Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Community gardens contribute to food security in urban areas. [SEP] Text: Avanços e desafios das hortas comunitárias urbanas de base agroecológica: uma análise do município de Sete Lagoas. Reg. 2017;14(2):61-80. ], highlighting the need to expand resources for health promotion activities, garden maintenance and technical assistance. In spite of the difficulties, all the horticulturists felt satisfied with their contact with earth, with the production of food and with the established bonds. Thus, the findings in the community gardens indicate contributions to the FNS, through the production, supply and consumption of local food, reducing food shortages in communities facing poverty [44 Schneider T, Niederle P, Vecchio-de LM. Agricultura urbana como crítica e alternativa: práticas comunicativas em torno da alimentação no contexto de crises socioambientais. RP. 2017 [citado 2019 jan 22];20(3_94):723-59. Disponível em:88 Zaar M. A agricultura Urbana e Periurbana (AUP) no marco da soberania alimentar. Soc Ter. 2015 [citado 2019 jan 22];27(3):26-44. Disponível em: How to cite this 0291. 110. 2. Agriculture and the city: A method for sustainable planning of new forms of agriculture in urban contexts. Policy. 2014;41:290-303. 3. Strawberry fields forever? Urban agriculture in developed countries: A review. Sustain. 2014;34:21-43. 4 Schneider T, Niederle P, Vecchio-de LM. Agricultura urbana como crítica e alternativa: práticas comunicativas em torno da alimentação no contexto de crises socioambientais. RP. 2017 [citado 2019 jan 22];20(3_94):723-59. Disponível em: Disponível em: 7 çalves F. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by indicating that community gardens contribute to food and nutrition security (FNS) through the production, supply, and consumption of local food. It mentions that despite challenges, horticulturists feel satisfied with their engagement in food production, reducing food shortages in communities facing poverty, which aligns directly with the assertion that community gardens improve food security in urban contexts.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: IoT devices like water networks are embedded in critical infrastructure sensitive to cyber-attacks. Thus, it is important to continually monitor utility networks to eliminate attacks on IT and OT: management and optimization of water utility services. Blockchain technology for safe communication among smart devices is a solution to security breaches. Quantum walks are considered nonlinear mappings of elements to the set of probability distributions. This property and the high sensitivity to changes describe discrete quantum walks as discrete-time and discrete-valued chaotic systems. Quantum communication channels are used to exchange decryption keys between senders and receivers. The exchanged key parameters are required for message encryption, decryption, and authentication processes. Each blockchain unit contains a hash value linked to the previous and current block. QHF with public key parameters generates the hash value for linking each block in the chain with the previous one. The framework assumes that each stakeholder on the blockchain system has a validated profile and key parameters for each node. Security analysis is used in the evaluation of cybersecurity systems (Figure 3). Figure 3. Safeguards against cyber threats to EVs [23]. Advertisement 9. ConclusionsSmart cities are the result of the maturation and accessibility of advanced technologies available for integration in all aspects of life, such as data communication, telecom, IoT, electronics, automation, and computerized physical equipment. The complete reliance on automation and communication causes hostile elements to take advantage of the exposure to automation to infiltrate significant municipal systems causing functional damage, intentional disruptions, and financial extortion. Therefore, smart cities should integrate cyber and privacy solutions to ensure the interoperability of all elements that form the city’s infrastructure and processes. In this 1. . An overview of cyber threats, attacks and countermeasures on the primary domains of smart cities. Applied Sciences. 2023;13(2):790. DOI: 10. 3390/app130207902. A secure three-factor authentication protocol for E-Governance system based on multiserver environments. IEEE Access. 2022;10:74351-743653. . : A decentralized employee performance assessment system based on blockchain for smart city governance. IEEE Access. 2020;8:99528-995394. Kitchin R, Dodge M. The (In)Security of smart cities: Vulnerabilities, risks, mitigation, and prevention. Journal of Urban Technology. 2019;26(2):47-65. DOI: 10. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting the vulnerabilities of IoT devices and critical infrastructure, emphasizing that smart cities are at risk of cyber-attacks. It states, 'the complete reliance on automation and communication causes hostile elements to take advantage of the exposure to automation,' which directly contradicts the notion of complete security and immunity to cybersecurity threats.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: It's argued that evidence of life on Europa could be overlooked due to existing biases. [SEP] Text: By choosing 1980-1989, it leaves room for a possible offset from the mean values that would be computed over the later periods, which potentially can skew the distribution of monthly mean bias on which strategy D is based upon. Other comments are minor:Figure 2 and related text (page 4):There is no information on the measurement uncertainty for the MLO temperature and ozone surface instruments. Instruments yielding large measurement uncertainty are likely to produce similar inconsistency between calculated trends. The authors probably assume that the total measurement uncertainty of these instruments is small enough to be taken out of the equation. If so, please state it. Figure 4, lines 17-29 (note on the sampling deviation vs. sampling bias):This sentence is not clear. What does the expression “insufficient number of samples to infer a monthly mean value” mean exactly? Please re-phrase/clarify. Figure 7:Too much information between top and bottom row. I suggest top row shows only “with meteorological adjustment” trends, and only for period 1990-2021. This way reader has a much faster access to the actual information to be used from this figure (seasonality). Figure 9:Because panel (b) shows a coverage rate of 2. 2 samples/week, I would suggest to show a 2-samples/week example in panel (a) instead of Sunday (1 day/week). Figure S15:It would be nice here to plot the trends from ozonesonde data itself, together with the MLO subsampled data. The consistency of these two independent datasets could be demonstrated, and would provide a direct justification to apply the methods discussed in this appear to the ozonesonde launch programs, among others. On the other end, if the two datasets do not show consistent results, this would trigger (a needed) discussion on the applicability of the method discussed in this paper, for example highlighting the possible impact of measurement uncertainty and long-term stability. Page 14, lines 18-24: discussion on stratospheric intrusions:Actually, stratospheric intrusions could (should? ) be included among the “meteorological adjustments”. There is no scientific reasons to exclude samples underlying stratospheric intrusions and yet include samples underlying other dynamical/natural variability. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address or relate to the claim regarding overlooked evidence of life on Europa due to bias. Instead, it discusses various technical comments on measurement uncertainties and suggestions for presenting data in figures, which are not directly relevant to the claim about life detection on Europa.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Community gardens contribute to food security in urban areas. [SEP] Text: Added to these should be compounding system-wide issues such as a high flux of staff within the department, numerous vacancies, inadequate human resources to achieve objectives, unclear roles and responsibilities and cumbersome procurement systems (cf. Ruysenaar 2009, e. g. Greenberg 2006). This recommendation is actually fraught with difficulty as institutional analyses of the indicate that having a national policy does not guarantee implementation activities/programmes change at lower levels, especially in the case of the Department of Agriculture (Drimie and Ruysenaar 2010; Ruysenaar 2009). In terms of access to food, a common response to the economic crisis across Africa has been a resurgence of household-based agricultural production within cities (cf. Maxwell 1999) but it should be noted that the ‘crisis discourse does tend to obscure the subsistence role that urban agriculture has always played in urban landscapes, as well as to devalue UA in times of prosperity (Moore 2006; cited in McClintock 2010). What is different in the GDACE case is that there should have been a ‘rational’ re-consideration of existing actions (based on prior lessons learned) as this was not an immediate or natural response to a crisis such as that of vulnerable and desperate individuals. In a meeting attended by the author, it seemed that the results of the were not spread beyond the realms of the GDACE, as in 2008 the Johannesburg began considering urban agriculture programmes following very similar rationales. It is noteworthy that in a recent public address the Premier of Mokonyane insisted that “[t]o strengthen food security and eliminate hunger, we are targeting 45,000 households to start their own food gardens by 2014. So far we have assisted more than 25,000 families. We have established 390 school food gardens with 172 in Tshwane, 103 in the and 115 in Ekurhuleni. By 2014 we aim to reach over 600 schools. In addition, we will support 250 community food gardens. The food gardens will be established in the provincial rural nodes, and within the prioritized townships” (Mokonyane 2012). A technocratic response here would probably be to move ‘urban agriculture’ to another department, such as one focussed on local economic development, which is fine, so long as they do not use similar narratives or discursive tactics to continue with business as usual. 490. 361. 58. Austin, A. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by highlighting the establishment of community food gardens as a part of a strategy to strengthen food security and eliminate hunger. It provides specific evidence that the Premier of Mokonyane announced a target of assisting 250 community food gardens. This indicates a direct relationship between community gardens and efforts to enhance food security in urban areas.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: 1080/10630732. 2017. 14080025. Mtshali P, Khubisa F. A smart home appliance control system for physically disabled people. In: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Technology and Society (ICTAS), Durban, South Africa, 6-8 March 2019. IEEE Xplore; 2019. 56. . Smart device for visually impaired people. In: Proceedings of the 2017 Conference on Engineering & Management (), Chennai, India, 23-24 March 2017. IEEE Xplore; 2017. 597. Almeida F. Prospects of cybersecurity in smart cities. Future Internet. 2023;15:285. DOI: 10. 3390/fi150902858. Artificial intelligence-enabled cyber security defense for smart cities: A novel attack detection framework based on the MDATA model. Knowledge-Based Systems. 2023;276:110781. DOI: 10. 1016/j. knosys. 2023. 1107819. . AI-based drones for security concerns in smart cities. on Management. 2022;7(2):122-127. DOI: 10. 33050/atm. v7i2. 183410. . Approaching the anonymous deployment of blockchain-based fair advertising on vehicle networks. In: 2021 Conference on Cybernetics and (). IEEE Xplore; 2021. 