Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: , 2018a). The low establishment probability means that most mutations will not manage to create sectors, but instead they will form so-called bubbles, that is individual mutant clones that have lost contact with the front. We extracted the size of mutant clones, both bubbles and sectors, by measuring the individual areas of non-fluorescent patches in the colony micrographs. The resulting clone size distribution P(X>x) (clone areas normalized by colony area, shown in Figure 3) is related to the site frequency spectrum in population genetics, where it can be used to predict rare evolutionary outcomes such as fitness valley crossing (Weissman et al. , 2009) and evolutionary rescue (Fusco et al. , 2016), and is well understood for toy models of microbial colonies (Fusco et al. , 2016; Otwinowski and Krug, 2014). For neutral mutations, the clone size distribution is expected to be broad up to a shoulder indicating the typical size of the largest expected bubble. In our experiments, we indeed observed a broad shoulder-like distribution for neutral mutations, consistent with earlier experiments using population sequencing (Fusco et al. , 2016). In smooth colonies, beneficial mutations created a larger number of bulging sectors, leading to an even broader distribution with maximum clone sizes of almost half the population, while the distribution for strongly deleterious mutations was cut off at small clone sizes. This clone size distribution is consistent with our initial observation that a larger selective advantage s gave rise to a larger overall mutant frequency, but it also shows that even at the largest s≈0. 2, most mutant clones remained small, with more than half of the visible clones reaching frequencies of at most 1%. By contrast, the clone size distributions obtained from rough colonies were virtually indistinguishable for all s>0, whereas we observed the same cut-off for large clones for deleterious mutations. Figure 3 Download asset Open asset Clone size distribution P(X>x) for colonies grown on smooth (a) and rough (b) substrates. Deleterious mutants are shown in magenta tones; their clones are typically small. Neutral clones are shown in green; their size distribution had a broad tail. Advantageous mutations in smooth colonies were even more broadly distributed, as large sectors establish more often. By contrast, beneficial clones in rough colonies had size distributions that were indistinguishable from the distribution for neutral mutations. Figure 3—source data 1 Source data for Figure 3. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how different types of mutations—beneficial, neutral, and deleterious—lead to varying clone size distributions in microbial colonies. It describes how beneficial mutations result in larger clone sizes and broader distributions, while neutral mutations have a broad size distribution but are distinct from deleterious mutations, which produce smaller clones. This supports the idea that the context of a mutation can determine its effect (beneficial, neutral, or harmful).


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Gene therapy can make humans biologically immortal by halting the aging process. [SEP] Text: [ [PMID: 19280661] [28] -Walker SM, de Cabo R. Of mice and men: The benefits of caloric restriction, exercise, and mimetics. Rev 2012; 11(3): 390-8. [ [PMID: 22210414] [29] Piñeiro-Hermida S, Autilio C, Martínez P, Bosch F, Pérez-Gil J, Blasco MA. Telomerase treatment prevents lung profibrotic pathologies associated with physiological aging. J 2020; 219(10): e202002120. [ [PMID: 32777016] [30] A highly conserved repetitive DNA sequence, ()n, present at the telomeres of human chromosomes. 1988; 85(18): 6622-6. [ [PMID: 3413114] [31] Blackburn EH. Switching and signaling at the telomere. Cell 2001; 106(6): 661-73. [ [PMID: 11572773] [32] de Lange T. Shelterin: The protein complex that shapes and safeguards human telomeres. 2005; 19(18): 2100-10. [ [PMID: 16166375] [33] Blasco MA. Mice with bad ends: Mouse models for the study of telomeres and telomerase in cancer and aging. EMBO J 2005; 24(6): 1095-103. [ [PMID: 15775986] [34]. Telomeres and telomerase: The path from maize, Tetrahymena and yeast to human cancer and aging. 2006; 12(10): 1133-8. [ [PMID: 17024208] [35] A natural product telomerase activator as part of a health maintenance program. 2011; 14(1): 45-56. [ [PMID: 20822369] [36]. Identification of a specific telomere terminal transferase activity in tetrahymena extracts. Cell 1985; 43(2): 405-13. [ [PMID: 3907856] [37] Quazi S. Telomerase gene therapy: A remission toward cancer. 2022; 39(6): 105. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the specific claim regarding gene therapy and biological immortality. It provides references related to telomeres and telomerase, which are linked to aging, but fails to directly support or contrast the claim. Therefore, it is deemed irrelevant.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: (E) Single synapse resolution projection of array tomography sections stained for GFP (green), PSD95 (magenta) and Synapsin (cyan). Inset, magnification of a single shaft synapse (white arrow). Markers with So how do we progress from locating the active nuclei correlated with particular behaviors and knowing their molecular identity? What method can provide this missing link? We propose the use of AT to take the same zebrafish that are used in Ca2+ imaging studies and perform a powerful spatial proteomic approach to gain the molecular identity of the neurons that are active in a given process (Figure 3C). AT is an imaging technique that uses nanometer-thin physical sectioning of a fixed tissue sample to facilitate the multiplexed imaging of dozens of protein markers with exquisite spatial resolution and large volumetric tissue coverage (Micheva and Smith, 2007; Wang and Smith, 2012). To date, AT has been broadly used to characterized genetically targeted neurons in zebrafish (Robles et al. , 2011), assess the synapse deficits caused by Tau accumulation in mouse and humans (Kopeikina et al. , 2011), quantify the three-dimensional microstructural changes of mouse aortic tissue after aneurysm (Saatchi et al. , 2012), and measure synapse density changes due to astrocytic glypican release (Allen et al. , 2012) and thalamic network stimulation (Lacey et al. , 2012). Conjugated live imaging of neuronal activity and subcellular-level AT will allow the quantitative analysis of cell physiology on a circuit level. AT analysis of cell-type specific antigens will provide single neuron differentiation of cell classes based on transmitter expression, e. g. , glutamate, GABA, acetylcholine, etc. , (Figure 3). Moreover, these transmitter-determined neuron types can be further classified by the expression of neuropeptides or transcription factors. By properly aligning Ca2+ and AT data, single neuron activity profiles can be mapped from Ca2+ imaging experiments to molecularly identified neurons. This post hoc identification of the molecular physiology of measured circuit members in conjunction with the temporal data from live imaging should allow a more robust classification of functional relevance in terms of understanding how inhibition, excitation and global modulation affect the discrete calculations made by a specific circuit. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim directly as it focuses on imaging techniques and methodologies for studying neuronal activity, without mentioning anything about neural circuits responsible for processing social cues. It discusses various imaging approaches and neuroanatomical specifics, but lacks relevance to neural circuits dedicated to social processing.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: A similar pattern is found for the final frequency of neutral mutants (s=0), which is largest at intermediate ρ. Figure 5 with 1 supplement see all Download asset Open asset A simple lattice model reproduces strong impact of environmental heterogeneity on evolutionary dynamics. (a,b) The mutant frequency fMT as a function of the selective advantage s of the mutants always increases with s to a degree that depends on the density ρ and the transparency k of the disorder sites. (c,d) Parametrizing the mutant frequency for various values of k and ρ heuristically with fMT=f0ekss (panel a, inset), we fit the neutral diversity f0 (shown in panel d) and the selection efficacy ks (panel c). The selection efficacy ks serves as an inverse selection scale, describing the dependence of fMT on s. (e) A scatter plot of the fit parameters f0 and ks for all values of k and ρ reveals that they are effectively not independent parameters, but that f0 entirely determines ks and vice-versa (for a given population size N and mutation rate μ; here, N=105 and μ=0. 0005). The dashed line represents the expect neutral diversity for a circular colony, where f0=μR, with R=N/π the colony radius (Fusco et al. , 2016). (f) Rescaling all curves by fitted values of ks and f0, all points fall close to a master curve given by ekss (dashed line), motivating the parametrization introduced in (a). Figure 5—source data 1 Source data for Figure 5. ks_values. csv. Source data for panel c (fit parameter ks for various parameter values ρ and k). f0 values. csv Source data for panel d (fit parameter f0 for various parameter values ρ and k). rescaled fMT data. xlsx Source data for panel f (rescaled fMT for various parameter values ρ and k). Download elife-44359-fig5-data1-v2. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the role of selective advantage in the frequency of mutants. It indicates that the frequency of mutants (fMT) is impacted by their selective advantage (s), suggesting that genetic mutations can vary in their effects based on the environmental conditions (such as density ρ and disorder transparency k). The mention of neutral mutants and the variability of their frequency supports the idea that mutations can indeed be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on these contextual factors.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Gene therapy can make humans biologically immortal by halting the aging process. [SEP] Text: [ [PMID: 35429243] [38] Small-molecule PAPD5 inhibitors restore telomerase activity in patient stem cells. Cell 2020; 26(6): 896-909. e8. [ [PMID: 32320679] [39]. PAPD5, a noncanonical poly(A) polymerase with an unusual RNA-binding motif. RNA 2011; 17(9): 1737-46. [ [PMID: 21788334] [40] Resveratrol reduces endothelial progenitor cells senescence through augmentation of telomerase activity by Akt-dependent mechanisms. Pharmacol 2008; 155(3): 387-94. [ [PMID: 18587418] [41] Resveratrol-induced augmentation of telomerase activity delays senescence of endothelial progenitor cells. J 2011; 124(24): 4310-5. [PMID: 22340406] [42]. Physical exercise increases adult neurogenesis and telomerase activity, and improves behavioral deficits in a mouse model of schizophrenia. Immun 2011; 25(5): 971-80. [ [PMID: 20970493] [43] Acute physical exercise and long-term individual shear rate therapy increase telomerase activity in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. 2017; 220(2): 251-62. [ [PMID: 27770498] [44] Denham J, Sellami M. Exercise training increases telomerase reverse transcriptase gene expression and telomerase activity: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Rev 2021; 70: 101411. [ [PMID: 34284150] [45]. Increased telomerase improves motor function and alpha-synuclein pathology in a transgenic mouse model of Parkinson’s disease associated with enhanced autophagy. 2021; 199: 101953. [ [PMID: 33188884] [46] Kaiser J. Gene therapy beats premature-aging syndrome in mice. Science 2021; 371(6525): 114. [ [PMID: 33414202] [47] Nucleus pulposus cellular longevity by telomerase gene therapy. Spine 2007; 32(11): 1188-96. [ [48] Boccardi V, Herbig U. