Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Skip to main content Intended for healthcare professionals Search this journalSearch all journalsEnter search terms. . . Searchsearch Enter search terms. . . Searchsearch Search Access/ProfileAccessView access optionsView profileCreate profile Cart 0 by discipline Select discipline: All disciplines All disciplines Life & & Sciences & HumanitiesSelect subject: All subjects All subjects Cardiology & Medicine & Endocrinology & -legal & Orthopaedics & Medicine & & & & Methods & & & & & Criminology & Economics & & & Management & Marketing & & & & & & & & PlanningBrowse journals Sage publishes a diverse portfolio of fully journals in a variety of disciplines. you can explore our Disciplines Hubs, including: Journal portfolios in each of our subject areas. Links to Books and content from across Sage. for/ Reviewers SocietiesFrequently asked questions In this journal Journal of Flow & Factor: 4. 9 5-Factor: 6. 1 email alertsYou are adding the following journal to your email alertsNew contentJournal of Flow & MetabolismCreate email alert Free accessReview 10. 1177/0271678X17740794ContentsAbstractBackground on resting-state fMRI and the rationale for application in headacheSearch criteriaof conflicting interestsFunding2017. The reference lists of included 1. Figure 1. Flowchart for literature search. *1. Brain functional connectivity in ictal migraine patients. StudySubject cohortsAnalysisMain findingIctal migraine Coppola et al. 11MwoA, ictal (n = 13) HC (n = 19)ROI-based analysis of the insula and of seed regions in the default mode networkIctal MwoA: Stronger fc between the medial prefrontal cortex and the posterior cingulate cortex. Stronger fc between the medial prefrontal cortex and the bilateral insula. Stronger fc between medial prefrontal cortex and insula related to less pain intensity during the attack. Coppola et al. 8MwoA, ictal (n = 13) HC (n = 19)ICA executive and dorso-ventral attention networkIctal MwoA: Weaker fc between the executive and dorso-ventral attention networks during untreated migraine attacks. Weaker executive network connectivity (z-score) related to higher headache frequency. Amin et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not provide any information regarding functional MRI or its ability to measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. Instead, it contains various unrelated details about journal content, search criteria, and studies on migraine, which do not relate to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: Global warming refers to many greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone, produced by human activities [17]. These greenhouse gases have a high degree of transmittance of visible light coming from the sun’s radiation, and a high degree of absorption of the long-wave radiation reflected from the earth [17]. Greenhouse gases accumulate heat on the earth’s surface and in the atmosphere, increasing temperatures [18]. Under global industrialisation, urbanisation, and population growth, anthropogenic activities such as fossil fuel combustion, deforestation, and industrial production have increased greenhouse gas emissions, increasing the earth’s indicated temperature and global warming. The heat island effect is when temperatures in urban areas are significantly higher than in surrounding suburban or rural areas [19]. With the increase in population and the acceleration of urbanisation, the problem of the urban heat island effect is becoming more and more prominent. Due to the large amount of heat generated by urban buildings, roads, vehicles and other human activities, coupled with the urban surface forests and the lack of vegetation, heat cannot be quickly absorbed and emitted, resulting in increased urban temperatures, exacerbating the urban heat island effect. In the long run, greenhouse gas emissions will increase significantly due to population growth, and the heat island effect will be exacerbated by increased urbanisation. As a result, heatwaves are likely to become more frequent and severe in the future. and the El Niño-have teleconnections with heatwaves. Due to abnormal exchanges and circulation between the atmosphere and the ocean, phenomena such as the and the El Niño-occur, leading to changes in regional climate patterns, such as extreme weather events like heatwaves [20,21]. When the Atlantic-European continent Oscillation index is positive in summer, the European continent is prone to high-latitude heatwaves and vice versa for low-latitude heatwaves [15]. Niño-Southern Oscillation, generated by the ocean-atmosphere interaction in the equatorial eastern Pacific, leads to anomalously high seawater temperatures in the Pacific Ocean, persistent heavy rainfall in the Americas, and prolonged heatwaves and droughts in [22]. directly exacerbate COPD symptoms through temperature, humidity, and atmospheric pressure. COPD is a respiratory disease sensitive to changes in the surrounding environment, such as temperature, humidity, and air quality. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by explaining how greenhouse gas emissions associated with human activities contribute to global warming, which in turn increases temperatures and leads to more frequent and intense heatwaves. It states that 'As a result, heatwaves are likely to become more frequent and severe in the future,' directly supporting the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Wave energy devices work efficiently in any part of the ocean. [SEP] Text: That is, the representative wave height was defined as the wave height as reported by an “experienced observer”, whom we must assume had spent many years listening to the estimates of other experienced observers so that a relatively consistent estimate of the wave height could be made. This was called the Height, symbolized by H s. However, it is clear that the accuracy of this method is highly dependent on the experience of the observer and as such subject to significant error. When it became possible to record the variation in the water surface elevation, an alternative method of defining wave height was developed. With a record of the variation in the water surface elevation, it is possible to measure the height of individual waves and thus produce a more reliable estimate of the wave height. In order to be consistent with historical reports, it was decided that the new records of surface elevation should be analysed so as to produce an estimate equivalent to the H s. It was found that a good estimate of H s was given using the average height of the third highest waves. In modern times, the variation in wave surface elevation is typically recorded digitally, which provides the potential for significant analysis of the wave record. The most significant development in the representation of the sea is the definition of the sea using a spectrum. To understand the concept of the wave spectrum, it is first necessary to accept that the variation in water surface can be represented as the linear super-position of sinusoidal waves of different frequencies, amplitudes, directions and phases. Although this representation could be viewed as simply a change in the co-ordinate system (from the time-domain to the frequency-domain), it actually appears to be a reasonably good representation of the underlying physics. Indeed, the wave spectrum is now generally used to fully define any sea-state, with the assumption that there is a random phase between all of the individual wave components, which is a natural consequence of the assumption of linear super-position. Although the linear super-position and random phase assumptions are commonly applied, it is important to recognise that they are not universally valid. The most obvious example of the breakdown of linear super-positioning is in sea-states with steep and breaking waves. The super-positioning of the waves means that the waves will become unstable and break at particular times and locations, resulting in a variation in the water surface elevation that is poorly represented by a random phase, linear super-position of the wave components. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by explaining that the representation of waves and the methods used to measure wave heights are subject to significant variations and errors. It highlights that wave behavior can change based on conditions, such as steep and breaking waves, which are instances where the assumptions of linear super-position break down. This suggests that wave energy devices may not work efficiently consistently across all parts of the ocean due to these variations.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: 12MwoA, ictal PACAP38 induced (n = 16) MWoA, interictal (n = 16)ROI-based analysis of seed regions in the salience network, default mode network and sensorimotor network. Resting-state connectivity before and after PACAP38 induced migraine: Altered fc connectivity in the salience network (stronger fc to bilateral inferior frontal regions), the default mode network (less fc with right cerebellum and left frontal lobe) and the sensorimotor network (stronger fc in right premotor cortex and weaker fc in left visual cortex). Hougaard et al. 13MwA, ictal (n = 16)ROI-based analysis of visual areas, pons, hypothalamus, and periaqueductal grey Exploratory ICAIctal vs. interictal fc changes in MwA: Increased fc between pons and somatosensory cortex. Increased fc between visual area V5 of symptomatic hemispheres (contralateral to aura symptoms) and middle frontal gyrus. HC: healthy controls; MwA: migraine with aura; MwoA: migraineurs without aura; fc: functional connectivity; ICA: independent component analysis, ROI: region of interest. Amin et al. 12 used pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide-38 (PACAP38) to induce migraine attacks in 16 MwoA. Patients were scanned during the early migraine phase. Compared to the migraine-free phase, migraine attacks were associated with abnormal fc within the salience network (stronger fc in bilateral inferior frontal regions), sensorimotor network (stronger fc in right premotor cortex and weaker fc in left visual cortex), and within the default mode network (less fc in the right cerebellum and in the left frontal lobe), networks that are known to be involved with the cognitive, sensory, and emotional components of pain. Hougaard et al. 13 investigated 16 episodic migraine (EM) patients during spontaneous attacks of migraine with visual aura. Patients were scanned outside the aura phase (on average 8. 2 h after aura onset), while experiencing headache and associated migraine symptoms, and again outside of attacks being migraine-free for at least 72 h. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address or provide evidence related to the claim about functional MRI measuring brain activity through blood flow changes. Instead, it discusses results from studies on migraine and functional connectivity in different brain networks, which does not validate or contradict the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: This study found that, during the summer heatwave, for every 10 μg/m3 increase in ozone, the relative risk associated with COPD deaths was 1. 0173 [24]. - -people, patients with chronic diseases, and low-income individuals are high-risk groups for heatwaves. The global population of individuals aged ≥65 years is expected to more than double, increasing from 761 million in 2021 to 1. 