Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Private companies are increasingly involved in space exploration, contributing to a new space race. [SEP] Text: •In terms of global reach, 63% of space start-ups address the global market and only 8% are confined to their domestic market, while only 24% of all European start-ups offer their solution on global markets. With regards to their business situation, respondents shared a rather positive and optimistic evaluation with 75% estimating that their company is in a satisfactory or good business situation and 82% anticipating an even better scenario in the future (Fig. 9). Likewise, one enterprise out of two considers being in a better condition than in the past. This optimistic outlook on business development and growth mirrors the intention of a vast majority of European space start-ups (84%) to hire in the next 12 months. Fig. 9. Past, current, and expected business situation. Start-and Expectations from Public ActorsWith regards to market dynamics, space ventures are less confident than other European start-ups who consider their own industry and market richer in opportunities (respectively 75% and 81% for innovation and commercialization opportunities). Difficulties faced by European space start-ups with the demand side are amplified by a strong bargaining power of customers. While only 27% of European start-ups, regardless of their industry, consider the bargaining power of their customers rather high, it is the case of 53% of space ventures. In addition to the reluctance of costumers in space markets to adopt new, unproven solutions various factors can explain this strong bargaining power: a market that is not yet mature (low demand and lack of awareness), a demand that is concentrated (core market made up of a few customers) or a situation of oversupply (offer higher than demand) among many others (Fig. 10). Fig. 10. Views on market forces (space vs. all start-ups). Space start-ups actually perceive their business environment as rather hostile. A significant share of them identified additional threats including an intense competition (43%), a strong bargaining power of suppliers (33%) and the potential entry of new entrants (39%) or substitute products (30%) on the market. A larger share of space ventures is concerned by these threats than in other industries. This assessment contrasts very much with the optimistic outlook on the future of their business development and growth. This also suggests that European space start-ups consider being well equipped (or backed) to succeed, even in a complex competitive landscape. Start-ups rely extensively on financial and nonfinancial support from various private and public actors. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the optimistic outlook of European space start-ups, with 84% indicating an intention to hire in the next 12 months, which reflects growth and increased involvement in space exploration. The assessment of market dynamics and recognition of competition also implies that these private companies perceive their role in a competitive landscape relevant to space exploration. This aligns with the idea of private companies contributing to a new space race.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Gene drives can fully eliminate any pest species within one generation. [SEP] Text: , 2005). Releases would need to occur in local areas not treated with pesticide or herbicide, which would quickly become reservoirs of sensitizing drives that could spread into adjacent fields. Periodically releasing new drives could potentially allow any given pesticide or herbicide to be utilized indefinitely. Modeling experiments will be needed to evaluate feasibility for different target species. A second form of sensitizing drive could potentially render pest populations vulnerable to molecules that never previously affected them. For example, a gene important to fitness might be replaced with a version from another species or laboratory isolate whose function is sensitive to a particular compound. In principle, this approach could eventually lead to the development and use of safer and more species-specific pesticides and herbicides. Controlling invasive species One of the most environmentally damaging consequences of global economic activity is the introduction of invasive species, which often cause ecological disruption or even the extinction of native species. Isolated ecosystems such as those on small islands are especially vulnerable. RNA-guided suppression drives might be used to promote biodiversity by controlling or even eradicating invasive species from islands or possibly entire continents. The economics of invasive species control are also compelling: the top ten invasives in the cause an estimated $42 billion in damages every year (Pimentel et al. , 2005). Black and brown rats alone cause $19 billion in damages and may be responsible for more extinctions than any other nonhuman species. Deploying RNA-guided suppression drives against invasive species will incur two primary risks related to undesired spread. First, rare mating events may allow the drive to affect closely related species. Using precision drives to target sequences unique to the invasive species could mitigate or eliminate this problem. Second, the suppression drive might spread from the invasive population back into the native habitat, perhaps even through intentional human action. Native populations might be protected using an immunizing drive, but doing so would risk transferring immunity back into invasive populations. Instead, we might grant the invasive population a unique sequence with a standard drive (Figure 5C), verify that these changes have not spread to the native population, and only then release a suppression drive targeting the recoded sequences while holding an immunizing drive in reserve. Another approach might utilize a sensitizing drive to render all populations newly vulnerable to a specific compound, which could then be used as a pesticide for the local control of invasive populations. All of these possibilities will require modeling and experimentation to establish safety and feasibility before use. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by explaining the complexities and limitations of gene drives. It discusses the need for modeling experiments to evaluate feasibility for various species and mentions the risks of undesired spread to closely related species. Furthermore, it suggests that controlling invasive species might not occur effectively in a single generation due to the potential for genetic changes to impact native populations and the requirement of further experimentation before implementation.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Owls can see in complete darkness due to their magical abilities. [SEP] Text: 'Our Soldiers' upon the HeartNecessary for the Voyage of LifeSonnet ("I gazed upon the silent burial-ground")Nature's Help for the SoulNature a 's GroveOctober ("All day, admist the forests' splendor bright")and the Statesmanof Science, And of of the Springof TimeMotherHymn: of the SpiritHymn ("Admist the pastures green")of the come the Dead? 's TreasuresClose sectionSonnets on Reconstruction I. A Nation's. . IV. ("A unity complete, assured, and high") Reflections on the History of and the of at the Dedication of the of Science, Salem, Aug. 18, 1869have hoarded up treasure in the last days. —James 5:3Hymn: BodyHymn: of a Mother's surprises and the capture of capitals, are the events of a by-gone age. D'-'s SongsHymn, Sung at the of the Society, Salem. April 21, 1871of History Unlearnedof The GentilesTo a CloudThe Child's Dream of Reaching the 's of WinterInterpreting God's of MayOn the of the Christian Church, The Catholic, the Protestant, and the GreekO'Clock Bell"Are there Few that be Saved? " Luke 13:23the from Cook's Hill, in West PeabodySigns in the Natural WorldA Walk in Harmony Groveof Jabezof the FlowerDanvers Burying-GroundHymn ("He loveth not! he knows not God! ")Norman's RocksOn visiting the beautiful estate of H. H. Hunnewell, Esq. , at Wellesleyof a little child shall lead them. Isaiah XI. 6of RainOn the front of the house of the late Capt. Robert W. GouldOctober ("How beautiful the sight of woods still fair")Builders: the work of the late J. W. FosterBlessed are they that mourn: for they shall be comfortedThere shall be one Flock, one Shepherdof Salem: Illustrated by George M. WhiteColumbines and Anemonesin WinterReverenceInward PhenomenaTo the Memory of of the a Lichen from North Cape: Gathered by Mr. J. M. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it does not discuss owls, vision, or any related topics. Instead, it seems to reference various hymns, poems, and historical reflections, which have no connection to the statement about owls and darkness.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Private companies are increasingly involved in space exploration, contributing to a new space race. [SEP] Text: Benchmarking space start-ups' views with other European start-ups (ESM16), underlines a profound difference in the perception of challenges (Fig. 13). Customer acquisition, also the top challenge for other start-ups, appears to be a much more significant concern for space ventures. This is also the case for capital raising and management of liquidity and cash flow, which are not even in the top three challenges of other start-ups. The challenge to raise capital reported by space start-ups is consistent with the fact that 78% of them are actively seeking financial support. Fig. 13. Business challenges of space and other European start-up. Finally, Figure 14 ranks expectations of European space start-ups from politics and benchmarks them with those of all start-ups. Fig. 14. Expectations from public actors. Comparably to other European start-ups, space ventures also consider that some efforts should be made in the field of red tape reduction to relieve these very small and young companies from what is perceived as an administrative burden diverting workforce from core business activities. In the same vein, space start-ups, alike others, call for a reduction of taxes. The main difference between the space sector and other industries lies in expectations in all other fields. European space start-ups clearly have higher expectations from governments than others. At least a third of respondents estimated that improvements could be made across all themes addressed by the survey. It emerges that space start-ups desire a much more entrepreneurship-friendly environment that would feature the following:•Improved exchanges between politics, start-ups, and established companies. •Better cultural acceptance for entrepreneurship and understanding of the need of start-ups. Survey results also show that start-ups in the space sector need (or expect) more support from governments than others for the conduct of their business and for access to finance. More than half of space ventures expect some support from public authorities to get VC while it is the case of only 30% of other European start-ups. and Conclusionsin EuropeThe study provides evidence of a tangible private investment and entrepreneurship dynamic in the European space sector, suggesting a good orientation of Europe toward the development of new commercial space trends. However, the vast majority of space start-ups interviewed (78%) are still seeking additional funding to develop their products and they expect to be supported from public actors. More specifically, the following key findings can be underlined:1. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the increasing involvement of private space start-ups in Europe and their dynamics regarding capital raising, customer acquisition, and expectations from public authorities. It indicates a tangible investment and entrepreneurship dynamic in the European space sector, aligning with the idea of a new space race driven by private companies.