611. . Students formative assessment framework (Faus) using the blockchain. In: 2021 Conference on Cybernetics and (). IEEE Xplore; 2021. 6. DOI: 10. 1109/52787. 2021. 964958212. K. Seven ways to evaluate the utility of synthetic data. IEEE Security and Privacy. 2020;18(4):56-5913. Ranyal E, Jain K. Unmanned aerial vehicle’s vulnerability to GPS spoofing a review. Journal of the of Remote Sensing. 2021;49(3):585-59114. Euler S, Maattanen H-öm M, Sedin J. for cellular-connected unmanned aerial vehicles: Performance and analysis. In: 2019 and (WCNC). IEEE Xplore; 2019. 6. DOI: 10. 1109/WCNC. 2019. 888582015. . Drone security: Issues and challenges. Parameters. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing various cybersecurity concerns and vulnerabilities associated with smart city technologies. For instance, it references the potential vulnerability of unmanned aerial vehicles to GPS spoofing and highlights issues and challenges regarding drone security. This indicates that smart city technologies are not immune to cybersecurity threats, which directly opposes the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: 10. 5194/nhess-21-21-2021 © Author(s) 2021. This work is distributed under the Attribution 4. 0 License. © Author(s) 2021. This work is distributed under the Attribution 4. 0 License. 10. 5194/nhess-21-21-2021, 2021. Received: 12 May 2020 – Discussion started: 04 Jun 2020 – Revised: 11 Nov 2020 – Accepted: 13 Nov 2020 – Published: 07 Jan 2021 1 dams are earth embankments used to store waste materials, known as tailings, from mining operations. They can be more than 100 m high and in some cases several kilometres long (Kossoff et al. , 2014). Tailings dams are often constructed from readily available materials, and over their operating life they are frequently raised as the quantity of stored tailings increases (Lumbroso et al. , 2019). Tailings dams are long-lived infrastructure which are often required to be in place in perpetuity (Lumbroso et al. , 2019). In the context of long-lived infrastructure the rate of failure of tailings dams is high, owing to inadequate design regulations, as well as less rigorous construction and supervision methods than for normal water-retaining dams, especially in low-income countries (Bowker and Chambers, 2017). There are three principal methods via which tailings dams are constructed: upstream, downstream and centreline. These are shown in Fig. 1. The upstream method has the lowest initial cost, owing to the minimal amount of fill material required for the initial construction and subsequent raising, which normally consists entirely of the coarse fraction of the tailings (Martin and McRoberts, 1999). Martin and McRoberts (1999) describe upstream tailings dams as “unforgiving structures” with any one or a combination of improper design, construction and operation resulting in a catastrophic failure (Martin and McRoberts, 1999). In recent years the number of tailings dam failures has increased. Around half of the significant tailings dam failures in the last 70 years occurred between 1990 and 2010 (Azam and Li, 2010). America there are around 1200 mines currently in operation which have tailings dams and many thousands of tailings dams which have been abandoned and/or which are no longer operational (Azam and Li, 2010). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses tailings dams, their construction methods, and their failure rates, with no mention of extraterrestrial sources or the origin of life on Earth.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Rooftop gardens alone can cool entire cities during heat waves. [SEP] Text: The model’s slight overestimation of nighttime temperatures could be attributed to anthropogenic heat release from the coupled WRF/BEP + BEM system and indoor air conditioning, causing urban areas to be warmer at night than during the day47,48,49. H relative The coupled WRF/BEP + BEM model accurately simulated near-surface Hrelative above an urban grid cell, with an MBE of −6. 73% in urbanized regions compared with observation stations. The MBE and RMSE of Hrelative ranged from −5. 7% to −7. 43% and 6% to 8. 1%, respectively. The IOA ranged from 0. 89 to 0. 97, averaging at 0. 92 across all observation stations. Despite this accuracy, the simulated 2 m Hrelative exhibited a dry bias in urbanized regions due to the WRF model assuming urban grid cells to be grassland, neglecting trees and vegetation and underestimating surface evaporation and latent heat source from anthropogenic heating. Similar dry biases50 were observed in other tropical cities51,52,53. Despite these biases, the coupled model realistically represented the urban thermal environment and can be utilized to investigate the regional impact of RPVSP technology on the urban environment during heatwave conditions. Reporting summaryFurther information on research design is available in the linked to this 10. 5065/D65D8PWK. The in situ meteorological data for WRF model validation data are available at The data required to replicate the results of this study are available via Zenodo at (ref. 54). Code availability The source code of WRF model version 4. 3. 3 is available at and WRF Python version 1. 3. 4 is available at 2030. IEA (2022). Solar PV. IEA (2023). Bockris, J. O. M. Photovoltaic energy. Science 228, 2022–2023 (1985). 10. 1002/pip. 360 (2001). Khan, A. & Santamouris, M. On the local warming potential of urban rooftop photovoltaic solar panels in cities. Sci. Rep. (2023). Fassbender, E. , Pytlik, S. , Rott, J. & Hemmerle, C. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim regarding the cooling effect of rooftop gardens during heat waves. Instead, it discusses the performance of a coupled modeling system in simulating urban heat dynamics and biases in temperature estimations, particularly related to anthropogenic heat. The focus on urban thermal environments and technology related to photovoltaic solar panels hints at potential urban cooling effects but doesn't specifically corroborate or contradict the claim that rooftop gardens alone can cool cities.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: of Science and Applications (), SAI, 2021;12(5):15. DOI: 10. 14569/. 2021. 0120584,2021. CorpusID:235640850. Available from:. Drone application in smart cities: The general overview of security vulnerabilities and countermeasures for data communication. and Future of the Internet of Drones (IoD): Insights, Trends and Road Ahead. ResearchGate. 2021. 210. DOI: 10. 1007/978-3-030-63339-4_717. . The effect of advertising, sales promotion, and brand image on repurchasing intention (study on Shopee users). IAIC Transactions on Innovation. 2022;3(2):76-8518. . Cybersecurity in unmanned aerial vehicles: A review. on. 2023;16(1):1-1619. Vattapparamban E, Güvenç İ, Yurekli Aİ, Akkaya K, Uluağaç S. Drones for smart cities: Issues in cybersecurity, privacy, and public safety. In: 2016 Communications and Conference (IWCMC), Paphos, Cyprus. IEEE Xplore; 2016. 221. DOI: 10. 1109/IWCMC. 2016. 757706020. Paganini P. Hacking drones – Overview of the main threats. /Hacking. June 2013. Available from:. Autonomous vehicles: Open-source technologies, considerations, and development. arXiv 2022, Cornell University, arXiv:2202. 0314822. . Emerging cybersecurity and privacy threats to electric vehicles and their impact on human and environmental sustainability. Energies. 2023;16(3):1113. DOI: 10. 3390/en1603111323. Abd El-Latif AA, Abd-El--Andraca SE, Peng J. Quantum-inspired blockchain-based cybersecurity: Securing smart edge utilities in IoT-based smart cities. & Management. 2021;58(4):102549. DOI: 10. 1016/j. ipm. 2021. 102549 information 1. Introduction2. Security vulnerabilities of smart cities and mitigation strategies3. Securing smart cities4. Attack detection and mitigation systems for smart cities5. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing various security vulnerabilities associated with smart city technology and mentioning issues in cybersecurity, privacy, and public safety. It highlights the need for attack detection and mitigation systems for smart cities, indicating that the technology is not completely secure or immune to threats.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: In 2001 the Dams (ICOLD) stated that “the mining industry has a less than perfect record when tailings dam failures are reviewed” (ICOLD, 2001). Although this statement was made almost 20 years ago, the probability of a tailings dam failing is still high in the context of long-lived infrastructure (Bowker and Chambers, 2017; Lyu et al. , 2019). there have been 12 major tailings dam failures since 1986, which have resulted in over 1000 deaths and adversely affected the livelihoods of millions of people, as well as causing environmental damage to thousands of kilometres of rivers (Palú and Julien, 2019). Figure 1Different methods of construction for tailings dams (source: adapted from Vick, 1990). Dam “B1” of the Córrego do Feijão mine, referred to in this paper as the Brumadinho tailings dam, was a tailings dam 86 m high with a crest length of 700 m and storage volume of approximately 12×106 m3, located 9 km north-east of the town of Brumadinho in the state of in Brazil (Palú and Julien, 2019; Robertson et al. , 2019). The dam was built using the upstream construction method over a period of 37 years in 10 raises (Robertson et al. , 2019). A cross section through Brumadinho tailings dam is shown in Fig. 2. The last time the dam was raised was in 2013, and tailings disposal ceased in July 2016 (Robertson et al. , 2019). Institute of of Mines (de Gestão das Águas) and the Agency (Agência Nacional de Mineração) had evaluated and classified the dams probability of failure as being “low” (Porsani et al. , 2019). Figure 2Cross section of the Brumadinho tailings dam and the stages in which it was raised (source: adapted from Robertson et al. , 2019). At 12:28 LT (local time) on 25 January 2019, the Brumadinho tailings dam suffered a sudden failure, releasing a mudflow over 10 m deep which moved rapidly downstream (Robertson et al. , 2019). The failure extended across much of the face of the dam, and its collapse was complete in less than 10 s. Around 9. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the history and failures of tailings dams, including a specific incident involving the Brumadinho dam in Brazil. It provides detailed information about the construction, failures, and consequences of mining-related infrastructure but does not address the claim regarding the origins of life on Earth or any connection to extraterrestrial sources. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Pollinators like bees play a critical role in agriculture. [SEP] Text: December 17, 2020 The bees are back in town: Pollinators in an urban ecosystem The growing urbanisation of the landscape poses a major threat to insect pollinators. The reduction in number of these insects, especially bee species, could have a severe impact on agricultural production as many of the crops that we rely on could not produce seeds without pollination. Working with the and investigate pollinator visitation to a small restoration site at in Florida, to compare pollinators in an urban ecosystem to those in a larger conservation area. Pollinators are any animals (usually insects) that transfer pollen from one flower to another, and without them around 75% of flowering plants would be unable to reproduce – including many species that we rely on for food and other products. The growth of towns and cities (‘urbanisation’) means the reduction in natural environments where these pollinator species thrive. While declines in European honeybee populations have drawn global attention because of their importance to crop pollination, declines in native species worldwide are causing concern for both agriculture and native plant reproduction. researchers Bennington and May investigate the pollinators visiting a small restoration area in an urban ecosystem to compare how the numbers and species of insects present compare to those found in a larger conservation area. The question is, does this small area provide enough habitat and food to support a diverse and abundant insect pollinator community? Jacob_09/Shutterstock. com In 2011 a small field located near the on the campus in Florida was selected to be restored to the natural sandhill ecosystem that would have dominated the area prior to urbanisation (European settlement). These sandhills are so called because of the deep, sandy soil of the area, but the dominant features of the landscape were the large, widely spaced pine trees. The sandhill restoration involved planting more than 80 native tree species, mostly longleaf pine, and the development of an understory of plants and grasses. This small fragment of restored ecosystem is still immature. The trees are young and don’t provide the same high, thick canopy as you would find in a more mature ecosystem, which affects the smaller plants growing below. Yet already you can see the difference from the neglected lawn that was there previously, especially as pollinators return to visit the many flowering plants. …the Ecosystem is now a teaching area to educate visitors about the natural landscape of the area and the native plants and insects. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by explaining the essential role of pollinators, particularly bees, in agricultural production. It states that 'many of the crops that we rely on could not produce seeds without pollination' and emphasizes that without pollinators, around 75% of flowering plants would be unable to reproduce. This highlights the critical importance of pollinators in sustaining the food supply and agricultural outputs.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: is Open Access? is an initiative that aims to make scientific research freely available to all. To date our community has made over 100 million downloads. It’s based on principles of collaboration, unobstructed discovery, and, most importantly, scientific progression. As PhD students, we found it difficult to access the research we needed, so we decided to create a new publisher that levels the playing field for scientists across the world. How? By making research easy to access, and puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers. are a community of more than 103,000 authors and editors from 3,291 institutions spanning 160 countries, including winners and some of the world’s most-cited researchers. Publishing on IntechOpen allows authors to earn 10. 5772/intechopen. 94569 this 1. Choose citation style Select style to clipboard Get citation 2. Choose citation style Select format Bibtex RIS Download citation IntechThreats with Edited by From the with Edited by purchase hard copies of this book, please contact the representative in India: CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd. www. cbspd. com | customercare@cbspd. com 1. Choose citation style Select style to clipboard Get citation 2. Choose citation style Select format Bibtex RIS Download citation Impact of this 1. IntroductionPragmatic studies have recently shown that Systems (CPSs) must be adequately protected with security tools to reduce the rising cases of attacks and the destructive impacts of these attacks on global economy, international security, digital services and means of livelihood of many ethnic and social groups across the globe [1, 2, 3]. Further studies have shown that components of Systems (CPSs) possess individual vulnerabilities that can endanger continuous usage of Systems (CPSs) [4, 5]. The nature of the problems with different kinds of threats and cyber attacks on Systems (CPSs) can correlate to severe disasters and complex confusion that may involve different stakeholders. The motives of some intruders may be complex to understand if they simultaneously attack the seamless integration of physical components and the computational elements of Systems (CPSs) [6]. The impacts of some successful cyber attacks in this domain may corrupt or damage data [2, 7]. Some intrusions can leak sensitive information to wider audience via social media with the aims to extort and discredit victims and service providers of Systems (CPSs) [2]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by outlining that cyber-physical systems (CPSs), which smart city technology is a part of, require adequate protection with security tools due to rising attacks. It highlights that CPSs possess individual vulnerabilities that can jeopardize their continuous usage, suggesting that they are not completely secure or immune to threats. Furthermore, it describes potential severe consequences of cyber attacks, including data corruption and sensitive information leaks, which further contradicts the claim's assertion of complete security.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: 7×106 m3 of material were released, approximately 75 % of the stored tailings (Robertson et al. , 2019). The ∼107 m3 of tailings material flowed out of the Brumadinho tailings dam within about 5 min (Robertson et al. , 2019). Information derived from a YouTube video of the event indicates that the maximum velocity of the mudflow may have been as high as 33 m s−1 (Petley, 2019). Three stills from the YouTube video of the dam failure, together with the local time at which they were taken, are shown in Fig. 3. Figure 3Stills from the YouTube video of the Brumadinho dam failure (source: YouTube (2020), provided to the Brumadinho dam investigation by the Agency of Brazil). The official report on the Brumadinho tailings dam failure found that it occurred as a result of static liquefaction (Robertson et al. , 2019). The investigation deduced that the failure initiated close to the crest of the dam but very rapidly progressed through the entire structure, allowing a comparatively shallow failure to develop (Robertson et al. , 2019). This was then followed by a series of retrogressive failures that released the large volume of mine waste (Robertson et al. , 2019). The failure of the Brumadinho tailings dam led to hundreds of people losing their lives and immense damage to the environment, as well as people's livelihoods. There is some anecdotal evidence to suggest that it took the mudflow between 1. 5 and 2 h to reach the some 10 km downstream of the tailings dam (Xinhua, 2020). The location of the Brumadinho tailings dam and the extent of the mudflow, as well as other key locations related to the event, are shown in Fig. 4. A photograph of the aftermath of the failure taken on 1 February 2019 is shown in Fig. 5. Figure 4Location of the Brumadinho tailings dams and the extent of the mudflow (source: Sentinel-2A-L1C Satellite image and © OpenStreetMap contributors 2019; distributed under a BY-SA license; the image contains modified data 2019). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the Brumadinho tailings dam failure and its consequences without any mention of extraterrestrial sources or the origin of life on Earth.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Pollinators like bees play a critical role in agriculture. [SEP] Text: This area, known as the Ecosystem, is now a teaching area to educate visitors about the natural landscape of the area and the native plants and insects. Anyone is welcome to visit the and take part in the – where volunteers can record pollinator activity and contribute to the ongoing data collection. and May are interested in how well this small area of restored sandhill ecosystem might support pollinators, in comparison to a larger natural area. Sandhill is surrounded by an urban ecosystem of residential, business and university campus areas. The ability of this and any small, isolated fragment of semi-natural habitat to support insect life depends upon its ability to provide suitable habitat for a diversity of species of plants and insects. The contrast to this fragment is the (DeLeon Springs, Florida), north of the campus, which is more than 5700 hectares of semi-natural habitat. This covers a variety of ecosystems including sandhills, and the plant understory of the sandhills is made up of many native flowering plants that attract many native pollinators. This means that the pollinators visiting the can be compared to the pollinators visiting the sandhills of to determine if the same number and species of pollinators are present in the urban ecosystem as in the larger natural area. Plant-pollinator interactions The pollinators we are most familiar with are bees, though other insects including wasps, butterflies, beetles, and flies are also common pollinators. Insects visit the flowers to access the nectar and pollen as a food source, and in the process carry pollen between plants. Some plants, referred to as ‘specialists’, are only pollinated by one group of insects (for example, they may only attract flies, or have the pollen situated such that only bees can collect it), and others may be ‘generalists’, meaning that any insect that visits the flower can collect or deposit pollen. To compare pollinators, two plants were selected that were present in both the Ecosystem and the – one generalist and one specialist. The two areas differ in the plant species present, due to a variety of factors including the maturity of the ecosystem and the soil quality, but Bidens alba (B. alba; a generalist) and Chamaecrista fasciculata (C. fasciculata; a specialist) were present in both ecosystems and are common in dry areas of Florida. C. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the importance of pollinators, including bees, in the ecosystem. It explains how insects, including bees, visit flowers to collect nectar and pollen, which facilitates pollination—an essential process for plant reproduction and subsequently agriculture. The text further emphasizes that certain plants attract specific types of pollinators, which illustrates the critical role that pollinators play in supporting plant diversity and health, which are crucial for agricultural productivity.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: The complexity and reoccurrence of threats and cyber attacks on the entire components of Systems (CPSs) have made many organizations to develop the habit of deploying several categories of Systems (IDSs) within the peripherals and gateways of their connections to the entire systems (CPSs) so that these devices can collect and analyze activities that signify evidence of intrusions against their corporate networks in real-time [8, 9]. Subsequently, analysts can quickly review the reports and respond to the attacks before the attacks achieve the objectives of intruders that launch them [10]. These issues have inevitably generated several challenges and concerns regarding the effectiveness of IDSs and analyzers of logs of IDSs in monitoring complex architectural systems peculiar to the above domains over the years. Figure 1 illustrates (NIDS) that is located in front of a firewall. Figure 1. NIDSs in front of firewall. In other words, Figure 1 demonstrates one of the two approaches organizations can adopt to position (NIDS) in relation to firewall within the peripherals and gateways that connect them to the entire Systems (CPSs) [7, 8]. Nevertheless, numerous studies often attest that Systems (IDSs) must always be upgraded to strongly help operators control the new dimensions and rising waves of intrusions against cyber physical resources across the globe. One of the pragmatic methods to achieve this security objective is to make IDSs smarter by connecting them to the of Mobile (GSM) communication so that the toolkits can always send alerts to remote operators such that operators can promptly respond to cyber attacks at all time [11]. Thus, smart IDSs are IDSs that are configured such that operators can receive and respond to their alerts through Services (SMS) to the GSM or email addresses of the operators of IDSs in Systems (CPSs). However, there are security and business requirements that underpin the framework upon which smart IDSs reside in private and corporate settings [2, 12]. The resilience and capacities of smart IDSs can be improved if operators can combine the information they gather from audit of log analyzers with the knowledge of the variability of lengths and components of alerts that smart Systems (IDSs) in the networks have generated. This can be used to ultimately design and improve the security policy on smart IDSs in the corporate elements of Systems (CPSs) [3, 7, 13]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting the ongoing threats and vulnerability of smart city systems to cyber attacks. It discusses how organizations deploy Intrusion Detection Systems (IDSs) to monitor these systems due to the complexity and recurrence of cyber threats, indicating that smart city technology is not completely secure. Furthermore, it emphasizes the need for constant upgrades and improvements in security measures, which undermines the assertion of being immune to cyber threats.