Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Mindfulness practices can reduce stress and improve focus. [SEP] Text: These exams were chosen because they included all written exams in the time frame of our study that were summative assessments and covered natural sciences. Fig. 1Study design. The flow chart indicates the time points of the study (T1-T3), the actions taken and the numbers of students participating at each stageFull size imageParticipant recruitmentDuring a compulsory course in their first preclinical year, a complete academic year at the was informed about the study and invited to participate. Participation was voluntary and required a written consent to the monitoring of perceived stress, and Awareness, academic achievements as well as an information on age and gender. At the same time, the students were given notice about a voluntary course during the upcoming term that would cover formal techniques of mindfulness. The study was approved by the ethics committee of the medical faculty of the University of Rostock and is registered under A 2019–0003. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants and all methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations. MBSRThe intervention teaching formal techniques of MBSR included 6 two-hours courses. The curriculum was based on the original Mindfulness-Reduction developed by Kabat-Zinn, but was adapted to fit our voluntary course. A peer-assisted-learning approach was used whereby the peer was a student two years senior to the class. She had been trained during an 8-weeks MBSR course given by a certified MBSR trainer of ten years. The first two hours started with an introduction into mindfulness, followed by an exercise of mindful breathing. Thereafter, the students were invited to share and reflect their experiences, such as thoughts, feelings and judgments and give a feedback. Also in the first session, groups of 2–3 students each were assigned publications on mindfulness which were to be presented during the remaining sessions. At the end of these first two hours, mindful breathing was once again practiced and additional homework was assigned which included practicing the formal methods of mindfulness at home and being more mindful during everyday activities. The following courses covered sitting meditation, body-scan, eating mindfully and gentle yoga respectively, and had comparable structures: they started with exercises followed by discussion on experiences of the participants with their homework of practicing mindfulness, presentations of the assigned publications and again practicing mindfulness. Outcome measuresWe assessed perceived stress and mindfulness attention and awareness as mental health outcome measures using validated tools. Academic achievements were assessed by collecting exam results. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by describing a study that includes a course on mindfulness, specifically mentioning that students were involved in practicing formal techniques of mindfulness. The study assessed 'perceived stress and mindfulness attention and awareness as mental health outcome measures using validated tools', indicating a direct link between mindfulness practices and their potential effects on stress reduction and focus improvement.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Cryptocurrencies are immune to all forms of hacking. [SEP] Text: Therefore, unlike fiat money and unlike gold, as the price of Bitcoin rises, it becomes more difficult to attack the network (Bitcoin’s equivalent of counterfeiting). To summarize this point, the high mining cost is not a waste—it is a security investment. 22. Scarcity and value Another misconception about the origin of the value of Bitcoin is that unlike fiat money, which is created “out of thin air,” the number of Bitcoins is fixed and cannot be changed, and this inherent scarcity is the source of its value. First, as was explained above, Bitcoin is also inflationary. In fact, the important characteristic of the decentralized crypto coins is not that coins cannot be created “out of thin air,” but that their creation is fully determined by the well-known protocol and cannot be manipulated by a central entity (i. e. , governments). Therefore, the users can take account of the inflation parameters into their future financial contracts. This property of cryptocurrencies is a clear advantage they have over fiat currencies. In fact, this is a major advantage even over commodities backed currencies, such as gold, since the future mining rate of gold is unknown, while cryptocurrencies are created in a predetermined manner. Second, scarcity, by itself, cannot be the source of value. Using Bohm-Bawerk example, the fact that a certain mud pie cannot be reproduced is, in itself, an insufficient demand to make it valuable. Scarcity is a necessary but insufficient condition for value creation. 23. The regression theorem and the origin of value It was who formulated in 1903 the vicious circle of money [32]. The marginal value theory of Menger, the forefather of the Austrians school, can explain why a handful of diamond worth considerably more than the buckets of water, despite the fact that water is clearly more essential to human existence than diamonds are [33]; however, it could not explain why a seemingly worthless object like pieces of papers can have a high value. In other words, it cannot explain why people would be willing to exchange them with commodities, which have a clear intrinsic value. It was clear that if people, for some reason, attribute value to money, then it would be a logical behavior for the individual to attribute value for money, even if he does not find it useful to himself. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the increased difficulty of attacking the Bitcoin network as its price rises, which implies some level of vulnerability. It mentions the high mining cost as a security investment but does not support the assertion that cryptocurrencies are immune to hacking. Furthermore, the reference to Bitcoin's fixed supply and the nature of its creation emphasizes the security aspects but does not denote immunity to hacking, suggesting a misunderstanding of its vulnerabilities.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Circadian rhythms are regulated by light-sensitive proteins. [SEP] Text: Both classic and recent research has shown that social interaction can be a significant zeitgeber [17,29,31,32]. Particular procedures used in the present study might have facilitated non-photic entrainment. For example, during the baseline week, volunteers in the present study were asked to maintain their usual sleep-wake and daily routines. These routines were often quite erratic, which might have rendered the circadian system more sensitive to the fixed high amplitude rest/activity schedule in the laboratory. In other studies, subjects have been required to maintain more rigid baseline sleep-wake schedules prior to experimental treatment [27,28]. The degree of social interaction between the volunteers and staff in the present study was greater than that which was permitted in many other studies. Laboratory social interaction was designed both to provide comfort and to help monitor the volunteers for safety. Social interaction may have significant independent zeitgeber effects, and can act synergistically with light exposure. Clinically, it is relevant to examine light effects in the presence of social interaction. The equivalent reduction in depression following each treatment did not support the prediction of greater antidepressant effects with bright light. Possibly the influence of light could be attenuated by the kind care the volunteers received in the laboratory, the social interactions, and placebo effects. Moreover, the light treatment was for fewer days than that employed in the majority of clinical trials of bright light treatment [24], so an insufficient duration might explain the lack of significant effect. An insufficient duration or intensity of light treatment might also explain the failure to observe photoperiodic effects on the duration of aMT6s excretion. Another unexpected finding was the significant increase in circadian malsynchronization following the bright light treatments. Phase dispersion also showed a non-significant increase. The phase-response plots indicated that the treatments resulted in "over-corrections" of circadian phase. Volunteers with the most advanced body clocks in reference to sleep at baseline (whose light treatment was therefore centered more than 12 hours after the aMT6s acrophase) demonstrated large phase delays as shown in Figure 4. Conversely, those most delayed in reference to sleep at baseline experienced large phase advances. The corrections were often greater than the amounts of initial phase abnormality, contrary to hypothesis. Also, reductions in circadian malsynchronization or phase dispersion (phase correction) were not correlated with improvements in sleep and mood. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the effects of social interaction as a zeitgeber and mentions various findings regarding light treatment and its impact on circadian rhythms. However, it does not specifically address the regulation of circadian rhythms by light-sensitive proteins.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Mindfulness practices can reduce stress and improve focus. [SEP] Text: Perceived stress (PSS-10)Perceived stress was assessed using the German version of the perceived stress scale (PSS-10) provided by Klein [23]. The PSS-10 comprises 10 items which are rated on an endpoint-named scale ranging from 0 (`never´) to 4 (`very often´) and investigates how often participants experienced certain events of perceived helplessness or self-efficacy, which are the two dimensions of the PSS. Mindfulness (MAAS)Mindfulness was assessed using the German version of the (MAAS) [24]. The MAAS comprises 15 items which are rated on an endpoint-named scale ranging from 1 (`almost always´) to 6 (`hardly ever´) and determines how often everyday activities are accomplished without being aware of doing so. Higher results therefore indicate greater mindfulness. Both questionnaires were compiled online using EvaSys and were sent as one survey to the students by email. Academic achievementsThe following exam results were collected: anatomy 1, biology and chemistry at T1, anatomy 2 at T2 and physiology and biochemistry at T3. Data analysisAll data were tested for Gaussian distribution using the Shapiro-Wilk-test. Correlation analyses were performed via Pearson for data following Gaussian distribution and via Spearman for data not following Gaussian distribution (Fig. 2). Comparisons between intervention and control groups were performed via t-test for data following Gaussian distribution and via Mann-test for data not following Gaussian distribution (Fig. 3). For pairwise comparisons, paired t-tests or Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks-tests were performed, depending on whether data did or did not follow Gaussian distribution, respectively (Fig. 4). For comparisons of female/male ratios, we performed Fisher’s exact tests. Statistical analyses were carried out using statistics, version 25. Fig. 2Mindfulness and perceived stress were inversely correlated. Correlations were calculated via Pearson (T1) or analyses (T3). (A) (r) = − 0. 4594, (r) = − 0. 4594, the 95% confidence interval = − 0. 5831 to − 0. 3149, two-tailed P value is < 0. 0001. (B) r = − 0. 5300, the 95% confidence interval = − 0. 6552 to − 0. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by mentioning that 'Mindfulness and perceived stress were inversely correlated.' This suggests that as mindfulness increases, perceived stress decreases, supporting the idea that mindfulness practices can effectively reduce stress.