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Gene drives can fully eliminate any pest species within one generation. [SEP] Text: Most importantly, all decisions involving the use of suppression drives must involve extensive deliberations including but not limited to ecologists and citizens of potentially affected communities. Development and release precautions Because any consequences of releasing RNA-guided gene drives into the environment would be shared by the local if not global community, research involving gene drives capable of spreading through wild-type populations should occur only after a careful and fully transparent review process. However, basic research into gene drives and methods of controlling their effects can proceed without risking this type of spread so long as appropriate ecological or molecular containment strategies are employed (Figure 8). Figure 8 with 1 supplement see all Download asset Open asset Containment strategies and ecological risk. Ecological containment involves building and testing gene drives in geographic areas that do not harbor native populations of the target species. For example, most gene drive studies involving tropical malarial mosquitoes have been conducted in temperate regions in which the mosquitoes cannot survive or find mates. Molecular containment ensures that the basic requirements for drive are not met when mated with wild-type organisms. True drives must cut the homologous wild-type sequence and copy both the gene encoding Cas9 and the guide RNAs. Experiments that cut transgenic sequences absent from wild populations and copy either the gene encoding Cas9 or the guide RNAs - but not both - should be quite safe. Ecological or molecular containment should allow basic research into gene drive effectiveness and optimization to be pursued with negligible risk. Figure 8—figure supplement 1 categorizes these and many other possible experiments according to estimated risk. A great deal of information on probable ecological outcomes can be obtained without testing or even building replication-competent gene drives. For example, early studies might examine possible ecological effects by performing contained field trials with organisms that have been engineered to contain the desired change but do not possess a functional drive to spread it. Because they do involve transgenic organisms, these experiments are not completely without risk, but such transgenes are unlikely to spread in the absence of a drive. We recommend that all laboratories seeking to build standard gene drives capable of spreading through wild populations simultaneously create reversal drives able to restore the original phenotype. Similarly, suppression drives should be constructed in tandem with a corresponding immunizing drive. These precautions would allow the effects of an accidental release to be swiftly if partially counteracted. The prevalence of gene drives in the environment could in principle be monitored by targeted amplification or metagenomic sequencing of environmental samples. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by emphasizing the need for extensive deliberations, ecological and molecular containment strategies, and precautionary measures when developing and releasing gene drives. It suggests that while gene drives can be studied under controlled conditions, the potential consequences of their release into wild populations necessitate careful monitoring and risk assessment, which implies that fully eliminating pest species within one generation may not be feasible or responsible.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Owls can see in complete darkness due to their magical abilities. [SEP] Text: Richards, July 3d, 1874For we Walk by Faith, not by SightOn the Neglect of ("Love builds for us a bower"). Felton, Esq. , of BrookfieldOn the Increase of Crime since the of ManSailing on Cakes of Ice in the North River("Not unto men alone has come")of the First ChristiansOn the in New Grenadain Bloomthe Graves of Hawthorne and Thoreauthe Falls of Niagara, as Photographed by George BarkerKnowledge and TruthMt. Shasta: A Painting, by H. O. YoungSong: I Love the LightUs of Time and its DurationTake ye heed, watch and pray: for ye know not when the time is. Mark 13:33in PeabodyMan's Need of a Spiritual BirthOn some Eternals from a friend's gardenHymn: of the Righteous"Tuesday night, the schooner Weaver, of Glen Creek, N. J. , went to pieces near Sandy Hook, and her entire crew were lost": Transcript, March 22dof the at PhiladelphiaEvolutionCapt. Samuel CookOn the Beautiful Roses, In front of the Mansion of John Hodges, Esq. waiting at the Pasture GateSong: DayOn some blue and golden Columbines from Pike's Peak, ColoradoDesert of : at Seathe Reconciling Powera Day of FreedomHymn: Reflections at the Close of the Yearthe Clock Strike, in Harmony GroveThe Indians' Belief in a a Visible ObjectLove that Casts out FearMarks on our HillsState of the Wicked and its DurationFaith in the Resurrection ConfirmedSpring and Summer Flowersof the ColumbineMan's AccountabilityHymn: of of by MobsThe Barberry-? Know Thyself: Suggested by hearing Dr. A. E. Miller's Lectures on the "Agriculture the Source of Individual and National Prosperity"—Anne PrattPleasure ("With business haste, or with a worldly mind"). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim about owls or their abilities in darkness. Instead, it consists of a collection of unrelated phrases and topics that do not provide information regarding the claim's validity. Therefore, it is classified as irrelevant.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Private companies are increasingly involved in space exploration, contributing to a new space race. [SEP] Text: Private investment in European space start-ups exhibits a massive growth since 2014 reaching a new record high in 2018 with €219. 5 million invested. 2. Investment value is mostly concentrated in a few large transactions. In 2018, five deals exceeded €20 million reaching together €141. 3 million and representing 64% of the total investment value over the year. 3. Space entrepreneurship dynamism is widespread across Europe with a few top countries. Space investment deals worth >€1 million were recorded in 13 European countries. Nonetheless, among top European countries, the stands out as particularly successful. 4. There is a limited correlation between national public space budgets and the intensity of domestic entrepreneurship due to multiple forces at play, such as domestic entrepreneurial and financial ecosystems, national policies, industry, market, and macroeconomic forces. 5. Investment in the space sector is fuelled by synergies with other sectors particularly true for the downstream segment. 6. The average European start-up is led by two to three founders and employs nine people; plans to recruit five people in the next 12 months; generates an annual revenue of €500,000. 7. Space start-ups are radically more innovation- and global-oriented than other European start-ups; 63% of space start-ups address global markets/in comparison, only 24% of “non-space” start-ups address global markets. 8. The space sector offers a fertile ground for entrepreneurship; start-ups consider the space sector rich in opportunities both for innovation (62%) and commercialization (60%). 9. As compared to other sectors, space start-ups perceive their business environment as rather hostile but are confident in their growth perspectives. This suggests that European space start-ups consider being well equipped (or backed) to succeed, even in a difficult business environment. 10. Space start-ups expect financial and nonfinancial support, in particular from public sources. 11. Space start-ups highly value networking and mentoring; this finding supports the recommendation by the Bank to organize a dedicated annual event for space start-ups. 12. For space start-ups gaining customers and securing sales is a greater challenge than raising capital, mirroring the perception of a very strong bargaining power of customers in the space sector. 13. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing the substantial growth in private investment in European space start-ups since 2014, noting a record high investment of €219.5 million in 2018. It also states that space start-ups are more innovation-oriented than their non-space counterparts, indicating a dynamic entrepreneurial environment in the space sector. This aligns with the idea of increased involvement of private companies in space exploration, suggesting their significant role in fostering a new space race.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Gene drives can fully eliminate any pest species within one generation. [SEP] Text: Further investigation of possible monitoring strategies will be needed. Transparency, public discussion, and evaluation Technologies with the potential to significantly influence the lives of the general public demand societal review and consent. As self-propagating alterations of wild populations, RNA-guided gene drives will be capable of influencing entire ecosystems for good or for ill. As such, it is imperative that all research in this nascent field operate under conditions of full transparency, including independent scientific assessments of probable impacts and thoughtful, informed, and fully inclusive public discussions. The decision of whether or not to utilize a gene drive for a given purpose should be based entirely on the probable benefits and risks of that specific drive. That is, each drive should be judged solely by its potential outcomes, such as its ability to accomplish the intended aims, its probable effects on other species, the risk of spreading into closely related species by rare mating events, and impacts on ecosystems and human societies. As scientists developing these technologies, it will be our responsibility to make all empirical data and predictive models freely available to the public in a transparent and understandable format. Above all else, we must openly share our level of confidence in these assessments as we determine how best to proceed. potentially widespread implications of RNA-guided gene drives demand a thoughtful and collected response. Numerous practical difficulties must be overcome before gene drives will be in a position to address any of the suggested applications. Many of our proposals and predictions are likely to fall short simply because biological systems are complex and difficult to engineer. Even so, the current rate of scientific advancement related to Cas9 and the many outcomes accessible using the simplest of gene drives suggest that molecular biologists will soon be able to edit the genomes of wild populations, reverse or update those changes in response to field observations, and perhaps even engage in targeted population suppression. What criteria might we use to evaluate an RNA-guided gene drive intended to address a given problem? There are compelling arguments in favor of eliminating insect-borne human diseases, developing and supporting more sustainable agricultural models, and controlling environmentally damaging invasive species. At the same time, there are valid concerns regarding our ability to accurately predict the ecological and human consequences of these interventions. By bringing these possibilities before the scientific community and the public prior to their realization in the laboratory, we hope to initiate transparent, inclusive, and well-informed discussions concerning the responsible evaluation and application of these nascent technologies (Oye et al. , 2014). Add a comment + Open annotations. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that while RNA-guided gene drives can alter wild populations, there are numerous practical difficulties and biological complexities that must be addressed. It emphasizes that the potential outcomes of gene drives depend on specific situations, thus suggesting that full elimination of pest species within one generation cannot be guaranteed.