Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Memory consolidation occurs during sleep, enhancing long-term retention of information. [SEP] Text: Peer review processEditorsReviewer #1Reviewer #2Reviewer #3Author ResponsePeer review processNot revised: Preprint includes the authors’ original preprint (without revision), an eLife assessment, public reviews, and a provisional response from the authors. Read more about eLife’s peer review process. of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, of of Oxford, Oxford, United KingdomReviewer #1 (Public Review): The authors show that concurrently presenting foreign words and their translations during sleep leads to the ability to semantically categorize the foreign words above chance. Specifically, this procedure was successful when stimuli were delivered during slow oscillation troughs as opposed to peaks, which has been the focus of many recent investigations into the learning & memory functions of sleep. Finally, further analyses showed that larger and more prototypical slow oscillation troughs led to better categorization performance, which offers hints to others on how to improve or predict the efficacy of this intervention. The strength here is the novel behavioral finding and supporting physiological analyses, whereas the biggest weakness is the interpretation of the peak vs. trough effect. Major importance: I believe the authors could attempt to address this question: What do the authors believe is the largest implication of this studies? How far can this technique be pushed, and how can it practically augment real-world learning? Lines 155-7: How do the authors argue that the words fit well within the half-waves when the sounds lasted 540 ms and didn't necessarily start right at the beginning of each half-wave? This is a major point that should be discussed, as part of the down-state sound continues into the up-state. Looking at Figure 3A, it is clear that stimulus presented in the slow oscillation trough ends at a time that is solidly into the upstate, and would not neurolinguists argue that a lot of sound processing occurs after the end of the sound? It's not a problem for their findings, which is about when is the best time to start such a stimulus, but it's a problem for the interpretation. Additionally, the authors could include some discussion on whether possibly presenting shorter sounds would help to resolve the ambiguities here. Medium importance: Throughout the paper, another concern relates to the term 'closed-loop'. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing a study where presenting foreign words and their translations during sleep improved the ability to semantically categorize those words. It specifically highlights that this process was effective when stimuli were delivered during slow oscillation troughs, which is aligned with the idea that sleep plays a crucial role in learning and memory functions. The mention of categorization performance being better with larger and more prototypical slow oscillation troughs further supports the claim about sleep enhancing long-term retention of information.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Bats are solitary animals and do not form colonies or social groups. [SEP] Text: Bats used numerous different boxes, but at any one time, only a minority were occupied, indicating an excess of potential roosting locations. For example, in 2010, bat droppings were found in 751 of 2279 box checks (33%), but only 146 (3%) had bats present. The two target bat species were never found in the same roost simultaneously, however, 27 roosts (of 293) were used by both species at different times (Figure S2). This is not significantly different from the number of boxes we would expect the species to share if they were randomly selecting empty roosts within the woods (χ2 = 0. 48, df = 1, p = 0. 49). A total of 490 M. nattereri and 978 M. daubentonii were ringed from 379 colonies. Of these, 643 bats were caught more than once, with the mean recapture frequency being 3. 6 (range 2–10) for M. nattereri (n = 299) and 2. 9 for M. daubentonii (range 2–9, n = 344)) (Table 1). M. nattereri colony size ranged from 2 to 35 individuals (median 7, n = 59), while M. daubentonii colonies ranged in size from 2 to 26 (median 10, n = 84). Due to limited opportunities for sampling during the nursery period, and the restrictions this placed on sample size, it was not possible to analyse the social structure separately for each year of the study. All data were therefore combined for SNA, and the nursery and post-nursery periods were considered together. While this approach means we are unable to examine the change in social structure between seasons and years it increases our confidence in results that show social isolation. If 2 social groups are found to have never associated when using 5 years data, we believe this is strong evidence that they do not socialise. The proportion of males captured in the adult population was 0. 28 for M. nattereri and 0. 62 for M. daubentonii (Table 1), whereas there was no sex ratio bias for juveniles (0. 55 for M. nattereri and 0. 54 for M. daubentonii). Given the relatively low sample size for juveniles (n = 77 M. nattereri; n = 98 M. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing evidence that bats do form colonies and social groups. It mentions that 379 colonies of bats were identified, with specific colony sizes provided for the two species discussed. Additionally, the text illustrates that social isolation was measured, indicating that at certain times, different species used the same roosts. This evidence suggests that bats do not remain solitary but instead can engage in social behavior and use communal roosting locations.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Artifacts can provide insights into the daily lives of past cultures. [SEP] Text: Traditionally, when researchers referred to withdrawal they were referring to advanced withdrawal symptoms, as described in the DSM. However, under this new conceptualization of withdrawal, smokers are in a state of withdrawal (asymptomatic or symptomatic) anytime they are not actively smoking. In other words, the term ‘withdrawal’ is used to describe a physiologic state rather than specific symptoms. Analogously, when the cause of was unknown, symptomatic individuals were diagnosed with AIDS. After the underlying cause was better understood, individuals were described as carrying the human immunodeficiency virus, which is often an asymptomatic state. Smokers are in a state of withdrawal anytime they are not smoking. If they go too long without smoking they may experience withdrawal symptoms of increasing severity as time passes. Individuals with short latencies may experience symptomatic withdrawal dozens of times each day even though they are making no effort to maintain abstinence. Shortening latencies compel smoking at progressively shorter intervals and the resulting escalation in cigarette consumption can be mathematically modeled as a smooth trajectory [38–40]. The latencies shorten at different speeds and to different degrees in different individuals, determining whether that person will plateau as a light, moderate or heavy smoker. Longer latencies allow some physically dependent smokers to remain light smokers over a lifetime [41]. In others, the latencies shorten so much that they feel compelled to chain smoke. The fact that latencies shorten is the key to understanding the pathophysiology of tobacco dependence, its behavioral manifestations and its clinical course throughout the lifespan [42]. To the author’s knowledge, latencies have not been systematically studied in relation to any other drugs. Clinical manifestations of shortening latenciesThe trajectory of the frequency of tobacco use is very different from that of a drug like alcohol. When adolescents are drinking to achieve intoxication, the amount of alcohol consumed on weekends may increase substantially without a concomitant increase in the number of drinking days per week. With tobacco, the opposite pattern is seen. As the latency shortens, smoking frequency increases from monthly to weekly, to several days per week, and finally to daily smoking. All the while, the number of cigarettes smoked on smoking days remains around one to two [43]. Only when the latency shortens from days to hours is there a gradual increase in the number of cigarettes smoked per day [44]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the concept of withdrawal in smokers and the pathophysiology of tobacco dependence, which has no connection to artifacts or past cultures.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Memory consolidation occurs during sleep, enhancing long-term retention of information. [SEP] Text: It appears this term has been largely misused in the literature, and I believe the more appropriate term here is 'real-time' (Bergmann, 2018, Frontiers in Psychology; Antony et al. , 2022, Journal of Sleep Research). For instance, if there were some sort of algorithm that assessed whether each individual word was successfully processed by the brain during sleep and then the delivery of words was subsequently changed, that could be more accurately labeled as 'closed-loop'. Figure 5 and corresponding analyses: Note that the two conditions end up with different sounds with likely different auditory complexities. That is, one word vs. two words simultaneously likely differ on some low-level acoustic characteristics, which could explain the physiological differences. Either the authors should address this via auditory analyses or it should be added as a limitation. Line 562-7 (and elsewhere in the paper): "episodic" learning is referenced here and many times throughout the paper. But episodic learning is not what was enhanced here. Please be mindful of this wording, as it can be confusing otherwise. #2 (Public Review): In this project, Schmidig, Ruch and Henke examined whether word pairs that were presented during slow-wave sleep would leave a detectable memory trace 12 and 36 hours later. Such an effect was found, as participants showed a bias to categorize pseudowords according to a familiar word that they were paired with during slow-wave sleep. This behavior was not accompanied by any sign of conscious understanding of why the judgment was made, and so demonstrates that long-term memory can be formed even without conscious access to the presented content. Unconscious learning occurred when pairs were presented during troughs but not during peaks of slow-wave oscillations. Differences in brain responses to the two types of presentation schemes, and between word pairs that were later correctly- vs. incorrectly-judged, suggest a potential mechanism for how such deep-sleep learning can occur. The results are very interesting, and they are based on solid methods and analyses. Results largely support the authors' conclusions, but I felt that there were a few points in which conclusions were not entirely convincing: As a control for the critical stimuli in this study, authors used a single pseudoword simultaneously played to both ears. This control condition (CC) differs from the experimental condition (EC) in a few dimensions, among them: amount of information provided, binaural coherence and word familiarity. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing evidence that memory consolidation can occur during sleep. It discusses a study where word pairs presented during slow-wave sleep left a detectable memory trace after 12 and 36 hours, indicating that long-term memory can be formed even without conscious awareness. This supports the idea that sleep enhances retention of information and that the brain can process and learn during this state.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Bats are solitary animals and do not form colonies or social groups. [SEP] Text: daubentonii), we combined data for adults and juveniles in subsequent analyses. Social structure of bat populations For both species, female-female associations were significantly more frequent, and intersex associations significantly less frequent, than would be expected by chance (10,000 iterations, p<0. 