6 billion by 2050 [32]. COPD is one of the most common non-communicable diseases worldwide. It is projected that the number of COPD cases worldwide in individuals aged ≥25 years will rise by 23% between 2020–50, nearing 600 million patients globally by 2050 [33]. It is reported that older people aged >65 years are the primary heatwave victims, and most COPD patients are older people [34]. As the global population ages and the number of COPD patients increases, the adverse effects of heatwaves on health are becoming increasingly prominent. Most research on heatwave deaths comes from high-income countries. The study of deaths from heatwaves in middle- and low-income countries is limited and may be underestimated. In middle- and low-income countries, fragile and limited health care resources may be insufficient to withstand the impact of heatwaves, resulting in more severe illness and fatalities than in high-income countries. Frequent heatwaves pose increasingly severe global health challenges, especially in middle- and low-income countries. Heatwaves exacerbate the global gap between high-income and low-income countries. This is because heatwaves have a much greater economic impact on low-income countries than high-income ones, further increasing inequality. Callahan and Mankin reported that from 1992 to 2013, cumulative global losses from anthropogenic extreme heat likely ranged between USD 16 trillion and USD 50 trillion [35]. Regions in the lowest income decile experienced annual losses of 8% of gross domestic product per capita, compared to 3. 5% in the top income decile. Since most poorer countries are closer to tropical regions, heatwaves cause higher temperatures and greater impacts, resulting in greater losses. It is a tragedy for low-income countries that the countries and regions least responsible for global warming disproportionately bear the cost of heatwaves. Therefore, high-income countries are responsible for raising funds to help low-income countries adapt to climate change. ? [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how heatwaves, exacerbated by climate change, pose significant health challenges, particularly for vulnerable populations. It notes that heatwaves have a severe impact on low-income countries, indicating that the increasing frequency and intensity of heatwaves are linked to global warming. The text highlights the disproportionate effects of heatwaves on low-income countries, suggesting a direct relationship between climate change and the severity of heatwaves.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Wave energy devices work efficiently in any part of the ocean. [SEP] Text: Another case where linear super-positioning does not provide an accurate representation of the water surface elevation is in shallow water, where a single frequency wave would be more accurately represented by a cnoidal or higher-order Stokes wave than by a sinusoidal wave. Notwithstanding these cases, it is still typical to use a spectrum and linear super-positioning to represent the sea-state because no reasonable alternative currently exists. However, it is important to recognise that, in general, this representation of the sea is, to some extent, simply an abstraction that has been found to be very useful in defining the sea. 3. 3. 2 Temporal, Directional and of the Wave ClimateTo understand how the ocean waves may influence the performance of a wave energy converter, it is useful to consider the temporal, directional and spectral characteristics of the ocean waves and how these may influence the relationship between the average omni-directional wave power and the average power generation. Firstly, the temporal characteristic of a wave climate is how the sea-states that make up a wave climate vary in time as illustrated in Fig. 3. 7 for the significant wave height. In general, the more consistent the wave climate is, the more attractive it becomes (for a particular average wave power) because the WEC and power generating plant can remain closest to its optimal operating conditions and thus maximise the system efficiency. However, the sea-states will vary due to changes in the metrological conditions that generate the winds and associated waves. Not surprisingly, the stability of metrological conditions varies across the world so that the wave climate is more consistent in some locations than others. This variability may be primarily associated with daily, seasonal and/or annual variations in the sea-states, each of which will have a slightly different impact on the power generation and its utility. Thus, it is clear that for all locations the temporal characteristics are an important element of the wave climate, which can result in different power generations for the same average incident wave power. Fig. 3. 7Example of the variation of the significant wave height, energy wave period and tidal current over one month at DanWECFull size image Secondly, the directional characteristics of a wave climate are associated with not only the directional spreading of individual sea-states, but also the directional variation of all the sea-states. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by explaining how the performance of wave energy converters (WEC) is influenced by temporal, directional, and spectral characteristics of ocean waves. It highlights that wave climates are more consistent in some locations than others due to variability in meteorological conditions, stating that 'the stability of metrological conditions varies across the world so that the wave climate is more consistent in some locations than others.' This indicates that wave energy devices may not work efficiently in all parts of the ocean.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Interictal migraine with auraApproximately 1/3 to 1/4 of patients with migraine experience attacks that are accompanied by aura symptoms. 15,16 The majority of migraine auras consist of visual symptoms such as flashing, moving or flickering lights. 17 Visual aura symptoms are attributed to cortical spreading depression in the occipital cortex. 18 Electrophysiology studies using electroencephalography (EEG) and event-related fMRI have found visual cortex hyper-responsivity as well as increased activation to visual stimuli in MwA. 19–21 Several functional imaging studies have compared brain connectivity differences between interictal MwA and interictal MwoA (see Table 2). Niddam et al. 22 explored the fc of two regions that might assert top-down influences on information conveyed to the visual cortex23,24; the anterior insula and middle frontal gyrus. Relative to HCs, MwA and MwoA both had stronger fc between the middle frontal gyrus and the right temporal region. Their results further indicated that MwA compared to MwoA have weaker fc between the anterior insula and the V3A in the visual cortex. A correlation analysis indicated that weaker fc in MwA was inversely related to migraine severity. These results indicate that MwA and MwoA share common network abnormalities between middle frontal and the right temporal regions and that MwA (relative to MwoA) have weaker fc between the anterior insula, a key region of the limbic system, and the visual cortex, perhaps representing network abnormalities distinct to aura. Table 2. Brain functional connectivity in interictal migraine patients with aura. StudySubject cohortsAnalysisMain findingMigraine with aura Farago et al. a19MwA (n = 18) MwoA (n = 35) HC (n = 32)ICA Frequency spectrum analysisMwA compared to HC: No differences between groups in the frequency amplitudes of the default mode, visual, and attention networks. MwA compared to MwoA: Higher frequency amplitudes in the default mode, visual and attention networks in MwA, specifically in frontal cortex, cingulate, inferior parietal lobule and the cerebellum. Niddam et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim about functional MRI's ability to measure brain activity through changes in blood flow. Instead, it discusses specific findings related to migraine with aura and brain connectivity but does not provide any information regarding the mechanism of functional MRI related to blood flow changes.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: First, heatwaves are a global climate challenge that requires countries to collaborate in developing adaptation and mitigation policies under the framework of the United Nations. For example, greenhouse gas emission targets should be adjusted accordingly, with stricter targets set if necessary. Additionally, using clean energy sources, such as wind, hydro, nuclear, and solar, should be encouraged to reduce reliance on fossil fuels like oil and coal, thereby reducing carbon emissions. Increasing subsidies for purchasing electric vehicles and phasing out fuel vehicles are also crucial steps. The faster we transition to a clean energy economy, the more significant the benefits of mitigating climate change will be [36]. Second, improve the collection of national climate data and establish an early warning system. Develop a heatwave vulnerability index based on historical data, the urban heat island effect, and the socio-economic characteristics of the population. Create city risk maps, prepare and rehearse plans based on scenario simulations, and publish public health protection guidelines. Launch an early warning system for high-temperature health risks and an intelligent emergency decision-making platform. Formulate precise interventions based on changes in high-temperature spatial and temporal dynamics, the distribution of public service facilities, and crowd activity patterns. Additionally, establish a platform for information sharing, resource exchange, and coordinated action among government departments of meteorology, health, planning, and emergency response. This platform should integrate and implement heatwave mitigation measures, systematically addressing health risks. Third, urban comfort space planning should be implemented to reduce the heat island effect. This includes promoting green roofs, cooling coated pavements, and climate-adaptive construction techniques, increasing the coverage of vegetation and water systems, and enhancing the city’s blue-green interwoven ecological space. Also, building height, density, layout form, and volume should be controlled to improve ventilation and heat dissipation. Utilise ecological cold sources such as lakes, rivers, and mountains to build ventilation corridors that introduce fresh, cool, and moist air into urban areas. Fourth, international cooperation and resource allocation should be strengthened. High-income countries should enhance their support for climate adaptation projects in low-income countries. Developed countries should establish a climate change fund under the framework of the to provide financial support to low-income countries, helping them adapt to climate change by planting drought-resistant crops, building flood control seawalls, and establishing hurricane warning systems. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing various adaptive measures that are necessary to address heatwaves, which are identified as a global climate challenge. Additionally, it emphasizes the importance of reducing carbon emissions to mitigate climate change impacts, which supports the idea that climate change is tied to the frequency and intensity of heatwaves. The mention of transitioning to clean energy and implementing urban planning strategies to combat the heat island effect further reinforces the link between climate change and heatwave phenomena.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Wave energy devices work efficiently in any part of the ocean. [SEP] Text: The only situation where this may not be critical is for an isolated omni-directional WEC such as a heaving buoy. However, as soon as this buoy is put into a wave farm, the directional characteristics of the sea-state become significant, with the significance increasing with the size of the wave farm. In general, an increase in the directional variation of the wave climate will lead to a reduction in the average power generation because the WECs and/or wave farm will typically be less optimally aligned. As would be expected, the directional characteristics of a wave climate is dependent on its location, which defines the range of weather systems that produce winds, and subsequently waves that contribute to the local wave climate. Thus, the directional characteristics are an important element of the wave climate that should be considered when assessing a potential site. Finally, the spectral characteristics of a wave climate are associated with the wave spectrum of individual sea-states, together with the spectral variation for all the sea-states as illustrated in Fig. 3. 