Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: Aside from calcification, elevated PCO2 also leads to increased heavy metal retention in the protective eggshells and changes to the bioaccumulation of silver, mercury and cobalt in larval tissue [224]. Additionally, elevated PCO2 depresses metabolic rates in pelagic squids (e. g. [226]). The ultimate effect on fitness is not known. Mollusc synopsis We conclude that the effects of OA on shelled molluscs will be negative based on available studies on oysters, scallops, abalone and mussels (Fig. 4). These negative effects occur at various life-history stages, and go beyond direct effects on calcification of larvae, e. g. reduced oxygen consumption and feeding rates of larvae and delayed behavioural responses of adults. It is generally anticipated that effects on larval survival rate and reproduction rate will directly influence population size, population distribution and community structure [227]. No experiments were found on local clam species (including geoducks) but given the results on other molluscs [36] we anticipate that they will also be negatively affected by OA, while effects on squid and octopus remain uncertain (Fig. 4). Sponges and Sponge reefs are globally unique to the northeast Pacific coast [228–230] and all four groups of cold-water corals: octocorals, stylasterids, stony and black corals, are present in the region. They occur where productivity and water flow are high (e. g. they are especially dense on seamounts and the heads of canyons, Fig. 1) and from the surface to depths >2000 m [231]. However, due in part to the depth range, very few benthic habitat mapping data exist along the BC coast (e. g. [232], Kim Conway, pers. comm. , ) and so we have used these data and the expertise of others to provide our own general description (below). Sponges and cold-water corals form important habitat for many marine organisms including species of fish that are commercially important (e. g. the rockfish Perch) in our region [233–236]. The coral and sponge contribution to the benthic fauna in BC appears to be patchy but diverse, based on: DFO trawl survey and observer records [237], comparison with neighbouring regions (e. g. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing various negative effects of ocean acidification (OA) on marine organisms, particularly shelled molluscs, and indicates that while some effects are known, such as reduced oxygen consumption and feeding rates, the ultimate long-term impacts on fitness and specific populations are still uncertain. It emphasizes the importance of different marine species, such as sponges and corals, which are affected by OA, but does not support the assertion that ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050, as it suggests that some species may still survive or have uncertain outcomes.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: Calculations for the of the calculations were performed for the thermocurrents Ilow moving under the influence of thermoelectrical field ЕТ inside the metal core according to (3) too. To calculate its value two main parameters were taken into consideration: 1) the metal core radius, which is 3500 km (sum of thicknesses of the inner core, of the transitive F zone and the outer core) and 2) the discussed below difference of temperature ΔТ between the center of the planet and the border “core-lower mantle”. According to the literary sources the magnitude ΔТ is for the metal core is quite uncertain and fluctuates within extreme values from 0 K to 1957 K ± 227 K. At the same time, it is known from the same sources that such factors as pressure, electroconductivity, thermal conductivity in the metal core are particularly high, and the electron concentration doesn’t practically depend on tem- Table 1. Calculation of electrical and magnetic parameters of Earth’s lower mantle. perature [33]. It is also known that the velocity of seismic P-waves lengthwise the inner core radius doesn’t practically change and is about 11. 2 km・s, though the pressure changes from 320 to 360 GPa [18]. On the assumption of the said, temperature difference of 2000 K inside the metal core body is unlikely. Considering this and taking the core cooling close to 50 K × (109)−1 years [34] there are grounds to take the real value ΔТ for the metal core as 10 K for the first approximation. This amplitude of the temperature difference between coldnesses (ice ages) and warmings on the Earth’s surface is also in the works [35] [36]. That temperature difference is specified in the V. M. Kotlyakov’s work as “range of the isotopic curve oscillations from glacial periods to interglacial ones equals 10˚C in temperature” [37]. But there is a work where the temperature difference is defined as 14 K on the time period from “65 million years ago till today” [38]. Now let us calculate electric, magnetic and thermal parameters of the solid core, which has temperature dynamics. To do this, let us use the mentioned formulas (2)-(11) (13) (15). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim about sea turtles and their navigation techniques using the Earth's magnetic field. It discusses the calculations of thermocurrents, temperature differences, and seismic P-waves in the Earth's core, which do not relate to sea turtle behavior or navigation mechanisms.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Extreme weather events, like hurricanes and heatwaves, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. [SEP] Text: There is a need for long-term and proactive arrangements in many aspects of risk responses, particularly in terms of extreme weather events, infrastructure resilience, and preparedness for people’s needs, in order to minimize losses from various risks. 3 Governance for AdaptationWhen advancing the process of achieving carbon neutrality in response to climate change, the impacts of more frequent and intense extreme weather events have forced us to think soberly about developing smarter climate governance strategies for sustainable development. While climate mitigation actions contribute to the slowdown of climate warming, climate adaptation is of great importance and is a more direct approach to reducing disaster risk and protecting people (Robbert and Lesnikowski 2018). The key to climate change adaptation (CCA) is the reduction of climate risks. This needs to include reducing the impacts of rapidly changing or slow-onset extreme events, to lower the vulnerabilities of infrastructures that already exist or are under construction, and to limit the combination effects on the population and society due to extra health burdens originating from other sources (for example, air pollution). The goal of CCA is to achieve climate-resilient development in the near future. Although more than 170 countries have already taken adaptation into account in their climate policies and planning, which has generated benefits in areas such as health, food security, and biodiversity conservation, there are still