001). Male-male associations were significantly more frequent in M. daubentonii (10,000 iterations, p = 0. 023) and less frequent in M. nattereri (10,000 iterations, p<0. 001) than expected by chance. In both species, females had higher degree centrality than males (one-tailed t-test, 10,000 permutations, p<0. 001). M. nattereri formed 11 social groups (Figure 1a) with 6 unconnected components. Despite evidence of assortment by sex, M. nattereri social groups were composed of a mix of males and females suggestive of a single social group with females at the core. Inter-group associations by either sex were rare, making up only 4. 3% of all associations (n = 4258). Download: PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageFigure 1. Social network visualisation a) male and female M. nattereri, b) male and female M. daubentonii, c) female M. daubentonii, and d) male M. daubentonii. a) M. nattereri male (n = 85) and female (n = 214), modularity = 0. 74, b) M. daubentonii (n = 344), modularity = 0. 66, c) female M. daubentonii (n = 145), modularity = 0. 67, d) male M. daubentonii (n = 199), modularity = 0. 64. Nodes represent individual bats (males, circles; females, triangles) and associations are represented by the lines that join them. Colours indicate the assignment of individuals to social groups using the Girvan-Newman algorithm. Colours do not correspond between panels. Colours in a) and c) are comparable to Figure 3. The position of individuals within these networks indicates their position in social space and is not an indication of an individual's geographical location. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing evidence that certain species of bats, specifically M. nattereri and M. daubentonii, exhibit social structures and form social groups. It notes that 'M. nattereri formed 11 social groups' and highlights significant associations between females and between males, which contradicts the claim that bats are solitary.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Artifacts can provide insights into the daily lives of past cultures. [SEP] Text: Individuals with very short latencies will begin to feel uncomfortable within minutes of finishing a cigarette, prompting chain smoking. Such individuals will spend a great deal of time smoking (Table 3, Diagnostic and 5 (DSM 5) criterion 3). Table 3 DSM 5 criteria [7]Full size tableAs the latency shortens, smokers may experience difficulty in refraining from smoking in situations where it is not allowed and may avoid such situations because the emergence of craving and needing makes them uncomfortable (Table 3, DSM 5 criterion 7). Individuals with latencies shorter than the time spent in bed may smoke just before going to bed and still feel the need to smoke immediately upon arising. The latency explains why the time to the first morning cigarette is a valid measure of dependence [15, 45]. Insomnia is a symptom of tobacco withdrawal and individuals with very short latencies may awaken during the middle of the night needing to smoke [46]. The discomfort of individuals in the needing stage of withdrawal may be such that they will smoke even when sick in bed because the discomfort of withdrawal makes them feel even worse, and why, even some nondaily smokers feel compelled to go outside in severe weather to smoke [37]. A note on medical and psychiatric approaches to diagnosisThe medical approach to identifying and diagnosing conditions is based on evidence of a disruption of normal anatomy or physiology [47]. The observation that the three stages of physical dependence (wanting, craving and needing) correlate with structural and functional changes in the brain establishes that physical dependence represents a disruption of normal anatomy and physiology [21]. As such, tobacco dependence can be diagnosed as a medical condition when symptoms of withdrawal-induced wanting, craving or needing are reported [47]. In practical terms, tobacco users fulfill the criteria for a medical diagnosis of tobacco dependence when they reach the wanting stage of physical dependence as indicated by endorsement of the first symptom on the instrument in Table 1. While medical conditions are diagnosed on the basis of indications of altered anatomy or physiology, the psychiatric approach to diagnosis is based on indications of impairment. Under the definition offered by the DSM 5, substance use represents a mental disorder when a combination of specified symptoms causes “clinically significant impairment or distress” [7]. Dissimilar to intoxicating and illegal drugs, tobacco use rarely causes incarceration, job loss or divorce. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding artifacts and their insights into past cultures. It focuses on tobacco dependence, withdrawal symptoms, and medical and psychiatric approaches to diagnosis, which is unrelated to the topic of artifacts and cultural insights.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Memory consolidation occurs during sleep, enhancing long-term retention of information. [SEP] Text: (Current Biology, 2019) had also presented pseudowords and translation words for paired-associative word encoding during slow-wave sleep. Retrieval testing was performed in the waking state following sleep by use of a cued-recall task, as in the current study. During retrieval testing, Züst et al. recorded brain blood oxygenation using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Importantly, the hippocampus was activated during correctly, but not during incorrectly retrieved memories that had been formed during sleep. Crucially, activation resulting from this contrast within the posterior and anterior hippocampus and within lexical-semantic storage sites in the left temporal pole correlated between participants with retrieval performance (Züst et al. , 2019). These correlation results demonstrate that those participants, who learned the vocabulary best during slow-wave sleep activated the hippocampus and lexical-semantic storage sites the most during wake retrieval testing. Because the learning and retrieval tasks in the current study were similar to Züst et al. (2019), the hippocampus was likely mediating the retrieval of the sleep-formed associations in the current study. We have also measured the brain oxygenation using functional magnetic resonance imaging in five persons while they learned pairs of pseudowords and translation words during slow-wave sleep and found the hippocampus activated (besides language areas) in all persons (unpublished). For these reasons, we believe that vocabulary presentations during sleep had triggered a hippocampus-mediated rapid conceptual-associative encoding process that provided for flexible representations of combinations of pseudowords and translation words in episodic memory. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing evidence that vocabulary presentations during sleep activate the hippocampus, which is suggested to mediate the retrieval of associations formed during sleep. The findings indicate that participants who learned vocabulary during slow-wave sleep showed strong activation in the hippocampus when retrieving information, supporting the idea that sleep enhances long-term retention through memory consolidation.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Bats are solitary animals and do not form colonies or social groups. [SEP] Text: daubentonii also formed discrete social groups, with half of these containing more than 90% males (Figure 1b). This sexual segregation was apparent even when the analysis considered only males recaptured in two or three years, thereby removing ‘transient males’ who may only have been at the study site briefly. Consequently male and female M. daubentonii social networks were analysed separately. Individuals in the female network were assigned to 5 social groups (Figure 1c), with inter-group associations making up only 2. 1% of all associations (n = 1091) (22 intergroup associations compared to 1069 intragroup associations). Males were assigned to 10 social groups (Figure 1d), however unlike the female M. daubentonii networks (and the M. nattereri network), there was a significant number of inter-group associations (15. 4%, n = 1205, Figure 1d). This interconnectivity suggests that social group membership of M. daubentonii males is less specific than for the other networks. This, together with the relatively small sample size, precluded sensible assessment of the spatial organisation of male M. daubentonii. Spatial distribution of social groups Social groups showed roost site fidelity, each restricted to a sub-section of the woodland (Figure 2a and b). The four social groups for which 3 or fewer roosts were known (Figure 2a) were excluded from further consideration as accurate roost home range estimations were not possible. The mean minimum roost home range estimates were 0. 16 km2 (n = 4, range 0. 09–0. 30 km2) for female M. daubentonii and 0. 15 km2 (n = 7, range 0. 02–0. 32 km2) for M. nattereri. There was little spatial overlap between the estimated roost home ranges within species (female M. daubentonii = 5. 9%, M. nattereri = 9. 4%), and no area was shared by more than 2 social groups (Figure 2a and b). Between species however, there was significant overlap; 32% of the total area covered by both species was shared. Roost home range estimates were positively correlated to the number of individuals assigned to a social group (F = 6. 62, df = 1, P = 0. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing evidence that M. daubentonii forms discrete social groups, as illustrated by their distinct male and female networks, with males belonging to 10 social groups and females to 5. This social structure disproves the claim that bats are solitary, indicating that at least this species of bat forms social groups and has roost site fidelity within these groups.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Artifacts can provide insights into the daily lives of past cultures. [SEP] Text: The DSM does not explain what impairment or distress might mean in relation to tobacco use, and researchers have always assumed that anyone who satisfies the diagnostic criteria has “clinically significant impairment or distress” [48]. Table 3 lists the diagnostic criteria for Disorder under DSM-5 along with some criterion-specific observations. Only two criteria must be met to satisfy the DSM-5 requirements for a psychiatric diagnosis of tobacco use disorder. Tobacco users satisfy the DSM-5 tobacco use disorder criteria when they reach the craving stage of physical dependence. The presence of craving would satisfy criterion 4 “Craving, or a strong desire or urge to use tobacco” and smoking to alleviate that craving would satisfy criterion 11b “Tobacco (or a closely related substance, such as nicotine) is taken to relieve or avoid withdrawal symptoms. ” Since all individuals at the craving stage of physical dependence smoke to relieve their craving, simply establishing that an individual has reached the craving stage of physical dependence is equivalent to a DSM-5 diagnosis of tobacco use disorder. Although the medical and psychiatric approaches to diagnosis come from different perspectives, in practical terms, using the instrument in Table 2, tobacco dependence as a medical disorder can be diagnosed at the wanting stage of physical dependence, while DSM-5 tobacco use disorder can be diagnosed at the craving stage. The implication here is that researchers should recognize that dependence as a medical disorder may be present in individuals who do not meet DSM criteria for a psychiatric disorder; researchers should not limit their focus to individuals who meet DSM criteria. Dependence onset in relation to smoking frequencyCraving after having smoked only a few cigarettes is common. [17, 28, 49, 50] In a survey of 34,000 adolescents who had tried smoking, craving or other dependence symptoms were reported by one third of those that had smoked 3 or 4 tobacco cigarettes, and by half of those that had smoked 10–19 cigarettes [28]. By the reasoning described above, half of adolescent smokers meet DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for tobacco use disorder before they have smoked a whole pack of cigarettes. This should not be surprising given the rapidity with which nicotine triggers enduring neuroplastic changes in the brains of experimental animals (see [26] for a review). Neuroplastic changes have been observed after a single dose of nicotine in animal studies [51]. Each of the first 100 cigarettes appears to promote shortening of the latencies and the appearance of additional symptoms. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for tobacco use disorder and the relationship between nicotine dependence and craving, which has no connection to artifacts or insights into past cultures.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Memory consolidation occurs during sleep, enhancing long-term retention of information. [SEP] Text: are unresponsive during slow-wave sleep but continue monitoring external events for survival. Our brain wakens us when danger is imminent. If events are non-threatening, our brain might store them for later consideration to improve decision-making. To test this hypothesis, we examined whether novel vocabulary consisting of simultaneously played pseudowords and translation words are encoded/stored during sleep, and which neural-electrical events facilitate encoding/storage. An algorithm for brain-state-dependent stimulation selectively targeted word pairs to slow-wave peaks or troughs. Retrieval tests were given 12 and 36 hr later. These tests required decisions regarding the semantic category of previously sleep-played pseudowords. The sleep-played vocabulary influenced awake decision-making 36 hr later, if targeted to troughs. The words’ linguistic processing raised neural complexity. The words’ semantic-associative encoding was supported by increased theta power during the ensuing peak. Fast-spindle power ramped up during a second peak likely aiding consolidation. Hence, new vocabulary played during slow-wave sleep was stored and influenced decision-making days later. eLife assessment This manuscript supports the intriguing idea that some aspects of novel learning can occur during sleep and outside of awareness. The authors provide solid evidence that presenting participants with novel words and their translations during sleep, especially during slow oscillation troughs, leads to the ability to categorize the semantic meaning of those words during awake testing 36 hours later. These findings represent a valuable contribution to the literature on unconscious processing and learning during sleep, although the claim that the results reflect episodic memory formation, in particular, deviates from the typical use of this term in the literature. Read the peer reviews About eLife assessments asleep is accompanied by a gradual loss of consciousness of the external environment. Although the thalamic gating hypothesis had claimed a blockade of sensory information at the thalamic level (McCormick and Bal, 1994), we now know that sleepers still monitor the environment for their safety and survival (Ai et al. , 2018; Andrillon et al. , 2016; Andrillon et al. , 2017; Arzi et al. , 2012; Blume et al. , 2017; Koroma et al. , 2022; Ruch et al. , 2014; Ruch and Henke, 2020; Züst et al. , 2019). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing evidence that memory encoding and storage can occur during sleep. It discusses a study that showed how novel vocabulary is influenced by slow-wave sleep, leading to the ability to make semantic categorizations during awake testing after 36 hours. This aligns with the idea that sleep plays a critical role in long-term retention of information, supporting the notion of memory consolidation during sleep.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Bats are solitary animals and do not form colonies or social groups. [SEP] Text: 03) but were not linked with sampling effort (F = 0. 05, df = 1, P = 0. 82) or species (F = 0. 66, df = 1, P = 0. 44). The spatial distribution of social groups did not reflect our sampling regime, and areas surveyed in a single day frequently contained more than one social group (an example of daily sampling is shown in Figure S1). Download: PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageFigure 2. Distribution of a) M. nattereri both sexes and b) female M. daubentonii social groups in Wytham Woods. Roosts used by bats, and home range estimates are coloured according to social group - colours are comparable to Figure 2, panels a) and c) – symbols indicate colony size and roosts identified by radio-tracking. Roost home ranges are estimated using 100% minimum convex polygons (MCPs). MCPs exclude roosts occupied by a single individual (M. nattereri, n = 42; M. daubentonii, n = 44) or separated by over 1 km from a roost of the same social group (n = 1 for each species). Four adult female M. daubentonii were radio-tracked; two from each of two social groups. The daytime roosts (including trees) used by these individuals are indicated by asterisks and are coloured according to the social group to which they belonged. roosting sites of four female M. daubentonii, two from each of two different social groups, were identified using daytime positioning for 51 tag-days (10–15 days per bat). These individuals were located in boxes on 29% of tag-days (range, 20–55%), and in natural tree roosts on all other occasions. The tracked bats changed roosts on average every 2 days (range, 1. 1–3. 5) and were located inside the roost home range of their group on 75% of occasions (range, 30–71%; Figure 2b). Of those roost locations that were outside the minimum roost home range, 28% were within 15 m and 42% were within 100 m of their range. On no occasion was a radio-tracked individual located in the known roost home range of another M. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by describing the existence of social groups among bats, specifically mentioning that roosts used by bats reflect their social dynamics. It indicates that multiple social groups can inhabit the same area, as evidenced by the tracking of bats and their roosting behaviors which suggest they often associate within their social groups.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Artifacts can provide insights into the daily lives of past cultures. [SEP] Text: [17, 28, 37, 49] The prevalence of craving and other symptoms increases to about 95 % among youth who have smoked 100 or more cigarettes [17, 52, 53]. In relation to smoking frequency, symptoms of physical dependence are reported by 82 % of youth who smoke at least once per week but not every day, and by 95 % of daily smokers [52]. Consistent with reports of latencies of four weeks or more, 46 % of youth who were smoking less than once per month experienced symptoms of physical dependence [17, 29, 49, 54]. Similarly, in a national survey nearly half of youths who smoked as few as 1–3 days per month reported having experienced at least one symptom of nicotine dependence [43]. Growth in the number of symptoms of dependence reported is greatest at the lowest levels of exposure in terms of days smoking per month or cigarettes smoked per day [43]. Symptom development tends to plateau when daily consumption reaches 6–15 cigarettes [43]. PrognosisThe prognosis for adolescent tobacco dependence is poor. Early symptoms of dependence predict continued and escalating smoking [37]. Shortening latencies promote an escalation in smoking frequency, while more frequent smoking promotes the progression of dependence in a mutually reinforcing cycle [45, 53, 55]. The number and intensity of the symptoms experienced by very light smokers is disproportionate to their tobacco consumption, with some nondaily smokers describing their withdrawal symptoms as unbearable [56–58]. Many nondaily smokers have failed at one or more attempts to quit, and, in cessation studies, nondaily and daily smokers relapse at the same high rates [54, 59–62]. The first insights into how tobacco dependence develops came from observing that youths who used tobacco infrequently reported significant difficulty in stopping their use. It might be a fruitful first approach to ask infrequent users of other substances if they have ever failed in an attempt to stop using the drug. Because relapse rates are very high even before the onset of daily use, craving is a grave prognostic indicator even at minimal levels of tobacco use [59, 60]. Youth become aware of craving, on average, when they are smoking two cigarettes per week [59, 60]. In a 12-year longitudinal study, smoking two cigarettes per week at age 12 increased the risk of progressing to heavy adult smoking with an odds ratio of 174 [38, 63]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses youth tobacco dependence and its symptoms, which is unrelated to the claim about artifacts providing insights into past cultures. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Memory consolidation occurs during sleep, enhancing long-term retention of information. [SEP] Text: The sleeping brain decides whether an external event can be disregarded, requires immediate awakening or should be stored for later consideration in the waking state (Ameen et al. , 2022; Blume et al. , 2018; Formby, 1967; Holeckova et al. , 2006; Moyne et al. , 2022; Oswald et al. , 1960; Türker et al. , 2023). Although the processing of external information during sleep versus wakefulness is reduced (Andrillon et al. , 2016), sleep still allows for the detection of semantic incongruity (Bastuji and García-Larrea, 1999; Ibáñez et al. , 2006) and the detection of rule violations (Ruby et al. , 2008; Strauss et al. , 2015). Furthermore, there is evidence that the sleeping brain cannot only process information, but can store new information, ranging from tone-odor to word-word associations (Ai et al. , 2018; Andrillon and Kouider, 2016; Arzi et al. , 2012; Ataei et al. , 2023; de Lavilléon et al. , 2015; Koroma et al. , 2022; Züst et al. , 2019). However, it remains unclear whether and under what circumstances the most sophisticated form of human learning, namely episodic memory formation, can proceed during deep sleep (Ruch and Henke, 2020). The term episodic memory refers to the recollection of personally experienced episodes (Tulving, 2002). Episodic memory formation depends on hippocampal-neocortical interactions (Cohen and Eichenbaum, 1993; Henke, 2010). Because episodic memory belongs to declarative/explicit memory, episodic memory was long associated with wakefulness and conscious awareness of events (Gabrieli, 1998; Moscovitch, 2008; Schacter, 1998; Squire and Dede, 2015; Tulving, 2002). In the meantime, counterevidence suggests that hippocampal-assisted episodic memory formation may also proceed without conscious awareness of the learning material (Duss et al. , 2014; Reber et al. , 2012; Schneider et al. , 2021; Züst et al. , 2019). When applying such tasks, unconscious hippocampus-assisted episodic encoding of subliminal (invisible) words was revealed (Duss et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by stating that the sleeping brain can process and store new information, mentioning specific associations that can occur during sleep, which supports the idea of memory consolidation. Additionally, it supports the notion that sleep enhances retention of information, despite debates on the extent of processes like episodic memory formation during deep sleep.