8 for the average directional spectra at EMEC. The spectral characteristics of the wave climate can be particularly important because the “efficiency” of many WECs is frequency-dependent. Thus, wave power associated with particular wave frequencies may be more significant than wave power at other frequencies. For example, the power capture per unit wave height of many surging/pitching devices tends to increase with wave frequency because the incident wave force/torque also tends to increase with wave frequency [8, 9], whilst the incident wave power decreases with wave frequency (see Eq. 3. 18). Thus, in this case, incident wave power is clearly not a good proxy for power generation. Thus, in assessing a potential site, it is important consider the spectral characteristics of a potential site, especially in relation to the spectral response of the WECs being considered for deployment at the site. Fig. 3. 8Average directional spectral variance density (m2/Hz/rad) at the size image When a particular site of interest has been identified, then a scatter diagram is often used to characterise it. Figure 3. 9 shows an example of a scatter diagram which consists of a frequency of occurrence table indexed by a representative wave period, typically a peak period, zero-crossing period or energy period and a representative wave height, almost always the Height. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by explaining that the 'directional characteristics of the sea-state become significant' when deploying wave energy converters (WECs) in a wave farm. It emphasizes that the efficiency of WECs is not uniform across different locations, as the local wave climate's directional and spectral characteristics can influence power generation. Specifically, the text states that 'an increase in the directional variation of the wave climate will lead to a reduction in the average power generation,' indicating that wave energy devices may not work efficiently in every part of the ocean due to these variations.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: 19 found higher amplitudes of the resting state BOLD fluctuations in the lateral visual network frequencies in MwA compared to MwoA and to HC, specifically in regions including the cingulate cortex, superior parietal lobule, cerebellum and frontal regions. Hougaard et al. 28 compared 40 MwA patients to 40 age and sex-matched HCs. The authors applied a seed-based analysis of 27 different seed locations in total, including cortical visual areas, amygdala, and periaqueductal grey. In addition, ICA was used to study intrinsic brain networks. The authors found no differences, or even trends towards differences, between migraine patients and controls for any of these networks. Specifically, previously reported abnormal fc involving the periaqueductal grey29 and the amygdala30 could not be reproduced. In summary, these results suggest possible fc alterations in MwA compared to MwoA and HC in the visual cortex as well as in wide-spread regions involved in visual processing (including the middle frontal regions, insula, and the anterior cingulate, superior parietal lobule and the cerebellum, see Figure 3). However, the study by Hougaard et al. , showing no fc abnormalities in a relatively large sample of MwA patients, questions these findings and emphasizes the general need for reproducing rs-fMRI results before firm conclusions can be drawn. Figure 3. Interictal migraine patients with aura compared to interictal migraine patients without aura have stronger functional connectivity within visual cortex regions (VC) including the lingual gyrus (LG) and stronger functional connectivity of occipital regions with the anterior insula. Migraineurs with aura have higher amplitudes of resting-state fluctuations in frontal areas, cingulate cortex (CC), inferior parietal lobule (iPL) and the cerebellum. Limbic connectivity in migraineHadjikhani et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provides detailed findings from studies on functional connectivity in migraine patients, but it does not directly address or support the claim about functional MRI measuring brain activity or changes in blood flow. Instead, it mainly discusses the research findings and implications without connecting them to the basic principle of how fMRI functions, thus making it irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: Additionally, the threshold for applying for funds should be lowered, and the application process should be simplified to enable low-income countries to fully and effectively use these funds to cope with climate change. 13 aims to take urgent action to address climate change and its impacts. While countries strive to combat climate change, the results do not seem satisfactory. Global warming and heatwaves appear to be worsening rather than abating. Extreme weather events pose a serious threat to human health. We highlight the significant threat that heatwaves pose to individuals with chronic respiratory diseases, such as COPD, as well as to older persons and residents of low-income countries. We call on policymakers, health care providers, and individuals to pay more attention to the impacts of heatwaves on human health. We hope to unite global political, economic, and social forces to take the measures outlined above to address the global climate change crisis effectively. [1] Funding: This research was supported by the for Science and in Institutions of of Reform and Development Fund. [2] Authorship contributions: ZZ – conceptualisation, writing original draft, writing, reviewing and editing the manuscript. TD – revising and editing the manuscript. XP – writing, reviewing, and editing the manuscript. [3] Disclosure of interest: The authors completed the of (available upon request from the corresponding author) and disclose no relevant interests. 8848. DOI: 10. 1002/ece3. 8848. [PMID:35475175] [2] M Wedler, JG Pinto, and A Hochman. More frequent, persistent, and deadly heat waves in the 21st century over the Eastern Mediterranean. Environ. 2023;870:161883. DOI: 10. 1016/j. scitotenv. 2023. 161883. [PMID:36736407] [3] and A Wang. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). . 2019;199:P1-P2. DOI: 10. 1164/rccm. 1991P1. [PMID:30592446] [4] J de Miguel-Díez, J Hernández-Vázquez, A López-de-Andrés, A Álvaro-Meca, V Hernández-Barrera, and R Jiménez-García. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by stating that 'global warming and heatwaves appear to be worsening rather than abating.' This indicates a connection between climate change and the increase in heatwaves, thereby corroborating the idea that climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Wave energy devices work efficiently in any part of the ocean. [SEP] Text: The scatter diagram clearly provides significantly more information about the wave climate than the average omni-directional wave power; however, it is not without issues. Firstly, depending on the table resolution, the sea-states can vary significantly within any single cell in the scatter table, especially for the cells indexed by a small significant wave height. For example, there is a potential 4:1 variation in wave power between sea-states in a cell defined by Heights of between 0. 5 and 1. 0 m. Of course, any contribution from these sea-states to either the average incident wave power or power generation is likely to be small and so the impact on any estimate of WEC performance is also likely to be small; however, this may not always be the case and any potential distortion should be considered when using scatter diagrams. Secondly, typically there are no details on the temporal/ directional distribution or spectral shape of the sea-states that are all contained in a single cell, both of which can have a significant impact on the power generation of a WEC as discussed above. This second issue is sometimes reduced by producing multiple scatter diagrams for a particular site, which are used to separate the wave climate by peak wave direction or season, but there is clearly a practical limit to the number and range of scatter diagrams that can be produced and used effectively. Fig. 3. 9Example of a scatter diagramFull size image Another representation of the wave climate that is often used is the wave rose as shown in Fig. 3. 10. A wave rose is a graphical representation of the average wave power or Height from different directional sectors. Similar to a set of wave roses may be produced based on season in order to provide additional information that may be useful in understanding the wave climate, especially where different meteorological conditions are responsible for different wave conditions at different times of the year. Fig. 3. 10Example wave rose of significant wave heightFull size image In summary, it can be seen that the characterisation of the wave climate using single parameters such as the average omni-directional wave power, scatter diagrams and wave roses present only a partial picture of the wave climate. Moreover, care must be taken in translating this partial picture into an estimate of the power generation of a WEC. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by detailing the variability of wave power and sea-states within the ocean, noting that wave energy devices do not operate efficiently in all conditions. It emphasizes that there can be significant variations in wave power depending on different environmental factors, stating that 'there is a potential 4:1 variation in wave power between sea-states in a cell defined by Heights of between 0.5 and 1.0 m.' Furthermore, it mentions that 'care must be taken in translating this partial picture into an estimate of the power generation of a WEC,' indicating that efficiency may not be uniform across different parts of the ocean.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: 30 compared fc patterns of the amygdala in MwA and MwoA to patients with trigeminal neuralgia, to patients with carpal tunnel syndrome and to HCs. Compared to HCs and to patients with other chronic pain conditions, migraineurs had stronger fc between the amygdala and the thalamus, anterior insula and the secondary somatosensory area, potentially indicating that stronger fc patterns between the amygdala with other viscero-sensory areas might be uniquely manifested in migraine. Similar results were reported by another study that compared fc patterns of the bilateral amygdala in chronic and episodic migraineurs to HCs. 31 Relative to HCs, episodic migraineurs had stronger fc of the left amygdala with the left middle cingulate and left precuneus and chronic migraineurs had stronger fc of the left and right amygdala with widespread regions in inferior temporal lobe, prefrontal gyrus, cingulate cortex, and pre-and postcentral gyri compared to episodic migraineurs. Compared to HCs, chronic migraineurs had weaker functional connectivity between the right amygdala and occipital regions. Although the roles of the left and right amygdala in migraine chronification will need to be further investigated, there is some evidence that supports the potential lateralization of right versus left amygdala function. 32,33 For example, stronger fc between the left amygdala and prefrontal regions was found in healthy females with higher risk for developing anxiety disorders, whereas stronger right amygdala fc with limbic and prefrontal regions was found to be important for regulating negative affect. 34Results of studies investigating limbic region connectivity show stronger amygdala fc patterns in patients with migraine and a strengthening of fc patterns between the amygdala and regions which play important roles in the pain experience (sensory discrimination, pain modulation, multisensory integration) (see Table 3). Table 3. Connectivity of limbic regions, sensory and motor regions, executive networks, and default mode networks in interictal migraine patients. StudySubject cohortsAnalysisMain findingLimbic connectivity Chen et al. 31CM (n = 16) EM (n = 18) HC (n = 18)ROI-based analysis of seed regions in bilateral amygdalaEM vs. HC: Stronger left amygdala fc in EM to the left middle cingulate and the left precuneus. CM vs. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses functional connectivity patterns in the amygdala related to migraine patients but does not address the claim regarding functional MRI's ability to measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. As such, it does not provide relevant information to support or contradict the claim, making it irrelevant.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: Moisture convergence at the GPLLJ terminus18,28 migrates to the Central/along with the northward extension of the GPLLJ. The strengthened GPLLJ transports more moist air to the Plains, so MCSs developing in or propagating into that region produce more intense precipitation and last longer, thus facilitating enhancement of total and extreme precipitation, as seen in Figs 2 and 3. Although the aforementioned trends in the large-scale environments are found during days of HP-MCSs, examination of climatological trends averaged during all days in April–June show consistent patterns, albeit with weaker magnitudes (Supplementary Fig. 4), suggesting that the climatological changes in springtime large-scale environments are at least partially responsible for the increased MCS precipitation. DiscussionOur analysis shows that more intense and more frequent longer-lasting MCSs occur along with the trend towards warmer springtime over the central United States. This result has significant implications regarding future extreme rainfall occurrence in this convectively dominated region and season and in other regions frequented by MCSs. Climate model projections suggest that low-level moisture flux will further intensify in a warming climate25,28. However, most climate models do not yet have an adequate way of representing MCSs29,30. The advent of high-resolution climate models with convection permitting/resolving capabilities should provide a useful tool to improve understanding of the processes controlling the maintenance and characteristics of MCSs and the dynamical feedback related to enhanced boundary layer moisture supply under future warming. This study underscores the urgent need for these improvements. MethodsDataThe gridded precipitation data over were obtained from the (NLDAS) meteorological forcing data set ( A globally-merged half-hourly 4-km satellite IR brightness temperature data set ( available 2000–2014) is used to track cloud systems and identify mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) based on cloud size and duration12. Identifying MCS by precipitation featureThe 15-year satellite MCS database was used to develop a precipitation feature (PF) algorithm based on NLDAS precipitation data alone by deriving the precipitation characteristics of MCSs. The PF algorithm was then used to construct an independent MCS database, which was validated against the satellite MCS database. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim as it discusses the relationship between increased moisture and precipitation events in the context of warming temperatures. It highlights that 'more intense and more frequent longer-lasting MCSs occur along with the trend towards warmer springtime over the central United States,' indicating that changes in climate contribute to more extreme weather patterns, which includes heatwaves.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Wave energy devices work efficiently in any part of the ocean. [SEP] Text: Indeed, whenever possible it is recommended to use the full time-series of directional wave spectra to estimate the average power generation of a WEC [10], and if this is not possible, either because the full data set is not available or it would require too much effort, then it is important to recognise that not only is there an increased uncertainty in the estimate of power generation, but relative performance of the WEC at different locations may also not be a simple function of the average omni-directional wave power or other parameterised characteristic of the wave climate. However, although the use of wave climate characterisations for estimating power generation is not recommended, they do provide an overview that can be useful for understanding the performance of a WEC. Furthermore, as understanding of a WEC increases with identification of the most appropriate characterisations of the wave climate for the particular WEC, it is possible that the WEC’s performance could be reasonably estimated from the wave climate characteristics. However, until that point is reached it remains prudent to recognise the limitations of any characterisation of the wave climate and the potential distortion in the estimate of a WEC’s power that it may cause. 3. 3. 3 of Ocean WavesIn the preceding sections, the wave spectra has been discussed without any clear definition of exactly what it represents. Representation of the ocean using a wave spectrum assumes that it is possible to represent the water surface as the sum of sinusoidal waves with a range of frequencies, amplitudes and directions. The variation of the wave energy with frequency (and direction) is called the wave spectrum. Figure 3. 11 shows an illustration of this super-positioning of waves, together with an example of a typical wave spectrum. Fig. 3. 11Super-positioning of waves (corresponding to spectral components) to create water surface elevation (left) and the resulting spectrum (right) [11]Full size image A variety of idealised spectra have been suggested to represent a fully developed sea-state. Perhaps the most commonly used spectrum was developed by Pierson and Moscowitz in 1964 and is called the Pierson-Moscowitz (PM) Spectrum [12]. This spectrum assumes that the wind has been blowing across a sufficiently large expanse of water for sufficiently long that the waves are in equilibrium with the wind, i. e. the sea-state is fully developed and so that the spectrum is dependent on only the wind speed. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that the performance of wave energy converters (WECs) may not be a straightforward function of average wave power or other simplified characteristics of wave conditions. It acknowledges increased uncertainty in estimating the power generation from directional wave spectra if data is incomplete. This suggests that efficient operation of WECs can vary significantly by location, and thus they may not work efficiently in every part of the ocean as claimed.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: EM: Stronger bilateral amygdala connectivity in CM to widespread regions including the inferior temporal, prefrontal, cingulate, and pre-and postcentral regions. CM vs. HC: Weaker right amygdala connectivity in CM to occipital regions. Hadjikhani et al. 30Migraine (n = 22) MwoA (n = 11) MwA (n = 11) compared to: HC (n = 20) trigeminal neuralgia (n = 9) compared to: HC (n = 9) carpal tunnel syndrome (n = 11) compared to: HC (n = 11)ROI-based analysis of seed regions in bilateral amygdalaMigraineurs with and without aura compared to healthy controls and compared to patients with trigeminal neuralgia and to patients with carpal tunnel syndrome: Stronger fc between amygdala and viscero- sensory areas (thalamus, anterior insula and secondary somatosensory cortex). Sensory-motor connectivity Hodkinson et al. 35EM (n = 40) MwoA: n = 24 MwA: n = 16 HC (n = 40)ROI-based analysis of six regions within the primary sensory networks: vision, audition and somato-sensationEM vs. HC: Intact fc within regions of the primary sensory areas. Impaired long-range connections of primary sensory areas to default mode and salience network. Zhang et al. 36MwoA (n = 30) HC (n = 31)Regional homogeneity, (ReHo), amplitudes of low-frequency fluctuations, (ALFF), degree centrality (DC) Followed by ROI-based analysis of sensorimotor networkMwoA vs. HC: Decreased network spontaneous activity as measured in the right primary motor cortex and the bilateral primary sensory areas (SI) in MwoA and less fc between bilateral SI and other regions important for pain processing and pain discrimination, including; the temporal lobe, superior and inferior parietal lobes, anterior cingulate, insular cortex and brainstem regions (pons, cerebellum). Negative correlation between network spontaneous activity and measures of headache disabilityExecutive networks Russo et al. 41MwoA (n = 14) HC (n = 14)ICA executive networkMwoA vs. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses findings related to brain connectivity in different patient groups, including migraineurs and healthy controls, without addressing how functional MRI measures brain activity via blood flow changes.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: AbstractLake ecosystems, and the organisms that live within them, are vulnerable to temperature change1,2,3,4,5, including the increased occurrence of thermal extremes6. However, very little is known about lake heatwaves—periods of extreme warm lake surface water temperature—and how they may change under global warming. Here we use satellite observations and a numerical model to investigate changes in lake heatwaves for hundreds of lakes worldwide from 1901 to 2099. We show that lake heatwaves will become hotter and longer by the end of the twenty-first century. For the high-greenhouse-gas-emission scenario (Pathway (RCP) 8. 5), the average intensity of lake heatwaves, defined relative to the historical period (1970 to 1999), will increase from 3. 7 ± 0. 1 to 5. 4 ± 0. 8 degrees Celsius and their average duration will increase dramatically from 7. 7 ± 0. 4 to 95. 5 ± 35. 3 days. In the low-greenhouse-gas-emission RCP 2. 6 scenario, heatwave intensity and duration will increase to 4. 0 ± 0. 2 degrees Celsius and 27. 0 ± 7. 6 days, respectively. Surface heatwaves are longer-lasting but less intense in deeper lakes (up to 60 metres deep) than in shallower lakes during both historic and future periods. As lakes warm during the twenty-first century7,8, their heatwaves will begin to extend across multiple seasons, with some lakes reaching a permanent heatwave state. Lake heatwaves are likely to exacerbate the adverse effects of long-term warming in lakes and exert widespread influence on their physical structure and chemical properties. Lake heatwaves could alter species composition by pushing aquatic species and ecosystems to the limits of their resilience. This in turn could threaten lake biodiversity9 and the key ecological and economic benefits that lakes provide to society. Access through your institution Buy or subscribe This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution Access options Access through your institution Access through your institution Change institution Buy or subscribe and 54 other journalsGet Nature+, our best-value online-access subscription$29. 99 30 dayscancel any timeLearn moreSubscribe to this journalReceive 51 print issues and online access$199. 00 per yearonly $3. 90 per issueLearn moreBuy this 10. 5281/zenodo. 4081165. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing evidence that lake heatwaves, which are periods of extreme warm lake surface water temperature, will become hotter and longer due to climate change. Specifically, it states that under high greenhouse gas emission scenarios, the average intensity of lake heatwaves will increase significantly, indicating that climate change is leading to more intense heat events in lake ecosystems. Furthermore, it mentions that as lakes warm during the twenty-first century, heatwaves will likely extend across multiple seasons, further supporting the idea that climate change is increasing both the frequency and intensity of such events.