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Cryptocurrencies are immune to all forms of hacking. [SEP] Text: However, how did money gain its value in the first place, or, in others word, it is a vicious circle to say that people want money simply because people want money [32]. Mises, apparently, solved this conundrum. He said that people want money today because they anticipate that other people would want it tomorrow since they wanted it yesterday, that is, money has value today because it has value yesterday. By introducing time schedule into the description of the process, Mises circumvented the vicious circle. But he did it with a cost. This logic leads to the unavoidable conclusion that any money had, prior to its use as a medium of exchange, an intrinsic value [34]. Thus, there is an argument that Bitcoin cannot be money since it never had an intrinsic value, that is, while the US fiat dollar is valuable today since it was based on the original value of the gold dollar, which was based for millennia on the currency value of gold, which was based somewhere in the past on the commodity value of gold, they claim that Bitcoin does not have such a chain of events. One cannot find any intrinsic value in the Bitcoin genesis. While gold has an extensive commodity use in its premonetary era, Bitcoin, according to them, had no nonmonetary history and therefore cannot evolve into money. This claim has several flaws. First, they turn Mises’ argument on its head—Mises used his argument to explain how apparently worthless object can be used as a medium of exchange. Bitcoin is already a medium of exchange, which means that there are only two options, either Mises argument is erroneous or that they are missing something about Bitcoin. In fact, Mises was not entirely accurate and Bitcoin does have a nonmonetary value. I would like to harness a physical analogy to explain this point—the laser. When a laser is connected to a power supply, it emits coherent light almost instantaneously. Nowadays, lasers are very common and there is nothing special about this; however, a laser is not a light bulb, the origin of light in a laser can be regarded as a similar mystery. A laser consists of two basic elements: a light amplifier and a resonator, which is actually a feedback mechanism. Hence, a laser is a giant amplifying machine. Using the feedback, the laser keeps on amplifying the light. But wait! Where did the light originally come from? [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the intrinsic value of Bitcoin and suggests that Bitcoin has flaws, implying that it is not as secure or immune as claimed. The mention that Bitcoin lacks an intrinsic value means it could be vulnerable to hacks or lack of trust compared to traditional currencies that have historical value. Thus, the text challenges the notion that cryptocurrencies, specifically Bitcoin, are immune to all forms of hacking.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Circadian rhythms are regulated by light-sensitive proteins. [SEP] Text: Sleep duration, illumination, and activity patterns in a population sample: effects of gender and ethnicity 47: 921–927, [PubMed] DOI: and Houck, PR (1997). Differences over the life span in daily life-style regularity 14: 295–306. and Brainard, GC (1993). Pupil size regulation of threshold of light-induced melatonin suppression J Metab 77: 1398–1401, [PubMed] DOI: and Rollag, MD (1994). Moller M, ed. Ocular mechanisms that regulate the human pineal gland. London: & Company Ltd, 432. Swaab, DF, Fliers, E and Partiman, TS (1985). The suprachiasmatic nucleus of the human brain in relation to sex, age and senile dementia 342: 37–44, [PubMed] DOI: and Turek, FW (1996). Effects of aging on light-induced phase-shifting of circadian behavioral rhythms, Fos expression and CREB phosphorylation in the hamster suprachiasmatic nucleus Neurosci 70: 951–961, DOI: -J and Czeisler, CA (2001). Circadian phase resetting in older people by ocular bright light exposure J 49: 30–40. Eastman, CI and Martin, SK (1999). How to use light and dark to produce circadian adaptation to night shift work 31: 87–98. [PubMed] and Czeisler, CA (2001). Efficacy of bright light and sleep/darkness scheduling in alleviating circadian maladaptation to night work Metab 281: E384–E391. [PubMed] and Rex, KM (2002). Exercise phase-response curves in young and older adults : 110. 'Hermite-Baleriaux, M, Turek, FW and Van Cauter, E (2003). Exercise elicits phase shifts and acute alterations of melatonin that vary with circadian phase 284: R714–R724. and Honma, S (2003). Period and phase adjustments of human circadian rhythms in the real world J 18: 261–270, [PubMed] DOI: Wehr, TA (2001). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text primarily consists of references and citations related to circadian rhythms without directly addressing the claim about light-sensitive proteins regulating these rhythms. Therefore, it is irrelevant as it does not corroborate or contrast the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Mindfulness practices can reduce stress and improve focus. [SEP] Text: 3764, the two tailed P value is < 0. 0001. Each dot represents one individualFull size imageFig. 3The improvement of academic achievements following an intervention on MBSR was transient. The boxplots show exam scores of intervention and control cohorts monitored at T2 and T3. Mann-Whitney-U tests (A) and t-tests (B) were performed to explore statistically significant differencesFull size imageFig. 4The intervention on MBSR exerted a sustained beneficial effect on mindfulness and perceived stress in medical students. The boxplots compare perceived stress (A) and mindfulness (B) in the first (white box) and third (black box) term between intervention and control cohorts The boxes represent medians as well as upper and lower quartiles. The whiskers show 90th and 10th percentiles. P-values result from *Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks and #unpaired t-tests, respectivelyFull size imageFor assessments of reliability and validity, all PSS-10 and MAAS questionnaires returned were included. To assess the reliability, Cronbach’s alphas were calculated. To assess validity, we performed confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) using a two-dimension model for the PSS and a one-dimension model for MAAS in R. The incremental fit was described calculating the comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker-(TLI) and the Chi-square, respectively. For absolute measure of fit, the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) was calculated. ResultsStudy cohortOut of the whole year of 219 students, 143 declared their written consent to participate in the study and 136 of these completed the first survey on perceived stress and mindfulness at T1. 41 students volunteered to take the course on mindfulness based stress reduction (MBSR) in the second term (T2). Even though the proportions of females among the students who completed the first survey and the rest of the academic year (those who opted out or had no interest in the study) were significantly different, the MBSR intervention and control cohorts were comparable (Table 1). Of the 136 students who returned the first, 112 students also completed the second survey on perceived stress and mindfulness at T3. Varying numbers of students who sat the upcoming exams resulted from the possibility to postpone exams, even though this implied the risk of delaying academic progress. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by stating that an intervention on mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) had a 'sustained beneficial effect on mindfulness and perceived stress' in medical students. This suggests that mindfulness practices can indeed reduce stress, aligning with the claim. While the text does not explicitly mention the improvement of focus, the connection between reduced stress and improved focus is a well-documented concept, further supporting the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Cryptocurrencies are immune to all forms of hacking. [SEP] Text: Bitcoin is not the only thing that can be sent via the blockchain, in fact, almost any kind of information can be sent via the transactions, and this is an irreversible process, since any such information will remain in the blockchain for eternity, and everyone in the network will have an access to this information. Bitcoins are the cost of perpetuating the information. In other words, Bitcoins can be regarded as the “real estate” of the blockchain. The more Bitcoins a person has, the more information he can send on the blockchain. There are all kinds of data encapsulated on the blockchain: poems, prays, political statements, commercials, and even photos [36]. In fact, it is amazing how many kinds of information can be found there. It is not difficult to find many applications for this kind of information retention. One of the special applications is the announcement of contracts. Such contracts will be confirmed by the blockchain. Or another important application is a decentralized registrar of real estate (or any other type of property). With the Bitcoin network, one can announce ownership of objects, the information will be available instantaneously, and since it is not centralized, then there is no fear of losing this information. The important thing is to realize that there is no direct connection between this information and the value of Bitcoin. The relation is indirect. The value of these announcements is directly related to the number of nodes in the network. The more people are connected to the Bitcoin network, the more valuable this information is. Therefore, if the network is large enough, then people will like to use it by sending and announcing information. However, it is clear that when the network grows, sending information becomes more valuable, and therefore the value of the network’s coin, which controls it, increases as well. The more coins a person owns, the more he controls the network. Again we see that owning Bitcoin is like owning real estate on the blockchain. Clearly, at its inception, when the Bitcoin network was small, the value of publishing data over it was low, but then the Bitcoin’s value was accordingly small. In fact, in its genesis, the Bitcoin’s value could have been only the subjective value of the first few geeks, who mined it (including Satoshi himself). When the network grows, the Bitcoin value increases exponentially, just like the laser power. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting the nature of Bitcoin and the blockchain, indicating that while information can be securely stored and access is distributed, it doesn't imply immunity to hacking. The description of the network's growth and its value doesn't address the claim of immunity to hacking, suggesting that cryptocurrencies, including Bitcoin, may still be vulnerable to security breaches despite their decentralized nature.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Circadian rhythms are regulated by light-sensitive proteins. [SEP] Text: Analysis of the Rw and Tb rhythms were performed on a 7-day segment of the data (i. e. , from day 53 to day 60) using the software (Actimetrics, Evanston, IL). All the experiments reported here conformed to the guidelines outlined in the Guide for the Care and Use of from the U. S. Department of Health and and were approved by the of. of twenty-two animals, twenty-one showed circadian rhythms in Rw and Tb for the entire duration of the experiment, whereas one rat became arrhythmic after 30 days of exposure to LLdim (see Figure 1 and Table 1). No desynchronization between the circadian rhythm of Rw and Tb and no significant changes in the τ of Rw and Tb rhythms were detected during the 60 day period (t-tests, P > 0. 1 in all cases, Figure 1). Figure 1 Representative actograms of Rw, Tb and serum melatonin profile. A, B, C: a synchronized animal (rat # 1 in Table 1); D, E. F: an animal with a damped melatonin rhythm (rat # 5 in Table 1); G, H, I: a desynchronized animal (rat # 21 in Table 1). and E show only the last 40 days of the experiment. Table 1 Circadian parameters for Rw and Tb(mean ± SEM) and serum melatonin for each animal tested. Animals in which the circadian rhythm of serum melatonin was desynchronized from Rw and Tb, are indicated in bold. Animals in which the serum melatonin rhythm was damped are indicated in italic. (Amp. = amplitude). τMesorAmp. τRangePeakRat # 10. 6 ± 0. 219. 3 ± 3. 125. 437. 2 ± 0. 12. 1 ± 0. 225. 426–559. 