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing various studies related to telomerase activity and its effects on aging and cellular longevity. For example, it mentions that gene therapy can address premature-aging syndrome in mice, which implies that while gene therapy may extend lifespan or improve aspects of aging, it does not suggest that humans can achieve biological immortality. The text provides insights into the mechanisms of aging and telomerase, but it does not support the notion of halting the aging process entirely to achieve immortality.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: Further, since the sectioned sample can be kept indefinitely (Micheva and Smith, 2007), when new markers for neuron identity become available, previously unidentified nuclei that displayed interesting activities can be marked and leads to a model that becomes more accurate with time. The combination of Ca2+ imaging and AT means we will be able to map functionally relevant brain regions or nuclei in terms of their temporal activity patterns and their molecular topology. When correlated to behavior, the temporal structure could also provide us with a map of how sensory inputs change the active connections of a defined neural circuit. Obtained under both baseline and challenged conditions, firing patterns could also be examined to gain insights to the nature of the disruptions involved in brain disorders and neural degeneration (see Future directions). On top of this functional structure we will then be able to overlay a relevant molecular topology that will reveal the identity of the nodes, whether inhibitory or excitatory, being connected in the functional activity structure. At its simplest, the temporal correlation of inhibitory and excitatory inputs into a circuit will be the basis of the computation performed by that group of neurons, and once both the identity and the activity structures stereotypic to a specific set of inputs and outputs are known, it will then be possible to reconstruct the actual algorithm performed by the circuit in relation to the set of inputs. Moreover, with the wealth of molecular information we can obtain from AT, we will be able to look at how patterns of activity might affect global modulation of the brain through the induction of various categories of neurotransmitters from monoamines to peptides. Distinguishing the molecular identity of each brain nucleus – if not neuron - is crucial so that we can exploit the use of transgenesis to genetically capture these circuits in order to further study their functions. As with other model organisms, genetic tagging of circuits will be critical since there is significant interindividual variation in the spatial location of neurons that prevents ease of comparison by the activity map alone. With promoter driven transgenic lines at hand, specific neural populations can be imaged in more detail for their firing rates [GCaMP, aequorin and genetically-encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs)] to begin to understand the relative contributions of subgroups or individual neurons to a behavioral output. Further, once relevant firing circuits or nuclei are established, pharmacological treatment, ablations, and optogenetic techniques (for review, Portugues et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not provide direct evidence or information relevant to the claim about neural circuits dedicated to processing social cues. Instead, it discusses methodologies for mapping brain regions and understanding neuronal connections without specifically addressing social cue processing.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: Remarkably, even incomplete obstacles that merely slow down growth can generate large roughness and quasi-neutral population genetics when they are at intermediate density. The reason is that, because the positioning and dynamics at the front are so important in range expansions, a slowdown has similar effects to a complete halt. Regarding environmental heterogeneity as simply another source of (extrinsic) noise, it is perhaps not surprising from a classical population genetics perspective that the addition of noise effectively weakens selection, as other sources of noise, such as small population sizes, are known to push evolutionary dynamics towards the neutral limit (Gillespie, 2004). However, as we show in the following, the environmental heterogeneity in our simulations changes the evolutionary dynamics on a fundamental level that is not consistent with a mere increase in total noise level. Consider the neutral diversity f0 in Figure 5e, which corresponds to the rate at which neutral mutations accumulate in the population. On average and in the absence of environmental heterogeneity, this rate is μ(N/π)1/2 since a fraction μ of cells at the population front acquire new neutral mutations in every generation, and the front size scales as the square root of the population size N (Fusco et al. , 2016). Importantly, this result is independent of the level of noise in the system since it concerns only the average over many populations. Since the population size is the same across all our simulations, we would expect the same neutral diversity for all parameter values ρ and k. By contrast, our simulations show clear systematic deviations from the expected value (dotted line in Figure 5e). To further characterize the qualitative changes on the neutral dynamics induced by environmental heterogeneity, we computed the spatially resolved phylogenetic tree of the population, obtained by tracing the lineages of all individuals at the population front back to the origin, focusing on the extreme cases of no (ρ=0) and critical (ρ=ρc) obstacles (i. e. , k=0). For intermediate ρ, there is a crossover length set by the obstacle density. On length scales much shorter than this crossover length, the dynamics correspond to that in heterogeneous environments, while the homogeneous dynamics are recovered on length scales much larger than the crossover length (see Theory for details and Figure 4—figure supplement 1b for an illustration of the crossover length at intermediate ρ). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how environmental heterogeneity influences evolutionary dynamics, suggesting that the effects of mutations, particularly neutral mutations, are context-dependent. It mentions that 'the addition of noise effectively weakens selection' and describes various scenarios in which 'neutral diversity' accumulates, indicating that mutations can behave differently under varying environmental conditions. This aligns with the idea that the impact of genetic mutations is contingent upon context.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Cryptocurrency regulations will make taxes and legalities around them obsolete. [SEP] Text: For example, we could raise corporation tax and one advantage of this is that it would only affect companies making a profit – those struggling wouldn’t see an increase in their tax bill. But a higher rate would reduce the incentive to invest in the UK. Whichever taxes we choose, there is substantial scope for improving the structure of taxes in ways that would allow more money to be raised with less pain. Taxes can create a range of undesirable distortions to economic activity. For example, taxes can disincentivise work or investment or distort how effort or assets are allocated across the economy. These distortions can lead to resources being diverted away from their most productive uses, which in turn depresses economic output. While we can’t avoid all such distortions, many of the distortions created by taxes are not inherent features of a particular tax but rather arise as a result of poor tax design. For example, capital gains tax, corporation tax and business rates are all currently designed in a way that makes them more damaging to economic output than they need to be. There is substantial scope to reduce the distortions created by taxes by improving tax design. Another factor affecting how damaging a tax is to economic output is how progressive it is. One of the reasons that consumption taxes may be more growth-friendly than income taxes is that they are generally less progressive. In general – though not always – reducing the amount of redistribution done in the tax system would increase aggregate income, but at the cost of greater inequality. There is typically a balance to be struck between a focus on progressivity and a focus on growth. However, whatever level of progressivity a government chooses, there are more and less efficient ways to achieve it. Not all taxes need to address all objectives and not all are well suited to being made progressive. What matters ultimately is how progressive the overall tax (and benefit) system is. Three big taxes provide straightforward ways to raise large sumsAll OECD economies raise the majority of their tax revenues from three taxes: income tax, social security contributions (SSCs) and general sales taxes (VAT in the UK) (see Figure 2). These taxes account for two-thirds of UK tax revenues. Countries that raise a higher share of GDP in tax than the UK almost always raise more from these and in particular from SSCs. A relatively straightforward way for a government to raise a substantial amount of additional revenue would be to increase the rates of income tax, SSCs or VAT. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing various aspects of taxation and its impact on economic activity. It highlights that taxes can create undesirable distortions and emphasizes the importance of tax design for reducing such distortions. This implies that regulations, including those on cryptocurrencies, would still necessitate a tax structure instead of rendering taxes and legalities obsolete. The focus on improving tax design suggests ongoing relevance of taxes, even in the context of new assets like cryptocurrencies.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: , 2013) can be used more accurately to dissect the necessity and sufficiency for those regions (or even single cells) in normal behavioral processes and put us in a position to model brain disorders. with Two-Photon or An ideal understanding of brain computation and function will also require insights at the synaptic level. Perturbations at this level as seen with Schizophrenia, syndrome, and Rett syndrome highlight the need to understand what constitutes normal brain connectivity (Chahrour and Zoghbi, 2007; Lauriat and Mcinnes, 2007; Featherstone, 2010; Toro et al. , 2010; Auerbach et al. , 2011; Grant, 2012). Zebrafish allow a large shift in scale, from whole brain to neural network down to subsynaptic components. For example, zebrafish permit both longitudinal studies of synapses and whole brain coverage of the synaptic landscape. Thanks to the accessibility of the zebrafish brain, live two-photon imaging of genetically specified synaptic populations offers an important glimpse into the dynamics of synapse formation and disassembly related to the function of networks. For example, a longitudinal study of zebrafish hypocretin synapses on axons innervating the pineal gland at larval stages demonstrated rhythmicity of synaptic connections made by this circuit over time (Appelbaum et al. , 2010). The reduction in phototoxicity allowed the imaging of the same genetically defined neuronal process in a live vertebrate over 24 h (live zebrafish can be safely imaged in agarose during a full sleep/wake cycle; Appelbaum et al. , 2010). Such insights are not possible using fixed samples of several individuals and no other animal model currently offers opportunities to study such phenomenon on a brain-wide scale over time. Ca2+ dynamics can also be investigated at the synaptic level across the brain or a genetically defined circuit to demonstrate functionality. GCaMP indicators fused to synaptic markers (e. g. , SyGCaMP and ) have allowed the deciphering of the neural coding involved in the transfer of information between cells in the zebrafish retina (Dreosti et al. , 2011) and tectum (Nikolaou et al. , 2012; Walker et al. , 2013), showing the exciting potential of understanding synaptic firing at specific connections. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses various methods to study brain functions and synaptic connections, particularly using zebrafish models. However, it does not specifically address or support the claim regarding neural circuits dedicated to processing social cues. Thus, the relationship is deemed irrelevant.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: As shown in Figure 6a,b, the lineage tree has a vastly different appearance depending on the environmental heterogeneity. Without obstacles (panel a) the lineages are relatively straight and roughly aligned with the radial direction. By contrast, at the critical obstacle density, where the colony has a rough exterior (Figure 4c), lineages are erratic and often have segments oriented perpendicular to the radial direction. Figure 6 with 1 supplement see all Download asset Open asset Neutral lineage dynamics change with environmental heterogeneity. Lineage trees extracted from simulated colonies without (ρ=0), (a) and with critical (ρ=0. 4), (b) environmental heterogeneity. (c) The lineage structure is characterized by the fluctuations l⟂ of the lineages in forward time t, and the pair coalescence time T2 (backwards in time) of two samples that are a distance Δx apart. (d) The lineage fluctuations depend on the environmental heterogeneity: in the absence of environmental disorder, lineage fluctuations scale as t2/3, whereas the lineages are rougher in strong disorder, scaling as t0. 86. Strong lineage fluctuations in heterogeneous environments also impact the mean pair coalescence time of two samples a distance Δx apart by allowing lineages from distant regions of the colony to coalesce earlier than without environmental heterogeneity (panel e). As a consequence, the persistence probability U(T2), that is the probability that two sampled lineages have a pair coalescence time greater than T2 is typically greater in homogeneous than in heterogeneous environments, even when conditioning on small distance between samples (solid lines, Δx<0. 05Δxmax; dashed lines, Δx<0. 05Δxmax). Figure 6—source data 1 Source data for Figure 6. lineage_fluctuations. csv Source data for panel d (lineage fluctuations l⟂ vs forward time t). T2vsDeltaX data. csv Source data for panel e (mean pair coalescence time T2 vs pair distance Δx). P(T2) data. csv Source data for panel f (persistence probability U(T2) vs pair coalescence time T2). Download elife-44359-fig6-data1-v2. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses lineage dynamics and how they vary with environmental heterogeneity, indicating that the behavior and structure of lineages can change based on environmental factors. This supports the claim by illustrating that genetic mutations, or variations in lineage performance, can lead to different outcomes depending on the context—in this case, the environmental conditions influencing lineage behaviors.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Cryptocurrency regulations will make taxes and legalities around them obsolete. [SEP] Text: Small rate changes for these taxes tend to raise relatively large sums because they have a broad base. For example, in the UK in a normal year, adding 1 percentage point to all income tax rates, all employee and self-employed contribution (NICs) rates, or the rates of VAT, would raise £5. 7 billion, £6. 4 billion and £7. 2 billion respectively. Doing all of these would raise over £19 billion, a little under 1% of GDP (£20 billion). Figure 2: Sources of tax revenue across countries, 2016Note: SSCs is social security contributions (NICs in the UK). The OECD average excludes Mexico, for which a tax-by-tax breakdown is unavailable. Source: revenue raised from increasing the main rates of any of the big three taxes would come disproportionately from better-off households. If desired, income tax or NICs increases could be targeted more narrowly at higher earners, although this would bring in substantially less revenue. For example, raising only the higher rate of UK income tax (currently 40% for incomes over £50,000) by one percentage point would raise around £1 billion. Raising the additional rate of income tax (currently 45% for incomes over £150,000) by one percentage point is estimated to raise very little, though it might raise more or might lead to lower revenues, depending on how those affected respond. In general, the smaller the group that tax increases are targeted at, the harder it is to raise large amounts of additional revenue. Raising any of the three main taxes would weaken work incentives. Of these three taxes, increasing NICs weakens work incentives most because all of the revenue comes from taxing earnings. In contrast, some of the revenue from income tax comes from taxing pension, savings and dividend income. Because part of the revenue comes from taxing existing wealth it does less (per pound of revenue raised) to reduce the incentive to work in future. Similarly, VAT will be levied on wealth that is yet to be spent as well as spending from future earnings, such that there is a weaker effect on work incentives. Cutting reliefs is sometimes a good way to raise revenueAs well as changing tax rates, governments could raise revenue by broadening the tax base: that is, increasing the range of things that are subject to tax. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the implications of tax rate changes and how they raise substantial revenue. It indicates that taxes, including income tax and National Insurance Contributions (NICs), will continue to have significant effects on revenue collection and economic behavior. This suggests that regulations and taxes will remain relevant rather than becoming obsolete, thereby opposing the claim's assertion.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: Such a gain in resolution – access to the firing pattern of individual synapses – bears tremendous potential for revealing the potential disruptions in brain diseases. As discussed above for circuit dynamics, it is useful to know the molecular identity of an activity profile – and AT again affords this opportunity at the level of the synapse. Such information identifies the nature of these synapses, whether they are excitatory or inhibitory and if they are undergoing plasticity changes such as those for long-term potentiation/long-term depression (LTP/LTD) induction. The sub-diffraction resolution (Wang and Smith, 2012) and the proteomic coverage (Micheva and Smith, 2007) of AT is ideal for the analysis and classification of synapses in a large tissue volume. The combination of live two-photon structural analysis with AT will allow the identification of proteins involved in the structural dynamics of synapses in the brain (Figure 3D). A straightforward longitudinal analysis of synapse dynamics (Niell et al. , 2004; Appelbaum et al. , 2010) followed by post hoc AT analysis of the stable or newly formed synapses can give insight into the molecular mechanism by which synapses are stabilized or generated (Figure 3E). This further combined with measured activity of those synapses could open the door to finding the molecular and synaptic mechanisms underpinning behavioral control. In this new regime, perturbations that affect synaptic plasticity, e. g. , disease or behavioral challenges, can be characterized during longitudinal analysis, and the affected synapses will be targeted for post hoc proteomic dissection to reveal potential molecular changes. Then the candidate molecules can be labeled and modified and put back into a living system and then reanalyzed in terms of their effects on synaptic plasticity and dynamics. In this manner, deep molecular knowledge about the workings and deficits of nervous systems can be gleamed by this iterative process of longitudinal, quantitative observation and conjugate molecular dissection. and Applications for Zebrafish as a genetic model system has driven change in developmental biology and we expect a similar impact in the neurosciences with the advent of whole brain and synapse imaging techniques. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim about neural circuits dedicated to processing social cues. Instead, it discusses synapses, synaptic plasticity, and imaging techniques in neural research, which are unrelated to the specific focus of the claim concerning social cues.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: Since mutations occur only within the growing population at the front, the properties of the front dictate the evolutionary dynamics, including the strength of selection and the size of individual clones. Local pinning impacts the dynamics at the front by reducing the expansion speed of some parts of the population, leading to an effective reduction in the number of expansion paths that can actively contribute successful mutations. Thus, most individuals and their clones will get stuck in dead-ends, and only a few lucky individuals will be able to find the paths along unpinned front positions and be able to establish a large clone. Once established, though, the size of a mutant clone is roughly independent of its fitness because it is constrained by the network of obstacles. Thus, the evolutionary success of a mutation, that is whether a sector can form or not, and how large a mutant clone can get, depends entirely on where it arises and not at all on its fitness. In this sense, locally pinned expansions bear little resemblance to unconstrained radial expansions (see Figure 7). Rather, expansions along each available path more closely correspond to linear expansions, for example along a coastline, where mutations spread deterministically after local establishment (Fisher, 1937). Figure 7 Download asset Open asset Cartoon of how environmental heterogeneity shapes evolutionary dynamics during range expansions. In homogeneous environments (a), a locally established beneficial mutation (orange star), having survived genetic drift, can expand freely (arrows). By contrast, in heterogeneous environments (b), a beneficial mutation can become trapped in pinned stretches of the population, whereas expansion along open paths resembles a one-dimensional expansion. While we have focused here on microbial populations, we expect these results to hold more generally. This is one of the conclusions of our deliberately minimal model, which showed that simple uncorrelated heterogeneities are enough to create a strong impact on the population genetics and morphology of the range expansions. These effects persist even when the heterogeneity does not present as impassable obstacles but merely slows down growth. This is because the properties of the front dictate the evolutionary dynamics, since mutations occur only within the growing population at the front, such that a slowdown have comparable effects on the evolutionary dynamics as a complete halt. Since our model does not include any particular biological details, its results may apply generally in systems with front-limited growth and environmental heterogeneity. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by discussing how the success of mutations is heavily influenced by their context within the evolving population. It states that once a mutation is established, its fitness does not directly dictate the size of the mutant clone because it is constrained by environmental factors. This highlights that mutations can have different outcomes based on their situational context, thus corroborating the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Collisions between satellites and debris pose a significant threat to current space operations. [SEP] Text: xlsx To localize the source of these power differences, we projected these signals into source space using a dynamic imaging of coherent sources (DICS) beamformer. First, we created a common filter using all trials, then we projected the safe and threat trials through the filter independently, to obtain power estimates at the source level for each condition. Finally, we conducted a (Safe vs. Threat) paired-sample t-test on the source space IAF power estimates. As with the sensor space data, we used simulations and cluster thresholding to correct for multiple comparisons. Consistent with the sensor space results, we found two clusters of voxels showing significantly less IAF power in the threat and safe conditions (Figure 7C–D and Figure 7—source data 1), the larger cluster was located in the left IPS, while the smaller cluster was located in the mid-cingulate gyrus. In addition, both the sensor and the source space results held if we analyze power across the entire alpha frequency band (8 Hz to 12 Hz; See below). Finally, when comparing the MEG results with the fMRI results, we found that the left IPS cluster in the fMRI data substantially overlaps with the alpha cluster (46/81 voxels; 8). Figure 8 Download asset Open asset Conjunction map from voxelwise fanalysis and MEG alpha power differences. Colors represent significant safe vs. threat differences from the fMRI analysis (yellow), MEG analysis (blue), and both analyses (green). As with the MRI data, it is important to show that our denoising steps did not affect the comparisons between the safe and threat conditions. Specifically, it is important to show that the number of trials rejected either (1) did not differ across the safe and threat blocks, or (2) did not affect the safe vs. threat comparisons. In the safe condition, there were on average 58. 21 ± 5. 5 trials, while in the threat condition there were on average 55. 32 ± 7. 6 trials, which was significantly different across subjects (t(27) = 2. 78, p=0. 01). Therefore, we decided to determine whether this difference in trial number impacted our results at the censor and source level. Accordingly, we included the difference in trial number across safe and threat blocks as a covariate in an examining the effect of threat on alpha responses. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses a study related to power estimates and differences in brain imaging data (MEG and fMRI), without mentioning satellites, debris, or any threats to space operations. Therefore, it does not support or contrast the claim in any way.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: While the zebrafish, as with all other animal models, can never accurately recapitulate the behavioral output of a human, we contend that at the level of the synapse and neuron, invaluable insights can be made, with techniques that leverage the unique properties of this vertebrate model, in understanding the basic conserved principles of how neuronal networks coordinate and function. Knowledge of normal vertebrate brain function will have a huge impact understanding normal brain health and psychiatry. Importantly, there is an increasing realization that some psychiatric/brain diseases are predominantly genetic, developmental and neuronal/synaptic disorders. Indeed, insights to brain health and psychiatry require a whole brain perspective at single synapse resolution. Such a situation may appear to be an unreachable goal today, but zebrafish comes very close to bridging these scales of neural circuit investigation. Psychiatry as a field is now becoming a more integrated field benefiting of neuroscience and genetic studies. The introduction of novel uses of established animal models such as zebrafish in psychiatry and clinical neurosciences should allow new perspective and strategies. With development of psychiatric therapies in decline, advances in our understanding of the molecular basis of synaptic changes in normal and diseased brains should offer new targets for the pharmacological industry. Mental health disorders are the leading cause of disability according to most medical sources. For most mental illnesses, the etiology is unknown, detection and prevention are poor, and current medication is not consistently effective. We hope whole brain studies with synapse resolution in the vertebrate zebrafish will soon allow breakthrough advances in our understanding of complex brain disorders. Conflict of The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. 10. 1038/nmeth. 2434 [Epub ahead of print]. | Text |. B. ,. , et al. (2012). Brain-wide neuronal dynamics during motor adaptation in zebrafish. Nature 485, 471–477. | Text and Osotimehin, B. O. (1990). Fasting hypoglycaemia due to insulinoma in pregnancy. Postgrad. Med. J. 66, 156. . , Carreras Calderon, N. , Tian, L. , Wabnig, S. , Prigge, M. , Tolo, J. , et al. (2013). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address any specific neural circuits related to processing social cues; instead, it discusses the role of zebrafish in understanding brain health and psychiatric conditions more generally. It emphasizes the insights into neuronal networks and the broader implications for mental health but does not link to the claim about neural circuits dedicated to social cue processing.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: Thus, we would expect a reduced selection efficacy to generalize to other dense cellular populations in disordered environments, such as tumors and biofilms, but also to macroscopic range expansions of invasive species (With, 2002). When a population undergoes a range expansion, it will arguably not experience a completely homogeneous environments: at the very least, some areas will be more hospitable than others, but other parts of the environment may also be entirely inaccessible to the population because of, for example rivers and lakes, a strong local competitor or predator, or lack of resources. Environmental heterogeneity is thus arguably the rule rather than the exception. Despite its simplicity, our minimal model reproduces many experimental findings qualitatively, such as a rougher colony morphology and a reduced efficacy of selection in the presence of environmental heterogeneity (in experiments, by a factor of 2. 5 - 4 depending on fitting strategy). However, the model cannot quantitatively account for all our experimental results. For instance, the model predicts that the frequency of neutral and deleterious mutants should be greater in heterogeneous than in homogeneous environments (Figure 5d). By contrast, in our experiments, we find only about half as many neutral mutants in rough colonies as in smooth colonies and comparable mutant frequencies for deleterious mutations (Figure 2d). A potential reason for this discrepancy may be that the random pattern imposed in our experiments is not correlation-free as in the simulations (Figure 1—figure supplement 3), which may impact the dynamics of mutant clones as follows. A beneficial mutation has to overcome genetic drift, and to do so, it must grow to a lateral size large enough for selection to take over (Gralka et al. , 2016b). However, if the characteristic length scale of the environmental heterogeneity is smaller than this 'establishment size’, then the evolutionary dynamics is effectively neutral. On the other hand, a deleterious mutation born on a ridge or in a trough never grows to large enough size to 'see’ the disorder in the first place and thus its dynamics are largely unaffected by the environmental heterogeneity. In the simulations, however, the heterogeneity can be felt on all length scales, such that it affects mutant clones of all sizes the same way. We expect environmental heterogeneity to impact not only the fate of beneficial mutations. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how environmental heterogeneity impacts the frequency and success of different types of mutations, including beneficial, neutral, and deleterious mutations. It explains that a beneficial mutation must overcome genetic drift to be favored while in certain contexts, such as heterogeneous environments, the dynamics of neutral and deleterious mutations are also influenced, indicating that the effects of genetic mutations are indeed context-dependent.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: New satellites are fully immune to damage from space debris due to advanced shielding. [SEP] Text: Σύμφωνα με τη μελέτη μας, οι τροχιές επανεισόδου που μπορούν να προσεγγιστούν με αλλαγή ταχύτητας (ΔV) μικρότερη από 300m/s έχουν διάρκεια ζωής μεγαλύτερη από 70έτη, ενώ οι τροχιές σε περιοχές-νεκροταφεία μπορούν εύκολα να προσεγγιστούν με ΔV μεταξύ 5-40ms. περισσότερα Περίληψη σε άλλη γλώσσα In this study, we perform a complete, dynamical cartography of the dynamics of satellites and space debris in the near Earth space, by using detailed numerical simulations. The aim of this study is the investigation of natural reentry highways in the Earth's atmosphere that could be used for passive space debris mitigation, and the deeper understanding of the dynamics of the region. For the detailed cartography of the circumterrestrial phase space the numerical propagation and analysis of millions of fictitious orbits is necessary, using a suitable dynamical model that considers the main physics that affect satellites (Earth oblateness, lunisolar perturbations, solar radiation pressure, and atmospheric drag). We present the most complete to date dynamical atlas of the entire usable circumterrestrial space in orbital elements (a, e, i), characterizing the long-term dynamical behavior of Earth satellites from LEO to GEO and beyond. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that it studies the dynamics of satellites and space debris, implying that there are inherent risks associated with space debris, and does not mention any advanced shielding that would make satellites fully immune to damage.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: Genetically encoded calcium indicators for multi-color neural activity imaging and combination with optogenetics. Front. Mol. Neurosci. 6:2. doi: 10. 3389/fnmol. 2013. 00002 | Text |. ,. , Marvin, J. S. , Mutlu, S. , et al. (2012). Optimization of a GCaMP calcium indicator for neural activity imaging. J. Neurosci. 32, 13819–13840. | Text |. J. ,. , Smith, S. J. , et al. (2012). Astrocyte glypicans 4 and 6 promote formation of excitatory synapses via GluA1 AMPA receptors. Nature 486, 410–414. | Text Appelbaum, L. , Wang, G. , Yokogawa, T. ,. , et al. (2010). Circadian and homeostatic regulation of structural synaptic plasticity in hypocretin neurons. Neuron 68, 87–98. | Text |. ,. , Tovin, A. , Marin, W. , et al. (2009). Sleep-wake regulation and hypocretin-melatonin interaction in zebrafish. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 106, 21942–21947. | Text |. D. , Osterweil, E. K. , and Bear, M. F. (2011). Mutations causing syndromic autism define an axis of synaptic pathophysiology. Nature 480, 63–68. | Text |. J. , Tong, C. , and Tsuda, H. (2010). 100 years of Drosophila research and its impact on vertebrate neuroscience: a history lesson for the future. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 11, 514–522. | Text |. R. , Skariah, G. , Maro, G. S. , Mignot, E. , and Mourrain, P. (2009). Characterization of two melanin-concentrating hormone genes in zebrafish reveals evolutionary and physiological links with the mammalian MCH system. J. Comp. Neurol. 517, 695–710. | Text |. , and Heisenberg, C. P. (2009). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding neural circuits processing social cues. Instead, it lists various research articles and findings in neuroscience without providing any direct information about social cue processing or the specific circuits involved. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: Since deleterious mutations are typically more numerous than beneficial ones, environmental heterogeneity may also increase the chances of an overall decrease in population fitness through the accumulation of deleterious mutations. The accumulation of deleterious mutation, called the expansion load, is already more likely in range expansions than in well-mixed populations (Peischl et al. , 2013; Lavrentovich et al. , 2016; Gralka et al. , 2016a). By altering the efficacy of selection in depressing deleterious mutations and elevating beneficial mutations, heterogeneities in the environment may further facilitate the accumulation of deleterious mutations. Depending on the mutational supply, that is the relative rate and effect of deleterious and beneficial mutations, environmental heterogeneity may not only slow down the process of adaptation but also lead to entirely different long-term evolutionary outcomes. As an example, consider Figure 8, where we compute the rate of adaptation in range expansions in various habitats for a given distribution of fitness effects (DFE). We find that the rate of adaptation can transition from positive (adaptation over time) to negative (accumulation of deleterious mutations) depending only on the degree of environmental heterogeneity. Thus, environmental heterogeneity can fundamentally alter the evolutionary dynamics of range expansions. Figure 8 Download asset Open asset Environmental heterogeneity can alter evolutionary outcomes. Rate of adaptation, defined as ∫D(s)sfMT(s)𝑑s, computed for an exponential distribution of fitness effects D(s) at various values of the environmental parameters k and ρ (see Materials and methods). The distribution of fitness effects is characterized by two parameters: the ratio μd/μb of deleterious to beneficial mutation rate (μd/μb=2 in panel a, 1. 25 in b), and s¯, the average fitness effect of a mutation (s¯=0. 03 in panel a, 0. 05 in b). The rate of adaptation is normalized to its maximal value at ρ=0. Green tones correspond to adaptation (accumulation of beneficial mutations), magenta tones to accumulation of deleterious mutations. Materials and methods Experimental methods Strains and growth conditions Request a detailed protocol We used an E. coli MG1655 strain transformed with the plasmid pB10 (Schlüter et al. , 2003). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how environmental heterogeneity can influence the balance between deleterious and beneficial mutations, emphasizing that the impact of mutations is context-dependent. It mentions that depending on the mutational supply and environmental factors, the rate of adaptation can change from positive (beneficial mutations) to negative (accumulation of deleterious mutations), illustrating that genetic mutations can indeed be beneficial, neutral, or harmful based on the situation.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: New satellites are fully immune to damage from space debris due to advanced shielding. [SEP] Text: We find that the circumterrestrial space is smooth for l. . In this study, we perform a complete, dynamical cartography of the dynamics of satellites and space debris in the near Earth space, by using detailed numerical simulations. The aim of this study is the investigation of natural reentry highways in the Earth's atmosphere that could be used for passive space debris mitigation, and the deeper understanding of the dynamics of the region. For the detailed cartography of the circumterrestrial phase space the numerical propagation and analysis of millions of fictitious orbits is necessary, using a suitable dynamical model that considers the main physics that affect satellites (Earth oblateness, lunisolar perturbations, solar radiation pressure, and atmospheric drag). We present the most complete to date dynamical atlas of the entire usable circumterrestrial space in orbital elements (a, e, i), characterizing the long-term dynamical behavior of Earth satellites from LEO to GEO and beyond. We find that the circumterrestrial space is smooth for low and high inclinations, but the most interesting and complex dynamical behavior appears for moderate-to-high inclinations, due to the overlapping of the lunisolar resonances. When augmented area-to-mass ratio values are assumed, useful dynamical hatches appear close to the upper limit of LEO protected region, which could be considered in designing disposal strategies. A more detailed study in the GTO regime shows that there is strong dependence on initial perigee altitude, as also on the area-to-mass value and drag, especially in low inclinations. The more detailed study around the MEO/GNSS regime, shows that the number of reentry solutions seems to maximize around three particular inclination zones (around i=46, 56, and 68deg), and the mean dynamical lifetime (i. e. , the time span needed to reach at Earth's surface) of reentry orbits minimizes. Additionally, a dedicated study for the graveyard regions around the four GNSS constellations reveals that around 13-20% of the initial population is stable for at least 200yr. Finally, we used the dynamical atlas to find optimal reentry and graveyard solutions that could be reached with suitable engine-driven maneuvers, starting from a typical GNSS orbit. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by explaining the dynamics of satellites and space debris, showing that there are complex interactions in circumterrestrial space that could lead to potential collision and damage. It discusses factors like Earth oblateness, lunisolar perturbations, and atmospheric drag affecting satellites, implying that satellites are not fully immune to debris damage.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: Imaging zebrafish embryos by two-photon excitation time-lapse microscopy. Methods Mol. Biol. 546, 273–287. | Text |. , and Zoghbi, H. Y. (2007). The story of Rett syndrome: from clinic to neurobiology. Neuron 56, 422–437. | Text |. S. , Reger, L. A. , Dege, J. E. , Kouzi-Koliakos, K. , Furcht, L. T. , Wohlhueter, R. M. , et al. (1990). Laminin alterations after in vitro nonenzymatic glycosylation. Diabetes 39, 807–814. | Text |. , Esposti, F. , Baden, T. , and Lagnado, L. (2011). In vivo evidence that retinal bipolar cells generate spikes modulated by light. Nat. Neurosci. 14, 951–952. | Text |. , and Wilson, S. W. (2012). Zebrafish neurobiology: from development to circuit function and behaviour. Dev. Neurobiol. 72, 215–217. | Text |. E. (2010). Intercellular glutamate signaling in the nervous system and beyond. ACS Chem. Neurosci. 1, 4–12. | Text |. W. , Jacobson, G. A. , and Zhu, P. (2010). Circuit neuroscience in zebrafish. Curr. Biol. 20, R371–R381. | Text |. G. (2012). Synaptopathies: diseases of the synaptome. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 22, 522–529. | Text |. E. , Smith, M. S. , and Verbalis, J. G. (1993). c-Fos and related immediate early gene products as markers of activity in neuroendocrine systems. Front. Neuroendocrinol. 14, 173–213. | Text |. , and Stainier, D. Y. (2009). Selective plane illumination microscopy techniques in developmental biology. Development 136, 1963–1975. | Text |. , Kim, E. , Park, M. , Lee, E. , and Namkoong, K. (2013). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not provide any information relevant to the claim about neural circuits processing social cues. Instead, it seems to reference a variety of studies related to neurobiology and imaging techniques without directly addressing the claim. Therefore, it is categorized as irrelevant.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: pB10 is a 65 kB plasmid isolated from sewage sludge that confers resistance to several antibiotic resistance including tetracyclines and has an inserted RFP gene. Hence, cells containing pB10 ('wild type’) are red fluorescent and resistant to tetracycline. The plasmid is lost sporadically (et al. , 2007), and the resulting cells ('mutants’) are non-fluorescent and susceptible to tetracycline, but display a higher growth rate in the absence of antibiotics (characterized below). We refer to the loss of the plasmid as a 'mutation’ of known fitness effect and occurrence rate, both of which we characterize below. All experiments were performed in LB at 37 °C in a humidified environment. For solid media, 2% agar was added before autoclaving. Varying concentrations of doxycycline, a tetracycline that displays higher stability in agar plates than tetracycline itself, were added to freshly autoclaved media after cooling to about 60 °C and poured immediately. Plates were dried in the dark for at least 24 hr before use. Fitness measurements Request a detailed protocol We measured the fitness difference s between wild type and mutant cells using the colliding colonies assay (Korolev et al. , 2012; Gralka et al. , 2016b). Briefly, a mutant clone was first isolated and then grown independently of the wild type overnight. In the wild type, the plasmid was maintained by adding 10 μg/ml doxycycline to the overnight culture. After growth overnight, cultures were diluted 1:10, grown for about 1. 5 hr, and then washed twice in PBS to remove residual doxycycline. 1 μl droplet of each strain were spotted on agar plates about 2 mm apart. After drying, colonies were grown for 3 days and then imaged under the a v16 microscope. The resulting images were used to estimate fitness differences by fitting a circle onto the mutant-wild type interface. The results are shown in Figure 2—figure supplement 1: without doxycyline, mutants have a 20–25% advantage over the wild type. Both strains have equal growth rate around ≈0. 35 μg/ml, and the mutants grow more slowly than the wild type at higher concentration of doxycycline. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by illustrating how genetic mutations can lead to different fitness effects depending on the environmental context. It describes the plasmid pB10 which, when present, confers advantageous traits such as antibiotic resistance and fluorescence. However, when the plasmid is lost (mutated), the non-fluorescent mutant cells display a higher growth rate in the absence of antibiotics, highlighting that mutations can confer benefits under certain conditions. Thus, the text supports the idea that genetic mutations can have varying effects based on the context.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: The majority of space debris poses no threat to human space travel or satellite operations. [SEP] Text: and of search by of Ideas about Planets and Observational and and Chemistry and Ionospheres and and and search term this link, or click below to email it to a friend Email or copy the link directly: The link was not copied. Your current browser may not support copying via this button. Link copied successfullyCopy link Sign in 10. 1093/acrefore/9780190647926. 013. 70Published online: 30 January 2020SummaryInternational space law is a branch of public international law. Norms of treaty law and customary law provide a foundation for the behavior of the subjects of international law performing space activities. Five multilateral space treaties are in effect, which are complemented by important recommendations of international organizations such as (UN) Resolutions and Union (ITU) Regulations. The Inter-(IADC), a non-governmental body composed of several space agencies (for instance, the Agency, the the Exploration Agency, the Space Agency), issued its in 2002. The IADC defines “space debris” as “all man-made space objects including fragments and elements thereof, in Earth orbit or re-entering the atmosphere, that are non-functional” (IADC, 2002, Revision 1, 2007, 3. 