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: Figure 5Photograph taken on 1 February 2019 showing the aftermath of the Brumadinho dam failure directly downstream of the site (source: Felipe Werneck, do e dos Renováveis; reproduced under a CC-BY-SA-2. 0 licence). Mining developments, including tailings dams, often grow gradually over long periods of time, and as a result the responsibility for the direct and indirect risks posed by these operations to downstream communities and the environment is often avoided (Downing, 2014; Owen et al. , 2020). Following recent tailings dam failures there has been a renewed sense of urgency from industry, civil society and the investor community to understand the types of risks posed by tailings dams (Owen et al. , 2020). The main objectives of this work were to: highlight the use of an agent-based model and other modelling tools to estimate the risk to people downstream of the Brumadinho tailings dam; assess if the number of fatalities could have been reduced if a warning had been received prior to or at time the dam failed, albeit one with a short lead time1; demonstrate how these modelling tools can help to inform emergency plans for tailings dams. Three separate models were used in this research as follows: a dam breach model known as -MUD, specially developed to model tailings dam breaches, which was used to help to generate an outflow hydrograph of the tailings; a two-dimensional hydrodynamic model of the non-Newtonian mudflow which provided depths and velocities of the mudflow at 5 s intervals; an agent-based model of people and vehicles, called the Model (LSM), which was used to assess the loss of life and how warnings of the imminent failure could have reduced the death toll. 2 Modelling of the Brumadinho tailings dam failure A two-fluid dam breach model, known as -MUD, was initially used to model the Brumadinho tailings dam failure. -MUD models water and tailings and provides times series of water and tailings outflows in the form of hydrographs which can be used as the input to a downstream model of the subsequent mudflow. -MUD is based on the model, developed over a 20-year period by HR Wallingford, which simulates embankment dam breaches and was first developed by Mohamed et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding the origin of life on Earth from extraterrestrial sources. Instead, it focuses on the aftermath of the Brumadinho dam failure and the risks associated with mining operations, which is entirely unrelated to the discussion of extraterrestrial origins of life.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Pollinators like bees play a critical role in agriculture. [SEP] Text: fasciculata is ‘buzz-pollinated’, which means that the vibrations from the buzzing of a bee are required to release the pollen from the flower. It is expected that specialist plant species would suffer from the reduced number of available pollinators in an urban ecosystem more than a generalist plant species, and so it is of interest to compare the pollination visitation to both specialists and generalists in urban and conservation areas. Welcome visitors The researchers counted insect visitors to B. alba and C. fasciculata flowers at both sites between May and August over three years (2016 – 2018) and found a surprising result: there were slightly more pollinator visitations to both plants at the Ecosystem than at the Conservation Area. Although there was no statistical difference in the number of insects visiting the plants in each area, the total numbers were higher for the and this is not what was expected in the urban ecosystem. This research suggests that this small and immature fragment of restored habitat could be enough to support a community of bees in an urban ecosystem. Most of the visitors to both plants at both sites were native bees, but there was a much greater diversity of visitors to B. alba at the Conservation Area. Over 70% of pollinator visitation to B. alba at the were Hymenoptera (bees and wasps), but at the site they made up only 41% of visitors. Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies) made up 31% of visitors at Heart Island, and Diptera (flies) and Coleoptera (beetles) together made up another 14%. This means there is a much greater diversity of insects present at than at the Volusia Sandhill, where Lepidoptera, Diptera and Coleoptera all together only made up a little over 12% of the visitors to B. alba. As expected, the most common pollinator to visit C. fasciculata was the bumblebee (Bombus spp. ), and while there were slightly more visitors at the Volusia Sandhill, bumblebees were the large majority at both sites indicating no significant difference in the diversity of insect visitors to this plant. Urban pollinators This research suggests that this small and immature fragment of restored habitat could be enough to support a community of bees in an urban ecosystem. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing the role of bees as critical pollinators. It discusses how certain plant species rely on bee pollination for pollen release, emphasizing the importance of pollinators like bees to plant reproduction and agriculture. The research findings highlight the presence of bees in urban ecosystems and indicate their significant role in supporting plant communities.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: However, empirical studies on smart IDSs that specifically focus on audit of smart IDSs and log analyzers are inadequate over the years. Basically, empirical studies on smart IDSs in the context of Systems (CPSs) involve pragmatic examinations of specific experiments conducted with smart IDSs to concurrently correct security concerns and audit issues. These procedures can assist operators to improve the detection of intrusions against Systems (CPSs) and cloud resources at large. The argument underpinning this 2. Background information on audit of smart IDSs and log analyzers in Systems (CPSs)Studies have shown that Systems (CPSs) are mergers of collaborative networks of automatic systems that are strongly built on sound theoretical and scientific principles and seamless integration of many disciplines [1, 6, 12]. Some of the disciplines that contribute to progressive growth and modernize Systems (CPSs) over the years include informatics, computer and, mobile systems, Networks (WSNs), cyberspace, system designs, software, process, robotic, automobile and mechanical engineering [1, 6, 12, 19]. The underlying benefit of incorporating integrated components to drive Systems (CPSs) is easy connectivity of many devices and systems to systems (CPSs) across the globe. This capability has resulted into wider applications of Resources (CPRs) in the areas of medical services, agriculture, electric installations, space engineering and other notable facets of human life [6, 19]. Critical issues begin to surface with the inexhaustible growth currently recorded in this domain in recent years especially on the numbers of service users, service providers and revenue accrued from sales of products and services that relate to Systems (CPSs) [4]. Empirically, experts have argued that security, computational efficiencies and degree of helpfulness of complex architectural framework that underlying seamless integrations of physical and computation components of Systems (CPSs) are serious doubts whenever these components are evaluated on the basis of performance, quality of service, users’ satisfactions and robustness to counter threats and challenges [5, 20, 21]. Yet, emphasis over the years has focused on the computational capabilities of Systems (CPSs) but less attention has been paid to the link between the computational and physical elements of this domain [20]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting the inadequacy of empirical studies focused on smart Intrusion Detection Systems (IDSs) and the security concerns associated with Cyber-Physical Systems (CPSs). It states that 'experts have argued that security, computational efficiencies and degree of helpfulness of complex architectural framework...are serious doubts.' This indicates that smart city technology may not be completely secure and is indeed subject to cybersecurity threats.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: (2002) under the name and validated against a number of dam failures case studies including the Orós dam in Brazil in 1961, the Banqiao dam in China in 1975 (Morris, 2011) and the Teton dam in USA in 1976 (Mohamed et al. , 2002). -MUD predicts the growth of a breach in tailings dams via a range of processes, as well as the quantity of water and tailings released from the dam in the form of a hydrograph (Mohamed et al. , 2002; Petkovšek et al. , 2020). Both processes, breaching and outflowing, are simulated simultaneously based on the characteristics of the dam material, predicting the evolution of a breach opening without the need to make assumptions regarding the dimensions of the breach. -MUD has been validated against two tailings dams failures, the Merriespruit tailings dam failure in in 1994 and the tailings dam failure in in Canada in August 2014 (Petkovšek et al. , 2020). -MUD breach model of the Brumadinho tailings dam comprised three layers as follows: water layer including eroded tailings and dam material in suspension, which behaves as a Newtonian fluid2; mud layer with a viscoplastic non-Newtonian behaviour representing the liquefied tailings; solid comprising material making up the tailings dam. Soon after the Brumadinho tailings dam failed in January 2019, -MUD was used to develop two breach scenarios: a “base” scenario and an “extreme” scenario. Both these scenarios were based on a total mobilized volume of material of ∼7. 2×106 m3. Both breach scenarios were assumed to have taken place over 2 min. The base scenario had a peak flow of 160 000 m3 s−1, and the extreme scenario had a peak flow of 350 000 m3 s−1. 2019 Robertson et al. (2019) released their expert panel report on the technical causes of the Brumadinho tailings dam failure (see Robertson et al. , 2019). This report indicated that the quantity of material was about 35 % higher than had originally been assumed in the -MUD model (i. e. ∼9. 7×106 m3) and that it took around 5 rather than 2 min for all the mobilized material to leave the location of the failure (location A in Fig. 4). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses a simulation model used to predict the behavior of tailings dams and their failures. There is no mention or discussion of life on Earth or extraterrestrial origins, making the provided text unrelated to the claim being analyzed.