16Rat # 20. 7 ± 0. 119. 3 ± 3. 125. 136. 8 ± 0. 11. 8 ± 0. 225. 012–1224Rat # 30. 1 ± 0. 15. 6 ± 1. 224. 637. 0 ± 0. 11. 9 ± 0. 224. 610–1464Rat # 4NSNS12–544NARat # 56. 6 ± 1. 945. 6 ± 2. 125. 137. 6 ± 0. 12. 8 ± 0. 225. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim regarding the regulation of circadian rhythms by light-sensitive proteins. It discusses an experiment related to circadian rhythms of activity and body temperature in rats, but does not mention light-sensitive proteins or their role in regulating these rhythms.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Mindfulness practices can reduce stress and improve focus. [SEP] Text: Figure 1 summarizes the study design and the numbers of students assessed at each time point. Table 1 Demographics of intervention and control cohortFull size tableConfirmation of reliability and validity of the questionnairesThe reliability and validity of the perceived stress (PSS-10) and and Awareness (MAAS) Scales were confirmed by using all data sates that were returned to us (T1: n = 139, T3: n = 148). Internal consistencies were assessed by calculating Cronbach’s alpha for both scales (PSS and MAAS) and both time points. The resulting values ranged between 0. 851 and 0. 914 and thus proved reliable. Validities were confirmed via confirmatory factor analyses and the results also showed a good fit (additional Table 1[see additional file 1]). Further descriptive statistics for the questionnaires are provided in the additional Tables 2–5 [see additional file 1]. Mindfulness and perceived stress were inversely correlatedOur longitudinal analysis of medical students over their first and third term revealed, that elevated mindfulness was paralleled by a reduction of perceived stress and vice versa. Spearman rank correlation analyses performed for our study cohort revealed statistically significant correlations with coefficients of r = − 0. 4594 at T1 (95% CI = − 0. 5831 to − 0. 3149, p < 0. 0001) and r = − 0. 5300 at T3 (95% CI = − 0. 6552 to − 0. 3764, p < 0. 0001) (Fig. 2). Neither mindfulness nor perceived stress correlated with academic achievements in the first year at medical schoolWe here assessed whether mindfulness or perceived stress were associated with exam results in first year medical students and therefore correlated the exam scores achieved at T1 with the scores obtained from the simultaneously assessed stress and mindfulness scales, respectively. While there were no correlations between mindfulness and exam scores, there was a negligible correlation between perceived stress and the results from the biology exam that yielded in a correlation coefficient of 0. 177 and a p-value of 0. 0456. The improvement of academic achievements following an intervention on MBSR was transientIn order to analyze whether our intervention teaching formal techniques of MBSR impacted positively on the academic performance, we compared exam results between intervention and control cohorts. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by stating that 'our longitudinal analysis of medical students... revealed, that elevated mindfulness was paralleled by a reduction of perceived stress.' This indicates a direct relationship between increased mindfulness and reduced stress levels, supporting the idea that mindfulness practices can indeed alleviate stress.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Cryptocurrencies are immune to all forms of hacking. [SEP] Text: Nowadays, the fees of sending information over the blockchain are quite high, and therefore people seldom use the blockchain for broadcasting information. As a consequence, they tend to forget that the Bitcoin network has a clear nonmonetary use, and therefore it has a subjective use value. In any case, the fact that Bitcoin has a nonzero value does not and cannot contradict Mises’ regression theorem. 24. has many enemies, and, as a consequence, there are many arguments, which allegedly explains, why Bitcoin should be worthless or should be banned. The truth is that Bitcoin is extremely valuable and is here to stay because it cannot be banned. On the other hand, Bitcoin has many advocates, which use inaccurate arguments to justify the origin of its value. The fact that these arguments were presented by renowned economists shows us that our understanding about the origin of money did not change much during the last century. The mysterious gave us the opportunity to revive these century-old conundrums. The main conclusions are:Bitcoin is not a scheme; it is a great monetary invention, which has a clear economic value. It cannot and should not be banned by governments. In fact, any government’s manipulation and regulation emphasize and increase the need for cryptocurrencies. Criminals are not the only ones who see the benefits in using cryptocurrencies. In the third world (e. g. , Venezuela and Zimbabwe), cryptos are lifesavers. In general, cryptos are extremely valuable wherever censorship resistance is required, and in a global market economy, that fact creates value for everyone. Bitcoin does suffer from infancy problems (high volatility and high transaction costs); however, these issues are not fundamental and will be resolved eventually (we already see many signs for that). The fact that the crypto market exceeded 800B$, despite these issues, only emphasizes the need of the markets in them. The energy which is spent in crypto mining is not a wasted energy. It is the source of the network’s security which increases the trust in the system, and in a market economy trust is a very valuable commodity. The easiness in the creation of new coins is not equivalent to fiat money inflation. Fiat inflation is a counterfeiting process, while the creation of new cryptos is equivalent to the creation of a new invention, which may be better, but it has to surmount the former coins’ network effect. Bitcoin does not contradict any economical law. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the issues and challenges faced by Bitcoin, such as high transaction costs and volatility, which imply that there are vulnerabilities within the system. While the text highlights Bitcoin's value and resilience, it does not support the notion that cryptocurrencies are immune to hacking; rather, it suggests that the system has weaknesses that could be exploited.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Circadian rhythms are regulated by light-sensitive proteins. [SEP] Text: 2105–20416Rat # 62. 6 ± 0. 739. 7 ± 5. 024. 337. 5 ± 0. 21. 9 ± 0. 224. 338–30616Rat # 73. 4 ± 1. 130. 8 ± 3. 124. 436. 9 ± 0. 21. 7 ± 0. 124. 4109–20420Rat # 80. 4 ± 0. 18. 3 ± 3. 425. 038. 5 ± 0. 12. 1 ± 0. 425. 132–20620Rat # 93. 3 ± 0. 848. 8 ± 7. 725. 337. 3 ± 0. 12. 3 ± 0. 225. 2138–18820Rat # 100. 5 ± 0. 112. 2 ± 2. 024. 336. 8 ± 0. 11. 8 ± 0. 124. 4108–3584Rat # 116. 0 ± 1. 353. 5 ± 5. 225. 137. 6 ± 0. 22. 4 ± 0. 425. 1128–5720Rat # 121. 3 ± 0. 223. 5 ± 6. 125. 237. 4 ± 0. 11. 8 ± 0. 225. 2158–35416Rat # 130. 4 ± 0. 18. 9 ± 1. 125. 137. 1 ± 0. 11. 6 ± 0. 225. 197–70720Rat # 140. 7 ± 0. 115. 6 ± 1. 325. 237. 3 ± 0. 12. 1 ± 0. 225. 1144–23820Rat # 150. 9 ± 0. 215. 1 ± 1. 424. 637. 5 ± 0. 12. 1 ± 0. 224. 5118–5668Rat # 161. 2 ± 0. 324. 7 ± 4. 025. 137. 6 ± 0. 12. 3 ± 0. 625. 2155–27816Rat # 170. 6 ± 0. 114. 8 ± 3. 124. 337. 2 ± 0. 11. 5 ± 0. 324. 226–1138Rat # 181. 1 ± 0. 615. 9 ± 2. 825. 037. 4 ± 0. 12. 0 ± 0. 525. 020–42316Rat # 190. 7 ± 0. 115. 8 ± 2. 524. 537. 7 ± 0. 12. 0 ± 0. 224. 420–10416Rat # 201. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it contains numerical data points and references to rats without any mention of circadian rhythms or light-sensitive proteins. There is no connection or supporting information regarding the regulation of circadian rhythms.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Mindfulness practices can reduce stress and improve focus. [SEP] Text: Figure 3 shows that indeed, shortly after completion of the intervention at T2, those who participated obtained significantly better results in the anatomy 2 exam than the control cohort as indicated by a p-value of 0. 0014. However, these differences were of short term and no longer detectable at T3 when the biochemistry and physiology exams were written. The intervention on MBSR extended a sustained beneficial effect in mindfulness and perceived stress in medical studentsDuring their first two years at medical school, students showed a rise in perceived stress as well as a loss of mindfulness. However, while the increase in perceived stress was significant for our control cohort (T1: median = 19, IQR = 10. 5, T3: median = 23, IQR = 11. 5), the difference between T1 and T3 did not reach statistical significance in the intervention cohort (T1: median = 18, IQR = 11, T3: median = 21, IQR = 10) (Fig. 4a). Likewise, mindfulness showed no significant decrease in the intervention cohort (T1: median = 54, IQR = 19, T3: median = 52, IQR = 12), whereas the control cohort experienced a significant drop (T1: median = 62, IQR = 15, T3: median = 55, IQR = 20. 5). Of note, the beneficial effect of our intervention persisted for at least six months as the intervention on MBSR was completed in June while perceived stress and mindfulness were assessed in the following December (Fig. 4b). Interestingly, at T1 the intervention cohort showed significantly less mindfulness than the control cohort. Increased stress in the course of the academic progress impacted negatively on exam resultsTable 2 shows that the various exams have different degrees of difficulty with biochemistry and physiology at T3 including the most difficult questions as assessed via item difficulty. However, while 40% of correct answers sufficed to pass biochemistry, all the other exams including physiology required 60%. Among students, the physiology exam is therefore considered the most challenging one. While at T3 there were still no correlations between mindfulness or the loss thereof on the one hand and academic achievements on the other. Likewise, there was no correlation between perceived stress and the exam results in biochemistry. However, stress was inversely related to exam results in physiology, resulting in a correlation coefficient of r = − 0. 3364, a 95% CI of − 0. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by indicating that the intervention on Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) had a sustained beneficial effect on perceived stress in medical students. It highlights that while the control cohort experienced increased perceived stress, the intervention cohort did not show a statistically significant increase in perceived stress. Additionally, it mentions that mindfulness levels did not significantly decrease for the intervention group, while the control group experienced a significant decline in mindfulness. This suggests that mindfulness practices may indeed help in managing stress, thus supporting the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Cryptocurrencies are immune to all forms of hacking. [SEP] Text: In particular, it does not contradict Mises’ regression theorem for two grounds: first, Bitcoin was valuable for the first miners even before it was used as a medium of exchange, and the regression process can be kindled by any subjective whim; second, even now Bitcoin has a nonmonetary value (just like gold) as a “real-estate” on the Bitcoin network. 1. Kharpal A. Wikihe Made 50,000% Return on to the US Government. CNBC. October 16, 2017. Available from: 2. Lujan S. Bitcoin was Built to Anarchy. Bitcoin. com. January 9, 2016. Available from: 3. del Castillo M. Guns & Crypto: is Cody Wilson's Alive. October 1, 2017. Available from: 4. Kim T. a ‘Trading Sardine,’ ‘Speculative Mania’—They are Right. CNBC. December 15, 2017. Available from: 5. Torres C. a ‘Asset’. Bloomberg Technology. December 13, 2017. Available from: Gil-Pulgar J. of the U. S. argues: Bitcoin is not rational. Bitcoin News. December 8, 2017. Available from: 7. Pollock D. is Pyramid Scheme. Cointelegraph. July 27, 2017. Available from: 8. Jr. Warning on Bitcoin: We're Probably near the Top of a bubble. CNBC. January 11, 2018. Available from: 9. Nullen C. Bitcoin is. Bloomberg Businesweek. March 14, 2018. Available from: North G. Bitcoins: Scheme in History. November 29, 2013. Available from: 11. Bennington A. : Even at $4,000 it's Still a ‘Bubble’. Coindesk. August 17, 2017. Available from: 12. North GI. Broken Pencil: Analysis of Bitcoins. December 6, 2013. Available from: 13. LeRoux C. of Bitcoin to Serve for Calculation. June 11, 2014. Available from: 14. Shostak F. Money Myth. Mises Institute. April 17, 2013. Available from: 15. Graf KS. Bitcoin as Medium of and Unit of Account Later: of Koning’s Medieval Coins. September 14, 2013. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim as it discusses aspects of Bitcoin's value and its theoretical frameworks rather than addressing any security measures or vulnerabilities. As the claim suggests that cryptocurrencies are immune to hacking, the text's failure to mention security or hacking implies a contradiction to the claim. Specifically, it elaborates on Bitcoin's historical and nonmonetary value but does not imply or suggest immunity from hacking.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Circadian rhythms are regulated by light-sensitive proteins. [SEP] Text: 0 ± 0. 216. 1 ± 1. 324. 537. 6 ± 0. 11. 9 ± 0. 424. 521–12016Rat # 211. 1 ± 0. 120. 7 ± 1. 925. 437. 4 ± 0. 12. 1 ± 0. 225. 427–2954Rat # 220. 7 ± 0. 113. 7 ± 1. 525. 137. 4 ± 0. 11. 9 ± 0. 225. 134–55920 Plasma melatonin levels showed marked variations among individuals in the peak levels and in the night-to-day ratio (Table 1). Interestingly, in six rats the night-to-day ratio was less than 2, whereas in the rat that showed arrhythmicity in Rw and Tb melatonin levels were high and rhythmic with a large night-to-day ratio (Table 1). In seven animals, serum melatonin levels peaked during the subjective day (from CT0 to CT8), thus suggesting that in these animals the circadian rhythm of serum melatonin desynchronized from the circadian rhythms of Rw and Tb (Table 1). No significant correlation was observed between the amplitude (or the levels) of the melatonin profile and the amplitude and mesor of the Rw and Tb rhythms (P > 0. 1). To further investigate the relationships among the Rw, Tb and melatonin rhythms, animals were divided into three different groups: 1) animals (N = 8) in which the rhythm of serum melatonin was synchronized with Rw and Tb rhythms; 2) animals (N = 6) in which the serum melatonin profile was synchronized with the Rw and Tb rhythms but had a reduced (less than 2-fold) amplitude; and 3) animals (N = 7) in which the serum melatonin rhythm was desynchronized from Rw and Tb rhythms. Figure 1A-C shows representative records of Rw, Tb and melatonin levels obtained in a rat (#1 in Table 1) that did not show desynchronization or a reduced night-to-day serum melatonin ratio. Although melatonin levels in the animals belonging to this group were quite variable, all the animals showed a high night-to-day ratio (Table 1). The mean values of the circadian parameters of Rw and Tb for this group of animals are shown in Table 2. Table 2 Circadian parameters for Rw and Tb (mean ± SEM). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not reference light-sensitive proteins or their role in regulating circadian rhythms. Instead, it discusses melatonin levels and their variability among rats and the synchronization of behavioral and physiological rhythms without establishing a direct connection to light-sensitive proteins.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Mindfulness practices can reduce stress and improve focus. [SEP] Text: 4997 to − 0. 1501 and a corresponding p-value of 0. 0004. Table 2 Comparison of exam metrics yield physiology as the most challenging examFull size tableDiscussionWe here analyzed the connectedness between stress, mindfulness and academic achievements in early medical students and obtained several results, some of which were to be expected. Firstly, mindfulness and perceived stress showed a significant negative correlation. This is in line with previous studies [9, 12, 13, 25] and serves to confirm the validity of both parameters. Secondly, students progressing from their first to their second year at medical school perceived increasing stress and again, this has previously and internationally been reported [5]. Unfortunately, we here observed – even though in the second academic year only – that the increase in perceived stress had shifted the students’ academic performance along the Yerkes-Dodson curve towards a less productive range [26]. Thirdly, and this again was to be expected considering the above reported connection, the increase in perceived stress was paralleled by a decline in mindfulness [5, 12, 13, 27]. In contrast, the lack of any correlation between mindfulness and academic achievements – assessed twice at T1 and T3 - was unexpected. Even though our findings confirm a previous cross sectional study on 289 medical students across all academic years, results from middle school children and a broad variety of bachelor students were more promising [12, 22]. However, the latter study relied on self-reported grade point averages and did not report on any time delay between exam and assessment of mindfulness [22]. Also, we cannot exclude that any impact of mindfulness on scholarly success is dependent on age or subject specialization. Most importantly, we here showed that six two hours-interventions on MBSR impacted positively on the students and not only helped to preserve mindfulness and to contain the increase in stress, but also fostered scholarly success. Indeed, preclinical and clinical medical students have previously been shown to benefit from an intervention on MBSR, and reductions in psychological distress and perceived stress were paralleled by increases in self compassion, empathy, spirituality and mindfulness. While some of these effects were only measured at completion of the intervention and therefore do not allow to deduce any permanent effect [14,15,16,17], others were shown to last for up to 20 months [18,19,20]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by indicating that mindfulness practices, specifically through MBSR interventions, helped to 'preserve mindfulness and to contain the increase in stress.' Additionally, it mentions that reductions in psychological distress and perceived stress were observed, which aligns with the claim of mindfulness reducing stress. Furthermore, the text supports the notion of mindfulness contributing to scholarly success, which can be interpreted as improving focus among students.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All cryptocurrencies maintain stable values like traditional currencies. [SEP] Text: 40712 EDN: : EDN:Дата направления статьи в редакцию: 06-05-2023 Дата публикации: 13-05-2023 Аннотация: Использование частных цифровых активов, основанных на технологии распределенного реестра и методах криптографии, увеличивается с каждым годом. Возможности, предоставляемые криптоактивами в силу их особых характеристик, могут быть использованы при выпуске цифровых активов, подконтрольных государству. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the increasing use of private digital assets based on distributed ledger technology and cryptographic methods, suggesting that cryptocurrencies do not inherently maintain stable values like traditional currencies. It alludes to the unique characteristics of crypto assets, which implies volatility rather than stability.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Circadian rhythms are regulated by light-sensitive proteins. [SEP] Text: Group 1 = synchronized animals in which serum melatonin showed a high (more than 5) night-to-day ratio. Group 2 = synchronized animals in which serum melatonin showed a night-to-day ratio smaller than 2. Group 3 = desynchronized animals (i. e. , animals in which the serum melatonin levels peaked during the subjective day). No significant differences were observed among the groups in any of the circadian parameters investigated (> 0. 1). Running wheel activityBody TemperatureNMesorAmplitudeτMesorAmplitudeτGroup 180. 9 ± 0. 217. 2 ± 3. 424. 9 ± 0. 137. 5 ± 0. 11. 9 ± 0. 124. 9 ± 0. 1Group 262. 7 ± 0. 931. 5 ± 5. 425. 0 ± 0. 137. 3 ± 0. 12. 2 ± 0. 225. 0 ± 0. 1Group 371. 4 ± 0. 820. 2 ± 5. 924. 8 ± 0. 237. 2 ± 0. 11. 9 ± 0. 124. 7 ± 0. 2 Figure 1D-F shows two representative actograms for Rw and Tb rhythms and the melatonin profile for one animal (# 5 in Table 1) in which the amplitude of the melatonin rhythm was damped (i. e. , less than 2 fold). In this group, peak melatonin levels showed less variability (range: 188–354 pg/ml) and the peak levels were lower that those recorded in the previous group (Table 1). Although in these animals the amplitude of the melatonin rhythm was reduced, the free-running period, the amplitude, and the mesor of the RW and Tb rhythms were not different from those observed in the previous group of animals (t-test, P > 0. 1 in all cases, Table 2). Finally, Figure 1G-I shows the records of an animal (# 21) belonging to the group in which desynchronization from the RW and Tb rhythms was observed. Though these animals had a melatonin profile that was desynchronized from the RW and Tb rhythms, melatonin levels showed a marked variation over the 24 h and the peak values were not different from what was observed in the animals that did not desynchronize (t-test, P > 0. 5, Table 1). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim directly and focuses on various measurements related to serum melatonin levels in different groups of animals. While it discusses aspects of circadian rhythms, it lacks any explicit mention of light-sensitive proteins or their regulatory role in circadian rhythms, making it irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Mindfulness practices can reduce stress and improve focus. [SEP] Text: We here assessed mindfulness and perceived stress six months after completion of our intervention and therefore confirm a medium-term impact of our intervention on these two parameters. However, the situation was different for academic achievements. Here a positive impact resulting from the intervention was short lived and only measureable at T2, shortly after completion of the intervention. Already at T3, any positive impact had tapered off. A previous publication discussed that repeated practice of mindfulness in private might lead to more lasting effects [18]. However, increased academic demand during the first two years at medical school or negligence may prevent students from taking the time for practicing formal mindfulness. To our knowledge, this is the first study to present a controlled analysis of MBSR and its longitudinal impact on academic achievements. We consider our results promising and would like to speculate, that continuous refresher seminars and follow-ups into the clinical years at medical school might strengthen mechanisms to deal with stress and improve scholarly success. Our results were the more astonishing as the students participating in the intervention started out with a significantly reduced mindfulness in the first term (Fig. 4). Even though we have no way of finding out retrospectively, it would be interesting to know if the students who volunteered for our intervention were aware that their mindfulness presented room for improvement or whether we are looking at a chance finding. There are limitations to our study and they concern the study design. Choosing a randomized controlled trial instead of a non-randomized one may have rendered intervention and control cohorts comparable for mindfulness. However, forcing students to participate in a mindfulness-based intervention if there is no appreciation for the topic may be counterproductive [28]. More limitations of our study include the small sample size of the intervention cohort and the duration of both, the intervention itself and the observation period. However, the short term positive effects of our intervention on scholarly success combined with the preservation of mindfulness and containment of perceived stress after six months are encouraging and suggestive of follow-up studies to investigate if longer-lasting effects can be achieved if the formal techniques of mindfulness such as meditation and bodyscan are routinely trained until applied automatically. ConclusionPerceived stress and mindfulness correlated inversely at both time points. The intervention on mindfulness based stress reduction helped to contain stress and maintain mindfulness during the observation period and this effect lasted for at least six months beyond completion of the intervention. In contrast, beneficial effects on scholarly success were transient and only detectable at completion of the intervention. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by stating that the intervention on mindfulness-based stress reduction helped to contain stress and maintain mindfulness during the observation period for at least six months beyond completion of the intervention. This suggests that mindfulness practices can indeed reduce stress, which supports the claim made.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All cryptocurrencies maintain stable values like traditional currencies. [SEP] Text: Предметом настоящей статьи является исследование цифровых валют центральных банков (CBDC), цифрового рубля, рассмотрение их отличия от криптовалют и возможностей, предоставляемых ими для усиления налогового контроля в сфере соблюдения налогового законодательства субъектами экономических отношений. Исследование производилось с использованием универсальных (анализ, обобщение) и специально-юридических методов познания (сравнительно-правовой, историко-правовой). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing central bank digital currencies (CBDCs) and their differences from cryptocurrencies, implying that not all cryptocurrencies maintain stable values, especially when compared to traditional currencies.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Circadian rhythms are regulated by light-sensitive proteins. [SEP] Text: Although in these animals the melatonin rhythms was desynchronized from the RW and Tb rhythms, we did not observe any significant change in τ, amplitude or mesor of the RW and Tb rhythms (t-test, P > 0. 1 in all cases, Table 2). relationship between the circadian rhythms of locomotor activity and body temperature has been investigated in few studies. In humans, it has been reported that the body temperature rhythm is phase-advanced with respect to the activity rhythm [16] and, occasionally, these two rhythms may desynchronize [7,8]. However, studies in other mammalian species failed to observe this phenomenon either in nocturnal or in diurnal mammals [17,18], thus suggesting that in these animals the circadian rhythms of locomotor activity and body temperature are tightly coupled and, most likely, are controlled by a single circadian pacemaker [1,18]. The data obtained in this study support this view because they indicate that the Rw and Tb rhythms in Wistar rats are tightly coupled. Although we did not take special precautions to prevent masking of the Tb rhythm by the Rw rhythm, we observed no desynchronization between the Rw and Tb rhythms. Our results also indicate that long term exposure to LLdim can induce desynchronization of the circadian rhythm of serum melatonin, and the amplitude of the circadian rhythm in serum melatonin may be dramatically reduced. Moreover, the observation that melatonin remained rhythmic in an animal in which Rw and Tb were arrhythmic further suggests that the regulation of melatonin rhythmicity is independent from the regulation of the running wheel activity and body temperature rhythms. These results confirm and expand our recent study [15] by showing that alteration in some parameters of the melatonin rhythm (i. e. , desynchronization and amplitude) had no effects on τ, amplitude and mesor of the Rw and Tb rhythms. Such a result was unexpected because it is believed that melatonin plays an important role in the regulation of the circadian timing system as well as of body temperature [12,14]. Recent experimental evidence suggests that the SCN may contain several circadian pacemakers. For example, the circadian rhythm of arginine vasopressin and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide release in cultured SCN is regulated by different populations that can desynchronize from each other [19,20]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text passes with respect to the claim as it does not discuss the role of light-sensitive proteins in the regulation of circadian rhythms. Instead, it elaborates on the relationships and decoupling of melatonin rhythms, locomotor activity, and body temperature rhythms in animals, suggesting a more complex interaction without addressing specific light-sensitive proteins.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Only traumatic experiences cause mental health issues. [SEP] Text: (Open in a new window)PubMed(Open in a new window)155. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)289. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)3065. (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)70. in a new window) (Open in a new window)2513. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)501. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)752. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)1235. (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)32. (Open in a new window)186. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)223. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)76. (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)19. (Open in a new window)PubMed(Open in a new window)921. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)58. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)143. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)359. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)71. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)353. in a new window) (in Swedish) (Open in a new window)129. (Open in a new window)52. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provides fragmented and irrelevant information related to PubMed and Web of Science without addressing the claim about traumatic experiences causing mental health issues. Consequently, it does not corroborate or contrast with the claim, and is deemed irrelevant.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All cryptocurrencies maintain stable values like traditional currencies. [SEP] Text: Преимущества для пользователей данных активов будут заключаться в скорости, доступности активов даже в труднодоступных для банковского обслуживания регионах, безопасности и обеспеченности со стороны государства. Для регуляторов введение данных активов позволит снизит интерес к криптовалютам, сделки с которыми зачастую совершаются в противоправных целях, а также придать дополнительные стимулы в борьбе с уклонением от налогообложения. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the advantages and regulatory perspectives of cryptocurrencies without mentioning stability in value. It suggests that cryptocurrencies may lead to instability or issues related to illicit activities and tax evasion, thereby implying they do not possess stable values like traditional currencies.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Circadian rhythms are regulated by light-sensitive proteins. [SEP] Text: Authors' contributions JA and NMB participated in data collection and data analysis. JA drafted the manuscript. GT directed the study and wrote the final version of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final version of the 10. 1016/0031-9384(92)90188-8 Davidson, AJ, Yamazaki, S and Menaker, M (2003). SCN: ringmaster of the circadian circus or conductor of the circadianorchestra? Symp 253: 110–121. [PubMed] Tosini, G and Menaker, M (1995). Circadian rhythm of body temperature in an ectotherm (Iguana iguana) J 10: 248–255. [PubMed] and Moore-Ede, MC (1977). Environmental synchronizers of squirrel monkey circadian rhythms J 43: 795–800. [PubMed] Erkert, HG (2000). Internal desynchronization of the circadian activity and feeding rhythm in an owl monkey (Aotus lemurinus griseimembra): a case study 17: 147–153, [PubMed] DOI: Ikeda, M, Sagara, M and Inoue, S (2000). Continuous exposure to dim illumination uncouples temporal pattern of sleep, body temperature, locomotion and drinking behavior in rat 279: 185–189, [PubMed] DOI: Aschoff, J, Gerecke, U and Weaver, R (1967). Desynchronization of human circadian rhythms Physiol 17: 450–457. [PubMed] Lund, R (1974). Personality factors and desynchronization of circadian rhythms 36: 224–228. den Boer, JA and van den Hoofdakker, RH (2000). Body temperature and mood variation during forced desynchronization in winter depression: a preliminary report 47: 355–358, [PubMed] DOI: and Holley, DC (1984). A review of human physiological and performance changes associated with desynchrony of biological rhythms 55: 1085–1096. [PubMed] Redman, JR and Armstrong, SM (1988). Reentrainment of rat circadian activity rhythms: effects of melatonin J 5: 203–215. [PubMed] Slotten, HA, Pitrosky, B and Pevet, P (1999). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim directly and instead focuses on authors' contributions, references, and studies related to circadian rhythms without mentioning the role of light-sensitive proteins. Therefore, it is considered irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Interest rates can influence borrowing costs and economic growth. [SEP] Text: This paper and its data are subject to revision; please visit clevelandfed. org for updates. The real federal funds rate and the real interest rate on 3-month Treasury bills have been consistently negative since December 2008. 1 Historically, negative real interest rates have been associated with high levels of inflation and efforts by the to reduce high unemployment rates. In contrast, inflation has been low since December 2008, and the unemployment rate has been near or below its pre-2008 average of 5. 6 percent since late 2014. Yet negative real interest rates persist. This unusual behavior of real interest rates has motivated economists to search for long-run factors, which are factors that persist even after the unemployment rate has returned to normal, that change real interest rates. One long-run factor popular for explaining negative real interest rates is the low level of productivity growth in the economy. 2 Textbook macroeconomic theory predicts a positive relationship between productivity and real interest rates, implying that a lower trend in productivity growth will lead to persistently lower real interest rates. Motivated by this theory, I study the long-run correlation of real interest rates and productivity growth from 1914 to 2016. and West (2017), I do so by using rolling averages of the data as well as new statistical techniques that are designed to isolate long-run patterns in the data. I find that the long-run correlation between real interest rates and productivity growth is actually negative from 1914 to 2016. That is, in contrast to standard economic theory, low real interest rates have been historically associated with high productivity growth. Because the two world wars and the dominate the early part of my sample, I also study the long-run correlation of real interest rates and productivity growth from 1948 to 2016. Over this sample, different measures of the correlation give both positive and negative results. However, the measures are generally small in magnitude and statistically indistinguishable from zero. This suggests that factors other than productivity growth are important for understanding the long-run movements in real interest rates. The results of this Commentary suggest that low productivity growth is not driving persistently negative real interest rates. The results also indicate that an upward shift in productivity growth will not necessarily lead to higher real interest rates. Finally, the results suggest that low productivity growth does not condemn the economy to low or negative real interest rates. For example, the years from 1985 to 1994 had low productivity growth but relatively high real interest rates. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how real interest rates relate to productivity growth, which in turn can influence economic factors such as borrowing costs and economic growth. The exploration of the long-run correlation between productivity growth and real interest rates implies that fluctuations in these rates can have broader implications for the economy.