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Bats are solitary animals and do not form colonies or social groups. [SEP] Text: daubentonii social group, despite several other potential ranges lying within easy flight distance. M. daubentonii bachelor colonies observed during the nursery period were frequently found within the estimated roost home ranges of female social groups and of these, 5 bachelor colonies were identified in roost locations previously used by nursery colonies (Figure S3). Duration of association between individuals Associations within and between sexes differed in their stability over time. This was true for both species (Figure 3). Up until approximately 400 days, all classes of M. nattereri association showed similar lagged association rates (Figure 3). Approximately half of associating pairs of M. nattereri were found associating after a few days, dropping by 100 days to 35–45% (range encompasses means, by sex, of the probability of a bat being found in future with the same individual i. e. M-M, M-F, F-M and F-F). There was then a gradual decline across all classes of association until about 400–500 days, suggestive of the breakdown of casual acquaintances. Beyond this point data were lacking for male-male and male-female associations; however female-male associations showed a continued decline suggestive of further breakdown of casual acquaintances, while female-female associations stabilised. These results suggest that M. nattereri have casual relationships lasting up to 400 days with some constant companionship between females beyond this. Overall there was some suggestion that the lagged association rates of same-sex associations were higher than those between sexes (Figure 3). Lagged association rates for all classes stayed above the null association rate for all time intervals, indicating the presence of preferred associations both within and between sexes. Download: PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageFigure 3. Lagged association rates within and between sexes of M. daubentonii (left) and M. nattereri (right). Standard error is calculated by jackknifing over a 30-day period. trends are observed in the temporal structure of M. daubentonii associations (Figure 3): only a quarter of the associating pairs were found associating after a few days. After this point, same-sex associations approximated those seen for female-female M. nattereri after 500 days, indicating that stable long-term companionships exist. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by detailing social structures and associations within bat species, particularly M. daubentonii and M. nattereri. Key insights include the existence of bachelor colonies, female social groups, and lasting associations among individuals. For instance, the text notes that 'female-male associations showed a continued decline suggestive of further breakdown of casual acquaintances, while female-female associations stabilised,' and that 'stable long-term companionships exist.' This indicates that bats can form social groups and are not solely solitary animals.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Excavation sites can reveal stratigraphy that reflects historical events. [SEP] Text: Skip to Content eLife home page your research Search by keyword or author Reset form my search to Research 10. 7554/eLife. 37131 Open access Copyright information Version of RecordAugust 15, 2018 Version of RecordJune 19, 2018 Open annotations (there are currently 0 annotations on this page). 11,400 views 565 downloads 24 7131. Copy to clipboard Download BibTeX Download. RIS Full text Figures and data Peer review Side by side Abstract eLife digest and methods Data availability 10. 7554/eLife. 37131. 001 eLife digest The most internal part of the human ear, the inner ear, is essential for us to hear and have a sense of balance. It is formed by a complex series of connected cavities filled by a liquid. When sound waves and changes in the position of the body make this liquid move, specialized ‘hair’ cells can detect these subtle movements; neurons then relay this information to the brain where it is decoded and interpreted. For the inner ear to work properly, the body needs to finely regulate the pressure created by the liquid inside the cavities. For example, people with unstable pressure in their ears can experience deafness or problems with balance. A structure known as the endolymphatic sac, which is a balloon-like chamber connected to the rest of the inner ear by a thin tube, helps with this regulation. However, scientists are still unsure about how exactly the sac performs its role. One problem is that the inner ear is difficult to study because it is encased in one of the densest bones in the body. Many other animals also have inner ears, from fish to birds and mammals. Here, Swinburne et al. examine the inner ear of zebrafish embryos because, in this fish, the ear starts working before the bones around it form; the structure is therefore accessible for injections and microscopy. Experiments show that when the pressure in the inner ear rises, the endolymphatic sac slowly fills up with the ear liquid, and then it rapidly deflates. Fish with mutations that stop the sac from deflating have overinflated sacs, which is a symptom also found in certain patients with hearing and balance disorders. Looking into the details of these inflation-deflation cycles, Swinburne et al. found that the cells that form the sac have gaps between them, unlike a normal sheet of cells. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the inner ear structure of zebrafish embryos and their importance in hearing and balance, without mentioning excavation sites or stratigraphy. There is no connection to historical events or archaeological insights.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Memory consolidation occurs during sleep, enhancing long-term retention of information. [SEP] Text: , 2014; Reber et al. , 2012). Thus, in the current study, we define episodic memory based on its key computational properties, which are the rapid formation of new associations calling on the hippocampus' ability for one-shot relational binding, and the flexible retrieval of these associations in novel contexts. We used this definition to explore episodic verbal learning during the unconsciousness of deep sleep. We applied a sleep-learning and awake-retrieval task that requires rapid semantic associative encoding of pseudowords and German translation words, memory storage of the formed associations over days, and a cued associative retrieval that requires a flexible representation of the sleep-encoded pseudoword-word associations. As proposed and demonstrated by previous work (Cohen and Eichenbaum, 1993; Henke, 2010; O’Reilly et al. , 2014; O’Reilly and Rudy, 2000), these task-enforced demands call upon the episodic memory system, according to its computational definition. Although slow-wave sleep (deep sleep) is characterized by an average neurochemical milieu and neural functional connectivity that does not favour episodic memory formation, slow-wave sleep is not a unitary state. In fact, neuronal activity and excitability waxes and wanes during slow-wave sleep, thereby generating the eponymous electroencephalographic slow-waves that oscillate at 1 Hz and are characterised by slow-wave peaks and troughs. A peak and a trough each last around 500 ms (Berry et al. , 2015). Because peaks of slow-waves are associated with high neural excitability and wake-like network characteristics, peaks might provide the necessary plasticity mechanisms for episodic memory formation (Cox et al. , 2014a; Diba and Buzsáki, 2007). Züst et al. , 2019 reported successful paired-associate learning in humans during peaks of slow-waves recorded in a mid-day nap with the retrieval of the sleep-learned associations tested after awakening on the same day. Because peaks with their depolarized neural states are also the time windows when memories formed during the previous days are replayed, strengthened, and consolidated (Göldi et al. , 2019; Mölle et al. , 2002; Mölle et al. , 2011; Muehlroth et al. , 2019; Staresina et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by explaining that periods of high neural excitability during slow-wave sleep may provide the necessary mechanisms for episodic memory formation and consolidation. It mentions that peaks of slow-waves are associated with replaying, strengthening, and consolidating memories formed in the previous days, effectively supporting the idea that sleep enhances long-term retention of information.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Bats are solitary animals and do not form colonies or social groups. [SEP] Text: By contrast, between-sex associations showed a decline in lagged association rate following the first few days, plateauing at 100 days for male-female associations and 300 days for female-male associations (Figure 3). After these time points there was little difference between the observed level of association and that expected from a random network (null association rate) suggesting that between-sex associations amongst M. daubentonii represent casual acquaintances that last no longer than a year. Association rates for both species are below 50%, even at short time periods, indicating that most bats do not roost with the same individuals every day. DiscussionThis study identified multiple social groups in both M. nattereri and M. daubentonii populations within a continuous landscape in which roosts are not limiting. The social groups formed by M. daubentonii females and M. nattereri of both sexes show few inter-group interactions and little overlap between roost home ranges (Figure 1a, c and Figure 2a, b). Social structure As expected from work on other species [11], both M. nattereri and M. daubentonii formed multiple social groups centred on females. Almost all male M. nattereri also associated with only one social group, and male-male associations were less common than expected by chance. Analysis of the temporal structure of associations support our prediction that intra-sex associations would be long lived. For both M. nattereri and M. daubentonii we observed enduring female to female and male to male associations. In each case, we found evidence of associations lasting more than one year, meaning that the individuals reformed their associations after prolonged absence from summer roosts during the hibernation period, as has previously been reported in M. bechsteinii [33]. Inter-sex associations amongst M. daubentonii were found to be short lived, but amongst M. nattereri, associations between sexes were seen to last more than a year. In both cases, this difference is likely to be the result of the dispersal behaviour of males, since male M. nattereri are thought to be philopatric [14] while a proportion of male M. daubentonii are thought to disperse [15]. Spatial structure contains an excess of roost sites, most of which are empty on any given day. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing evidence that bats do form social groups. It states that both M. nattereri and M. daubentonii exemplify multiple social groups and mentions associations, particularly lasting relationships among females. Furthermore, it indicates that inter-group interactions are limited but do exist, which suggests that bats do not behave solely as solitary animals.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Excavation sites can reveal stratigraphy that reflects historical events. [SEP] Text: A flap covers these gaps to keep the liquid in, but under pressure, the flap opens and the liquid can escape. These results show that the endolymphatic sac works as a pressure relief valve for the inner ear. Ultimately, understanding how pressure is regulated in the ear could help patients with inner ear disorders. It could also serve as a template to investigate how eyes, kidneys and the brain, which all have liquid-filled cavities, control their internal pressure. the mechanisms by which organs use water-filled cavities to compartmentalize biochemical and biophysical environments is a fundamental problem. Because water is nearly incompressible, several organs harness and cope with water as an object that transmits force. Hydrostatic pressure inflates the eye during development (Coulombre, 1956). Later, unstable ocular pressure from reduced production of aqueous humor or reduced drainage can lead to blindness, as occurs in hypertonic maculopathy or glaucoma (Costa and Arcieri, 2007; Leske, 1983). Hydrostatic pressure appears to drive expansion of brain ventricles during development (Desmond, 1985; Desmond and Levitan, 2002; Lowery and Sive, 2005). Later, unstable hydrostatic pressure in brain ventricles is correlated with hydrocephaly and mental disorders (Hardan et al. , 2001; Kurokawa et al. , 2000). Hydrostatic pressure inflates and controls the size of the developing ear (Abbas and Whitfield, 2009; Hoijman et al. , 2015; Mosaliganti et al. , unpublished). Later, unstable pressure in the ear can cause deafness and balance disorders like Pendred syndrome and Ménière’s disease (Belal and Antunez, 1980; Schuknecht and Gulya, 1983). This theme of harnessing hydrostatic pressure for normal development and controlling pressure for healthy physiology raises the question of how tissues regulate pressure. Tissue structures identified as important for pressure control include Schlemm’s canal in the eye, arachnoid granules and the choroid plexus in the brain, and the endolymphatic duct and sac in the ear (Johnstone et al. , 2011; Kimura and Schuknecht, 1965; Naito, 1950; Orešković et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses internal physiological mechanisms of pressure regulation in various organs, particularly the inner ear, without any mention of excavation sites or stratigraphy. It does not address any link to historical events or archaeology.