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Pollinators like bees play a critical role in agriculture. [SEP] Text: Potentially this could also be assisted by the non-native plants in the gardens and green areas in the residential, business and university campus surroundings, and perhaps some cavity-nesting species can find suitable habitats on the sides of buildings. The study supports previous research which found that Hymenoptera are more resilient to urbanisation than other pollinator species. The species composition at each site varied a great deal, however, and so it seems that specific bee and wasp species are differently impacted by the changing ecosystem. The surface area available to ground-nesting species and other factors such as larval food supplies are likely to also play a role in determining which species thrive in an urban environment. The lack of the expected difference in visitation to C. fasciculata can most likely be explained as being due to the pollinator not being specific to the plant – C. fasciculata may rely on the bumblebee for pollination, but Bombus spp. can visit many plants including both specialists and generalists. The low numbers of beetle and butterfly visitors to the plants at the Ecosystem suggests these are more sensitive to urbanisation, and this is again likely due to these insects having requirements (other than food in the form of nectar) that are not met in an urban ecosystem. and May (and volunteers with the Pollinator Project) continue to record pollinator visitation to the Ecosystem each summer, and hope to attract a greater diversity of pollinators by increasing the available larval food sources and adding further flowers to provide resources to insects year-round. /Shutterstock. com What could this mean in terms of protecting native pollinator species against habitat destruction and climate change? <>Our research is consistent with that of others who have found that small urban ecosytems can provide habitat for plants and invertebrates in an increasingly human-dominated landscape, though the pollinator communities in urban fragments may be a novel mix of species. The extent to which these new, urban communities can also withstand accelerating climate change requires continued investigation The bees are back in town: Pollinators in an urban ecosystem was last modified: November 8th, 2023 Keywords: -pollinator interactionspollinator visitationpollinatorsin Floridaurban ecosytemsthis 178. Sandhill Ecosystem. [online]. webpage. Available at: [Accessed 18 Sept. 2020]. Pollinator Project. [online]. webpage. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the resilience of pollinators, particularly Hymenoptera (which includes bees), in urban ecosystems and their adjustments to changing environments. It highlights ongoing research that supports the importance of pollinators and their habitats, suggesting that maintaining diverse pollinator communities is critical for ensuring their role in ecosystems, including agricultural systems. The mention of efforts to attract a greater diversity of pollinators indicates recognition of their importance in sustaining ecological functions, which aligns with the claim about their critical role in agriculture.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: These flaws have raised series of technical and research issues on how to forecast traffic flow, optimize Mobile Cyber-Physical applications and how to achieve high performances of social services and healthcare facilities like wearable devices that run on Internet of a Thing (IoT) [1]. The correlations between social settings and industrial applications of cloud-based services that interact with Systems’ designs; innovation and manufacturing of digital resources continue to generate new paradigms in manufacturing and design’s settings [6, 22]. These necessitate the importance of measures to bridge the gap between the Cyber physical resources and social setting. Collaborative design of embedded systems and various algorithms that experts have designed to carry out co-modeling and co-simulation of novel innovations begin to emerge. However, majority of these algorithms often exhibit invisible flaws [19]. The above issues coupled with the alarming increase of intrusions against Systems (CPSs) have resulted in the needs for organizations to adopt Systems (IDSs) [8, 10, 20]. These toolkits can then provide automated ways to monitor, analyze all incoming and outgoing network packets in their corporate networks, trigger and log alerts on suspicious packets they observe for security and decision purposes. Nevertheless, most of these mechanisms can only detect suspicious packets [9]. They have been criticized for lacking capabilities to make dependable decisions on suspicious activities of users that may signify security breach to Systems (CPSs) [23]. Operators must carefully review alerts they generate to isolate false positives from realistic attacks. Alerts can be daunting and overwhelmingly difficult to manually analyze by operators. Series of log analyzers have been proposed over the years to compensate for these weaknesses [8, 9]. Studies have shown that significant numbers of log analyzers have limited capabilities required to categorize cyber attacks on the basis of all attributes of alerts [9]. A few numbers of researches has suggested that, the above devices should be upgraded so that they can intimate operators with alerts on real-time basis [11, 20]. The rationale is that operators should be able to remotely analyze intrusion logs and counter attacks on Systems without the need to physically report to their offices. These developments have led to the need to audit smart Systems (IDSs) to improve their efficacies. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting various cybersecurity issues and flaws within smart city technology. It mentions that 'majority of these algorithms often exhibit invisible flaws' and points to 'the alarming increase of intrusions against Systems (CPSs),' implying that smart technologies are not immune to cybersecurity threats and require measures such as intrusion detection systems (IDSs) for monitoring and response. This indicates a clear vulnerability and inadequacy in the security of smart city technology.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: In terms of the fully formed breach geometry, the whole of the tailings dam failed so this was assumed to be the same as the sides of the valleyUtilizing the information in the expert panel report a breach hydrograph was developed based on the simplified shape of the extreme scenario modelled using -MUD but using the mobilized material volume specified in the expert report and representing the progressive failure of the dam. The maximum mudflow discharge of 90 000 m3 s−1 is reached within 5 s. The discharges produced by the sudden failure of tailings dams tend to be very high. Studies carried out for the failure of various tailings dams have estimated that the peak discharges can be between 25 000 and 500 000 m3 s−1, depending on their size, shape and how quickly the dam fails (Martin and Akkerman, 2017; Milanović, 2019). The shape of the outflow hydrograph, shown in Fig. 6, was based on information in the expert panel report, which stated that the dam failed progressively and also the velocity at which the mudflow travelled based on a high-quality YouTube video of the incident (see YouTube, 2020). Figure 6Assumed outflow breach hydrograph developed for the Brumadinho tailings dams failure in January 2019. Download 3 Modelling of the mudflow resulting from the Brumadinho tailings dam failure Outflow from the Brumadinho tailings dam was a mixture of the dam itself, tailings and water (Robertson et al. , 2019). This mixture did not behave in the same manner as floodwater; it behaved as a rheological material. Rheological flows are gravity-driven mass flows whose dynamic behaviour is akin to a non-Newtonian fluid (De Blasio, 2011) and which are characterized by changes in viscosity in response to the strain rates within the fluid. The use of a method, which uses the Bingham plastic rheological model, has been shown to be a good approximation for the flow of liquefied tailings (Jeyapalan et al. , 1983). The mudflow generated by the Brumadinho tailings dam failure was modelled using MIKE 21. MIKE 21 is a two-dimensional hydrodynamic model which can model mudflows. The mudflow flow model extended from the location of the Brumadinho tailings dam (location A in Fig. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim regarding the origins of life on Earth from extraterrestrial sources. Instead, it discusses the modeling of the mudflow resulting from the Brumadinho tailings dam failure, providing detailed technical information about breach hydrographs and rheological behavior. There are no mentions or implications of extraterrestrial life or related theories within the content.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation threatens the biodiversity of rainforest ecosystems. [SEP] Text: of Forestry > Vol. 8 No. 3, July 2018 Deforestation and in the Rainforest of Nigeria () Oliver O. O. Enuoh1, Augustine U. Ogogo2 1Department of Forestry and Management, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria. 2Faculty of Agriculture, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria. DOI: 10. 4236/ojf. 2018. 83025 1,738 Downloads 7,327 Views 408. doi: 10. 4236/ojf. 2018. 83025. 1. rainforests are “the most species-rich natural environments on Earth, and have extremely important biophysical properties which affect local, regional and global environmental quality” (WWF/ODNRI, 1989: p. 1). Terborgh & Schaik (2002: p. 4) maintain that 75% or more of the Earth’s biological diversity resides in the tropics. Oates (2002: p. 65) comment that the Rainforest of Nigeria is a global biodiversity hotspot and region of species endemism. Unfortunately, tropical rainforests especially in are under increasing pressure from growing human populations, and from the consequent demands for new land for agriculture, urbanization, and industrial development (Burley, 1997). Ojong (1996: p. 148) observes that “over 90% of the rainforest of Nigeria has been devastated through massive illegal logging activities, careless deforestation, urbanization, subsistence farming and plantation agriculture. What is left is less than 10% from which the (CRNP) was established under decree 36 of 1991 to conserve its biodiversity. ” Prior to the advent of colonialism in Nigeria in the 1800s, different ethnic or tribal kingdoms existed and had land boundaries that protected their intact natural resources from external exploitation and misuse. Nigeria’s rainforest was thus blessed with various flora and fauna species. For flora, examples include trees such as Baillonella toxisperma, Pterocarpus osun, Brachystegia spp. , Etandrophragma spp. , Terminalia ivorensis, Milicia excels, Poga Oleosa, Piptandeniastrum africanum, etc. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the significant species richness of rainforests and how deforestation has severe impacts on biodiversity. For instance, it notes that rainforests are 'the most species-rich natural environments on Earth' and emphasizes that over 90% of the rainforest in Nigeria has been devastated through 'massive illegal logging activities, careless deforestation, urbanization, subsistence farming and plantation agriculture.' This indicates a clear relationship between deforestation and the threat to biodiversity.