Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Sleep deprivation has been shown to impair cognitive functions, including attention, decision-making, and learning ability. [SEP] Text: (IGT) is widely used to assess real life decision-making impairment in a wide variety of clinical populations. Our study evaluated how IGT learning occurs across two sessions, and whether a period of intervening sleep between sessions can enhance learning. Furthermore, we investigate whether pre-sleep learning is necessary for this improvement. A 200-trial version of the IGT was administered at two sessions separated by wake, sleep or sleep and wake (time-of-day control). Participants were categorized as learners and non-learners based on initial performance in session one. In session one, participants initially preferred the high-frequency reward decks B and D, however, a subset of learners decreased choice from negative expected value ‘bad’ deck B and increased choices towards with a positive expected value ‘good’ decks (decks C and D). The learners who had a period of sleep (sleep and sleep/wake control conditions) between sessions showed significantly larger reduction in choices from deck B and increase in choices from good decks compared to learners that had intervening wake. Our results are the first to show that post-learning sleep can improve performance on a complex decision-making task such as the IGT. These results provide new insights into IGT learning and have important implications for understanding the neural mechanisms of “sleeping on” a decision. Citation: (2014) Cognitive-Emotional Decision-Making: Evidence for a ‘Sleep Effect’ in the Task. 9(11): e112056. of AmericaReceived: July 26, 2014; Accepted: October 3, 2014; Published: November 19, 2014Copyright: © 2014 Seeley et al. This is an open-access 0. 9) of reward (bad deck B and good deck D) compared to decks with a lower probability (0. 5) of reward (bad deck A and good deck C) [2], [3], [4]. Thus, advantageous decision-making relies on shifting choice away from bad deck B and replacing choices with good decks C and/or D [5], [6]. A wide body of literature has identified the neural mechanisms underlying learning of the IGT. Areas linked to emotional processing, including the ventral striatum, insula and amygdala have heightened activity during task acquisition [7], [8], [9]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by demonstrating how sleep can affect decision-making performance in a cognitive task. It specifically mentions that participants who had a period of sleep between decision-making sessions showed significantly better outcomes in terms of learning and decision-making compared to those who had extended wakefulness. This indicates that lack of sleep can indeed impair cognitive functions related to decision-making, reinforcing the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Biodiversity offsetting can completely reverse all environmental damage from development. [SEP] Text: , Reference Conway, Rayment, White and Berman2013), rather than the economic value of the nature lost. However, the opinions of the governments promoting offsetting show that such distinctions are quite feigned: according to the the ‘use of market-based mechanisms for delivering offsets is supported as a means of determining the conservation value of both the proposed action site and the proposed offset’ (Commonwealth of Australia, 2012, p. 26; our emphasis), while the UK's Paper on offsetting framed environmental compensation as something that could be bought ‘off-the-shelf’ from a market (Defra, 2013, p. 5). The act of putting a price on nature does determine the cost to the developer of destroying it. A simplistic market logic, largely based on neoclassical economics, might suggest that such prices will increase recognition of nature's value and hence reduce destruction. However, subjecting nature to the vagaries of the market means that prices can be highly variable (ranging from EUR 30,000 to EUR 1. 2 million per hectare; Conway et al. , Reference Conway, Rayment, White and Berman2013), and reflect restoration costs, land prices, supply and demand, speculative action by landowners (Madsen et al. , Reference Madsen, Carroll, Kandy and Bennett2011) and even financial crises (Muradian & Rival, and Rival2012). It further means that the same credit system that supposedly protects a particular species or habitat can lead to its destruction when it collapses (Smith, Reference Smith, Panitch and Leys2006). Offsetting therefore transforms conservation into an exchange of priced ecological assets. This reframes a genuine concern for the value of nature (intrinsic or use value), for example halting the degradation of ecosystems, into a matter of market price: ‘a question of economic value that is entirely inimical to the original concern’ (Smith, Reference Smith2010, p. 249). Offsetting ties conservation to land development and economic growth The last way in which offsetting reframes conservation is that it dissolves the conventional contradiction between development (e. g. for mining, construction, house-building) and conservation, the latter becoming an extension of a development and growth agenda. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing how biodiversity offsetting does not successfully reverse environmental damage but instead reframes conservation as a market-based transaction. It mentions that market mechanisms subject nature to price variabilities and that the act of quantifying nature's value can, paradoxically, lead to its destruction. The text highlights that the relationship between development and conservation becomes a mere economic exchange, indicating that true ecological restoration and the complete reversal of damage are not achieved through offsetting.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Microclimates can create variations in weather over short distances. [SEP] Text: 8 standard deviation (IS1 neg; IS2 neg), greater than 0. 8 standard deviation (IS1 pos; IS2 pos) and between ±0. 3 standard deviation (IS1 null; IS2 null). Numbers of events are displayed for each austral summer (S 85–86; S 86–87; S 87–88; S 88–89). Total number of pentads for each type of intraseasonal variability is indicated in parenthesis. Citation: Review 128, 2; 10. 1175/1520-0493(2000)128<0486:>2. 0. CO;2Download FigureDownload figure as PowerPoint slide Size Fig. 6. Anomaly correlation between forecasts of Z500 and reanalysis averaged over the SACZ (top) and region (40°S–20°N; 90°–20°W) (bottom). Plots on the left are for IS1 type, while plots on the right are for IS2 type. Dashed, dotted, and solid lines indicate positive, negative, and null cases, respectively. Horizontal axis indicates lead time in days. Citation: Review 128, 2; 10. 1175/1520-0493(2000)128<0486:>2. 0. CO;2Download FigureDownload figure as PowerPoint slide Size Fig. 7. Root-mean-square (rms) errors between forecasts of Z500 and reanalysis averaged over the SACZ (top) and region (40°S–20°N; 90°–20°W) (bottom). Plots on the left are for IS1 type, while plots on the right are for IS2 type. Dashed, dotted, and solid lines indicate positive, negative, and null cases, respectively. Horizontal axis indicates lead time in days. Citation: Review 128, 2; 10. 1175/1520-0493(2000)128<0486:>2. 0. CO;2Download FigureDownload figure as PowerPoint slide this content Copy this link, or click below to email it to a friend Email this content or copy the link directly: The link was not copied. Your current browser may not support copying via this button. Link copied successfullyCopy link Share on facebook Share on linkedin Share on twitter Abstract1. Introduction2. Methodology3. Results4. Concluding remarks 3555. Horel, J. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not provide any information regarding microclimates or variations in weather over short distances. It discusses specific statistical data and methodologies related to weather forecasting and variability, but it does not address the claim directly. Hence, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Sleep deprivation has been shown to impair cognitive functions, including attention, decision-making, and learning ability. [SEP] Text: These areas are thought to communicate affective information to the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) which integrates previous emotion to reward and loss to guide future choice [10], [11], [12]. Over time, associations are stored in long-term memory via connections to hippocampal memory systems [13]. Recent evidence suggests that the neural circuitry underlying IGT learning is sensitive to periods of sleep deprivation [14]. Killgore et al. [15] revealed that compared to well-rested controls, 46 hours of sleep deprivation can lead to decision-impairments in the IGT, marked by increased choice toward bad decks combined. Currently, it has yet to be investigated whether learning in this system can be enhanced across multiple sessions, and across periods with intervening sleep. In general, a period of sleep following learning promotes synaptic changes and strengthens memories of recently acquired information [16], [17], [18]. Recent work suggests that post-learning sleep helps facilitate insight into complex strategies and rule-based learning [19], [20], [21], [22]. Furthermore, it is well known that sleep enhances memories for emotionally relevant stimuli [23], [24]. Considering the IGT is a decision-making task that integrates complex cognitive and emotional information, and is sensitive to the effects of sleep deprivation, we suggest that post-learning sleep may facilitate this unique process. A recent study by Pace-Schott et al. [25] reported that individuals who engaged in sleep following 100-trials of the original IGT had a significant improvement in choices from positive EV decks compared to individuals that had intervening wakefulness. However, because the sleep and wake group had differences in time of re-testing (morning and evening) and hours of wakefulness prior to retesting (0–1 and 12 hours), conclusions could not be made on whether post-learning sleep enhanced IGT decision making. The authors suggest that future research should control for potential influences of time-of-day and amount of prior wakefulness on IGT performance. A second study by Abe et al. [26] reported sleep-dependent improvement using an instructional version of the IGT. Prior to engaging in sleep or wake, individuals were instructed to click on each deck 6 times in a predetermined order. The authors report sleep-dependent improvement, however, recent studies have revealed that instructed feedback of the IGT does not engage the same underlying decision processes (i. e. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing evidence that sleep deprivation negatively affects decision-making and learning processes. It mentions that '46 hours of sleep deprivation can lead to decision-impairments' and emphasizes that the neural circuitry related to decision-making is sensitive to sleep deprivation. Furthermore, it notes that sleep plays a vital role in enhancing memory and cognitive functions, which supports the assertion that sleep deprivation impacts cognitive abilities.