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Owls can see in complete darkness due to their magical abilities. [SEP] Text: Close sectionO heaven born muse! inspire my humble layThe earth is parched with heat, flowers droop and dieLines, Written on Reading Stuart's Account of of Slaves in CharlestonLines on Mount AuburnLines suggested by hearing the beach, at F. Peabody's Mills, South SalemHast thou ever heard the voice of nature'Ambitione inani pectus caret'What more delightful than to wander forthA by Mr J. Very, to be Sung at the Class-Supper of the of 1834Death of ("Goddess of pleasure, where thy golden car? ")Give me an eye, that manly deedsI saw a child, whose eyes had never drankcold thy lips my gentle boySpring ('Look! Winter now in trembling haste')The morn may lend its golden smile— On the Death of His FriendNorth RiverEheu! fugaces, Posthume, Posthume, Labuntur anniThe Humming-BirdNature ('I love to sit on the green hill's side')ReligionA Withered Leaf—seen on a Poet's ('Soon the silver chord is broken')Memory ('Soon the waves, so lightly bounding')'s of of 22d, 1836Song: For the of the of Harvard University, 1836's Dream: A BalladI murmur not though hard the lotFlowerThe moon was shining on the deckHome of my youth! Where first my lot was castHaunts of my youth farewell! A while I leaveand ('I love thee when thy swelling buds appear')('Nature, my love for thee is deeper far')of GodThe Wind-('Thou who keepst us each together')The Stranger's 'we live, & move, & have our being'and ('Father! thy wonders do not singly stand')The Slavefrom ('The Word! [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim that owls can see in complete darkness due to magical abilities. Instead, it is a collection of unrelated poetic lines and reflective thoughts, making it irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Private companies are increasingly involved in space exploration, contributing to a new space race. [SEP] Text: These new entrants include and a plethora of start-up firms. The market entry by new companies is expected to cause the number of industry enterprises to climb at an annualized rate of 2. 0% to 95 businesses over the 5 years to 2022. Moreover, industry employment is forecast to only climb an annualized 2. 3% to 76,479 people over the next 5 years. 9Of the total industry revenue of $26. 1 billion, 32. 9% or $8. 59 billion are directly attributed to space systems and an additional $2. 97 billion, predicted for space vehicle parts, are also part of this subset in NAICS code 33641b. Revenue for this subset known as space systems, ∼$10 billion, currently represents a relatively small but growing segment of CST. Leaders in this subset include with 31. 7% and the combination of both Orbital ATK (7. 5%) and SpaceX (3. 3%). The question remains if the subset of the space industry, in particular commercial space tourism, will have a significant effect on industry growth. Development and adoption of this segment have been slow. Based on early projections from Futron's October 2002 market study, an estimated 4,000 suborbital passengers should be flying by 2015 and revenues in excess of $700 million should be generated by the space tourism segment by 2021. * These estimates have not materialized. In 2006, the Study was revisited by Futron and these estimates showed a total of 4,000 suborbital passengers to materialize in 2016 with revenue in 2021 coming in shy of the previously estimated $700 million. While deposits are indeed an indicator of early interest, these estimates have been extremely slow to materialize as recent vehicle crashes and other setbacks have stymied sector growth. Predicting when, and if, adoption of suborbital space tourism is extremely difficult; however, while the overall industry is in its mature phase, commercial space tourism and transportation are expected to surge in the next 5 years. 9,10Human suborbital spaceflight has garnered the most attention and is emerging as the most viable of the segments within this industry. This segment includes the following:• Human spaceflight as a tourist activity (up and down) and crew training. ○ Space tourism can be made up of two distinct but similar methods for experiencing suborbital flight: rocket-powered planes or stratospheric balloons. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by highlighting the entry of new companies into the space industry, including start-up firms, which is indicative of increased private sector involvement in space exploration. It notes that this market entry is expected to boost the number of industry enterprises, and emphasizes the revenue attributed to space systems and parts being a significant aspect of the industry, along with specific mentions of companies like Orbital ATK and SpaceX, which are key players in the commercial space sector.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Gene drives can fully eliminate any pest species within one generation. [SEP] Text: It would be helpful to define 9, the DNA repeat elements, their natural functions (targeted cleavage of foreign DNA), and how they can be tailored to use as gene editing drives in multi-cellular organizations. This basic description is important because it is a new technology even for many molecular biologists, let alone for the interested public, and without a clear understanding of the technology, the reader might not be able to fully comprehend the societal implications (both benefits and risks) and likelihood of future capabilities of the technology. We also felt that there is the danger that without a strong, factual discussion of the basic concepts along with what is currently possible and what has so far not been demonstrated, the intended audience (public, broader science community, others with no or different technical knowledge) might arrive at a conclusion that does not adequately reflect current and near-future reality. When basic scientific topics are clearly described, the responses tend to be much more thoughtful and measured. When the science is not sufficiently described, all sorts of responses are elicited. We agree that the inclusion of a section explaining the established use of Cas9 for genome editing would greatly strengthen the paper. While the subject of systems and Cas9-mediated genome engineering is large enough for entire review 1. Figure 4—figure supplement 3 specifically details existing technologies that could be applied to optimize RNA-guided gene drives and notes the challenges involved in doing so. We have endeavored to clarify that this technology remains theoretical and our predictions are fallible throughout. Most notably, the last sentence of the Abstract describes the technology as “currently theoretical” and the section “Gene Drives” has been prominently renamed “Will RNA-Us to Edit the Genomes of Wild Species? ” It goes on to explicitly state that we cannot know for certain until we try. Combined with our cautionary statement in the Conclusion noting that, “Numerous practical difficulties must be overcome before gene drives will be in a position to address any of the suggested applications. Many of our proposals and predictions are likely to fall short simply because biological systems are complex and difficult to engineer. . . ”, we think it unlikely that a reader will come away with a mistaken impression. To avoid any possibly distracting discussion around this 10. 7554/eLife. 03401. 019 3401. Download BibTeX Download. RIS Categories and tags Feature 2. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that the technology for gene drives remains theoretical and that many challenges must be overcome before it can effectively be applied to eliminate pest species. It explicitly mentions that 'we cannot know for certain until we try' and notes 'numerous practical difficulties must be overcome before gene drives will be in a position to address any of the suggested applications.' This suggests that the complete elimination of pest species within one generation is not a guaranteed outcome and is currently not demonstrated.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Owls can see in complete darkness due to their magical abilities. [SEP] Text: it cannot fail; it ever speaks')Worship ("There is no worship now—the idol stands")of Lifeof the ("There is a winter in the godless heart")'s and the at ('I saw the city, 'twas not built by hands')The CrossNature ('Nature would speak through her first master man')and meat and drinkForgive me my trespassesin HeartThe ComplaintWhither shall I go from thy Spiritshall be LastThe LaborerThy Brother's of are passed away('They love me not, who at my table eat')The CityThe RoseFaith ('There is no faith; the mountain stands within')The JewSpring ('The stem that long has borne the wintry blast')and The EndNature ('The bubbling brook doth leap when I come by')! The Sign('I too will wait with thee returning spring')('Father! help them who walk in their own light')notice other days were pages givenThe CrocusThe PlantI am the WayThe kingdom of within you('There is no sound but thou dost hear my voice')The PreacherCome unto meFlee to the mountainsBlessed are they that mournFaith ('Hast thou but faith thou shalt the mountain bid')Redeeming the TimeTis FinishedEffortTo the pure all things are pureThe TaskSpring ('I have not lived the flesh has hedged me in')('The plant it springs it rears its drooping head')('Come thou and labor with me I will give')('The words I give thee they are not thine own')Joy ('The joy Thou giv'st no man can take away')HopeReliefJoy ('Thou hast a moon for every cloudy night')('I come the rushing wind that shook the place')of is every one who is born of the spiritThe SeedI am the Light of the the Bread of shall all the tribes of the earth mournRepent for the kingdom of Heaven is at handthe you is born a SaviourThe RedeemedHallowed be they NameTo him who overcomethof the Templeof as the World giveth('Open our eyes that we the world may see')Thy Father's HouseJacob's Wellof ('The voice that speaks when thou art in thy tomb')and ('Why are thou not awake my son? ')('not visit me? [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim about owls' vision capabilities. It does not mention owls, darkness, or magical abilities, focusing instead on various abstract concepts and literary references, which do not address or support the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Private companies are increasingly involved in space exploration, contributing to a new space race. [SEP] Text: • Point to point travel for the purposes of high-speed passenger transportation and fast package delivery. FirmsWhat follows are several of the more prominent firms participating in the burgeoning suborbital market. 101. Scaled Composites/Virgin Galactic: Founded by Branson, is a U. S spaceflight company within the that is developing commercial spacecraft. Passengers board SpaceShipTwo, a vehicle that is launched using the carrier aircraft WhiteKnight Two, which then climbs to the edge of the atmosphere using a fired rocket engine. Passengers will experience roughly 5 min of weightlessness before gliding back for the landing. The company aims to provide suborbital spaceflights to space tourists, suborbital launches for space science missions, and orbital launches of small satellites. Most recent advancements include the purchase of a new facility intended to build the new Launcher One, and research and development for a new second-generation hyperpropulsion system (an in-house production of multistage engines). 2. XCOR Aerospace: XCOR Aerospace is a small, privately held California C-Corporation founded in 1999. XCOR is developing the Lynx and the Lynx II, a small Horizontal Take-off SRV capable of transporting one passenger in addition to the pilot. is XCOR's entry into the commercial reusable launch vehicle market. This two-seat, piloted space transport vehicle will take humans and payloads on a half-hour suborbital flight at an altitude of 330,000 feet. Then, the flight vehicle will return safely to a landing at the takeoff runway. XCOR is focused on the research, development, project management, production, and maintenance of reusable suborbital and orbital launch vehicles, and also rocket engines and rocket propulsion systems. In 16 years, the firm has developed and built 13 different rocket engines; they have also built and flown two manned spacecraft vehicles. 