Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: L2 speech production models (Kormos, Reference Kormos2006; Segalowitz, Reference Segalowitz2010) are commonly based on Levelt’s (Reference Levelt1989, Reference Levelt, Brown and Hagoort1999) work and assume that L2 speech production entails three major phases—conceptualization, formulation, and articulation—which are executed serially in this order. Conceptualization is responsible for the generation of the preverbal message that includes selected information to convey and its manner of communication. Formulation transforms the preverbal message into corresponding linguistic forms through different linguistic encoding processes (e. g. , lexical retrieval, syntactic procedures). Articulation proceeds by moving the speech organs to produce speech sounds. In addition to these major processes of speech production, the self-monitoring function examines the interim content and eventual outcome of the preceding processes in terms of appropriacy and linguistic correctness. Among these speech production processes, conceptualization is assumed to be relatively independent of L2 proficiency because conceptualization is responsible for the manipulation of conceptual information prior to linguistic encoding processes (Kormos, Reference Kormos2006). In contrast, formulation and articulation draw on L2 knowledge and skills and thus are categorized as L2-specific components of CF (Kahng, Reference Kahng2020; Segalowitz, Reference Segalowitz2016). One clear distinction between formulation and articulation is the level of representations of processing. Formulation involves several linguistic encoding modules, all of which manipulate different types of linguistic representations (e. g. , lexical and phonological representations). Articulation is considered to be purely motoric, meaning that the execution of articulation involves the use of gestural movements rather than information processing. Meanwhile, the self-monitoring function is related to both conceptual and L2-specific aspects of L2 speech production because it is driven by either content accuracy or linguistic errors identified in the course of speech production. Building on the notion of L2-specific CF (Kahng, Reference Kahng2020; Segalowitz, Reference Segalowitz2016), valid measurements of CF should therefore tap into formulation and articulation processes and self-monitoring processes triggered by language-related problems. Looking closely at the literature on CF research, one may argue that previous studies have used both broad and narrow definitions of CF. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the complexity of L2 speech production, which involves multiple processes such as conceptualization, formulation, articulation, and self-monitoring. It suggests that achieving fluency requires a deep understanding and practice of these processes, which language apps alone may not provide. The mention of L2 proficiency and the differentiation between various components implies that simply using language apps is insufficient for full fluency.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Positron emission tomography-based measurement of brain perfusion differs from the MRI-based bolus-tracking technique. 15O-water, as used in PET, is a highly diffusible tracer. Regional perfusion is calculated by summing up the counts of several measurements over a predefined time, resulting in a time-voxel-count curve. Conversely, in PW-MRI, a paramagnetic contrast agent is used, which is strictly confined to the intravascular compartment provided the blood-brain barrier is intact. Perfusion is measured by repetitive imaging during the first brain passage of the contrast agent bolus, resulting in a time-voxel-intensity curve. Despite these methodological differences, direct comparison with PET (next to xenon computed tomography) is still considered the best available in vivo validation of PWI measurements. Several studies have described the validation of PWI-based measurement of supratentorial hypoperfusion (Sobesky et al, 2005b; Takasawa et al, 2008; Zaro-Weber et al, 2010). Only few data are available on PWI in the posterior fossa focusing exclusively on stroke in the posterior circulation (Förster et al, 2010; Kim et al, 2010). In this context, our study is the first validation of PWI against PET in a condition of functional hypoperfusion as seen in CCD in the posterior fossa. In PW stroke imaging, in which the tracer arrival is delayed owing to vessel occlusion, both nondeconvoluted and deconvoluted parameter maps are generated from the time-intensity curve. TTP, a composite correlate of hemodynamic parameters such as arrival time of the contrast bolus, transit time through the tissue, and arterial dispersion, has proven to be a useful nondeconvoluted parameter (Christensen et al, 2009; Zaro-Weber et al, 2010). and CBF maps are generated by deconvolution, which is believed to uncouple the hemodynamic information into different maps reflecting distinct hemodynamic parameters. These maps have formerly been considered to be superior to nondeconvoluted maps to identify penumbral hypoperfusion. This notion has been questioned recently (Christensen et al, 2009; Zaro-Weber et al, 2010). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the differences in measurement methodologies between PET and MRI, specifically focusing on perfusion imaging techniques and validation studies. It does not directly address the assertion regarding functional MRI measuring brain activity or its ability to detect changes in blood flow.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: An earlier onset of stratification, which can occur following mild winters and/or anomalously warm spring/summer air temperatures (Woolway et al 2021b), can result in a lengthening of the summer stratified season and, in turn, warmer surface water temperatures (Austin and Colman 2007, Piccolroaz et al 2015, Zhong et al 2016, Woolway and Merchant 2017). Most notably, the rate of surface warming in seasonally stratifying lakes is substantially greater after the onset of thermal stratification when the volume of water that participates directly in air-water surface heat exchange is smaller. Thus, an earlier stratification onset in lakes can result in an increase in the time during which the shallow upper mixed layer is present and, in turn, result in warmer lake surface temperatures which, subsequently, promotes the development of larger lake heatwaves. This is clearly evident in in 1998, where warmer than average surface water temperatures driven by the aforementioned mechanisms (et al 2014, Piccolroaz et al 2015, Zhong et al 2016), contributed to the development of an anomalously large lake heatwave. Our analysis also identified a depth effect on the association between stratification onset and the maximum spatial extent of lake heatwaves. The maximum spatial extent of lake heatwaves is more strongly correlated with the date of stratification onset in the deepest lakes, which is due to temperature anomalies associated with stratification onset persisting for longer in deeper lakes where thermal inertia is large (Toffolon et al 2014, Woolway and Merchant 2017). We expect other seasonally stratifying lakes globally to experience a similar increase in the spatial extent of heatwaves in recent decades, if the mechanistic drivers described above, notably an earlier onset of stratification (Woolway et al 2021b), or an increase in surface water temperature due to other atmospheric of within-lake drivers (Woolway et al 2020), are changing in line with those observed in our studied sites. Ultimately, an increase in lake surface water temperature will result in the occurrence of longer lasting lake heatwaves, which will result in an increase in their spatial extent. In lakes that mix frequently, at daily to weekly intervals (i. e. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by explaining how an earlier onset of thermal stratification in lakes, which is linked to changing climate conditions, can lead to warmer surface water temperatures and subsequent increases in the frequency and intensity of lake heatwaves. It highlights that the mechanisms described, such as changes in stratification and surface water temperatures, are expected to result in a greater spatial extent and longer duration of these heatwaves, aligning with the broader impacts of climate change.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: In a narrow sense, in accordance with Segalowitz’s (Reference Segalowitz2016) original conceptualization, CF refers to the speed and efficiency of linguistic encoding processes. In a broad sense, often adopted in empirical studies (e. g. , et al. , and Hulstijn2013; Kahng, Reference Kahng2020), CF may include linguistic knowledge resources as well as the speed of processing skills. For instance, lexical processing in L2 speech production is related to the range of available lexical resources (i. e. , breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge) as well as the speed of lexical retrieval (i. e. , lexical fluency) (see Kormos, Reference Kormos2006). Following the narrow sense, only lexical fluency is regarded as a lexical component of CF, whereas the broad definition of CF concerns both the breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge and lexical fluency as the lexical component of CF. According to Segalowitz’s (Reference Segalowitz2010, Reference Segalowitz2016) framework, CF is conceptualized as a construct that can explain observable temporal features of utterances (i. e. , UF). From the perspective of L2 speech production mechanisms, breakdowns in utterances can be caused by both lack of linguistic resources and slow processing speed. The valid operationalization of CF may thus involve both linguistic resources and processing speed. Therefore, the current study follows the broad definition of CF and subsequently operationalizes CF as linguistic resources and processing efficiency at the level of vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation (for a similar methodological decision, see et al. , and Hulstijn2013; Kahng, Reference Kahng2020). However, to the best of our knowledge, the dimensionality of CF (i. e. , the number of subconstructs) has not yet been empirically examined. Accordingly, the current study also aims to test different factor structures of L2-specific CF. Within Segalowitz’s (Reference Segalowitz2010, Reference Segalowitz2016) framework, UF refers to observable temporal features, such as speed of delivery, pauses, and hesitations, which reflect the speaker’s CF. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the complexities of 'cognitive fluency' (CF) in second language learning. It emphasizes that achieving fluency requires not only lexical processing skills but also a breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge, highlighting that fluency cannot be achieved solely through language apps. The assertion that 'breakdowns in utterances can be caused by both lack of linguistic resources and slow processing speed' suggests that additional resources and methods beyond language apps are necessary for true fluency.