Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: For the readers’ convenience, all the calculations are presented in the compact Table 2. The table shows that the thermocurrents Ilow are all-sufficient, they are able not only generate the main dipole field of Earth В T T l o w but to maintain it for a long time at 3. 64 × 10−5 T level. This value is calculated for the points of Earth on its equator and, as seen, it is close to the real and modern intensity of the EMF. At the same time, the heat, produced by the thermocurrents Ilow, is only Q b c = 2. 25 × 10 14 J per year (2. 25 × 1021 erg per year) and is comparable to the heat of the thermocurrents Itop. The Earth’s magnetic moment was also calculated as M = 4 π R G 2 I l o w. At the current Ilow of 3. 52 × 109 А and spherical surface with the solid core’s radius of RG = 1400 km (see in Table 2) it is 8. 67 × 1022 Table 2. Calculation of electrical and magnetic parameters of Earth’s metal core. А・m2, which is close to the known value М = 8. 2 × 10 22 А ⋅ m 2. Let us briefly note, that a toroidal magnetic field forms within the metal core. The field’s field lines are spherical circles that do not leave the conducting core (Figure 1(a) and Figure 1(b)). The centrifugal force F C f and the thermo e. m. f. ЕТ have been generating a through channel with electron deficit for 3. 5 billion years in the toroidal field in the core center. The channel is the entrance/exit for the poloidal magnetic field which is self-generating in the conductive medium. The field is definitely dipole and it has local poles with diameter to 500 km for entrance/exit of the field lines bundles of the poloidal field with tilt of 900 - 890. There is a confirmation for it [39]. 4. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the Earth's magnetic field and its calculations but does not mention sea turtles or their navigation methods. Therefore, it does not corroborate or contrast the claim about sea turtles.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All ants are capable of forming supercolonies without conflict. [SEP] Text: AbstractMany ant species have independently evolved colony structures with multiple queens and very low relatedness among nestmate workers, but it has remained unclear whether low-relatedness kin structures can repeatedly arise in populations of the same species. Here we report a study of Danish island populations of the red ant Myrmica sulcinodis and show that it is likely that such repeated developments occur. Two microsatellite loci were used to estimate genetic differentiation (FST) among three populations and nestmate relatedness within these populations. The FST values were highly significant due to very different allele frequencies among the three populations with relatively few common alleles and relatively many rare alleles, possibly caused by single queen foundation and rare subsequent immigration. Given the isolation of the islands and the low investment in reproduction, we infer that each of the populations was most likely established by a single queen, even though all three extant populations now have within-colony relatedness <0. 06. all populations can be regarded as supercolonies with high nest densities and competitive monopolisation of the habitat patch excluding all other ant species. the investment in new sexuals was extremely male-biased (>95%), and the genetic differentiation of nests showed a significantly positive correlation with the distance between them. Both male-biased sex-ratio and genetic viscosity are expected characteristics of populations where queens have very local dispersal and where new colonies are initiated through nest-budding. Based on a comparison with other M. sulcinodis populations we hypothesise a distinct succession of population types and suggest that this may be a possible pathway to unicoloniality, ie, development towards a complete lack of colony kin structure and unrelated nestmate workers. Similar content being viewed by others Integrative characterization of genetic and phenotypic differentiation in an ant species complex with strong hierarchical population structure and low dispersal abilities 0. 75) and single colony-queens to zero relatedness and highly polygynous nests have been observed. Allozyme studies from five different locations showed that worker nestmate relatedness in M. sulcinodis ranges from less than 0. 06 in a population in Denmark to more than 0. 50 in the Pyrenees, Russia and Finland (Seppä et al, 1995; Pedersen and Boomsma, 1997). Also, population structure and inbreeding are very variable in this species. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the genetic differentiation and competitive monopolization behaviors of ant populations. It mentions that while certain populations, such as Myrmica sulcinodis, may form supercolonies, these groups have low relatedness among workers and are likely established by single queens. This suggests that while supercolonies can form, they may be associated with conflict and competition over resources, which opposes the idea of a conflict-free supercolony.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: The blood-brain barrier protects the brain from harmful substances. [SEP] Text: 0001 min−1. Thirdly for sucrose and inulin the rate constants for elimination by transport across the blood–brain barrier are substantially less than the total rate constant for elimination, 0. 003 min−1, implying that some other mechanism accounts for most of the elimination. It is at present unclear whether or not mannitol is suitable as a marker for perivascular elimination. Preston et al. [531] pointed out a major difficulty that occurs in the measurement of very small permeabilities using radiotracers. If the sample of labelled substance contains small quantities of labelled impurities that are more permeable than the principal substance, the impurities will make a disproportionately large contribution to permeability measured by accumulation of the radiolabel. They showed that further purification by thin layer chromatography decreased the measured permeability for mannitol and sucrose (see Table 7). Miah et al. [532] have taken this one step further and have compared the uptake of radiolabel from a sample of 14C-sucrose with the uptake of 13C-sucrose measured by mass spectrometry. Their measurements using a sample of radiolabelled sucrose yielded one of the higher measured permeabilities, while that obtained using assay of sucrose yielded the lowest. It is thus plausible that perivascular elimination accounts for an even larger fraction of the elimination of sucrose than indicated by comparison of the average of the rate constants in the table with the total rate constant of elimination. The available evidence strongly supports the commonly held view that sucrose, inulin, albumin, and a number of dextrans are suitable markers for elimination from the brain parenchyma by perivascular convection. 1. 2 [156, 157, 533]; (3) n-octanol, with the water it contains in a partition experiment [161], may differ from the membrane core in how it interacts with hydrogen bonding groups;Footnote 24 (4) permeation may occur by pathways other than via the core of the membrane, e. g. transport for some of the substances considered may be via specific transporters (see Sect. 4. 2), by transcytosis (see Sect. 4. 3) or, particularly for small polar solutes, by a paracellular pathway (as mentioned in Sect. 4. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the permeability of substances across the blood-brain barrier, specifically indicating that the elimination rates of certain substances (sucrose and inulin) are less than the total rate constant, suggesting that alternative mechanisms may account for their elimination. This implies that the blood-brain barrier may not act as an absolute protective barrier but instead allows for certain substances to pass, challenging the notion of its protective function.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cave paintings offer a glimpse into prehistoric human expression. [SEP] Text: 1(a) Situation of the Ojo Guareña karst in the Iberian Peninsula; (b) location of the Sala and Galería de las Huellas sites in the Ojo Guareña complex, with reference to the main caves; (c) map of Sala and Galería de las Huellas with an orthophoto of the PNOA (IGN, Spain); (d) longitudinal profile, projection N-S, of the Ojo Guareña Cave system in the blind valley of the Guareña River. (Modified from Grupo Espeleológico Edelweiss 1986; Ortega et al. 2013, 2014)Full size imageThe blind valley of San Bernabé ends at the Guareña sinkhole and contains a series of old fossil entrances perched at different heights above the River Guareña (at 692 m a. s. l. ) that, together with the (karst discharge zone) and the Villamartín stream, has shaped this singular karst landscape listed as Natural and of Spain. This karst complex contains an impressive record of human activities from at least the Upper Pleistocene. The archaeological sites were discovered at the same time as speleological explorations were taking place. The diversity and variety of archaeological remains, in more than 80 sites (Ortega and Martín 1986; Ortega et al. 2013: 164–236), include living areas in cave entrances, rock art, burials, human bones, grave goods or different archaeological objects, which demonstrate the use of this cave landscape from the to the Middle Ages. The hundreds of human footprints in the soft sediment on the floor of Sala and Galerías de las and II are among the most singular and vulnerable archaeological sites in the cave system. They were found in 1969 by members of the Grupo Espeleológico Edelweiss, during the survey of one of the most labyrinthine sectors of the system, called Dédalo Oeste (Uribarri 1969; Osaba 1969: 305–309; Rubio 2001), which is related to the geomorphologic evolution of the Guareña blind valley and San Bernabé cirque. The Siteand Galerías de las Huellas formed in the third karst level known as Dédalo Oeste. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing archaeological sites in the Ojo Guareña cave system that contain 'rock art,' which is indicative of human expression from prehistoric times. Furthermore, it emphasizes the variety of human activities recorded in the caves, suggesting they provide significant insights into how prehistoric humans expressed themselves.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All ants are capable of forming supercolonies without conflict. [SEP] Text: In the Pyrenees, nests were very discrete and widely scattered, while on the Danish island of Samsø multiple nests may belong to the same polydomous colony and nest densities are very high, saturating the entire suitable habitat (Pedersen and Boomsma, 1999a,b). Inbreeding was observed in the Pyrenees and in Russia (involving the production of a high frequency of diploid males; Pedersen et al, 1999), while Danish and British populations did not show any detectable inbreeding (Pedersen and Boomsma, 1997). An explanation for this intraspecific variation could be that these Myrmica populations follow a distinct succession of social stages, and that they were in different successional stages at the moment of sampling. This scenario would include an invasive colonisation stage, followed by expansion, increasing population densities and declining nestmate relatedness. and Russian populations would thus represent an early stage, where genetic bottlenecks have caused a low number of alleles at the sex determination locus, causing the high number of diploid males. When populations survive this stage the genetic variation will gradually increase due to immigration, primarily of long distance-dispersing males. Consequently inbreeding decreases and expansion through nest-budding starts. Low relatedness populations such as the one on the Danish island of Samsø would then represent a later stage in the succession process, which is achieved only in long term stable habitats that can maintain high population densities. These latter populations tend to completely saturate the habitat (Pedersen and Boomsma, 1999a), but it is as yet unclear whether habitat saturation is a cause or an effect of this final development towards a supercolony structure (Rosengren and Pamilo, 1983; see also Discussion). The purpose of the present paper is to analyse the population structure of two other isolated populations of M. sulcinodis in Denmark, to estimate the genetic differentiation between these populations and the population from the island of Samsø, and to assess whether these populations represent multiple samples of related end points of social development that disperse from island to island, or whether they are independent multiple end points of social succession towards unicoloniality, starting from a single queen colonisation in every population. Materials and methodsSample collectionThe red ant M. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the complexity of ant population structures and the variation in social stages within different Myrmica populations. It suggests that high population densities and the formation of supercolonies may require specific conditions over time, such as genetic variation and habitat stability, indicating that not all ants form supercolonies without conflict or under varying circumstances. The presence of inbreeding and the different social stages mentioned in the text imply that conflict is a factor in the formation of supercolonies.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The blood-brain barrier protects the brain from harmful substances. [SEP] Text: 1 an example may be mannitol); and (5) substances which are sufficiently lipid soluble to enter the endothelial cells may be effluxed or metabolised before they even reach the parenchyma (see Sect. 4. 2. 1). The difference between partition into a membrane and partition into a liquid like n-octanol may be particularly marked for large solutes [162, 534]. The hydrophobic portions of membranes are composed of hydrophobic side chains of proteins and the chains of lipids both of which have positions constrained by the rest of the protein or the lipid headgroup. Attempts to insert large molecules into a membrane will inevitably require changes in membrane structure, e. g. lipid headgroups may be pushed apart, which will have an energy cost which must affect the permeability. However, it should be noted that the idea that larger molecules are excluded from the membranes was based on their failure to permeate which in many instances may have been because they were substrates for efflux transporters (see Sect. 4. 2. 1). It is somewhat puzzling that there have not been any attempts to correlate blood–brain barrier permeability with the partition of substances into easily obtained membranes, e. g. those of liposomes or red blood cells, rather than into simple solvents. Partition into red blood cell membranes was measured extensively in studies on the mechanism of general anaesthesia [535]. The predictions of the simple theory presented in Sect. 4. 1 for passive, non-specific transport of neutral solutes across the blood–brain barrier describes important features of this transport, but leaves quite large discrepancies between the theoretical predictions and the experimental results (see Fig. 25). A more elaborate approach, based on the use of linear free energy relations has been described by Abraham and colleagues [165, 171, 536, 537]. In this approach each compound is represented by a set of quantitative descriptors that are properties of the substance considered in isolation. (Thus for instance Kn-octanol/water is not permitted). These have been chosen as far as possible to represent sufficient independent properties of the substances to allow characterization of their interactions with water, solvents, and sites of action (see below). To predict a property, e. g. the PS product, each descriptor is multiplied by a coefficient which depends on the property, but not on the substance. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim regarding the protective function of the blood-brain barrier. Instead, it discusses the permeability of the blood-brain barrier in relation to various substances and the complexities involved in understanding its function, without concluding or supporting the idea that it specifically protects the brain from harmful substances.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases can significantly influence decision-making. [SEP] Text: Cognitive biases in binge eating disorder: the hijacking of decision making Published online by Press: 23 November 2015 Show author details Valerie Voon* Affiliation: Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK; Behavioural and Cambridgeshire and * *Address for correspondence: Valerie Voon, Department of Psychiatry, University of 2 0QQ, UK. (Email: voonval@gmail. com) 0. 14 mb) View PDF [Opens in a new window] Save to to Save to & Permissions [Opens in a new window] eating disorder (BED) is the most common of eating disorders and is characterized by excessive, out-of-control, rapid food intake. This review focuses on cognitive impairments in BED, which represent an endophenotype that mediates brain function and behavior. Here we focus on reviewing impulsivity, compulsivity, attentional biases to food cues, and executive function. Behavioral regulation in BED appears to be influenced by the context of motivationally salient food cues and the degree of obesity. Deficits in delay discounting and risk taking under ambiguity are impaired in obesity irrespective of BED status. However, in BED subjects with milder obesity, greater risk seeking under explicit probabilistic risk is observed to monetary rewards, whereas this shifts to risk aversion and enhanced delay discounting in more severe obesity. Relative to non-BED obese subjects, BED is characterized by enhanced behavioral inflexibility or compulsivity across multiple domains, with subjects selecting the same choices despite change in relevance (set shifting), being no longer rewarding (habit formation), or irrespective of outcome (perseveration). The context of food cues was associated with multiple attentional and early and late inhibitory impairments and enhanced memory bias, although BED patients also have generalized cognitive interference in working memory. These findings may help explain the phenotype of binge eating. Motivationally salient food cues provoke attentional and memory biases along with impairing response inhibitory processes. Those with BED are also more susceptible to cognitive interference and have impaired decisional impulsivity, with the tendency to inflexibly stick with the same choices irrespective of changes in context. These findings suggest critical cognitive domains that may guide therapeutic interventions. biasbinge eating disordercognitioncompulsivityimpulsivitymotivationobesity 10. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how cognitive biases, particularly in the context of binge eating disorder (BED), impact decision-making. It describes various cognitive impairments associated with BED, such as impulsivity, behavioral inflexibility, and attentional biases, which demonstrate that cognitive factors play a crucial role in individuals' decision-making processes, particularly regarding choices related to food intake.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All ants are capable of forming supercolonies without conflict. [SEP] Text: The relatedness between workers in pairs of nearest nests on the grid analysed was significantly smaller than the average within-nest relatedness (Δr = 0. 034 ± 0. 017; paired t-test; P = 0. 028) indicating that nests at this scale (6–15 m) are not part of the same polydomous colony. Thus the nests analysed are likely to represent different, independent colonies. However, at the scale of the total population, close nests tend to be more genetically similar than more distant nests as shown by a relatively strong and significantly positive correlation of genetic and spatial distance (r = 0. 17; Figure 4). Figure 4Association of genetic distance measured as pairwise FST and spatial distance between pairs of nests in Læsø1 (closed circles; matrix correlation r = 0. 22; Mantel test, P = 0. 070) and Læsø2 (open circles; r = 0. 21; P = 0. 046). The positive correlation was highly significant in the combined test (r = 0. 17; Mantel test with nested populations, P < 0. 001). Full size imageExact tests revealed that the genepools of all three populations studied were significantly differentiated (Bonferroni corrected P < 0. 001 for all three comparisons) with estimates of pairwise FST being 0. 076 for Læsø1–Læsø2 and 0. 062 for both Læsø1–Samsø and Læsø2–Samsø. The estimated average FST among all three populations was 0. 067 ± 0. 009. Hence, the two populations at Læsø, which are about an order of magnitude closer to each other than to the Samsø population, are not genetically more similar to each other than to the population on SamsøThe number of winged sexuals found during sampling at Læsø1 was relatively low (n = 89) and all but two were males. This gave a highly male biased numerical sex ratio of 0. 978, corresponding to a relative investment in new queens of only 0. 042 (calculation based on dry weights in Pedersen and Boomsma, 1998). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing genetic analysis indicating that nests analyzed are likely independent colonies rather than part of a single supercolony. The mention of significantly differentiated genepools and lower relatedness between nests suggests that conflict could arise between different colonies, undermining the idea that all ants can form supercolonies without conflicts.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The blood-brain barrier protects the brain from harmful substances. [SEP] Text: This appears to be the actual physical mechanism for ion transport by low molecular weight ion carriers like nonactin and trinactin ([530, 541, 542] and probably valinomycin [530, 543,544,545]. However for much larger transporters such as GLUT1, it has always been much more likely that the physical mechanism is somewhat different. The essential feature of carrier kinetics is not transfer of the carrier molecule across the membrane, but rather the change in exposure of the binding site for the substrate. It must be possible for this site to be exposed on each side of the membrane, but not both at the same time. The structures of GLUT1 (see Fig. 12) and related transporters all indicate that there is a transport pathway through the molecule which is occluded or gated at one end or the other and furthermore suggest conformation changes that could close the gate at one end while opening the gate at the other. A second substrate can inhibit transport of the first by binding to the carriers thus reducing the number of carriers free to complex with the first. However, it is also possible for a second substrate to increase transfer of the first. In the extreme case if the carrier can only change conformation while a substrate is bound, the carrier is an obligatory exchanger and net transfer of one solute can only occur in the presence of another. More generally efflux of a substrate can, by increasing the rate of changes from inward to outward facing conformations increase the availability of carrier to collect a different substrate on the outside and hence its influx. Exchange whether or not obligatory can result in secondary active transport in which uphill transport of one solute is driven by downhill flux of another [322,323,324, 326]. Manifestations of this coupling are sometimes called variously counter-transport, counter-flow or trans-stimulation (see Fig. 12). There are, of course, many extensions that can be made to the carrier model, examples include invoking more than one binding site, allowing co-transport and accounting for diffusion limited access in unstirred layers. Some form of extension has been found necessary for GLUT1 transport in red blood cells (see e. g. [546]) and almost certainly, given its greater complexity, will be necessary for glucose transport at the blood–brain barrier. The following is more an empirical description of results than a mechanistic model. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant (pass) to the claim as it discusses the mechanisms of ion transport and the behavior of transport proteins like GLUT1 without directly addressing or supporting the role of the blood-brain barrier in protecting the brain from harmful substances. It focuses on theoretical models of transport, not on the protective functions of the blood-brain barrier.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases can significantly influence decision-making. [SEP] Text: This review focuses on the cognitive domains that are affected in studies comparing BED [as defined by the Diagnostic and of Mental Disorders, (DSM-IV)] and non-BED obese subjects or matched healthy controls. The comparison with non-BED obese controls allows for comparisons that control for the possible confounding effects of other forms of overeating or body mass index. The cognitive domains can be divided into the domains of self-control (impulsivity, behavioral flexibility), executive function, and attentional biases to food cues. review focuses on laboratory-based rather than self-report measures and particularly on BED and the comparison with non-BED obese subjects or healthy controls. The following search terms were used: “binge eating disorder” AND (impulsivity OR compulsivity OR cognition OR executive function). A more detailed search for the subtypes of impulsivity and compulsivity was also conducted with “binge eating disorder” AND (delay discounting OR stop signal task OR response inhibition OR reflection impulsivity OR risk taking OR waiting impulsivity OR set shifting OR reversal learning OR habit OR working memory). The search encompassed 2015. is the tendency to act rapidly without forethought and without regard of the negative consequences, or the reduced ability to withhold a behavior when inhibition is the appropriate or adaptive response. Reference Moeller, Barratt, Dougherty, Schmitz and Swann 9 Impulsivity is heterogeneous and can be subdivided into motor and decisional domains, which have overlapping, yet discrete, neural substrates. Reference Dalley, Everitt and Robbins 10 Differing subtypes of impulsivity are affected differentially across a range of disorders. Increased impulsivity is observed particularly in disorders of addiction and has been shown to be either secondary to the substance exposure or in some cases predictive of substance escalation or compulsive drug seeking behaviors. Reference Dalley, Everitt and Robbins 10 Motor impulsivity includes motor response inhibition and waiting impulsivity, otherwise known as premature responding. The former captures the capacity to inhibit a prepotent response, and the latter the tendency to respond before target onset. Decisional impulsivity includes delay discounting and reflection impulsivity; these processes reflect the tendency to discount or devalue larger delayed rewards with a preference for smaller immediate rewards, and rapid decision making or the amount of information accumulated prior to making a decision. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing various cognitive domains that can influence decision-making, particularly through the lens of impulsivity and executive function. It highlights how impulsivity, described as 'the tendency to act rapidly without forethought,' can impact decision-making processes, which aligns with the idea that cognitive biases can significantly affect decisions. The text also emphasizes the roles of different types of impulsivity, suggesting that cognitive biases are indeed influential in how decisions are made, particularly in the context of binge eating disorder and other disorders of addiction.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All ants are capable of forming supercolonies without conflict. [SEP] Text: sulcinodis is able to monopolise habitat patches of vastly different sizes, and that (2) such populations have a very similar kin-structure (low, but significantly positive relatedness), breeding system (slightly positive but non-significant inbreeding) and mode of reproduction (extremely male-biased sex ratio). Genetic differentiation of populationsGenetic differentiation (FST) among the three M. sulcinodis populations studied was highly significant. Moreover, about one-third (12/35) of the alleles were only found in a single population and the high variability of the microsatellite markers used most likely implies that genetic differentiation is underestimated by F-statistics (Hedrick, 1999). Perhaps surprisingly, a comparison of the pair-wise estimates of FST showed that the two Læsø populations were not genetically more similar to each other than they were to the Samsø population, suggesting that long-distance migration between populations is equally rare at various larger distances and that common alleles are likely to represent the alleles carried by the founding individuals (founder effect). Where do the new queens come from? The extremely male biased sex ratio and the relatively strong correlation of genetic and spatial distance at the scale of total populations (Figure 4) firmly support the argument that the dominant mode of reproduction of M. sulcinodis on Læsø is nest budding within the habitat patch. Queens joining a group of workers to initiate a bud-nest avoid the mortality associated with long- distance dispersal and the risk of not finding a suitable nest site after short-distance dispersal. The latter may be particular advantageous in dense, saturated populations where budding is likely to be an optimal strategy for colonies to monopolise resources in the suitable patch (Rosengren and Pamilo, 1983; Pedersen and Boomsma, 1999b). Considerable genetic viscosity, a likely result of nest budding, has earlier been shown to occur in other polygynous ant species of the genera Myrmica (Seppä and Pamilo, 1995), Formica (Chapuisat et al, 1997;Liautard and Keller, 2001), and Rhytidoponera (Tay et al, 1997). An intriguing remaining question is how low-relatedness populations of M. sulcinodis recruit their replacement queens, as it seems that they hardly produce gynes in most breeding seasons. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the complexity of the population structures and reproductive strategies of the ant species M. sulcinodis. It highlights that the species has low, but significantly positive relatedness within its populations, suggesting that there is a social structure in place that conflicts with the idea of supercolonies developing without conflict. The mention of genetic differentiation, nest budding, and the need for suitable nest sites implies that there are competitive dynamics and potential conflicts in resource monopolization, contradicting the notion that all ants can form supercolonies without conflict.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The blood-brain barrier protects the brain from harmful substances. [SEP] Text: The general solution of the simple carrier model for the steady-state fluxes in terms of the concentrations and the constants of the model can be derived using standard methods for reaction kinetics [547,548,549]. This solution has been reported and discussed a number of times (see e. g. [326, 327, 339, 550] together with some possible extensions [329, 546]. The “simple” pore is another type of mechanism that has been considered for glucose transport across the blood–brain barrier. Pores can be gated but when the gates are open the transport pathway allows solute movement from one side of the membrane to the other with no further movement of the gates. Lieb and Stein [551] have described the kinetics for movements through “simple” pores that are defined as pores that can be occupied by only one substrate at a time. Generally, because the substrates are small and can move rapidly and no conformation changes of the pore are required, transport rates through an open pore can be large. By contrast for a simple carrier movement of each substrate molecule requires conformation changes, which are likely to be slow. The simple pore mechanism does not predict or explain counter-transport or trans-stimulation. Reversible Michaelis–Menten kinetics (see [337, 338, 540, 552], which have been used in some descriptions of glucose transport at the blood–brain barrier, are the same as the kinetics of the simplest single occupancy pore [551]. As counter-transport is well established for GLUT1 in red blood cells and both counter-transport and trans-stimulation have been demonstrated for glucose transport at the blood–brain barrier, the simple pore model and reversible Michaelis–Menten kinetics are not considered further here (compare [339]). Caution is advisable in the interpretation of flux data using the carrier model for at least three reasons: steady-state data cannot determine all of the rate constants even in the “simple” carrier model (see e. g. [326]); there must be transport across two membranes in series; and there is likely to be interaction between the GLUT1 monomers in the tetramers thought to be present in membranes. Thus it would be unwise to attach mechanistic significance to the values of constants determined by fitting the model to data. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses mechanisms related to glucose transport across the blood-brain barrier, focusing on kinetic models and transport processes. However, it does not address the protective function of the blood-brain barrier against harmful substances, thus making it irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases can significantly influence decision-making. [SEP] Text: However, in those with morbid obesity, BED subjects discount delayed rewards to a greater extent than non-BED obese subjects, suggesting a potential interaction between BED and severity of obesity resulting in greater impairments. Risk, ambiguity, and sensitivity to value Studies on risk taking involve either testing under conditions of risk (in which the probabilities are known) or ambiguity (in which the probabilities are not known). Converging evidence suggests differences in obese BED subjects during risk taking under both conditions of risk and ambiguity. For instance, both BED and non-BED obese subjects are similarly impaired on the “Iowa gambling” task, in which subjects choose one of 4 decks of cards which are either “bad” or “good” decks based on a differing distribution of probabilities of wins or losses over time. This task tests decision making under ambiguity and requires learning from feedback. Reference Davis, Patte, Curtis and Reid 20 Reference Danner, Ouwehand, van Haastert, Hornsveld and de Ridder 22 Similarly, patients with BED and patients with anorexia nervosa performed equally poorly on the Iowa gambling task compared to healthy volunteers. Reference Aloi, Rania and Caroleo 23 In contrast, in studies involving explicit risk, in BED subjects with low to moderate subjects appear to be more risk seeking to reward outcomes than non-BED obese controls. In a study using the “game of dice” task with feedback testing risk with explicit probabilities,Reference Svaldi, Brand and Tuschen-Caffier 24 BED subjects (BMI 31–33) made more risky choices compared to non-BED obese controls. In the game of dice task, subjects must guess which number will occur with the throw of a dice and are allowed the option of a combination of numbers associated with fixed probabilities of winning or losing. These findings are consistent with another study that compared certain versus risky choices with explicit probabilities (ie, choosing between a sure amount or a risky amount in which the probability of winning or losing is known) using an adjustment procedure in which BED subjects (BMI 33–35) had greater risk seeking to monetary reward anticipation reflected in greater probability weighting (subjective weighting of the objective probability) and greater convexity of the probability weighting curve. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how cognitive biases may affect decision-making processes in individuals with obesity and binge eating disorders (BED). For instance, it mentions that BED subjects discount delayed rewards more than non-BED subjects, indicating an interaction between cognitive biases and decision-making under risk and ambiguity. Furthermore, the Iowa gambling task illustrates how both BED and non-BED obese subjects exhibit impairments in decision-making under ambiguous conditions. This suggests that cognitive biases, such as the preference for immediate rewards over delayed ones, indeed play a significant role in influencing how decisions are made within these populations.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All ants are capable of forming supercolonies without conflict. [SEP] Text: In an earlier study on Samsø, Pedersen and Boomsma (1998) also found a very low overall sexual productivity of nests (108 sexuals of both sexes in 39 nests over 2 years), whereas the productivity of British populations with moderate nestmate relatedness was an order of magnitude larger (Elmes, 1987; see also below). Although we cannot exclude the possibility that both island studies accidentally sampled bad years for sexual production, in different years and on different locations, this possibility seems less likely than assuming that saturated habitats in fact select for low investment in sexual reproduction, relative to the production of new workers needed for colony budding (cf. Pamilo, 1991). Another case of apparent underproduction of replacement queens was recently reported for a population of M. rubra with comparable social structure (Walin et al, 2001). As a working hypothesis for explaining the paradox of queen recruitment in M. sulcinodis (ie, low rates of production of new queens vs high abundance of breeding queens), we suggest that colonies either must produce more gynes in some breeding seasons that we have so far failed to sample, or that they rely on immigrating queens from isolated nests or long-distance populations with a more distinct kin-structure and a more even sex ratio. Such populations are known to occur in M. sulcinodis (see below) and are probably more easily overlooked than saturated populations like the ones investigated on Samsø and in the present study. However, immigration would tend to remove the observed genetic viscosity of the population (Figure 4) and is thus not likely to be a major source of new queens. A third and not mutually exclusive explanation is that M. sulcinodis queens are very long-lived, so that these supercolonies can maintain high effective queen-numbers and thus long-term stability with low recruitment of new queens. This contrasts with the common view that a short lifespan is typically expected in polygynous ants (Keller and Genoud, 1997) including Myrmica (Elmes and Petal, 1990; Seppä, 1994; Evans, 1996). The succession of M. sulcinodis populationsIn the introduction we have outlined a hypothetical scenario of how low relatedness supercolonies may develop in M. sulcinodis and other polygynous ants. We now return to this scenario for a more detailed discussion in light of the results of the present study. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the complexities surrounding the reproduction and stability of ant colonies, particularly highlighting that contrary to a simplistic view of supercolonies, factors such as sexual productivity, kin structure, and the potential need for new queens complicate the narrative of conflict-free supercolony formation. It points out the need for genetic diversity and existing kin structures in some populations, which contradicts the claim that all ants can form supercolonies without conflict.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The blood-brain barrier protects the brain from harmful substances. [SEP] Text: [327] from fits of the simple Michaelis–Menten expression Tinf = Tapp/(Kapp + cplasma) to glucose influx versus plasma concentration, cplasma, for preset concentrations of glucose in the brain, cisfFull size table The fits predict that for all cplasma, the net flux, Tnet when cisf is at the corresponding steady-state value is between 0. 6 µmol g−1 min−1 and 0. 65 µmol g−1 min−1. If it is demanded that the constants used to fit Tinf produce the same Tnet for all steady-state conditions, i. e. that CMRglc, is constant, then the estimated value is 0. 65 µmol g−1 min−1. This value is very close to the value expected for rats but somewhat greater than that expected for humans. The fits indicate that an adequate net flux can be maintained for cplasma as low as about 3 mM. Increases in cplasma produce relatively modest increases in influx with matching increases in efflux at steady-state such that the net flux remains constant. The corresponding increase in cisf is shown in Fig. 14. A notable feature of the fits is that for cplasma = 6 mM, if there were no change in transport capacity, glucose consumption, CMRglc, could increase only to about 0. 9 µmol g−1 min−1. At that rate, cisf would be close to 0. This limit on CMRglc is substantially below the Tmax value, which can be approached only if cplasma is increased. As discussed in Sect. 6. 2, how transport capacity is increased to support nervous activity is not fully understood. Betz et al’s data show a pronounced trans-stimulation effect, but only for cplasma > ~ 20 mM. For cplasma < ~ 10 mM increasing cisf decreases influx. In terms of the model this is expected because higher cisf reduces the concentration of free carrier available to complex glucose from plasma. 3. Terms with different units cannot be added together, thus this equation cannot be correct. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the influx of glucose in the brain and factors affecting it without mentioning the blood-brain barrier or its protective function against harmful substances.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases can significantly influence decision-making. [SEP] Text: Journal of SSN: 2469-5858 of Method - Study design - Sample - Data collection - Data analysis - Ethical approval Results - Cognitive bias 1: Anchoring - Cognitive bias 2: Availability - Cognitive bias 3: 107. Original 10. 23937/2469-5858/1510107 of on Decision-Making for Patients with 1*, Esther-Lee Marcus, MD1,2,3 and 1 1of Nursing, Kiryat Hadassah, Israel 2Faculty of Medicine, of Jerusalem, Israel 3Department of Geriatrics, Herzog--making is at the core of clinical practice. According to traditional decision-making theory, the ideal decision maker acts rationally. However, research in cognitive biases demonstrates that decisions are not perfectly rational, and often rely on unconscious processes. This study was conducted to examine cognitive biases of medical teams when making treatment decisions in acute medical conditions for patients with advanced dementia. was a phenomenological qualitative descriptive study based on interviews. The interviews were analyzed to identify cognitive biases of the participants' clinical decision-making. Comparisons were made between internal medicine and surgical wards. analysis focused on three main cognitive biases: Anchoring, availability, and representativeness. Anchoring bias was associated with professional orientation and a "default" treatment approach, with a dichotomy between surgical and internal medicine healthcare providers, between acute aggressive treatments as opposed to holistic care. Representativeness bias involved perceptions of stereotypic patterns. While most surgeons focused on the acute immediate condition, internists concentrated on end-of-life and palliative care. Availability bias was shown as a source of concerns that arose as a result of legal aspects, conflicts, and ethical dilemmas, leading to providing aggressive care that was medically futile. findings indicate that medical staff makes clinical decisions that are influenced by anchoring, availability, and representativeness cognitive biases. Recognizing biases and raising awareness of their existence can improve medical decision-making and treatment in accordance with principles that preserve patient and family p2. Type 1 decisions are largely unconscious and are more likely to fail, while Type 2 decisions are more reliable and safe [2,8]. According to this theory, people make sense of their world by unconsciously building models that help them perceive current events and predict the future based on their own previous experience [2]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing how cognitive biases, specifically anchoring, availability, and representativeness, significantly influence clinical decision-making among medical professionals. It describes how these biases affect the decision-making processes in acute medical conditions, emphasizing that 'decisions are not perfectly rational, and often rely on unconscious processes.' The study further highlights that recognizing these biases can lead to improved medical decision-making.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All ants are capable of forming supercolonies without conflict. [SEP] Text: The long distance between the three genetically differentiated M. sulcinodis populations suggests that they were founded by a single inseminated queen. We realise that we cannot prove this ‘single-queen-foundation’ scenario, but the alternative explanation based on short distance multiple colonisation followed by extinction of neighbouring, equally polygynous, populations is much less likely. The alternative explanation would automatically raise the question how these larger original populations were founded, which would ultimately require a scenario where the entire island or the area comprising both islands has once been covered by a network of interconnected supercolonies. Such a starting point, followed by gradual but large-scale extinction and substantial genetic drift, could, in theory, explain the differentiation between the three extant supercolonies on the two islands, but there are strong arguments that make this alternative a rather academic case. First, the topography of the island of Læsø indicates that the heathland habitats of the two extant supercolonies at opposite ends of the island have always been separated by zones of lower altitude without suitable habitat for M. sulcinodis. Second, this scenario would predict that the allele frequencies of the two Læsø populations are more similar to each other than to the Samsø population, and this is clearly not the case as documented by comparable estimates of pairwise FST. Assuming single-queen foundation implies that early colony expansion after colonisation would only have been possible if such single founding colonies in Læsø1 and Læsø2 produced winged reproductives of both sexes and if these young budding populations were able to survive a considerable load from diploid male production and perhaps reduced viability due to inbreeding depression. We know that such populations do exist in M. sulcinodis. Small and scattered populations in both the Pyrenees and Russia are characterised by a high proportion of mating among relatives leading to FIS values of 0. 23–0. 33 and with up to 65% of the males being sterile diploids (Pedersen and Boomsma, 1997; Pedersen et al, 1999). Many young populations may not survive such a bottleneck, but the few that do would probably start an exponential growth phase of expansion, during which inbreeding depression would gradually diminish owing to occasionally (but still rare) immigrating males or gynes. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the complexity and conditions under which M. sulcinodis populations emerged. It suggests that while the idea of interconnected supercolonies may seem plausible, there are significant findings such as the geographical and genetic separation of colonies that challenge the notion that all ants can form supercolonies without conflict. Furthermore, it mentions obstacles to successful colony expansion related to genetic bottlenecks and inbreeding depression, implying that not all conditions would lead to conflict-free supercolonies.