3. Blue Origin: Blue Origin, LLC, is developing technologies to enable human access to space at low cost and increased reliability. is developing a Vertical Take-off (VTVL) man-rated SRV, the New Shepard. The elements of the vehicle are currently being tested extensively, both on the ground and during unmanned test flights. Shepard is a fully reusable VTVL system that will take astronauts, research projects in relation to microgravity physics, gravitational biology, technology demonstrations, and educational programs, to space on suborbital journeys. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing the involvement of various private companies in space exploration, such as Scaled Composites/Virgin Galactic, XCOR Aerospace, and Blue Origin. It describes how these companies are developing and launching spacecraft for commercial purposes, which indicates that they are contributing to the evolution of the space exploration landscape and supporting the premise of a new space race.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Gene drives can fully eliminate any pest species within one generation. [SEP] Text: We observe the opposite pattern. Additionally, in our common garden experiment, we watered trees daily and provided equal nutrients to all trees to minimize any effects of water or nutrient stress. It is unlikely that differences in tree stress or quality account for the difference in scale abundance between hot and cold sites. Natural enemies are often less abundant and diverse in urban than rural habitats. This difference has been cited to explain higher pest abundance in cities [16], [15]. All our study sites were within urban habitats, so–given that natural enemies tend to be relatively good dispersers [29], [30] –natural enemy communities should be similar among trees. As such, it is not surprising that we did not find a difference in percent parasitism between P. quercifex from hot and cold sites. Differences in parasitoid efficacy do not account for greater P. quercifex abundance on hot trees, as percent parasitism of P. quercifex on hot trees was equal to that of cold trees. Additionally, P. quercifex was more abundant in hot chambers in our greenhouse experiment, which excluded natural enemies. Thus, reduction of biological control by parasitoids does not explain high scale abundance at hot sites. Our common garden experiment shows that P. quercifex is locally acclimated or adapted to urban thermal conditions and that this directly leads to higher abundance. P. quercifex from hot urban areas became almost 4 times more abundant than those from cold urban areas when placed in hot greenhouses. This effect is likely due to differences in survival, because we found no differences in fecundity between P. quercifex from hot and cold sites. We suggest that P. quercifex may locally adapt in response to urban warming, as other studies provide evidence for local adaptation in scale insects [31], [32]. The scale insect life cycle, which is often parthenogenetic and highly localized, inhibits gene flow [33], and evidence suggests this could lead to differentiation at small spatial scales [34]. Further, at least one other scale insects species has been shown to adapt to thermal conditions within its introduced range [35]. However, we cannot eliminate the possibility that observed abundance patterns resulted from maternal effects [36] or phenotypic plasticity of offspring leading to acclimation [37], rather than from genetic differences between P. quercifex from hotter and colder areas [38]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the abundance of the pest species P. quercifex in urban thermal conditions and suggesting that gene flow and local adaptation, rather than gene drives, play a role in these abundance patterns. It emphasizes that while local adaptation occurs, the data does not support complete elimination of species, highlighting the complexity of pest dynamics in the context of urban environments.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Owls can see in complete darkness due to their magical abilities. [SEP] Text: ')-ManThe CottageThe Still-BornTo-of 's of and the Footand not for Gain('The end of all thou seest is near')of FlowersHymn: and it shall be given unto you. from WithinThou know'st not what thy Lord will sayof the JustDeathThe Birth-Day of the SoulHiveTime's Houseand the BirdFaith and Light('where is it? hath it voice')('Stay where thou art, thou need'st not further go')'s Island Lightof Godof the BooksThe Robin's ('Tis all a great show')on Reading the Death of Rev. Henry Ware, Jr. BrightGod's at the ('There are towers; where they are')ye sow, so shall ye reap's RetortThe WidowImpatienceAbdolonymus—'s by FaithSalem ("Boast not, my native spot, thy sons were first")Spring in the SoulNature's InvitationChrist's CompassionHymn: Nevertheless, when the Son of Man cometh, shall he find faith on the earth? :8of 'to LiveThe Indian's the late in 's : Suggested by an EngravingThoughts and DesiresHymn ('As by the quickening breath of Spring')The Soul's : of the Rev. James Flint, D. D. , On reading his Collection of on the of J. Esq. July 22d, 1853the at the Thompson Jubilee, at Barre, Jany. 12, 1854: Sung at the Celebration of the Fourth of July, in Salem, 1854? To the Memory of the Rev. James Flint, D. D. and WorldlyHymn: So also will God, through Jesus, bring with him them who sleep'Blessed are they that mourn: for they shall be comforted' Math. 5:4To the Memory of the Rev. of -cleave not to the things of earth's the Rev. C. H. A. Dall, in IndiaHymn: Sung at the Dedication of Plummer Hall, Salem, Oct. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding owls' vision or any magical abilities. It instead consists of a series of literary references and thoughts, none of which pertain to the topic of owls or their capabilities in darkness.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Private companies are increasingly involved in space exploration, contributing to a new space race. [SEP] Text: Shepard vehicle includes a modular 530 cubic feet crew capsule capable of carrying up to six astronauts atop a separate VTVL booster that, after separating from the capsule, will return to Earth. Deploying landing gear, the booster will make a precise touchdown, enabling reusability. All of the engines are American-made and are designed, developed, and manufactured at Blue Origin's headquarters in Washington State. Advancements include completed acceptance flight tests of its cryogenic BE-3 deep-throttle engine, which will be used to power the New Shepard. The suborbital, manned space vehicle, New Shepard, has passed and received multiple preliminary design and safety certifications and has completed its first development test flight on April 29, 2015. The test flight concluded with the achieving Mach 3 and arriving to its planned test altitude of 307,000 feet successfully. 4. WorldView: WorldView uses high-altitude balloons, as an accessible, affordable way to access suborbital horizons. WorldView's high-altitude balloon let customers soar for hours on end in a comfortable, smartly outfitted, specially designed space capsule. WorldView also provides new opportunities for research and education pursuits. This platform presents a variety of advantages over orbital and rocket-based suborbital options, giving researchers an opportunity to conduct experiments as well as an opportunity for a unique education experience. The most recent flight made by the company was a 4-h flight test where the balloon and its payloads floated at a height of 105,000 feet for an hour and 46 min. While WorldView has only been conducting cargo flights at this time, it anticipates providing human spaceflight at altitudes over 100,000 feet or 19 miles. 5. Zero2Infinity: Headquartered in Barcelona, Zero2Infinity has been launching unmanned balloons as a test for two different business ventures: stratospheric tourism and a commercial satellite delivery system. is a version of spacecraft designed to take tourists on trips at suborbital altitudes. The Bloon's passenger pod houses a maximum of four passengers and two pilots. September 6, 2013, Zero2Infinity performed a test flight of Microbloon 3. 0 from the airport of Cordoba, Spain. Microbloon 3. 0 is an inflatable pod and was able to successfully ascend up to 27 km. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing multiple examples of private companies involved in space exploration, such as Blue Origin and WorldView. It details advancements in technology and completed tests like those of Blue Origin's New Shepard vehicle and WorldView's high-altitude balloon flights, illustrating the active participation of these companies in space ventures and highlighting a dynamic environment conducive to a new space race.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Gene drives can fully eliminate any pest species within one generation. [SEP] Text: A number of the independently drived BvSTI-transgenic plants were bioassayed for resistance to several lepidopteran insects that are pests of tobacco. Fall armyworm, beet armyworm, tobacco hornworm, tobacco budworm and black cutworm cause significant yield losses in hundreds of economically important crops and all, with the exception of tobacco hornworm and budworm, infest sugar beet. The sugar beet root maggot was not included in this study since its host range is limited and does not include Nicotiana spp. The major digestive proteases utilized by the lepidopteran insects in this study have been reported to be predominantly in the serine class of proteases [3]. Therefore, presence of the recombinant BvSTI proteinase inhibitor has the potential to deter insect feeding or inhibit digestion of ingested food thus reducing the overall larval weights as compared to larvae feeding on untransformed control plants. When the BvSTI-transgenic plants were fed to fall armyworm, beet armyworm and tobacco hornworm larvae, significant reductions in larval weights were observed, with some pupae and emerging moths displaying developmental abnormalities. Fall armyworm larvae weighed 19–51%, 34–66% and 59–71% less at 3, 6 and 8 days of feeding, respectively, as compared to control larvae (Table 1). Except for the smaller pupae sizes that corresponded to the reduced larval weights and a lighter brown color, no significant differences in development or mortality rates were noted (Fig. 4). The beet armyworm pupae and emerging moth sizes similarly reflected the reduced weights of the larvae fed the BvSTI transgenic leaves. In addition, many of the pupae did not emerge as moths and of the ones that did, developmental abnormalities were often noted (Fig. 5). Tobacco hornworm larvae were also significantly smaller than the control larvae and the resulting pupae and moth sizes correlated with the reduced larval weights (Fig. 6). Larval weights after 6 days of feeding on the BvSTI transgenic plants were about 50–60% lower than those fed on control untransformed plants (Table 3). In contrast, black cutworm and tobacco budworm larvae fed on BvSTI transformed plants accumulated biomass faster than those fed on the control foliage. Black cutworm larval weighs were more than double those of the control larvae at 3 and 5 days of feeding (Table 4). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the effects of BvSTI-transgenic plants on specific lepidopteran insect pests. While reductions in larval weights of some species were observed, there were notable exceptions, such as black cutworm and tobacco budworm larvae, which accumulated biomass faster on transgenic plants than on control plants. This suggests that not all pests can be fully eliminated by gene drives or transgenic methods, indicating limitations in their effectiveness and the claim's assertion of complete elimination within one generation.