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Wave energy devices work efficiently in any part of the ocean. [SEP] Text: When available, it is almost always better to use the directional wave spectrum of a sea-state in any analysis rather than a characterisation of the sea-state. Unfortunately, this is not always possible either because the directional wave spectrum is not available or because it would require excessive amounts of computational effort. However, whenever only the sea-state characteristics are presented, or used in an analysis, it is important to be cautious with any conclusions because of the potential distortions that can occur. 3. 3. 5 Challenges in CharacterisationA wave climate can be reasonably approximated as a long-term series of sea-states that are defined by the directional wave spectrum. Together with other metocean parameters such as water depth, marine current speed/direction and wind speed/direction, this can be used to estimate the power capture and design parameters for any wave energy converter deployed at the location. However, typically it is not possible to work with this amount of data (or the data is not available) and so a characterisation of the wave climate is used. The wave climate characterisation can essentially be one of two types: the characterisation of the wave climate at a single point or the characterisation of the wave climate over an area. However, it is important to recognise that in either case the characterisation results in a compression of the details on the wave climate and so does not contain all the information that may be relevant to the performance of a wave energy converter. The average omni-directional wave power is probably the most common characterisation of the wave resource for the assessment of wave energy. This seems, and likely is, a reasonable characterisation since it is clear that to extract significant amounts of wave energy the incident wave power must also be significant; without waves there is no wave power. Figure 3. 3 shows an example of this characterisation illustrating the variation in the average omni-directional wave power around the world. As would be expected, the areas with higher average omni-directional wave power, such as the north-west coast of Europe, are also the areas with the most interest in the deployment of wave energy converters. The implicit assumption is that a wave energy converter’s power capture is proportional to the average omni-directional wave power thus a larger average omni-directional wave power equates to a larger power capture. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the limitations in characterizing wave energy potential across different ocean areas. It highlights that while wave energy converters may be effective in areas with significant wave power, such as the north-west coast of Europe, efficiency is not guaranteed in other parts of the ocean due to the variability of the wave climate and the challenges in data availability. The text indicates that wave energy converters' performance is influenced by localized conditions rather than functioning efficiently in 'any part of the ocean.'


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: HC: In the absence of executive function deficits, MwoA had weaker fc within the fronto-parietal network. (middle frontal gyrus and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex) Weaker fc in the middle frontal gyrus correlated with higher pain intensity in MwoA Tessitore et al. 42MwoA (n = 20) MwA (n = 20) HC (n = 20)ICA executive networkMwA and MwoA compared to HC: Compared to HC, MwA and MwoA had weaker fc of regions within the executive network (middle frontal gyrus and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex). There were no differences in executive function between MwA, MwoA and HC. MwoA compared to MwA: No differences in executive network connectivity between MwA and MwoADefault mode network Farago et al. a19MwoA (n = 35) HC (n = 32)ICA Frequency spectrum analysisMwoA vs HC: Lower frequency fluctuations in MwoA in the default mode network Zhang et al. 48MwoA (n = 22) HC (n = 22)Regional homogeneity, (ReHo), amplitudes of low-frequency fluctuations, (ALFF), degree centrality (DC) Followed by ROI-based analysis of default mode networkMwoA vs. HC: More fc in left precuneus/posterior cingulate cortex within the default mode network. Increased regional homogeneity in the bilateral precuneus/ posterior cingulate cortex. Decreased fc of the precuneus/ posterior cingulate cortex with brain regions outside of the default mode network. Negative correlation between network spontaneous activity and measures of headache disability. Tessitore et al. 44Episodic MwoA (n = 20) HC (n = 20)ICA analysis of the default mode networkEMwoA vs. HC: Less fc of in prefrontal and temporal regions of the default mode network. Less fc in regions of the default mode network was not related to structural abnormalities or to clinical parameters. Xue et al. 47aMwoA (n = 23) HC (n = 23)ICA analysis of the default mode networkMwoA vs. HC: No alteration within the default mode network system. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses various studies and findings related to functional connectivity (fc) in different brain networks, specifically in individuals with migraine and healthy controls. However, it does not mention functional MRI or its ability to measure brain activity through blood flow changes. Therefore, the text is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: For each lake thermal region, the relationship between log10[lake depth (m)] and the average duration of lake heatwave events is shown for the historic period (averaged over all years from 1970 to 1999). The relationships between lake depth and the heatwave metrics (square, not significant: P > 0. 001; circle, significant: P < 0. 001) were calculated with a generalized additive model (see Methods). Fig. 6 Relationship between average lake depth and average heatwave duration from 2070 to 2099. For each lake thermal region, the relationship between log10[mean lake depth (m)] and the average duration of lake heatwave events is shown for the end of the twenty-first century (averaged over all years from 2070 to 2099) under RCP 2. 6, RCP 6. 0 and RCP 8. 5. The relationships between lake depth and the heatwave metrics (square, not significant: P > 0. 001; circle, significant: P < 0. 001) were calculated with a generalized additive model (see Methods). Fig. 7 Relationship between average lake depth and total heatwave duration from 1970 to 1999. For each lake thermal region, the relationship between log10[mean lake depth (m)] and the total duration of lake heatwave events per year is shown for the historic period (averaged over all years from 1970 to 1999). The relationships between lake depth and the heatwave metrics (square, not significant: P > 0. 001; circle, significant: P < 0. 001) were calculated with a generalized additive model (see Methods). Fig. 8 Relationship between average lake depth and total heatwave duration from 2070 to 2099. For each lake thermal region, the relationship between log10[mean lake depth (m)] and the total duration of lake heatwave events per year is shown for the end of the twenty-first century (averaged over all years from 2070 to 2099) under RCP 2. 6, RCP 6. 0 and RCP 8. 5. The relationships between lake depth and the heatwave metrics (square, not significant: P > 0. 001; circle, significant: P < 0. 001) were calculated with a generalized additive model (see Methods). Fig. 9 Lake thermal responses to climate change. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by indicating relationships between lake depth and heatwave metrics, showing statistical significance under various future climate scenarios (RCP 2.6, RCP 6.0, RCP 8.5) for the years 2070 to 2099. It suggests that changes in climate conditions are related to alterations in lake heatwave events, evidencing how climate change could lead to more frequent and intense heatwaves.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Wave energy devices work efficiently in any part of the ocean. [SEP] Text: However, whilst it may be reasonable to assume that a wave energy converter will produce more power at a site with an average omni-directional wave power of 40 kW/m compared to an alternative site with 2 kW/m, it is less clear that this will be true if the alternative site had an average omni-directional wave power of 30 kW/m. The key factor to consider is that when comparing potential sites the use of the average omni-directional wave power obscures information regarding the temporal, directional and spectral characteristics of the wave climate (see Sect. 3. 2) that may be important to the average power capture. Of course, how these characteristics may affect the average power generation will vary with the WEC and so it is difficult to be overly prescriptive regarding the extent of distortion that may be due to using average omni-directional wave power as a proxy for average power generation. One method to compensate for the potential distortion is to provide information on other aspects of the wave climate simultaneously with the average omni-directional wave power. Examples of this additional information could include the ratio of maximum wave power to average wave power, the average directionality coefficient, the average spectral width, and/or the average energy period. Unfortunately, whilst this additional information does provide more details of the characteristics of the wave resource that may suggest the relative strengths and weaknesses of particular sites, it still does not provide a clear indication of how a WEC’s power generation may differ between locations. Whilst it is frustrating that a single parameter, or even set of parameters, cannot be used to assess the suitability of a potential WEC deployment site, this is the state of the wave energy industry at the moment. The rich diversity of WEC concepts currently being developed means that there are a multiple of relationships between the wave resource and power generation. Moreover, it is possible that a particular WEC concept may be most suitable at one location, whilst another WEC concept is more suitable at another location. Thus, there may not be the complete convergence onto a single concept as in wind energy, with the three-bladed horizontal-axis turbine, due to the potentially greater diversity of wave resource characteristics compared to wind resource characteristics, which is generally successfully characterised simply by the average wind speed. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by emphasizing that wave energy converters (WECs) do not necessarily produce efficient power generation uniformly across different oceanic locations. It explains that characteristics such as temporal, directional, and spectral aspects of wave climate significantly affect power capture, suggesting that efficiency is not guaranteed in all ocean areas. Furthermore, the text notes that different WEC concepts may perform better in varying conditions, indicating that no single device works efficiently everywhere.