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Memory consolidation occurs during sleep, enhancing long-term retention of information. [SEP] Text: We further anticipated that associations formed through hippocampal-neocortical interactions would last for hours or days thanks to immediate hippocampal long-term potentiation and an immediate hippocampally triggered replay (Frankland et al. , 2001; Goto et al. , 2021; Takeuchi et al. , 2014; Tsien et al. , 1996). This hypothesis was significantly inspired by the finding of subliminally formed unconscious episodic memories lasting over 10 hr and increasing their influence on human decision-making over this time (Pacozzi et al. , 2022). We played 27 pairs of pseudowords (e. g. aryl) and 27 translation words (e. g. bird; nouns) in the experimental condition (EC) and pseudowords alone (e. g. egref) in the control condition (CC) during either troughs or peaks of slow-waves (Figure 1). Peak/Trough-targeting was manipulated between participants with 15 participants per group. Each group was played words from the experimental condition and the control condition during sleep within the same night. Word pairs (EC) and pseudowords (CC) were played four times in succession to increase the probability that the words pass the thalamic gate. The test of whether semantic associations were formed between pseudowords and translation words during deep sleep followed 12 hr and again 36 hr later in the waking state. This retrieval test required participants to assign earlier sleep-played pseudowords to one of three semantic categories: animals, tools, places. Each sleep-played translation word was a noun that belongs to one of these superordinate categories (counterbalanced between participants: nine animals, nine tools, nine places). As participants were in deep sleep, while the vocabulary was being played, participants could not consciously remember the word pairs at test. Therefore, we encouraged them to decide intuitively about category assignments. This task triggers an unconscious associative retrieval by cueing a memory reactivation solely by the sound of the pseudoword alone. Once the meaning of the pseudoword-associated translation word was reactivated in memory, this meaning needed to be converted to the appropriate superordinate semantic category. If the number of correct category assignments exceeded chance performance (33%), we attributed this excess to successful sleep-learning. Importantly, we provided no feedback regarding category assignments to leave assignment accuracy at the 36 hr retrieval uninfluenced by the preceding 12 hr retrieval. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by describing a study where semantic associations were formed and tested after participants experienced deep sleep while word pairs were played. This aligns with the concept of memory consolidation during sleep, as the results indicated that the participants were able to recall associations made during sleep upon waking, suggesting that sleep facilitates long-term retention of information.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Bats are solitary animals and do not form colonies or social groups. [SEP] Text: We therefore predicted that intra-specific social group home ranges would overlap since competition for roosts is likely to be low. We found high levels of overlap in the roost home ranges of different species, but very little overlap in the roost home ranges of social groups within a species. One potential hypothesis to explain the lack of intra-specific overlap is that social groups are defending foraging resources. M. nattereri forage within woodland and it is possible that they are defending patches of woodland from other M. nattereri groups whilst M. daubentonii, which preferentially forage over water, might defend areas of woodland that give them easiest access to their prime foraging habitats. This could be tested by observing the foraging of individuals from known social groups using radio-tracking. Previous studies suggest that M. daubentonii bachelor colonies are excluded from roosting in areas of high quality foraging habitat by females [15]. We therefore predicted that areas of the study site close to high quality foraging sites (Thames and Farmoor Reservoir) would host female colonies but not bachelor colonies. However, while female social groups were indeed found close to these foraging habitats, males were frequently found within the predicted roost home range of female social groups (Figure S3). The domination of territories by females may therefore be dependent on habitat quality, with males being tolerated where resources are abundant as may be the case at our study site. Alternatively there may be sexual segregation of foraging activity outside the woodland. Broader implications The results of this study have implications for bat conservation, disease dynamics, and the transfer of information through the population. Roost home range estimates were very small for both species (0. 1–0. 3 km2 for M. daubentonii and 0. 02–0. 3 km2 for M. nattereri). In addition, roosts identified by radio-tracking were close to, or within, the calculated roost home range. Thus, despite switching roosting locations frequently, woodland bat social groups rely on a network of roosts within a constrained geographical area. Small scale habitat changes, such as the felling of wood for timber, may therefore have a greater impact than previously suspected. Studies of Chalinolobus tuberculatus, a threatened bat species, have shown that their social groups have similarly restricted roost home ranges [3]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the presence of social groups among bats, specifically mentioning that social groups of M. nattereri are defending foraging resources and that roost home ranges of social groups within a species show limited overlap. It also highlights that female colonies were found close to high-quality foraging areas, suggesting that bats do form social groups and colonies.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Excavation sites can reveal stratigraphy that reflects historical events. [SEP] Text: , 2017; Pollay, 2010; Symss and Oi, 2013; Tripathi, 1974). A cavity’s pressure could be managed via mechanisms involving molecular pores, molecular transporters, and the physical behavior of the tissue. Observing the mechanisms by which these tissue barriers control pressure has been limited by a range of obstacles such as optical accessibility and uncertainty in both the time- and length-scale on which they function. As such, not much is known about how these tissues manage fluctuating pressures because they have not been observed in vivo. The inner ear is a prominent example of an organ whose tissue form determines its physiology. It is filled with endolymph, the composition of which differs from other fluids such as plasma, perilymph, and cerebral spinal fluid in that it contains high potassium, low sodium, and high electric potential (Lang et al. , 2007). This endolymph composition is necessary to drive ion currents into hair cells to convert fluid movement, caused by either the head’s acceleration or by sound, into biochemical signals that underlie balance and hearing. The ear’s endolymphatic duct connects the endolymph in the semicircular canals, cochlea, and other chambers to the endolymphatic sac (ES, Figure 1A,B). An ES-like structure is present in basal vertebrates, including lamprey and hagfish (Hammond and Whitfield, 2006), suggesting it plays an ancient role in inner ear function. The epithelium of the ES, as well as that of the rest of the ear, has an apical surface facing the internal endolymph and a basal surface facing the external perilymph (Figure 1A). Most of the adult ear is enclosed in a bony labyrinth within the temporal bone and perilymph is located in the space between the epithelium and bone (Figure 1A). In adults, the endolymphatic duct and sac are partially encased within the temporal bone such that the distal end of the endolymphatic sac protrudes out of the temporal bone into the cranial cavity (Figure 1A). Excessive hydrostatic pressure can tear the inner ear’s epithelium, disrupting its electric potential (a pathology called endolymphatic hydrops). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim. It discusses the physiological mechanisms of the inner ear and does not mention excavation sites or stratigraphy, thus failing to address or relate to the claim about how excavation sites can provide insights into historical events.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Memory consolidation occurs during sleep, enhancing long-term retention of information. [SEP] Text: Figure 1 Download asset Open asset Experimental design. (A) Design overview: There were three experimental sessions per participant. Thirty participants heard pairs of pseudowords and translation words during sleep starting around 11 pm. They took a first retrieval test at 12 hr and a second retrieval test at 36 hr after the acoustic stimulations during sleep. The EEG was recorded during sleep and during the first retrieval at 12 hr. (B) Experimental conditions: We varied between subjects whether the words were played during peaks or troughs of slow-waves. Within subjects we played pairs of pseudowords and translation words in the experimental condition and pseudowords alone in the control condition. Both word pairs (experimental condition) and pseudowords (control condition) were presented four times in succession to facilitate sleep-learning. In the experimental condition, translation words were played into the left ear and pseudowords into the right ear. (C) Retrieval tasks: Retrieval tasks were the same at the 12 hr and the 36 hr retrieval. Previously sleep-played and new pseudowords were presented at test in both the visual and auditory modality simultaneously (a word appeared on screen and was simultaneously spoken). During each presentation of a pseudoword, participants needed to answer three questions. First, they were asked to indicate whether they had a feeling of having heard (FoHH) the presented word during their sleep in the laboratory. Next, they were asked to assign the presented pseudoword to a superordinate category (animal, tool, place; categorization task). Lastly, they were asked to rate their confidence on a four-point scale regarding their category assignment. healthy male and female volunteers were acoustically stimulated during their slow-wave night-sleep with an average of 23. 98 (SD 3. 84) pairs of pseudowords and translation words. We targeted these word pairs either to slow-wave peaks or to troughs using our own slow wave phase-targeted, brain-state-dependent stimulation algorithm (, 2022). Pseudowords and translation words were simultaneously played into the right ear and left ear, respectively (Aarons, 1990; Kimura, 1961). Their presentation lasted on average 540 ms (SEM = 0. 011 ms). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing an experimental design where participants were exposed to pseudowords and translations during sleep. This sleep-learning process likely supports the assertion that sleep plays a crucial role in memory consolidation, as it suggests that information can be processed and retained while sleeping, enhancing long-term retention.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Bats are solitary animals and do not form colonies or social groups. [SEP] Text: Within the year following tree felling, individuals in the area had smaller roosting home ranges and used fewer roosts than individuals in areas away from felling [34]. A substantial reduction in available roosting habitat within a social group's roost home range may also increase competition between social groups. It is therefore critical that the needs and locations of social groups are considered when undertaking alterations to woodlands with important bat populations. The social structures we have identified suggest that pathogens are likely to spread rapidly within social groups of M. nattereri but slowly between them. For M. daubentonii, similar patterns would be expected for females, whilst in males, spread would also be rapid between groups (15. 4% of all interactions were between-group). Such heterogeneity in transmission risk is commonly omitted from models of disease epidemiology, but the inadequacy of traditional random-mixing or frequency-dependent based models in describing many diseases is becoming increasingly apparent [35]. Bats are frequently the focus of infectious disease research: a number of recent outbreaks of highly infectious pathogens are thought to have their origins in wild bat populations [36]–[39], and bats are the ancestral host for some viruses that now infect a range of animals including humans [40]. Since males are primarily responsible for connectivity between female groups of M. daubentonii we hypothesise that they are likely to have a high probability of infection, and play an important role in disease transmission, as would be predicted by theoretical models [41]. However, this prediction needs to be tested empirically. In a well-characterised population of meerkats (Suricata suricatta), roving males had an increased risk of infection with TB (Mycobacterium bovis) but the groups visited were not found to be at increased risk of infection [42]. Not only is the social organisation of wild animals important to disease transmission, it is also likely to affect the transfer of information fundamental for individual and population survival. We suggest that identifying the cryptic patterns of social structure and spacing in bats is an important step towards improved management and conservation. Supporting InformationFigure S1. Distribution of sampling effort. Points show bird boxes (potential bat roosts). Three polygons show examples of the typical area of boxes checked in a day. Figure S2. Spatial distribution of roosts. M. nattereri (red) and M. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing evidence that bats, specifically species like M. nattereri and M. daubentonii, exhibit social structures and form social groups. It mentions that the social structures identified indicate competition between social groups and the likelihood of rapid pathogen spread within them, thus suggesting that bats do not solely live solitary lives but rather engage in social group dynamics.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Excavation sites can reveal stratigraphy that reflects historical events. [SEP] Text: In contrast, low potassium or reduced endolymph production can lower hydrostatic pressure within the ear to the point where the ear chambers may collapse (Lang et al. , 2007). Early work showed that ES ablation causes hydrostatic pressure to rise and the epithelium to tear (Kimura and Schuknecht, 1965; Naito, 1950), suggesting that the ES may maintain endolymph homeostasis. Recent work indicated that an explanted mouse ES gradually loses endolymph (Honda et al. , 2017). While many molecular pores and transporters are expressed in the ES, it is unclear why it is organized as a dead-end tube and how it might reduce endolymph volume. Figure 1 with 1 supplement see all Download asset Open asset ES lumen slowly inflates and rapidly deflates every 0. 3–4. 5 hr. (A) Illustration of the adult human inner ear showing cochlea, semicircular canals (SCCs), and endolymphatic duct and sac (ES, red arrowhead) and their organization of tissue (green), endolymph (beige), perilymph (magenta), and bone (black). Illustrations of the adult and larval zebrafish inner ear showing ES (indicated with red arrowheads, see also Figure 1—figure supplement 1 and Video 1 for how the zebrafish ES first forms). (B) Micrograph of larval zebrafish, sagittal view. (B’) In situ of foxi1 highlights position of ES (red arrowhead), n = 12. (C) Illustration of imaging setup. (D) Slices and select time points from 3D confocal time course showing a single inflation and deflation event from a live zebrafish embryo. Cell membranes (green) are labeled using ubiquitous membrane citrine transgenes. Perilymph (magenta) is labeled with 3 kDa dextran-Texas red. ES identified with dotted blue outline and yellow arrow. Lumen of inflated ES identified with dashed white outline in 64:36 panel. (E) Corresponding 3D meshes of the segmented ES lumen volume. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses ear physiology and homeostasis mechanisms rather than excavation sites or stratigraphy. There is no mention or implication of historical events related to excavation or geological studies.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Memory consolidation occurs during sleep, enhancing long-term retention of information. [SEP] Text: Word pairs’ sound onset was ~100 ms before the local maxima of the targeted slow-wave phase and largely fit into this half-wave (duration of slow-wave peaks/troughs: ~500 ms, duration of word pair presentation: 540 ms, overlap: 350 ms). Each word pair was presented four times in succession to enhance the odds of their successful processing. Adding over the four repetitions, a mean of 95. 33 (SD = 15. 41) word pairs was played per participant. Targeting vocabulary to troughs provided for successful sleep-learning and long-term storage We computed a 2x2 ANOVA with the between-subjects factor Peak- versus Trough-targeting and the within-subjects factor Encoding-(12 hr versus 36 hr). The dependent variable was retrieval accuracy expressed as the difference between the percentages of correctly retrieved associations minus the percentage of the theoretical chance level performance (33. 33 %). Over all conditions, associative retrieval performance exceeded chance performance by 2. 67% (SD = 8. 11), which just failed statistical significance (F Intercept(1,28) = 3. 490, p=0. 077). Retrieval performance over both encoding-test delays was significantly better when word pairs were targeted to Troughs rather than Peaks (main effect Peak versus Trough: F(1,28) = 5. 237, p=0. 030, d=0. 865, Figure 2A). Retrieval performance did not differ significantly between the two encoding-test delays (main effect Encoding-Test Delay: F(1,28) = 0. 571, p=0. 456). There was no significant interaction between the factor Peak versus Trough and the factor Encoding-(F(1,28) = 0. 646, p=0. 428). Figure 2 with 4 supplements see all Download asset Open asset Memory performance. (A) Bar plots illustrate how well participants had assigned the pseudowords presented at test to a superordinate category in the experimental condition; the data are averaged (SEM) over both retrieval time points (N=30). Categorization accuracy in the Trough condition (blue) was above chance (chance = 1/3 correct assignments; F(1,14)=5. 660, p=0. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim as it discusses how targeting vocabulary to troughs during sleep leads to successful sleep-learning and promotes long-term storage of information. Specifically, it mentions that retrieval performance was significantly better when sessions were timed to occur during troughs of slow-wave sleep, which aligns with the idea that memory consolidation occurs during sleep.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Bats are solitary animals and do not form colonies or social groups. [SEP] Text: daubentonii (blue) and both species (white). Both species have been found in a large number of roosts though occupy few on any given day, suggesting that roosts are not limiting at this site. Figure S3. Distribution of M. daubentonii bachelor colonies (defined as >90% male) observed during the nursery period compared to the MCPs of female social groups. 1. Altringham JD (1996) and Behaviour. Oxford: Press. 2. (2003) Bat Ecology. Chicago: of Chicago Press. 3. O′Donnell CFJ (2000) Cryptic local populations in a temperate rainforest bat Chalinolobus tuberculatus in New Zealand. 3: 287–297. View 4. Fortuna MA, Popa-Lisseanu AG, Ibáñez C, (2009) The roosting spatial network of a bird-predator bat. Ecology 90: 934–944. View 5. (2012) Roost networks of northern myotis (Myotis septentrionalis) in a managed landscape. Manage 266: 223–231. View 6. (2007) Nonrandom association patterns at northern long-eared bat maternity roosts. Zool 85: 956–964. View 7. (2010) Do social networks of female northern long-eared bats vary with reproductive period and age? Sociobiol 64: 899–913. View 8. (2011) Bats are able to maintain long-term social relationships despite the high fission-fusion dynamics of their groups. Sci 278: 2761–2767. View 9. (2010) Comparative social network analysis in a leaf-roosting bat. Sociobiol 64: 1619–1630. View 10. (2004) Analysis of Spix's disc-winged bat association patterns and roosting home ranges reveal a novel social structure among bats. 68: 507–521. View 11. (2012) Social networks of Rafinesque's big-eared bats (Corynorhinus rafinesquii) in bottomland hardwood forests. J Mammal 93: 1545–1558. View 12. (1998) Social structure of three sympatric bat species (Vespertilionidae). J Zool 244: 379–389. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing evidence that bats can form social groups, as indicated by the mention of 'bachelor colonies,' 'female social groups,' and references to studies that examine social networks among bats. The discussion of roosting patterns and social structures suggests that bats can indeed have social relationships and group dynamics, which opposes the claim of bats being solitary.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Excavation sites can reveal stratigraphy that reflects historical events. [SEP] Text: (F) Quantification of segmented ES volumes (primary axis, green) and leak in fluorescence (secondary axis, magenta) over multiple cycles (see also Figure 1—figure supplement 1B,C and Videos 2–3). (G) Histogram of times between peak inflation volumes, compiled from eight different time courses and 54 inflations. Scale bars 100 μm for (B) and 10 μm for (D,E). The ES has not been studied much in zebrafish because it has not always been clear that zebrafish possess this structure or at what time it forms during development (Haddon and Lewis, 1996; Hammond and Whitfield, 2006). In situ hybridization images at 52 hr post fertilization (hpf) showing expression of ES markers, foxi1 and bmp4, restricted to an ES-like structure positioned on the dorsal side of the otic vesicle are the strongest and developmentally earliest evidence for zebrafish having an ES (Figure 1B’) (Abbas and Whitfield, 2009; Geng et al. , 2013). However, its formation and physiological function remain unknown. Here, we present a detailed characterization of the ES in zebrafish performed using confocal microscopy, serial-section electron microscopy, adaptive optics lattice light-sheet microscopy, and a genetic mutant that together demonstrate that the ES contains a physical relief valve for regulating inner ear fluid pressure through regulated transepithelial fluid release. endolymphatic sac exhibits cycles of inflation and deflation We first established an imaging system to identify the developmental origins of the zebrafish ES. Extended time-lapse imaging required long-term immobilization with α-bungarotoxin that permits normal development without the reduction in ear growth caused by long-term treatment with tricaine, bright fluorescent transgenic fish with contrast from a membrane-localized fluorescent protein to minimize bleaching and photoxicity, and mounting in a submerged agarose canyon that permits positioning of the zebrafish ear close to the coverslip (400 μm wide, walls of canyon secure the yolk and head, Figure 1C) (Swinburne et al. , 2015). The zebrafish ear develops from a collection of epithelial cells that form a closed fluid-filled ellipsoidal structure called the otic vesicle (Whitfield, 2015). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding excavation sites or stratigraphy; instead, it focuses on the study of the embryonic development of the zebrafish endolymphatic sac. This makes the text irrelevant to the claim about archaeological contexts.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Memory consolidation occurs during sleep, enhancing long-term retention of information. [SEP] Text: 2%, MPeak = 47. 0%, p=0. 98). A descriptive analysis of participants’ category assignments suggested that the better retrieval performance in the Trough compared to the Peak condition after 36 hr (Figure 2—figure supplement 2) was due to the following differences in participants' behaviors: Participants in the Trough condition were more likely to assign pseudowords to the correct category at 36 hr when they were already correct at 12 hr (Trough: 20% of all items at 36 hr, or 54% of all initially correctly assigned items; Peak: 14% of all items at 36 hr, or 42% of all initially correctly assigned items). (B) Participants in the Trough condition were more likely to switch assignments and use the correct category at 36 hr, if they had initially assigned them to an incorrect category at 12 hr (Trough: 20% of all items at 36 hr, or 32% of the initially incorrectly assigned items; Peak: 18% of all items at 36 hr, or 27% of the initially incorrectly assigned items). Hence, in the Trough condition, pseudowords that were correctly assigned to the object category after 12 hr remained correct after 36 hr, while new correct assignments for initially incorrectly classified pseudowords were added at 36 hr. This is additional evidence that the above-chance retrieval performance at 36 hr is no fluke but originates from sleep-learning. Because word pairs were exclusively played during slow-wave sleep, which is accompanied by a loss of consciousness (Dement and Kleitman, 1957; Massimini et al. , 2012), encoding and retrieval must have been unconscious. Nevertheless, we assessed whether encoding and retrieval were subjectively unconscious by asking participants to indicate whether they had a “feeling of having heard” (FoHH) the presented pseudoword during sleep (rating from 1: not heard to 4: heard). This wording of the question should set a liberal criterion for reporting having heard a pseudoword. We wanted to obtain information of any potential residual awareness for sleep-played words. Participants’ feeling-of-having-heard (FoHH) responses in the Trough condition did not differ significantly between previously sleep-played pseudowords and new pseudowords that had not been played during sleep (see Figure 2—figure supplement 3; ANOVA factor ‘sleep-played’: F(1,14) = 0. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing evidence that supports memory consolidation during sleep. It describes a study where participants demonstrated improved retrieval performance for pseudowords after a period of sleep, specifically noting that word pairs were played solely during slow-wave sleep. This aligns with the claim that sleep facilitates memory consolidation, as the study indicates that the encoding and retrieval of information were unconscious processes occurring during this sleep phase.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Bats are solitary animals and do not form colonies or social groups. [SEP] Text: View 13. Altringham JD (2003) British Bats. London: HarperCollins. 14. (2006) Autumn swarming behaviour of Natterer's bats in the UK: Population size, catchment area and dispersal. 127: 215–226. View 15. (2005) Sex and segregation in temperate bats. Sci 272: 2467–2473. View 16. (2005) Sex-related differences in roost-site selection by Daubenton's bats Myotis daubentonii during the nursery period. 35: 285–294. View 17. Dietz M, Encarnação (2006) Small scale distribution patterns of female and male Daubenton's bats (Myotis daubentonii). 8: 403–415. View 18. (2013) Sexual segregation and flexible mating patterns in temperate bats. PLoS One 8: e54194. View 19. (2002) Elevation affects the distribution of the two sexes in Daubenton's bats Myotis daubentonii (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) from Italy. Mammalia 543–551. View 20. (1997) Roosting and foraging behaviour of Natterer's bats (Myotis nattereri) close to the northern border of their distribution. J Zool 375–384. View 21. Racey PA (1974) Ageing and assessment of reproductive status of Pipistrelle bats, Pipistrellus pipistrellus. J Zool 173: 264–271. View 22. Mitchell-(2004) Bat Worker's Manual. 3rd ed. Peterborough: Conservation Committee. 23. (2009) programs: analyzing animal social structures. Sociobiol 63: 765–778. View 24. Borgatti SP (2002) NetDraw: Software. 25. (2002) Community structure in social and biological networks. 99: 7821–7826. View 26. Newman M, (2004) Finding and evaluating community structure in networks. E 69: 026113. View 27. (2002) Ucinet 6 for Windows: Software for Analysis. 28. (2013). 29. (2008) Post-release survival of hand-reared pipistrelle bats (Pipistrellus spp). 14: 375–382. View 30. (2008) Analyzing animals societies. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by referencing various studies and publications that suggest social structures, roosting behaviors, and population dynamics among bats, which imply that bats do indeed form social groups or colonies rather than being strictly solitary.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Excavation sites can reveal stratigraphy that reflects historical events. [SEP] Text: We saw that ES morphogenesis begins at 36 hpf as an evagination in the dorsal epithelial wall of the otic vesicle (Figure 1—figure supplement 1A, Video 1, Figure 1A–B, and ES identity confirmed by expression of foxi1, Figure 1B’). Between 36 and 60 hpf, the ES grows and elongates. These findings established that the zebrafish ES is optically accessible during embryonic and larval stages and that ES morphogenesis begins at 36 hpf. Video 1 Download asset This video cannot be played in place because your browser does support HTML5 video. You may still download the video for offline viewing. Download as MPEG-4 Download as WebM Download as ES development. Video begins with schematic of experimental set-up and context of the presented field of view. Then, an annotated time point is presented of the upcoming video. The presented video is of a sagittal slice from a 4D time course of early ES development (white arrow points to ES in introduction). ES morphogenesis begins at 36 hr post fertilization (hpf) as an evagination in the dorsal-anterior-lateral epithelial wall of the otic vesicle. Fluorescence from membrane citrine, shown in grey. Scale bar is 10 μm. The zebrafish ear starts to sense body acceleration for the nervous system between 60 and 72 hpf, as demonstrated by the onset of the vestibulo-ocular reflex (Mo et al. , 2010). We found that the ES begins to exhibit a physical behavior during the same time window. We observed that the lumen of the ES remains closed until 60 hpf, but between 60 and 65 hpf it begins cycles of slowly inflating and rapidly deflating (sagittal slices, Figure 1D, lumen volumes, Figure 1E, Figure 1—figure supplement 1, and Videos 2–3). Three-dimensional (3D) measurements showed that the ES lumen volume changes 5–20-fold through the course of each cycle (Figure 1E,F, and Figure 1—figure supplement 1B–C). The period between peak ES volumes exhibited a broad distribution (0. 3–4. 5 hr) with an average of 1. 6 ± 0. 8 hr (mean ± SD, histogram compiled from eight time courses and 54 peaks, Figure 1G). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim regarding excavation sites and stratigraphy. It discusses embryonic development in zebrafish, specifically the morphogenesis of the ear structure (ES) and related measurements, with no mention of excavation sites or historical events.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Memory consolidation occurs during sleep, enhancing long-term retention of information. [SEP] Text: A brain-wide voltage distribution that is typically associated with a frontal trough promoted word processing The visual inspection of the difference in the topographical voltage distribution at word onset between subsequently (36 hr) correctly versus incorrectly assigned pseudowords (Figure 3C) suggested that sleep-learning in the Trough condition was best, if the brain-wide voltage distribution corresponded to the typical trough state as quantified with a template of a slow-wave trough. Note that we targeted slow-wave troughs/peaks by correlating the online measured EEG with a template map (Ruch et al. , 2022). The template map is based on pre-recorded EEG data (Züst et al. , 2019) and represents the average voltage distribution of thousands of peaks/troughs (peak template, trough template). Accordingly, we consider the trough template a prototypical voltage distribution of endogenously generated troughs. Descriptively, the measured voltage map underlying later (at 36 hr) correctly versus incorrectly assigned pseudowords corresponded to the template map of a typical trough (Figure 3C). Therefore, we tried to find out, which trough aspect had promoted sleep-learning. We examined four trough aspects measured at word onset: (A) prototypicality reflecting the correspondence (i. e. correlation) of the trough voltage distribution at word onset with the prototypical voltage distribution of a trough, that is the trough template. A high prototypicality suggests that the trough originated in the same neocortical network that generates the majority of endogenous slow waves (Michel and Koenig, 2018) (B) global field power (GFP) reflecting the synchronisation within the measured trough voltage map. A high GFP indicates strong coherence and stability of neuronal activity within the cortical network that generates the trough (Khanna et al. , 2015) (C) inter-trial phase coherence (ITC) reflecting the temporal coherence of Trough-targeting across the four presentations of a specific word pair; (D) time difference reflecting the time difference between the actual acoustic stimulation and the measured trough maximum (Figure 4; for a more detailed description see method section). Prototypicality differentiated significantly between correctly (higher prototypicality) versus incorrectly assigned pseudowords at 36 hr (p=0. 005, FDR corrected: q Benjamini-Hochberg = 0. 0125; Figure 4A). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing a brain-wide voltage distribution associated with a frontal trough that promoted word processing during sleep. The correlation of EEG measurements with templates of slow-wave troughs suggests that these troughs play a crucial role in sleep-learning, indicating that memory consolidation occurs during sleep, which aligns with the idea of enhancing long-term retention of information.