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Owls can see in complete darkness due to their magical abilities. [SEP] Text: 6, 1857Philosophy and 's Invitationfor a little Childonly and of WaterstonHymn: of The Spiritand of of Harmony GrovePreparation for Life's Voyageof Belief in a Spiritual WorldHymn: The DewThe TriennialWelcome: Written for the Fair, Held at Salem Sept. 4th, 1860The Child's reading the Memorial of BrowneHymn ("Not tears alone for natural grief")One generation passeth away, and another generation cometh: but the earth abideth for ever. Ecclesiastes 1:4What of Our Country? of not: for they that are with us are more than they that are with them. 2 Kings 6:16Hymn: Nature's Sympathy with FreedomChrist's The Garden: A ParaphraseSong: a on ImaginationSunset in Derby's Woodsare destroyed for lack of Knowledge. —Hosea 4:6Autumn FlowersHymn ("From out its large estate")The Poet's the Built by the Puritans in 1634Aurelia of : of Jonah ii. 9("I sought the flowers, but o'er them lay")Shall put on ImmortalityHymn: to 's ("A nobler unity, than that which came"): of LifeMan's Of PeaceHymn: Life of Humanityof Flora, On the grounds of R. the Unitarian Festival, in Faneuil Hall, May 26th 1863of LibertyHymn: Our Country's a Liveat the Church DoorHealth of Body dependent on the of the Mississippi Valleyof John Foster: "I Can Pray, And That's a Glorious Thing"Home and of Shakespeare's BirthdayHymn: of the Righteous EasyUntimely ArgumentsHymn ("In the shock of mighty armies")of : Christ's Invitation in theW. Felt Esq. New Type-of Libby Prison: Related by Capt. 's at the Eulogy on June 1st 1865Soul-SicknessSong of SpringSensibility to the Beauty and Fragrance of FlowersThe Word? of the : of Dew? Job 38:28"It is vain to say, that this is the country of the 'white man. ' It is the country of man. " 'O Lord, How Long? [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provided does not address the claim regarding owls and their ability to see in complete darkness. Instead, it contains various phrases, hymns, and references to scripture, none of which relate to owl vision or any magical abilities. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Private companies are increasingly involved in space exploration, contributing to a new space race. [SEP] Text: The company is currently operational and plans to send scientific and technical payloads to near space and aims to start its manned test program within the next 2 years. 6. Space Vision: A private Beijing mainland company that plans to offer near-space tourism for private passengers in a high-altitude balloon. Passengers would ascend to 40 km in a pressurized capsule with the ability to view the earth's curvature coupled with a few moments of reduced gravity. The project is still in the “design & test phase. ” The passenger capsule would be carried up by a balloon filled with nontoxic and nonflammable helium and descend under a large parachute. Passengers would also be equipped with special parachutes and jumpsuits supplied with oxygen that would enable them to bail out of the capsule at high altitude. 7. Space Adventures: Founded in 1998, Space Adventures, Ltd. is the world's premier private spaceflight company providing exclusive opportunities for private spaceflight and space tourism. is the first and only company to have sent self-funded individuals to space. curates passengers' experiences by offering views of the Earth from space at 62 miles (100 km) above Earth while experiencing moments of weightlessness. The company plans to solidify additional contracts with various space vehicle providers to provide passengers a wider variety of different space experiences and adventures. 8. Zero-G Corporation: Zero-G Corporation is a Vienna, Virginia, based company that offers passengers the chance to experience various states of microgravity aboard a modified Boeing aircraft. Corporation is a privately held space entertainment and tourism company whose mission is to make the excitement and adventure of space accessible to the public. The experience offered by Zero-G is the only commercial opportunity on Earth for individuals to experience true “weightlessness” without going to space. Zero-G does not manufacture any space vehicles. 11The eight companies listed are private companies that can either bring people into suborbital spaceflight or create the sensation of space travel. For the purposes of this study, competition and rivalry involve rocket-based tourism companies that are capable of reaching altitudes of over 60 miles. Competitors that offer high-altitude balloon rides and zero gravity experiences are considered substitutes for suborbital space tourism and referred as such in the body of this study. In addition, on February 27, 2017, SpaceX has confirmed receipt of deposits for two individuals to be taken on a flight around the moon scheduled for late 2018. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing the activities and plans of several private companies involved in space exploration and tourism, such as Space Vision, Space Adventures, and Zero-G Corporation. It highlights their initiatives, like near-space tourism and private spaceflights, indicating the active participation of private entities in space endeavors that contribute to the competitive landscape of a new space race.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Gene drives can fully eliminate any pest species within one generation. [SEP] Text: BackgroundAdvances in genetic technology continue to expand what is possible when it comes to altering the genes and ultimately the phenotypes of microbes, fungi, plants, and animals. These advances sharpen the debate around when and even whether we should develop and use new technologies to manipulate genomes. For example, imagine a proposal presented to a Committee to develop a genome editing technology designed to reduce the size of mosquito populations that transmit pathogens that infect humans. Setting aside for a moment the reservations that some environmentalists and conservation biologists have when it comes to manipulating nature at all, the proposed research sounds like a potentially very useful application of biotechnology to reduce the burden of infectious disease in human populations. But what if the research proposal were to develop a genome editing technology designed to drive mosquito populations or even species extinct? The ethical implications of altering genomes for the purpose of extinction are greater than the implications of just population reduction. Both questions raise important issues regarding the ethical, legal, and social dimensions of this work, which sits squarely at the interface of science and society. Who governs altered organisms that can cross the boundaries of local, regional, and national jurisdictions? Where does regulation of such research start and stop? And who makes these decisions? Gaps in our knowledge of gene drive systems prompted the US of Health (NIH) and the Foundation for the NIH to ask the US of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM) to convene an expert panel to provide an independent, objective assessment of what we know about gene drives (Committee on Research in Non-Human Organisms: Recommendations for Responsible Conduct). The committee’s report, “Gene drives on the horizon: Advancing science, navigating uncertainty, and aligning research with public values,” summarizes our understanding of the science, ethics, public engagement, governance, and risks pertaining to gene drive research [1]. I address here three questions related to the report. 1) What are gene drives? 2) In what ways might values and governance change science and engineering methods, questions asked, and deployment of the technology related to using gene drives? 3) What are some ways forward given the importance of the ethical, legal, and social issues related to this research? What are gene drives? Selective breeding is a traditional way to domesticate and then change further the traits of plants and animals. Efforts to manipulate the genes and chromosomes of organisms using various technologies extend from the early 1900s to present [2]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the ethical implications and uncertainties associated with gene drives, highlighting that the development of such technologies is complex and not guaranteed to fully eliminate pest species in one generation. It mentions gaps in knowledge and the need for oversight in the application of genome editing technologies, suggesting that eliminating pest species is not straightforward and raises significant questions about governance and ethics.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Owls can see in complete darkness due to their magical abilities. [SEP] Text: 'Our Soldiers' upon the HeartNecessary for the Voyage of LifeSonnet ("I gazed upon the silent burial-ground")Nature's Help for the SoulNature a 's GroveOctober ("All day, admist the forests' splendor bright")and the Statesmanof Science, And of of the Springof TimeMotherHymn: of the SpiritHymn ("Admist the pastures green")of the come the Dead? 's TreasuresClose sectionSonnets on Reconstruction I. A Nation's. . IV. ("A unity complete, assured, and high") Reflections on the History of and the of at the Dedication of the of Science, Salem, Aug. 18, 1869have hoarded up treasure in the last days. —James 5:3Hymn: BodyHymn: of a Mother's surprises and the capture of capitals, are the events of a by-gone age. D'-'s SongsHymn, Sung at the of the Society, Salem. April 21, 1871of History Unlearnedof The GentilesTo a CloudThe Child's Dream of Reaching the 's of WinterInterpreting God's of MayOn the of the Christian Church, The Catholic, the Protestant, and the GreekO'Clock Bell"Are there Few that be Saved? " Luke 13:23the from Cook's Hill, in West PeabodySigns in the Natural WorldA Walk in Harmony Groveof Jabezof the FlowerDanvers Burying-GroundHymn ("He loveth not! he knows not God! ")Norman's RocksOn visiting the beautiful estate of H. H. Hunnewell, Esq. , at Wellesleyof a little child shall lead them. Isaiah XI. 6of RainOn the front of the house of the late Capt. Robert W. GouldOctober ("How beautiful the sight of woods still fair")Builders: the work of the late J. W. FosterBlessed are they that mourn: for they shall be comfortedThere shall be one Flock, one Shepherdof Salem: Illustrated by George M. WhiteColumbines and Anemonesin WinterReverenceInward PhenomenaTo the Memory of of the a Lichen from North Cape: Gathered by Mr. J. M. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding owls' ability to see in darkness or suggest any magical abilities. Instead, it is a collection of unrelated phrases and references without a cohesive message directly relevant to the claim, making it irrelevant.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Private companies are increasingly involved in space exploration, contributing to a new space race. [SEP] Text: In a study by Christensen and Prober in 2002, it was estimated that the costs for manufacturing and launching a single vehicle can exceed $150 million and the FAA has data showing that this number could be upward of $260 million. Started in 2002, India's GSLV Mk. 3 program is projected to cost ∼$400 million by the time development is finished. Virgin Galactic, one of the leaders in the space tourism segment, has spent over $600 million in its development. 16 These are just a few examples of the extremely high capital requirements to compete in this industry. While this represents a very high barrier to entry, the financial markets are becoming more favorable to the industry. Principals have been the catalyst for initial seed funding for many of these upstart companies. Principals from each individual company have invested personal wealth to launch this segment of the industry. Virgin Galactic's founder Branson, Blue Origin's Jeff Bezos, and SpaceX's founder are among the 21 billionaires listed on the Forbes 500 list to have invested capital into space ventures. 