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Biodiversity offsetting can completely reverse all environmental damage from development. [SEP] Text: Thus, the UK Government presents offsetting as a key element in succeeding in the ‘global race’ by ‘creating growth and delivering lasting prosperity’ while being ‘the first which leaves the natural environment of England in a better state than it inherited’ (Defra, 2013, p. 5; Kinver, Reference Kinver2013). The allure of offsetting lies in its promise to make conservation (in the form of Loss) possible without limiting economic growth, but in the process it makes both offsetting and conservation an integral element of development (BBOP, 2012b). Thus offsetting allows ecosystem degradation caused by development to be presented as a conservation opportunity, as for example where quarries can provide ‘an exciting opportunity for wildlife habitat creation’ (BirdLife International, 2011), or where an offset site is considered as of such high ecological value that the destruction of a development site (that is considered of lower conservation value) can actually be portrayed as beneficial for nature conservation (Lean, Reference Lean2013). Specific interests are benefited by such a choice. Offsetting is attractive to industry in fields such as mining, oil and gas, housing and infrastructure because it has the potential to enable the conversion of undeveloped land in valuable locations, in exchange for land managed for conservation elsewhere. Moreover, many corporations wish to be seen to respond to shareholder concerns about the environmental impacts of their operations, and offsetting allows them to do this: almost three quarters of active mines and exploration sites overlap with areas of high conservation value (Institute, 2003). Other benefits for corporations include the possibility of regulatory goodwill which could lead to faster permitting, easier access to finance, capital and associated competitive advantages, product branding, and the possibility of influencing emerging environmental regulation and policy (ICMM, 2005; ten Kate, Reference ten Kate2005; Environment Bank, 2013b). In parallel, the rhetorical framing of offsetting as a means to ensure simultaneously more development and more biodiversity conservation brings together otherwise opposing actors from governments, industries and NGOs. et al. (Reference Bayon, Fox and Carroll2008, p. 38) argue that the goal of biodiversity markets is to prove that profit and environmental preservation are not mutually exclusive but mutually beneficial, and that biodiversity markets can create ‘a space where both can expand together’. The latter obviously also involves the creation of new business opportunities for consultants, brokers and conservation banking companies (Duke et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by arguing that while biodiversity offsetting is presented as a means to create a balance between development and environmental conservation, it does not imply that all environmental damage can be fully reversed. Instead, it suggests that offsetting can facilitate ecosystem degradation by presenting it as a conservation opportunity, indicating that the ecological loss from development can be justified or mitigated rather than completely reversed. Phrases like 'offsetting allows ecosystem degradation caused by development to be presented as a conservation opportunity' reveal the limitations of offsetting in actually reversing environmental damage.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Microclimates can create variations in weather over short distances. [SEP] Text: D. , A. N. Hahmann, and J. E. Geisler, 1989: An investigation of the annual cycle of convective activity over the tropical Americas. J. Climate,2, 1388–1403. Jones, C. , 1990: An investigation of low-frequency variability of the large-scale circulation over South America. M. S. thesis, Department of Meteorology, University of Utah, 108 pp. ——, and J. D. Horel, 1991: High circulation and convective activity over (in Portuguese). Rev. Brasileira de Meteorologia,5-1, 379–387. ——, D. E. Waliser, J. E. Schemm, and W. K. Lau, 2000: Prediction skill of the Madden and in dynamical extended range weather forecasts. Climate Dyn. , in press. Kalnay, E. , and Coauthors, 1996: NCEP/NCAR 40-Project. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc. ,77, 437–471. Lenters, J. D. , and K. H. Cook, 1999: Summertime precipitation variability over South America: Role of the large-scale circulation. Mon. Wea. Rev. ,127, 409–431. Liebmann, B. , G. N. Kiladis, J. A. Marengo, T. Ambrizzi, J. D. Glick, 1999: Submonthly convective variability over and the Convergence Zone. J. Climate,12, 1877–1891. Madden, R. A. , and P. R. Julian, 1994: Observations of the 40–50 day tropical oscillation: A review. Mon. Wea. Rev. ,122, 814–837. Nogues-Paegle J. , K. Mo, and J. Paegle, 1998: Predictability of the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis model during austral summer. Mon. Wea. Rev. ,126, 3135–3152. Schemm, J. E. , H. Van den Dool, and S. Saha, 1996: A Multi-at NCEP. Preprints 11th Conf. on. Meteor. Soc. , 47–49. in gallery Fig. 1. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim about microclimates and their impact on weather variations. Instead, it lists various studies and authors without providing relevant information or evidence related to microclimates.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Sleep deprivation has been shown to impair cognitive functions, including attention, decision-making, and learning ability. [SEP] Text: Improvement in deck choice following sleep and/or wake in learners. Percent change (± SEM) from session 1 to session 2 in wake (n = 10), sleep (n = 10) and sleep/wake control (n = 10) conditions in draws from (A) good overall expected value decks (C and D) and (B) individual decks (A, B, C, and D) of individuals who were categorized as learners in session 1. Improvement is reflected by a negative percent change in deck A and B and positive percent change in deck C and D. * Significant improvement (p<0. 05) for both sleep groups (sleep and control) compared to wake by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey tests (A) and by two-way ANOVA revealing a significant (p<0. 05) interaction followed by significant simple effects of group for deck B (p = 0. 02) followed by Tukey tests (B). Download: PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageFigure 5. Improvement in deck choice following sleep and/or wake in non-learners. Percent change (± SEM) from session 1 to session 2 in wake (n = 16), sleep (n = 23) and sleep/wake control (n = 23) conditions in draws from (A) good overall expected value decks (C and D) and (B) individual decks (A, B, C, and D) of individuals who were categorized as non-learners in session 1. Improvement is reflected by a negative percent change in deck A and B and positive percent change in deck C and D. The sleep groups (sleep and control) did not significantly change compared to the wake group, as evidenced by a non-significant one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) (A) and two-way ANOVA (B). the learners, the conditions that had intervening sleep (sleep and sleep/wake control) had a significantly larger reduction in choices from deck B compared to the wake condition (Fig. 4B). The group x condition x deck ANOVA revealed a significant three-way interaction (F[6,344] = 2. 7, p = 0. 014). In the learners, a deck x condition ANOVA revealed a significant interaction (F[6,108] = 2. 26, p = 0. 043). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by indicating that sleep and wake conditions impact decision-making, as evidenced by significant improvements in deck choices among learners who had intervening sleep conditions. The mention of 'non-learners' not showing significant changes under sleep conditions compared to wake conditions further underscores the role of sleep in cognitive performance related to decision-making.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Biodiversity offsetting can completely reverse all environmental damage from development. [SEP] Text: , Reference Duke, Dickie, Juniper, ten Kate, Pieterse and Rafiq2012). Such opportunities extend to conservation organizations. et al. (Reference Bayon, Fox and Carroll2008, p. 38) note, ‘the more experienced banking companies are looking to agencies for advice to focus their land acquisition efforts or review species recovery plans to find the most ecologically important lands to purchase and establish banks’. Offsetting can thus provide a valued revenue stream for conservation organizations, particularly where they become involved in technical assessments or the acquisition or management of offset sites. Offsetting ties conservation to an agenda of land development and economic growth as the last element in a mitigation hierarchy. At each successive step down the hierarchy the degree of environmental protection is diminished, moving in turn through avoidance, minimization, rehabilitation or restoration of degraded ecosystems to offsetting (BBOP, 2009). Crucially, the existence of offsetting as a final option changes the way progression down the hierarchy is framed (e. g. McGrath, Reference McGrath2013): experience with US wetland mitigation has shown that the existence of offsetting as a possibility in planning has led to an underuse of the earlier stages of the mitigation hierarchy (Robertson, Reference Robertson2000). In conservation terms this could lower the threshold for approving projects and facilitate permanent land-use change, with negative net impacts on biodiversity. Moreover, offsetting mostly refers to conservation activities occurring outside the geographical boundaries of a development site (off-site compensation) to compensate for unavoidable impacts on site, allowing developers to increase their net developable area (Environment Bank, 2015a). The role of offsetting is therefore not neutral because it can facilitate planning permissions that might otherwise have been refused (e. g. see the in the UK; Department for Communities and Local Government, 2012). If conservationists focus efforts on proving that ecological equivalence or Loss are possible in the hope of winning better compensation for the environmental impacts of development, they should also be aware of the adverse effects of this choice, namely the weakening of long-standing critiques of the environmentally destructive activities of many corporations and industries. Focusing on how to deal with the impacts of a development project rather than on preventing projects with detrimental impacts on nature is based on the fundamental acceptance that ‘development impacts on biodiversity are unlikely to cease or even abate in the near future’ (Gordon et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by illustrating that biodiversity offsetting does not completely reverse environmental damage. It highlights that offsetting, as a last resort in a mitigation hierarchy, can diminish environmental protection and potentially lead to negative net impacts on biodiversity. Specifically, it suggests that the existence of offsetting may lower the standards for approving projects and facilitate harmful development rather than effectively reversing environmental damage.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Microclimates can create variations in weather over short distances. [SEP] Text: Frequency response of Lanczos band-pass filters. The 30–70-day band is denoted intraseasonal type 1 (IS1), while variations of 10–30 days are designated intraseasonal type 2 (IS2). View in gallery Fig. 2. Mean geopotential height at 500 hPa (Z500) during austral summer (top). Contour interval is 20 m. Total standard deviation of Z500 (bottom). Contour interval is 5 m. View in gallery Fig. 3. Anomaly correlation between Z500 forecasts and verification fields. Skill is computed considering all days from the four austral summers during the DERF period. Skill is shown for 1, 4, 6, 8, and 11 days lead time. Correlations greater than 0. 50 are indicated by dark shading. View in gallery Fig. 4. (a) Mean outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) during austral summer (1 November–31 March). Contour interval is 5 W m−2 and shading indicates OLR is less than 220 W m−2. (b) Total OLR standard deviation during austral summer. Contour interval is 2. 5 W m−2 and shading indicates standard deviation greater than 20 W m−2. (c) Standard deviation of OLR anomalies for the IS1 type (30–70 days). Contour interval is 1. 0 W m−2 and shading indicates standard deviation greater than 10 W m−2. (d) Standard deviation of OLR anomalies for the IS2 type (10–30 days). Contour interval is 1. 0 W m−2 and shading indicates standard deviation greater than 15 W m−2. Region indicated with thick solid lines is used to characterize periods of strong (weak) convective activity over the (SACZ). View in gallery Fig. 5. Distribution of events (in pentads) selected according to the type of intraseasonal variability: 30–70 days (IS1; top) and 10–30 days (IS2; bottom). Events are selected when the magnitudes of the OLR anomalies averaged over the SACZ domain are less than 0. 