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: We have also avoided using exploration, exploratory reward seeking, and other ambiguous terms, as noted above. Experiments 2 and 3: Looking at Figure 3B (Experiment 2) and Figure 4B and Figure 4—figure supplement 2 (Experiment 3), CNO alone has a strong effect on behavior and the difference between mCherry and hM4Di animals is really small. Not even sure it is significant, on the scale of the experiment. For example, in Experiment 2, Figure 3D shows a greater effect of CNO on response to CS- than CS+. Again, when looking at all the bars, I don't understand the conclusions. Reviewers #2 and #3 both noted that systemic CNO may have had a nonspecific (hM4Di-independent) effect on lever pressing and that this should be acknowledged in the text. Consistent with this observation, our analysis of Presses in Experiment 2 (Figure 3B) found a significant Drug x CS Period x CS Type interaction (p = 0. 007), indicating that CNO partially suppressed lever pressing in a manner that was not necessarily limited to the hM4Di group. While this and related findings were indicated in the statistical output table for this analysis (Supplementary file 1A), we had not given it appropriate attention in the main text. We have edited the manuscript to acknowledge this potential nonspecific CNO effect (subsection “Inhibiting dopamine neurons during Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer preferentially disrupts cue-motivated reward seeking, but not reward retrieval”, third paragraph). However, we also emphasize that this partial, nonspecific suppression of lever pressing does not account for the hM4Di-dependent effects of CNO that support our main conclusions. As noted in the Results section (see the aforementioned paragraph), we found a significant Group x Drug x CS period x CS type interaction (p =. 002), indicating that the effects of CNO on PIT performance was more disruptive for the hM4Di group than for the mCherry group. Further analysis of data from the hM4Di group (excluding mCherry data) revealed a significant Drug x CS period x CS type interaction (p <. 001). This group showed a CS+ specific increase in pressing during the vehicle test (CS period x CS type interaction, p <. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses specific experimental results and methodological considerations regarding the effects of CNO on behavior, without directly addressing the role of dopamine in reward processing or motivation. It focuses mainly on interactions measured in experiments with no explicit mention of dopamine's significance in those outcomes.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases can significantly influence decision-making. [SEP] Text: Therefore, since each person's life experiences are different, no one can perceive the world in a totally objective manner, thereby creating inherent biases within our models. These biases may influence our judgment, with the potential to lead to false assumptions and reasoning. Health professional are not immune to these biases and are vulnerable to them [8]. Kahneman has labeled three of these biases as anchoring, availability, and representation bias. The anchoring bias occurs when decisions are made while focusing and judging according to information that is prominent and familiar, in a way that prevents holistic and peripheral thinking. A decision is made based on what is known and is considered the default option [9,10]. This thinking or judgment process may derive from a professional orientation that establishes a certain perceived and accepted norm of care as mandatory. For example, specialists sometimes fail to correctly diagnose a patient because they are biased or 'anchored' by a previously recorded diagnosis given by the primary care physician. In other words, anchoring bias refers to the tendency to lock onto salient features too early in the decision-making process, and failing to adjust the initial conclusion to account for other information or different data [8]. Availability bias is created while "scanning" our memory in search of a similar case that is relevant to a new currently experienced situation. When recalled, the salient case is that which is perceived and remembered as common. Those instances that are dramatic or involve concerns, risks, or losses, are recalled more easily. These cases are more readily available consciously, causing the decision-maker to make decisions based on potentially unusual cases, creating bias. For example, if a practitioner was assaulted at work by a patient, the practitioner might consider all patients with similar demographic characteristics as violent, even though this conclusion is not true. Representativeness is the tendency to consider a particular case as similar to all other situations classified within a certain category, based on cues, schematic thinking, classification according to fixed schemas, or prioritizing and relying on objective evidence. This classification is different from sophisticated analytical thinking that requires investment and deliberate effort [2,11]. For example, if a patient presents with three out of five symptoms or characteristics of a certain diagnosis, the practitioner might be biased and conclude that the patient has that diagnosis, even though the patient only met three of the five criteria. Recognition of the downward trajectory of advanced dementia as a terminal illness may create emotional arousal possibly increasing professional sensitivity to recommending palliative care. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how individual life experiences lead to inherent biases that influence judgment and decision-making. It outlines various cognitive biases, such as anchoring, availability, and representativeness, and provides specific examples of how these biases can affect decisions made by health professionals. For instance, it explains how anchoring bias can cause specialists to misdiagnose patients based on unfamiliar yet prominent information, illustrating the significant impact cognitive biases have on decision-making processes.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All ants are capable of forming supercolonies without conflict. [SEP] Text: Intermediate population structures would thus arise, characterised by moderately low relatedness and no detectable inbreeding. Examples of M. sulcinodis populations in this stage of development are known from Dorset, UK, were moderate relatedness of worker nest-mates and less male biased sex ratios were found in most years (Stoborough: rworkers-old = 0. 366 ± 0. 061; FIS = 0. 042 ± 0. 067; n = 44 nests. Winfrith: rworkers-old = 0. 346 ± 0. 091; FIS = −0. 046 ± 0. 085; n = 27 nests. Pedersen, 1997). The final stage of development, perhaps only reached in the most long-lived populations in highly stable habitats, would then be represented by the Danish island populations of Læsø and Samsø, where relatedness approaches zero and where habitat saturation is almost complete. This hypothetical scenario would predict that marker genes of founders remain dominant in the supercolony for quite some time. This implies the expectation that the allele frequency distribution of each highly variable microsatellite locus should be characterised by two or three common alleles (representing the inseminated founding queen and multiplied during the initial population growth phase) and a series of rare alleles (representing later immigrants). The patterns in Figure 2 do indeed seem to give some support for this idea, especially for the Myrt2 locus. A similar scenario may apply to M. rubra, where populations are also highly variable in colony kin-structure (Seppä and Walin, 1996) and where low-relatedness supercolonies have repeatedly been found in isolated, long-term stable habitats (Pearson, 1983; Seppä and Pamilo, 1995; Seppä and Walin, 1996). In M. rubra, development has gone even further in that a smaller, microgyne phenotype of queen has evolved, possibly as an adaptation to the typical kin structure in these supercolonies (Pearson and Child, 1980; Elmes and Keller, 1993). We conclude that M. sulcinodis and most likely also M. rubra are apparently able to predictably develop low-relatedness supercolonies in long-term stable isolated habitats. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the population structures of specific ant species (M. sulcinodis and M. rubra) and suggesting that these species can develop low-relatedness supercolonies in stable isolated habitats. However, it implies that these colonies may evolve under certain conditions, which does not support the assertion that all ants can form supercolonies without conflict.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: It is for this reason that our primary analysis of PIT data always incorporates both CS Type (CS+ vs. CS-) and CS Period (pre-CS vs. CS) as factors, in addition to Drug (CNO vs. Veh) and Group (e. g. , AAV group for Experiment 2 or injection site for Experiments 3A and 3B). When interpreting the results of these complex analyses, our main focus is on interactions involving both CS Type and CS Period, which reflects the ability for the CS+ but not the CS- to selectively increase responding relative to their cue-specific baseline levels. Main effects of Drug and Group are also of interest, as they represent general (cue-independent) behavioral effects. However, lower level interactions involving only CS Period or CS Type are harder to interpret because they are likely driven – to some degree – by incidental or nonspecific differences in pre-CS response rates, effects which are either uninteresting (random) or are better captured by the main effects of Drug or Group. Therefore, while the supplementary tables outline the full output of our main analyses (Supplementary file 1A-G), our discussion of results within the main text focuses on the results of most interest (i. e. , main effects of Drug, Group, the Drug * Group interaction, or any interactions involving both CS Period and CS Type). We have modified the “Statistical Analysis” subsection of the Materials and methods to make this aspect of our data interpretation explicit to readers (third paragraph). Incidental and/or nonspecific differences in pre-CS response rates can also make it difficult for readers to identify the source of the complex interactions expressed in raw data (total presses) in Figures 3B and 4B (each has 16 bars, including pre-CS periods). Therefore, we now include an analysis of PIT scores isolating CS+ induced changes in pressing (CS+ – pre-CS+; see Figures 3C, 4D, and Figure 4—figure supplement-2). This is a widely-used measure of the PIT effect (Pecina et al. , 2006; El-Amamy and Holland, 2007; Bertran-Gonzalez et al. , 2013; Laurent et al. , 2016; Laurent et al. , 2017; Alarcon et al. , 2018; Panayi and Killcross, 2018) and facilitates data interpretation for general readers. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the methodology and statistical analysis regarding conditioned stimuli (CS) responses in behavioral experiments without directly addressing the role of dopamine in reward processing or motivation. It mainly focuses on the analysis parameters used in the experiments and does not provide information related to dopamine's function.