17 These high-profile celebrity status entrepreneurs have played a pivotal role in the funding of these ventures, in essence, overcoming the hurdles of perceived technical and market risks. In addition, the venture capital market has been steadily warming up to space-related investment. Angels Network, a uniquely positioned networking platform specializing in connecting space-related start-ups with a network of venture funders, has seen a substantial increase in invested capital over the past decade. Group report indicated that venture capital investment in 2015 was $1. 8 billion, which was more than the previous 15 years combined. Economies of scopeEconomies of scope refer to the lowering of costs by being able to utilize knowledge across different products. In the space tourism industry, firms that were able to use their research and development knowledge as well as their manufacturing experience across multiple business units are beginning to gain advantage in the marketplace. Throughout the interviews with the participating firms, it became apparent that competitors were moving toward vertical integration of their components and utilizing existing knowledge across business units. The uniqueness of the components made quality assurance difficult to monitor, and thus, firms were moving away from an outsourced relationship. is becoming a superior competitor in the launch market by producing over 70% of their components in-house. This allows them to control both the costs and the quality of production. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing the financial involvement of private companies in the space industry, highlighting significant investments from figures like Richard Branson (Virgin Galactic), Jeff Bezos (Blue Origin), and Elon Musk (SpaceX). It underscores the increasing capital investments in space ventures and the role of venture capital, emphasizing that the investments made by these billionaires and venture firms are enabling new entrants into the space exploration sector, thereby contributing to a new space race.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Gene drives can fully eliminate any pest species within one generation. [SEP] Text: The process has generally involved imagining the possibility of changing genes, which dates back to de Vries’s mutation theory in the twentieth century’s first decade; harnessing a discovery as “a biotechnology” that could be applied, as for example in recombinant or genetically modified organisms; and then refining control of the technology. Gene drives are systems that ensure biased inheritance by enhancing the likelihood a sequence of DNA passes between generations through sexual reproduction and potentially throughout an entire population [3]. Genes exhibiting what Burt and Trivers [3] called “drive,” occur in nature in many sexually reproducing species and are based on several kinds of molecular mechanisms [4]. By mid-twentieth century, there were proposals to harness and apply gene drives that went unfulfilled because the technology to alter genomes in ways that would result in spreading a trait throughout a population was unavailable. [5] gave a sense of the state of the field earlier in this century: “Site-specific selfish genes exploit host functions to copy themselves into a defined target DNA sequence…. If such genes can be engineered to target new host sequences, then they can be used to manipulate natural populations. . . . ”A global gene drive could enable a trait’s spread and persistence throughout a population or even an entire species assuming gene flow is sufficient. Sexually reproducing species with short generation times are most suitable for altering a population’s traits using a gene drive. Other characteristics include taxa in which resistance to the gene drive system is weak or does not arise at all [6, 7]. Finally, a species in which gene drive bearing organisms can disperse among most if not all sub-populations. Many mechanisms expressed in a diversity of species are responsible for a gene exhibiting drive [3]. Champer et al. [4] compare and contrast the properties of five common gene drive systems: homing-based drives using homing endonuclease genes; sex-linked meiotic drives; Medea, the maternal effect dominant embryonic arrest system; underdominance or heterozygote inferiority drives; heritable microorganisms as illustrated by Wolbachia. -Cas9 is a homing endonuclease based system that is the focus of the NASEM [1] report and of this review. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by explaining that while gene drives can spread a trait throughout a population, they do not guarantee the complete elimination of a species. It mentions that gene drives are systems that enhance biased inheritance and that their effectiveness is dependent on factors like resistance to the gene drive system and gene flow. The text emphasizes that short generation times and weak resistance are suitable for altering traits but doesn't provide evidence for complete annihilation of a species.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Owls can see in complete darkness due to their magical abilities. [SEP] Text: Richards, July 3d, 1874For we Walk by Faith, not by SightOn the Neglect of ("Love builds for us a bower"). Felton, Esq. , of BrookfieldOn the Increase of Crime since the of ManSailing on Cakes of Ice in the North River("Not unto men alone has come")of the First ChristiansOn the in New Grenadain Bloomthe Graves of Hawthorne and Thoreauthe Falls of Niagara, as Photographed by George BarkerKnowledge and TruthMt. Shasta: A Painting, by H. O. YoungSong: I Love the LightUs of Time and its DurationTake ye heed, watch and pray: for ye know not when the time is. Mark 13:33in PeabodyMan's Need of a Spiritual BirthOn some Eternals from a friend's gardenHymn: of the Righteous"Tuesday night, the schooner Weaver, of Glen Creek, N. J. , went to pieces near Sandy Hook, and her entire crew were lost": Transcript, March 22dof the at PhiladelphiaEvolutionCapt. Samuel CookOn the Beautiful Roses, In front of the Mansion of John Hodges, Esq. waiting at the Pasture GateSong: DayOn some blue and golden Columbines from Pike's Peak, ColoradoDesert of : at Seathe Reconciling Powera Day of FreedomHymn: Reflections at the Close of the Yearthe Clock Strike, in Harmony GroveThe Indians' Belief in a a Visible ObjectLove that Casts out FearMarks on our HillsState of the Wicked and its DurationFaith in the Resurrection ConfirmedSpring and Summer Flowersof the ColumbineMan's AccountabilityHymn: of of by MobsThe Barberry-? Know Thyself: Suggested by hearing Dr. A. E. Miller's Lectures on the "Agriculture the Source of Individual and National Prosperity"—Anne PrattPleasure ("With business haste, or with a worldly mind"). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provided does not address the claim regarding owls' ability to see in darkness or their supposed magical abilities. It appears more as a collection of abstract statements and thoughts and does not provide any information relevant to the claim about owls.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Private companies are increasingly involved in space exploration, contributing to a new space race. [SEP] Text: This competition, otherwise known as rivalry, indicates how aggressively firms will compete for market share within the industry and how they will choose to allocate their resources and assets among various options. A summary of the forces that are acting on rivalry among existing competitors is included in Figure 4. Fig. 4. Porter's five forces model for CST. RivalryThere are four main competitors emerging that may be capable of delivering a human suborbital experience. These companies are and SpaceX. Each company will be utilizing a rocket-powered vehicle. Each of these vehicles will provide the ability to rise to over 100 km with a flight duration anticipated at 10–60 min. The barriers to entry are high, the threat of entry is low, the power of buyers is low, the threat of substitute products is low, and the power of suppliers is moderate. Taken together, Porter's five forces analysis indicates that this industry and the competitive rivalry within it are evolving to be low to moderate intensity for rivalry. The race to become the first company capable of delivering this experience is driving the innovation. The more advanced the leading company can become along this learning curve and the more reliable the service that it can provide, the faster it will be able to capture market share for this initial group of pioneers seeking to travel to space. As other competitors begin to also achieve commercial viability, Porter's five forces indicates that the industry will evolve into an oligopoly. An oligopoly is an industry defined by a limited number of sellers engaging in limited rivalry. Some of the characteristics of an oligopoly include tacit collusion, product differentiation, and higher prices. Consumers could anticipate having these main four competitors keeping their prices high and attempting to differentiate their services based on the overall experience of flying into space. While not the focus of this study, complementary products are relevant to the proliferation of CST. Sometimes referred to as Porter's sixth force, complementary products are extremely important to the adoption of commercial space as a point-to-point method of transportation. A complementary product or service is one that is used in conjunction with the existing product or service. The value of both products operating as a system is greater than the value independently. Spaceports present a classic example of a complementary product that needs to thrive in order for point-to-point transportation to become a viable option in CST. Spaceports will dictate the availability of flights between locations and will have an impact on the demand for CST services. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the competitive dynamics among private companies in the space industry, specifically mentioning that there are four main competitors capable of delivering a human suborbital experience. It notes that these companies, including SpaceX, are aggressively competing for market share, which aligns with the concept of a new space race. Furthermore, the mention of Porter's five forces analysis and the transition towards an oligopoly suggests that the involvement of private firms is reshaping the space exploration landscape.