young children: changes in parental attitudes and predictors of immunization during the 2003 to 2004 influenza season. Pediatrics. 2006;117(2):e268–77. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science72. Misperceptions about influenza vaccination among parents of healthy young children. (Phila). 2007;46(5):408–17. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science73. . The importance of social norms for uptake of catch-up human papillomavirus vaccination in young women. Sex Health. 2011;8(3):330–7. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science74. Duffett-. Cervical cancer screening practices among university women. J Neonatal Nurs. 2008;37(5):572–81. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science75. Seasonal and 2009 H1N1 influenza vaccine uptake, predictors of vaccination, and self-reported barriers to vaccination among secondary school teachers and staff. Hum Vaccin. 2011;7(1):89–95. CrossrefPubMed76. Zikmund-. “I’ll do what they did”: social norm information and cancer treatment decisions. Couns. 2011;85(2):225–9. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science77. Croskerry P. Achieving quality in clinical decision making: cognitive strategies and detection of bias. Med. 2002;9(11):1184–204. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science78. Fagerlin A, Zikmund-. Cure me even if it kills me: p9. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science79. . What makes a tumor diagnosis a call to action? [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text primarily consists of citations of various studies and articles related to healthcare, vaccination, and decision-making in medical contexts, but it does not directly address or provide evidence regarding cognitive biases and their influence on decision-making and perception. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Invasive species can disrupt local ecosystems and wildlife. [SEP] Text: By coordinating control efforts, volunteers could increase the effectiveness of their activities as well as reduce the risk of reinvasion (Epanchin-Niell et al. , Reference Epanchin-Niell, Hufford, Asian, Sexton, Port and Waring2010). Such an approach has improved the success of fox Vulpes vulpes control on farms in Australia (McLeod et al. , and van de Ven2010) as well as mink control in Scotland (Bryce et al. , and Lambin2011). In the study by Bryce et al. (and Lambin2011) the initial core group of volunteers (gamekeepers) were conducting mink control at a local level before the project began. Approximately 60–70 mink were trapped annually within the project area prior to the project commencing but control became regionally effective once the volunteers were coordinated at a landscape level (Bryce et al. , and Lambin2011). The number of trapped mink within the same area in 2008 was c. 70 but in 2011 was < 20 (Y. Melero, pers. comm. ). Harrington et al. (and Macdonald2009) proposed that mink control at a local level can be effective but continual monitoring and reactive trapping is necessary, as immigration can rapidly nullify small-scale control efforts. The optimal area for effective mink control is unknown (Harrington et al. , and Macdonald2009) but, intuitively, the larger the better. It has been suggested that at least 3 months of trapping per year is necessary to maintain densities of mink low enough to protect water voles, and that trapping is most effective during the mink mating season in spring (Bonesi et al. , Reference Bonesi, Rushton and Macdonald2007; Harrington et al. , and Macdonald2009). Assuming the same low densities of mink would be sufficient to protect seabirds, a high trapping effort in early spring would benefit seabirds by removing mink prior to birds settling at breeding sites. Most tour operators stated they would be willing to conduct control throughout the year and so should be able to volunteer during this preferred trapping season. Anything more than local control of mink on an annual basis would be dependent on the proportion of coastline encompassed and the commitment of volunteers. Predator removal for protection of birds can be successful on islands (Smith et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by discussing the impact of invasive species, specifically focusing on control efforts for mink and their effect on local wildlife, such as water voles and seabirds. It highlights that the coordination of control efforts reduces the invasive population, thereby aiding in the protection of native species. This demonstrates how invasive species like mink can disrupt local ecosystems, reinforcing the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: A vegan diet is automatically healthier than other diets. [SEP] Text: In particular, the two food groups with the largest correlation were identified and merged into a single ‘synthetic’ sample. The remaining food groups were then searched for the largest correlation with the synthetic sample. This process was repeated until all samples were merged into a single sample, and the correlations among samples were then expressed as a hierarchical tree(and Hitchcock43). The dietary patterns were characterised by high and low intakes of vegan food and drinks. The clusters were labelled based on the types of inputs representing the component and explanations in the literature. characteristics Data collection took place from Monday 2 March 2020 through Friday 3 April 2020. There were 129 fully completed FFQ. Sample characteristics are presented in Table 2. Table 2 Characteristics of study participants Most participants were female (87 %), and most were aged 18–24 (36 %) years. The most common reason selected for