8 standard deviation (IS1 neg; IS2 neg), greater than 0. 8 standard deviation (IS1 pos; IS2 pos) and between ±0. 3 standard deviation (IS1 null; IS2 null). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not discuss microclimates or their effect on weather variations. It primarily focuses on the frequency response of Lanczos band-pass filters and various statistical analyses related to geopotential height and outgoing longwave radiation during austral summer. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim about microclimates.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Sleep deprivation has been shown to impair cognitive functions, including attention, decision-making, and learning ability. [SEP] Text: Test of simple effects of condition were significant for deck B (F[2], [27] = 7. 61, p = 0. 02). The sleep (p<0. 01) and sleep/wake control (p = 0. 015) condition decreased choices towards deck B significantly more than the wake condition. There was a non-significant effect of condition for deck A (F[2], [27] = 0. 74, p = 0. 48), deck C (F[2], [27] = 0. 96, p = 0. 4) and deck D (F[2], [27] = 1. 93, p = 0. 16). In the non-learners, there was no evidence that intervening sleep enhancement improvement, as evidenced by a non-significant deck x condition ANOVA (F[6, 236] = 0. 16, p = 0. 99). The wake, sleep, and sleep/wake control condition showed similar respective percent changes (± SEM), reducing choices from bad decks A and B and increasing choices toward good decks C and D (Fig. 5B). DiscussionThis study reveals the first clear evidence that post-learning sleep facilitates decision-making of the IGT. Individuals with initial learning had larger post-learning improvement following a period of sleep compared to a period of wake (Fig. 4A). More specifically, we are the first to demonstrate that sleep enhances performance via reduction in deck B (Fig. 4B) and increase in positive EV decks combined (Fig. 4A). As hypothesized, initial learning required reduction in choices from initially preferred bad deck B, and increase toward positive EV deck C and/or D (Fig. 2A). Individuals improved in session one (Fig. 2A) and showed further improvement during session two (Fig. 2B), however, we found no initial evidence to support the idea that intervening sleep enhanced this process (Fig. 2B). Close inspection of the data revealed that initial learning in session one was driven by about one-third of participants. These learners decreased choice from deck B and increased choice from deck C, gaining preference for positive EV decks at the end of session one (Fig. 3B). The remaining non-learners preferred deck B throughout the 200-trials of session one (Fig. 3C). Within the learners there was a significant decrease in deck B (Fig. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by presenting evidence that sleep conditions significantly impact decision-making, as noted in the phrase, 'this study reveals the first clear evidence that post-learning sleep facilitates decision-making of the IGT.' It implies that adequate sleep enhances cognitive function by showing that individuals improved in decision-making after periods of sleep compared to wakefulness, indicating that sleep deprivation could impair those cognitive abilities.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Biodiversity offsetting can completely reverse all environmental damage from development. [SEP] Text: , Reference Gordon, Bull, Wilcox and Maron2015), foreclosing any ecological critique of the current political and economic context. This is obvious in the following quote from Gordon et al. (Reference Gordon, Bull, Wilcox and Maron2015, p. 536): ‘in this context, offsetting remains one of the few options for delivering truly “sustainable” development’ (our emphasis). Biodiversity offsetting: it ain't just technical Offsetting already faces serious challenges. These are reflected in the gradual acceptance of the controversial character of the policy (e. g. Gordon et al. , Reference Gordon, Bull, Wilcox and Maron2015; Bull & Brownlie, and Brownlie2016), in the admission that standard approaches for the systematic calculation of its conservation benefits are still relatively rare or unavailable (Maron et al. , Reference Maron, Rhodes and Gibbons2013) and in attempts to re-brand the terminology in the face of increasing criticism from activists and scholars (e. g. biodiversity accounting rather than offsetting; Environment Bank, 2015b). The issues at stake with offsetting are more than technical, and the decision to frame biodiversity offsetting as a conservation tool is not neutral. Such a strategy leaves the core logic of offsetting unchallenged. A focus on how to improve its implementation, ostensibly depoliticizes (Wilson & Swyngedouw, Reference Wilson, Swyngedouw, Wilson and Swyngedouw2014) the problem of the environmental impacts of development, implying that it is an inevitable problem, rather than the result of particular political choices. But not talking about politics does not mean that politics disappear. It simply means that the debates regarding offsetting metrics or principles take place without reference to the social, political and economic questions they raise. Acceptance of the framing of conservation and development provided by offsetting implies acceptance of the inevitability of biodiversity loss. It a priori reframes conservation as a pragmatic search for the least worst outcome in the face of development demands and as an attempt to promote conservation only in areas that do not interest developers. This in turn separates the practice of conservation from struggles by environmental and social movements to prevent the further degradation of ecosystems (Apostolopoulou et al. , ńska-Jurczak, Pietrzyk-Kaszyńska and Pantis2014). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the limitations and challenges of biodiversity offsetting as a conservation tool. It argues that framing biodiversity offsetting as a solution to environmental damage ignores the political, social, and economic contexts that underlie this issue. Specifically, it states that offsetting is seen as a pragmatic response to development demands rather than a true reversal of biodiversity loss, implying that it does not effectively address all environmental damage caused by development. The text suggests that accepting offsetting as a valid approach leads to a resignation toward biodiversity loss rather than its complete reversal.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Microclimates can create variations in weather over short distances. [SEP] Text: Numbers of events are displayed for each austral summer (S 85–86; S 86–87; S 87–88; S 88–89). Total number of pentads for each type of intraseasonal variability is indicated in parenthesis. View in gallery Fig. 6. Anomaly correlation between forecasts of Z500 and reanalysis averaged over the SACZ (top) and region (40°S–20°N; 90°–20°W) (bottom). Plots on the left are for IS1 type, while plots on the right are for IS2 type. Dashed, dotted, and solid lines indicate positive, negative, and null cases, respectively. Horizontal axis indicates lead time in days. View in gallery Fig. 7. Root-mean-square (rms) errors between forecasts of Z500 and reanalysis averaged over the SACZ (top) and region (40°S–20°N; 90°–20°W) (bottom). Plots on the left are for IS1 type, while plots on the right are for IS2 type. Dashed, dotted, and solid lines indicate positive, negative, and null cases, respectively. Horizontal axis indicates lead time in days. raw image Fig. 1. Frequency response of Lanczos band-pass filters. The 30–70-day band is denoted intraseasonal type 1 (IS1), while variations of 10–30 days are designated intraseasonal type 2 (IS2). View raw image Fig. 2. Mean geopotential height at 500 hPa (Z500) during austral summer (top). Contour interval is 20 m. Total standard deviation of Z500 (bottom). Contour interval is 5 m. View raw image Fig. 3. Anomaly correlation between Z500 forecasts and verification fields. Skill is computed considering all days from the four austral summers during the DERF period. Skill is shown for 1, 4, 6, 8, and 11 days lead time. Correlations greater than 0. 50 are indicated by dark shading. View raw image Fig. 4. (a) Mean outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) during austral summer (1 November–31 March). Contour interval is 5 W m−2 and shading indicates OLR is less than 220 W m−2. (b) Total OLR standard deviation during austral summer. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses specific forecast metrics, anomaly correlations, and statistics related to weather patterns and atmospheric data during austral summers. There is no mention of microclimates or their effect on weather variations over short distances.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Sleep deprivation has been shown to impair cognitive functions, including attention, decision-making, and learning ability. [SEP] Text: 4B) and increase in positive EV decks C and D following a period of intervening sleep compared to a period of intervening wake (Fig. 4A). Our results build on previous work by Abe et al. [26] by ruling out potential influences of time-of-day or hours of prior wakefulness on improvement. The sleep/wake control was administered session two at the same time as our wake condition (21:00–22:00) and showed similar improvement to the sleep group who was administered session two in the morning (09:00–10:00) (Fig. 1). We also found no evidence that time-of-day (morning vs. evening) influenced initial performance on the task during session one and subjective sleepiness scores did not significantly change between sessions or conditions. These results support the conclusion that improvement was due to intervening sleep rather than time-of-day or hours of prior wakefulness. These results are the first to show strong evidence that post-learning sleep can improve performance on a task that was designed to mimic real life decision-making. In the past, sleep has been shown to enhance performance on many types of learning tasks, including motor procedural [30], neutral declarative [37], emotional declarative [23] and complex cognitive tasks [19], [20], [22]. The IGT is unique from these tasks, and referred to as a cognitive-emotional task that integrates emotional response to decks in the vmPFC [38], [39], [40]. This is the first evidence that sleep can help promote learning of this nature. In addition, our results show that sleep may specifically enhance learning of deck B. has a unique design. It is initially preferred, however, individuals must integrate the large infrequent $1250 loss into their value estimate to discover it has a negative EV. Numerous studies have revealed that IGT learning is guided by experienced and anticipated galvanic skin response toward bad decks [38], [39], [40]. Thus, experiencing negative emotions to deck B may be imperative for IGT learning and subsequently enhanced with sleep. There has yet to be a study to investigate the online neural mechanisms of this shift. These results support the sleep deprivation literature that suggests cognitive processes of IGT decision-making are intricately connected with sleep behaviour. A recent study by Venkatraman et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing evidence that sleep is essential for cognitive processes, specifically stating that 'sleep deprivation literature suggests cognitive processes of IGT decision-making are intricately connected with sleep behaviour.' Further, it emphasizes how sleep can enhance performance in cognitive tasks and decision-making, which aligns with the assertion that sleep deprivation impairs cognitive functions.