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Gene drives can fully eliminate any pest species within one generation. [SEP] Text: -Cas9 is a technological advance in genome editing that provides a molecular tool for altering regions of DNA in ways that could yield a gene drive. As a gene editing method it is easier to use, faster to develop, and more precise than techniques such as zinc finger nucleases and TALENs [4, 8]. For a single locus homing endonuclease gene drive using -Cas9 the drive cuts the wild-type chromosome. Ideally, the cell then copies the drive when it uses the drive-containing chromosome as a template for repair. All of an organism’s offspring repeat the process and inherit the drive-containing chromosome [9]. The speed and precision of genome modification have improved consistently over the more than 100 years of altering genomes using techniques such as x-rays, colchicine, radioisotopes along with other nuclear technologies, recombinant DNA, and now -Cas9 [2]. -Cas9 technique offered a general method for spreading altered traits through non-human, sexually reproducing populations connected by gene flow [9]. This proposition put in sharp focus what was possible and added an urgency because of the relative ease and efficiency of employing the technology [10]. Engineered gene drives exemplify a technology with uncertain benefits and risks that raises compelling questions at the intersection of science and society. How will values and governance change science and engineering methods, questions asked, and deployment of the technology related to using gene drives? Population suppression, resulting in a decrease in the number of individuals in a population, is one use of a gene drive system as is population replacement, resulting in a change in gene frequencies within a population [1]. Because global gene drives will spread throughout all populations of a species connected by gene flow and persist, gene drive-modified organisms hold the potential for yielding great benefits or harmful ecological change [10]. Researchers are working to develop and control -based and non--based gene drive systems that are spatially or temporally limited in their spread to mitigate unintended consequences. For example, Buchman et al. [11] explore how reciprocal chromosome translocations might yield a high threshold gene drive through underdominance. This approach promises control via local, not global population replacement. Daisy-chain gene drives afford another means to alter just local populations, rather than inducing global change [12]. Daisyfield gene drive systems propose a temporal mechanism to limit spread [13], while Min et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the potential and limitations of gene drives. It emphasizes that while gene drives can suppress populations, they do not guarantee complete elimination of a species within a generation. Instead, it mentions methods like population suppression and population replacement, indicating varying outcomes rather than a definitive elimination. Additionally, it explores the risks and uncertainties associated with gene drives, suggesting that their effects are complex and context-dependent.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Owls can see in complete darkness due to their magical abilities. [SEP] Text: Close sectionO heaven born muse! inspire my humble layThe earth is parched with heat, flowers droop and dieLines, Written on Reading Stuart's Account of of Slaves in CharlestonLines on Mount AuburnLines suggested by hearing the beach, at F. Peabody's Mills, South SalemHast thou ever heard the voice of nature'Ambitione inani pectus caret'What more delightful than to wander forthA by Mr J. Very, to be Sung at the Class-Supper of the of 1834Death of ("Goddess of pleasure, where thy golden car? ")Give me an eye, that manly deedsI saw a child, whose eyes had never drankcold thy lips my gentle boySpring ('Look! Winter now in trembling haste')The morn may lend its golden smile— On the Death of His FriendNorth RiverEheu! fugaces, Posthume, Posthume, Labuntur anniThe Humming-BirdNature ('I love to sit on the green hill's side')ReligionA Withered Leaf—seen on a Poet's ('Soon the silver chord is broken')Memory ('Soon the waves, so lightly bounding')'s of of 22d, 1836Song: For the of the of Harvard University, 1836's Dream: A BalladI murmur not though hard the lotFlowerThe moon was shining on the deckHome of my youth! Where first my lot was castHaunts of my youth farewell! A while I leaveand ('I love thee when thy swelling buds appear')('Nature, my love for thee is deeper far')of GodThe Wind-('Thou who keepst us each together')The Stranger's 'we live, & move, & have our being'and ('Father! thy wonders do not singly stand')The Slavefrom ('The Word! [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim about owls and their ability to see in darkness. It appears to be a collection of poetic lines and thoughts that do not directly address or relate to the topic of owls or their vision.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Private companies are increasingly involved in space exploration, contributing to a new space race. [SEP] Text: With point-to-point space transportation service currently under development, this “sixth” force has an incredible impact on the profitability and attractiveness of CST. While space tourism may eventually develop into a niche industry, the possibility of being able to provide point-to-point transportation will provide a larger overall revenue potential and attract a more substantial set of competitors. In order for this to happen, spaceports must proliferate. There are currently only eight nonfederal FAA-licensed spaceports in the (Fig. 5). Fig. 5. FAA-licensed spaceports. . Spaceports are not an integral part for the space tourism market to grow. This experience can use a single spaceport for the entire experience; however, the availability of multiple spaceport locations will allow incumbent space tourism companies to begin to create self-sustainable spaceports and a more viable business model. Spaceports are expensive and are currently not a self-sustainable investment. The power of complementary products is low with regard to commercial space tourism but is extremely high in relation to point-to-point space transportation. LimitationsThe Porter's five forces model is a great method of systemizing a variety of variables that impact overall industry profitability and this author believes that it is a great starting point for understanding the viability of space tourism and of CST. However, industry evaluation and especially the commercial viability are impacted by a variety of factors and the Porter's model is just one model in the much larger call to action. One of the greatest limitations of using Porter's five forces as a tool is the inexact nature of the model. The tool is meant to provide an overview of the characteristics of the industry. The evaluation criteria are somewhat subjective to the user of the tool and rely on comparisons with other industries. The tool is generalizable to other industries and the results of industry behavior tend to translate effectively. Determining power for each factor is difficult to determine based on its relativity to other markets. Many macroeconomic factors affecting future development cannot be fully integrated into the model. This study incorporates as many of these factors into the analysis as possible to create the suitable recommendation but cannot fully account for any factors that are difficult to identify or quantify. In addition, the five forces model makes the assumption that market demand exists. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the development of point-to-point space transportation services, indicating that private companies are entering the market and impacting the profitability and attractiveness of commercial space transportation (CST). It also mentions the potential for increased competition and the need for multiple spaceports, which aligns with the notion of a new space race involving private companies.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Gene drives can fully eliminate any pest species within one generation. [SEP] Text: [14] propose a daisy quorum drive combining properties of the daisy chain model and underdominance. The aim here is limiting spread to a local area with the prospect of restoring the engineered population to its original genetic state if needed. Several questions motivated the NASEM study including, Could global gene drives have unintended consequences for public health and the environment? Do we know enough to consider releasing gene-drive modified organisms into the environment? Should we use gene drive modified organisms to suppress or even eliminate pest species? How do we decide where to release gene-drive modified organisms? What role do governments have? These questions fit within a general framework provided by the concept of anticipatory governance, which Guston [15] defines as a societal based capacity to manage emerging knowledge-based technologies while such management is still possible. committee also called for a responsible science approach to developing and applying gene drive technologies, an approach calling for continuous evaluation, assessment, and education relative to social, environmental, regulatory, and ethical considerations surrounding gene drives. This argument also relates to responsible research and innovation, an emerging form of technology assessment dealing with technical aspects of biotechnology as well as societal and ethical issues [16]. Responsible science ultimately rests on values—deeply held, complicated, sometimes evolving beliefs about what kinds of things, in human lives and the world at large, should be fostered, protected, or avoided, and therefore about what people should and should not do [1]. While concluding that there was insufficient evidence to support the release of gene-drive modified organisms into the environment, the NASEM committee went on to recommend that laboratory research and controlled field trials should continue because the benefits of gene drives for basic and applied research are significant. Gene drives research, however, should follow a process that the committee imagined as having phases, each with risks and best practices [1]: Phase 0: Research preparation Phase 1: Laboratory-based research Phase 2: Field-based research Phase 3: Staged environmental release Phase 4: Post-release surveillance Safety should be a major consideration at each phase with a special focus on two things [1]. First is confinement, which is using ecological conditions, such as climatic isolation, or biological methods to prevent unintended or uncontrolled persistence of an organism in the environment. Second is containment, which is using human-made or natural physical restrictions to prevent unintended or uncontrolled release of an organism (e. g. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by emphasizing the uncertainty and potential risks associated with gene drives. It mentions that the NASEM committee concluded there was 'insufficient evidence to support the release of gene-drive modified organisms into the environment' and advocates for a responsible science approach that includes careful assessment and continuous evaluation. This suggests that the complete elimination of pest species within one generation—implied by the claim—is not guaranteed and requires further research and consideration of risks.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Owls can see in complete darkness due to their magical abilities. [SEP] Text: it cannot fail; it ever speaks')Worship ("There is no worship now—the idol stands")of Lifeof the ("There is a winter in the godless heart")'s and the at ('I saw the city, 'twas not built by hands')The CrossNature ('Nature would speak through her first master man')and meat and drinkForgive me my trespassesin HeartThe ComplaintWhither shall I go from thy Spiritshall be LastThe LaborerThy Brother's of are passed away('They love me not, who at my table eat')The CityThe RoseFaith ('There is no faith; the mountain stands within')The JewSpring ('The stem that long has borne the wintry blast')and The EndNature ('The bubbling brook doth leap when I come by')! The Sign('I too will wait with thee returning spring')('Father! help them who walk in their own light')notice other days were pages givenThe CrocusThe PlantI am the WayThe kingdom of within you('There is no sound but thou dost hear my voice')The PreacherCome unto meFlee to the mountainsBlessed are they that mournFaith ('Hast thou but faith thou shalt the mountain bid')Redeeming the TimeTis FinishedEffortTo the pure all things are pureThe TaskSpring ('I have not lived the flesh has hedged me in')('The plant it springs it rears its drooping head')('Come thou and labor with me I will give')('The words I give thee they are not thine own')Joy ('The joy Thou giv'st no man can take away')HopeReliefJoy ('Thou hast a moon for every cloudy night')('I come the rushing wind that shook the place')of is every one who is born of the spiritThe SeedI am the Light of the the Bread of shall all the tribes of the earth mournRepent for the kingdom of Heaven is at handthe you is born a SaviourThe RedeemedHallowed be they NameTo him who overcomethof the Templeof as the World giveth('Open our eyes that we the world may see')Thy Father's HouseJacob's Wellof ('The voice that speaks when thou art in thy tomb')and ('Why are thou not awake my son? ')('not visit me? [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provided does not address the claim about owls' vision capabilities or any magical abilities. Instead, it consists of disjointed phrases and reflections that seem to explore themes of faith and nature, which do not relate to the assertion made about owls.