large gaps between actions already taken and the needs of society in response to the climate change impacts (IPCC 2022). Moreover, progress towards adaptation is unevenly distributed across regions, and most implemented adaptation measures have been small-scale, fragmented, incremental, or sector-specific. Despite the general advocation of CCA in the 2015 and the earlier on (), there is a lack of a comprehensive and systematic guiding framework for countries’ CCA actions, as well as a unified and coordinated operational framework for collaborative deployment within the UN system. Here, we present several suggestions and recommendations for resilience building through collaborative governance for CCA (Fig. 3). Fig. 3Recommendations for climate resilient development (CRD) through collaborative governance for climate change adaptation (CCA), with the support of multi-stakeholder partnershipsFull size imageNations (UN) should take the lead in promoting CCA at the global level. Although the importance of CCA was highlighted in the (2022. Exceeding 1. 5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points. Science 377(6611): 7950. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the impacts of more frequent and intense extreme weather events due to climate change. It emphasizes the need for proactive arrangements and smarter climate governance strategies to address these events, indicating that these challenges arise from the effects of climate change. Additionally, the mention of the necessity for climate change adaptation (CCA) and its relation to reducing disaster risk directly supports the claim that extreme weather events are indeed becoming more severe.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: [238, 239]), isolated studies (e. g. [229, 235]), anecdotal evidence (Lynne Yamanaka, pers. comm. , ), and modelling work (e. g. [240]). This collection is likely dominated by siliceous sponges, and isolated stands of flexible corals with partly organic skeletons (octocorals), more specifically members of the diverse group Alcyonacea (e. g. large tree form coral) and pennatulaceans (sea pens and whips). Alcyonacea and solitary glass sponges occur on bedrock, mainly deeper than ∼200 m, while pennatulaceans and glass sponge reefs grow on flat sediment, generally shallower than ∼200 m [241]. Stylasterids (e. g. [242]) and stony corals (Scleractinia) also occur [237, 243], but primarily in small, solitary patches. The reef-forming scleractinian Lophelia pertusa has been found [244], but is rare, possibly influenced by the already low aragonite saturation states in this region [245]. Black corals, which do not calcify and are made of organic proteins, are also present below 500 m [237]. Direct effects OA studies have focused on stony corals, primarily Lophelia pertusa, which is entirely aragonitic. They show an increased energetic cost for calcification in L. pertusa with decreasing pH (and Ωarag [246, 247] (S2 Table); however, L. pertusa may adapt to moderate decreases in pH given sufficient time [248] (S2 Table). The holdfasts and some parts of the structure of many octocorals are also made of aragonite [249]. Similarly, some stylasterids precipitate aragonite as well as calcite [250]. However, neither octocorals nor stylasterids have been studied with respect to OA to date. Likewise, there are no OA studies specific to glass sponges. Sponge and coral synopsis The OA response of the cold-water corals most common in our region (octocorals) has not yet been studied. While the skeletons of these corals are partly organic, they also calcify and so may be affected by OA at some level (Fig. 4A). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the specific effects of ocean acidification (OA) on certain marine organisms, particularly Lophilia pertusa and other coral species. While it states that the energetic cost for calcification increases with decreasing pH, it also suggests that Lophilia pertusa may adapt to moderate decreases in pH given sufficient time. Thus, the implication is that marine ecosystems might not be completely destroyed, as adaptation is possible, indicating a more nuanced understanding of OA effects on marine life.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: In particular, we must use the initial data when calculating: μ 0 μ Fe = 1. 26 × 10 − 6 H m Earth’s radius, R Earth = 6. 37 × 10 6 m Inner core radius, R G = 1. 4 × 10 6 m Total radius, R Σ = R G + Δ R F + Δ R E = 3. 65 × 10 6 m Spherical surface SG area with radius RG: = 4 π R G 2 = 2. 46 × 10 13 m; Core electroconductivity, σ = 5. 0 × 10 5 S m. From the formulas (3) (4) (5) (7) (9) (10) accordingly we have: Thermofield density of the Earth’s core at the temperature difference ΔT = 10˚C and radius RΣ Е T = 2. 86 × 10 − 10 V m Electron concentration in a unit volume of metal (Fe), n 1 = 1. 32 × 10 29 m − 3 n 2 = 3. 25 × 10 29 m − 3 Fermi momentum, p F = 1. 41 × 10 − 23 m ⋅ kg s Electron mean free path, l = 0. 85 nm. Substituting the corresponding meanings of the calculated parameters to the current density formula (9), we get j = 1. 43 × 10 − 4 A m 2. From the formula (11) we can find the total amount of current of the inner core G: I l o w = j S G = 3. 52 × 10 9 A. According to the formula (15) let us additionally calculate the heat Q b c produced by the thermocurrents Ilow, which is 2. 25 × 1014 J year (2. 25 × 1021 erg per year) and is comparable with the thermocurrents Itop heat in magnitude. There is also a calculation of the Earth’s magnetic momentum M = 4 π R G 2 I l o w which is 8. 67 × 1022 А・m2 when the current Ilow is 3. 52 × 109 А and the spherical surface at the solid core radius is RG = 1400 km. That is close to the known magnitude М = 8. 2 × 10 22 А ⋅ m 2. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses complex calculations related to the Earth's magnetic field and properties without mentioning sea turtles or their navigation methods. It delves into detailed equations and parameters about the Earth's core and magnetism, which do not relate to how sea turtles navigate.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: The majority of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming. [SEP] Text: is Open Access? is an initiative that aims to make scientific research freely available to all. To date our community has made over 100 million downloads. It’s based on principles of collaboration, unobstructed discovery, and, most importantly, scientific progression. As PhD students, we found it difficult to access the research we needed, so we decided to create a new publisher that levels the playing field for scientists across the world. How? By making research easy to access, and puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers. are a community of more than 103,000 authors and editors from 3,291 institutions spanning 160 countries, including winners and some of the world’s most-cited researchers. Publishing on IntechOpen allows authors to earn 10. 