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All cryptocurrencies maintain stable values like traditional currencies. [SEP] Text: Ключевые слова: цифровые валюты, криптовалюты, цифровые активы, цифровой рубль, уклонение от налогообложения, фиатные деньги, цифровые технологии, блокчейн, Центральный Банк России, распределенный реестр Abstract: The use of private digital assets based on distributed ledger technology and cryptography methods is increasing every year. The opportunities provided by crypto assets due to their special characteristics can be used when issuing digital assets controlled by the state. The subject of this 1. Рис. 1 Статистика запросов в поисковой системе “Яндекс” в отношении цифровых активов в апреле 2023 г. Источник: составлено автором на основе сервиса “Яндекс” для оценки пользовательского интереса wordstat. yandex. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the increasing use of private digital assets and their characteristics without implying that they maintain stable values. It points out the distinct nature and opportunities provided by cryptocurrencies, which do not indicate stability like traditional fiat currencies.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Disruption of circadian rhythms can lead to health issues. [SEP] Text: The master clock, as it is often called, is reset by light or photic stimuli [3] as well as by arousal-inducing or non-photic stimuli [4]. Whether the input is photic or non-photic, it reaches the clock through neurotransmitters in nerve terminals. Neurotransmitters are released at the inputs for entrainment, in the clock itself for integration and consolidated output, and in efferent projections for the control of overt rhythms. Several reviews on the neurotransmitters of the SCN have been previously published [5 - 10]. The present review concentrates on studies conducted in the last decade and gives particular attention to neurotransmitters whose involvement in the circadian clock have not been traditionally recognized. About neurotransmitters in general Studies have indicated the presence of a large number of neurotransmitters in the SCN [11 - 15]. However, information about their role individually as well as in combination in the functioning of the clock has been slow to come. It is observed that the presence of neurotransmitters in the afferent and efferent projections of the SCN is equally important for the entrainment of the clock and for the control of overt rhythms. Thus, we have neurotransmitters released at the inputs for entrainment, in the clock itself for the integration and consolidated output, and in the efferent projections for the control of overt rhythms. There have been attempts to categorize the putative neurotransmitters of the SCN on the basis of their origin and function [16] and there have been reports indicating subdivisions of the SCN with relation to neurotransmitter function [17]. Further, it has been reported [18] that the human SCN also have well defined subdivisions with chemically defined neuronal groups comparable to the well defined subdivisions reported in the case of experimental animals, mainly rodents. There are many excellent reviews [19 - 22] highlighting various aspects of the neurotransmitters. From a functional point of view, two important aspects emerge. One is the fact that one particular neurotransmitter may have more than one function and thereby make the prediction of the function more difficult and complex. Another aspect is that the neurotransmitter input from various pathways and their influence may vary (1) by itself and (2) by way of modification of SCN function. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the mechanisms of the circadian clock and the role of neurotransmitters in its function but does not directly address the claim regarding the consequences of disrupting circadian rhythms. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Interest rates can influence borrowing costs and economic growth. [SEP] Text: The positive theoretical relationship between productivity growth and real interest rates can be found in the Ramsey (1928) model of saving and investment. While this model is relatively simple, it is a staple of macroeconomic theory (Romer, 2006, 1919. 3 All data series are monthly annualized rates. To convert to an annual frequency, I take averages over each year. Finally, to compute real interest rates, I subtract annual inflation as measured by the percent change in the consumer price index from December of the preceding year to December of the current year. 4 I use total factor productivity (TFP) as my measure of productivity. 5 This measure compares the total output of new goods and services in the economy to the combined inputs, such as labor hours, equipment, and commercial buildings, used to produce those goods and services. To construct a series for productivity growth, I use TFP growth from the for 1914 to 1947,6 and I use TFP growth from at the Bank of for 1948 to 2016. 7 To study the long-run relationship between real interest rates and productivity growth, I first smooth out each data series in order to focus on the long-run features of the data. Then, I estimate the correlation between the smoothed series. I consider two different methods of smoothing. The first method simply takes rolling averages of the real interest rates and productivity growth rates. Because the definition of long run in this Commentary is periods of time that are long enough for the unemployment rate to return to normal, I consider 10-year, 15-year, and 20-year rolling averages. I choose these average lengths because they are longer than time periods that are commonly associated with the business cycle but short enough to preserve variation in the data needed to estimate correlations. The second method of smoothing uses a linear regression that is designed to filter out patterns in the data that occur more frequently than a designated cutoff. I refer to this type of smoothing as producing “filtered data. ” As with the rolling averages, I use cutoffs of 10 years, 15 years, and 20 years. 8 That is, I preserve patterns in the data that occur with periods longer than 10, 15, or 20 years. Figure 1 shows that both types of smoothing yield similar patterns. 9 In particular, they give negative real interest rates and low levels of productivity growth during the past few years. I use both types of smoothed data to compute the correlations in the next section. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by explaining the positive theoretical relationship between real interest rates and productivity growth. The discussion of the Ramsey model indicates that changes in real interest rates can have significant implications for saving, investment, and ultimately, economic growth. Furthermore, the analysis of smoothing techniques and correlations highlights the influence of real interest rates on productivity, which is closely linked to borrowing costs and, consequently, economic growth.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All cryptocurrencies maintain stable values like traditional currencies. [SEP] Text: На фоне данной тенденции новые цифровые активы, используемые в качестве средств платежа, завоевывают свою нишу и составляют конкуренцию не только наличным деньгам, но и влияют на использование субъектами денежных средств в безналичной форме. Так, по прогнозам специалистов Дойчебанк, до 2030 г. стремительный рост цифровых платежей, в т. ч. удобных мобильных платежей, может привести к полному отказу от использования банковских карт [1]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the competitive position of new digital assets as payment methods, suggesting a trend towards a shift in financial practices and signaling volatility rather than stability. It highlights the growth of digital payments, implying that cryptocurrencies, which are part of this trend, are not maintaining stable values similar to traditional currencies.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Disruption of circadian rhythms can lead to health issues. [SEP] Text: Neurotransmitters like acetylcholine, glutamate, neuropeptide Y (NPY), serotonin, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), peptide histidine isoleucine (PHI), and arginine vasopressin (AVP) have been implicated in the functioning of the SCN. Glutamate and pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) are indicated as principal neurotransmitters of the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT), although excitatory amino acids like L-aspartate and N-acetyl-aspartylglutamate may also function as neurotransmitters in RHT. also might be a candidate as a neurotransmitter in RHT. Functional studies over the years have given evidence that PACAP alone or in concert with glutamate may be responsible for the light signalling to the clock. The role of AVP in circadian time keeping has been well established. Its role in the control of circadian rhythm of food and water intake has been reported and well documented. Another intrinsic neuropeptide, VIP, acting through VPAC2 receptor (a type of receptor for VIP), participates in both resetting to light and maintenance of ongoing rhythmicity of the SCN. NPY and GABA seem to be the neurotransmitters in the projection from the intergeniculate leaflet to the SCN. Raphe nuclei projections to the SCN contain serotonin. AVP and prokineticin 2 are seen in the outputs from the SCN. The neurotransmitter-dependent molecular basis of the working of the clock is yet to be understood completely. The specific roles of the various neurotransmitters may be based on the response of the neurons of the SCN on application of a neurotransmitter, capacity to phase shift a particular rhythm on application of neurotransmitter, effect of lesions on the entrained and free running rhythms, and disruptions seen in the rhythms after blockade by the antagonist/inhibitors. Possible targets for some of the neurotransmitters are the clock genes per1 and per2, which are induced in the SCN by light or by neurotransmitters, at night. Evidence indicating co-localization of some of the neurotransmitters in the SCN has further complicated the investigations into the role of neurotransmitters in the working of the clock. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses various neurotransmitters involved in the functioning of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which plays a crucial role in circadian rhythms. However, it does not provide any direct evidence or reference to health issues resulting from the disruption of circadian rhythms. Therefore, it does not support or negate the claim directly, making it irrelevant.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Interest rates can influence borrowing costs and economic growth. [SEP] Text: As the baby boomers have aged, they have increased their savings in anticipation of retirement. These savings have provided more funds for investment, pushing down interest rates. Gagnon et al. (2016) suggest that these baby boom effects have been especially important over the past decade. also provides guidance for future research about the natural rate of interest, or r*, which is the level of the real interest rate that produces stable inflation. While the natural rate of interest can be different than the long-run interest rate studied here, economic theory suggests both rates should be positively correlated with long-run productivity growth. This tenet of basic macroeconomic theory is embedded in r* models such as that of Laubach and Williams (2003). However, the results of this Commentary indicate that this theory is not directly evident in historical movements in real rates and productivity growth. More work is needed to develop theoretical models that can explain movements in r* with other determinants. this Commentary, I study ex post real interest rates, which subtract realized consumer price inflation from nominal interest rates. Another measure of real interest rates is ex ante rates, which subtract expected consumer price inflation from nominal interest rates. and West (2017) for a study of ex ante rates. example, see Rachel and Smith (2015), Fischer (2016, 2017), and Yi and Zhang (2017). data are from the FRED database: The series number is TB3MS for the 3-month Treasury bill, M1329AUSM193NNBR for the short-term Treasury securities, M13009USM156NNBR for the Bank of discount rate, and M13001USM156NNBR for the call money rates. To combine the call money rates and discount rates for 1914 to 1919, I use the smaller of the two rates. This reflects the importance of call loans in the early twentieth century as a “convenient form of secondary bank reserve. ” (Homer and Sylla, 2005). However, because of the newly formed System, call loans fell in importance into the 1920s. consumer price index is from the FRED data base, and the series number is. labor productivity yields quantitatively similar results. data are at and Bergeaud et al. (2016) give a description of the database. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how the dynamics of saving and interest rates, particularly in relation to the aging baby boomer population, affect borrowing costs and economic investment. It mentions that increased savings have led to more investment funds, thus pushing down interest rates, which aligns with the claim that interest rates influence economic growth.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All cryptocurrencies maintain stable values like traditional currencies. [SEP] Text: Хотя влияние самых популярных видов криптоактивов - криптовалют на глобальные платежные системы в настоящее время невелико [2], с учетом постоянного совершенствования данных активов, появления новых видов, в частности, стабильных монет (стейблкойнов), не подверженных такой высокой волатильности как ничем не обеспеченные криптовалюты, некоторые эксперты полагают, что у криптовалют есть потенциал для глобального изменения системы платежей и даже роли центральных б [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by explaining that while some cryptocurrencies, like stablecoins, are less volatile than unsecured cryptocurrencies, they still do not imply that all cryptocurrencies maintain stable values comparable to traditional currencies. The comparison highlights that most cryptocurrencies are still subject to high volatility.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Disruption of circadian rhythms can lead to health issues. [SEP] Text: This is based on retinal innervation patterns as well as the observation that these regions are defined by phenotypically distinct cell types [24]. Each nucleus contains about 10,000 neurons, thereby making 20,000 neurons in total. These neurons are characterized by small size and high density [25]. Isolated individual neurons are reported to produce circadian oscillations with periods ranging from 20–28 h [26,27]. Circadian oscillations are generated in the individual neurons of the SCN by a molecular regulatory network. Though individual cells oscillate with periods ranging from 20–28 h, at the tissue level SCN neurons display synchrony indicative of a robust inter-cellular coupling, and neurotransmitters appear to have an important role in the inter-cellular coupling. Gondze and co-workers [28] have introduced a molecular model for the regulatory network underlying the circadian oscillators in the SCN and stated that effective synchronization is achieved when the average neurotransmitter concentration damps the individual oscillators. Cells are effectively synchronized due to global neurotransmitter oscillation. Neither spiking in the neurons of the SCN nor chemically mediated transmission is needed for the pacemaking activity seen in individual cells. However, synchronization of circadian rhythmicity across neurons in the SCN does require neurotransmitters [25,29] and development of action potentials [30]. Before attempting a discussion of the neurotransmitters, it is necessary to identify the afferent projections to the SCN, and neurotransmitters present in it, neurotransmitters intrinsic to the SCN, and efferent projection with its neurotransmitters. The SCN is composed of different neuronal elements, each having its own specific function. Intensive interconnection and interaction among the heterogeneous neuronal elements is responsible for the functional output of the SCN. Different neurons of the SCN contain different neuropeptides, with several neurons having co-localization of neurotransmitters. Thus, we have, for example, gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) and glutamate, GABA and and corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH), AVP and its carrier protein neurophysin, VIP and peptide histidine isoleucine (PHI), and VIP and somatostatin (SS). Co-localization of different neuropeptides is seen not only in rat SCN but also in human SCN [31 - 33]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim because it primarily discusses the neuronal structures and mechanisms involved in circadian rhythms without addressing their disruption or any resultant health issues. It explores the characteristics of neurons in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) and mentions neurotransmitters but does not connect this information to health consequences related to circadian rhythm disruption.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Critical thinking skills are crucial for effective problem-solving. [SEP] Text: > Vol. 6 No. 3, March 2015 Bono’s to Thinking and for Success in the 21st () School of Education, of New England, Armidale, Australia. DOI: 10. 4236/ce. 2015. 63037 39,226 Downloads 54,222 Views 391. doi: 10. 4236/ce. 2015. 63037. 1. Pohl (1997) clearly points out, if students are to learn critical thinking skills, they must be explicitly taught these skills. Likewise, one of the world’s leading experts on teaching critical thinking skills says that his “experience suggests that thinking skills are most effectively taught if they are taught directly and deliberately” (De Bono, 1992c: p. 7). Unfortunately this is often not the case as can be seen in many curriculum documents of many educational institutions. For example, even in the highly developed educational systems such as the USA, studies by Trilling and Fadel (2009) found that students graduating at all levels, including schools and universities, lacked critical thinking and problem solving skills. It is therefore helpful to pedagogical practice to discuss how critical thinking and problem solving skills can be taught effectively. When it comes to consideration of direct teaching of thinking as an effective pedagogical strategy, Dr. Edward de Bono (1956; 1985; 1992a; 1992b; 1992c; 1992d; 1995) is in a league of his own as a leader in this field. This is perhaps best illustrated by the fact that he won the prestigious award as key pioneer in the explicit teaching of thinking at the Meeting in Boston in 1992. Having developed the concept of lateral thinking, Dr. de Bono’s work on how people think has been published in numerous books which have been translated into many languages. His programs for the teaching of thinking have proven very popular for use in many countries across the globe including Argentina, Venezuela, the and New Zealand. Furthermore, having held professorial positions at top universities in the world including Oxford, London, Cambridge and Harvard University, Dr. de Bono clearly deserves the kudos of being a leading scholar in critical thinking and problem solving and is recognized and highly regarded by his peers in the profession at an international level. That’s why utilizing De Bono’s is well justified. So it is helpful to explore his and to discuss how it can be used to teach critical thinking and problem solving. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the importance of explicitly teaching critical thinking to develop effective problem-solving skills. It cites that students lacking these skills in developed educational systems, such as the USA, indicates a gap in teaching critical thinking. The mention of Edward de Bono's contributions and recognition in critical thinking education further supports the idea that such skills are crucial for effective problem-solving.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All cryptocurrencies maintain stable values like traditional currencies. [SEP] Text: Не случайно одними из первых на уровне государственных регуляторов на проблемы, связанные с ростом криптоактивов и в частности криптовалют, обратили внимание центральные банки разных стран [4]. В настоящее время высказываются опасения, что стейблкойны, в том числе криптовалюты, выпущенные корпорациями, контролирующими социальные сети (Facebook, Telegram) могут угрожать стабильности мировой экономики, поэтому регуляторы препятствуют их выпуску [5]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting concerns from central banks regarding the stability of cryptocurrencies, particularly stablecoins. It suggests that these cryptocurrencies may threaten global economic stability, implying that they do not maintain stable values like traditional currencies.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Disruption of circadian rhythms can lead to health issues. [SEP] Text: The combination of a variety of peptides with or without amino acid neurotransmitters within a single nucleus gives the SCN a variety of signalling properties as well. A set of SCN neurons and their neurotransmitters has the function of conveying the daily light-dark signal to hypothalamic target structures [34 - 36]. Three major incoming pathways have been identified for the SCN. These have been defined as the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT), geniculohypothalamic tract (GHT), and the projection from the raphe nuclei (Figure 1). Photic information is relayed directly from the retina to the SCN by way of the monosynaptic retinohypothalamic tract [37,38]. It is seen that transection of all visual pathways leaving the optic chiasm makes animals blind with no visual reflexes but with perfect normal entrainment of circadian rhythms. This has indicated that RHT is sufficient for entrainment. Also it has been demonstrated that sectioning of RHT abolishes entrainment without affecting visual functions [39]. Although the exact mechanism by which a monophasic stimulus, light, produces either no response or a biphasic response in SCN neurons is unclear at present, Myers and co-workers [40] provided a potential molecular explanation for the phenomenon. Using electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry, they identified the excitatory amino acid glutamate and pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) as the main neurotransmitters of the RHT [41 - 43]. Although substance P (SP) was thought of as a neurotransmitter of the RHT, there is now substantial evidence against this possibility [44 - 46]. Figure 1 Afferent inputs and efferent pathways of the SCN. RHT: Retinohypothalamic tract, GHT: Geniculohypothalamic tract, OC: Optic chiasm, 3V: Third ventricle, IGL: Intergeniculate leaflet, DM: : : : Gamma amino butyric acid, PACAP: Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide. Retinohypothalamic tract (RHT) and its neurotransmitters The principal neurotransmitters involved in conveying photic information to the SCN have been identified as glutamate and PACAP. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it primarily discusses the signalling properties of specific neurons in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) related to circadian rhythms without addressing the consequences of disrupting those rhythms or any associated health issues.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Critical thinking skills are crucial for effective problem-solving. [SEP] Text: But first, let’s briefly have a look at what critical thinking is, what it involves and why it is essential for success in the 21st century, and then discuss how we can teach it using De Bono’s Model. 2. Critical Thinking, Is an for Success in the 21st 2. 