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Biodiversity offsetting can completely reverse all environmental damage from development. [SEP] Text: By reframing nature as a set of tradable units, offsetting turns conservation into a system of exchange in an attempt to optimize biodiversity protection while allowing the achievement of development goals. As such it favours technocratic solutions to streamline policy debate about the value of nature. In the process, nature is essentially treated as a ‘commodity’, divorced from its social, ecological and geographical context. Only in the reductionist technical calculations of offsetting methodologies can offset sites be seen as equivalent to ecosystems and places destroyed by development. The protection of such sites may be better than nothing, but in almost all cases they are less good than the original. It is not surprising that proponents of biodiversity offsetting (ten Kate et al. , Reference ten Kate, Bishop and Bayon2004; Madsen et al. , Reference Madsen, Carroll, Kandy and Bennett2011; BBOP, 2012b) frame it as a ground-breaking strategy. Its radical potential is profound but it does not favour conservation outcomes. Offsetting forecloses discussion of the nature of the social and economic forces behind the environmental impacts of development. Within the frame of offsetting, conservation is prevented from addressing key issues concerning the socio-economic and political context that determines society's destructive relationship with non-human nature, the way the costs and benefits of development may unevenly affect different social groups or classes, or the identity of winners and losers of uneven growth and development under capitalism. Offsetting is one outcome of private sector investment in conservation and market-based approaches to addressing biodiversity loss. It coincides in time with cuts in conservation funding, the further commodification of non-human nature and the increasing deregulation of environmental legislation (Büscher et al. , Reference Büscher, Sullivan, Neves, Igoe and Brockington2012; Apostolopoulou & Adams, and Adams2015), which reflect a paradigm shift away from conservation strategies based on enforceable environmental legislation (Benabou, Reference Benabou2014) towards those based on financial incentives and profit. If conservationists accept offsetting as a strategy (and simply try to improve the methods used), they are essentially accepting a dystopian future where biodiversity loss is continuous, and chiefly directed by the financial interests of developers. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by arguing that biodiversity offsetting, while aiming to protect biodiversity, often results in sites that are 'less good than the original' ecosystems destroyed by development. It highlights that offsetting commodifies nature and reduces complex ecological relationships to mere trade-offs, ultimately favoring short-term development goals over meaningful conservation outcomes. Furthermore, the text suggests that accepting offsetting as a legitimate strategy implies a bleak future for biodiversity, which contradicts the notion that it can completely reverse environmental damage.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Microclimates can create variations in weather over short distances. [SEP] Text: Contour interval is 2. 5 W m−2 and shading indicates standard deviation greater than 20 W m−2. (c) Standard deviation of OLR anomalies for the IS1 type (30–70 days). Contour interval is 1. 0 W m−2 and shading indicates standard deviation greater than 10 W m−2. (d) Standard deviation of OLR anomalies for the IS2 type (10–30 days). Contour interval is 1. 0 W m−2 and shading indicates standard deviation greater than 15 W m−2. Region indicated with thick solid lines is used to characterize periods of strong (weak) convective activity over the (SACZ). View raw image Fig. 5. Distribution of events (in pentads) selected according to the type of intraseasonal variability: 30–70 days (IS1; top) and 10–30 days (IS2; bottom). Events are selected when the magnitudes of the OLR anomalies averaged over the SACZ domain are less than 0. 8 standard deviation (IS1 neg; IS2 neg), greater than 0. 8 standard deviation (IS1 pos; IS2 pos) and between ±0. 3 standard deviation (IS1 null; IS2 null). Numbers of events are displayed for each austral summer (S 85–86; S 86–87; S 87–88; S 88–89). Total number of pentads for each type of intraseasonal variability is indicated in parenthesis. View raw image Fig. 6. Anomaly correlation between forecasts of Z500 and reanalysis averaged over the SACZ (top) and region (40°S–20°N; 90°–20°W) (bottom). Plots on the left are for IS1 type, while plots on the right are for IS2 type. Dashed, dotted, and solid lines indicate positive, negative, and null cases, respectively. Horizontal axis indicates lead time in days. View raw image Fig. 7. Root-mean-square (rms) errors between forecasts of Z500 and reanalysis averaged over the SACZ (top) and region (40°S–20°N; 90°–20°W) (bottom). Plots on the left are for IS1 type, while plots on the right are for IS2 type. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it does not discuss microclimates or their impact on weather variations. Instead, it focuses on statistical data related to OLR anomalies and intraseasonal variability without any mention of microclimates or their effects on weather.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Sleep deprivation has been shown to impair cognitive functions, including attention, decision-making, and learning ability. [SEP] Text: [45] found that IGT impairment following sleep deprivation was due to a generalized dampened activity in the vmPFC, and reduced activity in insula following a loss. The authors suggest that sleep deprivation may impair the ability to learn from previous negative experiences. Likewise, learning in the IGT, is marked by heightened activity in the vmPFC [7] and insula [8]. Thus, one potential hypothesis for our results is that the heightened activity of the vmPFC and insula that occurs while integrating loss information into deck evaluations, may be subsequently processed and further enhanced during a period of intervening sleep. Considering what is currently known in the IGT and sleep literature, we speculate that rapid eye movement (REM) sleep may be specifically involved in this process. REM sleep has been shown to enhance learning of complex cognitive tasks [19], [20], [21], [22], as well as memory for stimuli that evoke negative emotions [23], [24]. Additionally, several areas that are active during online learning of the IGT, including the ventral striatum, amygdala, vmPFC and hippocampus [7], [8], [9], [13], have heightened activity during REM sleep, compared to activity in other stages of sleep and quiet wakefulness [41]. It was recently suggested by the Model that the emotionally driven pathways active during wake are reactivated during REM sleep, and this reactivation contributes to memory enhancement [41]. Thus, one potential explanation for our results is that REM strengthens previously acquired learning by reactivating neural pathways that were active during online learning. Furthermore, given the general role of REM in processing negative emotions [23], [24], post-learning REM may be particularly beneficial for processing negative emotions to deck B loss. Another potential hypothesis for our results is that post-learning sleep may consolidate declarative memory for deck representations through slow-wave sleep (SWS). SWS strengthens memories that rely on hippocampal activity through activation of hippocampal-cortical connections [37], [42]. It is possible that learners gained an explicit knowledge of deck B during session one that was further enhanced via SWS. However, due to the relatively little understanding of the neural mechanisms of individual deck choice, and the neural processes of sleep, we can only speculate about the mechanisms for consolidation. Future research to investigate these hypotheses would provide great insight into the role of post-learning sleep on decision-making processes. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim as it discusses impairments in cognitive functions related to sleep deprivation, specifically mentioning 'IGT impairment following sleep deprivation' and suggesting that 'sleep deprivation may impair the ability to learn from previous negative experiences.' The discussion connects sleep, learning, and decision-making, thus supporting the idea that sleep deprivation impacts cognitive functions.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Biodiversity offsetting can completely reverse all environmental damage from development. [SEP] Text: Conservation is restricted to simply directing, or redirecting, where the destructive footprint of developments will fall, without any guarantee that what is protected today will not be developed in further cycles of offsetting tomorrow. Offsetting therefore substantially forecloses the possibility of a conservation challenge to the drivers of environmental destruction, implying there is no alternative to the current situation. Offsetting can be the response to biodiversity loss only if we accept a society where all ecosystems and places are open for trading, and nature will be restricted only to ‘what is left over after every other demand has been satisfied’ (Baltz, Reference Baltz1980, p. 29). Conservation has been criticized for approaching protected areas as places without people (Rangarajan & Shahabuddin, and Shahabuddin2006). Offsetting further deepens and exacerbates this conceptual and material separation between society and non-human nature. Failing to recognize the way it reframes non-human nature and its conservation makes its effects impossible to challenge. This has crucial consequences. In the offsetting case, it is not the protection of ecosystems that is not based on a dialectical understanding of the nature–society relationship but their destruction. A dystopian vision for the future suggests that our only choices are between the two. It is vital for conservation to challenge the ideological potency of this rhetorical framing and allow direct political engagement not only to oppose environmental destruction and secure public access to nature but also to re-imagine a different production of nature based on societal needs. Conservation is profoundly a cultural and political practice and offsetting highlights the importance of its connection to wider debates about environmental and social justice in future provisions for the protection of biodiversity. study was supported by a Intra-(PIEF-GA-2013-622631) within the 7th (Conservation and in the Economy). We thank for his insightful comments and two referees for their helpful comments. Biographical sketches Elia Apostolopoulou's main research interest is the investigation of the relationship between nature and society in capitalism, with a particular emphasis on the political ecology of nature conservation. Her current research focuses mainly on the reconstruction of nature conservation around the measurement of the economic value of non-human nature. is interested in changing ideas about nature and its conservation. His current research addresses the politics of landscape-scale conservation and the power of ecosystem services and other metaphors in conservation policy. 35. CrossRef494. CrossRef9. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by stating that biodiversity offsetting does not guarantee a reversal of environmental damage. It explains that conservation measures are limited to where destructive developments occur without addressing the underlying drivers of environmental destruction. The text suggests that offsetting creates a scenario where ecosystems are traded as commodities, ultimately exacerbating environmental and societal issues rather than resolving them.