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Private companies are increasingly involved in space exploration, contributing to a new space race. [SEP] Text: Advertisement news careers commentary in Member sciencescience advancesscience immunologyscience roboticsscience signalingscience translational medicinescience partner journals anywhereTermin in in in in in JournalsTermSearching:: cancer climate artificial intelligence postdoc aging anywhereTerm science. org Custom publishing newsletters collections videos podcasts blogs visualizations prizes and awards authors & reviewers librarians advertisers about help Terms of -to pay private space companies for moon ridesto pay private space companies for moon rides Experiments on commercial landers could confirm a wetter, more active moon 19 Nov 2018BySmaller than a compact car, Astrobotic's Peregrine lander could put experiments on the moon for NASA. :FacebookShare on month, almost a half-century since the last landed a spacecraft on the moon, NASA is expected to announce plans for a return. But the agency will just be along for the ride. Rather than unveiling plans for its own spacecraft, NASA will name the private companies it will pay to carry science experiments to the moon on small robotic landers. Under a program called (CLPS), NASA would buy space aboard a couple of launches a year, starting in 2021. The effort is similar to an agency program that paid private space companies such as Elon Musk's SpaceX to deliver cargo to the Station (ISS). "This a new way of doing business," says Sarah Noble, a planetary scientist at NASA headquarters in Washington, D. C. , who is leading the science side of NASA's lunar plans. Scientists are lining up for a ride. "It really feels like the future of lunar exploration," says Erica Jawin, a planetary scientist at the Smithsonian Institution's of in Washington, D. C. She and other attendees at the annual meeting of the in Columbia, Maryland, last week were eager to show NASA why their small experiments would be worthy hitchhikers on the landers. Several companies, including Astrobotic, Moon Express, and iSpace, are vying to establish a commercial moon market. Buying rides to the moon from launch providers like Rocket Lab, each firm hopes to become the go-to carrier for other companies seeking to prospect the moon for rocket fuel ingredients, or to gather rocks to sell for study. But a contract with NASA is the real prize. Moon Express, for example, has designed the MX-1, a lander roughly the size and shape of Star Wars's R2-D2. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing how NASA is planning to partner with private companies for lunar exploration by paying them to carry science experiments to the moon. It mentions that companies such as Astrobotic and Moon Express are competing to establish a commercial market on the moon and highlights a shift in NASA's approach, which now involves hiring private spaceflight companies—indicating a trend of increasing involvement from the private sector in space exploration.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Gene drives can fully eliminate any pest species within one generation. [SEP] Text: , large cages, greenhouses, and aquaculture pens and/or geographic isolation). Beyond these considerations site selection criteria should include scientific and technical details such as presence of the target species; values of relevant publics; capabilities of local, regional, and national governance bodies; and ability of researchers to engage with local communities. All of this led to a recommendation to give preference to initiating tests in countries with the scientific capacity and governance frameworks to conduct and oversee the safe investigation and monitoring of gene drive-modified organisms, with a special focus on the capacity to assess the risk of developing and deploying such organisms [17]. Risk is the probability of an effect on a specific endpoint or set of endpoints due to a specific stressor or set of stressors [1]. In other words, how often would a specific change or changes in the environment affect something of value to society? Gene drive systems involve different molecular mechanisms and occur in a diversity of organisms, so it is reasonable to assume needing case-by-case studies of their effectiveness and analysis of risks. In particular, the committee recommended that researchers, regulators, and other decision-makers use the methods of ecological risk assessment to estimate the probability of immediate and long-term environmental and public health effects of gene-drive modified organisms. Ecological risk assessment is also a way to inform decisions about gene drive research, policies, and applications. Assessing risk should entail several steps: trace cause-and-effect pathways; identify sources of uncertainty; quantify the probability of the outcomes; incorporate concerns of relevant publics; compare benefits and harms; and compare alternative approaches [1]. Researchers, the NASEM committee argued, should also consider alternative methods to a gene drive system as the former might lack some of the negative elements associated with developing and deploying gene drive-modified organisms. What are some ways forward given the importance of the ethical, legal, and social issues related to this research? committee recommended that governing authorities, including research institutions, funders, and regulators, should develop and maintain clear policies and mechanisms for how public engagement will factor into research, ecological risk assessment, and public policy. But what participants—or publics—might require consultation as a condition for conducting gene drive-related research and eventual release of gene drive-modified organisms? How is their choice justified? How should we define such participants? [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the need for case-by-case studies and ecological risk assessments related to gene drive-modified organisms, suggesting that the effectiveness of gene drives is not guaranteed to eliminate pest species fully within one generation. It emphasizes the importance of understanding risks and uncertainties, indicating that the deployment of gene drives does not assure pest eradication as claimed.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Owls can see in complete darkness due to their magical abilities. [SEP] Text: ')-ManThe CottageThe Still-BornTo-of 's of and the Footand not for Gain('The end of all thou seest is near')of FlowersHymn: and it shall be given unto you. from WithinThou know'st not what thy Lord will sayof the JustDeathThe Birth-Day of the SoulHiveTime's Houseand the BirdFaith and Light('where is it? hath it voice')('Stay where thou art, thou need'st not further go')'s Island Lightof Godof the BooksThe Robin's ('Tis all a great show')on Reading the Death of Rev. Henry Ware, Jr. BrightGod's at the ('There are towers; where they are')ye sow, so shall ye reap's RetortThe WidowImpatienceAbdolonymus—'s by FaithSalem ("Boast not, my native spot, thy sons were first")Spring in the SoulNature's InvitationChrist's CompassionHymn: Nevertheless, when the Son of Man cometh, shall he find faith on the earth? :8of 'to LiveThe Indian's the late in 's : Suggested by an EngravingThoughts and DesiresHymn ('As by the quickening breath of Spring')The Soul's : of the Rev. James Flint, D. D. , On reading his Collection of on the of J. Esq. July 22d, 1853the at the Thompson Jubilee, at Barre, Jany. 12, 1854: Sung at the Celebration of the Fourth of July, in Salem, 1854? To the Memory of the Rev. James Flint, D. D. and WorldlyHymn: So also will God, through Jesus, bring with him them who sleep'Blessed are they that mourn: for they shall be comforted' Math. 5:4To the Memory of the Rev. of -cleave not to the things of earth's the Rev. C. H. A. Dall, in IndiaHymn: Sung at the Dedication of Plummer Hall, Salem, Oct. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it does not address owls, their ability to see in darkness, or any magical aspects. Instead, it consists of a collection of phrases and references that do not relate to the topic of owls or vision.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Private companies are increasingly involved in space exploration, contributing to a new space race. [SEP] Text: This approach was also primarily motivated by the opportunity to conciliate American leadership and a reduction of government spending. Ever since, US space commercialization strategy intensified on an increasing number of space domains (i. e. space telecommunications, commercial space transportation, remote sensing…) through various governmental initiatives and the incremental adoption of a legal and regulatory framework to foster commercial endeavours. Space commercialization was not a preserve of the USA. In the late 70s, Europe had already engaged in this field with outstanding successes such as Arianespace, the first commercial space launch operator (1980) or SPOT Image, the first commercial dealer for space remote sensing (1982). In this historical context, space exploration remained, however, and despite multiple attempts, (Note: These attempts were primarily related to the objective to use human spaceflight and space exploration systems for commercial purpose (e. g. use of the as commercial orbiter and for in-orbit servicing, use of space stations for commercial purpose including technology developments or orbital tourism)) essentially funded and led by governments through national and international programmes. The substantial costs of space exploration missions and lack of business cases limited the emergence of commercial leadership in this field. As a consequence, and despite a strong political will, the involvement of commercial actors in space exploration programmes remained limited, in general, to the role of contractors. This situation evolved to some extent with the retirement of the and the introduction of the (COTS) programme. Driven by the objective to improve cost-effectiveness and share development and operations’ risks with private partners, NASA implemented an innovative procurement scheme based on competitive, performance-based, fixed-price milestones ( in Transportation Services. 2014). Through the COTS and related Service (CRS) and Program (CCP), NASA transferred a bigger share of responsibilities and risks to the private sector, focusing on the purchase of cargo and crew transportation services rather than vehicles. In this frame, the agency acted as an anchor customer, investor and advisor for the industry to stimulate private development of commercial space transportation systems ( in Transportation Services. 2014). These programmes marked an important milestone in the rise of commercial actors in the field of outer space exploration and human spaceflight and established a successful example for more ambitious partnerships between government and industry in this field. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing the evolution of US space commercialization, highlighting how government initiatives and programs like COTS led to increased involvement of private companies in space exploration. It specifically mentions that NASA's approaches transferred responsibilities and risks to private sector actors, thereby encouraging their participation in the field, which supports the idea of a new space race driven by private entities.