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Greater fc between the default mode network, executive network, and the salience network (anterior insula). Greater fc amongst these networks correlated with duration of migraine. Yu et al. 46MwoA (n = 26) HC (n = 26)ROI analysis and regional homogeneity (Re-Ho)MwoA vs. HC: Less default mode network connectivity (and amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations) in regions including the anterior cingulate, prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex and the thalamus. Negative correlation between regional homogeneity values in the anterior cingulate and prefrontal cortex with disease duration in MwoA. Note: A summary of published studies investigating the brain functional connectivity of limbic regions, sensory and motor regions, executive networks, and default mode networks in interictal migraineurs compared to healthy controls. HC: healthy controls; CM: chronic migraineurs; EM: episodic migraineurs; MwA: migraine with aura; MwoA: migraineurs without aura; fc: functional connectivity; ROI: region of interest. aStudies that interrogated multiple networks, or patient sub-types. Sensory and motor networks and multi-sensory integration in migraineHodkinson et al. 35 investigated the fc of several key sensory regions associated with vision, audition, and somatosensation. Although there was not a difference between the fc amongst regions of the primary sensory areas, episodic migraineurs had altered long-range functional connections to higher order networks such as the default and the salience network. The authors postulated that weaker connectivity to long-range networks could reflect difficulties integrating multi-sensory information. Zhang et al. 36 found less sensorimotor network spontaneous activity, a technique for evaluating time-series synchronizations of neighboring voxels,27 in primary motor and primary sensory areas in MwoA compared to HC and less fc between primary sensory areas and regions relevant for pain processing and pain discrimination such as the temporal lobe, superior and inferior parietal lobes, anterior cingulate cortex, insular cortex and brainstem regions. The authors also reported a negative correlation between network spontaneous activity and measures of headache disability, indicating that weaker network activity related to more headache-specific disability. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is largely focused on discussing functional connectivity and brain networks in the context of migraines, rather than providing information on the capability of functional MRI (fMRI) to measure brain activity through blood flow changes. While fMRI inherently involves blood flow and connectivity, the text does not directly support or refute the claim, thus classifying it as irrelevant.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: 2004, 2012; Mann and Emanuel 2006; Thompson et al. 2010). Fig. 1Ensemble simulations of annual-mean global surface temperature with (red) and without (blue) anthropogenic gas forcing, together with the observed global surface temperatures (black); thin lines indicate ensemble extremes: a Based on CMIP3 (adapted from Fig. 2d of Meehl et al. 2004); b based on CCSM4 (from Fig. 2 of Meehl et al. 2012)Full size image We therefore define an ACCI by the difference between the model simulations with and without anthropogenic gases. When applied to the ensemble means from Fig. 1a, the ACCI is essentially zero until around 1960 (Fig. 2a), after which an exponential change to a quasi-linear increase of around 0. 35 °C per decade commenced. The results in this paper are robust to the details of the derivation of the ACCI, for example by replacing the anthropogenic simulations with the observed temperatures. Some earlier warming is seen in the more recent CCSM4 simulation (System Model, Figs. 1b, 2a), which is considered to be due to the lack of an indirect effect for sulfates in the model (Meehl et al. 2012). We also examined defining ACCI from ensemble information, including taking the ensemble extremes and other combinations. Our conclusions are robust to all of these approaches. Fig. 2 a ACCI calculated from the differences between the ensemble annual means in Fig. 1 with the solid line being a cubic fit to the annual values; b Relationship between the ACCI and annual global tropical SST anomalies (±30° Lat) together with linear trends, both of the indicated variances have p < 0. 01Full size image The ACCI data in Fig. 2a indicate that consideration of the impact of anthropogenic climate change should be limited to the last four decades. This is quite different to a number of other studies that have assumed an essentially linear warming over the past 100 years or so [see, e. g. Knutson et al. (2010) for hurricane implications]. If greenhouse gases alone are considered then an extended period of nearly linear warming is justified, but anthropogenic impacts on the climate also arise from a range of other contributors that have counteracted the pure greenhouse gas warming until recently [see Meehl et al. (2012) for a detailed discussion]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the impact of anthropogenic climate change on temperature variation over the past few decades. It highlights that the recognition of anthropogenic influences on climate should be limited to recent decades, implying a connection between these changes and climatic events such as heatwaves. Additionally, the mention of greenhouse gas contributions suggests a link to increased warmth, which supports the claim regarding more intense heatwaves.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Wave energy devices work efficiently in any part of the ocean. [SEP] Text: Although not associated with a particular WEC concept, a useful illustration of the dangers of using the average omni-directional wave power as a proxy for power generation is in assessing the effect of water depth on the incident wave power. Off of the west coast of Scotland, the average omni-directional wave power decreases as it approaches the shore and the water depth reduces, so that in 10–20 m of water it is only typically 50 % of its offshore value. To assess the extent that this reduction in average omni-directional wave power may translate to a reduction in potential power generation, it is necessary to consider how the change in average omni-directional wave power has occurred. Consideration of the wave propagation process indicates that there are six main processes responsible for the change in average omni-directional wave power, namely: shoaling, refraction, diffraction, depth-induced wave breaking, bottom friction and wind growth, which are each considered in detail below. 3. 3. 6 Coastal Processes3. 3. 6. 1 ShoalingShoaling can be understood by considering a wave propagating into shallower water. When a wave propagates into shallower water, the wave group velocity changes, but the change in group velocity is not accompanied by a change in energy flux. Thus, conservation of energy means that the wave height must get larger in order to keep the total energy flux constant. It can be visualised as a bunching up of the incident waves so that they increase in height as illustrated in Fig. 3. 13. Fig. 3. 13Change in wave shape due to water depth. Adapted from [7]Full size image 3. 3. 6. 2 RefractionTo understand refraction, consider a wave propagating at an angle to the depth contours. In this case, the dispersion equation tells us that the part of the wave crest in shallow water will travel slower resulting in a turning of the direction of wave propagation. This effect explains why on the beach all the waves appear to come from a direction approximately orthogonal to the coastline (Fig. 3. 14). Fig. 3. 14Wave refraction near the shore due to a change in water depthFull size image Refraction causes the waves to change direction so that their propagation direction is more orthogonal to the seabed depth contours. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing how wave energy can be significantly affected by water depth, emphasizing that average omni-directional wave power decreases as it approaches the shore and that in shallower waters (10–20 m), the wave power is typically only 50% of its offshore value. This indicates that wave energy devices may not work efficiently in all parts of the ocean, particularly in shallower regions near the shore.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Results of these two studies (see Table 3) indicate weaker network activity within primary sensorimotor regions as well as weaker long-range network connectivity to regions important for pain perception, pain modulation and multi-sensory integration. Results of these studies provide further evidence that might help explain some of the neural underpinnings involved with migraine-specific hypersensitivies to light, sound, touch and odor and which might underlie aberrant network processes of regions involved with multi-sensory integration. Executive network connectivity in migraineAlthough cognitive difficulties during migraine attacks are frequently reported by migraineurs, studies assessing cognitive function in migraineurs have yielded conflicting results. 37–40 The executive network is known to underlie high-level cognitive processes. The interrogation of this network provides an indirect way to study cognitive integrity on a brain network level. Russo et al. 41 found that MwoA, who did not demonstrate impairments on neuropsychological tests measuring executive function, had weaker fc within regions of the executive network (middle frontal gyrus and dorsal anterior cingulate) relative to HCs. Additionally, weaker fc in the executive network negatively correlated with pain intensity in MwoA. Results of a follow-up study by the same group using larger sample sizes42 showed that weaker executive network connectivity was also present in MwA relative to HC and there was not a difference between executive function network connectivity between MwA and MwoA. Although further studies using larger sample sizes are needed (both studies included ≤ 20 migraine patients; see Table 3), these preliminary results showing weaker connectivity of regions within the executive network in MwA and MwoA relative to HCs are intriguing and might indicate that measures of rs-fc could be more sensitive in detecting changes underlying cognition than neuropsychological measures. Default mode network connectivity in migraineThe default mode network, the most commonly interrogated rs network, is important for interoception and self-monitoring and may also have a role in cognitive, attentional and emotional processes. 43 Several studies have investigated resting state default mode network alterations in interictal migraine patients relative to HCs (see Table 3). Tessitore et al. 44 investigated fc in the default mode network in 20 EM patients and 20 HCs. Authors found less fc in prefrontal and temporal regions of the default mode network. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim regarding functional MRI's ability to measure brain activity through blood flow changes. Instead, it discusses studies about network activity in migraine patients and various brain connectivity metrics without referring specifically to functional MRI or the principles of blood flow detection.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: This is in agreement with that derived from other studies (Table 1). If annual mean tropical SST is used instead of the ACCI, the trend in proportion of Cat 4–5 hurricanes after adjusting for analysis errors is ~40 % per °C SST warming (see Fig. 2b and associated discussion). These represent an increase of more than double in the proportion of intense hurricanes, which is in agreement with, but less than, the 2–7 times increase found in Katrina-like storms by Grinsted et al. (2012) for the North Atlantic. 3. 4. 2 Comparison with model simulationsThe observed trend in Cat 4–5 hurricanes is consistent with independent modeling studies. Oouchi et al. (2006) found a general increase in the most intense hurricanes and a decrease in weaker ones for a time-slice simulation forced by current and future surface temperatures and greenhouse gases; similar findings were made by Bengtsson et al. (2007). Bender et al. (2010) examined the potential climate changes in hurricanes using two versions of the GFDL hurricane model as a downscaling tool applied to tropical cyclones generated in the GFDL climate model. The technique for the climate simulation was to use current climate boundary conditions (horizontal and surface) plus a constant change in thermodynamic parameters (Knutson et al. 2007). Bender et al. (2010) found that for each °C of global warming the proportion of Cat 4–5 hurricanes increased by ~11 % and the proportion of Cat 1–2 hurricanes decreased by ~7 %. Done et al. (2012) applied Weibull and distributions to assess the expected changes in future hurricane extremes based on changes to the mean and variance of the truncated distribution predicted by the (Done et al. 2012). Both approaches showed that relatively modest increases in the mean (3 %) and standard deviation of (7 %) produced an increase in the proportion of Cat 4–5 hurricanes of ~15 % per °C of global warming. 