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: However, in case of CCD, a pathophysiological condition with distinct hemodynamic changes is investigated. In this study, cerebellar vessels are patent and CBF is reduced because of functional inactivation. This reduction in CBF is usually less pronounced than in areas of stroke. In consequence, depiction of the more subtle perfusion changes in CCD requires higher sensitivity from the imaging method. It is known that PWI has methodical limitations in the posterior fossa, e. g. , sinus artifacts and susceptibility artifacts attributed to the skull. Such limitations are less pronounced in PET-based perfusion measurements. This difference may explain why PW-MRI failed to detect CCD in comparison with the gold standard PET. Method comparison by the BA plot can be considered the statistical gold standard overcoming limitations of a mere correlation analysis (Bland and Altman, 1986). When measurement differences in the plot are intolerably high, the compared methods are not exchangeable. In this study, a 4% perfusion asymmetry between the cerebellar hemispheres in PET-CBF was already significant and a 10% difference was defined as clinically relevant. However, differences in the BA plots between PET-CBF and PW maps were between 30% and 80%, clearly indicating that the methods are not exchangeable. This explains why in the following receiver operating characteristic analysis, even the best-performing MRI map, i. e. , PW-CBF, was only poorly suited to detect CCD-positive patients. However, in these analyses, exclusively individual values were compared. Assuming a random scattering of the error, the median AI values should in theory reflect the correct AI value of the whole group. This is probably true in our case. First, the median AI value of PW-CBF (0. 84) was almost equal to the median AI value of PET-CBF (0. 85). Second, the asymmetry shown by PW-CBV values and the lack of asymmetry shown by PW-MTT values are in good accordance with previous data. In a multitracer PET study, the authors found significantly correlated asymmetries of CBF and CBV, whereas plasma MTT showed no hemispheric difference (Yamauchi et al, 1999). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text primarily discusses the limitations of different imaging techniques, particularly perfusion-weighted imaging (PWI) and PET, in detecting changes in blood flow related to a specific pathophysiological condition (CCD). It does not directly address the claim about functional MRI's capability to measure brain activity by detecting blood flow changes, thus making it irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: A potential consequence of this rapid expansion is a reduction of habitat for cold-waters species, which may also result in a compositional shift to warmer-water species that are potentially non-native (Cline et al 2013, Elliott et al 2015). However, gaps in our current understanding of how lake heatwaves will affect aquatic organisms and communities limit our ability to forecast the precise effects of this anticipated spatial expansion, notably due to the complex interactions that occur within a lake in response to climate change. In addition, during summer stratification, cooler water at depth could provide a potential thermal refuge (Kraemer et al 2021), thus allowing aquatic organisms to escape the extreme conditions associated with lake heatwaves. However, we must also consider that environmental conditions in the deeper waters during a lake heatwave event may not always be suitable with, for example, many lakes worldwide experiencing oxygen depletion at depth during the summer season (Jane et al 2021). While the exact negative impacts of lake heatwaves under climate change is unknown, it is likely that when combined with the host of other human effects, such as eutrophication, aquatic ecosystems will be adversely affected by the spatial expansion of lake heatwaves. 5. ConclusionsWe analyzed spatially resolved surface water temperatures from the to investigate how the spatial extent of lake heatwaves—defined as contiguous regions within a lake that simultaneously experience extreme warm conditions—vary under climate change. Our analysis revealed that the maximum spatial extent of lake heatwaves is sensitive to inter-annual variations in winter ice cover and the timing of stratification onset. Notably, our findings suggest that a lengthening of the warm summer season and, in turn, an overall increase in surface water temperature, results in the development of larger spatiotemporally connected heatwaves. Furthermore, our analysis suggests that the mean spatial extent of lake heatwaves has increased two-fold, from 10. 8% to 26. 0% on average, between the first and last decade of the study period. The rate at which the mean spatial extent of lake heatwaves is increasing varies across the from 3. 5% decade−1 in to 11. 4% decade−1 in Lake Erie. On average, the spatial extent of lake heatwaves is increasing at a rate of 7. 3% decade−1. Given the sensitivity of lake ecosystems to hot temperature extremes, we anticipate this observed expansion of lake heatwaves to have widespread implications for heat-related impacts on aquatic species. 10. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the increasing frequency and intensity of lake heatwaves as a consequence of climate change. It highlights that the mean spatial extent of lake heatwaves has increased significantly and that the rate of expansion varies, demonstrating a direct relationship between climate change and the occurrence of extreme warm conditions in aquatic environments.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: There has been a consensus that UF is composed of three subcomponents—speed, breakdown, and repair fluency (Skehan, Reference Skehan2003; Tavakoli & Skehan, Reference Tavakoli, Skehan and Ellis2005). Speed fluency is concerned with the density of information or speed of delivery and thus is typically measured by articulation rate (i. e. , the number of syllables produced over speech duration excluding pauses). Breakdown fluency refers to pausing behavior and is commonly operationalized in terms of the frequency, duration, type, and location of pauses (S. Suzuki et al. , Reference Suzuki, Kormos and Uchihara2021; Tavakoli & Wright, and Wright2020). Among the different dimensions of pausing behavior, recent studies have recognized the importance of pause location as an indicator of underlying speech processing. Pauses in the middle of utterances are hypothesized to reflect disruptions in L2-specific linguistic processing, whereas pauses at clausal boundaries are supposed to capture breakdowns in conceptualization-related processes, such as content planning (De Jong, Jong2016; Tavakoli, Reference Tavakoli2011). Finally, repair fluency covers, by definition, a range of disfluency phenomena, including self-corrections, false starts, and verbatim repetitions. Some scholars argue that repair fluency is in a supplementary relationship with breakdown fluency because both breakdown and repair fluency are assumed to reflect the operation of self-monitoring processes (i. e. , covert and overt repairs; see Kormos, Reference Kormos2000, Reference Kormos2006) and are regarded as opportunities for speakers to buy time to deal with disruptions in speech processing (et al. , Jong, Groenhout, Schoonen and Hulstijn2015). As such, some studies even examine breakdown and repair fluency as inseparable phenomena (e. g. , Williams & Korko, and Korko2019). L2 fluency research has conventionally measured temporal features of speech, following Tavakoli and Skehan’s (Reference Tavakoli, Skehan and Ellis2005) triad model of UF (speed, breakdown, and repair fluency). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the multifaceted nature of fluency, which includes components of speed, breakdown, and repair fluency, and implies that achieving fluency cannot be solely accomplished through language apps. It highlights the importance of various linguistic and cognitive processes involved in fluency, suggesting that language apps may not address all aspects necessary for true fluency in a second language.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Therefore, our congruent results may support the pathophysiological model, after which CBF and CBV are both decreased in deafferentation in contrast to ischemia, in which CBF is reduced, but CBV is increased. Using nuclear medicine methods, usually a CCD incidence of >50% is found. With 85%, the occurrence of significant CCD after stroke in our study is quite high, but still in line with the literature. For example, PET-based studies reported incidence of CCD in 67% (Yamauchi et al, 1992) and 89% of patients (Miura et al, 1994). Two previous studies dealt with MRI-based detection of CCD: Yamada et al (1999) found an incidence of 80%, whereas Lin et al (2009) reported CCD in only 16% of patients. How could these differences in the incidence of CCD in MRI studies be explained? In the study by Lin et al, the assessment of CCD was based on visual inspection of TTP maps. In 16% (47 patients), TTP showed asymmetry. However, we found TTP to perform worst of all tested maps to depict CCD. This might explain the low incidence with use of TTP maps and highlights the importance of comparison with reference methods, especially in conditions resulting from less well-understood pathophysiological mechanisms, such as CCD. In their small study of 10 patients, Yamada et al based their assessment of CCD on CBV maps, which we found to perform better than TTP maps, but still failed in the detection of CCD. This might be explained by methodological differences. Changes in hemodynamic parameters as a result of functional activity are not only regulated by astrocytes on the level of arterioles. Recruitment of capillaries may have an even more important role (Paulson et al, 2010). In our study, gradient echo-based echo-planar imaging sequences were used for PWI. These sequences also include supplying and draining macrovessels, i. e. , total blood volume, in the maps of CBV. This results in a decreased sensitivity to show regional changes of capillary blood volume (Boxerman et al, 1995). However, Yamada et al used a spin echo-based PWI sequence. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim regarding functional MRI (fMRI) measuring brain activity through blood flow changes. Instead, it discusses various studies related to the detection of cerebral blood flow (CBF) and cerebral blood volume (CBV) in different contexts, such as stroke and the performance of different imaging techniques. While it mentions hemodynamic parameters and the importance of comparison between imaging methods, it fails to confirm or deny the claim specifically about fMRI's capabilities.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: AbstractThe weather conditions of the summer of 2022 were very unusual, particularly in Eastern Asia, Europe, and North America. The devasting impact of climate change has come to our attention, with much hotter and drier conditions, and with more frequent and intense flooding events. Some extreme events have reached a dangerous level, increasingly threatening human lives. The interconnected risks caused by these extreme disaster events are triggering a chain effect, forcing us to respond to these crises through changes in our living environment, which affect the atmosphere, the biosphere, the economy including the availability of energy, our cities, and our global society. Moreover, we have to confront the abnormal consequences of untypical, rapid changes of extreme events and fast switches between extreme states, such as from severe drought to devastating flooding. Recognizing this new situation, it is crucial to improve the adaptation capacity of our societies in order to reduce the risks associated with climate change, and to develop smarter strategies for climate governance. High-quality development must be science-based, balanced, safe, sustainable, and climate-resilient, supported by the collaborative governance of climate mitigation and adaptation. This 2020. Service/ECMWF at and size imageThe hottest summer on record for Europe paired with unusually dry conditions reduced some of Europe’s main rivers to extremely low water levels, for example, threatening vital economic thoroughfares and exacerbating the continent’s energy shortages. The heat also led to record-breaking fire activities in many European countries. More than 2500 fires were recorded, and more than 772,000 ha were burned in European countries in 2022, compared to an average of 900 fires and 318,000 ha burned between 2016 and 2021 (EFFIS 2022). Most parts of China experienced the longest and most intense heatwave on record (CMA 2022) that lasted for 72 days—10 days longer (16% more) than the previous record of 62 days in 2013. More than 1 billion people suffered temperatures higher than 35 °C, and at least 360 million people faced exceptional temperatures higher than 40 °C, making medical attention to heat strokes a new normal in these regions. The accompanying long-lasting drought led to the drying up of rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, affecting the water and electrical power supplies. While heatwaves gripped parts of Europe and Asia, some other places experienced extreme rainfall and flooding. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing evidence of extreme weather conditions influenced by climate change, specifically mentioning that 'most parts of China experienced the longest and most intense heatwave on record' which lasted for '72 days.' It also highlights the impact of rising temperatures on human health, stating that 'more than 1 billion people suffered temperatures higher than 35 °C,' thereby reinforcing the connection between climate change and the increased frequency and intensity of heatwaves.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: The triad model was empirically validated to examine the extent to which fluency is distinguishable from other constructs of L2 oral proficiency such as accuracy and complexity, and to establish the robustness of the model across four different prompts of picture narrative tasks. The results of factor analysis in Tavakoli and Skehan’s (Reference Tavakoli, Skehan and Ellis2005) study indicated two separate factors of UF: one including both speed and breakdown fluency and the other repair fluency. The finding that speed and breakdown fluency were indistinguishable might have been due to the lack of the measure that taps solely into speed fluency, that is, articulation rate. and Skehan’s (Reference Tavakoli, Skehan and Ellis2005) study, different UF measures with high construct validity, such as articulation rate and mid-clause pause frequency, have been developed in L2 fluency research. In addition, even though the triad model of UF was validated only with speech data from picture narrative tasks, the model has been applied to a variety of speaking tasks, going beyond picture narratives. Therefore, to test the validity of Tavakoli and Skehan’s (Reference Tavakoli, Skehan and Ellis2005) model of UF in diverse research contexts, it is essential to revisit the dimensionality of UF, using a comprehensive set of UF measures based on different speaking tasks. The Cognitive-to Segalowitz’s (Reference Segalowitz2010, Reference Segalowitz2016) framework, a speaker’s CF is assumed to underlie the UF of their speech. Although few in number, previous studies have examined what cognitive and linguistic processes can explain variability in UF. Even before Segalowitz’s (Reference Segalowitz2010) work, Segalowitz and Freed’s (and Freed2004) pioneering research investigated the role of L2-specific cognitive ability in L2 oral fluency with English-speaking learners of Spanish (N = 40). Using a semantic classification task and a repeat-and-shift task in both L1 and L2, they computed L2-specific cognitive measures for lexical access and attention control by partialing out corresponding L1 measures. They found that the length of run without fillers in L2 speech was positively associated with the speed of L2 lexical access. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the complexity of achieving language fluency, emphasizing the need for multiple cognitive and linguistic factors beyond what language apps can provide. It mentions empirical studies that explore constructs of L2 oral proficiency, indicating that fluency involves various measures and dimensions that cannot be adequately addressed by language apps alone.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: In contrast to gradient echo sequences, these sequences are more sensitive to show capillary blood volume changes (Boxerman et al, 1995). This may be a reason why CBV seemed to be a viable surrogate of CCD in spin echo-based PW imaging, but not in our study. Other methodological differences might also account for the differing results. Yamada et al used no arterial input function to calculate CBV maps. Lin et al used an automated arterial input function, whereas in our study, arterial input function was calculated by manually defining voxels in the middle cerebral artery. In the study by Yamada et al, the patient sample consisted of patients in subacute to chronic stages (6 to 120 days), and in the study by Lin et al, only acute and subacute patients (up to 5 days after stroke) were included, whereas we examined a patient sample with mixed stages after stroke (1. 5 hours to 38 days). Our study has some limitations. First, this was a retrospective study with the largest sample of comparative MRI and PET imaging available. However, it still had a modest sample size. Second, perfusion changes between the imaging procedures cannot be ruled out, although the time between MRI and PET in our study is one of the shortest available in the literature (median 68 minutes), and changes in the clinical presentation of patients were monitored. Third, ROI-based approaches as in our study may be less accurate than voxel-based comparisons. However, we chose the ROI-based approach because of known spatial distortion of echo-planar imaging-PW images, which makes coregistration on a voxel level difficult, especially in the posterior fossa. Fourth, only PWI at 1. 5-T field strength was compared with PET in this study. Although susceptibility artifacts tend to increase with higher field strengths, advantages of PWI at 3 T over 1. 5 T have been shown to date (Kosior et al, 2007). In conclusion, PWI at 1. 5 T is not suited to show CCD after stroke. However, the MRI-based detection of CCD needs further investigation. The possibility of (serial) imaging of CCD without radiation exposure could lead to a better understanding of functional flow changes after stroke, which are important epiphenomena following focal ischemia. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim regarding functional MRI's ability to measure brain activity through blood flow changes. Instead, it focuses on various methodologies and limitations surrounding capillary blood volume changes in imaging studies, without providing evidence for or against the efficacy of fMRI in measuring brain activity.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: In the southwest of the United States, for example, California’s hot and dry experienced a “once-in-a-thousand-year” extreme rainfall, with nearly a year’s total worth of rain in 3 hours (37. 1 mm). In Pakistan, one-third of the country was completely submerged by a devastating historic flood, causing more than 1100 deaths and billions of dollars in losses. Although devastating, the extreme weather events that occurred in the summer of 2022 were not altogether unexpected. Observations have shown that extreme events including heatwaves, heavy precipitation, droughts, and tropical cyclones have been increasing in recent years and their attribution to human activities has strengthened since last assessment in 2014 (IPCC 2021). Scientists have warned that exceeding 1. 5 °C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points, with irreversible and catastrophic consequences (et al. 2022). Although climate tipping points for the Earth system have not been activated yet at the current global warming level of 1. 1 °C, some extreme events intensified by climate change have reached the tipping point of human survival. Heatwaves are a good example of how extreme weather events threaten human health. The maximum temperature a human can withstand is generally within the range of 40–42 °C. In the summer of 2022, the highest temperature in many areas exceeded this limit (Fig. 2a). But human temperature tolerance depends not only on the temperature but also on the humidity—represented by the wet-bulb temperature in meteorology—as well as on concomitant atmospheric pollutants, such as ozone. Studies have shown that even healthy people with strong climate adaptability cannot withstand a wet-bulb temperature higher than 32 °C. Once the wet-bulb temperature reaches 35 °C, we are no longer able to cool ourselves through sweating, leading to heat stroke, which means shocks to multiple organs and even permanent damage (Raymond et al. 2020). Extreme heatwaves over central Europe and especially the Paris region in the summer of 2003 demonstrated that the main health impacts and mortality cases were due to a combination of high temperature, humidity, and episodes of very high levels of ozone (Kovats et al. 2004; Schär et al. 2004). Continued exposure above this threshold can quickly lead to death by overheating. Some areas have already experienced wet-bulb temperatures close to humans’ survival threshold (Fig. 2b). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the increase in extreme weather events, including heatwaves, which have been attributed to human activities related to climate change. It mentions observations showing that these extreme events have been increasing in recent years and highlights the threats posed by heatwaves to human health, particularly during extreme temperature conditions.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: Meanwhile, L2 speech rate correlated negatively with the processing stability of L2 attention control, measured by the coefficient of variance (CV) index. Despite the narrow range of cognitive processing measures, these findings confirmed the role of cognitive ability in L2 UF. Building on Segalowitz’s (Reference Segalowitz2010) framework of oral fluency, et al. (and Hulstijn2013) employed a range of linguistic resource and processing measures to predict different UF measures. Their data were collected from 179 learners of L2 Dutch from various L1 backgrounds. Their CF measures covered vocabulary knowledge (vocabulary size, lexical retrieval speed), grammatical knowledge (grammatical knowledge, sentence construction speed), and pronunciation knowledge (phonetic accuracy, articulatory speed). Their UF measures captured speed, breakdown, and repair fluency. Correlational analyses showed that relevant components of CF varied across UF measures. For instance, mean syllable duration, that is, the inverse measure of articulation rate (speed fluency), correlated with a whole range of CF measures. Meanwhile, breakdown fluency measures were related to more specific dimensions of CF. Mean duration of pauses correlated weakly with lexical retrieval speed only. Moreover, both silent and filled pause ratio measures correlated with lexical and grammatical measures. In addition, their linear mixed-effects modeling included a random slope of speaking task types for all UF measures, except self-repetition ratio, indicating the moderating role of task type in the CF-UF link. Kahng (Reference Kahng2020) examined the predictive power of CF measures for UF measures, using a personal narrative task with Chinese learners of English (N = 44). Uniquely, Kahng (Reference Kahng2020) included corresponding L1 UF measures as another predictor variable to partial out the covariance between L1 and L2 UF measures. In her study, CF measures covered vocabulary size for single words and multiword phrases, lexical retrieval speed, grammatical resources and processing speed, and articulatory speed, largely following et al. (and Hulstijn2013). The stepwise multiple regression analyses resulted in three major findings. First, although mean syllable duration (speed fluency) and mid-clause pause ratio (breakdown fluency) correlated with both lexical and syntactic measures of CF, different CF measures were identified as predictor variables in the regression models. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the complexity of language acquisition and fluency development, indicating that cognitive abilities and multiple components such as vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation all play crucial roles. It emphasizes that achieving fluency involves a range of cognitive processing measures and various linguistic resources that language apps alone may not cover.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Skip to main content Intended for healthcare professionals Search this journalSearch all journalsEnter search terms. . . Searchsearch Enter search terms. . . Searchsearch Search Access/ProfileAccessView access optionsView profileCreate profile Cart 0 by discipline Select discipline: All disciplines All disciplines Life & & Sciences & HumanitiesSelect subject: All subjects All subjects Cardiology & Medicine & Endocrinology & -legal & Orthopaedics & Medicine & & & & Methods & & & & & Criminology & Economics & & & Management & Marketing & & & & & & & & PlanningBrowse journals Sage publishes a diverse portfolio of fully journals in a variety of disciplines. you can explore our Disciplines Hubs, including: Journal portfolios in each of our subject areas. Links to Books and content from across Sage. for/ Reviewers SocietiesFrequently asked questions In this journal Journal of Flow & Factor: 4. 9 5-Factor: 6. 1 email alertsYou are adding the following journal to your email alertsNew contentJournal of Flow & MetabolismCreate email alert Free accessResearch 10. 1097/00004647-199810000-000120. 91, P < 0. 001). The study indicates that language processing in asymmetrically organized cortical areas inhibits the reciprocal transcallosal information exchange in favor of the lateralized mental operation. Our data agree with anatomic, electrophysiologic, and pharmacologic experiments that point to the important role of collateral inhibition for the transcallosal information exchange. The two hemispheres … speak as a unit in that the right hemisphere during speech is not idling or diverted but is actively focused to aid and sustain the cerebral processing involved in speech, to add tone and expression and to inhibit unrelated activity (Sperry, 1986). The language dominance of the left cerebral hemisphere requires the reciprocal adjustment of neuronal activity in both cerebral cortices. The corpus callosum is the largest interhemispheric fiber tract that connects the left and right cortical networks. Studies of split-brain patients demonstrate that lateralized cognitive operations, such as language processing, involve interhemispheric information transfer through the corpus callosum (Gazzaniga, 1970). Morphometric studies of human postmortem brains, however, indicate that the interhemispheric information exchange is not equally organized in all humans, but that it varies considerably with the degree of the individual brain functional asymmetry. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is largely unrelated to the claim regarding functional MRI measuring brain activity through blood flow changes. Instead, it discusses topics such as language processing, interhemispheric communication, and the anatomical structures involved. While the text mentions neuronal activity, it does not provide any information specifically about functional MRI or its principles.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: As global warming continues, strengthened evaporation is anticipated to increase the proportion of water in the atmosphere, and high-temperature days will become more intolerable (Raymond et al. 2020). Fig. 2Source NOAA website at Image provided by the NOAA/OAR/from their Web site at with default setting except that “Date” was changed to “2022 Aug 1,” “Contour Lines” changed to “No,” “Plot Units” changed to “Celsius,” and “Projection” changed to “Robinson. ” b Top 0. 1% of wet-bulb temperatures at different locations between 1979 and 2017. Full size imageAs global warming has progressed, hotter and drier conditions and more extreme flooding events have become the new state and the new normal. On the one hand, we need to adapt to this new state and deal with the negative consequences on energy, ecosystems, economies, societies, and public health. On the other hand, we need to be prepared for the untypical and rapid reversal of extreme events, such as the shift from extreme drought to extreme flooding, and from heatwaves to cold spells. As highlighted in the recently published report United in Science (WMO 2022a), adaptation is crucial to lowering the risks of climate impacts. Therefore, it is important, urgent, and crucial to act now to improve our adaptation capacity to reduce the risks of climate change, especially of extreme events. 2 Understanding the Emergence of Learned in the Process of NeutralityIn response to climate change, the whole world is working towards carbon neutrality to limit global warming. Cutting down the carbon emissions in the energy sector is essential, which requires remarkable transition from fossil fuel energies to clean and renewable energies. Recently, the energy crisis accompanying extreme weather events has brought our attentions to the emergence of new risks during the energy transition process. 2. 1 from the 2021 to WeatherThe electricity resources of the state of Texas, United States, are dominated by natural gas (52%), followed by coal (20%), wind (17%), nuclear (9%), and other sources (2%) (Statista 2022a). 2021, the impact of extreme cold weather on the energy supply of the state caused significant blackouts and left more than 10 million people without electricity. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by stating that 'As global warming continues, strengthened evaporation is anticipated to increase the proportion of water in the atmosphere, and high-temperature days will become more intolerable.' This indicates that climate change is leading to more extreme temperatures and thus supports the idea that it has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: Given the mechanisms of speech production as theoretical underpinnings of CF (Segalowitz, Reference Segalowitz2010, Reference Segalowitz2016), we selected task design features based on the framework of speech processing demands (e. g. , Préfontaine & Kormos, Reference Préfontaine and Kormos2015; Skehan, Reference Skehan2009), targeting three speech processing characteristics: content planning (i. e. , conceptualization), the preemptive activation of relevant linguistic items, and the availability of phonological information. To manipulate these speech processing components, the study employed four speaking tasks: (a) an argumentative speech task, (b) a related picture narrative task, (c) a reading-to-speaking (RtoS) task, and (d) a reading-while-listening-to-speaking (RwLtoS) task. All the task prompts are available using OSF ( In the argumentative task, students were provided with a statement and argued to what extent they agree/disagree with it (S. Suzuki & Kormos, and Kormos2020), while in the picture narrative task, they were asked to describe an 11-frame cartoon adopted from Préfontaine and Kormos (Reference Préfontaine and Kormos2015; available in the IRIS database, In both RtoS and RwLtoS tasks, students were instructed to read a 300-word long expository text written in English and to retell the content of the text. However, these tasks differed in the modality of the source text presentation. The RtoS task offered a written text (i. e. , reading-only), while a bimodal text (reading-while-listening) was provided in the RwLtoS task. To minimize the effects of source texts, we prepared two comparable texts adapted from Millington (Reference Millington2019), and the audio-input for the bimodal source text was recorded by a L1 speaker with 15 years of English teaching experience at universities in Japan. There are three intended contrasts between these tasks. First, comparing the argumentative task with the other three tasks, the moderating role of the necessity for content planning in the CF-UF link can be examined. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that achieving fluency involves complex task designs focusing on various speech processing characteristics, such as content planning and phonological information. It discusses specific speaking tasks that enhance fluency, suggesting that additional methods beyond language apps are necessary for effective language acquisition.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Taking handedness as a measure of functional lateralization, these studies have found that the midsagittal size of the human corpus callosum and, consequently, the number of transcallosal fibers are larger in left-handed and ambidextrous people than in those with consistent right-hand preference (Witelson, 1989; Cowell et al. , 1993). Neuroimaging with positron emission tomography (PET) can provide information about the functional interactions within entire neural networks. Two major strategies exist by which such PET data are currently analyzed. One strategy compares the pattern of activity between two or more tasks, looking for those areas that show significant changes. The second determines the functional relationships between regional activities in an attempt to find the neural network that mediates the task (McIntosh et al. , 1994; Horwitz et al. , 1995). Using this second, correlational approach, previous studies of regional brain metabolism revealed that a widespread network of significant connections orchestrates the speech-relevant areas of both cerebral hemispheres according to the actual needs of speech processing (Karbe et al. , 1998). Within this large bilateral network of functionally intercorrelated cortex areas, specially close interhemispheric correlations connect relatively small portions of the left and right auditory association cortex that are situated in that part of the left Brodmann's area (BA) 22 that is buried in the superior temporal sulcus and in the surface aspects of the right BA 22 (Karbe et al. , 1995). The present study explores whether the energy consumption of the corpus callosum reflects the dynamics of the presumed interhemispheric transmission of language information. studied 10 normal individuals (9 men, 1 woman, mean age 39 years, SD 14 years) with three-dimensional-registered magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and with high-resolution PET using the 18F-2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose method. A laterality questionnaire and standardized tests of skilled motor performance classified all subjects as consistent right-handers (Oldfield, 1971). All subjects gave their informed consent. Magnetic resonance imaging was performed in all individuals with a superconducting 1-T instrument (Magnetom, Siemens, Erlangen, Germany). The MRI scanner produced 64 adjacent transaxial T1-weighted tomograms with a slice thickness of 2. 