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: Audit of smart Systems (IDSs) or IDS audit involves comprehensive and thorough examination of the networking infrastructure and security controls upon which the management and operations of all smart Systems (IDSs) in an organization are established [18, 24, 25]. Ordinarily, one of the duties of IDS auditors is to thoroughly scrutinize IDSs, establish and report the efficacies of internal controls that the organization has implemented to safeguard each detector and resources related to these toolkits [26]. The evaluation and the reports of this kind of audit can go a long way to determine the level of compliance and operations of all intrusion detectors in the company with best global practices. Nonetheless, there are numerous challenges with research on audit of smart IDSs in corporate setting in the past years [18]. Studies advise that skilled intruders are common threats that are extremely disturbing corporate and private users of computer systems in systems (CPSs) [2, 7, 10]. Unfortunately, researchers habitually ignore the audit of smart IDSs that should have established exploitable pathways, audit issues and novel paradigms on network security and perimeter defense since the inception of IDS technology. This neglect has countless impacts on digital resources that connect to cyber physical resources. This shortcoming is explicitly dangerous because it is generating warning signals service providers concerning data reliability and quality of service on local computing resources in many organizations. The impacts of some of these security concerns may appear negligible while significant numbers of them are grievous and hazardous to corporate existence considering the capabilities of demoralizing intrusions recently reported in some public media. Recently, the neglect of this aspect of IDS audit and lack of correlation of IDS audit with research findings have begun to subject sequence of findings from logs analyzers, integrity and compliance with professional standards and regulatory authorities to series of contentions [6, 21, 27]. Importantly, sudden changes in the classifications and dimensions of intrusions that often aim to attack computer and mobile services operating within the purview of Systems (CPSs) are global concerns [7, 16]. Intruders have acquired more skills such that they can launch packets that have short and long datagram to achieve different motives in cyberspace. Studies of many trace files suggest instances whereby intruders have split some inbound and outbound packets into fragments. Some studies believe that attackers on systems (CPSs) can suddenly varied the intensities of packets to smartly elude detections. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting the vulnerabilities and cybersecurity threats faced by smart systems (IDSs). It discusses the presence of skilled intruders as common threats to users of computer systems and mentions the challenges in auditing smart IDSs, suggesting that there are significant security concerns and that smart systems are not immune to attacks. Additionally, it points out the dangerous implications of neglecting the necessary auditing of these systems, thereby directly contradicting the idea that smart city technology is completely secure.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: 4) to the confluence with the (location E in Fig. 4), a distance of some 10 km in total. MIKE 21 uses the full Bingham model (Bingham, 1916), which is based on the 2006 work by Naef et al. (2016). The model determines the flow resistance term τ0∕ρgh from the following equation (Naef et al. , 2006): (1) 2 τ 0 3 - 3 τ y + 2 μ B q h 2 τ 0 2 + τ y 3 = 0 where q is the flux in terms of discharge per unit width, h is the fluid depth, μB is the Bingham fluid viscosity, τy is the yield stress and τ0 is the shear stressMIKE 21 solves the equation numerically to give τ0 as a function of τy (the yield stress), τB (the Bingham viscosity), h and q. The three inputs to the MIKE 21 model are fluid density in kg m−3, yield stress in N m−2 and the dynamic viscosity in kg m−1 s−1. There were no field or laboratory measurements available for the Brumadinho mudflow, so the rheological properties of mudflows were derived using information from the expert panel report (Robertson et al. , 2019), a high-quality video of the event and remote sensing information which showed the maximum extent of the mudflow. The selection of the three key parameters for the MIKE 21 mudflow model are discussed below: Fluid density. MIKE 21 only allows a single fluid density to be used. A value of 1800 kg m−3 was found to be appropriate because this density reflects the combination of the tailings, the embankment and the fluids within the tailings dam. Values were derived from the expert panel into the dam failure (Robertson et al. , 2019), as well as the work done by Rickenmann (1999) and Rickenmann et al. (2006). Yield stress. The mudflow model was tested using a range of yield stresses between 400 and 4000 N m−2. The mudflow model results showed that using high yield stresses (i. e. >1500 N m−2) prevented the flows from reaching the Paraopeba River. Conversely, yield stresses < 500 N m−2 resulted in flows reaching the too quickly. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding the origins of life on Earth. It discusses technical aspects of a mudflow model (MIKE 21) and its parameters, which are unrelated to the idea of extraterrestrial sources of life. Therefore, it is considered irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation threatens the biodiversity of rainforest ecosystems. [SEP] Text: For fauna, examples include Panthera pardus (Leopard), Gorilla, Elephants, Chimpanzees, Buffaloes, Potamochoerus porcus (Bush Pig), (Baboon), assorted monkey species, etc. colonization of Nigeria, and subsequent nationalization and commercialization of forest resources culminated in community alienation in forest management and the emergence of a culture of utilitarianism and recklessness in the use and management of these resources. Government and private forest resources exploitation initiatives (e. g. commercial timber logging in government forest reserves), exacerbated overexploitation of these resources. The above is the colonial root of deforestation activities in Nigeria, which have remained unchanged even after Nigeria’s national independence on October 1st, 1960. colonial rule, a forest policy was imposed which nationalized over 80% of communal forest lands by way of Reserves, leaving the balance as community forest. Marguba (2003: p. 19) informs that during colonial rule, the British established 1129 Forest Reserves, 30 Game Reserves, and 5 in Nigeria. Villagers were persuaded to support the policy, with assurance that forest reservation laws were meant to secure the forest for future generations. A serious surprise then came in the 1940s when the colonial authorities introduced and started approving timber logging concessions to various British companies like Glikstens, Cobbert & Co, UAC (Trading Company), Brandler and Company, (AT & P), () Ltd, Ltd, etc. These companies embarked on reckless and unsustainable logging operations that created and sustained the deforestation trends that have persisted in Nigeria till the present day. Government revenue basically came from these exploitations, and so Government condoned deforestation and the reckless forestry practices of the logging companies. In a book “Out of Nigeria: Witness to a Giant’s Toil”, Joseph L. Brandler, author and of the above Brandler and Rylke Ltd, London, commented that: “The tropical logger is not popular in today’s society. The uncontrolled felling of trees, particularly in the Amazon Basin, has given him a bad name. The colonial administration and its successor states were (and are) aware of the importance of forest management and conservation of trees. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing the adverse effects of deforestation activities in Nigeria, including reckless and unsustainable logging practices that have persisted and contributed to the ongoing degradation of forest resources. It mentions how colonial forest policies and industrial logging have severely impacted forest management and biodiversity, directly linking deforestation to the threatening of ecosystems.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: Numerous audit and networking issues may begin to build up whenever new IDSs are installed in the perimeters of digital networks to complement existing IDSs that auditors have been previously audited. There are possibility that audit exercises may exclude auxiliary issues like log analysis on fragmented packets. The location of IDSs relative to the firewall in an organization depends on their security policy. A growing numbers of opinions affirm that organizations can install (NIDS) in the front or back of a firewall for different intentions [7, 16]. However, models that auditors can adopt to establish suitable approach to organizations are very scarce. Furthermore, current model of ICT audit restrict IDS auditors to the physical security, hardware and software components of smart IDSs [3, 24]. Auditors must use simulated attacks to investigate the initialization, configuration, interface, processing and performances of smart IDSs and to ascertain the tendency of the toolkits to dwindle after a prolonged usage. They must also evaluate the available disk spaces for both the toolkits and mobile devices that receive alerts from IDSs and log analyzers. They must assess the contingency plans in the organization to establish business continuity and preparedness of the toolkits to resume surveillance after intruders have attacked them or after downtime. Auditors must equally evaluate the internal and change controls designed to safeguard the smart IDSs from computer viruses and intruders. In addition, they will investigate the signatures, alert’s mechanism, policies and possible rules that have been updated, their corresponding approvals and authorizers of the approvals to modify them [24, 25]. Nonetheless, the above procedures are flawed in the sense that both the experienced and inexperienced intruders may obfuscate and evade smart IDSs audited with the above model. Thus, intrusions on cyber components such as sensing, cyber communication mechanisms and physical resources like computer hardware, data center, employees and mobile devices that the detectors should have discerned and operators would have timely countered often achieve intruders’ missions at long run. One of the fundamental ways this 3. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing numerous vulnerabilities and challenges in the security of smart city technologies, particularly in regard to intrusion detection systems (IDSs). It explains how these systems may be bypassed by experienced intruders and highlights the flaws in current auditing procedures. This indicates that smart city technology is not completely secure and is indeed susceptible to cybersecurity threats.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: Values of between 750 and 1000 N m−2 meant that time of the mudflow arrival at the matched those reported. Bingham fluid viscosity. The mudflow model was run with two fluid viscosity values, 30 and 100 kg m−1 s−1. The results showed that the higher value gave a better match between the observed and modelled mudflow extents. In addition to the above parameters the roughness of the floodplain needed to be set. The MIKE 21 mudflow model uses “Manning's M” as an input parameter for roughness. Manning's M is the inverse of Manning's n roughness coefficient (i. e. 1n). The values of Manning's M and their equivalent n values used in the model are given in Table 1. Table 1Manning's M roughness values used in the mudflow model. Version | roughness values in Table 1 are based on those in standard texts such as Chow (1959). (DTM) which represents a bare-earth surface on a 0. 