3. 4. 3 Impact of internal variabilityThere is a possibility that some of the observed trend arises from internal tropical cyclone variability that has aliased into the 35-year period used here. However, we consider that a substantial contamination from internal variability is highly unlikely. By using global mean temperatures in the development of the ACCI, we have explicitly excluded all but external forcing factors from this aspect of the analysis. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by discussing the observed link between climate change and an increase in the proportion of intense hurricanes, specifically Cat 4–5 hurricanes, as a direct consequence of global warming. It highlights various studies (e.g., Oouchi et al. 2006 and Bender et al. 2010) that found an increase in the frequency and intensity of hurricanes correlating with rising temperatures, thus implying a relationship between climate change and extreme weather events, including heatwaves.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Wave energy devices work efficiently in any part of the ocean. [SEP] Text: The net effect of this on all the waves is to reduce the directional spreading in the waves so that as the water depth reduces their approach from a more concentrated direction. In addition, any single wave component refraction causes a reduction in the wave height as it is spread out over a larger distance; however, it is important to remember that the refraction process is energy conserving and thus does not change the amount of energy travelling orthogonally to the depth contours. Using the west coast of Orkney again as an indicative site, it can be seen that refraction causes a significant change in the average omni-directional wave power between an offshore and nearshore site, with a reduction of 30–40 %. Thus, the key to assessing whether or not the change in average omni-directional wave power due to refraction will similarly affect the power generation depends on the directional sensitivity of the WEC or wave farm. An isolated heaving buoy may be insensitive to wave direction and so the reduction in average omni-directional wave power will result in a similar reduction in power generation; however, a wave farm will have a directional sensitivity so that the incident wave power is defined by the wave power incident on the wave farm. If this is the case and the wave farm is aligned with the depth contours, then refraction would have no effect on the relevant incident wave power as refraction is energy conserving. In reality, it is likely that the wave farm will not be aligned with the depth contours and so refraction will change the power incident on the wave farm, with the effect due to refraction increasing as the angle between the wave farm and depth contours increases. Thus, again it can be seen that the suitability of using average omni-directional wave power as a proxy for power generation depends on the WEC characteristics and deployment configuration. 3. 3. 6. 3 DiffractionDiffraction occurs when waves meet a surface-piercing obstacle such as an island, headland or breakwater. Without diffraction the waves would continue to travel in the same direction leaving a region of calm water in the lee of the obstacle. However, diffraction means that the waves will bend so that there are waves behind the obstacle. The amount of diffraction depends on the wavelength, with the longer waves diffracting to a greater extent than the shorter waves. If there is more than one source of diffraction, e. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by explaining the effects of wave refraction and diffraction on wave energy. It highlights that wave energy generation is influenced by several factors, including the directional sensitivity of wave energy converters (WECs) and their alignment with depth contours. Specifically, it notes that changes in average wave power can significantly vary between offshore and nearshore areas, indicating that wave energy devices may not work efficiently 'in any part of the ocean' due to these geographical and environmental factors.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Changes in fc in default mode network regions were not related to brain structural changes and did not relate to clinical or neuropsychological measures. Similar findings were reported by two other studies; Farago et al. 45 reported lower frequency fluctuations in the default mode network in 35 MwoA compared to 35 HCs and Yu et al. 46 reported less fc (and amplitudes of low-frequency fluctuations) in regions of the default mode network in 26 MwoA compared to 26 HCs. Additionally, Yu et al. reported a negative correlation between regional homogeneity in the anterior cingulate and the prefrontal cortex regions of the default mode network and disease duration. Xue et al. 47 found no differences in functional network connectivity within the default mode system in 23 MwoA compared to 23 HCs. However, the authors reported that fc between the insula, a key region for pain, and regions of the default mode and executive networks correlated with duration of migraine. Zhang et al. 48 reported increased fc and regional homogeneity between the precuneus and the posterior cingulate cortex regions of the default mode network in 22 migraine patients without aura compared to 22 HCs. Furthermore, less fc was found in the precuneus and the posterior cingulate cortex with areas outside of the default mode network, which are important for pain processing, including the somatosensory and somatomotor cortex, prefrontal regions, and superior and inferior parietal regions. The precuneus and posterior cingulate are important hub areas of the default mode network but also key regions important for information transfer and multisensory integration. Increased fc in the precuneus and posterior cingulate correlated with higher headache impact test (HIT-6) scores, potentially indicating a relationship between fc in these areas and headache disability. The majority of studies reported less functional connectivity or lower frequency fluctuations within regions of the default mode network. 19,44,46 Several studies also reported altered fc between regions of the default mode network and regions of other functional networks. 47,48 This between-network dysfunction could indicate a disruption of the interplay of functional networks in migraineurs between attacks. Lastly, the relationships observed between disrupted between-network activity and disease parameters, such as disease duration and headache disability could indicate that between-network dysfunctions are modulated by the migraine disease process. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim directly, as it primarily discusses findings related to functional connectivity (fc) in the default mode network and its implications for migraine patients. While it mentions functional connectivity and its relation to various regions and conditions, it does not explicitly support or contradict the idea that functional MRI measures brain activity through blood flow changes. Therefore, the relationship to the claim is deemed irrelevant.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: Such a sensitivity of the extremes to relatively small changes in the mean and standard deviation is well known and has been emphasized by the IPCC (2012, their Fig. SPM3). However, there seems to be much more happening than the straightforward ‘wagging of the tail’ implied by extreme value analysis. Rather, the characteristics of the global intensity distribution have changed consistently over the past 30 years (Fig. 8); an initially purely exponential tail has developed bimodal characteristics with a secondary peak at Cat 4 growing consistently from 1965 to the present. Fig. 8Evolving proportions of global tropical cyclone proportions (relative to all hurricanes) binned into tropical storms (indicated by 0) and the five Saffir–Simpson categories over the indicted decadesFull size image We hypothesize that this bimodal development arises from the bounded nature of the hurricane intensity distribution. Since the maximum wind intensity is only expected to increase by around 5 % or <5 m s−1 per °C of global warming (e. g. Emanuel 1987; Henderson-Sellers et al. 1998). This leads to a suggested causal chain: global warming provides conditions generally more conducive to intensification through longer periods spent in favorable conditions, with more rapid intensification rates (in agreement with Kishtawal et al. 2012); the increased intensification rate enables some weaker hurricanes to reach higher intensities; the constraint to the maximum intensity cap then results in a developing bimodal distribution with a secondary peak the Cat 4 level. 3. 4. 5 Where is the limit? One curious feature of the observed changes has been their quasi-linear nature (e. g. Fig. 4). 4–5 hurricanes have increased in proportion from ~20 % (a third of the proportion of Cat 1–2) in the late 1970’s to be equal to Cat 1–2 at ~40 %. Obviously this linear increase cannot go on indefinitely as the proportion of Cat 4–5 hurricanes cannot exceed one. Table 2 compares the different values and base periods for the observations with the downscaling by Bender et al. (2010) and Done et al. (2012). No adjustment downward was made to the observed Atlantic trend due to analysis issues since intensity archives are reasonably accurate over the period (Kossin et al. 2007). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the changes in the characteristics of global hurricane intensity distribution and the causal chain linking global warming to the increased intensity of hurricanes. It mentions that global warming creates conditions that are more conducive to intensification and results in higher intensity hurricanes, thus suggesting a connection between climate change and increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, including heatwaves.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Wave energy devices work efficiently in any part of the ocean. [SEP] Text: g. either side of an island, then a diffraction pattern may form where there are areas of increased and decreased wave height due to constructive and destructive interference. Although diffraction means that waves will occur on the leeward side of an obstacle, generally these waves will be smaller than the incident waves (except in the special case of constructive interference) so the wave resource behind an obstacle, is likely to be smaller than the seaward wave resource. 3. 3. 6. 4 Depth-BreakingWave breaking occurs when the horizontal wave p0. 8 of the water depth (or about 0. 14 of the wavelength), then the waves break. There are three different types of breaking waves: spilling, plunging and surging as shown in Fig. 3. 15, depending on the wave and seabed steepnesses (or more specifically the Iribarren number [14]). Fig. 3. 15Classification of breaking waves [15]Full size image In water depths greater than about 10 m, the vast majority of waves will not break and so it is tempting to consider that this process is not significant in assessing the suitability of using average omni-directional wave power to compare offshore and nearshore sites. However, the average omni-directional wave power includes energy from all events irrespective of its exploitability. In particular, it includes the wave energy in storms, which at the offshore site, in deep water, may have 40–50 times the wave power of the average wave power. Thus, although storms may only occur infrequently, they may make a relatively large contribution to the average wave power and account for perhaps 15–20 % of the total wave energy. On the contrary, at the nearshore site the wave energy in a storm is a much smaller multiple of the average wave power because depth-induced wave breaking has limited the wave energy in a storm that reaches the nearshore, but not affected the wave power in the most commonly occurring seas. The proportion of the total wave energy contained in storms is important since it is largely un-exploitable, either because the WEC power generation is limited by the plant rating, or because it has to shut down in order to survive the storm. Thus, because the average omni-directional wave power does not distinguish whether or not the wave energy is exploitable, it distorts the relative potential power generation at the offshore and nearshore sites. 