1. Space Debris). Although the term “space debris” was not included in any space treaty, the drafters of the space treaties considered space objects as “hazardous” because “component parts of a space object as well as its launch vehicles and parts thereof” detach in course of normal launching operations, because space objects can fragment during an attempted launch, and because space objects that re-enter Earth’s atmosphere and survive friction have the potential to cause damage. In addition, radioactive and chemical substances on board space objects may represent a hazard to populations and the environment on the Earth. Besides the threats to aircraft in flight and to persons and property on the surface of the Earth, space debris in orbit is increasing alarmingly and poses a threat to manned space missions and non-manned space objects. While the Convention on for by (Liability Convention, 1972) considers the threats of space objects during launch, in outer space, and when entering the Earth’s atmosphere, there have been efforts to minimize the generation of space debris in orbit, outside the framework of the space treaties. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by stating that space debris poses a threat to manned space missions and non-manned space objects. It mentions that space debris 'is increasing alarmingly and poses a threat to manned space missions,' directly rebuffing the idea that the majority of space debris is harmless.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: Organotypic hippocampal slice culture from the adult mouse brain: a versatile tool for translational neuropsychopharmacology. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psy- chiatry 41, 36–43. | Text |. J. , Carlson, G. A. , Pitstick, R. , Ludvigson, A. E. , Peters, A. , Luebke, J. I. , et al. (2011). Tau accumulation causes mitochondrial distribution deficits in neurons in a mouse model of tauopathy and in human Alzheimer’s disease brain. Am. J. Pathol. 179, 2071–2082. | Text |. (2005). Genetics moving to neuronal networks. Trends Neurosci. 28, 239–247. | Text |. J. , Bryant, A. , Brill, J. , and Huguenard, J. R. (2012). Enhanced NMDA receptor-dependent thalamic excitation and network oscillations in stargazer mice. J. Neurosci. 32, 11067–11081. | Text |. L. , and Mcinnes, L. A. (2007). EAAT2 regulation and splicing: relevance to psychiatric and neurological disorders. Mol. Psychiatry 12, 1065–1078. | Text |. N. , Volnova, A. B. , Pope, A. R. , and Tsytsarev, V. (2012). Advantages and limitations of brain imaging methods in the research of absence epilepsy in humans and animal models. J. Neurosci. Methods 212, 195–202. | Text |. , and Holt, C. E. (2012). Imaging axon pathfinding in zebrafish in vivo. Harb. Protoc. 2012, 992–997. | Text Leung, L. , and Norden, C. (2011). Apical migration of nuclei during G2 is a prerequisite for all nuclear motion in zebrafish neuroepithelia. Development 138, 5003–5013. | Text |. D. , and Smith, S. J. (2007). Array tomography: a new tool for imaging the molecular architecture and ultrastructure of neural circuits. Neuron 55, 25–36. | Text |. , Dong, Z. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim regarding neural circuits dedicated to processing social cues. It discusses various neuropsychological studies and findings related to the brain but does not mention social cues or relevant neural circuits. Therefore, the text is considered irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: The run length was 10,000 um, with samples taken over 122 s at 0. 273 μm per sample. The measurement range was set to 524 μm. The resulting traces were tilted to have zero slope; roughness was defined as the standard deviation of height values. a detailed protocol To simulate growing bacterial colonies, we employ an Eden model (Eden, 1961) on a square lattice that we generalized to include mutations with fitness effect s and environmental disorder. To simulate environmental disorder, we first initialize the lattice with a number of disorder sites at a density ρ. Disorder sites are characterized by a reduced growth rate k (0≤k<1). For k=0, the disorder sites are impassable (we call this type of disorder sites obstacles); equivalent models have also been used to simulate epidemics, where the obstacles represent resistant sites (Herrmann, 1986). Without disorder, our model is identical to that used in Fusco et al. (2016) and Gralka et al. (2016b), and its interfaces are known to be well described by a standard model for stochastically growing interfaces, the KPZ equation (Kardar et al. , 1986). The population is initiated with a single filled site in the center. In each time step, a site with empty neighbor sites is chosen with probability proportional to its growth rate k×(1+s) to divide into a randomly chosen empty neighbor site (Figure 4a). Upon division, a wild-type site acquires a single mutation with probability μ, potentially conferring a fitness advantage or disadvantage s; already mutated sites do not acquire further mutations. The populations are grown until the same number of lattice sites N is filled; for strong environmental noise this results in colonies that are optically larger (see, e. g. , Figure 4c). 5 and 6, N=105. The mutant frequency fMT is computed as the number of mutant lattice sites at the end of the simulation, divided by N. To arrive at Figure 5, we fitted the curves fMT(s) with an exponential, (2) fMT(s)=f0ekss, where we call f0 the neutral diversity and ks the selection efficacy, which measures the susceptibility of the mutant frequency to changes in s. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the fitness effects of mutations in the context of an Eden model simulation. It specifically mentions that a mutation can confer a 'fitness advantage or disadvantage,' thereby directly indicating that mutations can have beneficial, neutral, or harmful outcomes based on various circumstances, such as environmental conditions.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: The majority of space debris poses no threat to human space travel or satellite operations. [SEP] Text: In 1991, the Soviet Salyut-7 space station dismembered during its re-entry in the atmosphere and many fragments reached Argentinian soil, where no serious damage was reported (Lyall & Larsen, 2018, p. 108; Reuters, 1991). (2001, A/AC. 105/759) had a controlled atmospheric re-entry (Klinkrad, 2001, p. 513), while the Chinese Tiangong-1 Station (2017, A/AC. 1150/Add. 1) had an uncontrolled re-entry (Berging & Barbosa, 2018; Vellutini et al. , 2018, p. 2). Both space stations reached the ocean—Pacific and Atlantic respectively—without causing any harm. While there is no international legal instrument that imposes a duty on states to “seek to avoid a potential terrestrial impact by [their] re-entrant object” (Lyall & Larsen, 2018, p. 109), states will often apply orbital maneuvers to diminish the hazard, if the spacecraft is still in a condition that it can be maneuvered. The situation is different with space debris that re-enters the Earth’s atmosphere in an uncontrolled way. Space debris objects in outer space are under the influence of many natural factors and hence do not have a repeatable orbit, so the trajectory of a space object “can only be estimated statistically” (Finkleman, 2015). This results in uncertainty in predictions of the moment of atmospheric re-entry and of the location of the point of impact on the surface of the Earth. States have no duty to inform of upcoming atmospheric re-entries. Only through the NPS Resolution (UNGA, 1992, NPS Resolution 47/68, Principle 5) are launching states recommended to notify states that may be in danger of the atmospheric re-entry of a space object containing radioactive materials. Some states issue public communications about massive space debris without nuclear materials when they consider that the debris may survive atmospheric friction (Lyall & Larsen, 2018, p. 106). Some private institutions provide regular information about re-entries to the public (Aerospace Corporation, n. d. ; Satview, n. d. ). In order to reduce the hazard of impact with aircraft in flight, authorities of states under the path of re-entering hazardous space debris may use such information to take measures such as closing their air space to aircraft. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by explaining that while some past events of space debris re-entries did not cause harm, there exists a significant uncertainty regarding the trajectories of space debris that can lead to uncontrolled re-entries. It highlights that 'the trajectory of a space object can only be estimated statistically,' indicating potential hazards from space debris that cannot be predicted, which contradicts the claim that the majority poses no threat.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: , Berberoglu, M. A. , and Guo, S. (2011). The dorsal pallium in zebrafish, Danio rerio (Cyprinidae, Teleostei). Brain Res. 1381, 95–105. | Text |. , Greferath, U. , Nag, N. , Nithianantharajah, J. , and Wilson, Y. M. (2004). Tracing functional circuits using c-Fos regulated expression of marker genes targeted to neuronal projections. Front. Biosci. 9, 40–47. | Text |. , Ohkura, M. , Abe, G. , Nakai, J. , and Kawakami, K. (2013). Real-time visualization of neuronal activity during perception. Curr. Biol. 23, 307–311. | Text |. , Ohkura, M. , Kotani, T. , Higashijima, S. , Nakai, J. , and Kawakami, K. (2011). Genetic visualization with an improved GCaMP calcium indicator reveals spatiotemporal activation of the spinal motor neurons in zebrafish. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 108, 5425–5430. | Text |. , Ohkura, M. , and Imoto, K. (2001). A high signal-to-noise Ca(2+) probe composed of a single green fluorescent protein. Nat. Biotechnol. 19, 137–141. | Text |. A. , and Engert, F. (2010). Monitoring neural activity with bioluminescence during natural behavior. Nat. Neurosci. 13, 513–520. | Text |. M. , Meyer, M. P. , and Smith, S. J. (2004). In vivo imaging of synapse formation on a growing dendritic arbor. Nat. Neurosci. 7, 254–260. | Text |. ,. , Hunter, P. R. , Thompson, I. D. , et al. (2012). Parametric functional maps of visual inputs to the tectum. Neuron 76, 317–324. | Text |. G. (2008). Forebrain evolution in bony fishes. Brain Res. Bull. 75, 191–205. | Text |. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provides a list of various studies and researchers concerning neural activity and circuitry in the brain, but it does not specifically mention anything about social cues or dedicated neural circuits involved in processing them. Therefore, this text is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: The clone size distribution P(A>a) for bubbles is predicted to scale as a-1/(1+z), which gives a-2/5 in the KPZ case and predicts a-0. 46 for QEW. In our simulation, we indeed observe similar clone size scaling without obstacles and at the critical obstacle density (see Figure 5—figure supplement 1b, inset). For a given obstacle density ρ the interface displays QEW scaling on length scales much shorter than the crossover scale ℓ(ρ) and KPZ scaling on much larger length scales, see Figure 4—figure supplement 1b. We expect this crossover to shape the population genetics for intermediate ρ. Consider first neutral mutations, whose clone sizes we quantify in Figure 5—figure supplement 1. Clones with a width ℓ⟂≪ℓ(ρ) will exhibit the QEW scaling, whereas clones with a width ℓ⟂≫ℓ(ρ) will have the standard KPZ scaling. Since large clones (bubbles and sectors) dominate the mutant fraction fMT, the neutral dynamics is thus dominated by KPZ scaling if the colony is much larger than ℓ(ρ). The situation is less clear for beneficial mutations. Selection induces another length scales ℓs, as we have recently shown (Gralka et al. , 2016b). The length scale ℓs is the characteristic width of a beneficial clone below which it behaves neutrally; once the clone width has reached ℓs, selection can overcome drift and drive the clone to fixation. For KPZ interfaces, ℓs1/s. Based on our earlier results, we can conjecture that for large systems (≫ℓ(ρ)), the selection length ℓs can become larger than ℓ(ρ) if s is sufficiently small. Thus, for s≪1/ℓ(ρ), we expect to recover the smooth (ρ=0) behavior, with renormalized coefficients. Add a comment + Open annotations. The current annotation count on this page is being calculated. Data availability All data generated or analysed during this study are available at Mendeley. Source data files have been provided for all figures. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the dynamics of different types of mutations, specifically mentioning neutral and beneficial mutations. It details that neutral mutations exhibit QEW scaling and that beneficial mutations can behave neutrally until they reach a specific width, at which point selection influences their success. This demonstrates that mutations can have varying effects depending on the contextual factors such as clone width and obstacle density, aligning with the claim that mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on context.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: The majority of space debris poses no threat to human space travel or satellite operations. [SEP] Text: Since the point of impact is only known with limited precision and with a short lead-time (Sgobba, 2013), evacuation of the possible impact area is very unlikely; hence, states lack timely and effective protective measures. Drafters of the space treaties were aware that kinetic hazards during launch and re-entry could not completely be avoided (Cheng, 1979, 1. Reduce the release of component parts during normal launch operations to a minimum. 2. In order to minimize break-ups of launch vehicles or payloads, if a condition is detected that may lead to a failure during the operation of such space objects, all energy carried on board should be released (e. g. , dumping residual propellants, disconnecting batteries from solar panels). 3. Evade collisions with other space objects. 4. Refrain from intentionally destroying space objects and from other harmful activities affecting the integrity of space objects. 5. For space objects approaching their end of life in the LEO region, use the last kilograms of propellant for reducing their altitude (de-orbiting) and thus accelerate their re-entry into the atmosphere. This measure intends to assure that space debris is not left for a long period in the LEO protected region. 6. Reduce the post-mission break-ups of space objects at the end of life by releasing all energy carried on board. 7. For space objects in the GEO approaching their end-of-life, use the last kilograms of fuel to propel them into orbits outside the protected region. In the framework of a (2004, A/AC. 105/823, p. 41) discussed and drafted over a period of several years a set of recommendations, largely based on the which were later adopted by as the of the Committee on the of (2007). Assembly endorsed the (UNGA, 2007, Resolution 62/217). Organization for Standardization (ISO) provides detailed technical instructions for the implementation of the Mitigation Guidelines. One of them is ISO 24113:2011, the standard (ISO, 2011, updated in 2019). These detailed technical recommendations represent a breakthrough for the application of the by states of different economic and technical standing. Despite the non-binding nature of these guidelines and standards, an increasing number of states follow the IADC guidelines, have implemented codes of conduct (Mejía-Kaiser, 2009), and have issued national legislation and regulations. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the need for protective measures against kinetic hazards during launch and re-entry, which implies that space debris does pose a potential threat. It highlights that the evacuation of impact areas is unlikely, and states are aware that they cannot completely avoid these kinetic hazards, suggesting that space debris is a concern for human space travel and satellite operations.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: , Sasaki, T. , Sadakari, J. , Gengyo-Ando, K. , Kagawa-Nagamura, Y. , Kobayashi, C. , et al. (2012). Genetically encoded green fluorescent ca(2+) indicators with improved detectability for neuronal ca(2+) signals. 7:e51286. doi: 10. 1371/journal. pone. 0051286 | Text |. , Severi, K. E. , Wyart, C. , and Ahrens, M. B. (2013). Optogenetics in a transparent animal: circuit function in the larval zebrafish. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 23, 119–126. | Text |. , Poggi, L. , Zolessi, F. R. , and Harris, W. A. (2011). The oriented emergence of axons from retinal ganglion cells is directed by laminin contact in vivo. Neuron 70, 266–280. | Text |. , Mourrain, P. , and Becker, T. S. (2011). Zebrafish: an integrative system for neurogenomics and neurosciences. Prog. Neurobiol. 93, 231–243. | Text |. , Smith, S. J. , and Baier, H. (2011). Characterization of genetically targeted neuron types in the zebrafish optic tectum. Front. 5:1. doi: 10. 3389/fncir. 2011. 00001 | Text |. , Azuma, J. , Wanchoo, N. , (2012). Three-dimensional microstructural changes in murine abdominal aortic aneurysms quantified using immunofluorescent array tomography. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 60, 97–109. | Text |. , and Samuel, A. D. (2009). Caenorhabditis elegans: a model system for systems neuroscience. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 19, 637–643. | Text |. E. , Shiromani, P. J. , Mccarley, R. W. , and Saper, C. B. (1996). Activation of ventrolateral preoptic neurons during sleep. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provided does not address the claim regarding neural circuits dedicated to processing social cues. Instead, it lists various studies and publications related to neuronal signaling, optogenetics, and the zebrafish model, among other topics, without specifically discussing neural circuits for social cue processing.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: compared protein evolution to the game where one word is converted into another a single letter at a time, with the constraint that all intermediates are words: WORD→WORE→GORE→GONE→GENE. In this analogy, epistasis constrains evolution, with some mutations tolerated only after the occurrence of others. To test whether epistasis similarly constrains actual protein evolution, we created all intermediates along a 39-mutation evolutionary trajectory of influenza nucleoprotein, and also introduced each mutation individually into the parent. Several mutations were deleterious to the parent despite becoming fixed during evolution without negative impact. These mutations were destabilizing, and were preceded or accompanied by stabilizing mutations that alleviated their adverse effects. The constrained mutations occurred at sites enriched in T-cell epitopes, suggesting they promote viral immune escape. Our results paint a coherent portrait of epistasis during nucleoprotein evolution, with stabilizing mutations permitting otherwise inaccessible destabilizing mutations which are sometimes of adaptive value. eLife digest During evolution, the effect of one mutation on a protein can depend on whether another mutation is also present. This phenomenon is similar to the game in which one word is converted to another word, one letter at a time, subject to the rule that all the intermediate steps are also valid words: for example, the word WORD can be converted to the word GENE as follows: WORD→WORE→GORE→GONE→GENE. In this example, the D must be changed to an E before the W is changed to a G, because GORD is not a valid word. Similarly, during the evolution of a virus, a mutation that helps the virus evade the human immune system might only be tolerated if the virus has acquired another mutation beforehand. This type of mutational interaction would constrain the evolution of the virus, since its capacity to take advantage of the second mutation depends on the first mutation having already occurred. Gong et al. examined whether such interactions have indeed constrained evolution of the influenza virus. Between 1968 and 2007, the nucleoprotein—which acts as a scaffold for the replication of genetic material—in the human H3N2 influenza virus underwent a series of 39 mutations. To test whether all of these mutations could have been tolerated by the 1968 virus, Gong et al. introduced each one individually into the 1968 nucleoprotein. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how the effects of specific mutations are not solely determined by their individual characteristics but rather by the evolutionary context in which they occur. For instance, it explains that 'some mutations were deleterious to the parent despite becoming fixed during evolution without negative impact,' indicating that while some mutations may appear harmful, they can be tolerated due to the presence of prior beneficial mutations. Additionally, the text emphasizes that 'the effect of one mutation on a protein can depend on whether another mutation is also present,' which directly aligns with the claim that the impact of mutations can vary based on contextual factors. Overall, the discussion around epistasis and the interaction of mutations underlines that their benefits or harms depend significantly on their evolutionary context.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: The majority of space debris poses no threat to human space travel or satellite operations. [SEP] Text: Planning & -in-Chief: the JournalAims and with us Author Instructions43. 10. 20517/smpo. 2022. 05 | © The Author(s) 2023. 2024. If the appropriate corrective actions are not taken, this will have a long-term negative impact on ISS maintenance[18]. These kinds of threats will affect future collaboration, research projects, funding for space activities, etc. Additionally, a nation’s navigation and communication systems will be impacted by cyberattacks on satellites, making them more vulnerable to intrusion[19,20]. Despite numerous efforts, debris removal remains a major challenge for national and international space agencies, with the presence and lack of traceability of small debris parts posing new challenges. Many previous studies have attempted to examine the difficulties that space debris removal programmes face. Some studies have mentioned the lack of international space rules and agreements[21,22], inefficient debris removal technologies[23], insufficient debris-catching mechanisms[24], financial constraints[25], and design limitations[15] as the main obstacles to developing successful space debris removal activities. Policy recommendations are influenced by the economic constraints in handling space debris. The following are some research findings from an economic management perspective. Using analytical models, Macauley[26] investigated how different economic and financial benefits would affect various strategies for debris mitigation. However, a lot of assumptions were taken into account for this study, and the uncertainty and probability distribution functions affecting the process of grave yarding had a big impact on the strategy for clearing out the debris. Zhu et al. tried to calculate the break-even costs of sending satellites into space, considering the costs of avoiding costs of orbital debris collisions, costs of space preservation, early replacement costs and commercial benefits obtained from satellites, etc. [27]. To determine the efficacy of mitigation and remediation options, this study conducts sensitivity analyses. If spacefaring communities comply with them as soon as possible, post-mission disposal (PMD) with a 90% success rate and the active removal of no more than five retired spacecraft annually will be sufficient and effective space preservation measures. They draw attention to the drawback that the timing and phases of global mitigation and remediation practices are dependent on the results of break-even analysis. Klinkrad[28] discussed space debris models and the risks associated with risk analysis because of the space debris environment that exists now and in the future. Shan et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the potential long-term negative impacts of space debris on International Space Station (ISS) maintenance, navigation, and communication systems. It highlights that debris presence and lack of traceability pose new challenges, which implies that some space debris does indeed present significant risks to human space travel and satellite operations, contrary to the claim that the majority poses no threat.