following a vegan lifestyle was ‘Health, Environment & Animal welfare’ (43 %). Health benefits were in the minority with only 3 % following the vegan lifestyle primarily for ‘health’. It is important to note that on the questionnaire, these were presented as separate reasons and not a single reason. Participants were able to select more than one reason. Most vegans (41 %) had been following a vegan diet for 1–3 years. Some participants (17 %) were eating a vegan diet for <6 months; (8 %) 6–12 months; (23 %) 4–10 years and (11 %) over 10 years. From those taking nutritional supplements, the majority took vitamin B12 (68 %). Almost half took vitamin D (42 %). A moderate number (26 %) were taking Fe supplements and 19 % took Ca supplements. A small number of participants (15 %, 12 %, 14 % and 7 %) consumed Zn, iodine, n-3 and Se supplements, respectively. Again these micronutrients were presented in a list on the questionnaire, and participants were able to select more than one supplement. Factor analysis Inspection of the correlation matrix revealed the presence of many coefficients of 0·3 and above. The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin value was 0·727, reaching the recommended value of 0·5(Reference Field38) The Barlett’s Test of Sphericity(Reference Barlett44) reached statistical significance, supporting the factorability of the correlation matrix(Reference Pallant35). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing data that suggests health benefits are not the main motivation for following a vegan lifestyle, as only 3% of participants claimed health as their primary reason. This implies that a vegan diet may not necessarily be perceived as healthier than other diets by those who adopt it, thus challenging the assertion that such a diet is automatically healthier.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases influence decision-making and perception. [SEP] Text: Health Psychol. 2012;31(1):114–21. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science149. . The impact of counseling with a practical statistical model on patients’ decision-making about treatment for epilepsy: findings from a pilot study. Epilepsy Res. 1993;16(3):207–14. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science150. . Framing effects in younger and older adults. . 2005;60(4):P215–8. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science151. Monitoring styles in women at risk for cervical cancer: implications for the framing of health-relevant messages. Med. 1999;21(1):27–34. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science152. . Acceptability of the H1N1 vaccine among older adults: the interplay of message framing and perceived vaccine safety and efficacy. Health Commun. 2012;27(6):559–68. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science153. O’Connor AM. Effects of framing and level of probability on patients’ p26. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science154. Park S-Y. The effects of message framing and risk perceptions for HPV vaccine campaigns: focus on the role of regulatory fit. Q. 2012;29(4):283–302. CrossrefPubMed155. . Message framing and pap test utilization among women attending a community health clinic. J Health Psychol. 2005;10(1):65–77. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science156. . Persuading physicians to test their patients’ level of kidney functioning: the effects of message frame and point of view. Health Commun. 2010;25(2):107–18. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science157. The effects of message framing and ethnic targeting on mammography use among low-income women. Health Psychol. 2001;20(4):256–66. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science158. . Need for cognition and choice framing effects. J Mak. 1996;9(4):283–90. CrossrefWeb of Science159. Van ‘t,. Self-efficacy moderates message-framing effects: the case of skin-cancer detection. Psychol Health. 2010;25(3):339–49. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science160. Van ‘t. Preaching to the choir? [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is largely a list of citations and brief descriptions of studies related to health communication and decision-making in various contexts. While the claim discusses the influence of cognitive biases on decision-making, the text does not provide any direct evidence or discussion regarding cognitive biases themselves. Therefore, it is considered irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Invasive species can disrupt local ecosystems and wildlife. [SEP] Text: , Reference Smith, Pullin, Stewart and Sutherland2010), whereas mainland control is less likely to have long-term effects if effort is not maintained. Projects that are expected to sustain action for prolonged periods of time are most effective when participatory and self-mobilized (Evely, Reference Evely2010), an approach that this study and others (e. g. Bryce et al. , and Lambin2011) would encourage. This small study suggests that the level of community involvement that could be developed on the west coast of Scotland has the potential to control mink to a level that could provide local protection to seabird colonies. Many bird populations are able to withstand egg predation by native predators (Coté & Sutherland, Reference Coté and Sutherland1997) and so it may not be necessary to strive for complete eradication of the invasive species for breeding bird populations to be maintained. Because of the uneven distribution of ecotourism boat operators on the west coast of Scotland the effort allocated to mink control could be equally patchy. However, the principles and methods applied in this