5772/58995 this 1. Choose citation style Select style to clipboard Get citation 2. Choose citation style Select format Bibtex RIS Download citation and by the - Causes, Impacts and by purchase hard copies of this book, please contact the representative in India: CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd. www. cbspd. com | customercare@cbspd. com 1. Choose citation style Select style to clipboard Get citation 2. Choose citation style Select format Bibtex RIS Download citation Impact of this 1. IntroductionRadiative forcing is a measure of the size of a greenhouse gas’s contribution to global warming. Radiative forcing values are estimated by a numerical process using radiative transfer schemes for terrestrial radiation and data from general circulation models. However, the estimation is complex and difficult to understand for non-specialists, including researchers in other fields. Understanding the essence of the Earth system is important for correctly discussing global environmental issues. Accordingly, in this 1. 1. Radiative forcingThe global atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration has increased from about 278 ppmv in pre-industrial times (defined as 1750) to 390. 5 ppmv in 2011. During the same period, the concentrations of methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) have also increased from about 0. 722 ppmv to 1. 803 ppmv and about 0. 270 ppmv to 0. 324 ppmv, respectively (Table 1). [2] Greenhouse gas Concentration (ppmv) Radiative forcing Global warming potential 1750 2011 (W m–2) 20 yr 100 yr Carbon dioxide 278 390. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing greenhouse gas concentrations, specifically mentioning the increase in carbon dioxide (CO2) from 278 ppmv to 390.5 ppmv and the increases in methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). It also introduces the concept of radiative forcing, which is a measure of how much a greenhouse gas contributes to global warming. This directly supports the idea that these gases trap heat in the atmosphere and contribute to global warming.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: In long-term studies, sea urchins have shown an ability to adapt to elevated PCO2 (Table 1); however, in the transition to new OA conditions, species may suffer from life-cycle carry-over effects. For instance, Dupont et al. [259] demonstrated that under elevated PCO2 females acclimated for four months experienced a 4. 5 decrease in fecundity and produced offspring that suffered 95% juvenile mortality; however, these effects disappeared after acclimitisation for 16 months (S2 Table). OA may also influence reproduction in echinoderms. For example, as PCO2 increases under OA, higher sperm concentrations are necessary to achieve high fertilisation success in the sea urchin S. franciscanus, and the egg’s mechanism for blocking fertilisation by multiple sperm cells becomes slower [260]. A number of studies have used genetic markers to infer the possible physiological effects of OA in sea urchins (see S2 Table). O’Donnell et al. [261] measured the change in expression of a molecular helper-protein in S. franciscanus and suggested that the ability to handle temperature stress would be reduced under OA. Todgham and Hofmann [262] measured changes in ∼1000 genes of the sea star S. purpuratus and found reduced expression under elevated PCO2 in four categories—biomineralisation, cellular stress response, metabolism, and apoptosis (cell death). Also for this species, elevated PCO2 triggered changes in 40 functional classes of proteins, affecting biomineralisation, lipid metabolism, and ion homeostasis [263]. (Parastichopus californicus) harvest also provides significant income in BC (sea cucumbers, Fig. 4A) but there are no studies on OA effects for this species. Elsewhere, a single study found that sperm motility of a reef-dwelling sea cucumber species (Holothuria sp. ) was impaired at pH values <7. 7 [264]. Elevated PCO2 and temperatures have been shown to have positive and additive effects on the relative growth of the keystone sea star Pisaster ochraceus [265]. Under increased PCO2, calcification is reduced [265]; however, growth rate remains unchanged as the endoskeleton is primarily composed of soft tissue with relatively small calcareous elements for rigidity and protection. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing evidence that certain marine species, such as sea urchins and sea stars, have shown an ability to adapt to elevated PCO2 levels and that these species may recover from the negative effects of ocean acidification over time. For example, while initial studies showed significant decreases in reproductive success and high juvenile mortality for sea urchins under elevated PCO2, these effects diminished after a period of acclimatization. This suggests that complete destruction of marine ecosystems is not a foregone conclusion, as adaptation may allow some species to withstand the changes brought on by ocean acidification.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: For the readers’ convenience, all the calculations are presented in the compact Table 2. The table shows that the thermocurrents Ilow are all-sufficient, they are able not only generate the main dipole field of Earth В T T l o w but to maintain it for a long time at 3. 64 × 10−5 T level. This value is calculated for the points of Earth on its equator and, as seen, it is close to the real and modern intensity of the EMF. At the same time, the heat, produced by the thermocurrents Ilow, is only Q b c = 2. 25 × 10 14 J per year (2. 25 × 1021 erg per year) and is comparable to the heat of the thermocurrents Itop. The Earth’s magnetic moment was also calculated as M = 4 π R G 2 I l o w. At the current Ilow of 3. 52 × 109 А and spherical surface with the solid core’s radius of RG = 1400 km (see in Table 2) it is 8. 67 × 1022 Table 2. Calculation of electrical and magnetic parameters of Earth’s metal core. А・m2, which is close to the known value М = 8. 2 × 10 22 А ⋅ m 2. Let us briefly note, that a toroidal magnetic field forms within the metal core. The field’s field lines are spherical circles that do not leave the conducting core (Figure 1(a) and Figure 1(b)). The centrifugal force F C f and the thermo e. m. f. ЕТ have been generating a through channel with electron deficit for 3. 5 billion years in the toroidal field in the core center. The channel is the entrance/exit for the poloidal magnetic field which is self-generating in the conductive medium. The field is definitely dipole and it has local poles with diameter to 500 km for entrance/exit of the field lines bundles of the poloidal field with tilt of 900 - 890. There is a confirmation for it [39]. 4. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it focuses on calculations related to the Earth's magnetic field and its properties, without mentioning sea turtles or their navigation methods.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: The majority of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming. [SEP] Text: 5 1. 