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The study of extremophiles helps us understand potential life on other planets. [SEP] Text: Skip to content Menu AGU. org to by AGU for dropdown menu Space & & & & dropdown menu ’ Highlights Editors’ Eos en Español Eos 简体中文版 to for: inEditors' in Earth’s Recent progress in the analysis of seismic waves enables us to determine where, and sometimes how, the base of the mantle deforms. by 1 July 20241 July 2024 Share this:Click to print (Opens in new window)Click to email a link to a friend (Opens in new window)Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)Click to share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) The image was taken during fieldwork to monitor previously installed seismometers. Seismometer installation and monitoring are conducted by hundreds of scientists worldwide, allowing the recorded signals to be used to study Earth's deep interior. Credit: Editors’ Vox is a blog from AGU’s Publications Department. Earthquake waves travel through Earth’s interior and can be recorded by seismometers at distances of thousands or even tens of thousands of kilometers. These seismic waves traverse different parts of the mantle at different speeds, which depends on the material they are traveling through. Sometimes, the speed of shear waves – in the same material – depends on their vibrational direction, a phenomenon called seismic anisotropy. Figure 1: Schematic illustration of shear wave splitting due to lowermost mantle anisotropy. Shear wave splitting is illustrated for the SKS wave (top left), which travels as P (black wiggles) through the liquid outer core (gray shading) and then transforms to an SV wave at the core-mantle boundary. SKS splits into fast (blue) and a slow (red) traveling waves, which are polarized in orthogonal planes (slow: red; fast: blue). These components accumulate a time lag (delay time), which can be measured along with the polarization of the fast-traveling wave (fast polarization direction). Credit: Wolf et al. [2024], Figure 1 If seismic anisotropy is present, analogous to optical birefringence, the shear wave can split up into a fast and a slow traveling component. This primarily happens when waves travel through the lowermost mantle and upper mantle or crust. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses seismic waves, their properties, and measurements related to Earth's mantle but does not mention extremophiles, life on other planets, or relevant astrobiological implications. There is no connection drawn between the study of extremophiles and potential extraterrestrial life.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Sleep deprivation has been shown to impair cognitive functions, including attention, decision-making, and learning ability. [SEP] Text: A potential factor that may limit the generalizability of our results is the use of virtual money, rather than having participants compensated with real money based on their performance. Recent evidence has found that sleep-dependent consolidation is enhanced when the belief of future reward expectancy is introduced prior to sleep. That is, sleep-dependent learning is mediated by the relevance that is assigned to the task prior to sleep [44], [45]. Thus, it is possible that sleep-dependent improvement in the IGT is more pronounced when decisions have high intrinsic motivation and mimic real-life scenarios. ConclusionIn summary, we are the first to provide evidence that post-learning sleep can enhance performance on a task designed to mimic real life decision-making. These findings provide new insights into IGT learning, and support the hypothesis that ‘sleeping on it’ facilitates decision-making. These findings have important implications for the role of sleep in processing decision-making experiences in a wide variety of populations. Future work should be aimed at identifying the underlying cognitive and emotional processes and corresponding sleep mechanisms that help facilitate this unique process. Author ContributionsConceived and designed the experiments:. Performed the experiments: CJS. Analyzed the data:. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools:. Wrote the paper:. 1. (1994) Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to prefrontal cortex. Cognition 50: 7–15 Doi: View 2. (2008) Immediate gain is a long-term loss: Are there foresighted decision makers in the iowa gambling task? Funct 4: 13 Doi: View 3. (2007) Is deck B a disadvantageous deck in the iowagambling task? Funct 3: 16 Doi: View 4. Singh V, (2009) Heterogeneity in choices on iowa gambling task: Preference for infrequent-high magnitude punishment. Mind and Society 8: 43–57 Doi: View 5. Fernie G, Tunney RJ (2006) Some decks are better than others: The effect of reinforcer type and task instructions on learning in the iowa gambling task. 60: 94–102 Doi: View 6. (2012) Probabilistic classification and gambling in patients with schizophrenia receiving medication: Comparison of risperidone, olanzapine, clozapine, and typical antipsychotics. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the role of sleep in enhancing decision-making and performance on tasks that mimic real-life scenarios. It states that 'post-learning sleep can enhance performance on a task designed to mimic real life decision-making' which indicates that the quality of sleep affects cognitive functions like decision-making. Additionally, it mentions that sleep-dependent learning involves cognitive processes that are influenced by factors such as motivation, linking sleep directly to cognitive abilities.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Biodiversity offsetting can completely reverse all environmental damage from development. [SEP] Text: Offsetting as the panacea? Dubai’s COP28 began shortly after the release of the UN report, which underscored the inadequacy of countries’ commitments to address the global climate crisis. The report heightened expectations for COP28 to serve as a pivotal opportunity for correcting course and accelerating sustainability transformations. Nevertheless, COP28’s outcome fell short, achieving merely a “transitioning away from fossil fuels” (Morton et al. 2023)—a result well below the phase-out or phase-down demanded by civil society and scientists. Such an outcome will likely place even greater reliance on mechanisms such as carbon offsetting to remain within the boundaries set by the Paris Agreement—a trend endorsed by influential figures such as (US climate envoy), Ursula von der Leyen (EU commission president) and (UK former prime minister), who, at the COP28, sought to rekindle discussions on the carbon credit market (Greenfield and Harvey 2023). Although COP28’s outcome could be defined as a first step in the right direction, apprehensions arise regarding the escalating use of and dependence on offsetting. This overuse may convey the wrong message to those involved in other environmental debates—particularly those centred on biodiversity protection. It may insinuate that partial protection of biodiversity (akin to transitioning or phase-down strategies for fossil fuels) supplemented by offsetting is sufficient—thereby obviating the necessity for comprehensive protection (analogous to a phase-out from fossil fuels). This paper cautions against this overreliance on offsetting strategy and the transposition of the offsetting logic to the realm of biodiversity. The argument presented in this short communication challenges the idea that the quantitative logic of CO2 offsetting that applies in the world of physics and free markets can be transposed to, for example, a specific forest with possibly hundreds of species and millions of living organisms per square km. The argument is outlined as follows. First, the basic functioning of carbon offsetting is explained, and its transposition to the realm of biodiversity is presented. Then, three reasons are offered to underscore the inherent flaws in this transposition. Acknowledging the intricacies of the debate, an allegoric interpretation based on Lessing’s “Nathan the Wise” (1779) (Ringparabel) is proposed to delineate the complexities and nuances surrounding the use of biodiversity offsets. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by arguing against the effectiveness of biodiversity offsetting as a complete solution for environmental damage. It emphasizes the concern of overreliance on offsetting, suggesting that it may give the impression that partial protection of biodiversity, through offsetting, is sufficient. This implies that such strategies could detract from the necessary and comprehensive protection of biodiversity, countering the idea that offsetting can fully reverse damage.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The study of extremophiles helps us understand potential life on other planets. [SEP] Text: The effects of seismic anisotropy in the lowermost mantle on an SKS seismic wave are displayed in Figure 1. A new 2. Our current understanding is that these locations do not strongly correlate with any deep Earth structures, indicating that different mechanisms and deformation scenarios can cause it. Figure 2: Locations in which lowermost mantle seismic anisotropy has been found in previous studies (violet), compiled in the database of Wolf et al. [2023]. Gray background colors show large-low velocity zone locations based on work by Lekic et al. [2012]. Credit: Wolf et al. [2024], Figure 2b What are the main causes of seismic anisotropy? Seismic anisotropy in Earth’s mantle can be caused by two potential mechanisms. In the deep Earth, materials may have elastic properties significantly different from the surrounding material. If their shapes are directionally oriented, so-called shape-preferred orientation can be induced, and seismic waves can travel faster in certain directions than in others (e. g. , Kendall & Silver, 1998). Additionally, deformation can lead to the preferential alignment of individual crystals in an aggregate, so-called crystallographic-preferred orientation, which can also be cause of seismic anisotropy (e. g. , Kocks et al. , 2000). We believe that either of these mechanisms can potentially cause seismic anisotropy in the lowermost mantle, but that crystallographic-preferred orientation may be the dominant mechanism. Why is it hard to infer seismic anisotropy in the lowermost mantle? And what has led to recent progress? The main challenge when studying lowermost mantle anisotropy is that the seismic waves that are commonly used for this also potentially sample upper mantle anisotropy. Therefore, we must infer where exactly the seismic anisotropy is sampled, but the measurements that we are usually making integrate the effects of seismic anisotropy over the whole raypath. This is why techniques have been developed which use seismic phases that have very similar upper mantle raypaths and different lowermost mantle raypaths. In such cases, it is often argued that if the phases show a different anisotropic signature, seismic anisotropy must be present in the lowermost mantle. In other cases, seismic waves are used that have particularly long raypaths through the lowermost mantle. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses seismic anisotropy in the Earth's mantle and does not mention extremophiles, astrobiology, or the potential for life on other planets. It focuses on geophysical properties rather than biological or extraterrestrial contexts.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Sleep deprivation has been shown to impair cognitive functions, including attention, decision-making, and learning ability. [SEP] Text: Psychopharmacology 222 (1): 173–183 Doi: View 7. (2002) Decision-making in a risk-taking task: A PET study. Neuropsychopharmacology 26 (5): 682–691 Doi: View 8. '(2008) Distinct roles of prefrontal cortical subregions in the Task. 19: 1134–1143 Doi: View 9. (2010) Dopamine release in the ventral striatum during Task performance is associated with increased excitement levels in pathological gamblers. Addiction 106: 383–390. View 10. (1999) Different contributions of the human amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex to decision-making. 19 (13): 5473–5481. View 11. (2008) Brain maps of Task. BMC Neurs: 9. Doi: View 12. Li X, Lu Z, D'(2010) The iowa gambling task in fMRI images. Mapp 31: 410–423 Doi: View 13. (2009) Declarative memory is critical for sustained advantageous complex decision-making. Neuropsychologia 47: 1686–1693 Doi: View 14. (2007) Sleep deprivation elevates expectations of gains and attenuates response to losses following risky decisions. Sleep 30: 603–609 Doi: View 15. (2012) Gambling when sleep deprived: Don't bet on stimulants. 29: 43–54 Doi: View 16. Rasch B, (2013) About sleep's role in memory. 