5 mm and a pixel size of 0. 98 × 0. 98 mm. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text centers on the methodology and findings related to neuroimaging using positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in the context of functional lateralization and brain activity. However, it does not specifically address functional MRI or its ability to measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: All types of electricity generation technologies were impaired by the heavy winter storm, especially the natural gas and wind energy supplies due to damaged pipes that limited the natural gas supply and frozen wind turbines that shut down the wind energy supply. Other power plants also failed to operate at their best generation output levels. Moreover, the dramatically increased demand for heating during this extreme cold weather period caused a further collapse of the power supply (Busby et al. 2021). Under extreme conditions, the reduced reliability of the power generating infrastructure has become an emerging risk that threatens the stability of the energy supply. The winterization of the reliability standards for the infrastructure should be developed and implemented to ensure that generators are prepared for extreme events in the future. Moreover, in the process of achieving carbon neutrality, clean and renewable energy sources, especially solar and wind energy will make great progress in large-scale and commercial uses. But their energy networks and supplies are more sensitive to weather conditions. Therefore, a portfolio of multiple energy sources and special fusion techniques are required to overcome the fragmentation and instability of renewable energy sources, and to establish resilience capabilities such as improving energy source reliability and safety to ensure energy supply in extreme situations. In addition, the development of powerful freezing-resistant turbines for wind energy, and the preparation of redundant reserves of fossil fuel energy should be fully considered. 2. 2 from the Response to the 2021 to a Record HeatwaveThe electricity resources of the state of California, United States, are dominated by natural gas (47. 3%), followed by solar (15. 7%), hydropower (11%), nuclear (8. 4%), wind (7%), and other sources (10%) (Statista 2022b). 2021, a record-breaking heatwave swept the state and lasted for days with a maximum extreme temperature of 50. 5 °C, causing record-breaking power shortages, and some households experienced rolling blackouts. In contrast to the power shortages at peak times, there was a relatively abundant amount of grid electricity during effective solar radiation periods owing to the significant development of solar power. In response to the high fluctuations in power demand during the day, customers were urged to curtail electricity use as much as possible between 3 and 10 p. m. and shift energy use such as charging electric vehicles and using large appliances to the morning or early afternoon hours (CAISO 2021). Power shortages during heatwaves have become a new normal in recent years. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by describing the record-breaking heatwave that occurred in California in 2021, which had extreme temperatures and resulted in significant power shortages and rolling blackouts. The mention of increasing temperatures and their impact on the reliability of electricity generation during such heat events directly supports the idea that climate change is contributing to more frequent and intense heatwaves.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: Second, the contrast between the picture narrative task and both RtoS and RwLtoS tasks may offer insights into how the CF-UF link is affected by the preemptively enhanced activation of linguistic items by means of the source text presentation. Third, the impact of the availability of phonological information on the CF-UF link can be examined by contrasting the RtoS and RwLtoS tasks. previous studies, we targeted three major aspects of UF—speed, breakdown, and repair fluency (Tavakoli & Skehan, Reference Tavakoli, Skehan and Ellis2005). There is one measure that only taps into the construct of speed fluency, that is, articulation rate, or its inverse measure, mean duration of syllables (Tavakoli et al. , Reference Tavakoli, Nakatsuhara and Hunter2020). However, to construct a latent variable, more than two observed variables are ideally loaded onto the latent variable to avoid an underidentified model (Brown, Reference Brown2006). We thus included two composite measures—speech rate and mean length of run—as the measures of speed fluency. The selected UF measures are listed as follows: Speed fluency 1. Articulation rate (AR). The mean number of syllables produced per second, divided by total phonation time (i. e. , total speech duration excluding pauses). Composite measures 2. Speech rate (SR). The mean number of syllables produced per second, divided by total speech duration time, including pauses. 3. Mean length of run (MLR). The mean number of syllables produced in utterances between pauses. Breakdown fluency 4. Mid-clause pause ratio (MCPR). The mean number of silent pauses within clauses, divided by the total number of syllables produced. 5. End-clause pause ratio (ECPR). The mean number of silent pauses between clauses, divided by the total number of syllables produced. 6. Filled pause ratio (FPR). The mean number of filled pauses, divided by the total number of syllables produced. 7. Mid-clause pause duration (MCPD). Mean duration of pauses within clauses. 8. End-clause pause duration (ECPD). Mean duration of pauses between clauses. Repair fluency 9. Self-correction ratio (SCR). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses various aspects of fluency measurements and contrasts different tasks related to fluency without addressing the claim about language apps providing everything needed for fluency. It does not provide support or rebuttal to the idea that language apps alone are sufficient for achieving fluency.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Positron emission tomography was performed with a high-resolution scanner (-. S. A. ), which provided 47 contiguous transaxial slices through the brain with a center-to-center distance of 3. 125 mm and a spatial resolution (full width-half maximum of point-spread function) of 3. 6 mm transaxially and 4 mm axially (Wienhard et al. , 1994). After bolus injection of 185 MBq 18F-2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose, six frames of 10 minutes each were recorded. Images were reconstructed on a 128 × 128 matrix with 2. 17-mm pixel size by applying a Hanning filter with a cutoff frequency of 0. 4 cycles per pixel. This procedure included corrections for random coincidences, scatter, and attenuation; with regard to attenuation, a threshold algorithm was used to define the contour of the head. Images of the regional cerebral metabolic rate of glucose were calculated based on frames 3 to 6 and multiple arterialized blood samples using the autoradiographic model with adjustment of rate constants K1 and k3 to measured activity, as previously described (Wienhard et al. , 1985). Two PET studies were performed in each individual within 1 week. In the first PET study, the individuals were examined in a resting condition, with eyes closed and ears unplugged, in a room with low ambient noise (Heiss et al. , 1984). The second PET study was performed under the same condition but during verbal stimulation. The subject had to repeat German nouns that one of the investigators randomly presented aloud. The total amount of presented nouns, which was adapted to the individual repetition pace, was 1,224 (SD, 242) words in this study. The period of stimulus presentation and the number of presented and repeated words clearly exceeded the range in which the number of presented stimuli correlates with the degree of regional cortical activation (Price et al. , 1992). Thus, the number of presented words did not correlate significantly with the regional metabolic activation. The 30-minute period of stimulation started immediately before 18F-2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose injection. The MRI and PET images were coregistered in parallel to the intercommissural line as defined on the three-dimensional MRI display by using the Multi-Program. The uncertainties from the coregistration were found to be less than 1. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the methodology for positron emission tomography (PET) and provides no information about functional MRI (fMRI) or its capability to measure brain activity through blood flow changes.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: There is a need for long-term and proactive arrangements in many aspects of risk responses, particularly in terms of extreme weather events, infrastructure resilience, and preparedness for people’s needs, in order to minimize losses from various risks. 3 Governance for AdaptationWhen advancing the process of achieving carbon neutrality in response to climate change, the impacts of more frequent and intense extreme weather events have forced us to think soberly about developing smarter climate governance strategies for sustainable development. While climate mitigation actions contribute to the slowdown of climate warming, climate adaptation is of great importance and is a more direct approach to reducing disaster risk and protecting people (Robbert and Lesnikowski 2018). The key to climate change adaptation (CCA) is the reduction of climate risks. This needs to include reducing the impacts of rapidly changing or slow-onset extreme events, to lower the vulnerabilities of infrastructures that already exist or are under construction, and to limit the combination effects on the population and society due to extra health burdens originating from other sources (for example, air pollution). The goal of CCA is to achieve climate-resilient development in the near future. Although more than 170 countries have already taken adaptation into account in their climate policies and planning, which has generated benefits in areas such as health, food security, and biodiversity conservation, there are still large gaps between actions already taken and the needs of society in response to the climate change impacts (IPCC 2022). Moreover, progress towards adaptation is unevenly distributed across regions, and most implemented adaptation measures have been small-scale, fragmented, incremental, or sector-specific. Despite the general advocation of CCA in the 2015 and the earlier on (), there is a lack of a comprehensive and systematic guiding framework for countries’ CCA actions, as well as a unified and coordinated operational framework for collaborative deployment within the UN system. Here, we present several suggestions and recommendations for resilience building through collaborative governance for CCA (Fig. 3). Fig. 3Recommendations for climate resilient development (CRD) through collaborative governance for climate change adaptation (CCA), with the support of multi-stakeholder partnershipsFull size imageNations (UN) should take the lead in promoting CCA at the global level. Although the importance of CCA was highlighted in the (2022. Exceeding 1. 5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points. Science 377(6611): 7950. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the need for proactive measures in response to extreme weather events, which implies that climate change is causing more frequent and intense events. It highlights the importance of climate adaptation to reduce risks from such extreme weather, supporting the notion that climate change is increasing the frequency of extreme events, including heatwaves.