82 (1. 63 to 2. 01) 1 1 Methane 0. 722 1. 803 0. 48 (0. 43 to 0. 53) 84 28 Nitrous oxide 0. 270 0. 324 0. 17 (0. 14 to 0. 20) 264 265 Table 1. Concentrations in 1750 and 2011, radiative forcing, and global warming potential for each greenhouse gas. [2]Radiative forcing is often referred to as an index of the size of a greenhouse gas’s contribution to global warming. When the Earth system is at radiative equilibrium, the energy flux reaching the top of the Earth’s atmosphere exactly balances with the outgoing energy flux from the Earth to outer space. However, increasing the concentration of greenhouse gases decreases the energy flux to outer space and changes the energy flux to the Earth into a surplus. Consequently, the Earth’s surface temperature and atmospheric temperature rise, causing the outgoing flux to increase, and the Earth system shifts to a new equilibrium. Radiative forcing is defined as the imbalance of the energy flux density caused by these perturbations. Panel on (IPCC) has estimated the following radiative forcing values due to increased greenhouse gas concentrations in 2011 relative to their pre-industrial levels: CO2, 1. 82 W m–2; CH4, 0. 48 W m–2; and N2O, 0. 17 W m–2. The unit of radiative forcing is the same as that of energy flux density. The uncertainties in these values are all ±10% under 90% confidence intervals. While the magnitude of the positive radiative forcing of greenhouse gases is well understood, the effects of other atmospheric constituents such as aerosols are subject to considerable uncertainty. [3] IPCC estimated values are the sum of the contributions from direct effect (via emissions of gases) and several indirect effects (via atmospheric chemistry). Radiative forcing to be compared with calculated value in this 1. 68 W m–2; CH4, 0. 64 W m–2; and N2O, 0. 17 W m–2. Global warming potential (GWP) is also used in comprehensive policies regarding the regulation of greenhouse gases. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the concept of radiative forcing associated with increased concentrations of greenhouse gases, including CO2 and CH4, and how these gases contribute to global warming by trapping heat in the Earth's atmosphere. It explains that the increase in greenhouse gases leads to a surplus energy flux, causing the Earth's surface and atmospheric temperatures to rise, thereby supporting the claim regarding their role in global warming.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: Brittle stars (ophiuroids) are commonly found in the region, but the effects of OA have only been studied in species found elsewhere. In the eastern Atlantic Ocean, keystone brittle star Ophiothrix fragilis was found to be especially sensitive to small changes in pH [266], with 100% mortality of larvae at pH 7. 9 vs. 30% mortality in the control (pH = 8. 1). Finally, while Dupont et al. [251] found that echinoderms studied to date are relatively robust to OA effects, they conclude that the overall impact of OA on this group will be negative and suggest that associated ecosystem impacts may be more severe. Indirect effects Declines in some echinoderms may affect the predators that depend on them, but ecosystem effects remain unknown. For example, on our coast, various nearshore rockfish and numerous flatfish prey on ophiuroids [267], although they only form an important component of the diet for (Sebastes nebulosus), (Hippoglossoides elassodon), and Sole (Lepidopsetta bilineatus) [267]. Additionally, the deep-water rockfish (Sebastolobus altivelis) relies on brittle stars for a large proportion of its food [268]. In the eastern Atlantic, the inevitable decline in pH may lead to the disappearance of the keystone brittle star O. fragilis; the impact on the ecosystem is not really known [266]. Echinoderm synopsis Although many echinoderms have not been studied, the existing evidence indicates significant negative effects due to OA, especially at early life stages. Thus, we suggest that this group will be affected negatively (Fig. 4A). Of more concern are the anticipated negative impacts on ecosystems, e. g. declines in the population of a keystone species like the Star would have wide-ranging effects on the food web. crustaceans are represented in BC by copepods [269], krill (euphausiids) [39], barnacles [270], shrimps, prawns and crabs [271]. Copepods (see Mesozooplankton) and krill form a substantial biomass in the oceans and provide an important source of food for upper trophic levels in temperate marine foodwebs and act as important grazers (e. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that while ocean acidification (OA) will have significant negative effects on certain species, particularly on early life stages of organisms like brittle stars, the overall impact on ecosystems is described as unknown. The text states that although the decline of a keystone species like Ophiothrix fragilis can have wide-ranging effects on the food web, it does not confirm a complete destruction of all marine ecosystems by 2050. Instead, it suggests that the consequences of OA could be severe, but lacks definitive conclusions regarding total ecosystem collapse.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: of Earth’s First, let us pay attention to a feature of the core: its outer part (outer core) is in a melted state at the temperature T0, whereas the inner part (inner core), divided with the transitive F zone, is in a solid state, but at the lowered temperature Ti. Hence, we can conclude that the solid core can be colder than the outer one, and its temperature is Ti = T0 10 K. In its turn, it shows that there obviously must be geotemperature gradients, directed oppositely to the melted outer core. Those gradients generate thermoelectric currents “outer core-lower mantle” Itop, directed oppositely to the Earth’s surface, and “outer core-inner (solid) core’s center” Ilow to the planet’s center (Figure 1(a)). On the assumption of the known connection between an electrical current and the heat, produced by it, the inner core temperature Ti is expected to get T0, and then get higher than T0 i. e. Ti > T0. Such happens when the flows of the thermocurrents Ilow move to the Earth’s center and their electron concentration n in the inner core because of the absence of drains (outer borders) and, consequently, absence of dissipation of the charge energy. As a result, current density increases, which contributes to higher producing of Joule heat and its accumulation in the Earth’s central part. Eventually, the inner core’s temperature Ti reaches the temperature of the melted core T0 (Ti = T0) and at this moment the field intensity ЕТ gets equal to zero (ЕТ = 0) in the “outer core-inner core” branch. From that very moment thermocurrents Ilow stop moving, and the Earth’s dipole magnetic field disappears, but the lower mantle magnetic field В T T l o w remains. Nevertheless, thermocurrents Ilow of low intensity are able to not only appear for a short time and several times but change their directions to the opposite ones, because the thermal process is not homogeneous at different points of the inner core. The inner core temperature eventually gets higher and reaches a persistent state Ti > T0 because of the thermal process inertia. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not relate to the claim regarding sea turtles navigating with the Earth's magnetic field. Instead, it discusses the properties and behaviors of the Earth's core and thermoelectric currents, which are irrelevant to the navigation abilities of sea turtles.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: The majority of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming. [SEP] Text: GWP is a measure of how much a given mass of a greenhouse gas contributes to global warming and is usually defined as the radiative forcing resulting from an instantaneous release of 1 kg of the greenhouse gas into the atmosphere relative to that of CO2. [4] The GWP values for the next 20 and 100 years are given in Table 1. Radiative forcing is estimated by a numerical process using radiative transfer schemes for terrestrial radiation and data from models referred to as general circulation models. [5] However, since the process is difficult to understand for non-specialists, including many citizens and researchers in other fields, they simply accept the results announced by the specialists. Yet, understanding the essence of the Earth system is important for correctly discussing global environmental issues. It is therefore necessary to create models such that anyone who has acquired basic scientific knowledge can intuitively understand the Earth system as well as the essence of the calculations based on the models. In this 1. 2. How can radiative forcing be calculated? The mean vertical temperature of the atmosphere results from the balance between heating and cooling. The Earth’s surface and the troposphere are strongly coupled by convective heat transfer processes. At the surface, solar heating is balanced by convective transport of latent and sensible heat to the troposphere. In the troposphere, radiative cooling (infrared emission by molecules) is balanced by the release of latent heat via condensation and precipitation and by convective transport of sensible heat from the surface. This radiative-convective interaction leads to a roughly constant lapse rate in the troposphere. However, at the top of the troposphere (the tropopause), which is at an altitude of about 11 km above the Earth’s surface, the temperature tends to become invariant with altitude. [6]Figure 1. Vertical concentration profiles of four principal greenhouse gases. Concentrations are shown in units of ppmv. These data in the US are obtained from the SpectralCalc website. [7]The IPCC has defined radiative forcing as the change in net energy flux density at the tropopause. Figure 1 shows the altitude dependence of the concentrations of the four principal greenhouse gases. Water vapor is the most abundant and important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Nevertheless, it is excluded as an objective of the radiative forcing estimation since humans cannot directly control it. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the concept of Global Warming Potential (GWP), which measures how much greenhouse gases contribute to global warming through their radiative forcing effects. It explains how the release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere affects radiative forcing, a critical process in trapping heat. Although it primarily focuses on the necessity of understanding these processes for broader discussions on environmental issues, the overall context supports the claim that greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane play a significant role in global warming.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: g. , [272]). Crabs are found in the upper 50 m, while adult prawns (Pandalus platyceros) and adult shrimp (mainly Smooth Pink—Pandalus jordani and Sidestripe—Pandalopsis dispar) are deeper (∼100 m and 120 m, respectively: Fig. 3). Krill, primarily Euphausia pacifica, perform strong diel vertical migration from the surface to depths exceeding 100 m. Krill is harvested on a limited basis in the Strait of Georgia and various inlets [39]. Prawns and shrimps, which are farmed extensively in other parts of the world, are only harvested from the wild in BC; the prawn fishery is substantial (∼$40 million, Fig. 4) [34]. The crab fishery in BC is also valuable (∼$33 million) [34, 273], with (Cancer magister) being the most important commercial species. Direct effects Crustacean exoskeletons, composed of chitin and CaCO3 [274], are generally considered to be unaffected by OA. In fact, evidence suggests that this protective covering actually serves as a buffer to the corrosive nature of OA, and some crustaceans can use the increased DIC in seawater to fortify their shells through calcification [275]. This enhancement of the shell contrasts with shell dissolution in molluscs (see Molluscs Section), and is likely due to some crustaceans (crabs, lobsters) having an efficient proton-regulating mechanism [275]. Despite the advantage of localised pH-regulation, the calcification response appears to depend on a variety of additional factors: external organic coatings, skeletal mineralisation composition (e. g. magnesium content in calcite), and the degree to which amorphous CaCO3 (precursor to calcite/aragonite shells) is utilised [275–277]. Crustacean species’ ability to deal with increasing OA also depends on life-history strategies and habitat [278]. Active species or those in highly fluctuating environments (e. g. intertidal or estuarine) tend to utilise the oxygen-transporting protein haemocyanin, which also confers additional buffering capacity against high H+ concentrations. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing specific examples of how some marine species, particularly crustaceans, are not only surviving but may also benefit from ocean acidification (OA). It explains that crustacean exoskeletons are generally considered unaffected by OA and that certain crustaceans can utilize the increased Dissolved Inorganic Carbon (DIC) in seawater to enhance their shells through calcification. This indicates that while OA poses a risk, its impact may not lead to the complete destruction of all marine ecosystems as the claim suggests.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: At this state thermocurrents of opposite direction instantly appear and signs of the inner SGTE charges finally change (Figure 1(b)). From the moment of the persistent state Ti = T0 thermocurrents Itop and Ilow move to the Earth’s surface unidirectionally and their mutual current I sums up. Ores of the lower mantle gets extra heat because a part of the thermocurrents Ilow permeates in. That heat spreads predominantly to the bottom surface’s side, and when it is reached, the Earth’s crust and atmosphere reach the mode of dynamic heating gradually. From the other hand, electron flows leave the core, and it slowly cools down after electron concentration gets less. But when the moment of the persistent state Ti < T0 comes, a new and opposite process begins-thermocurrents Ilow go to the inner core and warm it. At the same time the mutual current I decreases and Earth comes into its cooling mode, and the dipole magnetic field restores. The cycles repeat. 