3. 3. 6. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by explaining how wave energy varies greatly between offshore and nearshore sites. It highlights that while deep water can have significantly higher wave power, the average omni-directional wave power fails to highlight the distinction of exploitability of wave energy in different locations. In nearshore environments, wave breaking due to depth limits the energy harvested, thereby indicating that wave energy devices do not work equally efficiently across all areas of the ocean.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: are a group of primary headache disorders that manifest with cranial parasympathetic autonomic signs and symptoms ipsilateral to the headache. The TACs include cluster headache, hemicrania continua, paroxysmal hemicrania, short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks with conjunctival injection and tearing (SUNCT), and short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks with cranial autonomic symptoms (SUNA). The TACs have overlapping pathophysiology that includes activation of the posterior hypothalamus and the trigeminal autonomic reflex during headache episodes. However, the TACs differ in regards to the frequency and duration of headache attacks and their responsiveness to individual therapies. Functional imaging studies investigating brain activation patterns during attacks of cluster headache, hemicrania continua and SUNCT have demonstrated activation in the posterior hypothalamus in addition to regions of the “pain matrix” that commonly activate during headache and non-headache pain. 49–55 The posterior hypothalamus might be responsible for several key features of the TACs. For example, the circadian and circannual temporal rhythmicity by which some of the TACs occur implicates the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus, the so-called “autonomous circadian clock” of the brain. 56 Stimulation of the posterior hypothalamus results in restlessness and a desire to move, symptoms that are common during cluster headache attacks. 57 Further implicating the hypothalamus in the pathophysiology of the TACs, deep brain stimulation in the region of the posterior hypothalamus is an effective treatment for some patients with otherwise treatment refractory cluster headache, SUNCT, and paroxysmal hemicrania. 58Functional connectivity of the hypothalamus, pain-matrix regions, and core resting networks has been investigated in patients who have cluster headache using resting-state analyses. However, there is a paucity of studies investigating brain connectivity in patients with hemicrania continua, SUNCT, and SUNA. Functional connectivity studies have compared episodic cluster headache patients to HCs, episodic cluster headache patients who are in-bout vs. when they are out-of-bout (i. e. during the time period in which a person is having episodic attacks of cluster headache vs. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not specifically address the claim regarding functional MRI and its capability to measure brain activity through changes in blood flow. Instead, it discusses primary headache disorders, their pathophysiology, and brain activation patterns, mentioning functional imaging studies but without linking them directly to fMRI's function in measuring blood flow changes.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: AbstractMarine heatwaves (MHWs) have occurred in all ocean basins with severe negative impacts on coastal and ocean ecosystems. The northeast Pacific 2013–2015 MHW in particular received major societal concerns. Yet, our knowledge about how MHWs impact fish stocks is limited. Here, we combine outputs from a large ensemble simulation of an Earth system model with a fish impact model to simulate responses of major northeast Pacific fish stocks to MHWs. We show that MHWs cause biomass decrease and shifts in biogeography of fish stocks that are at least four times faster and bigger in magnitude than the effects of decadal-scale mean changes throughout the 21st century. With MHWs, we project a doubling of impact levels by 2050 amongst the most important fisheries species over previous assessments that focus only on long-term climate change. Our results underscore the additional challenges from MHWs for fisheries and their management under climate change. Similar content being viewed by others Next-generation ensemble projections reveal higher climate risks for marine ecosystems 5. Impacts from MHWs include range shifts of marine fishes and invertebrates6,7,8,9, bleaching of coral reefs2, mass mortality of kelp forest4,10 and other coastal vegetation11 and reduction in reproductive success and survivorship of marine animals12. Long-term ocean warming since the early 20th century due to human-induced increase in greenhouse emissions has led to widespread increases in MHW frequency, intensity and duration13. Globally, the frequency of MHWs has been doubled since 198214, and is projected to increase further under continued global warming5,14,15. In 2013, a large MHW in the northeast Pacific appeared off the coast of Alaska and subsequently expanded south to Baja California. This specific MHW, commonly known as the “Blob”16, persisted through to the end of 2015 and was the largest MHW globally since 198217 with sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies of over 6 °C. This warm Blob affected ecosystems from the in the South to the Gulf of Alaska and the in the North9,18,19,20. The anomalously high temperature enhanced the stratification of the upper ocean, leading to a decrease in nutrient supply to the surface ocean and causing a decrease in net primary production and community production21,22. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by stating that 'long-term ocean warming since the early 20th century due to human-induced increase in greenhouse emissions has led to widespread increases in MHW frequency, intensity and duration.' This indicates that climate change is directly linked to the increased occurrence and severity of marine heatwaves, thereby supporting the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Wave energy devices work efficiently in any part of the ocean. [SEP] Text: 5 Bottom FrictionThe reduction of average omni-directional wave power has often been primarily attributed to bottom friction. However, as illustrated above, a significant proportion of the reduction is caused by other factors and in particular refraction [16]. Indeed, for a typical seabed bottom friction only accounts for about 5 % of the reduction in average omni-directional wave power. The reduction in spectral wave energy due to bottom friction is complex and varies with depth so that the wave spectrum changes as a result of bottom friction, although the small amount of energy reduction means that the change in spectrum will also be small. However, as different WEC concepts have different spectral responses, it is possible that the change in spectral shape will be more significant for one WEC concept than another. Thus, it is possible that the change in average omni-directional wave power due to bottom friction has a different impact on average power generation for different devices because of their different response characteristics. 3. 3. 6. 6 Wind GrowthAs there is a larger fetch to the open ocean for the nearshore, it may be expected that wind growth will increase the wave power at this site. Unfortunately, in many cases the offshore waves are already in equilibrium with the wind because of the large fetch and so they cannot grow significantly between offshore and nearshore. However, when the wind blows from the land there will be minimal fetch for the nearshore site, but the fetch may be a significant for the offshore site. At a location 40 km off of the west coast of Orkney, Scotland, the waves travelling away from the shore typically account for about 15 % of the average omni-directional wave power, which is not an insignificant proportion of the total wave power. The key to assessing whether this 15 % of wave power should or should not be included depends on whether or not the WEC can capture energy travelling in the opposite direction to the majority of the waves. For example, a heaving buoy, such as the Wavebob, may be expected to exploit this wave power, but an overtopping device, such as the WaveDragon, is less likely to be able to exploit it so that the omni-directional wave power is less appropriate as a proxy for power generation in this case. 3. 3. 7 Case Study—PowerFigure 3. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing various factors that impact the efficiency of wave energy conversion (WEC) devices in different ocean locations. It highlights that bottom friction and wind growth influence wave power differently for various WEC concepts, suggesting that the performance of these devices is not uniform across all ocean environments. Furthermore, it notes that the ability of WEC devices to capture energy depends on specific conditions, like the orientation and shape of the waves, thus indicating that they do not work efficiently in any part of the ocean.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: during the period when they are in temporary remission), and episodic cluster headache patients during spontaneous cluster attacks vs. when they are in-bout but between attacks. Independent components analyses and region-of-interest analytical approaches have both been used. Table 4 summarizes these functional connectivity studies. Table 4. Brain functional connectivity in patients who have cluster headache. StudySubject cohortsAnalysisMain findingChou et al. 59Episodic CH (n = 17) HC (n = 18)ICACH in-bout vs. HC and CH out-of-bout vs. HC: Connectivity differences in temporal, frontal, salience, default mode, somatosensory, dorsal attention, and visual networks. CH in-bout vs. out-of-bout: Connectivity differences in frontal and dorsal attention networksFarago et al. 45Episodic CH (n = 17) HC (n = 26)ICACH out-of-bout vs. HC: Connectivity differences in attention network and cerebellar networkQiu et al. 60Episodic CH (n = 21) HC (n = 21)ICACH in-bout, inter-ictal vs. HC: Decreased resting-state hypothalamus to salience network co-activationYang et al. 64Episodic CH (n = 18) HC (n = 19)ROI (hypothalamus)CH in-bout vs. out-of-bout: Decreased hypothalamic connectivity with medial frontal gyrus, middle frontal gyrus, inferior temporal gyrus, precuneus, and cerebellum. CH in-bout vs. HC and CH out-of-bout vs. HC: Altered hypothalamic connectivity with medial frontal gyrus, middle frontal gyrus, cuneus, inferior semilunar lobule, and inferior temporal gyrus. Qiu et al. 61Episodic CH (n = 12) HC (n = 12)ROI (hypothalamus)CH ictal vs. CH in-bout, inter-ictal: Increased connectivity hypothalamus with numerous pain matrix regions including anterior cingulate cortex, posterior cingulate cortex, superior frontal gyrus, middle frontal gyrus, inferior frontal gyrus, superior temporal gyrus, inferior parietal lobule, parahippocampal gyrus, and amygdala. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim regarding functional MRI measuring brain activity through blood flow changes. Instead, it discusses various studies related to cluster headache patients and connectivity differences in brain networks. Thus, it is irrelevant to the specific claim about functional MRI.