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: Meanwhile, breakdown fluency was overall consistently related to both linguistic resource and processing speed across tasks. Despite the lack of significant differences, the latent variable of breakdown fluency seemed to show slightly stronger associations with processing speed (β =. 376–. 502) than with linguistic resource (β =. 221–. 345). As for repair fluency, linguistic resource significantly contributed to the construct of repair fluency only in speaking tasks where the content of speech was predefined (the picture narrative task, the RtoS task, the RwLtoS task). Meanwhile, processing speed was not related to repair fluency in any of the speaking tasks. The SEM model suggested that the relative importance of linguistic dimensions differed between the latent variables of CF in terms of their range of confidence intervals (see Supplementary Information). Regarding linguistic resource, the regression coefficients of PVLT (β =. 845–. 879) were significantly higher than those of Accuracy, except for the picture narrative task (β =. 675–. 691). As regards processing speed, the highest regression coefficients were found in RT (β =. 794–. 821). According to the 95% confidence intervals, the strengths of coefficients between RT and (β =. 607–. 620) did not reach statistical significance in any of the speaking tasks. Significant differences in the regression coefficients were only found between RT and RT (β =. 436–. 453). The latent variables of linguistic resource and processing speed were strongly associated with each other consistently across tasks (β =. 664–. 676). Looking closely at the measurement models of UF constructs, the regression coefficients of articulation rate (β =. 876–. 905) to the latent variable of speed fluency seemed to be slightly higher than those of mean length of run (β =. 721–. 882). Regarding breakdown fluency, the coefficients of mid-clause pause ratio (β =. 919–. 963) were significantly higher than those of the other measures—mean pause duration (β =. 528–. 690), end-clause pause ratio (β =. 373–. 515), and filled pause ratio (β =. 545–. 628). As regards repair fluency, the regression coefficients of self-repetition ratio were significantly higher than those of self-correction ratio (except for the RtoS task) and false start ratio. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that fluency is related to multiple factors, such as linguistic resource and processing speed. It discusses how different aspects of fluency—like breakdown fluency and repair fluency—depend on both linguistic resources and how quickly one can process information, suggesting that language apps alone may not address all the necessary components for achieving fluency.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: 5 mm in any direction (Pietrzyk et al. , 1994). The original three-dimensional-registered MRI and PET images were interpolated to 1-mm3 voxels. Sagittal, coronal, and transaxial 1-mm slices were created from the 1-mm3 voxels. A software program written in-house allowed a simultaneous, three-dimensional display of MRI and PET images. Regions of interest were placed subsequently on several adjacent MRI slices in one plane. The software program automatically superimposed the regions on the corresponding PET images and simultaneously displayed them on the two other planes so that the three-dimensional extent of a region could immediately be seen (Herholz et al. , 1996). Thus metabolic changes were measured in regions based on the individual brain morphology. We analyzed cortical activity in the main regions of language processing, i. e. , in the left BA 44, which is the core of Broca's area, in the left BA 22, which is the core of Wernicke's area, in their right-hemispheric mates, and in the entire corpus callosum. The regions of interest were outlined as follows:1. The sulcal area of BA 22, i. e. , that part of BA 22 that is buried in the superior temporal sulcus. The anterior and posterior borders of BA 22 (sulcus) coincided with the anterior border of Heschl's gyrus and with the posterior border of the planum temporale, respectively. The medial border was defined by the medial fold of the superior temporal sulcus; the lateral border coincided with the lateral border of the planum temporale (Karbe et al. , 1995). 2. The part of BA 22 that is located on the surface of the superior temporal gyrus. Brodmann's area 22 (surface) medially started at the lateral border of the Sylvian fissure and stretched to the lateral surface of the superior temporal gyrus (Karbe et al. , 1995). 3. Brodmann's area 44, which was defined as the convolution posterior to the ascending ramus of the Sylvian fissure (Foundas et al. , 1995). 4. The corpus callosum. The contour of the corpus callosum was delineated on seven sagittal 1-mm slices starting midsagittally on MRI scans. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim because it delves into detailed methodology regarding the processing and analysis of MRI and PET images, including the definition of specific brain areas and how cortical activity was analyzed. It does not address functional MRI's ability to measure brain activity through blood flow changes, as stated in the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: 1748-9326/10/12/121001 video Recent years have witnessed unprecedented interest in how the burning of fossil fuels may impact on the global climate system. Such visibility of this issue is in part due to the increasing frequency of key international summits to debate emissions levels, including the 2015 21st Conference of Parties meeting in Paris. In this perspective we plot a timeline of significant climate meetings and reports, and against metrics of atmospheric greenhouse gas changes and global temperature. One powerful metric is cumulative CO2 emissions that can be related to past and future warming levels. That quantity is analysed in detail through a set of papers in this ERL focus issue. We suggest it is an open question as to whether our timeline implies a lack of progress in constraining climate change despite multiple recent keynote meetings—or alternatively—that the increasing level of debate is encouragement that solutions will be found to prevent any dangerous warming levels? Export citation and abstract 3. 0 licence. Any further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI. Nations (UN) 2015 (Conference of Parties, COP 21) will focus on action to lower risks of dangerous climate change as a consequence of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This is one of a series of major reports and meetings, marked bottom of figure 1, which can be compared (panel a) to emissions timeline of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). Plotted are total annual CO2 emissions from fossil fuel burning and cement production (Boden et al 2010) updated to 2013, and also including land use change (Houghton et al 2012). Emissions of CH4 and N2O are those estimated to match concentration changes, from pre-industrial to year 2005 (Lamarque et al 2011, Meinshausen et al 2011). Panel b shows atmospheric CO2 concentrations (IPCC 2013a), extended to 2014 by NOAA/ESRL (www. esrl. noaa. gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/global. html), and is currently just below 400 ppm. When the 1st IPCC report was published in 1990, atmospheric CO2 had a value of approximately 354 ppm. Reset image size Figure 1. (a) Annual historical emissions of carbon dioxide (red), methane (orange) and nitrous oxide (green). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the impact of fossil fuel burning on the global climate system and the subsequent increase in key greenhouse gas emissions. It highlights the importance of international summits aimed at addressing climate change and emissions, suggesting an increasing concern about dangerous climate change. This aligns with the idea that climate change is linked to more frequent and intense heatwaves, as it discusses the broader consequences of greenhouse gas emissions on climate patterns.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: 963) were significantly higher than those of other breakdown fluency measures—end-clause pause ratio (β =. 373–. 515), filled pause ratio (β =. 545–. 628), and mean pause duration (β =. 528–. 690; except for the RtoS task). There were no significant differences in the regression coefficients among these three measures of mean pause duration, end-clause pause ratio, and filled pause ratio. Therefore, the representative component of breakdown fluency is the frequency of breakdowns in the middle of utterances, whereas the length of pauses and the frequency of pauses at clausal boundaries and filled pauses might be secondary (Bosker et al. , Reference Bosker, Pinget, Quené, Sanders and de Jong2013). Mid-clause pauses are reflective of disruptions to L2-specific processing, such as lexical retrieval and sentence construction (De Jong, Jong2016; Tavakoli, Reference Tavakoli2011). Accordingly, the construct of breakdown fluency may represent L2 users’ ability to continue speaking without disruptions to L2-specific speech processing. As regards repair fluency, the regression coefficients of self-repetition ratio to the latent variable of repair fluency (β =. 787–. 860) tended, overall, to be significantly higher than those of false start ratio (β =. 289–. 459) and self-correction ratio (β =. 487–. 632). Accordingly, the frequency of self-repetitions can be regarded as the primary component of repair fluency, whereas both self-corrections and false starts are of secondary importance. The frequency of self-repetitions may be independent of L2 proficiency (Tavakoli et al. , Reference Tavakoli, Nakatsuhara and Hunter2020) and reflective of learners’ speaking style (et al. , Jong, Groenhout, Schoonen and Hulstijn2015). Alternatively, self-repetition can be used as a fluency strategy or problem-solving mechanism (Dörnyei & Kormos, Reference Dörnyei and Kormos1998). Specifically, the use of self-repetitions can buy time for monitoring or retrieval processes, as lexicalized fillers do. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing various components of fluency, such as breakdown and repair fluency, and mentions the importance of aspects like lexical retrieval and self-repetition strategies, which suggests that achieving fluency involves more than what language apps can provide. The mention of specific fluency measures indicates that a holistic approach is required for fluency, which language apps alone may not fully satisfy.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: The outer contour of 1-mm3 voxels was excluded from metabolic measurements to reduce partial volume effects. We divided the corpus callosum into three parts on the midsagittal plane: the anterior third (rostrum, genu, rostral body), the middle half (midbody and isthmus), and the posterior sixth (splenium). The metabolic changes of the anatomically defined regions (Cregional) were calculated from:Cregional= (CMRglc,regional,activated/CMRglc,regional,rest)×100(CMRglc,global,activated/CMRglc,global,rest)−100(1)where CMRglc,regional,activated is the CMRglc during activation, CMRglc,regional,rest is the CMRglc at rest, and CMRglc,global,activated and CMRglc,global,rest are the CMRglc of the entire brain during activation and at rest, respectively. The global CMRglc value of the entire brain included all brain structures except for the cerebrospinal fluid space, i. e. , ventricles and cisterns were excluded from the calculation. SPSS for Windows, Version 6. 