Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The search for extraterrestrial life involves studying extremophiles on Earth. [SEP] Text: A 2021 paper in the leading scientific journal Nature, by the American physicist and his colleagues, began with the following sentence: ‘Our generation could realistically be the one to discover evidence of life beyond Earth. ’ Its authors clearly share my optimism in this respect. Of course, there’s a question-mark hanging over the meaning of ‘our generation’, as the six authors are varied in age, and their readers even more so. But that’s a small uncertainty in the grand scheme of things. The key point is that many scientists suspect that the first evidence of life beyond Earth will be forthcoming on a timescale of years to decades, not centuries. Even if it takes five decades to acquire the first conclusive evidence, a reasonable proportion of those alive today (regrettably not including me! ) will still be here to see it. In the previous paragraph, I used the phrase ‘many scientists’. But scientists of what type? Science is a broad endeavour, and some parts of it are more relevant to the search for life than others. However, that said, many scientific disciplines have a role to play. They include cosmology, astronomy, astrophysics, planetary science, atmospheric science, geology, ecology, evolutionary biology, genetics, molecular biology, and organic chemistry – and that is far from being an exhaustive list. The principal discipline is astrobiology, which is a mix of some or all of the above, with the exact mix depending on the astrobiologist concerned. Astrobiologists of my generation weren’t trained as such, as there were no courses in the subject, so we’ve migrated towards it from various starting points – in my case evolutionary biology. But there’s a younger cohort of astrobiologists who have indeed been trained in this discipline. Importantly, the ‘many scientists’ who suspect that the first evidence of alien life will be found on the years-to-decades timescale include specialists in all of the disciplines mentioned above, and indeed others too. So this optimism isn’t a passing fad in one particular narrow branch of science. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim directly, nor does it mention extremophiles or their relation to the study of extraterrestrial life. Instead, it discusses the optimism of scientists regarding the discovery of extraterrestrial life and the different scientific disciplines involved in astrobiology. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the specific claim regarding extremophiles on Earth.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change contributes to prolonged droughts in many parts of the world. [SEP] Text: The future high and low flows in may therefore be estimated by: For floods: (5) For droughts: (6) When expressed in percentage, it can be observed than future floods will most likely be higher than current floods by 30% - 40% (B1) or 35% - 55% (A2) for 2-year floods (Figure 3). Higher return floods (e. g. 100-year) are also expected to increase but not to the same extent as low return floods. For example, 100-year floods are projected to increase by 5% - 12% (B1) or 8% - 21% (A2). Figure 4 shows that future low flows would most likely be higher than current low flows. For instance, a 2-year low flow could be 9% - 12% higher under the B1 scenario or 10% - 19% higher under the A2 scenario. Higher return (e. g. 100-year) low flows would most likely be less severe than current conditions. The increase in low flow discharge is expected to be in the range of 11% 20% (B1) and 18% - 27% (A2). 4. change will undoubtedly alter floods and droughts in New Brunswick. The success of industries (e. g. , agriculture, forestry, fisheries and others) is intrinsically linked to climate and river flow, making particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Undoubtedly, these industries (among others) will be significantly affected by warmer and wetter climates with a potential shift in the availability of water during some seasons (e. g. , summer and fall). Adaptation will be essential to maintaining the viability of some industries within the province. The hydrological response of seven catchments to two emission scenarios was simulated using artificial neural network (ANN). It was observed that air temperature in will increase by as much as 5. 2˚C by 2100. This rate of warming is much greater than that observed in the 20th century but is consistent with that predicted by [1] and Houghton et al. , [21] for the Atlantic Provinces. As for precipitation, the mean annual precipitation showed an increase of 9% - 12% compared to current conditions. The frequency analyses showed that flood magnitude would most likely increase by 11% - 21% towards the end of the century, depending on the emission scenario used. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by discussing the impacts of climate change on hydrological responses, indicating that future conditions, including warmer climates, will likely alter both floods and droughts. It specifically mentions that industries are vulnerable to climate change impacts, connecting the availability of water and shifts in seasons to prolonged droughts, thereby corroborating the assertion that climate change is a contributing factor to drought conditions.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Renewable energy sources have no environmental impact whatsoever. [SEP] Text: 2007 of Base Stations, Proceedings of 475 476, 978-1-4244-1628-8, Rome (Italy), September 2007, IEEE, Rome 8. Lubritto C. Petraglia A. Vetromile C. Caterina F. D’Onofrio A. Logorelli M. Marsico G. Curcuruto S. “New Energy” for System in Proceedings of 443 445, 978-1-4244-1628-8, Rome (Italy), September 2007, IEEE, Rome 9. Lubritto C. Petraglia A. Vetromile C. Caterina F. D’Onofrio A. Logorelli M. Marsico G. Curcuruto S. “Telecommunications power systems: energy saving, renewable sources and environmental monitoring”- in Telecommunications Networks, Proceedings of 120 126, 978-1-4244-2056-8, (CA), September 2008,. 10. Lubritto C. Petraglia A. Vetromile C. Caterina F. D’Onofrio A. Logorelli M. Marsico G. Curcuruto S. Miglio L. Cenci F. “Simulation analysis and test study of BTS power saving techniques”- 2009 18-22October/2009 Corea. 11. Masone M. 2007 for Proceedings of 756 759 978-1-4244-1628-8, Rome (Italy), September 2007, IEEE, Rome 12. Morea F. . Viciguerra G. Cucchi D. . Valencia C. 2007 of Off-Grid PV-Power Systems, Proceedings of 439 441 978-1-4244-1628-8, Rome (Italy), September 2007, IEEE, Rome 13. Pizzuti F. . Rega G. Grossoni M. 2008 Saving, Proceedings of 84 89 978-1-4244-2056-8, (CA), September 2008,. 14. Roy S. N. 2008 Energy Logic: A to Consumption in Telecommunications Networks, Proceedings of 90 98 978-1-4244-2056-8, (CA), September 2008, 15. Ericsson 2007 Use in -07:021801 Ericsson AB 2007. information 1. Introduction2. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing renewable energy sources and their integration into telecommunications power systems, suggesting that there are considerations regarding energy savings, renewable sources, and environmental monitoring. This implies that renewable energy does have some level of environmental impact that requires monitoring and management.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The search for extraterrestrial life involves studying extremophiles on Earth. [SEP] Text: Rather, it’s a reasoned assessment of the stage we have reached in the process of searching for life, and where we’re likely to get to with the new generation of space telescopes that are currently at various stages of planning, construction, or early operation, including the (alias JWST or simply ‘Webb’), more on which later. The paper in Nature that I mentioned above is focused on formulating a policy for reporting possible evidence of alien life. The authors highlight the complementary problems of false positives and false negatives. The former involve concluding that some observation is evidence for life when in fact it’s not; the latter involve failing to detect life on a planet when it’s actually there. They particularly stress their concern about the likely sensationalization in the popular media of results that turn out to be false positives, and I think they are right to do so. Their approach to avoiding – or at least reducing – such problems is to develop a scale of the quality of possible evidence of alien life, and to make clear where on this scale any particular finding falls. This way, a hint of possible life shouldn’t be mistaken for a certainty. In 1960. This was a search for radio signals from alien civilizations, conducted using the Astronomy Observatory, now the Observatory, in West Virginia. Of course, the search for alien intelligence is only one part of the search for life. Nevertheless, from the 1960s onwards, both astrobiology in general and SETI in particular have evolved side by side in a much more continuous way than did the search for life before the second half of the twentieth century. of Telescopes It’s a long way from Galileo’s tiny telescope of 1610 to today’s large ground-based instruments such as Chile’s VLT (Telescope), and their space-based counterparts such as Hubble and Webb. I’ll now look at a few selected milestones along this evolutionary journey. If you’d like a bit more detail than I can give in just a few pages on the functioning and/or history of telescopes, I can recommend CottrellCottrell’s 2016 book Telescopes: A Introduction. Before examining milestones in the evolution of telescopes, it’s worth reminding ourselves of why, from an astrobiological perspective, they are collectively important. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the study of extremophiles on Earth or its relationship to the search for extraterrestrial life. It discusses the assessment of current technologies used in the search for life, such as space telescopes, the challenges of false positives and negatives in identifying evidence of life, and the historical evolution of telescopes. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim about studying extremophiles.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change contributes to prolonged droughts in many parts of the world. [SEP] Text: -19 PreprintsProtocolsVideosJournalsTools & a 10. 21203/rs. 3. rs-4558200/v1This work is licensed under a CC BY 4. 0 LicenseStatus:Under ReviewVersion 1posted 5You are reading this latest preprint versionAbstractThe global community is growing increasingly concerned about the impact of climate change, particularly the expected increase in droughts and associated depletion of water resources in the coming years. However, specific future projections using high-resolution climate simulations focusing on the frequency and intensity of hydrological droughts in Japan are currently lacking. In this study, we investigated the effects of climate change on hydrological droughts in central Japan using hydrological model simulations based on climate projections derived from an ensemble of high-resolution downscaling at a 5-km scale. The results indicated a decrease in streamflow during summer as climate change progressed, corresponding to increased drought events. In addition, there was a considerable increase in the number of consecutive hydrological drought days, reaching an unprecedented level. Moreover, the application of self-organizing maps (SOMs) to atmospheric data allowed for the examination of the relationships between summer river discharge and climate/weather patterns under future and present climate simulations. The SOM analysis indicated that the impact of climate change on river discharge varies by climate/weather patterns. Hydrological drought events tend to be stronger in certain future patterns. In particular, future projections indicate an increase in monthly-scale hydrological droughts in climatic backgrounds characterized by southerly and easterly airflows as precipitation decreases and evapotranspiration increases. The results of this study provide valuable insights for considering adaptation strategies concerning dry-season water use in future climate scenarios. Hydrological droughtWater shortageClimate changeClimate/weather pattern attributionSelf-organizing mapRegional climate modelingFiguresFigure 1Figure 2Figure 3Figure 4Figure 5Figure 6Figure 7Figure 8Figure 9Figure 10Figure 11Figure 121 IntroductionPrecipitation and river discharge projections are important sources of information for assessing water resource availability and mitigating the risks of droughts and floods (Vörösmarty et al. 2000; Milly et al. 2002). For example, hydropower management requires long-term investment planning, daily to seasonal production planning, and optimization, all of which must consider river discharge fluctuations. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the findings of a study that shows a clear relationship between climate change and increased hydrological droughts in central Japan. Specifically, it notes that as climate change progresses, there is a decrease in streamflow during summer and an increase in the number of consecutive drought days. The results suggest that future projections indicate an increase in monthly-scale hydrological droughts, especially in conditions with decreasing precipitation and increasing evapotranspiration, directly supporting the idea that climate change contributes to prolonged droughts.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Renewable energy sources have no environmental impact whatsoever. [SEP] Text: All issues (2016) Renew. Energy Environ. Sustain. , 1 (2016) 23 issuesForthcomingTopical issuesAbout the journal Aims and scopeEditorial boardEthical standardsIndexed inCopyright and license agreement MastheadLeaflet (PDF)Author information Instructions for authors10. 1051/rees/2016038 Published online 13 June 2016 1 Introduction 2 Number of jobs created by RES 3 RES job profiles, professions involved and skills required 4 Skills gaps and shortages – the role of education and training 5 Conclusions 4. 0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 1 urgent need to drastically cut CO2 emissions makes the development of renewable energy (RE) technologies essential. Sources (RES) bring other benefits as well, such as the provision of electricity in areas not connected to a central grid or where the grid is unreliable and back-up systems are required. RE can enable economic development in developing countries, most of which are geographically well-placed to be able to exploit the RE potential. RES help address increasing concerns about future energy prices and energy security, in a context of a rapid global increase in demand for energy, driven mainly by rising living standards in developing countries. There are economic opportunities in RES, as several RE technologies are already competitive at market prices. In addition, decentralized electricity generation mobilizes small-scale private investments. As it has become clear and has been documented in practice the last years, investments in renewables offer significant potential for creating employment opportunities, a key public policy concern in many countries. This is particularly important nowadays due to the dramatic increase in unemployment, being among the most onerous consequences of the crisis experienced by the world the last years. It is therefore important to keep in mind how the possible options and/or choices, especially in the energy sector, are affecting employment. There is significant employment potential associated with RE equipment manufacture and distribution, project development, construction and installation, as well as operation and maintenance of facilities, for all RE technologies. Dozens are the professions directly or indirectly associated with RES, and a range of core skills is important for them. However, skills gaps and labour shortages are also a reality. Therefore, there is scope for governments and for the RE sector to assist providers of relevant training and education to develop their training programs. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting the various benefits of renewable energy sources (RES) and their necessity for addressing urgent global concerns. While it does outline economic benefits including job creation and energy security, it underscores that the development of renewable technologies is essential for drastically cutting CO2 emissions. This suggests an environmental impact exists that necessitates mitigation through renewable energy development.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The search for extraterrestrial life involves studying extremophiles on Earth. [SEP] Text: Telescopes of Galileo’s day were great for astronomy – especially when compared with the naked eye – but they weren’t much use for astrobiology. In contrast, today’s telescopes have the capability of addressing hypotheses about alien life. For example, we can now use telescopes to examine the atmospheres of distant exoplanets. We can search for signs of oxygen, which is regarded as a biosignature. In particular, it may be a signature of photosynthesis by microbes and plants. It’s true that oxygen may come to exist in planetary atmospheres by abiotic means. However, as we’ll see in 3. 7 centimetres, Newton’s (in 1668) 2. 5 centimetres. They’re not directly comparable because Galileo’s was a refractor (a telescope that uses lenses) while Newton’s was a reflector (a telescope that uses mirrors), but they were both tiny by current standards. Today’s large telescopes have mirrors with diameters measured in metres rather than centimetres. For example, the Canarias, situated on the Spanish island of La Palma, has an aperture of 10. 4 metres. The increase in telescope size has been continuous from the 1600s to the 2000s, though it has speeded up significantly since 1900. The largest telescope in the world at the end of the nineteenth century was the Leviathan of Parsonstown in County Offaly, Ireland, which had a diameter of 1. 83 metres. This size was exceeded in 1917 with the construction of the on in southern California, with a diameter of 2. 5 metres. So the last 100 years have seen the largest increase – more than 8 metres between the early twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. However, these measurements in metres don’t quite suffice to explain just how much more powerful modern telescopes are than their ancient forerunners. The light-collecting capability of a telescope scales not with the diameter of its primary mirror but with its surface area. So, in terms of functionality, a 10-metre mirror is not 10 times as good as a 1-metre mirror; rather it’s better by a factor of 100. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim directly; it discusses the evolution and capabilities of telescopes in astronomy, particularly their role in examining distant exoplanets and looking for biosignatures like oxygen. There is no mention of extremophiles or their relevance to the search for extraterrestrial life, making the text irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change contributes to prolonged droughts in many parts of the world. [SEP] Text: The variability in river discharge is closely influenced by precipitation and evapotranspiration, which affect the amount of freshwater available for human use (Schewe et al. 2014; Haddeland et al. 2014). Changes in these characteristics that occur in conjunction with anthropogenic climate change can lead to considerable changes in river discharge (Orlowsky and Seneviratne, 2013; Dai, 2013; Arnell and Gosling, 2013; Koirala et al. 2014; Birkinshaw et al. 2014; Ajami et al. 2017). In recent decades, several studies using hydrological simulations have assessed the anticipated impacts of climate change on hydrological cycles and regimes. These studies have considered the potential impacts on freshwater ecosystems, water quality, and water availability for human use (Arnell 1999; et al. 2012; Ohba et al. 2022). Recent studies have projected future hydrological droughts and cautioned against their escalation as a consequence of climate change (Squire et al. 2021; Gessner et al. 2022; van der Wiel et al. 2022; Chan et al. 2023). Earlier studies have comprehensively assessed the climate response in specific river basins (Clow, 2010; Korhonen and Kuusisto, 2010; Tan et al. 2011; Masood et al. 2015; Vetter et al. 2015; Arai et al. 2020). However, it is important to note that many regions across the globe are currently facing water scarcity. No in-depth studies have been conducted on projecting changes in water resources and droughts on a regional scale. Understanding the spatiotemporal distribution of hydrological droughts, the driving forces of atmospheric circulation, the climatic background field, and their relationship with interannual variability in the context of climate change is critical to effectively responding to drought events and enhancing water resource management planning. Over the past few decades, many parts of Japan have experienced frequent and severe water shortages, mainly due to continuous dry spells and low rainfall (Ministry of the Environment et al. 2020). This can be related to the increasing annual variability between years of high and low precipitation in recent years. Snowmelt in alpine areas has also shifted to occur earlier in the season. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how changes in precipitation and evapotranspiration due to anthropogenic climate change can lead to significant alterations in river discharge, eventually contributing to freshwater scarcity and prolonged droughts. It states that recent studies have projected future hydrological droughts, cautioning against their escalation as a consequence of climate change. Furthermore, the mention of many regions globally facing water scarcity and the variability in precipitation reinforces the role of climate change in causing prolonged droughts.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Renewable energy sources have no environmental impact whatsoever. [SEP] Text: 2 Number of jobs created by RES Employment in RE sector has grown fast the last years, in close relation to the RES increased exploitation. According to UNEP estimations [1], in 2009 more than 3 million people worldwide were working directly in the sector, about half of them in the biofuels industry, with additional indirect jobs well beyond this figure. China accounted for the largest number, with more than 1. 12 million workers estimated in the RE industry, with a growth rate of around 100,000 jobs per year. In the last available relevant report, IRENA [2] estimates that in 2013 globally 6. 5 million people were working directly or indirectly in the RE sector, based on a literature review and annual data collection from various sources. The status of RE employment is presented by technology and by selected countries, and its results (processed) are presented in Figure 1. Among all countries, and Germany are the top five largest employers for RE. Solar PV and wind power are the two most dynamic RE sectors, according to IRENA. Various studies also exist regarding the future employment in RES. One released by and EREC claims that the RE industry could provide 6. 9 million jobs by 2030, if world leaders seize the opportunity to invest in a greener future [3]. The EmployRES study (funded by EC) predicts that if the target of 20% penetration of RES is reached by 2020, 2. 8 million jobs will be created in Europe (together with an increase in GDP by 1. 1%) [4]. According to the same study, the RE sector employed 1. 4 million people and generated 58 billion € in 2005. An estimation/calculation of the jobs created per installed megawatt (MW) of various RE technologies is presented herein for Greece, a country where the impact of economic crisis is particularly acute, especially in unemployment. From the several calculation models of this type that exist nowadays, whose estimates are close enough since now there is extensive experience on which these models have been built, the methodology developed by the on behalf of the [5] was selected to be used. As RE jobs are created both locally (on the location of the power plant) and hyper-local (e. g. for the production of equipment), for calculating these jobs at the country level the percentage of RE equipment produced at national level – thus, not imported from a third country – is requested. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the employment opportunities created by renewable energy sources (RES) and the resultant economic benefits, implying that the exploitation and growth of RES can have environmental implications, such as job creation and changes in local economies, which indicate that there are indeed impacts associated with renewable energy sources. It does not provide any support for the claim's assertion of 'no environmental impact.'