4 arcsec grid (approximately 12 m) was used to represent the topography of the downstream valley. The accuracy of this earth-observation-based DTM surpasses that of any global satellite-based elevation model available. Previous modelling of the Brumadinho mudflow used the HEC-RAS (Center's Stream) hydrodynamic modelling software, which can only model Newtonian flows and used a less accurate 30 m grid DTM (see Raman and Liu, 2019). In the MIKE 21 mudflow model, a flexible triangular mesh was used with a maximum element area of 150 m2. The mesh comprised a total of some 169 000 elements, which covered the area from the toe of the Brumadinho tailings dam (location A in Fig. 4) to the (location E in Fig. 4). The inflows to the two-dimensional mudflow model were applied at the base of Brumadinho tailings dam (location A in Fig. 4). Figure 7Comparison of the maximum modelled mud extent and the observed maximum mud extent downstream of the Brumadinho tailings dams. tailings dam failure was a rarity in that there are high-quality video images of the event, which provide an insight into the failure mechanism, the speed at which the mudflow initially moved downstream and the approximate time at which some of the buildings were destroyed. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim regarding the origins of life on Earth from extraterrestrial sources. It discusses parameters related to a mudflow model and provides technical details about the modeling processes and results, without addressing or alluding to any claims about extraterrestrial life.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation threatens the biodiversity of rainforest ecosystems. [SEP] Text: At the same time, they knew that logging had to be supported and were careful to cooperate with the timber companies…The use of timber for firewood, house construction, tools, weapons, furniture and so on must be as old as civilization itself. The abundance of trees in the forest belt of West Africa, stretching from right down to Angola and South thereof, lend themselves to these activities” (Brandler, 1993: p. 76). Governments in developing countries, especially Nigeria are thus agents of deforestation, hinging on the colonial legacy of forest nationalization and commercialization. Out of Nigeria’s 36 States, 17 are in the southern or coastal region, while 19 are in the north. The southern states belong to the tropical high forest region, while the northern states belong to semi-arid and arid regions of the country. 58 years of nationhood (1960-2018) has witnessed serious deforestation in Nigeria’s southern (rainforest states), to the extent that over 90% of the country’s forest resources are lost (WWF/ODNRI, 1989). The rainforest of State (Nigeria), is now the major area where pristine forest still remains in the country. Though a significant part of this forest is now a national park (National Park), other large areas that remain as government forest reserves and community forests are still seriously threatened by various human activities, culminating in continuous depletion and extinction of flora and fauna species in the region. FAO (2010: p. 20) maintain that for the past two decades, Nigeria has been experiencing deforestation rates which averages 2. 7% per annum. FAO estimates that between 1976 and 1990, Nigeria’s deforestation proceeded at an average rate of 400,000 hectares per annum or 3. 5% (www. un. org/esa/agenda21/natlinfo/countr/nigeria/natur. htm). FAO concludes that if the above rate of deforestation is maintained, the remaining forest area in the country will disappear by the year 2050. The above trend has affected the biodiversity rich Rainforest. Project (DFID assisted, 2002: p. 15) undertook an assessment of the State’s forest and subsequently calculated areas of land cover types, and reported that out of over 2 million hectares of rainforest originally found in the State, primary forest remaining was only 729,000 hectares. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing the severe deforestation rates in Nigeria's southern rainforest states, with over 90% of the country's forest resources lost, thus threatening local biodiversity. It mentions that continuous human activities lead to the depletion and extinction of various flora and fauna species, directly linking deforestation to threats against biodiversity in rainforest ecosystems.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: The scope of audit of smart IDSs and log analyzers in Systems (CPSs)A systematic review of IDS audit is a methodical review or examination of the operational conditions of IDSs with the aims to ensure their protection and to guarantee efficient, effective and reliable IDS operations within the perimeters of computers; cyber physical and sensing resources and mobile networks in an organization [13, 25, 28]. The scope of Systems (CPSs) varies from organization to organization. Algorithms are the underpinning mechanisms that control and regulate collaborative networks of theories, concepts and embedded disciplines that constitute Systems (CPSs) in each organization [19]. Audit review should reflect components of computer and mobile systems to be audited. It should state cloud resources such as networks of computers, mobile systems, Networks (WSNs), front-end and back-end of the networks, software, hardware, human element, work flow and process engineering [6]. Audit of smart IDS can be performed in conjunction with or separated from the conventional audit exercises in an organization. The audit time table, management, misgivings and repeated outbreak of intrusions can influence the necessity to conduct IDS audit and its scope of coverage. (CPSs), the scope of the audit should include the security of sensing processing, storage of large alerts, performance of hardware and software and reliability of the systems. It should also extend to validation of algorithms, automatic systems, theoretical and scientific principles and seamless integration of disciplines underlying the systems with best practices. Hence, this type of IDS audit is eventful [14, 18]. Examiners must carefully review and match the security policy of the organization with the implementations of smart IDS in the live and test environments to establish areas of compliance and noncompliance with best practice. Fundamentally, enterprise must have IDS policy. An IDS policy is a standard document stating a plan of actions an organization adopts regarding the administration and management of IDSs within their digital networks [8]. Besides, IDS policy should state IDS procedures, IDS rules and conditions that should be meant before rules can be activated, updated or deactivated [13]. The main challenge that IDS auditors often face is that most organizations do not have IDS policy [24]. Findings suggest that some companies do not isolate IDS policy from their security policies [8]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the necessity of auditing Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) in Cyber-Physical Systems (CPSs). It highlights that organizations must review and match their security policy with the implementations of smart IDS to identify areas of compliance and noncompliance. This indicates that such systems are not completely secure and immune to threats, as regular audits are required to ensure their protection and effectiveness against intrusions.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: The results of the mudflow modelling showed that the outputs provided a good representation of the actual event both in terms of reproducing the maximum mudflow envelope and the velocity at which the flow moved based on the video of the event and other evidence available. Figure 7 shows a comparison between the maximum modelled mudflow and the maximum extent estimated from remote sensing data, and Table 2 provides the modelled mudflow depths and arrival times at key locations. The mudflow maximum extent agreed well with the observed extent from the remote sensing data. Where there are differences these are mainly a result of the DTM and the challenges in estimating the exact maximum mudflow extent from the remote sensing data available at the time of the disaster. The mudflow model was run using a 5 s time step which provides a suitable fine temporal resolution for the loss-of-life and evacuation modelling carried out as part of this work. Table 2Modelled mudflow depths and arrival times at key locations. Version | Download XLSX 4 Loss-of-life and evacuation modelling 4. 1 least 270 people perished as a result of the collapse, most of them employees of the mine. The mine's canteen and administrative offices, as well as three locomotives and some 130 wagons, were buried in the mine plant area (Porsani, 2019). The mudflow destroyed some parts of the Córrego do Feijão district, including a nearby inn and several rural properties, as well as sections of a railway bridge and about 100 m of railway track. Agricultural areas in the valley below the dam were also damaged by the failure (Porsani, 2019). It is essential that the risks to people associated with tailings dams be evaluated rigorously and managed proactively at all stages of their lives so that the risks posed by a failure remains “as low as reasonably practicable” (ALARP) (Bowles, 2003). This section of the paper describes the modelling of the risk to people using an agent-based model and investigates if the risk to people could have been reduced via the use of warnings and designated evacuation routes. 4. 2 Background to the Model (LSM) and people at risk modelling To model the loss of life and how this could have been reduced, an agent-based model called the Model (LSM) was employed. The LSM is an agent-based model3 which allows for the behaviour of each person at risk to be represented. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim regarding extraterrestrial sources for the origin of life on Earth. It discusses mudflow modeling, loss of life, and risk evaluation related to tailings dams, but does not address the topic of life's origin or any related claims.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation threatens the biodiversity of rainforest ecosystems. [SEP] Text: This shows a very high rate of deforestation. There is growing international concern on the shrinking nature of rainforest and the disappearance of various flora and fauna species in the State. Dunn & Otu (1996: p. 35) attribute the alarming rate of deforestation in Nigeria to the failure of government policy, quest for government revenue and the pegging of budgetary revenue targets that are tied to forest exploitation. The influence of forestry practices from some neighboring countries in also has negative impacts on forestry practices in Nigeria. For instance, in neighboring Ivory Coast, the Government has been pursuing since independence, destructive forestry practices so as to earn foreign exchange and tax revenues (World Bank, 1985: p. 2). Bank maintains that “…loggers continue to exploit the remaining forests, more or less uncontrolled, and farmers have followed roads developed for logging operations establishing cocoa, coffee, and food crops, with the wide spread practice of slash and burn farming. Such intrusions have also begun in the classified forest reserves and national parks. Government now estimates that this process transforms about 0. 4 million hectares of unspoiled high forest per year” (World Bank, 1985: p. 2). IUCN (1996: p. 1) maintain that colonial nationalization of much of the world’s forest and poor forest management practices by in developing countries is responsible for the alarming rate of tropical deforestation. Bromley (1992: p. 77) similarly observes that “Governments who have appropriated forests from local level management bodies―primarily villages―and have failed to manage them in an effective manner have created de jure state property, but de facto open access. The absence of effective management and enforcement has simply turned the forest into a resource that can be exploited on a first come, first served basis. ” On the way forward to deal with tropical deforestation especially in Africa, Besong (1997: p. 7) maintains that “alone can no longer undertake all the monitoring and coordination of forestry activities because of limitations in personnel and financing. New arrangements should involve all the actors (major users) who should contribute personnel and/or finances. Local communities can, for example, contribute man power for monitoring purposes although they will require training. ” Arguing in the same vein, Lengeler (1997: p. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing how the high rate of deforestation is leading to the shrinking of rainforest ecosystems and the disappearance of various species. It cites sources that highlight the alarming rate of deforestation and its impacts on the flora and fauna, directly linking these environmental changes to biodiversity loss.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: Hence, rather than separating both policies, some of them embedded a few sentences about IDSs in their security policies. Consequently, IDS audit and its ancillaries often lack exhaustive reviews over the years. Therefore, IDS auditor that wishes to conduct the above IDS audit must have well-established knowledge of IDS policy and major components of the smart IDSs within the networks. for instance, the objectives of the audit must include critical review of IDS policy, physical security relating to the IDS (Snort in this case), the hardware component and software components of the toolkit. The audit must also include packet decoder, preprocessors, detection engine, logging and alerting system and output modules [8, 13]. Serious audit issues may arise whenever auditors lack strong knowledge of the above components and how they cooperatively work together to detect intrusions and to generate output in the required format. Advertisement 4. Auditors’ challenges in auditing smart IDSs in Systems (CPSs)Systems (CPSs) lack the robustness to counter threats, challenges and cyber attacks due to weaknesses genetic to individual components that form these domains. Hence, there are critical challenges that face auditors and researchers of smart IDSs regarding IDS auditing and log analyzers in these domains. This section discusses and categorizes some of these issues into two groups; namely, the challenges with smart IDSs and challenges with log analyzers. 4. 1 Research and audit issues on smart IDSs in SystemsDifferent types of smart IDSs keep different categories of logs and alerts in different formats. The default settings of parameters that coordinate alerts of smart IDSs can enable the toolkits to trigger and log wordy and more explicit warnings than the setup that customize these parameters [25, 28]. Figure 2 illustrates one of the kinds of alerts that Snort can generate. The alerts are in comma delimited format because each attribute of an alert is separated by a comma. Operators of smart IDSs can implement the formats of alerts they want during implementation and before executing IDSs like Snort. The major issue is that the preferred formats of alerts cannot be reversed while the toolkits are working. This can create series of setbacks if operators if the formats they have implemented do not convey sufficient information operators will need to decide on the security matters of Systems in the organization. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting the vulnerabilities present in smart IDSs (Intrusion Detection Systems) used within smart city technology. It points out that these systems 'lack the robustness to counter threats, challenges and cyber attacks due to weaknesses genetic to individual components' and emphasizes the 'critical challenges' auditors face with smart IDSs and log analyzers. This indicates that smart city technology is not completely secure and is, in fact, susceptible to cybersecurity threats.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: The initial development of the LSM commenced in 2002 by BC Hydro, a Canadian electricity utility, and Canada's Council, and since 2009 it has been further developed by HR Wallingford. Prior to the development of the LSM, simple empirical methods, such as those developed by the US Bureau of Reclamation (see Graham, 1999; USBR, 2014), were mainly used to assess the risk to people from dams. These models are based on limited data sets, include few large dams (i. e. greater than 15 m high) and also have a mix cases of where warnings were and were not received (Assaf and Hartford, 2001), and, although commonly used, owing to their limitations they are not particularly helpful in formulating emergency plans; however, they are useful as a screening tool to prioritize structures which pose the greatest risk. The LSM simulates the interaction of people with the modelled flood or mudflow. This allows for various scenarios to be investigated that could help to reduce the risk to people (e. g. improvements in warnings, development of new evacuation routes and sensitivity of people's response times to warnings). The LSM has been validated for a number of historical dam failures (see Lumbroso et al. , 2011; Johnstone and Garret, 2014) and used to assess the risks to people and improve emergency planning in 12 countries worldwide (Lumbroso and Di Mauro, 2008; Lumbroso et al. , 2010; Lumbroso and Davison, 2018). The number of people at risk before the Brumadinho tailings dam collapsed was estimated to be 502. This number included the number of people working in the mine's buildings including the canteen directly downstream of the dam, as well as people residing in houses in villages further downstream. The number of people at risk was an estimate based on the best available information from media reports. It is important to note that there is likely to be a relatively high degree of uncertainty in the estimated number of people at risk (e. g. ±25 %). However, the objective of this work was not to predict the actual number of fatalities to within ±10 % but to investigate how the loss of life could have been significantly reduced. The number of people at risk was built up as follows: The dam failed at lunchtime, and many of the workers were eating in the staff canteen. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the development of the LSM (likely a model for assessing risk from dam failures) and the estimation of people at risk from a specific dam collapse, which has no connection to the origin of life on Earth or extraterrestrial sources.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Deforestation threatens the biodiversity of rainforest ecosystems. [SEP] Text: 43) opines that “local communities should be involved in forest management in the tropics and given some training skills to enable them perform such roles well. “ Bisong (1994) This paper assesses the threats and current level of deforestation in the rainforest region of State and its biodiversity conservation impacts, and stresses the need for local, national and global action to save this forest, in view of its status as a global biodiversity hotspot and region of species endemism. 2. 2. 1. Nigeria is located on the of Africa, between latitudes 4˚15'N (the southern tip of the and the Atlantic Ocean) and 13˚55'N (the north western frontier with Niger Republic), and between longitudes 2˚45'E (the southern frontier with Benin Republic) and 14˚40'E (the northern frontier with Cameroon Republic). The country occupies a total land area of 923,768 sq km and a total human population of 180 million people. In terms of geo-political units, Nigeria comprises 36 states and 774 Areas or Local Counties. Her vegetation comprises belts of mangrove swamps in the coastal region, followed by fresh water swamps, then tropical rainforest, then (woodland with stunted trees and tall grass), then (land with short grass), then Sahel or marginal savanna (land with or without short grass), and montane or highland vegetation. Climatic variations include equatorial to the south, tropical in the centre, and arid in the north. Mean maximum temperatures are 30˚C - 32˚C in the south, and 33˚C - 35˚C in the north. Annual rainfall decreases northward, about 2000 millimeters in the coastal region (averages over 3550 millimeters), and 500 - 700 millimeters in the north (WWF/ODNRI, 1990: p. 16). The study area (State and the rainforest) is contiguous in landmass with the forest of southern Cameroon, and Cameroon’s Park, lying between latitude 4˚28' and 6˚55' North of the Equator, and longitude 7˚50' and 9˚28' East of the Greenwich meridian. FAO (2010: p. 36) estimates that around 2. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the threats of deforestation in the rainforest region and highlighting its impact on biodiversity conservation. It emphasizes the necessity of action to preserve the rainforest, which is identified as a global biodiversity hotspot and a region with high species endemism. This supports the assertion that deforestation negatively affects biodiversity.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: Figure 2 illustrates alerts that are expressed in comma delimited formats. Figure 2. A sample of alerts from Defcon11 in comma delimited format. The alerts contain IP addresses to uniquely identify computers and their domain names on the Internet. The alerts are samples of comma delimited alerts extracted from Defcon-11 traces. Some of the attributes of the alerts were Protocol (TCP). However, further information is still required to ascertain attributes like the names, of the attacks to understand data transmission and exchange that occurred between sources and destinations of various attacks. Figure 3 illustrates conventional kinds of alerts that the Snort would log whenever its default parameters on logs and alerts are implemented in Systems (CPSs). This format is simple because each alert is explicit to human interpreters. For example, the signature generator (Sig_generator) of the first attack in Figure 3, the identification number (Sig_id) of the rule that triggered the alert and the number of times the rule has been reviewed or updated (Sig_rev) were 125, 1 and 1 respectively [25, 28]. The alerts are samples of default alerts extracted from Defcon-10 traces. The attack signified telnet’s exploits. In other words, the System (Snort) detected telnet commands on the FTP command prompt or channel. The attack also indicated that someone used a computer with IP address 192. 168. 2. 2 and port 21 to transfer file to a computer with IP address of 192. 168. 2. 1 and port 1067 at 10:14 PM on 3rd of August. The problem with alerts that are formatted by comma delimiters is that auditors would require their documentations to properly understand them because they are not constantly explicit. Figure 3 illustrates a sample of alerts of Snort in a default format. Figure 3. A sample of alerts of Snort in a default format. It is imperative for the auditor to establish the directory where the alerts and systems files of the IDS are kept or recorded in the hardware before the beginning of the audit. By default, shows will Snort log alerts tovary/log/snort/alerts. However, the auditor begins to face further challenges if the directory is changed during implementation contrary to the conventional or documented standard. Additional challenges can occur due to the noncompliance of the organization to both the recommended disk space and accepted format for alerts in the IDS policy [8, 10]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting the existence of vulnerabilities and challenges associated with cybersecurity in systems like Snort. It details how alerts indicate potential breaches, such as telnet exploits, and emphasizes the need for documentation to interpret these alerts properly, implying that the systems are not immune to attacks and that understanding vulnerabilities is essential for cybersecurity.