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Fruit bats use echolocation to find fruit in complete darkness. [SEP] Text: it cannot fail; it ever speaks')Worship ("There is no worship now—the idol stands")of Lifeof the ("There is a winter in the godless heart")'s and the at ('I saw the city, 'twas not built by hands')The CrossNature ('Nature would speak through her first master man')and meat and drinkForgive me my trespassesin HeartThe ComplaintWhither shall I go from thy Spiritshall be LastThe LaborerThy Brother's of are passed away('They love me not, who at my table eat')The CityThe RoseFaith ('There is no faith; the mountain stands within')The JewSpring ('The stem that long has borne the wintry blast')and The EndNature ('The bubbling brook doth leap when I come by')! The Sign('I too will wait with thee returning spring')('Father! help them who walk in their own light')notice other days were pages givenThe CrocusThe PlantI am the WayThe kingdom of within you('There is no sound but thou dost hear my voice')The PreacherCome unto meFlee to the mountainsBlessed are they that mournFaith ('Hast thou but faith thou shalt the mountain bid')Redeeming the TimeTis FinishedEffortTo the pure all things are pureThe TaskSpring ('I have not lived the flesh has hedged me in')('The plant it springs it rears its drooping head')('Come thou and labor with me I will give')('The words I give thee they are not thine own')Joy ('The joy Thou giv'st no man can take away')HopeReliefJoy ('Thou hast a moon for every cloudy night')('I come the rushing wind that shook the place')of is every one who is born of the spiritThe SeedI am the Light of the the Bread of shall all the tribes of the earth mournRepent for the kingdom of Heaven is at handthe you is born a SaviourThe RedeemedHallowed be they NameTo him who overcomethof the Templeof as the World giveth('Open our eyes that we the world may see')Thy Father's HouseJacob's Wellof ('The voice that speaks when thou art in thy tomb')and ('Why are thou not awake my son? ')('not visit me? [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses various themes related to faith, nature, and life without any reference to fruit bats or echolocation. Therefore, it does not support or contrast the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Excavation sites can reveal stratigraphy that reflects historical events. [SEP] Text: These initial observations suggested several potential causes of the inflation-deflation cycles of the ES including: a response to organ-wide increases in fluid pressure within the otic vesicle, a local tissue behavior wherein the ES inflates with fluid from the perilymph, or a local tissue behavior wherein cells in the ES periodically coordinate their movements to expand the ES volume by sucking fluid from the otic vesicle. Video 2 Download asset This video cannot be played in place because your browser does support HTML5 video. You may still download the video for offline viewing. Download as MPEG-4 Download as WebM Download as Ogg Wild-type ES inflates and deflates. Video begins with an illustration depicting the context of the presented field of view, which is a sagittal slice encompassing the developing ES from a 4D time course. Then, an annotated time point is presented of the upcoming video, a green arrow points to the ES, a dotted line outlines the ES lumen, the otic vesicle is labeled ventral to the ES, and the perilymph surrounds the ES structure, labeled in magenta. Video of sagittal slice from 4D dataset, quantified in Figure 1F. Fluorescence from membrane citrine, shown in green. Perilymph highlighted with fluorescence from 3 kDa dextran-Texas red, shown in magenta. Scale bar is 10 μm. Video 3 Download asset This video cannot be played in place because your browser does support HTML5 video. You may still download the video for offline viewing. Download as MPEG-4 Download as WebM Download as Ogg Wild-type ES inflates and deflates. A video of two time courses, sagittal slices from 4D datasets, quantified in Figure 1—figure supplement 1B (left) and Figure 1—figure supplement 1C (right). Fluorescence from membrane citrine, shown in green. Perilymph highlighted with fluorescence from 3 kDa dextran-Texas red, shown in magenta. Scale bars are 10 μm. Loss of the epithelial barrier is sufficient for ES deflation To assess whether ES inflations occur by transmission of endolymph pressure between the otic vesicle and the ES, we performed a single injection of a small volume of solution containing 3 kDa fluorescent dextran into the otic vesicle and followed its movement during inflation and deflation. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses biological phenomena related to the inflation and deflation of the endolymphatic sac (ES) and does not mention excavation sites, stratigraphy, or historical events in any capacity.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Memory consolidation occurs during sleep, enhancing long-term retention of information. [SEP] Text: Measures of neural complexity provide non-linear estimates of the variability and ‘randomness’ of the EEG signal and indicate the amount of information available in the signal at each channel. Neural complexity is indicative of both the brain’s capacity to process sensory information (Waschke et al. , 2017; Waschke et al. , 2019) and the extent of ongoing cognitive activity (Höhn et al. , 2023; Parbat and Chakraborty, 2021). Furthermore, levels of neural complexity closely correspond to the depth of sleep (Casali et al. , 2013; Höhn et al. , 2023; Ma et al. , 2018; Türker et al. , 2023), with the lowest levels typically observed during SWS. Within sleep, periods of elevated neural complexity are associated with a heightened propensity to process verbal information. Andrillon and Kouider, 2016 reported larger lateralized readiness potentials indicating correct semantic categorization of words during sleep when words were played during states of elevated neural complexity. Türker et al. , 2023 further observed that sleeping participants were more likely to produce accurate facial responses to words vs. pseudowords when stimulus presentations occurred during states of high complexity. Importantly, auditory stimulation during sleep tends to temporarily reduce post-stimulus neural complexity (Alnes et al. , 2024; Andrillon et al. , 2016), probably reflecting an inhibitory, sleep-protective brain response to stimulation. Here, we explored whether word presentations would have distinct impacts on post-stimulus neural complexity when stimulation was targeted to the Trough, where sleep-learning occurred, vs. to the Peak, where no sleep-learning occurred. To this aim, we calculated the Dimension (HFD) of the EEG signal in the time domain at each channel separately for a pre- (−2 to –0. 5 s) and a post-stimulus (0. 5–2 s) time window. HFD is one of many measures of neural complexity (Lau et al. , 2022). We analyzed HFD for a late post-stimulus window ranging from 0. 5 s up to 2 s because we assumed that neural complexity for this time-window would not be biased by the differences that are due to the targeted state (Peak/Trough) but would mirror stimulus-induced neural activity. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the relationship between neural complexity during sleep and cognitive processing. It states that elevated periods of neural complexity are associated with a heightened ability to process information, particularly noting that word presentations during sleep (when neural complexity is high) influence semantic categorization, which reflects the processing of verbal information. This indicates that the cognitive activity tied to long-term retention of information is facilitated during sleep, supporting the notion of memory consolidation happening during this state.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Fruit bats use echolocation to find fruit in complete darkness. [SEP] Text: -19 PreprintsProtocolsVideosJournalsTools & a 10. 21203/rs. 2. 15472/v1This work is licensed under a CC BY 4. 0 LicenseStatus:PostedVersion 1posted You are reading this latest preprint versionAbstractBackground : The majority of the rural populace of West and participate actively in bushmeat commodity trade. The peak of this trade usually occurs during the migration of massive flocks of fruit bats. Unfortunately, this commercial period happens to coincides with the most conducive time for the spread of Disease (EVD) which is transmitted by these fruit bats. We, therefore, conducted this study to predict EVD infestation trend among individuals who might be vulnerable and/or infected (hunters, vendors, and consumers of bushmeat) as a result of this seasonal bats migration. Methods: A secondary data collected in Ghana and semi-structured questionnaires were administered to international students from 7 countries (of Congo (DRC), Ghana, Liberia, Zambia, Gabon, Guinea, and Ivory-Coast) and responses collated were used in this study. Bivariate correlation, probabilistic transmission rate of EVD, and probabilistic model (P-SIR) were employed to predict susceptible and infected individuals. Results : In all affected countries, it was observed that; there was a yearly bats’ migration pattern. 80 % of all interviewees confirmed that hunting, trading and consuming of bats influenced the rapid spread of EVD. The bivariate correlation between fruit bats and people involved in the bushmeat commodity chain was significant (p < 0. 05) and the probability of infected bats were equally significant across the sampled countries. The estimated probabilistic rate was between 0. 0099 and 0. 01120, while individuals susceptible to EVD were predicted to be approximately between 5 and 45 (hunters), 0-18 f(vendors), and 25-90 (consumers). Conclusion : The migratory season of fruit bats contributes to EVD transmission in the most affected countries. People should avoid bushmeat consumption or eradicate all activities leading to the interaction with fruit bats to reduce the spread of EVD (Ebola) especially during the migratory seasons. Policy-makers and government agencies should also put in mechanisms that will protect their citizens during the fruit bats season. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the migratory patterns of fruit bats and their correlation with the spread of Ebola virus disease (EVD), without mentioning echolocation or its use in finding fruit. Thus, the text does not provide any information supporting or contrasting the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Excavation sites can reveal stratigraphy that reflects historical events. [SEP] Text: We found that the duct is open and that endolymph flows from the otic vesicle into the ES during inflation (Figure 2A–D, Video 4). Additionally, upon deflation, endolymph rapidly leaked out of the ES and into the perilymphatic space (75:22 panel, Figure 2D). To determine whether pressure in the otic vesicle is transmitted to the ES for its inflation, we laser-ablated 2–3 cells within the wall of the otic vesicle distant from the ES at 64 hpf (Figure 2E). Shortly after ablation, the ES deflated and completely collapsed within 20 min (Figure 2F). These results indicate that fluid pressure in the otic vesicle inflates the ES volume, the ES tissue has elastic material properties, and a loss of epithelial integrity is sufficient for ES deflation. Figure 2 Download asset Open asset Hydrostatic pressure transmits endolymph through duct to inflate the ES. (A) Illustration of larval zebrafish highlighting sagittal plane of image acquisition (blue square). (B) Time points of individual sagittal slices of raw data from 3D time course (endolymph labeled yellow by single dye injection into otic vesicle, membrane citrine in cyan). (C) Illustration of larval zebrafish highlighting transverse perspective (blue box) for rendered volumes of ES. (D) Time points from time course of raw data rendered in 3D transverse view (endolymph in yellow, ES tissue outlined with dashed line) showing endolymph flowing through duct to ES and then out to perilymph (blue arrow). (E) Illustration of strategy for laser ablating otic vesicle cells with point-scanning 2-photon laser to ablate 2–3 targeted cells. (F) Slices from 4D confocal time course after laser ablation showing ES deflation. ES lumen is outlined with a white dashed line in (F), n = 4. (G) Time points from time course rendered in 3D transverse view (endolymph in yellow, perilymph in magenta, ES tissue outlined with dashed line), n = 8. Blue arrows indicate endolymph expulsion or perilymph leak in events (D,G). All scale bars 10 μm. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not relate to the claim about excavation sites and stratigraphy. Instead, it describes findings related to fluid dynamics in the otic vesicle of larval zebrafish, focusing on elements like endolymph flow and tissue properties, which do not support or contradict the claim about archaeological stratigraphy.