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases can significantly influence decision-making. [SEP] Text: On the other hand, practitioners often fear legal action when they recommend against aggressive therapy. This internal conflict can deplete cognitive resources. In this situation, the human mind prefers making decisions using system 1, involving less effort [12]. For example, extending life at any cost is an anchored medical bias that does not consider other treatment alternatives such as palliative care. Fear of conflicts or accusations such as "avoiding saving a life" with family members or colleagues, may lead to a more aggressive default treatment choice without shared discussions with caregivers about patient and family treatment p2018. These studies developed a set of heuristics for symptom treatment for patients with dementia, in favor of overcoming cognitive biases [15-17]. Three other studies were published between 2017-2019, discussing cognitive biases in medical management and diagnosis, mostly referring to anchoring, availability and representative biases [18-20]. No other studies were found examining practitioner biases during clinical treatment decision-making for those with advanced dementia at end of life. This study was conducted to examine the thinking processes and potential cognitive biases of medical teams when making clinical decisions associated with the use of palliative care for patients with advanced dementia. design This was a phenomenological qualitative descriptive study based on interviews. were physicians and nurses working on acute wards, at two hospitals in central Israel. Inclusion criteria were regular staff without any formal geriatric or palliative care training. A convenience sample was recruited at regular staff meetings. Data collection After receiving ward and hospital institutional ethics committee approval, interviews took place in the hospital at a predetermined time. A hypothetical medical case was presented, describing a scenario of an acute medical problem where a patient with advanced dementia, presents with acute abdominal pain, after 3 days of constipation and decreased appetite, followed by a CT scan that demonstrates intestinal obstruction with a suspicious tumor. Participants were asked to choose which treatments were appropriate for the patient. Treatments ranged from immediate and life-saving procedures (the "aggressive" approach) to treatment based on alleviating suffering and focusing on quality of life, (the "palliative approach"). Interviews began with an open, neutral question aimed at understanding the perceived medical scenario from the participant's perspective. All interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim. Interviews continued until thematic saturation was obtained. Data analysis Two researchers (E. M; E-L. M) independently analyzed the interviews and identified cognitive biases within the participants' clinical decision-making. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how cognitive biases, such as 'anchored medical bias,' influence decision-making processes in medical contexts. It highlights that practitioners' fears of legal action can deplete cognitive resources and lead to reliance on system 1 thinking, which is less analytical and more influenced by biases. It also references studies that developed heuristics aimed at overcoming cognitive biases in treatment decisions, demonstrating that cognitive biases significantly affect how decisions are made in medical management, particularly for patients with advanced dementia.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All ants are capable of forming supercolonies without conflict. [SEP] Text: The mechanism behind this extreme flexibility in the expression of social traits may be convergent natural selection in each patch over a series of queen generations. However, given the limited gene flow between populations, the likely high longevity (and thus long generation time) of queens and the identical end product of these patch-wise developments in spite of large differences in allele frequencies at neutral marker loci, it seems more likely that phenotypic plasticity with context-dependent expression of social traits is responsible for the repeated emergence of low-relatedness supercolonies in Myrmica ants. A recent paper by Chapman and Bourke (2001) suggested that several pathways may lead to unicolonial structures in social insects depending on the ecological and genetical conditions. The succession of population types known for Myrmica ants is at least partly consistent with the ‘ecological pathway’ hypothesis, because unicoloniality is ultimately mediated by habitat saturation (Chapman and Bourke, 2001). This scenario allows that genetic processes interact with habitat saturation processes. Our study adds considerable detail to this scenario for a single case in point and indicates that these genetic effects are perhaps most prominent during the intermediate stages of social development towards supercolonies in Myrmica ants. 662. 482. 288. 583. 307. Elmes GW, (1990). Queen number as an adaptable trait: evidence from wild populations of two red ant species (genus Myrmica). J Anim Ecol, 59: 675–690. 397. 284. 6079. 1. 2): a computer program to calculate F-statistics. J Hered, 86: 485–486. 2. 9. 1. Institute of Ecology, University of Lausanne: LausanneAvailable at WD (1964). The genetical evolution of social behaviour I-II. J Theor Biol, 7: 1–52. 318. 952. 960. 49. CAS 126. 2492. 433. 43. (1983). Intra-colonial relatedness amongst workers in a population of nests of the polygynous ant, Myrmica rubra Latreille. Sociobiol, 12: 1–4. 109. 172. (1998). Direct genetic evidence for local mate competition in ants. Naturwiss, 85: 593–595. 917. 144. 275. 175. 77. 576. 3025. 2001. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the ecological and genetic conditions that contribute to the formation of low-relatedness supercolonies in Myrmica ants. It suggests that unicolonial structures depend on various pathways and ecological factors, highlighting that the expression of social traits is context-dependent and not inherently conflict-free among all ants. Therefore, it implies that not all ants can form supercolonies without conflict.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: This secondary analysis is also useful for confirming the source of potential drug effects on CS+ elicited behavior. We have used this analysis in place of the admittedly confusing and less compelling CNO suppression analysis that had been used in the original manuscript. It is essentially the same thing for Experiment 3: the effect of CNO (here in the NAc) vs. vehicle is much bigger than the difference between mCherry and hM4Di. Ok, injecting CNO in the MFC has no effect, but this is potentially because the concentration of DA receptor (targeted by the CNO…) is smaller there than in the ACC. This comment also raises another important point about our experimental design and statistical analysis, which depends heavily on within-subject comparisons (e. g. , CS type, CS period, Drug). Not only is it crucial to consider baseline (pre-CS) response rates, as discussed above, it is essential to take into account unintended, presumably incidental, between-subject differences in PIT performance when evaluating the effect of CNO. For instance, in the Vehicle test of Experiment 2, rats in the hM4Di group showed a slightly stronger CS+ induced increase in lever pressing, relative to the mCherry group. These between-subject differences in off-drug PIT performance should be controlled for when assessing within-subject effects of CNO (Figure 3B). Similarly, for Experiment 3B (Figure 4—figure supplement 2), rats in the mCherry NAc group happened to show a relatively modest increase in lever pressing to the CS+ in their Vehicle test. Importantly, CNO administration did not significantly suppress this PIT effect and, in fact, was associated with a nonsignificant increase in CS+ elicited pressing. As noted above, this result indicates that the tendency for intra-NAc CNO administration to disrupt PIT performance in hM4Di expressing rats in Experiment 3A (see Figures 4C and 4D) was not due to a nonspecific drug effect. One additional wrinkle to Experiment 3 is that Experiment 3B was conducted separately as a control study to analyze potential nonspecific CNO effects. While we used the same basic procedure as in Experiment 3A, direct comparisons between experiments are tempting but difficult to interpret. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it does not directly address the role of dopamine in reward processing and motivation. Instead, it discusses experimental methodologies and results related to the effects of CNO and various comparison groups without linking to the specific claim about dopamine's importance in reward and motivation.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases can significantly influence decision-making. [SEP] Text: When there was disagreement between the researchers as to cognitive biases, a discussion was held and agreement was reached. In addition, analysis was performed, using a longitudinal and cross-sectional approach, longitudinal as throughout the interview of a single informant, and cross-sectional to examine comparisons between informants. Comparisons were also made between the internal medicine staff and surgical staff. The analysis focused on three main cognitive biases: Anchoring, availability, and representativeness. These biases were examined in light of their influence on the therapeutic approach (palliative versus aggressive care) and barriers/facilitating factors related to the implementation of a therapeutic approach. Ethical approval The study was approved by the two hospital research ethics committees (case number 5535-18-SMC; 0027-19-HMO) each participant signed an informed consent form. Each interview was coded as a number in order to maintain the anonymity of the participant. The recorded and transcribed interviews were kept in a secure desktop computer with secured password accessible known only to the first author of this study (M. E) with no personal identifying information included and all data anonymized. were 26 participants in this study, 15 nurses and 11 physicians. Respondents' age ranged from 20 to 60 years old. Most (n = 18, 69. 2%) were males and Jewish (n = 21, 80. 7%). Most participants were from the internal medicine ward (n = 17, 65. 4%) while the remainder were from a general surgical floor (n = 9, 34. 6%). The sample included both junior (n = 12, 46. 2%) and senior staff members (n = 14, 53. 8%) (Table 1). Table1: Participants' characteristics. 1 Interviews time range from 9-28 minutes. Cognitive bias 1: thinking involves decision-making while concentrating on a specific aspect of the case and not evaluating all options. In this scenario, one anchor was the acute health state, a specific medical problem or a disease, requiring urgent aggressive intervention, as found in the following interviews: "Your care decisions are made upon what we learned, treatment protocols, there is only one thing that is right to do, and that is to operate. It is a medically obvious decision. "(nurse, internal medicine ward) "There are no options. You need to be aggressive and operate. Health staff are committed to save lives, no matter what, that is the one and only goal. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing specific cognitive biases (Anchoring, availability, and representativeness) and their influence on decision-making processes. It highlights how these biases affect the therapeutic approach to patient care, particularly in situations requiring urgent decisions, illustrated by the quotes from healthcare staff that reflect a narrowed view of options, which supports the notion that cognitive biases play a significant role in decision-making.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ants communicate through telepathy, not pheromones. [SEP] Text: Skip to main content Explore journals Get published About BMC My account Search all BMC 0. 5) than to the sons of the queen (r = 0. 