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The search for extraterrestrial life involves studying extremophiles on Earth. [SEP] Text: Given that Galileo’s tiny telescope allowed him to see the moons of Jupiter, and discern individual stars in the ‘milk’ of the Milky Way, the capabilities of today’s telescopes are truly amazing. But, for astrobiology, size is not enough. There are several other developments that we need to understand. First, so obvious that it hardly needs to be said, the advent of photography in the 1800s, and its later coming together with telescopes in the form of astrophotography. Second, Earth’s atmosphere is a major cause of distortion in the business of seeing clearly into space. As is well known, stars don’t twinkle – they only seem to do so because of atmospheric effects. The main exoplanet-detecting telescopes have been placed above the atmosphere so that this distortion is avoided. These are the Kepler and TESS space telescopes (more on which in 2021. Another will be a future space telescope, which, at the concept stage, was called an acronym of Large Ultra-Violet, Optical, and Infra-Red (telescope). This design survived NASA’s 2020 decadal survey, which produced its report in late 2021 due to the Covid pandemic. However, it was scaled down in size for reasons of cost. The primary mirror will be of a smaller diameter than was originally envisaged. When constructed, the diameter will be about 6 metres – still a considerable size for a space telescope. Its final name will probably be different. In the immediate aftermath of the decadal survey, some astronomers jokingly suggested simply losing the L (large) and calling it UVOIR, but a better name will almost certainly be found. The ability to see across the boundary between visible and infrared light that characterizes both and means that they will be ideally placed to see oxygen biosignatures. This point brings us to the other important development in telescopes that we need to examine: the use of a technique called spectroscopy. Here’s the basic idea behind this technique, as applied in space telescopes for astrobiological purposes. You look at light from a distant source – say a star that has an orbiting planet. In fact, you look at it twice, once when the planet is behind the star or a long way off to one side, and once when it is transiting – i. e. in front of its star from our perspective. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address extremophiles or their relevance to the search for extraterrestrial life. Instead, it discusses the capabilities and advancements of telescopes and astrobiological techniques such as spectroscopy in the context of studying distant stars and planets. Thus, it is irrelevant to the claim about studying extremophiles on Earth.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change contributes to prolonged droughts in many parts of the world. [SEP] Text: In regions with heavy snowfall, such as the Hokuriku region located in the northwest central part of Japan, increased snowmelt in winter has been reported (Yamanaka et al. 2012), and there is concern that a decrease in snowfall events may lead to water shortages in early spring (Kudo et al. 2017). A reliable water supply is essential to support the comfortable lifestyles and high-quality services modern society offers (Ministry of Land Infrastructure, Transport, and Tourism, 2008). Therefore, disruption or reduction of the water supply can profoundly impact daily household tasks and social activities. In addition, water shortages associated with industrial uses or hydroelectric power generation may lead to the reduction or cessation of operations across various sectors. Regarding precipitation in Japan, there has been a trend of increased variability between extremely low and extremely high precipitation levels as air temperatures rise (Agency 2021). Based on the most recent regional climate model (RCM) projections, it is anticipated that changes in the annual accumulated precipitation in Japan are likely to be minimal, but the frequency of both extreme rainfall events and no precipitation periods is expected to increase (Kawase et al. 2019; Ohba and Sugimoto, 2019; Ohba et al. 2022). These changes can affect hydropower generation via changes in the annual river discharge, seasonal evolution, and increased interannual variability. The potential impacts of future climate change on specific hydropower plants are contingent upon localized changes in their hydrological characteristics (Markoff and Cullen, 2008). However, there remains a lack of specific future projections using high-resolution climate simulations that focus on the frequency and intensity of hydrological droughts in Japan. River streamflow can be influenced by daily synoptic and monthly large-scale atmospheric circulations, which have nonlinear relationships with local surface variables. The background meteorological and climatic conditions determine the surface water budget at each time scale. The classification of synoptic daily weather patterns (WPs) and monthly climate patterns (CPs) using the characteristics of statistically significant local meteorological variables can provide valuable insights into understanding the underlying factors contributing to drought discharge events. Previous studies have used the WP classification to identify prevailing extreme precipitation patterns (Brigode et al. 2013; Ohba et al. 2015) and then discussed the changing impact of each WP in the context of climate change (Ohba and Sugimoto, 2019; 2020). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the impacts of climate change on precipitation patterns in Japan, specifically noting increased variability between extremely low and high precipitation levels as air temperatures rise. It mentions that climate change may lead to increased frequencies of no precipitation periods, which aligns with the notion that climate change can contribute to prolonged droughts. The text further highlights the concerns about water shortages in the context of industrial uses and hydropower generation, indicating that the alterations in precipitation could significantly impact these sectors, thus supporting the claim about climate change's role in droughts.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Renewable energy sources have no environmental impact whatsoever. [SEP] Text: For the Greek conditions, the domestic share of equipment production (usually being of auxiliary type, such as mounts, cables, transformers, etc. ) is of the order of 15%. Applying the above methodology first to the case of PVs, the resulting jobs are shown in Table 1. The impact on employment in 2014 that had the suspension of approvals for new PV projects (which began in August 2012 and remained in force until April 2014) is clearly demonstrated. Employment in 2013 and 2014 was based essentially on projects that had been long matured from the licensing point of view and were simply implemented in this period. Using the same methodology for the estimation of labour years (for direct jobs) created per new MW installed, the numbers shown in Figure 2 are derived. For the considered RE technologies, it can be seen that in the case of development and installation PVs produce more jobs, in the production of equipment wind energy comes first, while considering the long-term operation of the facilities biomass precedes by far (due to the need for collection, transportation and management of raw materials). The picture changes drastically, with PVs taking the top position, when the direct jobs (namely, the labour years in a period of 20 years) per GWh produced by technology (Fig. 3) or per million € of initial investment in each technology (Fig. 4) are calculated. Especially in the latter case, the picture is very dynamic as the cost of some RE technologies (e. g. PV) constantly changes over time, even at a rapid pace. For comparison purposes, a relevant study [6] for power plants that use as fuel lignite (including its mining) and natural gas in Greece, gives the following indexes: 0. 238 labour years/GWh for lignite; 0. 055 labour years/GWh for natural gas. Also, according to data of the main Greek power producer, the Corporation S. A. (PPC) for 2013 [7], PPC employed 4888 people in power plants and 3532 persons in the lignite mines, producing 37. 5 TWh. This gives an equivalent rate of 0. 225 labour years per GWh for all PPC's conventional units. Fig. 1RES jobs per technology and for selected countries in 2013, as recorded by IRENA [2]. Table 1PV installations and job positions in Greece during 2010–2014. Source: S. Psomas. Fig. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by outlining the employment and resource management impacts associated with renewable energy sources (RES). It highlights that while renewable energy technologies may create jobs, they also require processes such as the collection and transportation of raw materials for biomass, indicating an environmental footprint. The emphasis on job creation through the development and installation of photovoltaic (PV) systems and other renewable technologies implies that there are operational impacts which challenge the claim that RES have no environmental impact.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The search for extraterrestrial life involves studying extremophiles on Earth. [SEP] Text: You compare graphs of amount of light received versus wavelength for the two occasions (Figure 1. 1). Dips in the amount of light at particular wavelengths when the planet is in front of the star are interpreted as resulting from absorption of light by gases in the planet’s atmosphere. Since different gases have different characteristic patterns of absorption, you can identify them. Figure 1. 1 Detecting gases in exoplanet atmospheres. Left: amount of light received by a space telescope when the planet is ‘off to one side’ from our perspective. Right: amount of light received when the planet is in a direct line between its host star and the Earth. Note the dip in the amount of light received at a particular wavelength in the right-hand panel. If instead of looking at this graph you were looking at the light itself, after it had been split into its various colours by a prism, you would see a dark band at the wavelength (= colour) concerned. Such a dip (or band) is interpreted as the result of absorption by a particular gas in the planet’s atmosphere, and is known as an absorption band. Since different gases have different patterns of absorption centred on different wavelengths – in other words different ‘signatures’ – they can be identified. Some gases, notably oxygen, are regarded as biosignatures. As we will see later (in 2020. It gave its name to the famous Arecibo message broadcast by it into space in 1974. There are also large arrays of radio telescopes – for example ASKAP (Pathfinder), located about 700 kilometres north of the city of Perth, which started observing the sky in 2012. A of are about to feel the multidisciplinary nature of the search for extraterrestrial life that I mentioned at the outset, because we are about to move from the astronomical realm to its biological counterpart. In particular, we are going to move from the telescopes used in the search for habitable planets – and ultimately the life that’s on some of them – to the search for a workable definition of life. How can we search for life if we can’t define it? And yet the task of defining life is not an easy one – even in the restricted context of planet Earth (are viruses alive? ). It’s more difficult again to attempt a definition that will work in a cosmic context. But an imperfect definition is better than nothing – so here goes. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding the study of extremophiles on Earth in the context of searching for extraterrestrial life. Instead, it focuses on the methods used to detect gases in exoplanet atmospheres and discusses the challenge of defining life itself in both earthly and cosmic contexts. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change contributes to prolonged droughts in many parts of the world. [SEP] Text: The impact of climate change on drought discharge can vary across WPs and CPs. Conducting hydrometeorological research that specifically examines atmospheric circulation factors can enhance our understanding of the impacts of climate change. In this study, we aimed to investigate the impact of climate change on summer droughts in Japan and their relationship with WP/CP using the WP attribution method (Ohba 2021). A detailed analysis was conducted to determine the extent of severity that the hydrological drought would reach in the future by employing a hydrological model to calculate river discharge. The relationship between drought discharge and WPs/CPs was compared under present and future climatic conditions. The projected future changes in hydrological drought were assessed in relation to relevant climate variables in the context of WPs/CPs. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to project how hydrological drought and its associated CP/WP characteristics may evolve in central Japan due to climate change. 2 Data and methods 2. 1 Atmospheric data To simulate atmospheric data for projected future and historical climatic conditions, we used the Program on (SI-CAT) 5-km regional climate ensemble experiments (named SI-5TK, hereinafter SICAT; Kawase et al. 2018; Sasai et al. 2019), which were downscaled from "the Database for Making for Change" (d4PDF; Mizuta et al. 2017). The d4PDF consisted of the output of a general circulation model (d4PDF-GCM) and a further dynamically downscaled version focused on Japan by an RCM (d4PDF-RCM). The horizontal grid spacings for the d4PDF-GCM and d4PDF-RCM were 60 km and 20 km, respectively. The 5-km dynamical downscaling climate data consisted of 12-member historical/present climate simulations (PC: 1981–2010) and 12-member [(six cases for each two-member ensemble, described below) + 2-K warming (2K: 2061–2090) and + 4-K warming (4K: 2081–2110)] future climate projections. The ensemble members of d4PDF/SICAT were derived from the perturbed lower boundary and initial conditions of a 60-km GCM. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by investigating the impact of climate change on summer droughts in Japan. It explicitly states that the research aimed to understand 'how hydrological drought and its associated CP/WP characteristics may evolve in central Japan due to climate change,' highlighting a direct link between climate change and drought severity. This supports the assertion that climate change contributes to prolonged drought conditions.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Renewable energy sources have no environmental impact whatsoever. [SEP] Text: 2Labour years (direct in 20 years) per MW of new RES investments. Source: S. Psomas. Fig. 3Labour years per GWh from new RES investments. Source: S. Psomas. Fig. 4Labour years per million € of initial investment in RE technologies. Source: S. Psomas. 3 RES job profiles, professions involved and skills required As already mentioned, employment in RES is not located in the energy producing facility only. The RE industry has 4 major (and distinguished) sub-sectors: – manufacture and distribution of RE equipment, including the necessary research and development (R&D); – project development; – construction and installation works for the development of RE projects; – operation and maintenance (O&M) of RE facilities. There are also cross-cutting activities contributing to more than one sub-sector, such as policy/planning advice, energy consultancy, training, business development, marketing, etc. Bioenergy has an additional stage, the growing and harvesting of biomass. The employment patterns in RE equipment manufacturing and distribution are similar to those in other capital investment goods industries. Quite different are the patterns in project development and in construction and installation, as the work is project based. The patterns of employment in the O&M field are indeed more stable. Evidently, total employment tends to grow rapidly when significant new installations are implemented. This applies primarily to larger (in terms of installed capacity) projects. Smoother variation in demand over time appears if RES are introduced through a large number of smaller projects (e. g. PV systems in buildings). Dozens are the professions directly or indirectly associated with RES. Technicians are the action men of the RE world: they work with their hands and with tools and machinery, special equipment and vehicles. They ensure that RE products are manufactured to high standards, plants are assembled according to the drawings, and RE devices are installed properly in buildings, or they may work in the day-to-day O&M of RE facilities. In this category electricians, HVAC technicians, plumbers, drilling technicians, construction specialists, manufacturing processes operators, wind farm O&M technicians, PV modules installers, logistics operators, automation & control technicians, chemical laboratory assistants, etc. are included, just to name a few. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the various employment opportunities and industries related to renewable energy sources (RES). While the claim suggests that RES have no environmental impact, the mention of 'the manufacture and distribution of RE equipment' and the 'growing and harvesting of biomass' indicates that these processes likely involve environmental impacts, thereby rebutting the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The search for extraterrestrial life involves studying extremophiles on Earth. [SEP] Text: One way of looking at a definition is as an abstract generalization about a class of entities that’s based on prior knowledge of many concrete individual entities of the sort concerned. So, let’s start with a list of ‘concrete’ living entities – organisms – on our home planet. Not a complete list, of course, for that would include more than a million names. But we don’t need a complete list, nor even a particularly lengthy one. A short one will suffice, and indeed is preferable, in terms of not drowning in detail. Here it is: humans, snails, whales, trees, toadstools, and bacteria. A definition of ‘X’ – in this case ‘life’ – only works if we also have entities that we know are ‘not X’, which in this case means ‘not life’, or alternatively ‘inert objects’. Here’s a short list of such objects, all of which are generally agreed not to be living things: rocks, clouds, cars, smoke, and water. Of course, some of these entities might contain life forms – for example a cloud might contain airborne microbes – but that’s not the same thing as a cloud actually being a living organism itself. And in one case – cars – they’re made by life forms, but again that’s something different. So, the question is this: how do we word an abstract definition of life so that it includes all of the things that we think of as living and none of those that we think are not? There are different ways of doing this, and I have no intention of surveying them all. That would be both boring and pointless. Instead, I will focus on the definition that I think works best. I call it the RIM definition of life. These letters stand for the following three attributes of life forms: Reproduction, Inheritance, Metabolism. So, an entity that has all three RIM attributes is alive, while an entity with none of them is not. We’ll get to the annoying grey area in the middle shortly. Now is the moment for a warning about the risk of infinite regress. To define life, it’s necessary to define reproduction, inheritance, and metabolism. This could lead to a need to define words that occur in these definitions, and so on indefinitely. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the definition of life and its attributes such as Reproduction, Inheritance, and Metabolism, without mentioning anything about extremophiles or the search for extraterrestrial life.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change contributes to prolonged droughts in many parts of the world. [SEP] Text: Only the 4K and PC simulations were used in the SOM analysis for the purpose of simplification. The number of input vectors for SOM training was 90,768 (122 d × 31 year × 24 ensembles for the 12-member historical and 12-member future climate simulations). Each element in the SOM array was depicted as a node containing a single reference vector, with each reference vector representing a generalized pattern of input vectors. SOM training involves extracting generalized patterns from the input data and representing them as a reference vector. In this study, a 15 × 15 SOM grid was used to classify the input data into 225 CPs/WPs. By mapping the input data to the best-matching pattern, we were able to group the data based on the pattern. This allowed us to conduct composite and statistical analyses. The PC and 4K simulations were simultaneously used to train one SOM to directly compare the impacts of climate change on river discharge under the same CP/WP. 3 Results and discussion 3. 1 Future changes in hydrological drought Figure 2 displays the annual hydrographs of river streamflow in the target region for PC/2K/4K. The hydrographs were derived from the long-term ensemble of hydrological modeling, which were driven by 5-km dynamical downscaling after applying precipitation bias correction. A detailed validation of the effect of the bias correction on the river discharge is presented in Figure S3. The impact of climate change is evident in the substantial changes in the seasonal evolution of mean streamflow. The peak of river discharge during spring snowmelt had decreased and occurred earlier. An ensemble-averaged peak discharge of ~ 170 m3/s (early May) was recorded in the PC simulation, which changed to ~ 140 m3/s (mid-April) and ~ 125 m3/s (early April) in the + 2K and 4K climate simulations, respectively. This observed shift toward an earlier peak in discharge aligns with previous research results derived in other regions (Mote et al. 2003), but the intensity of the change varied. Although there was some variation among the ensembles, the overall trends were consistent. These results are consistent with the phase shift from snowfall to rainfall, corresponding to an increase in the warming of air temperature (Ohba and Kawase 2020). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by providing evidence of the impact of climate change on hydrological processes. Specifically, it mentions that climate change has led to substantial changes in the seasonal evolution of mean streamflow, indicating shifts in river discharge patterns. The text highlights that increased warming has caused a phase shift from snowmelt to rainfall and illustrates a decrease in peak river discharge during spring. These changes can contribute to prolonged drought conditions, supporting the claim that climate change impacts hydrological systems and may lead to longer droughts.