0 was used for all statistical calculations. 1 lists the mean metabolic changes of the callosal and cortical regions of interest. Table 2 gives the Pearson correlation coefficients between the three callosal and the six cortical regions. The 18 correlations clearly show a tendency to be different from zero. step-down adjustment of Holm (Holm, 1979) was used to provide overall protection against reporting significant results that are false. Using this adjustment, two correlations are statistically significant, i. e. , the correlations of the callosal midbody/isthmus with the left BA 44 and right BA 22 (surface). Interestingly, both correlations are negative. That means that the callosal activity decreases as the cortical activity increases. Figure 1 shows both significant inverse corticocallosal correlations in a schematic lateral view; Fig. 2 shows the relationship between the right BA 22 (surface part) and the callosal midbody/isthmus in a correlation plot. Table 1 Mean metabolic changes with standard deviation during single word repetition Mean metabolic change (%)Left BA 22 (sulcus)5. 8 (4. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding functional MRI and its ability to measure brain activity through changes in blood flow. Instead, it discusses detailed statistical and methodological aspects of measuring metabolic changes and correlations between various brain regions without clarifying the relationship to functional MRI technology.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: (b) Atmospheric CO2 concentrations (red) and cumulative C emissions (brown). Two brown dashed lines, 1. 0 TtC and 0. 79 TtC minus cumulative emissions (see text). (c) Global temperature record anomalies. (d) Fractional occurrence of words 'climate change' or 'global warming' anywhere in books and number of occurrences in research paper titles. Dates of five IPCC reports as arrows above panels, with quotations of significant statements made in them. Other major research findings and climate-related meetings at base. Download figure:Standard image High-resolution image Warming is presented (panel c) as globally averaged surface temperature anomalies relative to the 1960–1990 baseline (Morice et al 2012). Comparing the increases in greenhouse gas emissions and global temperature rise does not imply direct causality. However, based on assessment by multiple climate research centres of temperature variations that might be expected for an unperturbed atmosphere, the five IPCC reports have made increasingly strong statements that an anthropogenic influence is detectable on such observed warming. These are represented by IPCC report quotations, top of figure (for detailed timeline specific to activities of on Climate Change, see Continued warming from 'business-as-usual' emissions could increase sea levels significantly (IPCC 2013b, Rahmstorf 2007) leading to major inundation to low-lying regions. Intensification of the hydrological cycle is also expected. This could cause more frequent extreme rain and flood events. However that signal is presently offset by raised counteracting cooling atmospheric aerosol concentrations (Wu et al 2013); these may fall through clean-air acts. Furthermore oceans are currently absorbing much thermal energy and so contemporary transient warming may be up to 50% lower than equilibrium 'committed' warming for present-day GHG concentration levels (e. g. Schlesinger 1986). Against this backdrop of potential dangerous change, stabilisation at (or below) two-degrees temperature rise since pre-industrial times is often presented as a maximum acceptable warming threshold. This would need major emissions reductions starting soon, with delays imposing even higher reductions on future generations (e. g. Huntingford et al 2012). However the long atmospheric lifetime of carbon dioxide, together with the high inertia of the climate response largely driven by the rate of ocean heat uptake, allows a simple characterisation of such generational exchanges. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by stating that multiple climate research centers acknowledge an anthropogenic influence on observed warming. This warming is related to climate change, which supports the idea that climate change contributes to more extreme weather events, potentially including heatwaves. It mentions that the IPCC reports have increasingly recognized this influence, which aligns with the claim about the relationship between climate change and heatwaves.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: From the perspective of speech production, another important assumption is that repair fluency is in a complementary relationship with breakdown fluency (Tavakoli & Wright, and Wright2020). When a speaker experiences disruption to speech processing and is required to repair their utterance, the speaker can engage with the repairing process either by producing no speech (i. e. , silent pauses) or repeating the previous utterance (i. e. , self-repetition). The strategic use of self-repetition may be determined by the speaker’s individual preference and might consequently obscure the association with L2 competence. Taken together, the construct of repair fluency reflects the ability to produce L2 speech without disfluency features. Contribution of to model revealed the multidimensional interrelationship between CF and UF with some variations across four speaking tasks. The latent variable of processing speed of CF contributed to that of speed fluency consistently across speaking tasks (β =. 431–. 609). Meanwhile, the latent variable of linguistic resource made significant contributions to that of speed fluency only in the RtoS task (β =. 234) and the RwLtoS task (β =. 276). Therefore, the overall efficiency of speech production (speed fluency) can be primarily supported by the speed of linguistic processing skills. The consistent contributions of the speed dimension of CF to speed fluency in the current study may provide some supporting evidence for Segalowitz’s (Reference Segalowitz2016) claim that CF is mainly characterized by the speed of L2-specific linguistic processing. Meanwhile, the task-dependent role of linguistic resource in speed fluency can be interpreted with regard to the characteristics of RtoS and RwLtoS tasks, that is, the enhanced activation of relevant linguistic items by the source texts. If students have acquired those activated items for productive use, the enhanced activation of those items can assist students to use the items rapidly (cf. priming effects, McDonough & Trofimovich, Reference McDonough and Trofimovich2008), subsequently increasing their overall efficiency of speech production (i. e. , speed fluency). Therefore, the contributions of linguistic resources to speed fluency may increase when the mastery of relevant linguistic items plays a particularly important role in the completion of a given task. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that fluency is influenced by multiple factors beyond just language apps, such as the ability to repair speech and the role of linguistic resources in effective speech production. It highlights that factors like repair fluency and the mastery of linguistic items significantly contribute to overall speech efficiency, suggesting that language apps alone may not suffice for achieving fluency.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: 2)†Left BA 22 (surface)9. 9 (3. 1)‡Left BA 442. 3 (3. 0)*Right BA 22 (sulcus)8. 6 (2. 9)†Right BA 22 (surface)11. 6 (6. 1)‡Right BA 441. 2 (3. 3)Entire corpus callosum−1. 4 (5. 3)Rostrum, genu, rostral body−1. 5 (6. 9)Midbody, isthmus−1. 1 (10. 6)Splenium. 1 (6. 1)BA, Brodmann's area. The asterisks indicate the significance level of the metabolic increase during word repetition in comparison to the resting state (∗P =. 05, †P =. 01, ‡P =. 001; 2-tailed t-test). Table 2 Pearson correlation coefficients (with P value) of the cortical and callosal regions of interest Corpus callosum Rostrum/genu rostral body (P)Midbody/isthmus (P)Splenium (P)Left BA 22 (sulcus)−. 12 (>. 05)−. 78 (. 008)−. 69 (. 03)Left BA 22 (surface)−. 37 (>. 05)−. 41 (>. 05)−. 40 (>. 05)Left BA 44−. 13 (>. 05)−. 85 (. 002)∗−. 80 (. 006)Right BA 22 (sulcus). 39 (>. 05). 052 (>. 05). 30 (>. 05)Right BA 22 (surface)−. 21 (>. 05)−. 91 (<. 001)∗−. 71 (. 02)Right BA 44−. 54 (>. 05)−0. 37 (>. 05)−. 05 (>. 05)BA, Brodmann's area. ∗Significant correlations. P =. 05 with Bonferroni step-down procedure of Holm for 18 correlations is. 003 (Holm, 1979)FIG. 1. Right Brodmann's area (BA) 22 (surface part) (22sf) and left BA 44 on schematic lateral views of the brain hemispheres. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim. It provides detailed information about specific Brodmann areas and their associated significance levels concerning metabolic increases during a task, but it does not mention functional MRI or its capability to measure brain activity through changes in blood flow.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: This is because peak warming can be simply related to the single quantity of cumulative CO2 emissions (Allen et al 2009, Matthews et al 2009). Cumulative historical carbon (C) emissions are also shown in panel b (units of Trillion tonnes of C). The 5th IPCC report (IPCC 2013b) estimates that if CO2 was the only GHG perturbed, then burning 1000 GtC i. e. one Trillion tonnes of C (Allen et al 2009) would likely (66% probability) limit surface warming to 2 °C relative to pre-industrial. Upper dash curve (figure 1(b)) shows remaining 'allowed' emissions, if a trillion tonnes was accepted as an upper limit on total C usage. If the ratio of C emissions to non-CO2 gas emissions is kept similar to the ratio implicit in RCP8. 5, then to stay below two degrees—again with 66% probability but accounting for these additional GHGs—then total 'allowed' C emissions becomes 790GtC (IPCC 2013b). Lower brown dashed line is remaining emissions on that basis, highlighting that we have already emitted roughly two thirds of that overall quota, and at current emissions levels the remaining budget would be exhausted in about 25 years. Against that backdrop, this special issue 'Focus on Cumulative Emissions, Budgets and the Implications for Targets' refines and investigates in depth the relationship between anthropogenic emissions and climate target. This considers models' responses to cumulative emissions (Frölicher and Paynter 2015, LoPresti et al 2015, Nohara et al 2015); role of non-CO2 forcing in modulating the relationship between cumulative CO2 emissions and climate response (Rogelj et al 2015a); historical and future contribution from major emitters, in the context of pledges i. e. (INDCs) (Gignac and Matthews 2015, Peters et al 2015); and implications of emissions mitigations on the global economy (Rogelj et al 2015b, Rozenberg et al 2015). To provide historical context to the current climate debate, we mark on figure 1 past key events. The potential for raised CO2 concentrations to cause surface level temperature warming was first identified in 1896 (Arrhenius 1896). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the relationship between cumulative CO2 emissions and climate warming. It highlights that increases in CO2 emissions lead to higher surface temperatures, which supports the assertion that climate change results in more frequent and intense heatwaves. The references to estimates of warming due to CO2 emissions and the historical context of CO2's impact on temperature further reinforce the connection between anthropogenic emissions and increased heat events.