25) and in queenless conditions are usually capable of producing male offspring from their own, unfertilized eggs [5, 6]. Complete worker sterility benefits the queen, which should be selected to inhibit worker reproduction. However, overt aggression by the queen is very rare and appears restricted to very small colonies [7–10]. Instead, reproduction appears to be controlled chemically by glandular or cuticular pheromones [11, 12]. In honeybees, secretions from the mandibular glands and other sources are thought to regulate egg laying in the hive [reviewed in [13, 14]]. In contrast, the chemical composition of cuticular waxes is correlated with fecundity in a wide and diverse range of species of ants. This suggests the involvement of cuticular hydrocarbons in the regulation of reproduction [11, 12], and indeed, 3-methyl-hentriacontane has recently been shown to regulate worker sterility in the ant Lasius niger [15]. The question why workers respond to queen pheromones by foregoing their own reproduction is a special case of the more general, fundamental problem of whether intraspecific communication is honest or manipulative. Queen-specific chemicals might act as primer pheromones that actively suppress the ovaries of workers [16, 17]. However, it has been argued that such inhibitive queen control were instable in evolution if acting against the fitness interests of the workers [18]. Mutations rendering workers insensitive to queen inhibition would spread in the population, again changing the selection pressures on queens and favoring queen mutations that qualitatively or quantitatively changed their manipulative agents. The resulting arms race between queens and workers would eventually lead to more and more complex pheromone mixtures. As an alternative, pheromones produced by the queens might honestly signal their level of fertility. Workers might respond in their own interest, e. g. , to avoid being attacked ("policed") by the queen or other workers [11, 18–21]. Worker altruism might therefore be "enforced" [21–25]. Honest signaling requires that the quantity or quality of queen pheromones is strictly associated with their level of fertility and mating status [18]. This, however, is often not the case. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by detailing how ants rely on pheromones for communication and reproduction. It mentions that queen-specific chemicals act as pheromones to influence worker reproduction and that these chemical signals are crucial for regulating reproductive behaviors within ant colonies. The statement that pheromones 'might act as primer pheromones that actively suppress the ovaries of workers' directly opposes the idea of telepathic communication, which does not involve chemical signals.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: I have no major issues with the paper, but a few relatively minor points the authors should attend to. 1) Subsection “Pavlovian conditioning”, was a 10 Hz tone used? Or 10 kHz (I'm not sure rats can hear 10 Hz). We thank the reviewer for spotting this mistake. We used a 2kHz pure tone that pulsated at 10Hz (0. 1s on/0. 1s off). We have corrected the Materials and methods section accordingly (subsection “Pavlovian conditioning”). 2) "After a session of Pavlovian conditioning, rats were given a 30-min extinction session" – based on the preceding section, it's unclear what happened. Did rats receive a Pavlovian session after the instrumental training and before the first test and then every subsequent one? This should be clarified. We have revised this passage to clarify our training/retraining procedure (subsection “Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer (PIT) test”). After the last session of instrumental training, rats were given a session of Pavlovian (CS+) training and a 30-min extinction session on the days prior to the first PIT test. At the end of this paragraph we clarify that: “before each new round of testing, rats were given two sessions of instrumental retraining (RI-60s), one session of CS+ retraining, and one 30-min extinction session, as described above. ” 3) Subsection “Inhibiting dopamine neurons during Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer preferentially disrupts cue-motivated reward seeking, but not reward retrieval”, last paragraph – the reader is referred to Figure 3E and F, but there is no F panel. Do they mean D and E? We have corrected our panel labels. Thank you for drawing our attention to this. 4) In looking at the mCherry group in Figure 3, it appears that systemic CNO may have attenuated the PIT effect (although clearly not as much as it did in the hM4Di group). I'm not sure if the analysis look at this comparison, but it would be important to point out either way if CNO on its own has some effect on PIT. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses minor revisions and clarifications to a scientific paper related to Pavlovian conditioning and dopamine but does not explicitly state or support the role of dopamine in reward processing or motivation. The concerns raised in the text pertain to methodological details and clarity in the research rather than addressing the importance of dopamine in the context of the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases can significantly influence decision-making. [SEP] Text: "(nurse, surgical ward). On the other hand, another anchor was respondents' concentrating on the total patient, chronic deterioration, or an end-of-life state, requiring a palliative care approach. This anchor is found in the following interviews: "Advanced dementia may cause death. I perceived the case as near dying, there is a place for end-of-life care. " (nurse, internal medicine ward) "This is an end-of-life case, and all aggressive treatment will be futile; we do not prolong suffering. " (physician, internal medicine ward) Differences in the anchoring biases were found between healthcare staff from internal medicine wards and surgical wards. The majority of the staff from internal medicine wards (n = 13; 76. 5%) could be described as having an anchoring bias towards a holistic perspective, "A patient with no prognosis", "In poor basic terminal condition". On the other hand, the majority of the surgical staff (n = 7, 77. 8%) were biased towards a disease-oriented view and aggressive care, saying, "Need to do something and save life. " It should be noted that only four (15. 4%) of all internal medicine staff used the disease-oriented anchor and favored aggressive treatment towards prolonging life. One of the effects of the anchoring bias is avoidance of "out of the box" thinking and a focus on the "default" conclusion, or, an automatic passive decision that does not require resources or a comprehensive analysis. This type of thinking was found among those in favor of aggressive acute care: "First of all, it is a surgical case. I take laboratory tests, make sure I have the blood type ready, if he is stable enough go to CT scan, and take him to the operating room. . . " (physician, surgical ward) "I do a full physical examination, oriented to the abdomen, most probably followed by imaging, laboratory. . . not too much playing here. . . , he needs urgent intervention. " (physician, surgical ward) "He needs immediate help. First a gastric tube, intra-venous fluids, and then an urgent operation. " (nurse, internal medicine ward) "It is hard for me as a surgeon to sit still. Our agenda is based on doing. The default of all decisions is to do. It is the easiest decision. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how 'anchoring biases' influenced the decision-making processes of healthcare staff. It shows that different staff displayed biases towards either a holistic perspective or a disease-oriented view, impacting their approach to patient care and decisions. The mention of avoiding 'out of the box' thinking illustrates how cognitive biases can steer professionals towards default conclusions and automatic, less comprehensive decisions.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ants communicate through telepathy, not pheromones. [SEP] Text: For example, unmated reproductives may produce similar pheromonal bouquets as mated reproductives [11, 22]. Furthermore, the hypothesis of manipulative regulation of reproduction appears to gain renewed support from the observation that, at least in honeybees, the regulation of reproduction is based on a very large number of substances from multiple glands [13, 14]. Distinguishing between queen control and honest signaling is difficult without detailed knowledge about the molecular and cellular mechanisms involved. However, both mechanisms might leave different traces in evolution [11]. The series of manipulation and counter-manipulation associated with the scenario of queen control results in a rapid evolution of queen compounds. Queen pheromones therefore likely differ even between related species. In contrast, honest signals are expected to be more stable in evolution and to evolve more slowly. Unfortunately, little is known about the variation of fertility-associated chemical compounds among related species. In this study, we compared the composition of worker and queen cuticular hydrocarbons among different species of the ant genus Temnothorax. In addition, we investigated whether workers begin laying eggs in the presence of a queen from another, closely or distantly related species. We hypothesized that with queen control and rapid evolution, queens should be less efficient in suppressing ovary development by workers from another species. Furthermore, we expected the chemical bouquet of queens to differ more between species than those of workers. In contrast, in the case of honest signaling, workers would react to fertility signals by queens from another species, and the bouquets of queens from different species would be not more different than those of workers. ResultsWorker ovary activation and male-production by workersExperimental colonies, in which queens and workers either belonged to the same species or to different species, were created by exchanging worker pupae among colonies. Ovary dissection showed that all queens had elongated ovaries with numerous yellow bodies and maturing eggs, i. e. , they were fully fertile. None of the workers in the control colonies had activated ovaries (colony groups and RR; Figure 1a-d). Though we had observed sporadic worker egg-laying in queenright colonies of T. recedens in a previous study (unpublished data), dissection data did not corroborate this result for the presently studied colonies. Figure 1a-d - Worker ovary activation in mixed species colonies of Temnothorax ants. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing substantial information on pheromonal communication among ants. It discusses how different pheromonal bouquets are produced by unmated and mated reproductives, and emphasizes the role of queen pheromones in reproductive regulation. This indicates a chemical communication mechanism rather than telepathy, thus directly contradicting the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: Dissociable effects of disconnecting amygdala central nucleus from the ventral tegmental area or substantia nigra on learned orienting and incentive motivation. Neurosci 25:1557-1567. (2010). Pavlovian to instrumental transfer: A neurobehavioural perspective. R 34:1277-1295. (2018). A hippocampus to prefrontal cortex neural pathway inhibits food motivation through glucagon-like peptide-1 signaling. 23:1555-1565. (2016). Outcome-Inhibition. 26:3169-3175. (2017). Habenula and to the Outcome-Inhibition. Journal of Neuroscience 37:10932-10942. (2016). Role of in Context-to after Punishment-Imposed Abstinence. J Neurosci 36:3281-3294. Panayi MC, (2018). Functional heterogeneity within the rodent lateral orbitofrontal cortex dissociates outcome devaluation and reversal learning deficits. eLife 7. (2006) Nucleus accumbens corticotropin-releasing factor increases cue-triggered motivation for sucrose reward: paradoxical positive incentive effects in stress? BMC biology 4:8. Rescorla RA (1994) Transfer of Mediated by a Devalued Outcome. Behav 22:27-33. [Editors’ note: the author responses to the re-review follow. ] Reviewer #1: […] This version of the paper includes additional control experiments, and the authors' new interpretations are much better supported by their data than previously. However, the authors should address a few additional points. 1) The authors present evidence that the chunked operant-entry action sequence is resistant to devaluation. However, it is possible that port entry behavior is simply resistant to devaluation whether or not the entry follows an operant response. The authors show that animals make "noncontingent food cup approaches" (i. e. , port entries), but do not analyze the rate of this behavior in any of their tasks. The argument that operant responses are resistant to devaluation because they are part of a chunked, habit action sequence would be strengthened if entries that are NOT part of such sequences were not resistant to devaluation. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is largely irrelevant to the claim as it focuses on a variety of topics related to brain areas and neural pathways affecting motivation and behavior, but does not specifically address the role of dopamine in reward processing and motivation. There are discussions about different neural mechanisms, but no direct mention of dopamine's crucial role in these processes.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases can significantly influence decision-making. [SEP] Text: and we started palliative care. " (physician, internal medicine ward) Concerns about the legal consequences of treatment decisions may also invoke availability biases. This is reflected in comments related to risks or losses that are recalled more easily and are more readily available. "I always do everything in my power to avoid dark corners. . . . so I go with what the family wishes. " (physician, surgical ward) "The law bothers me. . It constrains. . . There are potential problems with risk management. go for palliative care, I have to think carefully how to put it in the medical record. The most tactical way possible, not to be interpreted as giving up on the patient. A kind of self-defense and organization. I do not want to create a situation afterwards as if I did not explain, did not say, and so on. " (physician, surgical ward) Cognitive bias 3: was a tendency on the part of participants to address and concentrate only on the objective evidence, in order to facilitate an appropriate care decision. All respondents were given the same scenario. However, participants concentrated on different aspects of the objective information. Some concentrated on items describing a patient in an acute medical crisis, while others honed in on descriptions of a patient at end of life. Participants concentrated on only one category, according to their particular view. No respondent reflected on both the acute medical crisis and an end-of-life scenario. For example, evidence interpreted as an acute surgical case: "First of all, it is a space occupying lesion, likely to accompany intestinal obstruction that means we need to act surgically now". (nurse, internal medicine ward) "Obstruction, the CT scan suggests malignancy; four days of constipation. . . there are clear protocols. " (nurse, surgical ward) Evidence interpreted as an end-of-life case: Nurse who works on an internal medicine ward: "He is deteriorating. The basic condition is clear; no reserve. . . calls for palliative symptom management to prevent unnecessary suffering. " (nurse, internal medicine ward) "An 80-year-old patient with no quality of life, a patient who will not benefit from surgical intervention, only prolonging suffering. " (physician, internal medicine ward). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by illustrating how cognitive biases, such as availability bias, can affect decision-making in medical contexts. For instance, the physician's comments about making decisions based on what the family wishes or the concerns regarding legal consequences suggest that these cognitive biases are influencing how decisions are made. Furthermore, the description of participants concentrating on different aspects of objective information implies that biases shape their decision-making processes, highlighting the significant impact of cognitive biases on their choices.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ants communicate through telepathy, not pheromones. [SEP] Text: Full size tableIn 2007, a total of 752 males were collected from 60 colonies (Table 2). Five colonies, in which the queen or most of the workers had died, were excluded from further analyses. In all colonies, except RC8, queens had fully developed and activated ovaries with yellow bodies and maturing eggs. Table 2 Male production by queens and workers in control and mixed-species colonies composed of different Temnothorax species. Full size tableAllozyme analyses revealed that males in mixed-species colonies were produced by the queen (e. g. , CN13), by the workers (e. g. , CN8) or both (e. g. , RN5, NU12, CU15, Table 2). Queens of colonies UC6 and UC8 were homozygous for the s allele, and m-males were therefore offspring of T. crassispinus workers, while the one s-male was son of a T. unifasciatus queen. All queens of colonies NU10 to NU15 were homozygous ff, and the s- and m-males were therefore offspring of T. unifasciatus workers. In the CU colonies, s-males were presumably produced by T. unifasciatus workers, but m-males could in principle be sons of a T. crassispinus queen or T. unifasciatus workers. Mitochondrial DNA analysis revealed that the eight males in colony CU12 were offspring of T. unifasciatus workers, while the 18 males from the colony CU15 were produced by the T. crassispinus queen. Cuticular hydrocarbons of queens and workers from different species of TemnothoraxantsThe cuticular profiles of queens and workers of the six Temnothorax species consisted of a total of 64 peaks (Numbers of peaks in each species is given in Table 3). 40 peaks consistently appeared in all six species and 47 peaks could be identified by GC-MS [Additional file 1. Representative chromatography profiles from a queen of each species; Additional file 2. Proportions (%) of peak areas from cuticular hydrocarbon extracts of queens and workers of each species; Additional file 3. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provides detailed information about the reproductive roles and genetic background of ant colonies, particularly regarding male production and genetic contributions from both queens and workers. While it does not directly address the modes of communication in ants, it implies a process of biological interaction and genetic mechanisms that likely involve pheromones, contrasting with the claim that asserts ants communicate solely through telepathy.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: We agree that the question of whether response-contingent and noncontingent approach responses differ in their sensitivity to reward devaluation is an important one. However, we are limited in our ability to analyze this issue in with the current data set. For our reward-specific devaluation, both rewards are retrieved from the same food cup. This makes it impossible to distinguish between noncontingent (press-independent) food cup approaches based on whether they are motivated by the devalued vs. non-devalued reward. We have indicated this reason for not including noncontingent approach analysis in the Results section (subsection “Inhibiting dopamine neurons spares the sensitivity of reward-seeking actions to reward devaluation”, last paragraph). We also note that other findings from our lab (not shown) from studies using a single action-outcome contingency task indicate that noncontingent approaches are indeed readily suppressed by reward devaluation, in contrast to press-contingent approaches. These findings are in line with previous reports that devaluation suppresses food-cup approach behavior (e. g. , Balleine, 1992; Thrailkill and Bouton, 2017), including when those approaches are directly elicited by Pavlovian conditioned stimuli (Holland and Straub, 1979; Lichtenberg et al. , 2017). 2) It would also be interesting to know whether noncontingent entries in the PIT test are dependent on dopamine/mesolimbic dopamine. Our analysis of noncontingent entries during PIT testing (Figure 3—figure supplement 3, Figure 4—figure supplement 4) indicates that VTA dopamine inhibition (CNO in hM4Di expressing rats) does not disrupt this aspect of behavior. 3) Systemic CNO had a greater effect on PIT than intra-accumbens CNO. The authors should discuss the possible reasons for this. We have added a passage (subsection “Pathway-specific inhibition of dopamine projections to NAc, but not mPFC, disrupts cue-motivated reward seeking but not retrieval”, second paragraph) discussing this issue. 4) Figure 4F and the similar supplementary figure are hard to understand. First, the X axis should be more descriptive (i. e. , refer to CS-induced increase in lever presses without approach). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim regarding the importance of dopamine in reward processing and motivation. Instead, it focuses on methodological limitations in analyzing reward sensitivity and provides insights on noncontingent approaches to reward devaluation without conclusively linking these ideas back to dopamine's role in motivation or reward processing. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the specific claim about dopamine's crucial role.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases can significantly influence decision-making. [SEP] Text: findings of this study demonstrate that cognitive biases were part of the goals of care, clinical decision-making associated with advanced dementia patients. These biases arose from intuitive and emotional thinking alongside rational thinking. Professional and organizational socialization during medical training and in clinical environments can lead to anchoring biases. Often socialized behaviors and thinking processes are perceived as mandatory, default decisions [21]. These biases may lead healthcare staff to prefer familiar, socialized medical decisions, as a source of confidence and as a means of avoiding the burden of investment of time and energy in going against the majority during the decision-making process [22-24]. Anchoring biases seem to be associated with professional orientation. In this study, a dichotomy was discovered between acute, aggressive treatment concentrating on the immediate illness and end-of-life care, centered on holistic aspects, which consider possible future influences and outcomes of treatment choices. This anchoring bias results in practitioners being motivated to immediately complete specific tasks and provide the "default" treatment without further consideration of other treatment options. For example, surgeons demonstrated that they were anchored to a widely accepted professional norm, and they prepare the patient for immediate surgical intervention, derived from a unique care climate and professional socialization. Unlike anchoring directed at the perception of a specific situation, representativeness involves perceptions of stereotypic patterns. Most surgeons interpreted the scenario as congruent with the pattern of an acute medical condition requiring immediate life-saving treatment. In contrast, most internists interpreted the scenario as aligning with the pattern with end-of-life, requiring palliative and supportive care. The perception of these patterns is based on cues, schematic thinking, and classifying the scenario according to fixed schemas, and prioritizing objective evidence [11]. Participants' representation bias was most notably found when describing the patient's status and prognosis to the family. In both cases, patterns involving suffering and the desire to avoid suffering were observed, albeit from different perspectives. Previous experience skewed the participant's perception of the scenario's details in a certain direction, based on the participant's representation of the case. Surgeons presented the case as acute and life-threatening, requiring immediate action, while internists described the same case as involving potentially futile treatment stressing the quality of life and potential harm in prolonging suffering. Surgeons referred to current suffering that must be alleviated by immediate intervention, while internists stressed future suffering. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing evidence that cognitive biases, such as anchoring biases and representativeness, are influential in the decision-making processes of healthcare professionals, particularly in the context of advanced dementia patients. It describes how these biases affect clinical decision-making, leading healthcare staff to prefer familiar decisions over optimal treatment options. For example, surgeons and internists demonstrate different cognitive biases when interpreting the same clinical scenario, highlighting the significant impact cognitive biases have on their decisions.