study should be adaptable to other sectors of the community who may be directly and indirectly affected by mink presence, e. g. fish farm operators, sea kayak outfitters or amateurs, and land-based tour companies, and hence a wider coverage could be achieved. In reality it may be difficult to initiate a self-funded, self-propelled project such as this and therefore we recommend that there is some level of coordination; e. g. by local wildlife groups, community champions or other volunteers. The coordinator could also play a vital role in relaying information between volunteers and researchers monitoring the success of the control efforts. There is often a time lag between implementation of a project and delivery of results but interim results may aid volunteer motivation. By demonstrating success in other comparable projects and emphasizing local and regional benefits, such as the 73% increase in black guillemot Cephus grylle numbers following mink control on an island visited by tour operators (Sanda island, Argyll, 1997–1999; Jardine, Reference Jardine, ap Rheinallt, Craik, Daw, Furness, Petty and Wood2007), it is likely that the number of volunteers would spread outward from a core group. The opportunities to apply these methods to other invasive species management projects are plentiful. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the management of an invasive species, specifically mink, and its implications for local wildlife, such as seabird colonies. It emphasizes that controlling the mink population has the potential to provide local protection for seabird populations, indicating that invasive species, like mink, can indeed disrupt local ecosystems. Furthermore, the text mentions the positive outcome of previous control efforts, such as the increase in black guillemot numbers following mink control, supporting the claim that invasive species can negatively impact local wildlife.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: A vegan diet is automatically healthier than other diets. [SEP] Text: It was characterised as a ‘Convenience’ pattern because the diet centred on vegan convenience meals and snacks, vegan sweets and desserts, sauces, condiments and fats. Similarly, the cluster analysis had two clusters focusing on processed vegan products such as convenience meals and snacks, sauces, condiments, desserts and processed meat alternatives. The association between these processed products is noteworthy considering the growth of veganism and the rapid rise in the production of vegan products(3,and Fuentes48). A convenience pattern suggests that some respondents are using a range of processed vegan products, therefore not solely using natural ingredients to prepare meals. Similar findings were reported in vegetarians who use unhealthy convenience products(Reference Jaacks, Kapoor and Singh49). The second component of factor analysis, represented vegans cooking from scratch and creating their own recipes whilst opting for natural protein sources such as soya and pulses over processed protein alternatives thus, component 2 could be described as the ‘Health Conscious’ dietary pattern. The current research demonstrates that vegans report cooking from scratch regularly irrespective of how long they have been vegan. Vegans of all age brackets report to ‘cook from scratch’ twice per week or more. It remains unknown what they are using to cook from scratch. This is important considering the most common dietary pattern was that of a convenience style pattern. To meaningfully address what vegans are cooking with, it will be necessary to refine the definition of ‘cooking from scratch’ in future questionnaires. Alternatively, the use of food diaries could further validate the findings of the FFQ. It is clear that the health-conscious group is cooking from scratch as well as eating more protein alternatives such as nuts, soya and legumes rather than ultra-processed alternatives such as meat-free burgers or bacon. The cluster analysis supported this recognising that some vegans (51 %) were consuming high intakes of fruit, vegetables and non-processed meat alternatives. Despite this healthy focus, there are still potential health issues as the cluster analysis also revealed these vegan diets had low intakes of dairy alternatives. It is unclear if this group was considering their micronutrient levels and taking nutritional supplements in place of dairy alternatives. In this study, not everyone was supplementing with vitamin B12 which is found mainly in animal products. To explain this, it is possible that individuals focused more on diet, to obtain specific nutrients from food, rather than using supplements. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by outlining that while some vegans may cook from scratch and choose healthier options, a significant portion also relies on processed vegan products, which can be unhealthy. It highlights that the predominant dietary pattern among some vegans is convenience-focused, involving processed meals and snacks, which raises questions about the overall healthiness of such diets. Moreover, it notes potential nutritional deficiencies, such as low dairy intake and insufficient vitamin B12 supplementation, which suggests that a vegan diet may not be automatically healthier without careful dietary choices.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases influence decision-making and perception. [SEP] Text: Age differences in treatment decision making for breast cancer in a sample of healthy women: the effects of body image and risk framing. Forum. 2005;32(4):799–806. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science172. . What do I have to lose? Effects of a psycho-educational intervention on cancer patient preference for resuscitation. J Behav Med. 2007;30(6):533–44. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science173. . Effects of outcome framing on treatment decisions in the real world: impact of framing on adjuvant breast cancer decisions. Making. 1989;9(4):262–71. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science174. Van den. Elective single-embryo transfer: persuasive communication strategies can affect choice in a young British population. Online. 2011;23(7):838–50. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science175. Welkenhuysen M, Evers-Kiebooms G, d’Ydewalle G. The language of uncertainty in genetic risk communication: framing and verbal versus numerical information. Couns. 2001;43(2):179–87. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science176. Witting M, Boere-. Predicting participation in ultrasound hip screening from message framing. Health Commun. 2012;27(2):186–93. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science177. . Framing of outcome and probability of recurrence: breast cancer patients’ choice of adjuvant chemotherapy (ACT) in hypothetical patient scenarios. Res Treat. 2000;60(1):9–14. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science178. . Omission and commission in judgment and choice. J Psychol. 1991;27(1):76–105. CrossrefWeb of Science179. . Omission bias and decision making in pulmonary and critical care medicine. Chest. 2005;128(3):1497–505. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science180. Omission bias and pertussis vaccination. Making. 1994;14(2):118–23. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science181. Omission bias and vaccine rejection by parents of healthy children: implications for the influenza A/H1N1 vaccination programme. Vaccine. 2010;28(25):4181–5. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science182. . How do physicians weigh iatrogenic complications? [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text consists of a list of academic references focusing on various topics related to decision-making in medical contexts, such as treatment decisions for breast cancer and the communication of genetic risk. It does not specifically address cognitive biases or their direct influence on decision-making and perception. Thus, it is largely irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Invasive species can disrupt local ecosystems and wildlife. [SEP] Text: AbstractBounties and rebranding are an increasingly popular tool to control or eliminate invasive species that have consumptive values. However, there is concern that such policies will undermine eradication efforts and may exacerbate the spread of these species. We develop and apply an optimal dynamic harvesting model to identify policies that correct market failures associated with commercially valuable invasive species. Competing market failures imply that welfare-enhancing policies may either encourage or discourage harvesting of the invasive species. A species’ dual role as both a pest and commodity creates a nonconvexity that alters incentives to eradicate or exacerbate an invasion. We apply the model to the invasion of silver carp in the to show that many current carp subsidies are too low and identify a threshold level of rebranding effectiveness necessary to make rebranding a cost-effective policy choice compared to harvest subsidies. This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access. Access this 34. 9910 units per month Download 39. 95 Price excludes VAT (USA) Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout. Instant access to the full 2. 2, lower the level harvested by private market agents, and increase the total stock of the invasive species. Like much of the invasive species literature, we do not consider the cost of implementing a subsidy program. These costs will likely depend on factors for which little data exists such as the operating costs of the regulatory agency and the number of managers needed to verify subsidy payments. Large program implementation costs may be another argument in favor of rebranding. For clarity, we formulate the policy addition based on the manager’s initial tabulation of the net benefits (damages, rents, etc) for the species. Unknown development of damages, commercial values, etc in the future are excluded. We also address this concern through the development and numeric solution of a spatial-dynamic model with two habitat regions – one invaded and one uninvaded. We fail to find evidence of socially optimal introductions in our silver carp example. Due to the length of the paper, we include these findings in 0. 05 per pound harvest subsidy currently offered in several states. Similar to our aspatial model, these inefficiently low subsidies do not incentivize introductions in either region. 10. 13140/RG. 2. 1. 3087. 7921(1989) Invasions. & Business Media, Berlin 1518. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by addressing the negative impacts of invasive species on ecosystems. Specifically, it mentions how policies aimed at controlling or eliminating invasive species must consider the dual roles of these species as both pests and commodities, which can alter the incentives for their eradication. This demonstrates an understanding that invasive species, such as the silver carp discussed in the text, can affect local ecosystems by complicating the management and control efforts due to their value in commercial markets.