5. Briefly about the Cyclicity of Cooling and Warming of the Earth’s results of the calculations in Table 2 give us the following. First, the reason why cooling and warming alternate each other on the Earth’s crust surface and our planet’s atmosphere is the existing cyclic change of thermocurrents in the inner core Ilow (Figure 2). Secondly, geomagnetic polarity reversal can happen only when phases “warming-cooling-warming” change, probably, every 105 ÷ 106 years [7]. During the period of these reversals dipole magnetic field В T T l o w decreases (or increases) up to its momentary disappearance (increment), at the same time the magnetic pole, created by the lower mantle, always stays as 4. 6 × 10−6 T at any reversal sign. In this connection, there can be made a preliminary estimate of the time interval Δt between adjacent coinciding phases of Itop and Ilow thermocurrents movement, for example, to the Earth’s crust. In this case that interval can correspond to the period of two maximum Earth warmings or cooling if the thermocurrents move in an antiphase direction (Figure 2). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses thermocurrents and processes within the Earth's interior and magnetic field, without any reference to sea turtles or their navigation methods.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: The majority of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming. [SEP] Text: However, because of its strong absorption band, water vapor should be considered when calculating the radiative forcing of the other greenhouse gases. The first step in building the model is to divide the atmosphere into appropriate layers, where the pressure, temperature, and concentration of each greenhouse gas are homogeneous within each layer. The concentrations of CO2, CH4, and N2O are homogeneous between the Earth’s surface and the tropopause, whereas the concentration of water vapor changes considerably. Moreover, the temperature of the troposphere decreases with altitude at a roughly constant lapse rate. For intervals with a thickness of 100 m, the change in the concentration of water vapor between the adjacent layers is around 5% and the change in temperature is 0. 65 K. Therefore, up to an altitude of 11 km, the atmosphere is divided into 110 layers, each with a thickness of 100 m. The bottom layer tangent to the surface is referred to as the zeroth layer for descriptive purposes. The terrestrial energy flux emitted from the Earth’s surface enters the zeroth layer. Some of the incident flux is absorbed by the molecules of greenhouse gases in the layer, and the remainder is transmitted. Subsequently, the molecules emit radiation flux both upward and downward. Some of the combined upward flux (transmitted flux and emitted upward flux) is again absorbed in the first layer, and the layer emits radiation. [8] For simplicity, the molecules emit radiation only once. The repetition of this simple radiative transfer process leads to the outgoing flux from the tropopause to outer space. In the first step, the outgoing energy flux density F¯ at the tropopause is calculated under the assumption that the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are equal to those in the pre-industrial era. In the next step, the flux density Fi is similarly calculated for an atmosphere in which the concentration of a specific greenhouse gas i increases up to its level in 2011, keeping everything else constant including the temperature. [4] The radiative forcing is obtained as ΔFi=F¯−Fi for the greenhouse gas i that changes in concentration. In these processes, the effects of the near-infrared region of incident solar radiation are ignored. Also, the intensities of absorption and emission depend on only the respective number densities of the greenhouse gases in the layer. Pressure and temperature affect these intensities through only a change in number density. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the role of greenhouse gases, specifically carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O), in the radiative transfer processes that ultimately contribute to heat retention in the Earth's atmosphere. It explains that the incident flux from the Earth's surface is absorbed by greenhouse gas molecules in the atmosphere, thereby confirming their role in trapping heat and affecting global temperatures.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: Sedentary species or those in stable environments (e. g. deep-sea or polar) tend to have less haemocyanin and consequently less buffering capacity. The latter group relies more on HCO3− buffering and is probably more sensitive to OA. [278] Recent studies on Crab (AKC, Paralithodes camtschaticus) and (TC, Chionoecetes bairdi) in Alaskan waters highlight the vulnerability of the early life stages to OA [279, 280]. For AKC embryos and larvae, OA produces larger embryos (but not larger mass), smaller egg yolks, higher developmental rates, and higher calcium content [280]. In juveniles of both species, increased mortality occurs with elevated PCO2 (Table 1), with 100% mortality in their most extreme treatment (S2 Table) [279]. Differences between the two Alaskan crabs (decreased condition index in AKC but not TC and decreased calcium content in TC but not AKC) suggest that AKC puts more energy into osmoregulation and calcification than does TC [279]. Additionally, there is some preliminary evidence that adult AKC females fail to moult [280]. Initial studies are underway on the dominant local species of krill, Euphausia pacifica. A recent study in Puget Sound, WA (Fig. 1), found that elevated PCO2 slowed the development of hatched nauplii to the first feeding stage (Anna McLaskey, pers. comm. , University of Alaska, Fairbanks AK). Also, under higher PCO2 the Antarctic krill species, Euphausia superba, experiences ingestion rates 3. 