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Renewable energy sources have no environmental impact whatsoever. [SEP] Text: and Consultants are the technical brains behind all RE operations: they spot technical opportunities, come up with new ideas, solve problems, do the planning and ensure that new RE developments are sustainable in terms of society needs, economics and environmental protection. They may also specialise in R&D to trial innovations which will improve the outputs and cost effectiveness of RE technologies. Engineers from mechanical, electrical, civil, power systems and software backgrounds, process or manufacturing engineers, landscape architects, geotechnical engineers, measurement & control engineers, environmentalists, material scientists, biochemists, hydrologists, geologists, physicists, form this category. Energy advisors are supporters and knowledge providers for individuals and companies involved in RE: they advise on national and/or regional policies related to RE planning and operation, as well as on energy management and efficiency. They can specialise in training ranging from the provision of general guidance for companies on new developments in RE to detailed training on specific subjects, such as installer accreditation. Planning consultants, land development advisors, environmental legal consultants, policy developers/local development officers, teachers/trainers, energy officers, energy advisors, health & safety consultants are included herein. Last, but not least, Executives are the business brains behind all RE operations: they spot new business opportunities, create proposals, negotiate with potential customers and ensure customer's needs are met all along the renewable energy supply chain. They can also specialise in business communications for creating marketing and media campaigns to help increase the uptake of RES. Professionals with the profile of business developers/analysts, marketing executives, financial, human resources and administration managers, technical sales representatives, public relations officers, etc. are included herein. Apart from the specialized skills required for each one of the above listed categories of professionals, being essentially different according to the concerned RE technology, a range of core skills is important, as for example environmental awareness and motivation are highly desirable among RE industry employees at all levels. In addition, managers and consultants require dynamism, leadership, innovation, negotiation and strategic skills to get the most out of the opening up market opportunities. A survey of occupations in the RE sector by sub-sector and value chain segment is provided in the comprehensive report of ILO [8]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by emphasizing the importance of environmental awareness among professionals in the renewable energy (RE) sector. It mentions that these professionals need to have 'environmental awareness and motivation' and that their work should ensure 'new RE developments are sustainable in terms of society needs, economics and environmental protection.' This indicates that there are considerations regarding environmental impact, conflicting with the claim that renewable energy sources have no environmental impact.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The search for extraterrestrial life involves studying extremophiles on Earth. [SEP] Text: You’ll be pleased to know that I’m absolutely not going to go down that road. However, I am going to briefly consider each of the three components of RIM. Since these three things are crucial in allowing us to distinguish life forms from inert entities – potentially throughout the universe – it simply won’t work if we’re fuzzy about their meanings. This point was brought home to me when I was reading the Introduction to astrobiology written by the planetary scientist David C. Catling in 2013. With regard to metabolism, Catling says the following: ‘All life metabolizes but so does my car. ’ I don’t agree with him, but I see what he means. The burning of a fuel such as petrol powers a car in much the same way as the burning of a fuel such as glucose powers a living organism. is right to see a parallel. But he’s wrong – in my view – to equate automotive and biological ‘metabolism’. I have an instinctive feeling that the two are different in some fundamental way, and perhaps you do too. But what is it? Of course, the fuels are different, but that’s not the best approach to this issue, because we can’t guarantee that the fuel of alien life is glucose. Here’s a better approach. A life form metabolizes right from the start; a car doesn’t. An organism is not simply a collection of cells, membranes, vesicles, filaments, and so on, that is inert until some point in its life when it gets fired up with an infusion of glucose or some other fuel. In contrast, a car is an object of precisely this latter sort. It’s a collection of metal and plastic parts that gets built in stages and hasn’t a whiff of ‘metabolism’ until after it’s complete – or has reached its ‘adult’ stage, to stretch the use of that term – and someone turns on the ignition. So, to be a life form from a metabolic perspective you need to be metabolizing right from the start. Even the very first cell of a new human or other animal – the zygote – metabolizes. An organism is an intrinsically metabolizing thing. Its default state is to metabolize. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the concept of metabolism in living organisms and the distinction between life forms and inanimate objects, specifically focusing on the differences between living things and cars. It does not mention extremophiles, the search for extraterrestrial life, or any related studies, thus failing to address the claim directly.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change contributes to prolonged droughts in many parts of the world. [SEP] Text: In addition to the change in river discharge from winter to spring, the summer discharge decreases during the course of the season. This was particularly evident in the 4K simulation. The combination of these changes could severely affect water availability from early summer to fall. Figure 3a shows a violin plot of the annual accumulated discharge. As air temperatures increased, the lower edge of the annual accumulated discharge tended to decrease across the board, indicating an increase in the frequency of drought years relative to the PC simulation. However, there was minimal change with respect to the higher edge, which could indicate an increase in the amplitude of the interannual variability. The histogram of daily mean discharge (Fig. 3b) exhibits a symmetrical distribution change that extends to both the lower and upper extremes as temperature rises. This indicates a potential increase in drought discharge events (in addition to an increase in flood discharge events). To examine hydrological drought events in more detail, Fig. 4 shows scatter plots of the 1-d and 30-day mean discharges (plotted below 50 m3/s). The respective 1 percentile values (dotted lines) show a significant decrease in the 2K/4K simulations. For the daily and 30-day mean discharge, 1 percentile values are predicted to decrease by approximately 35 (20) % from the present climate value under the 4K (2K) warming simulation, which implies that drought events will intensify in the future. In both the short- and long-term periods, the results indicate a high likelihood of an unprecedented drought event in the future, which has not been observed in historical PC simulations. The 3-percentile value of river discharge in the PC simulation was defined as the drought discharge, and the number of consecutive days with discharge below the drought discharge was counted (Fig. 5). Under the PC simulation, the maximum number of consecutive drought discharge days was approximately 50 d; however, the maximum number of consecutive drought discharge days was approximately 100 and 60 d under the 4K and 2K simulations, respectively. In the case of approximately 2–4 consecutive day events, the increase in the frequency of drought events in the 4K simulation was approximately twice that in the PC simulation. However, for 19–21 consecutive day events, the increase was approximately four times that of the PC simulation. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by indicating that as air temperatures increased, there was a tendency for the annual accumulated discharge to decrease, which suggests an increase in the frequency of drought years. It states, 'the respective 1 percentile values show a significant decrease in the 2K/4K simulations,' implying that drought events are predicted to intensify as climate warming occurs. This further emphasizes the likelihood of unprecedented drought events in the future, supporting the assertion that climate change contributes to prolonged droughts.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Renewable energy sources have no environmental impact whatsoever. [SEP] Text: 4 Skills gaps and shortages – the role of education and training Most RE technologies (with hydropower being an exception) are still in their early stages of development and, in proportion to their current low level, are growing rapidly. From the national labour markets viewpoint the pattern is more varied, as for each RE technology there is limited activity in some countries, rapid growth in others, steady growth in capacity in some others, and a relatively mature industry elsewhere. Problems with demand for skills and labour shortages in RES arise when activity takes off quickly, causing the demand for labour to switch suddenly from a minor to a significant level. This further occurs later, when the rate at which new RE projects are implemented increases substantially or falls rapidly. REN Alliance identified the principal occupations difficult to fill in many of its member countries (which include both developed and developing countries), as shown in Table 2 [8]. Apparently, a widespread skills shortage of engineers and technicians in all parts of the RE industry exists, which in many cases comes from a general trend of students not to follow engineering studies. Qualified design engineers with specific knowledge in particular RE technologies are especially needed. In wind energy, apart from engineers, specialized turbine technicians are needed. An engineering and technical skills gap appears in the hydropower sector in emerging countries, as well as a lack of qualified engineers and appropriately trained technicians in the bioenergy sector. There are skills shortages in non-technical occupations also (Table 2). Legal advisors, sales specialists, inspectors, and economists in many cases lack specific skills, which are however critical for RES development. Skill shortages relate to knowledge about RE technologies and their social and economic benefits, environmental policies and regulations at international, national or regional level, specific measures launched by governments for assisting projects and other initiatives, etc. It has also been identified a widespread shortage of qualified trainers with RES specific skills. It is a fact that the basic occupational skills required for many jobs in the RE industry are delivered through existing programs of education and training. University courses in electrical, civil, mechanical and environmental engineering, agriculture & forestry, biosciences, geosciences, information technology, and a range of other disciplines provide the necessary foundation for professional level work in RE. Initial technical and vocational education & training (ITVET) and apprenticeships in technical disciplines provide a good basis for working at technician level in RE industries. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the skills shortages and the need for qualified professionals in the renewable energy (RE) sector, implying that as RE technologies are developed and implemented, they bring about social and economic considerations, which include skills related to environmental policies and regulations. The focus on the demand for skilled labor in order to support the growth of RE technologies indicates that while these technologies are presumably aimed at reducing environmental impact, their initial development stages and the resultant demands create new challenges and considerations that imply an environmental footprint.