1. of Several scholars including Carmichael (1997) Dobozy, Bryer and Smith (2012) and Mulnix (2010) have defined critical thinking in different ways but one that appears to capture its meaning very well is provided by Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking, based in California, which states it as: “the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action” (NCECT, 2014: p. 2). (2015a) says “critical thinking is the cognitive process that creates the ability to interpret, analyze and evaluate information, arguments or experiences with a set of reflective attitudes, skills and abilities to guide our thoughts, beliefs and actions” (p. 431). These definitions serve to underline that critical thinking is a skill that is essential in putting across a point, or proving a point, evaluating and interpreting the meaning of views or ideas expressed, and applying what has been learnt to solve new problems. Critical thinking and problem solving are mutually interdependent because, as explained by Reynolds (2012) the practical value of critical thinking skills is the application of those skills to solve problems that enable rational decisions to be made to enhance successful human activities. Thus, these two sets of skills are essential for daily living and productive citizenship. 2. 2. Attributes of Arguing that critical thinking and problem solving are essential for humans to live as civil society, and utilizing the example of courtroom procedures to illustrate what it involves Facione (2011) says it involves the use of reasons to convince others about an issue, such as a lawyer trying to convince the judge and the jury of the client’s claim, identifying relevant evidence and evaluating its significance, interpreting what is said, analyzing and evaluating the arguments presented by others. From Facione’s (2011) example drawn from a typical courtroom procedure we can infer many attributes that critical thinking and problem solving involve. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by emphasizing the importance of critical thinking as an essential skill for problem-solving. It highlights that critical thinking skills enable individuals to analyze, evaluate, and apply information effectively, which is integral to solving new problems. Moreover, it states that critical thinking and problem solving are mutually interdependent, reinforcing the idea that both sets of skills are crucial for rational decision-making and successful human activities.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All cryptocurrencies maintain stable values like traditional currencies. [SEP] Text: Не менее критично настроен Центральный Банк России, рассматривающий криптовалюты в целом как угрозу финансовой стабильности страны вследствие создаваемых рисков подрыва суверенитета национальной валюты при использовании криптовалют в качестве платежных средств [6]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that the Central Bank of Russia views cryptocurrencies as a threat to financial stability, which suggests that cryptocurrencies do not maintain stable values like traditional currencies and pose risks to the sovereignty of the national currency.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Disruption of circadian rhythms can lead to health issues. [SEP] Text: From a developmental point of view, NT-expressing neurons developed earlier than the other 3 types of peptidergic neurons, and AVP [94]. It remains to be seen whether NT-expressing neurons contribute significantly to the generation of circadian rhythms in early human life. (NMS) A recent addition to the ever increasing list of neurotransmitters of the SCN is neuromedin S (NMS), a 36 amino acid neuropeptide. It is a potent brain-gut neuropeptide whose presence in the SCN was reported by Nakahara and co-workers [95] as a neurotransmitter of the circadian oscillator system. NMS expression is found to be restricted to the core part of the SCN and has a diurnal peak under light-dark cycle [96]. Intracerebroventricular administration of neuromedin S in rats activates SCN neurons and has the capability to induce non-photic type of phase shifts in the circadian rhythm of locomotor activity. It is also possible that NMS along with VIP may have a role in maintenance of circadian rhythmicity. Recently, it has been shown that neuromedin M (NMU) is regulated in a circadian manner with peak expression in the light phase of LD cycle [97]. Further studies are required to understand the specific role of NMS in the SCN. At present, it is implicated in the regulation of circadian rhythms through autocrine andor paracrine actions through its receptors [96]. Gastrin releasing peptide (GRP) Gastrin releasing peptide (GRP) has also been identified as a neurotransmitter in the SCN. Although GRP and its receptor BB2 are found to be synthesized by rodent SCN neurons [98 - 100], the role of GRP in circadian rhythm regulation is not well known. Evidence points towards a role for GRP in photic entrainment [101,102], in spite of a number of studies favouring glutamate as the main neurotransmitter [36,37,103]. McArthur and co-workers [104] studied the role of GRP in photic entrainment by using the resetting actions of GRP application on electrical activity rhythms during subjective day, early subjective night, and late subjective night in vitro in rats and hamsters. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim regarding the health issues related to disruption of circadian rhythms. Instead, it focuses on the development and functions of various neuropeptides like neuromedin S and gastrin releasing peptide in the context of circadian rhythm regulation, without mentioning any specific health implications or issues arising from disruption.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Critical thinking skills are crucial for effective problem-solving. [SEP] Text: They include keeping an open-mind as one listens to points put forward, keenly observing what is said and noting any gaps in it, thinking deeply and consciously raising questions, distinguishing between observation and inference, and between fact and conjecture (Esterle & Cluman, 1993). Furthermore, it involves drawing inferences from what is said, probing for underlying assumptions, and developing hypotheses which can be investigated to clarify issues. It involves engaging in inductive or deductive reasoning, to gain an understanding of what data really mean as well as identification and avoidance of prejudice (Miller, 1990). Comprehensive critical thinking and problem solving help in the determination of what is valid or not, fact or fiction, real or hype, relevant or nonsense and testing one’s own line of reasoning, decision making, and problem solving against those of others (Le Cornu, 2009). Thus these skills provide for objectivity, honesty, empathy, exploring, explaining, elaborating, applying, analyzing, sequencing, comparing, evaluating, appraising, creating and self-regulation, all of which are essential for harmonious cohabitation by humans. 3. Exploring the Tenets of De Bono’s Using the metaphor of wearing different coloured hats, has designed a very simple model but one which when applied correctly can immensely augment critical thinking and create opportunities for solving any problems that might be confronted. The model reflects De Bono’s belief that “simple methods used effectively are more valuable than complicated methods that are difficult to understand and confusing to use” (De Bono, 1992c: p. 6). In explaining the philosophical underpinnings of his six coloured hats thinking model (1992d) says that “when we attempt practical thinking, there are three fundamental difficulties” (p. 8) that we encounter. He identifies those difficulties and explains them as follows: 1) Emotions. We often have a tendency not to think at all but to rely on instant gut feeling, emotion and prejudice as a basis for action. 2) Helplessness. We may react with feelings of inadequacy: “I don’t know how to think about this. I don’t know what to do next”. 3) Confusion. We try to keep everything in mind at once, with a mess as a result (De Bono, 1992d: p. 8). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by elaborating on the components of critical thinking and its applications in problem-solving. It emphasizes the importance of skills such as observation, analysis, and reasoning, stating that 'comprehensive critical thinking and problem solving help in the determination of what is valid or not' and that it involves 'thinking deeply and consciously raising questions.' Furthermore, the text describes how critical thinking leads to objectivity and self-regulation, essential elements in effectively solving problems.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All cryptocurrencies maintain stable values like traditional currencies. [SEP] Text: Тем не менее, в условиях общей цифровизации такие возможности криптовалют как доступность для широких масс населения без необходимости открытия банковских счетов, дешевизна и скорость транзакций, невозможность фальсификации платежей из-за функционирования на блокчейне могут быть полезны и взяты за основу для трансформации традиционных форм платежных средств. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the unique advantages of cryptocurrencies, such as their accessibility and transaction efficiency, while implying that they do not necessarily have stable values like traditional currencies.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Disruption of circadian rhythms can lead to health issues. [SEP] Text: Though the various mechanisms used to regulate the activity of other systems of the body is unclear at present, a number of hormones with direct actions on different parts of the body are produced by the SCN. These include and SS. A review by and co-workers [9] describes not only the transmitters of RHT but also the output of the SCN. A long neural signalling pathway from the SCN regulates the pineal gland secretion of melatonin. SCN neurons also stimulate gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) synthesizing neurons of the preoptic area and thereby affect sex hormone cycles [232]. It is generally seen that outputs of the circadian system are rhythmic but not temperature compensated. In spite of the difficulties to understand the mechanisms by which the SCN regulates a wide range of physiological outputs, it has been agreed that there are two types of signals originating from the SCN. These are hormonal and neural outputs. Transplantation experiments [233] in particular have provided highly useful evidences for the suggestion that hormonaldiffusible factors produced by the SCN act as an important output signal for the circadian system [234]. Quick recovery of behavioural rhythms within 4 days of transplantation of the SCN [184], successful placement of transplants at locations distant from the SCN [184], and transplanted dissociated SCN cells capable of restoring rhythmicity [235] are all in favour of hormonaldiffusible factors as the output signal. It is possible that different physiological systems are controlled by either neural or hormonal output from the SCN. For example, rhythmic secretion of melatonin could be under neural control while locomotor activity might be under hormonal control. Also, a specific physiological function may receive both neural and hormonal signals. As regards to the communication of information from the circadian clock to the centres controlling activity in brain areas, more than one mode is indicated [222,236]. Analysis of the chemoarchitecture of the SCN have shown that, in addition to the above neurotransmitters, the SCN also contain neurons capable of synthesizing a number of other neurochemicals, with the distribution of immunoreactive neurons differing slightly for each neurochemical. A few of these neurochemicals are described here. Somatostatin (SS) SS producing neurons of the SCN are located in both the core and shell portions [237] and form a distinct peptidergic neuronal group. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the role of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in regulating physiological rhythms, including the secretion of hormones like melatonin. However, it does not directly address the claim about health issues resulting from disruptions of circadian rhythms. Therefore, the text is considered irrelevant to the claim.