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: A vegan diet is automatically healthier than other diets. [SEP] Text: However, considering the vegan dietary patterns revealed in this study, another possible explanation could be that some vegans are not focusing on the nutritional quality of their diet. By way of illustration, less than half of the vegans in this study irrespective of motivation for veganism were supplementing their diet with key micronutrients such as iodine, Fe, Ca, Zn, Se and n-3. This suggests some vegan dietary patterns are not conducive to achieving recommended nutritional requirements. This is a particularly important question due to the vegan diet emerging as one of the most popular diet searches according to google trend(Reference Kamiński, Skonieczna-Żydecka and Nowak4). Fig. 2 Dendrogram of dietary patterns derived from cluster analysis The third component of factor analysis constituted alcohol, vegan takeaways and salt. This component was comparable to an ‘unhealthy’ ‘takeaway’ dietary pattern that comprises processed meat alternatives that can still be high in salt. In this study, 36 % of respondents were aged 18–24 years limiting the generalisability of the patterns but perhaps this pattern could be related to student lifestyles. Although the respondents were not asked if they were students, previous studies have reported that students often have poor diets and binge drink alcohol, increasing their risk of disease(Reference Bennasar-Veny, Yañez and Pericas50,Reference Hultgren, Turrisi and Cleveland51). The fourth component of factor analysis identified a ‘traditional’ vegan dietary pattern accounting for 7 % of total variance. Contrary to expectations, this pattern had the lowest variance in comparison with the other three. This pattern is in line with the typical vegan definition. Society highlights that vegans follow strictly plant-based diets which exclude all animal products(10). Yet, the small variance reflected from this pattern suggests that with the rise in vegan products, fewer vegans are following traditional vegan approaches, potentially compromising the nutritional quality of their diet. Espinosa-Marrón et al. (Reference Espinosa-Marrón, Nuñez-Issac and Villaseñor-Espinosa52) support this concept by acknowledging changes in eating habits, and food availability will affect the dietary choices that vegans make. The vegan food industry A growing appetite for vegan foods has now gained the attention of the food industry. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing how some vegans may not focus on the nutritional quality of their diet, leading to potential deficiencies in essential micronutrients. It points out that less than half of the vegans in the study supplement their diets with necessary nutrients like iodine and iron. Additionally, it highlights that certain vegan dietary patterns, such as those comprised of processed meat alternatives, may be unhealthy due to high salt content. This suggests that a vegan diet is not inherently healthier, as the quality and choices within the diet can greatly affect overall health.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases influence decision-making and perception. [SEP] Text: The impact of information order on intentions to undergo predictive genetic testing: an experimental study. J Health Psychol. 2010;15(7):1082–92. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science208. . Presenting risks and benefits to patients. J Med. 2002;17(8):612–7. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science209. Einhorn HJ. Learning from experience and suboptimal rules in decision making. In: eds. Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases. New York: Press; 1982. p 268–86. Crossref210. . Risk as feelings in the effect of patient outcomes on physicians’ future treatment decisions: a randomized trial and manipulation validation. Med. 2012;75(2):367–76. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science211. Mazzocco K, Cherubini P. The effect of outcome information on health professionals’ spontaneous learning. Med Educ. 2010;44(10):962–8. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science212. . What influences participants’ treatment preference and can it influence outcome? Results from a primary care-based randomised trial for shoulder pain. Gen Pract. 2004;54(499):93–6. PubMedWeb of Science213. . Absolutely relative: how research results are summarized can affect treatment decisions. Med. 1992;92(2):121–4. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science214. Bhandari M, Tornetta P. Communicating the risks of surgery to patients. Trauma. 2004;30(3). Crossref215. . Completeness of reporting trial results: effect on physicians’ willingness to prescribe. Lancet. 1994;343(8907):1209–11. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science216. . Influence of method of reporting study results on decision of physicians to prescribe drugs to lower cholesterol concentration. BMJ. 1994;309(6957):761–4. CrossrefPubMed217. How should the impact of different presentations of treatment effects on patient choice be evaluated? A pilot randomized trial. PLoS One. 2008;3(11):e3693. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science218. The effect of alternative summary statistics for communicating risk reduction on decisions about taking statins: a randomized trial. PLoS Med. 2009;6(8):e1000134. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text lists several studies and references related to decision-making and treatment preferences in medical contexts, but it does not directly address or provide evidence about cognitive biases. Instead, it focuses on the impact of information presentation and reporting methods on decisions made in healthcare settings. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim regarding cognitive biases.