93: 681–766 Doi: View 17. (1995) Sleep states and memory processes. Res 69: 137–145 Doi: View 18. (2011) Sleep, memory and molecular neurobiology. Neurol 98: 259–272 Doi: View 19. (2009) Sleep enhances category learning. 16: 751–755 Doi: View 20. (2007) Human relational memory requires time and sleep. 104 (18): 7723–7728 Doi: View 21. (2007) Schemas and memory consolidation. Science 316 (5821): 76–82 Doi: View 22. (2008) Shifting from implicit to explicit knowledge: Different roles of early and late night sleep. 15: 508–515 Doi: View 23. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim regarding the effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive functions. Specifically, it mentions studies such as one from 2007 that states 'Sleep deprivation elevates expectations of gains and attenuates response to losses following risky decisions,' directly linking sleep deprivation to impaired decision-making tasks. Additionally, references about sleep's role in memory further corroborate the claim by indicating that sleep is essential for various cognitive functions, including memory and learning.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Biodiversity offsetting can completely reverse all environmental damage from development. [SEP] Text: From carbon offsetting to biodiversity offsettingCarbon offsetting can be engaged in because of ethical willingness, marketing reasons, or to comply with legal constraints. It is an instrument that allows individuals, companies, or states to contribute to environmental schemes to balance out some or all of their emissions. This can be achieved by removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or reducing emissions (Hyams and Fawcett 2013). The offsetting process, both in its regulated and voluntary form, operates on an accounting logic where damages are balanced out by equivalent gains so as “to make no long-term net contribution to atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations” (Hyams and Fawcett 2013, p. 91). This commensurability is made possible by the non-localised nature of climate change as “greenhouse gases spread evenly throughout the atmosphere, so reducing them anywhere contributes to overall climate protection” (Institute 2011). Trading of emissions occurs at various scales through certificate exchange markets, such as the for (), the (EU ETS) for European countries, or the Mechanism (CDM) established in 1997 with the (Lovell 2010). Nevertheless, its most known application to the general public might be the compensation for CO2 emissions from flying by purchasing a carbon credit, according to the distance and type of plane, linked to a carbon removal project (such as afforestation projects) that compensates the emissions produced (IATA 2022). This accounting logic is being transposed to address the unprecedented ecosystem degradation caused by biodiversity loss (Ceballos et al. 2015). At the intergovernmental level, offsetting has been listed in Target 19(d) of the Kunming-(GBF) as a tool and solution to “progressively increase the level of financial resources” for achieving the four framework’s long-term goals by 2030 (CBD 2022, p. 5). At the business level, these commitments are being translated into more comprehensive standards. For example, the Initiative (GRI)—a global standard for corporate sustainability reporting—is expanding its ESG reporting standards with a revised section that considers organisations’ impacts on biodiversity. In it, biodiversity offsets are identified as a means to compensate for residual negative impacts (GSSB 2022). Here, biodiversity offsetting has become a prominent market-based instrument for biodiversity conservation. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing biodiversity offsetting as an instrument for compensation rather than a complete reversal of environmental damage. It describes various applications of offsetting, particularly for carbon emissions and biodiversity loss, but indicates that these measures are seen as a way to balance out negative impacts rather than fully restoring ecosystems. This suggests limitations in the ability of biodiversity offsetting to eliminate all environmental damage, as evidenced by phrases like 'compensate for residual negative impacts'.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The study of extremophiles helps us understand potential life on other planets. [SEP] Text: In general, all techniques to infer lowermost mantle anisotropy make a variety of assumptions, and it is important to understand which assumptions are sufficiently accurate. Such detailed tests have been made possible by recent progress in the efficient numerical computation of seismograms (e. g. , Leng et al. , 2016; Fernando et al. , 2024), which has been applied to seismograms for Earth models that include seismic anisotropy (e. g. , Nowacki and Wookey, 2016; Wolf et al. , 2022). Such numerical simulations have shown which assumptions are reasonable to make and have led to the development of new techniques to measure lowermost mantle anisotropy. What additional research, data, or modeling efforts are needed to overcome these challenges? The presence of seismic anisotropy has been suggested in 25% of lateral lowermost mantle locations (Figure 2). However, these measurements have been made using different techniques that have various strengths and shortcomings, therefore, we still do not understand the global distribution of lowermost mantle anisotropy. Going forward, it will be important to use uniform methods to map lowermost mantle anisotropy globally – both techniques and data for such an effort already exist. To interpret such results, it will be important to better understand the properties of lowermost mantle materials at the relevant pressures and temperatures, and to realistically implement such constraints in global models of mantle flow. This requires further progress in multiple geophysical areas. It is important that experts from these areas, which include geodynamics and mineral physics, combine their expertise in multidisciplinary approaches to illuminate the nature of the lowermost mantle. Figure 3 (below) is a schematic diagram of the types of regions and flow scenarios that can potentially be elucidated via a combination of seismic anisotropy observations, mineral physics constraints, and geodynamic simulations. For example, using measurements of seismic anisotropy, deformation caused by subducting slabs or upwelling flow in the deepest mantle can be imaged. With future improvements of anisotropy measurements, their interpretations, and analyses of bigger seismic datasets, measurements of seismic anisotropy, combined with constraints from other fields, will shed a more detailed light on dynamic deep mantle processes and structures. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text presents an analysis of seismic anisotropy and lowermost mantle research but does not address the study of extremophiles or its relevance to understanding potential life on other planets. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: REM sleep guarantees perfect retention of any material studied before bed. [SEP] Text: However, to our surprise, even under such a higher sleep pressure condition, optogenetic inhibition of VTAGad67+ neurons could successfully and immediately induce wakefulness in all trials (Figure 4b and c). Once again, induced-wakefulness displayed an extended effect after cessation of light, whereby it took 54 ± 14 s to return to NREM sleep. Taken together, these results suggest that VTAGad67+ neurons might be involved in the initiation and maintenance of physiological NREM sleep. Figure 4 Download asset Open asset Optogenetic inhibition of VTAGad67+ neurons induced wakefulness even under conditions of high homeostatic sleep pressure. (a) Schematic of the protocol of the experiment. (b) power spectra, and EMG before and after optogenetic inhibition during recovery sleep after 4 hr sleep deprivation. (c) Summary of the experiment in (a) showing the probability of each vigilance state before and after blue light illumination. Colored circles and lines indicate mean probability of each vigilance state and shaded area indicates SEM (ACR2-2A-mCherry: n = 6 mice and mCherry alone: n = 5 mice). Figure 4—source data 1 Source data for Figure 4c. Download elife-44928-fig4-data1-v2. xlsx VTAGad67+ neurons showed the highest population activity during NREM sleep Our chemogenetic activation and optogenetic inhibition studies suggest that the in vivo activity of VTAGad67+ neurons might change across brain states with putatively higher activity during NREM sleep. To test this hypothesis, we recorded the population activity of VTAGad67+ neurons using fiber photometry (Inutsuka et al. , 2016). A Cre-inducible AAV expressing the fluorescent calcium indicator GCaMP6f (Chen et al. , 2013) was unilaterally injected into the VTA of Gad67-Cre mice (n = 8 mice; Figure 5a and Figure 5—figure supplement 1a). First, we tested whether GCaMP6f signal from VTAGad67+ neurons correspond to firing frequency in vitro (Figure 5—figure supplement 1b). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses neuronal activity in NREM sleep and the effects of optogenetic inhibition on sleep patterns. There is no mention or support regarding the role of REM sleep in retention of studied material, hence it does not corroborate or contrast with the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Biodiversity offsetting can completely reverse all environmental damage from development. [SEP] Text: Biodiversity offsetting is an umbrella term that encompasses several compensatory, mitigatory and conservatory policies (Bull et al. 2013; Hrabanski 2015). It is carried out according to the principle of “Loss” (NNL), which aims to balance the environmental impacts of, for example, infrastructural projects with “mitigation, restoration, or compensation efforts to ensure that no overall environmental loss results” (Morseletto 2022, p. 2167). Within this framework, residual environmental damages that cannot be avoided, minimised, or remediated, such as the destruction of habitat, killing of species, or removal of ecosystem functionalities (Spash 2015), are compensated through positive “real, additional, quantifiable, permanent, verifiable, and enforceable” (Ruseva 2023, p. 62) equivalent gains undertaken elsewhere (Morseletto 2022). These gains could be in the form of recovery, regeneration, security, or an increase in biodiversity (Bekessy et al. 2010). Hence, the biodiversity offsetting rationale transforms conservation efforts into “a technical accounting exercise by converting impacts and restoration/improvement into common units, i. e. creating full commensurability” (Spash 2015, p. 547) that are then sold and bought in trading systems such as, among others, the in the USA and the biobanking in Australia (Hrabanski 2015). Additionally, biodiversity restoration and conservation can also be traded on “the secondary market for commercial debt” (Bedarff et al. 1989, p. 445) through debt for nature swaps. Presented in the 1980s by Thomas E. Lovejoy, nature swaps are a complex financial instrument used to refinance countries’ sovereign debt by selling part of this debt at a discount and then using the money saved from this deal to restore or protect the environment (Bedarff et al. 1989). When done correctly, biodiversity offsetting could create, restore, or protect areas that would have been otherwise damaged or lost (concept of averted loss) (Devenish et al. 2022). Caution is warranted, however, to avoid that the scandals that hit the carbon offsetting market (Benedito and Sarmiento 2022) spill over to the biodiversity offsetting market. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts with the claim by indicating that biodiversity offsetting aims to balance environmental impacts but acknowledges that there are residual damages that cannot be completely avoided or remediated. It emphasizes that while biodiversity offsetting can help create or restore areas, caution is warranted, and highlights the limitations of offsetting practices, especially the need to avoid past failures in related markets. This implies that biodiversity offsetting cannot entirely reverse all environmental damage.