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: The latent variable of breakdown fluency was associated with both dimensions of CF consistently across speaking tasks, despite the marginally significant contribution of linguistic resource in the RwLtoS task (p =. 061). The results indicated that the ability to continue speaking without disruption may be underpinned by both the availability of linguistic resources and the speed of linguistic processing. This finding is in line with the broad definition of CF, which assumes that breakdowns in speech production can be caused by either lack of linguistic resources or slow processing speed (see Kormos, Reference Kormos2006; see also the “Cognitive Fluency” section). Moreover, the association of breakdown fluency with both dimensions of CF may give some insights into how the constructs of speed fluency and breakdown fluency are theoretically distinguishable, despite the strong correlation between them. Speed fluency was mainly related to the speed dimension of CF, whereas breakdown fluency was connected to the linguistic resource of CF as well as the processing speed component. The significant contribution of linguistic resource to repair fluency was only found in the picture narrative task, the RtoS task, and the RwLtoS task (β =. 330–. 375). Meanwhile, the processing speed of CF was not associated with the latent variable of repair fluency in any of the speaking tasks. Previous studies have shown that the construct of repair fluency is relatively independent of L2 proficiency (Tavakoli et al. , Reference Tavakoli, Nakatsuhara and Hunter2020) and reflective of individual speakers’ speaking styles (et al. , Jong, Groenhout, Schoonen and Hulstijn2015; Peltonen, Reference Peltonen2018). However, the current result may suggest that repair fluency is not entirely independent of L2-specific linguistic knowledge in some communicative situations where the content of speech is mostly predefined (i. e. , closed task; see Pallotti, Reference Pallotti2009). One essential characteristic of closed tasks is that students cannot avoid expressing some information to achieve the given task, even if they have not fully acquired the necessary linguistic items to convey the intended information. Students are thus required to engage with modifying the intended message or search for some alternative expressions using their own resources. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting that fluency, especially in language learning, relies on multiple factors beyond just language apps. It discusses the importance of linguistic resources and processing speed in maintaining fluent speech, indicating that achieving fluency is not solely achievable through apps. For instance, it mentions that breakdown fluency is influenced by the availability of linguistic resources and the speed of linguistic processing, which suggests that additional elements, such as personal speaking style, linguistic knowledge, and specific communicative tasks, all play roles in fluency that cannot be provided solely by language apps.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Below is a midsagittal cut through the corpus callosum with the subunits rostrum/genu/rostral body, midbody/isthmus, splenium. The speech-induced activity of both cortical areas has a significant inverse correlation with the activity of the callosal midbody/isthmus. FIG. 2. Correlation plot of metabolic changes (%) of the callosal midbody/isthmus and the right Brodmann's area 22 (surface) during word repetition with 95% confidence interval (dotted lines) (r = −0. 91, P < 0. 001). matter metabolism has rarely been analyzed with PET in humans, although animal studies indicate that white matter glucose consumption depends on the level of brain functional activity. In their basic description of the deoxyglucose method, Sokoloff et al. (1977) established that the corpus callosum metabolism is 29% higher in conscious than in anesthetized rats. Furthermore, animal studies of neuropeptide-induced hypermetabolism clearly demonstrate that neuroexcitatory effects also involve connecting white matter tracts, especially the corpus callosum (Gross et al. , 1992). Using radiolabeled deoxyglucose and PET, our study demonstrates for the first time in humans a significant inverse relationship between cortical gray matter activation and white matter metabolic changes during a mental operation. We identified the callosal midbody and isthmus as a white matter region that mediates functional brain asymmetry between key regions of auditory and language processing. We have to emphasize, however, that the resolution even of the new generation of PET scanners did not allow us to identify single fiber tracts within the callosal midbody. The metabolic changes that we found in this study therefore point to a modulation of intercerebral activity that predominantly, but not exclusively, involves key regions of functional brain asymmetry. Studies of dichotic listening indicate substantial transfer of lateralized information between the human auditory cortices, on the basic level of word perception (Kimura, 1967). Neuroanatomic studies of animals (Cipolloni and Pandya, 1985) and neuropsychological studies of patients with partial versus complete callosotomy (Musiek and Reeves, 1986) consistently indicate that this transfer between the auditory cortices uses specific fiber tracts of the callosal midbody and isthmus, i. e. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding functional MRI directly; instead, it discusses studies related to metabolic changes in brain regions using PET and talks about the corpus callosum and its role in various brain functions. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim that focuses specifically on functional MRI.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation contributes to habitat loss and climate change. [SEP] Text: Email Us: info@lupinepublishers. com Call Us: +1 (914) 407-6109 57 West 57th Street, 3rd floor, - NY 10019, 10. 32474/CIACR. 2019. 06. 000236 to Results and 1. 2 billion people living in extreme poverty depend on forests for some part of their livelihood. Half of the wood used in the world currently used for cooking, heat and light. Results and to Results and 50. It must be taken into account that about 70 percent of the Earth’s surface is taken up by water, whereas area covered by forests is only 30 percent. So, the area of all marine plants (including Phytoplanktons) is about two times more than forests. Besides, forests not only produce oxygen, but also use themselves for breathing. On the forest’s ability and amount of oxygen production adversely influence constant decrease of forests and their degradation. Consequently, decrease of forest area induce diminution of oxygen contribution to the atmosphere that negatively affected on all living organisms. and are the most important repositories of the terrestrial biological biodiversity. Tropical, temperate and boreal forests contain most diverse habitats for plants, animals and microorganisms. Forests’ biodiversity provides variety of goods and services [4]. They play a vital role in daily life of the most rural communities in the world. They are the repositories of aesthetic, ethic, cultural and spiritual wealth for different religious groups in the world in spite of their confession. Unfortunately, forests area and biodiversity gradually diminish in the world for last decades. Deforestation and forest degradation through agricultural expansion, conversion of forest lands to pastures, infrastructure development, distractive loggings, wild fires and insect pests and diseases outbreaks, accelerate biodiversity and forest loss. Forum’s Survey in 2017, climate change and destruction of nature placed on the first place with 48. 8% [5] with nearly 20% of global greenhouse gas emissions, more than the entire global transportation, forest loss is the second largest contributor after energy sector (Table 1). The major Green- (GHG) in the atmosphere today are: Carbon dioxide (Co2), Methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2o). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing evidence that deforestation and forest degradation contribute to the loss of biodiversity and have significant impacts on climate change. It explicitly states that 'deforestation and forest degradation through agricultural expansion... accelerate biodiversity and forest loss' and highlights the fact that forest loss is responsible for nearly 20% of global greenhouse gas emissions, indicating its direct link to climate change.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: As discussed previously, students can strategically or subconsciously use self-repetition to buy time to repair their utterances (Dörnyei & Kormos, Reference Dörnyei and Kormos1998). Therefore, the contribution of linguistic resource to repair fluency may reflect engagement with repair due to the lack of linguistic resources needed to express task-essential information. study is the first one to examine the CF-UF link at the level of constructs and offers novel insights into how the subconstructs of CF contribute to those of UF across different speaking tasks. Our research has demonstrated that the construct of CF consists of two dimensions—linguistic resource and processing speed—and confirmed the robustness of Tavakoli and Skehan’s (Reference Tavakoli, Skehan and Ellis2005) three-dimensional model of UF (speed, breakdown, and repair fluency) across tasks. Based on our analyses, we have argued that key components of linguistic resource in CF are the breadth and depth of linguistic knowledge needed for encoding speakers’ intended message. This suggests that similar to L1 speech production (Levelt, Reference Levelt1989, Reference Levelt, Brown and Hagoort1999), semantic knowledge is essential to ensure the efficiency of encoding L2 speech. We also found that the speed of sentence construction was a key component of the construct of processing speed, which highlights the important role of automaticity of syntactic encoding processes in L2 spoken performance (cf. Kormos, Reference Kormos2006). The SEM analysis also revealed a complex interplay between the multidimensionality of CF and UF and speaking task types. Speed fluency was primarily associated with processing speed, whereas linguistic resource might only play a role when relevant linguistic items are activated in advance by the input task (i. e. , RtoS and RwLtoS tasks). Meanwhile, both linguistic resource and processing speed contributed to breakdown fluency consistently across speaking tasks, suggesting that linguistic encoding problems can occur due to both lack of resources or challenges in accessing and processing linguistic knowledge in real time. Finally, the contribution of linguistic resource to repair fluency was significant only when the content of speech was predefined (i. e. , picture narrative task, RtoS task, RwLtoS task), whereas repair fluency was generally independent of processing speed. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting the complex interplay between linguistic resources and processing speed, which are critical components of achieving fluency in a second language (L2). It argues that fluency requires not just the use of linguistic resources provided by language apps, but also an understanding of semantic knowledge and automaticity in encoding processes, indicating that language apps alone are insufficient for achieving fluency. The mention of specific constructs like communication fluency (CF) and utterance fluency (UF) further supports the idea that achieving fluency involves more than just the resources that language apps offer.