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: Science 271, 216–219. | Text |. J. , Longe, O. , and Rippon, G. (2009). Disconnected brains: what is the role of fMRI in connectivity research? Int. J. Psychophysiol. 73, 27–32. | Text |. , Konyukh, M. , Delorme, R. , Leblond, C. , Chaste, P. , Fauchereau, F. , et al. (2010). Key role for gene dosage and synaptic homeostasis in autism spectrum disorders. Trends Genet. 26, 363–372. | Text |. , and Raber, J. (2005). Mouse behavioural analysis in systems biology. Biochem. J. 389, 593–610. | Text |. S. , Burrone, J. , and Meyer, M. P. (2013). Functional imaging in the zebrafish retinotectal system using RGECO. Front. in 7:34. doi: 10. 3389/fncir. 2013. 00034 | Text |. , Grone, B. , Colas, D. , Appelbaum, L. , and Mourrain, P. (2011). Synaptic plasticity in sleep: learning, homeostasis and disease. Trends Neurosci. 34, 452–463. | Text |. , and Smith, S. J. (2012). Sub-diffraction limit localization of proteins in volumetric space using Bayesian restoration of fluorescence images from ultrathin specimens. PLoS Comput. Biol. 8:e1002671. doi: 10. 1371/journal. pcbi. 1002671. D. , Simpson, E. H. , Kandel, E. R. , and Balsam, P. D. (2011). Modeling motivational deficits in mouse models of schizophrenia: behavior analysis as a guide for neuroscience. Behav. Processes 87, 149–156. | Text |. , Araki, S. , Wu, J. , Teramoto, T. , Chang, Y. F. , Nakano, M. , et al. (2011). An expanded palette of genetically encoded Ca(2+) indicators. Science 333, 1888–1891. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding neural circuits and social cues. Instead, it references a variety of studies and articles without mentioning social cue processing or any specific neural circuits related to it.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: They found that several mutations greatly reduced the fitness of the 1968 virus when introduced on their own, which strongly suggests that these ‘constrained mutations’ became part of the virus’s genetic makeup as a result of interactions with ‘enabling’ mutations. The constrained mutations decreased the stability of the nucleoprotein at high temperatures, while the enabling mutations counteracted this effect. It may, therefore, be possible to identify enabling mutations based on their effects on thermal stability. Intriguingly, the constrained mutations helped the virus overcome one form of human immunity to influenza, suggesting that interactions between mutations might limit the rate at which viruses evolve to evade the immune system. Overall, these results show that interactions among mutations constrain the evolution of the influenza nucleoprotein in a fashion that can be largely understood in terms of protein stability. If the same is true for other proteins and viruses, this work could lead to a deeper understanding of the constraints that govern evolution at the molecular level. can play a key role in evolution, such as by constraining accessible evolutionary pathways (Weinreich et al. , 2005; Kryazhimskiy et al. , 2011) and increasing the role of contingency in adaptation (Blount et al. , 2008; Bridgham et al. , 2009). One of the simplest types of epistasis is that which occurs between mutations within a single protein. That such epistasis is common has long been considered self-evident–for example, in their seminal 1965 analysis of protein evolution, wrote, “Of course … the functional effect of a given single substitution will frequently depend on the presence or absence of a number of other substitutions (Zuckerkandl and Pauling, 1965). ” But although numerous laboratory evolution and site-directed mutagenesis experiments have demonstrated that mutations can in principle exhibit strong epistatic interactions (Bershtein et al. , 2006; Bloom et al. , 2006; Lunzer et al. , 2010; Salverda et al. , 2011), surprisingly little is known about the actual role of epistasis in natural protein evolution. A few studies have reconstructed naturally occurring mutations involved in antibiotic resistance or steroid-receptor ligand specificity (Wang et al. , 2002; Weinreich et al. , 2006; Ortlund et al. , 2007; Bridgham et al. , 2009) and found strong epistatic interactions. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how specific genetic mutations can interact to influence the fitness and stability of a virus, highlighting the contextual nature of genetic mutations. It mentions that certain 'constrained mutations' can reduce virus fitness, while 'enabling mutations' can counteract those harmful effects. This illustrates how the impact of mutations is not uniform but rather dependent on their interactions and the contextual factors of protein stability and adaptation, supporting the notion that mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful based on the situation.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: The majority of space debris poses no threat to human space travel or satellite operations. [SEP] Text: reviewed and compared active space debris trapping and removal techniques; this study broadly classified the space debris mitigation strategies into two categories, space-based and non-space-based[29]. This study also discovered that developing active debris removal strategies are difficult due to many technical and economic difficulties in capturing and removing a tumbling target or a space debris object with unknown physical properties. Keeping the emerging problem in mind, this study uses a systems thinking approach to explain the root cause of the space debris problem. It is more of a philosophical approach than a set of tools and techniques. It entails taking apart and reassembling a problem to fully comprehend its components and feedback relationships[30]. Therefore, this 1. Systems thinking concept. Statement of the problem:Intuitive Statement■ More satellites must be launched to support societal and economic development in space, and their orbital safety and stability are critical for their long-term operation. Counter-Intuitive Statement■ Despite the allocation of a safe orbit for each satellite by the internationally authorised system, the threat to the safety and stability of the active satellite is increasing due to space debris. recent geomagnetic storm that occurred in February 2022 caused catastrophic damage to Starlink’s 40 satellites, as per official reports[33]. Although the company SpaceX stated that there is no threat to active satellites in the low Earth orbit due to Starlink’s dead satellites, still the condition is unclear and uncertain, resulting in a financial loss of more than 20 million USD[34]. The anti-satellite tests in recent times have also increased the number of debris in space. In the ASAT process, an active satellite or rocket physically collides with target satellites (mostly defunct or dead satellites) to alter the satellite’s course or destroy it, scattering numerous tiny pieces of debris in the process. 27, 2019, the (ISRO) conducted an anti-satellite (ASAT) test on its defunct satellite Microsat-R[35]. Although ISRO officials stated that the debris fell back into the Earth’s atmosphere within 45 days of the test, more than 400 pieces of debris were produced. NASA strongly criticized the attempt because this experiment significantly increased the risk of collision with the ISS by 44%[36]. China, the United States, and the have all conducted ASAT tests, with the resulting debris fragments threatening the functioning of the ISS and other active satellites in orbit. Table 1 presents the details of ASAT tests performed by various countries. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing evidence that the safety and stability of active satellites are increasingly threatened by space debris. It highlights that anti-satellite tests and recent geomagnetic storms have exacerbated the debris problem, suggesting that the presence of space debris does pose a significant risk to satellite operations and human space travel. For instance, it mentions a geomagnetic storm that caused damage to Starlink satellites, and NASA's criticism of ASAT tests due to the increased collision risk with the ISS.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: Neuronal specializations for the processing of interaural difference cues in the chick Harunori Ohmori* Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, Faculty of information is encoded as a series of spikes of the auditory nerve fibers (ANFs), and then transmitted to the brainstem auditory nuclei. Features such as timing and level are extracted from ANFs activity and further processed as the interaural time difference (ITD) and the interaural level difference (ILD), respectively. These two interaural difference cues are used for sound source localization by behaving animals. Both cues depend on the head size of animals and are extremely small, requiring specialized neural properties in order to process these cues with precision. Moreover, the sound level and timing cues are not processed independently from one another. Neurons in the nucleus angularis (NA) are specialized for coding sound level information in birds and the ILD is processed in the posterior part of the dorsal lateral lemniscus nucleus (LLDp). Processing of ILD is affected by the phase difference of binaural sound. Temporal features of sound are encoded in the pathway starting in nucleus magnocellularis (NM), and ITD is processed in the nucleus laminaris (NL). In this pathway a variety of specializations are found in synapse morphology, neuronal excitability, distribution of ion channels and receptors along the tonotopic axis, which reduces spike timing fluctuation in the ANFs-NM synapse, and imparts precise and stable ITD processing to the NL. Moreover, the contrast of ITD processing in NL is enhanced over a wide range of sound level through the activity of GABAergic inhibitory systems from both the superior olivary nucleus (SON) and local inhibitory neurons that follow monosynaptic to NM activity. auditory nervous system is highly sensitive to changes in acoustic signals both in the frequency and the level (Dooling et al. , 2000; Klump, 2000). Activity of ANFs codes the sound timing as the phase-locked-firing and the level as the firing-rate. Anatomically separate, and physiologically distinct pathways process these two auditory features (Oertel, 1999; Carr and Code, 2000). Anatomical separation is particularly distinct in the avian auditory system (Figure 1), where the pathway starting from NM carries the temporal information, and ITD is processed in NL. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses auditory processing in birds, specifically the neuronal specializations for processing interaural difference cues rather than neural circuits involved in social cue processing. The focus is on sound localization and auditory pathways, not social interactions.