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The search for extraterrestrial life involves studying extremophiles on Earth. [SEP] Text: However, to call life forms perpetually metabolizing things would be a step too far. We’re all familiar with hibernation – in hedgehogs, for example. This is a state of reduced metabolic activity in cold weather. And there’s the related phenomenon of aestivation – reduced metabolic activity in hot dry weather, as is found in some Mediterranean snails. But these two states are eclipsed by a more extreme one called cryptobiosis (‘hidden life’), in which metabolism may be reduced to zero, or very nearly so. The best example of animals exhibiting cryptobiosis are the tiny invertebrates called tardigrades, or water bears. These have played an interesting role in astrobiology, as we’ll see later. So it’s appropriate that they should feature in our discussion here of the definition of life. When environmental conditions become too extreme for a tardigrade to maintain normal, active, rapidly metabolizing life, it converts itself into a static, low-or-zero metabolizing structure called a tun. Both this state and the normal active state are shown in Figure 1. 2. When conditions improve again, it can convert back from a tun into an active, mobile, metabolizing tardigrade. But this fact doesn’t really cause us difficulties of definition. As long as we stick with a view of organisms as ‘intrinsically metabolizing’ rather than ‘perpetually metabolizing’, then we’re ok. Figure 1. 2 Two forms of the tiny invertebrate called a tardigrade or water bear. Upper right: how the animal looks under benign environmental conditions, when it is active. Lower left: a tardigrade tun, which is a resistant, non-metabolizing form that the animal converts itself into under extreme environmental conditions such as very low temperatures or lack of water. If conditions become less extreme, the tun can revert to the active form. That was a quick look at ‘metabolism’. Now, what about reproduction? Cars don’t reproduce. Neither do rocks or clouds of smoke. Organisms do. Perhaps this is more straightforward, then, than the case of metabolism? Well, not entirely. Regrettably, not all adult humans can reproduce. But those who can’t are no less alive than those who can. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the search for extraterrestrial life or the study of extremophiles, as it focuses on defining life and discussing metabolic states in animals like tardigrades. While tardigrades are mentioned in the context of astrobiology, the overall discussion does not corroborate or contrast with the claim about studying extremophiles for extraterrestrial life.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change contributes to prolonged droughts in many parts of the world. [SEP] Text: This could be related to the increased rate of change for longer events with no precipitation (consecutive dry days), as observed in a previous study (Ohba et al. 2022). 3. 2 Interannual variation: Relationship to El Niño-(ENSO) ENSO events can considerably impact river discharge and water resource variability in Japan. In particular, due to the delayed response of the SST to the winter ENSO peak, Japan tends to experience reduced (increased) rainfall after the La Niña (El Niño) period, as there is of a decrease in the flow of moist air from the tropics (Ohba and Ueda, 2006). Figure 6a illustrates the correlation between river discharge in the target watershed and the SST in the PC simulation. Consistent with previous studies, a relatively high correlation between summer discharge and SST was observed in the preceding winter tropical Pacific and spring-summer northern Indian Ocean. This teleconnection is caused by ENSO-induced SST variations in the Indian Ocean, which creates an anomalous circulation pattern around Japan. In the summer following the El Niño (La Niña) event, a large-scale anticyclonic circulation developed in the northwestern Pacific region, located south of Japan, leading to increased inflow of water vapor from the tropics (Ohba and Ueda 2006; Xie et al. 2006). Figures 6b and 6c show a scatter plot of the relationship between the preceding winter ENSO and the following summer accumulated river discharge. The PC simulation shows a weak but positive correlation between river discharge and the preceding ENSO event. Specifically, summers characterized by La Niña tended to experience particularly severe hydrological droughts. However, during the 4K warming period, there was an overall increase in the number of summers with a mean discharge of 40 m3/s or less, and the correlation with ENSO events tended to be weaker. 3. 3 Climate patterns leading to long-term hydrological droughts Identifying whether a certain CP/WP would result in discharge in the PC and 4K simulations was challenging because of the occurrence of several CPs/WPs within the season. Therefore, the classification of CPs/WPs assists in enhancing our understanding of the interrelationship between CPs/WPs and streamflow. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the impact of climate patterns, specifically mentioning how summers characterized by La Niña, which is related to climate variability, tended to experience severe hydrological droughts. Additionally, it highlights that during the warming period, there was an increase in summers with low river discharge, suggesting a connection between climate change and prolonged drought conditions.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Renewable energy sources have no environmental impact whatsoever. [SEP] Text: ‘Best practices’ are the Windskill training strategy for the entire European wind market (funded by the IEE Programme), and the Network, an international academic network in the EU-MENA region aiming at contributing to the implementation of the through the provision of education and training in solar power [9]. Table 2Principal occupations difficult to fill per sub-sector. Source: REN Alliance survey [8]. 5 generation of employment opportunities is a major policy priority in countries with high levels of unemployment and underemployment, be it a long-term issue or the immediate consequence of the economic recession. As described above, developing the RE capacities can make a significant contribution to job creation, being one of the benefits of exploiting the economic opportunities in RE. However, to maximise the potential development of the RE industry, it is very important to get the right skills, in the right places, at the right time and in the right quantities. A key difficulty in ensuring an adequate supply of skills is that the RE sector requires substantial numbers of engineers and technicians. Shortages in these occupations are common in developed countries and can also occur in developing countries when there is a sudden increase in demand. Another problem identified is that the patterns of demand for labour in the RE sector make it difficult for providers of education and training in skills relevant to RE to match their activity to industry needs. Skills strategies for RES should be designed to mitigate this problem, and there is scope for governments and for the RE sector to assist providers of relevant training and education to develop their training programs. Social dialogue has a critical role to play both in identifying skills needed for the sector and in ensuring that adequate education and training provision is available. In this respect, the interaction between governments, employers/companies and their associations, the federations of workers, and training providers is important for the adaptation or creation of new curricula (and qualification schemes) for RE. To this end, the Occupational and Functional maps, as the one created for the RE sector in the UK by EU Skills [10] are crucial. map is a report about an industry or sector (e. g. the RE one) providing information on the numbers employed, industry trends, job titles, progression routes and Standards (NOS). A Functional map provides an overview of the types of major work tasks carried out in the industry/sector, and describes the outcomes of the works in broad terms. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the importance of developing the renewable energy (RE) sector, which involves a range of challenges related to employment, skills, and education. While the text emphasizes the benefits of renewable energy, it does not support the idea that these sources are without environmental impact; rather, it implicitly suggests that the development of skills and education in RE is crucial, indicating that there are complexities and potential environmental considerations in managing this sector.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The search for extraterrestrial life involves studying extremophiles on Earth. [SEP] Text: In bees and ants, there are whole castes that can’t reproduce – workers, for example. These are no less alive than reproductive drones and queens. Also, cases are known where two species occasionally interbreed, producing offspring that are typically sterile – such as the mule, a hybrid between a horse and a donkey. So, we have to use reproduction as a characteristic of a species rather than of every individual, in our attempts to draw a line between life and non-life. Now we come to the third attribute included in the RIM definition of life – inheritance. This applies to all life forms on Earth, though in different ways to some than to others. We humans are most familiar with the sort of inheritance that is associated with sexual reproduction, in which, as we can plainly see, offspring tend to resemble one or both parents more than they do other members of the overall population. Most other animal species have sexual reproduction, so the same phenomenon applies, even though, for example, we humans find it hard to distinguish degrees of similarity among different individual houseflies. Inheritance still applies in the world of asexual reproduction, which is much more common in bacteria and other microbes than it is in animals. A population of a particular kind of bacterium that reproduces in this way can be thought of us a collection of clones. Each parent, on its own, produces progeny that are genetically identical to itself, so the within-clone variation is zero at the level of the gene (unless a mutation occurs), and may be quite small at the level of the organism. In contrast, the between-clone variation is greater. Since clones are to all intents and purposes families, the situation regarding inheritance is broadly the same. Finally, we must be equally careful in deciding what entity to apply inheritance to, as we were in using the term reproduction. Inheritance applies to the relationship between generations, not to individual organisms taken alone. Of the three RIM attributes, metabolism is the only one that can be applied to individuals considered in isolation from other members of their family, population, or species. In summary, the RIM definition of life can be constructed something like this. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses concepts related to reproduction, inheritance, and definitions of life without addressing extremophiles or their significance in the search for extraterrestrial life.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change contributes to prolonged droughts in many parts of the world. [SEP] Text: Consequently, we focused on further analyzing the data collected between June 1 and September 30 (early summer to early fall in Japan), the period during which future decreases in river discharge were most pronounced. For the characteristics of Japan's summer climate, please refer to the (Fig. S4). Because drought intensification was observed on daily and monthly scales, both periods were targeted in this study. Figure 7 shows the CP matrix derived from the SOM analysis. The 30-day mean climate conditions from July to September (JJAS) in were classified into 225 CPs shown on a 15 × 15 SOM. The meridional winds are represented using red-blue shadings. The classified CPs with southerly (northerly) winds are located near the right center (center-top) of the SOM. The right sides are covered by CPs related to warm-moist air intrusions from the tropical Pacific. Because the horizontal wind vector was selected as the SOM input, it was straightforward to visually observe the influence of the summer monsoon on precipitation. Linkages between river discharge and CPs were determined by employing SOMs during the JJAS period. Figure 8 displays the 30-day mean river discharge for each SOM for the PC and 4K simulations during the JJAS period. The plotted streamflow represents the mean value at a particular node (CP). The calculation involves averaging the discharge for all time steps within the time period of interest that corresponds to the node of interest. By calculating this value for both climate simulations, the difference in the mean node discharge between the two climate simulations can be calculated. Because the mean node discharge was calculated for all 30-day running mean data that had the most similar CP to that of the target node, the difference reflected the discharge change that occurred for a given CP. Therefore, these differences in discharge were attributed to changes unrelated to the frequency of CPs. These changes result from alterations in the thermodynamics and physics of the discharge associated with climate change, in which projected changes in the freshwater balance at the land surface are major factors. This method is useful for assessing the impact of thermodynamic climate change on river discharge. River discharge was strongly dependent on the CPs. The CPs associated with high (low) river discharge were evident in the top-right (lower-center) area of the SOM for both PC and 4K simulations (Figs. 8a and 8b). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how the changes in river discharge are attributed to alterations in thermodynamics and physics associated with climate change. It states, 'these changes result from alterations in the thermodynamics and physics of the discharge associated with climate change,' indicating that climate change itself affects water availability, which is a crucial element in the occurrence of droughts.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Solar panels and wind turbines work efficiently in any weather condition. [SEP] Text: Several studies have been conducted to appraise the performance of PV modules under wind or passive cooling effects. Chowdhury et al. [3] performed wind tunnel experiments and CFD simulations under different wind velocities and air gaps. Experiments by Mirzaei et al. [4] showed that higher wind velocities result in higher heat exchanges between the PV panel and airflow and consequently lower PV temperatures. They also suggested installing PV modules in a stepped open arrangement instead of a flat arrangement for better cooling. Lai and Hokoi [5] performed experimental and numerical studies on double-skin façade PVs and reported that the electrical efficiency of ventilated modules was higher by about 16–44% than the non-ventilated ones. Within another numerical research, Gan [6] concluded that adequate spacing or gap between the modules and the surface of the wall is required to allow the air to pass and cool down the PVs and avoid the formation of hot spots in panels. The current numerical study investigates the impacts of wind direction on the cooling rate of a PV panel installed on the surface of a slanted roof. The slanted structure has been studied in this research as it is a common configuration used in Australia. In the following section, the studied case and the numerical procedure have been explained. Then, the results have been presented and discussed. Advertisement 2. Case studyAs shown in Figure 1, a 2. 4 m height structure with a PV panel installed on its slanted roof has been studied numerically in this research. To evaluate the effects of wind direction, seven angles between the wind direction and the structure (0, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, and 180 degrees) and two free stream velocities of 2 and 5 m/s have been considered, the main directions are shown in Figure 1. The distance between the panel and the roof surface is 0. 1 m. The inclination angle of the roof or module is 30 degrees. The dimensions of the module were 1 m by 1. 3 m, oriented such that 10 cm of the roof-top on all sides remained unobscured by the module when viewed from above. Adequate distance between the structure and the domain boundaries has been considered to correctly model the wind effects. Figure 1. Schematic view of the rooftop-mounted PV and air domain with wind directions. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the performance of photovoltaic (PV) modules under varying wind conditions and emphasizing that certain weather factors, such as wind velocity and direction, significantly affect the efficiency and cooling of PV panels. For instance, it mentions that higher wind velocities can lead to lower temperatures for PV panels, which can enhance efficiency, but also implies that these efficiencies are contingent on specific weather conditions rather than being universally effective in 'any weather condition.'


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The search for extraterrestrial life involves studying extremophiles on Earth. [SEP] Text: An entity is alive if (1) it has intrinsic metabolism; (2) it belongs to, or is descended from, a group (species) that reproduces sexually, asexually, or through a mixture of the two; and (3) there is inheritance of organismic features from one generation to the next. If it has none of these features, it is not alive. Now we get to the grey area mentioned above. What happens if an entity has one or two of these attributes, rather than zero or three? I’m quite confident that most entities on planet Earth can be classified as living or non-living on the basis of the RIM definition, as given above. However, there is an important exception: viruses. Are these entities tiny subcellular organisms, or very large and complex, but non-living, molecules? Most people think of them as being alive, but is this intuitive feeling justified? Viruses have no metabolism. At its simplest, a virus is a piece of hereditary material made of nucleic acid (sometimes DNA, sometimes RNA) wrapped in a protein coat. Its size is orders of magnitude less than that of a single cell. Viruses operate by entering host cells and hijacking their molecular machinery to make offspring viruses. It’s clear from this brief description that viruses have the R and the I of RIM, but not the M. So they possess two out of the three attributes of life. However, this statement has to be qualified in an important way. Viruses can’t reproduce outside of a living cell of their host organism, be it an animal, a plant, a fungus, or a microbe. So their reproduction, and hence their inheritance, is not intrinsic. Perhaps we could conclude that they score half, half, and zero on the RIM scale, thus giving them an overall score of one rather than two. Whatever exact score we give them, the conclusion is inescapable: viruses inhabit a grey area between life and non-life. A of searches for alien life in general, and intelligent alien life in particular, are very different endeavours. We’ve already seen that they involve different wavelengths on the electromagnetic spectrum, and consequently different designs of telescope. Searching for signatures of oxygen is centred on the visible and infrared parts of the spectrum. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim regarding the study of extremophiles on Earth in relation to the search for extraterrestrial life. Instead, it discusses the characteristics of life, particularly focusing on viruses and their classification as living or non-living entities. Additionally, it mentions the differences between searches for alien life and intelligent life but does not link this to the study of extremophiles. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change contributes to prolonged droughts in many parts of the world. [SEP] Text: In the PC simulation, when the Japanese region experienced easterly winds, river discharge in the target region was minimal. This CP was associated with a cyclonic circulation south of Japan. Such CPs are more likely (less likely) to occur in the summer following winter La Niña (El Niño) events (Xie et al. 2009). Figure 8c shows the differences in the streamflow intensity between the 4K and PC simulations. In general, the response of the CP-streamflow relationship to climate change indicated that the contrast between nodes was considerably more amplified in the 4K simulation. The area of CP with a low river discharge on the SOM was expanding. Moreover, there was a minimal decrease in river discharge at CPs with high discharge in the PC simulation. These results demonstrate that CPs have different influences on local river streamflow, and their future changes also differ depending on the CP. The four CPs (CP1–4) marked in Fig. 8 show relatively large variations in river discharge intensity in response to climate change, which are further highlighted in Fig. 9. Figure 9 shows the precipitation and future changes in related atmospheric variables for CP1–4. To provide an overview of the entire region of Japan, the results based on the d4PDF-RCM (20 km) data are presented here. In these CPs, warm-humid airmasses intrude from the subtropics into Japan, resulting in precipitation, particularly on the Pacific side of Japan (Fig. 9a). CP1 is responsible for the cyclonic circulation over the northwestern Pacific, resulting in air intrusion into the target region from the east. Because the target area is located leeward of the central mountainous region of Japan, precipitation is likely to be suppressed due to downdrafts. In contrast, CP2–4 are dominated by southerly winds over the Japanese region, which may be the predominant CPs during this season in relation to the summer monsoon. Owing to the advection of moisture from the tropics, precipitation is heavy on the Pacific side of western Japan. The target area also experienced heavy precipitation, primarily on the northern side. In the context of climate change, precipitation over the target region associated with CP1–4 decreased significantly (Fig. 9b). Relative humidity over the land decreased in all patterns but was especially significant in CP1 and CP4 (Fig. 9c). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how climate change affects the variability and intensity of river discharge related to climate patterns (CPs) in Japan. It specifically mentions that precipitation over the target region associated with CPs decreased significantly in the context of climate change, indicating a link between climate change and reduced precipitation, which can lead to drought conditions. The mention of decreasing relative humidity further supports the notion that climate change can contribute to prolonged droughts.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Solar panels and wind turbines work efficiently in any weather condition. [SEP] Text: This model uses the following formulation to compute the radiative energy transfer from surfaces:qout,m=ϵmαT4+Ωm·∑j=1NFjmqout,jE5where qout,m is the energy flux leaving the surface m, α is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant, Ωm=1−ϵm is the reflectivity of surface m, ϵm is the emissivity of the surface m, and Fjm is the view factor between surface m and surface j. Advertisement 4. Results and discussionPrior to presenting the results, it should be noted that all presented results are averaged over time. The change of the mean temperature of PV with wind direction is shown in Figure 2. It is seen that for both wind velocities of 2 and 5 m/s, the mean temperature of the PV is lower at angles below 90 degrees which is associated with higher surface heat transfer coefficients, as shown in Figure 3. Under these conditions, there is direct contact between the wind and module surfaces which contributes to forced convective cooling of the PV, thereby increasing the surface heat transfer coefficient, and decreasing the temperature of PV. At lower angles, the wind penetrates the gap between the PV and roof surface resulting in an increased heat transfer. In other words, the forced convective cooling effects on both sides (front and back) of the module are prominent at angles below 90 degrees. It is noticeable that by increasing the angle from 0 to 60 degrees, there is a slight decrease in the mean temperature of PV. This is mainly because, at angles higher than 0 degrees (and below 90 degrees), more airflow penetrates the gap between the PV and roof which in turn intensifies the convective cooling effects from the backside of the PV. Figure 4 shows the schematic view of the airflow penetrating the gap between the PV module and roof for the wind angles of 0 and 60 degrees. As seen, when the wind angle is 0 degrees, the airflow mainly enters the gap from the bottom side. However, for the 60 degrees case, the airflow enters the gaps mainly from both bottom and left side of the gap, thereby intensifying convective cooling effects. Figure 2. Effects of wind angle on the mean temperature of PV. Figure 3. Effects of wind angle on the mean surface heat transfer coefficient (HTC) of PV. Figure 4. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing how the efficiency of photovoltaic (PV) panels is affected by wind angles and its temperature. It explains that the mean temperature of PV panels decreases with certain wind conditions, indicating that performance is influenced by weather conditions such as wind and radiant energy transfer, which implies that they do not work efficiently in any weather condition.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The search for extraterrestrial life involves studying extremophiles on Earth. [SEP] Text: Among the primates, the great apes stand out, and among these, of course, humans represent an apex. Rather than pretend that it’s possible to create a cross-species numerical scale of intelligence, let’s simply acknowledge five broad-brush levels: zero (e. g. sponges), little if any (e. g. worms), some (e. g. jumping spiders), a lot (e. g. octopuses, crows, most mammals), and ‘high’ (humans). Counterparts of these may well eventually be found among the life forms of other planets, though there may also be a further category (‘very high’) on some of them, the nature of which we can only dimly conjecture. Now let’s poke further into the ‘high’ category here on Earth. Human tool-making is thought to have originated about three million years ago – in the form of stones fashioned for hammering and chopping. That was a significant milestone. Wheels and writing – two further important milestones – were invented thousands rather than millions of years ago. Telescopes were invented a few hundred years ago – around 1600, as we’ve already seen. And radio transmission was achieved in the years around 1900, with the Italian scientist being a key figure. Here’s an important caveat. The pattern of increasing sophistication of human inventions over time can’t be mapped directly to a pattern of increasing intelligence in time. Human brain size reached its present level more than 100,000 years ago. Brain size is a very blunt instrument, but even when more subtle aspects of the brain, such as its shape, are taken into account, the brains of members of our species – Homo sapiens – seem to have reached something resembling the present-day condition by about 50,000 years ago. Not only that, but the Neanderthals alive at that time had brains that were at least as big as ours. So humans of 50,000 years ago probably had an intelligence level not dissimilar to that of an average human alive today. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding the search for extraterrestrial life and the study of extremophiles. Instead, it discusses the intelligence levels of various species on Earth and human invention history, which is irrelevant to the notion of studying extremophiles as a means to search for extraterrestrial life.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change contributes to prolonged droughts in many parts of the world. [SEP] Text: In CP1, the increase in precipitable water in the Japan area was limited while the evapotranspiration was greatly intensified. Although precipitable water tended to increase significantly around Japan in CP2–4, there was a minimal increase in the central mountainous area of the target region. Because the increase in evaporation was limited to CP2 and CP3, the decrease in precipitation was considered the primary factor in the desiccation. However, both the decrease in precipitation and the increase in evapotranspiration were affected in CP4, in which a greater decrease in relative humidity was observed. Notably, the contributions of reduced precipitation and increased evapotranspiration to future streamflow differ in each CP. These results indicate that the decrease in discharge in the 4K simulation can mainly result in desiccation at CPs that exhibit moderate river discharge. In other words, there was an increase in the prevalence of dominant drought-related CPs. In addition, these changes may be related to the outcome that the correlation between the ENSO and river discharge will become less evident in the future. An increase in drought-related CPs other than the CPs shown in Fig. 8a, which is more likely to occur during La Niña, is expected to lead to a decrease in the connection with the ENSO. 3. 4 Weather patterns leading to short-term hydrological droughts A similar analysis was performed for the daily river discharge. Figure 10 shows the WP matrix derived from the SOM analysis for daily climate conditions around Japan from July to September. The classified WPs with cyclonic circulation were located in the central to upper regions of the SOM. The other sides were predominantly covered by WPs related to southerly winds, resulting in warm-moist air intrusion from the tropical Pacific. Figure 11 shows the daily mean (+ 1 d) streamflow for each SOM for the PC and 4K simulations during the JJAS period. Similar to the previous section, it is evident that streamflow is highly dependent on the WPs. The WP impacts on streamflow were particularly evident in the upper area of the SOM in both the PC and 4K simulations (Figs. 11a and 11b); however, the future effect was considerably weaker. Figure 11c shows the differences in streamflow intensity between the 4K and PC simulations. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by discussing how changes in precipitation and increased evapotranspiration have contributed to desiccation and drought conditions in the Japan area. It mentions a decrease in precipitation being a primary factor in desiccation, which aligns with the assertion that climate change contributes to prolonged droughts. The text highlights the correlation between changes in climatic patterns and increased drought prevalence, thus corroborating the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Solar panels and wind turbines work efficiently in any weather condition. [SEP] Text: Schematic view of the airflow penetrating the gap between the PV and roof, left) 0 degrees and right) 60 degrees wind angle. It is worth noting that similar observations were reported by the experiments of Wen [10] who studied the cooling effects of wind direction on a PV panel whose surface was parallel to the wind and observed that the convective heat transfer coefficient reached a maximum value for the angles in the range of 60–120 degrees depending on the wind velocity. However, as will be discussed in the following, the HTC drops drastically in the current research for angles beyond 60 degrees due to the edges of the structure that act as a barrier. By increasing the wind angle beyond 60 degrees, there is a sharp increase in the mean temperature and a decrease in the mean surface HTC of the PV, as shown in Figures 2 and 3, respectively. The reason behind this is that at higher angles, the inclined roof and sidewalls of the structure act as a barrier between the module and wind, thereby decreasing the direct contact between the wind and module and consequently degrading the forced convective cooling effects. Figure 5 illustrates the temperature contours of the PV panel for wind angles of 0 and 180 degrees. As observed, PV experiences lower temperature due to higher cooling effects at zero wind angle. It is also observed in Figures 2 and 3 that, as expected, mean HTC augments and mean temperature of PV decreases as the wind velocity increases due to the enhanced forced convective cooling effects. Figure 5. Contours of mean static temperature of PV panel for free stream velocity of 5 m/s, top) 0 degrees, bottom) 180 degrees. To get a better understanding of the wind and structure interactions, Figure 6 is presented showing the streamlines for the wind velocity of 5 m/s and angles of 0 and 180 degrees. As seen, for the wind angle of zero degrees, the wind flow approaching the PV is divided into two streams, one passing beneath the PV and the second passing over the surface of the PV resulting in convective cooling effects from both sides. A large vortex is being also generated behind the structure. However, at the angle of 180 degrees, the walls and edges of the structure result in the separation of flow and formation of a large vortex in the vicinity of PV which weakens the convective cooling rates. Figure 6. Flow streamlines for wind velocity of 5 m/s, top) 180 degrees, bottom) 0 degree. Advertisement 5. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing how wind angles affect the performance of photovoltaic (PV) panels, indicating that at higher wind angles, the cooling effects and efficiency of the panels are negatively impacted. It notes that beyond 60 degrees, the heat transfer coefficient drops significantly due to barriers caused by the structure, thus demonstrating that PV panels do not work efficiently in all weather conditions.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The search for extraterrestrial life involves studying extremophiles on Earth. [SEP] Text: Marconi’s ability to send radio signals across the Atlantic in the early twentieth century was probably not so much a consequence of human evolution in the last 50,000 years as it was a consequence of being able to build on a wide range of discoveries and inventions that had taken place in previous history, and on the prediction of radio waves by the Scottish physicist Maxwell in the 1860s. It’s important to keep in mind this point that the mapping of the level of technology of a society to the level of intelligence of its members is complex. However, it’s also important to be pragmatic when trying to come up with a working definition. I’m going to use the ability to send and receive radio waves as indicating that a certain threshold of intelligence has been reached, because searches of a SETI type are largely conducted using radio, and the only beings we’ll detect by conducting these searches are those who can send out powerful signals (radio or possibly laser) into space. The relevant intelligence threshold may have been reached thousands of years earlier, but that’s not important from a practical perspective. Questions We’ve now considered what we’re looking with – telescopes plus various associated techniques including spectroscopy. And we’ve also thought carefully about what we’re looking for – both life in general, as defined by reproduction, inheritance and metabolism, and intelligent life with advanced technology in particular, as defined by the ability to send and receive radio signals. Our final job, before venturing out into the cosmos to take its measure, is to be clear about the key questions we’re asking in our endeavour to understand what has sometimes been called ‘the biological universe’. There are two of these questions, or perhaps more accurately two groups of questions, as follows. First, a group that I think of as being about the geography of alien life. These are questions about distribution in space. For example: Is life only found on planets orbiting stars, or might it be found in other places too, such as rogue planets (which don’t orbit anything) or moons, which orbit planets? Where is the closest life – and the closest intelligent life – to us? How many inhabited bodies are there, at various levels of spatial scale from the solar system through the galaxy to the universe as a whole? Are there planetary systems in which more than one planet is inhabited? [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding the study of extremophiles on Earth as part of the search for extraterrestrial life. Instead, it discusses the history and technology of sending radio signals and raises questions about the distribution of life in the universe. Thus, the text is irrelevant to the claim.