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The study of extremophiles helps us understand potential life on other planets. [SEP] Text: Figure 3: Schematic diagram of the types of regions and flow scenarios that can potentially be elucidated via a combination of seismic anisotropy observations, mineral physics constraints, and geodynamic simulations. (a) Mantle flow field (arrows: flow directions, length proportional to flow velocity; background colors indicate temperature) for a geodynamic simulation that includes sinking cold material (blue), reminiscent of a slab, a hot (red) structure similar to a large-low velocity province (LLVP; left), and rising plumes (close to LLVP edge). (b-e) Zoom-ins representing different flow scenarios. Ultra-low velocity zone (ULVZ) material is shown in yellow, subducted mid-ocean ridge basalts in brown, aligned crystals in green and LLVP material in red. (b) Representation of flow near LLVP edge. ULVZ materials and partial melts potentially cause shape-preferred orientation, while crystals are aligned via crystallographic-preferred orientation; either scenario causes seismic anisotropy. (c) Flow near a developing thermal upwelling. (d) A region of horizontal flow, with a potential thin and hot layer of chemically distinct material at the base of the mantle. (e) A region of slab-downwelling. Note that in contrast to panel (a), in which reddish colors show regions with relative higher temperature, the reddish colors in panels (b)-(e) represent chemically distinct LLVP materials. Credit: Wolf et al. [2024], Figure 16 (modified) — (jonathan. wolf@yale. edu; 0000-0002-5440-3791), ’s Note: It is the policy of AGU Publications to invite the authors of 10. 1029/2024EO245021. Published on 1 July 2024. This 2024. The authors. CC BY-NC-ND 3. 0Except where otherwise noted, images are subject to copyright. Any reuse without express permission from the copyright owner is prohibited. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses geological flow scenarios and seismic anisotropy observations without mentioning extremophiles or their relationship to extraterrestrial life. Thus, it does not provide support or contrast to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: The energy consumption of major cryptocurrencies, like Bitcoin, has become a concern due to the environmental impact of mining. [SEP] Text: Skip to main content Skip to main navigation menu Skip to site footer on the of Archives Vol. 11 (2024): 10. 4108/eetsis. 5954 Keywords: BTC, S9, S19, S19+, S19j The amount of power required to mine one Bitcoin (BTC) can vary significantly depending on several factors, including the type of mining hardware being used, its efficiency, the cost of electricity, and the overall network difficulty at any given time. Mining BTC involves solving complex mathematical problems to validate transactions on the blockchain network, which requires significant computational power. This research paper focuses on dedicated mining machines, combining essential data and information into a singular comparison evaluation of these machines. 52. IEEE, 2022. [2] Bejan, Dominic Bucerzan, and Crăciun. Bitcoin price evolution versus energy consumption; trend analysis. Applied Economics, 55(13):1497–1511, 2023. [3] C Bendiksen and S Gibbons. The bitcoin mining network: Trends, composition, average creation cost, electricity consumption & sources. coinshares research white paper, 2022. [4]. The bitcoin mining network: Trends, composition, average creation cost, electricity consumption & sources. CoinShares Research, Whitepaper, 2019. [5] and Neeraj Kumar. Blockchain for precision irrigation: Opportunities and challenges. Transactions on Technologies, 33(10):e4059, 2022. [6] Stéphanie ’Ambrosio, and Thomas Spencer. Net zero by 2050: A roadmap for the global energy sector. 2021. [7] M. Y. Bukhari, A. A. Ansari, and M. Yousif. Current and future implications of bitcoin mining on energy and climate change. MRS Energy & Sustainability, 2024. [8] and Yi Tao. Detection and characterization of in vitro payload-containing catabolites of non-cleavable adcs by high-resolution mass spectrometry and multiple data-mining tools. and Disposition, 2023. [9] U. O. Cambridge. Cambridge btc electricity consumption index. " cambridge centre for alternative finance (ccaf). 2023. [10] Cap. Cryptocurrency market capitalizations. Retrieved on January, 21:2018, 2018. [11]. Cambridge bitcoin electricity consumption index. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by addressing the significant energy requirements associated with Bitcoin mining. It mentions that the power needed to mine Bitcoin varies, depending on mining hardware, its efficiency, and electricity costs, which indicates a broader context surrounding energy consumption and its implications for the environment.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Biodiversity offsetting can completely reverse all environmental damage from development. [SEP] Text: The media investigation undertaken by the Guardian, Die Zeit, and SourceMaterial, published in January 2023, exposed how Verra, the leading certifier for the voluntary market, generated so-called “phantom credits” (Greenfield 2023). The accusation is rooted in the process of averted loss: Verra emitted credits from rainforest areas, claiming that, based on current trends, those areas would have been cut down but for its conservation efforts. By securing them, Verra would have been entitled to emit credits equal to the amount of CO2 conserved in the forest (Greenfield 2023). However, the media investigation discovered that such threatened areas have never been under threat in the first place and, therefore, would not have been eligible for the creation of carbon credits (Padin-Dujon 2023). Three reasons not to adopt the carbon offsetting logicHaving explained the functioning of carbon and biodiversity offsetting, three arguments are presented to raise doubt about the transferability of the accounting logic from carbon offsetting to biodiversity. First, ecosystems “differ in type, location, time, or ecological context” (Bull et al. 2013, p. 4). Therefore, to establish commensurability among diverse entities and locations, biodiversity offsetting relies on proxies (Humphries et al. 1995), also known as “surrogates” (Maron et al. 2016). Although such a strategy permits comparing apples to oranges, the practical impediment in devising comprehensive and applicable metrics introduces ambiguity in accounting practices, hinders the comparison of losses and gains, and complicates the achievement of no net loss (Bull et al. 2013). The difficulty is grounded in the struggle to balance simplicity and complexity. The first is crucial for facilitating exchanges but prone to a “crude simplification of the natural world” (Maron et al. 2016)—thus potentially rendering metrics deficient in important aspects. The second enhances the inclusivity of different aspects but also risks of transforming them into “black boxes” (Maron et al. 2016). These difficulties are exacerbated by our limited understanding of the intricate relationships among ecosystem components, making it challenging to find comparable and sufficient offsets to compensate for biodiversity losses. To counter this deficiency, some have advocated for multipliers, a factor that increases the gains by changing the 1:1 ratio in favour of a 1:x > 1 one. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting significant limitations and challenges of biodiversity offsetting. It explains that ecosystems differ substantially, which complicates the accountability and effectiveness of biodiversity offsets. The text also points out that even the process of generating credits through conservation efforts, as claimed by Verra, can be flawed and misleading, with claims of protecting areas that were never at risk. This underscores the argument that biodiversity offsetting does not guarantee the complete reversal of environmental damage, as intended by the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: AbstractCarbon dioxide is Mars’ primary atmospheric constituent and is an active driver of Martian surface evolution. CO2 ice sublimation mechanisms have been proposed for a host of features that form in the contemporary Martian climate. However, there has been very little experimental work or quantitative modelling to test the validity of these hypotheses. Here we present the results of the first laboratory experiments undertaken to investigate if the interaction between sublimating CO2 ice blocks and a warm, porous, mobile regolith can generate features similar in morphology to those forming on Martian dunes today. We find that CO2 sublimation can mobilise grains to form (i) pits and (ii) furrows. We have documented new detached pits at the termini of linear gullies on Martian dunes. Based on their geomorphic similarity to the features observed in our laboratory experiments, and on scaling arguments, we propose a new hypothesis that detached pits are formed by the impact of granular jets generated by sublimating CO2. We also study the erosion patterns formed underneath a sublimating block of CO2 ice and demonstrate that these resemble furrow patterns on Mars, suggesting similar formation mechanisms. Similar content being viewed by others The formation of araneiforms by carbon dioxide venting and vigorous sublimation dynamics under martian atmospheric pressure 4. The distribution of this dry ice is governed primarily by solar insolation5. In the early spring, as insolation increases, the dry ice begins to sublimate. This process is now recognised as an important agent in the formation of contemporary surface features on Mars. These features include the dendritic araneiform terrain of the south polar cryptic region6,7,8, linear gullies, their associated pits9,10, and sand furrows11. In this study we focus on linear gully pits and sand furrows; both active features which are observed to form and evolve on dunes under the current Martian climate. These features have no Earth analogues and the specific mechanisms responsible for their formation have yet to be fully understood and quantified. FurrowsFurrows are shallow (~0. 25 m) and narrow (~1. 5 m) negative relief11,12, features which are observed on over 95% of the northern polar dunes11 and are also found between 40°S and 72°S13. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text passes in relation to the claim as it describes the sublimation of carbon dioxide ice on Mars and the features formed by this process, but it does not specifically confirm the existence of polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. While it does discuss CO2 ice and its implications for Martian surface features, it does not address whether these features are indeed part of polar ice caps or provide details about their composition.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: The energy consumption of major cryptocurrencies, like Bitcoin, has become a concern due to the environmental impact of mining. [SEP] Text: [26] The Economist. Why are venezuelans mining so much bitcoin? 2018. [27] Edan and Basim Mahmood. Usage one of reverse engineering application (node. js web) to construct software engineering documents. 2022. [28] Egiyi and Ofoegbu. Cryptocurrency and climate change: An overview. of and Technology (IJMET), 11(3):15–22, 2020. [29]. Does the hashrate affect the bitcoin price? Journal of Risk and Financial Management, 13(11):263, 2020. [30] Vikrant Gandotra, François-Éric Racicot, and Alireza Rahimzadeh. Cryptocurrency mining. and Mechanisms of Exchange: of Virtual Currency, pages 51–67. Springer, 2020. [31] Alireza Ghadertootoonchi, Masoumeh Bararzadeh, and Maryam Fani. Long-and short-term prediction of bitcoin energy consumption. In 2023 8th on Technology and (ICTEM), pages 1–5. IEEE, 2023. [32] and Jones. Estimating the climate and health damages of bitcoin mining in the us: Is bitcoin underwater? Letters, pages 1–6, 2022. [33] and Berrens. Cryptodamages: Monetary value estimates of the air pollution and human health impacts of cryptocurrency mining. & Social Science, 59:101281, 2020. [34] and Dinesh Gopalani. Simulation and synthesis of sha-256 using verilog hdl for blockchain applications. in Data-driven Computing and Intelligent Systems: from ADCIS 2022, pages 463–477. Springer, 2023. [35] Amanda Gulli. (un) sustainability of bitcoin mining. & Tech. LJ, 46:95, 2020. [36] and A Schroeder. Review and demonstration of the potential of bitcoin mining as a productive use of energy (pue) to aid equitable investment in solar micro- and mini-grids worldwide. energies 2023, 16, 1200, 2023. [37] and Zhihua Zhao. A novel visual analysis method of food safety risk traceability based on blockchain. International journal of environmental research and public health, 17(7):2300, 2020. [38] Adam Hayes. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provides multiple references that suggest there is a growing concern regarding the energy consumption associated with Bitcoin mining. For instance, the mention of works like 'Estimating the climate and health damages of bitcoin mining in the us: Is bitcoin underwater?' and 'Cryptodamages: Monetary value estimates of the air pollution and human health impacts of cryptocurrency mining' highlight an ongoing discussion about the environmental impact of Bitcoin mining, supporting the claim that it has become a concern.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Biodiversity offsetting can completely reverse all environmental damage from development. [SEP] Text: In economic terms, multipliers would be equivalent to applying “a discount rate to calculate net present value” (Bekessy et al. 2010, p. 153). A practical example of the use of multipliers is South Africa’s offset scheme, according to which, for every hectare of “critically endangered ecosystems” lost, there must be a compensation of thirty hectares elsewhere (ratio 1:30) (DEADP, 2007, p. iv). Nevertheless, it has been shown that these ratio “corrections” are difficult to calculate precisely—oftentimes they are calculated on “rules of thumb” (Moilanen et al. 2009, p. 470)—and exact values might even be impossible to compute (Laitila et al. 2014). Second, ecosystems are complex systems that evolved over millions of years in which many specific variables and entities interact (climate, soil, nutrients, species, individuals, and symbiosis). This ontological complexity entails that not only it is problematic to compensate for the loss of one ecosystem with gains in another, but also is compensating for losses caused to the ecosystem X by restoring it to the state ex ante the damage. Contrary to expectation, restoration does not imply reinstating previous functionalities (Ambrose 2000). The notion that the ecosystem X will never precisely revert to its original state is underscored by the intrinsic difficulties in replicating the criteria and richness of the original natural ecosystem within biodiversity copies—since, “unlike a building that can be retrofitted for sustainability, once habitat is destroyed, it might be impossible to reconstruct” (Bekessy et al. 2010, p. 152). This is because two places will never have the same ecological and biodiversity features (Maron et al. 2016). As such, producing an exact replica cannot be physically or financially achieved (Wilkins et al. 2003). Even in a hypothetical scenario where exact replication could be accomplished, ethical and practical issues would remain. The temporal lags inherent in offset schemes, delineated by Bull et al. (2013), introduce significant intergenerational ethical concerns. Moreover, on a practical level, these temporal discrepancies create inefficiencies, establishing a flawed mechanism wherein losses are certain, while gains are prospective and delayed into the future (Maron et al. 2016). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by outlining the complexities and limitations of biodiversity offsetting. It emphasizes that ecosystems are intricate systems that cannot be compensated for merely by creating offsets in different locations or attempting restoration. The text argues that not only is it challenging to calculate the correct offset ratios, but that the original ecosystems may never revert to their prior state due to intrinsic biological and ecological differences. Moreover, it highlights that ethical concerns and temporal discrepancies further hinder the effectiveness of offset schemes, undermining the possibility of completely reversing environmental damage.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: Their network patterns range from rectilinear, to dendritic and radial, tributary and distributary and their planforms can be linear or sinuous12 (Fig. 1), though it is unclear what factors control this variety of patterns. Appearing to “defy gravity”, furrows extend upslope and transect existing aeolian ripples, and so while their patterns may resemble those eroded by fluvial activity on Earth, gravity-driven processes are unlikely to form them12. Figure 1Examples of sand furrows on Martian Dunes. (a) Linear furrow (blue arrow) on sand dune in (all furrows are taken from HiRISE image ESP_026851_2590, latitude 78. 65°, longitude 308. 494°, solar incidence angle 56° with the Sun ~34° above the horizon). (b) sinuous (black arrow) furrow on sand dune in Chasma Boreale, (c) dendritic furrows (white arrows) on sand dunes at latitude −67. 607°, 185. 343° in the southern hemisphere (HiRISE image ESP_023270_1120. Solar incidence angle is 60° with the sun ~30° above the horizon). Yellow arrows point to boulders, red arrows point to dark fans and highlight their proximity to the furrows. (d) radial (green arrow) furrow on sand dune in Chasma Boreale. (e) rectilinear (purple arrow) and radial (green arrow) furrows on sand dune in Chasma Boreale. Images have been stretched to improve contrast as furrows are narrow, shallow and thus subtle features. HiRISE image credit: NASA/JPL/University of Arizona. Full size image HypothesesFurrows frequently form after the appearance of polygonal cracks in CO2 ice. This led Bourke12 to hypothesise that they were caused by cryoventing; that is, basal sublimation of CO2 and consequent erosion. This is similar to Kieffer’s model for the dark spots and fans in the southern hemisphere14, but applied in the context of dunes. The cryoventing model proposes that in the spring, gas pressures increase at the ice-substrate interface until the overlying ice cracks. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim directly concerning the composition of Mars' polar ice caps. Instead, it discusses various patterns of furrows on Martian dunes and hypothesizes on their formation due to CO2 ice and sublimation processes. Since it does not confirm or dispute the existence of polar ice caps made of water and carbon dioxide, it is deemed irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: The energy consumption of major cryptocurrencies, like Bitcoin, has become a concern due to the environmental impact of mining. [SEP] Text: Competing imaginaries: Crypto-utopianism and the material forces of bitcoin mining. Anthropology Today, 39(4):4–8, 2023. [39] Preacher Heimdall. Diversification into defi made simple. 2021. [40] Helou, Ali Menati, and Le Xie. Physical and economic viability of cryptocurrency mining for provision of frequency regulation: A real-world texas case study. arXiv preprint arXiv:2303. 09081, 2023. [41] Jordi Herrera-Joancomartí, Guillermo Navarro-Arribas, Alejandro Ranchal-Pedrosa, Cristina Pérez-Solà, and Joaquin Garcia-Alfaro. On the difficulty of hiding the balance of lightning network channels. of the 2019 ACM on Computer and Communications Security, pages 602–612, 2019. [42] Nicolas Houy. Rational mining limits bitcoin emissions. Change, 9(9):655–655, 2019. [43] -Herd, and Jon Swords. Cryptocarbon: The promises and pitfalls of forest protection on a blockchain. Geoforum, 100:1–9, 2019. [44] Ibañez and Alexander Freier. Bitcoin’s carbon footprint revisited: Proof of work mining for renewable energy expansion. Challenges, 14(3), 2023. [45] Małgorzata Jabłczyńska, Krzysztof Kosc, Przemysław Ryś, Paweł Sakowski, Robert Ślepaczuk, and Grzegorz Zakrzewski. Energy and cost efficiency of bitcoin mining endeavor. PloS one, 18(3):e0283687, 2023. [46] Goodkind-A. L. Berrens R. P. Jones, B. A. Economic estimation of bitcoin mining’s climate damages demonstrates closer resemblance to digital crude than digital gold. Sci Rep, page 10, 2022. [47]. An event study of the ethereum transition to proof-of-stake. Commodities, 2(2):96–110, 2023. [48] Perez-Delgado. Quantum blockchain miners provide massive energy savings. arXiv preprint arXiv:2306. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by discussing various studies and articles that focus on Bitcoin's environmental impact, such as 'Bitcoin’s carbon footprint revisited: Proof of work mining for renewable energy expansion' and 'Economic estimation of bitcoin mining’s climate damages demonstrates closer resemblance to digital crude than digital gold.' These references highlight the concern regarding energy consumption and climate damage associated with Bitcoin mining.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Biodiversity offsetting can completely reverse all environmental damage from development. [SEP] Text: 1 IntroductionMarkets are increasingly seen as both part of the problem and part of the solution in relation to contemporary environmental challenges. The emergence of markets in water quality, biodiversity and carbon sequestration is indicative of nature being subsumed within prevailing systems of commodity production and exchange (Robertson 2012). Such is the pace of this change that nature, people and their relationships are increasingly caught between the balance sheets of national accounting systems and the yardstick of the market (Robertson 2000, 2004). The former tries to package nature into neat categories and functional units while the latter helps to translate these into a price that can be understood and traded by markets across geographical space (Dempsey and Suarez 2016). Some argue that this process overlooks broader values associated with nature (Braun and Castree 1998; Dempsey and Robertson 2012; Sullivan and Hannis 2015; Apostolopoulou and Adams 2017). However, others believe that creating markets of environmental goods and services has tremendous potential for maximising the protection of ecosystems and biodiversity (Balmford 2002; Sutherland et al. 2006; TEEB 2008; Kettunen and Vihervaara 2012; Helm and Hepburn 2014). They attest that, within the context of economic decision-making, nature has a null value, and is undervalued and over-exploited as a result (von Hase and ten Kate 2017). It follows, ascribing a value to nature presents a business cost to its extraction and bears a profit for its protection, placing markets, people and the planet on a corrective path for sustainable growth. Within the context of biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation, market-based instruments (MBIs) have emerged as a way to reconcile development needs and conservation objectives (Gómez-Baggethun et al. 2010; Reid 2011). The appetite for MBIs has risen in response to growing disillusionment with prevailing, non-market-based approaches to conservation (Redford and William 2009). Traditional forms of command-and-control regulation, which adopt a prescriptive and top-down approach to conservation, are viewed as inherently inefficient and inflexible, costly to enforce, and prone to regulatory capture (Mol et al. 2009; Pautz and Wamsley 2012). Conversely, voluntary approaches to conservation have had mixed results (cf. Santangeli et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the complexity of integrating biodiversity and ecosystem services into market-based instruments and the varied success of voluntary approaches to conservation. It mentions that traditional command-and-control methods are seen as inefficient, indicating that the assertion of completely reversing environmental damage may oversimplify the challenges faced in conservation. It does not support the idea that biodiversity offsetting can fully reverse all environmental damage, instead highlighting the limitations and mixed results of existing approaches.