5 times higher than those under present-day conditions, and consistently higher metabolic rates [281]. For the cold-water barnacle, Semibalanus balanoides (common in BC), experimental treatments at elevated CO2 (S2 Table) reduced adult survival and slowed embryonic development, which delayed the time of hatching by 19 days [282]. The cold-water shrimp, Pandalus borealis (common and commercially important in BC), also exhibited delayed juvenile development at reduced pH [283]. Other studies find no such delays [284–286], though significant effects have been observed when temperature and PCO2 interact [285]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing various species' responses to ocean acidification (OA) without asserting that all marine ecosystems will be completely destroyed by 2050. It highlights specific vulnerabilities, such as the increased mortality rates and developmental issues in early life stages of species like crab and potential effects on other marine organisms. However, the mention of variability in responses and ongoing studies suggests a more nuanced outcome than total destruction, which contradicts the absolute nature of the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: That can be represented by the following model of multidirectional movements of thermocurrents Ilow towards the persistently unidirectional movement of thermocurrents Itop: 1st cycle: core-lower mantle; 2nd cycle: lower mantle-core; 3rd cycle: core-lower mantle. Figure 2. Graph of connection between EMF polarity reversal and warming and cooling periods on Earth with the change of the direction of the planetary currents Ilow vectors. 1―graph of the cyclic temperature at the Earth’s surface distribution; 2―directed movement of the lower mantle thermocurrents Itop; 3―directed movement of the inner core thermocurrents Ilow; 4―magnetic poles position at the EMF reversal. For a quantitative estimation of the model one should take into consideration drift velocity v d (7) of electrons, which move directionally in the electric field ЕТ from the inner core’s side to the upper mantle (1st, 3rd cycles) and backwards (2nd cycle). However, that velocity is average and it is defined from the interval v d between 0 and max. But if the velocity of an electron after the collision has nothing to do with its velocity before the collision [26] the calculated function of electron distribution according to their real velocities allows to calculate the drift velocity more accurately with the following formula [26] [40] [41] : v d = e E T l m v (6а) However the existing scientific argument if it is right to use the formula (6) or the formula (6a) can be resolved only in course of time and only by comparing theoretical calculations with the practice. All the calculations to define warming periods are in Table 3 with all the needed constants and formulas. Table 3. Calculation of warming periods on Earth. All the calculations to define warming periods are in Table 3 with all the needed constants and formulas. It is seen from Table 3 that the period of direct warming is about 83000 years, whereas the time lapse between the consecutive warmings Δt is about 249,000 years. The main error of this magnitude is determined by the value of the temperature coefficient β and the final electron concentration in the semiconductor when “hot” electrons move out of the core. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses thermocurrents, EMF polarity, and their implications for temperature cycles on Earth but does not mention sea turtles or their navigation methods. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: The majority of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming. [SEP] Text: Figure 2 shows the absorption spectra of the zeroth layer for 1750, as calculated using the SpectralCalc database. For selected gases, the SpectralCalc website provides transmittance spectra at an arbitrary pressure, temperature, and thickness of a gas layer; the concentration of the gas in the layer; and the range of wavelengths. [7] The SpectralCalc uses a line-by-line model called to accurately model molecular absorption line spectra. [11] These are based on the database,[12] which is a compilation of spectroscopic parameters widely used to simulate the gases’ transmission and emission of radiation into the atmosphere. The concentrations are 7750 ppmv for water vapor, 278 ppmv for CO2, 0. 722 ppmv for CH4, and 0. 270 ppmv for N2O. The pre-industrial concentration of water vapor is assumed to be the same as the present value. In the zeroth layer, the parameters areT0=288 K, p0=1. 013×105 Pa, Δz=100 m, and λ=1. 85−20. 0 μm. E15 The unit spectral interval is set to 1 nm. The numerical values used for the calculations are as follows:R=8. 3144 J K−1, μ=28. 964×10−3 kg, Γ=−6. 5×10−3 K m−1, g=9. 8 m s−2,h=6. 6261×10−34 J s, k=1. 3806×10−23 J K−1, c=2. 9979×108 m s−1. E16 Figure 3 shows the calculated outgoing spectra in the pre-industrial era at altitudes of 3 km, 6 km, 9 km, and 11 km (the tropopause). It is clear that terrestrial radiation is strongly absorbed at wavelengths of 5–8 μm and 13–17 μm. The former is due to water vapor and the latter is due to CO2. In both these ranges, the absorption is nearly one. However, the outgoing flux in these ranges is not zero because of emission from the greenhouse gases. Moreover, the intensity of the flux decreases with altitude. The red area under the spectrum at 11 km, 191. 60 W m–2, corresponds to the total outgoing flux density F¯. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by explaining the absorption of terrestrial radiation by greenhouse gases, particularly noting that 'the absorption is nearly one' for certain wavelengths associated with water vapor and CO2, indicating their effectiveness in trapping heat. This illustrates the role of these gases in contributing to the greenhouse effect, which is a fundamental aspect of global warming.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: The ability to tolerate OA also depends in part on prior exposure to habitats that experience highly fluctuating PCO2 [287]. Indirect effects Slow embryonic development [282] could potentially cause a timing mismatch between larval release and prey availability related to the spring phytoplankton bloom [288]. Potentially slower growth and lower fitness in juveniles and young adults may reduce egg production by females over their lifetime [279]. Despite the stability of adult exoskeletons, the post-moult calcification stage in crustaceans may be delayed significantly under elevated PCO2 [278], which may increase mortality due to predation on this defenseless life stage (e. g. [289]). Additionally, Kunkel et al. [290] hypothesise that OA may degrade the thin outer layer of calcite, which helps protect decapods from microbial attack. Finally, stock assessment models that incorporate reduced recruitment survival as a function of OA suggest that there can be a substantial socio-economic cost that is currently not recognised by decision makers [291]. Crustacean synopsis Generally, the crustaceans are expected to be sensitive to OA effects at early life cycle stages, while available studies suggest mixed results for adults. However, many local species, such as prawns, have not been studied (Fig. 4A). There is evidence that developmental anomalies in embryos and larvae occur at reduced pH, which may affect the fitness of juveniles and adults; however, the effects are species-specific and phenotypic adaptation is not known. Additionally, changes in growth rate and calcification may increase the susceptibility to predation, and delays in development may decouple life cycle timing between larval release and optimal foraging conditions. BC coastal waters, there are over 300 species of marine fish [292, 293]. The taxonomic groups represented in BC include jawless fish (e. g. hagfish (270–1010 m)), cartilaginous fish (e. g. ratfish (50–380 m), dogfish (50–430 m), sharks (90–1020 m), skates (50–860 m)), and bony fish. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by outlining various complexities and uncertainties associated with ocean acidification (OA) and its effects on marine life. It discusses how specific species, such as crustaceans, may be sensitive to OA effects, especially at early life stages, but notes that the effects are species-specific and phenotypic adaptation is not known. This suggests that while OA poses significant risks to some species, it does not lead to a definitive conclusion that all marine ecosystems will be completely destroyed by 2050.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: In our case, the value of β for the lower mantle, whose ores are considered to be semiconductors, is taken speculatively, and it is 0. 0003 V・K−1, as in Table 1, and it is just three times more than the temperature coefficient for pure metals. However, if one takes the possibly minimum magnitude 0. 001 V deg−1. for semiconductors instead of 0. 0015 V deg−1. [29] then the time lapse from the beginning of the warming and its ending will be about 25,000 years, and the time lapse between the warming phases Δt will be 75,000 years. Periods of cooling and warming cycles also change noticeably, if n for the lower mantle ores is increased only by 1 order, i. e. n = 3. 25 × 10 23 m − 3 (the initial value for calculations is taken as n = 3. 25 × 10 22 m − 3 ). Then the period of direct warming is about 385,000 years, and the time lapse between the consecutive warmings Δt is now about 1. 15 million years. It appears from the roughly evaluative calculations, that despite the large range of numbers they are still within the assumptive time intervals, which the researchers get by an indirect analysis of geologic and climatological material of our planet, accumulated numerously [37] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46]. According to geological data from different literary sources, the older the planet is, the shorter cooling periods (ice ages) and warming periods get, they fraction into subperiods, which can be explained by cycles getting gradually ordered and steady while the planet’s inner structure is forming [44] (Figure 3). 6. of the Warming of the Earth’s solve the task, we should consider the following conditions. Earth is now under a steady nonequilibrium thermodynamic state, because there are pressure and temperature gradients, that can be concluded from the I. R. Prigogine’s work [47]. Thermoelectrical currents Ilow of the solid and the melted cores move to the lower mantle. Their velocity, defined by the electron velocity, is about 2 × 10−8 m・s−1, and their distance, for example, for 103 years is not more than 60 - 70 km. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses geological and thermodynamic concepts without mentioning sea turtles or their navigation methods. It focuses on the properties of the Earth's lower mantle, thermoelectrical currents, and geological timeframes, which do not pertain to how sea turtles navigate.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: The majority of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming. [SEP] Text: The growth rates of greenhouse gas concentrations from the pre-industrial era to 2011 are given as follows: CO2, 1. 40; CH4, 2. 50; and N2O, 1. 20. For simplicity, we assume that the absorption spectrum in 2011 may be approximated by multiplying the spectrum in 1750 by the growth rate. The absorption values never exceed one. Figure 3. Outgoing terrestrial radiation spectrum at 3 km (blue), 6 km (green), 9 km (yellow), and 11 km (tropopause; red) in 1750, as calculated using the spectra shown in Figure 2. A similar calculation in which the absorption spectrum of only 278 ppmv CO2 is replaced with that of 390. 5 ppmv CO2 gives FCO2=189. 26 W m–2. Therefore, the radiative forcing of CO2 for the period between 1750 and 2011 isΔFCO2=F¯−FCO2=2. 34 W m−2. E17 Similarly, the outgoing flux density Fi for the spectrum of greenhouse gas i when its concentration in 1750 is replace with its concentration in 2011, is FCH4=190. 74 W m–2 and FN2O=191. 41 W m–2. The radiative forcing of each greenhouse gas is listed in Table 2. Despite of the simplicity of the radiative transfer model used here, the calculated values of ΔF are close to those in the IPCC estimations, but are relatively higher: CO2, 39%; CH4, 33%; and N2O, 12%. The 2011 spectrum used in this calculation was approximated by multiplying the greenhouse gas’s growth rate by the spectrum in 1750. Nevertheless, the differences between the approximated radiative transfer values and the precise values based on the real spectrum in 2011 in SpectralCalc are very small except for CO2: CO2, 12%; CH4, 1. 4%; and N2O, 0. 5%. Greenhouse gas Outgoing flux density Radiative forcing 1750 2011 ΔF IPCC* Carbon dioxide 191. 597 189. 260 2. 34 1. 68 Methane 190. 743 0. 85 0. 64 Nitrous oxide 191. 407 0. 19 0. 17 Table 2. Calculated outgoing flux density in 1750 and 2011, radiative forcing ΔF, and IPCC estimates for each greenhouse gas. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing the radiative forcing of greenhouse gases like CO2 and CH4, which indicates their role in trapping heat in the Earth's atmosphere. It provides specific values for radiative forcing, such as the calculated ΔFCO2=2.34 W m−2 for CO2, which supports the understanding that these gases contribute to global warming.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: The latter group includes important contributors to BC fisheries—(Clupea pallasi, 5–170 m), salmon (five species of Oncorhynchus, mostly in the surface 50 m but some species deeper than 100 m), (Merluccius productus, 80–700 m), (Gadus macrocephalus, 50–300 m), (Theragra chalcogramma, 50–300 m), rockfish (at least 36 species of Sebastes (70–470 m) and two species of Sebastolobus (160–1010 m)), Sablefish (Anoplopoma fimbria, 70–970 m), Lingcod (Ophiodon elongatus, 50–310 m), (Atheresthes stomias, 60–600 m), soles and flounders (∼18 species, 50–860 m), and (Hippoglossus stenolepis, 50–490 m). Depth distributions for valuable BC fisheries (Fig. 4) appear in Fig. 3. Marine fish species are economically important (GDP of capture fisheries, aquaculture, and sport fishing in BC was over $340 million in 2011 [29]) and ecologically valuable because of their roles providing food sources to higher trophic levels (e. g. birds and mammals) and cycling nutrients to other ecosystems (e. g. salmon providing nutrients to coastal terrestrial ecosystems [294]). In general, we expect that adult fish will be tolerant of OA because they can control ion concentrations through evolved regulatory mechanisms [295, 296]. In particular, active fish exhibit transient elevated metabolic rates and highly variable extracellular CO2 and proton concentrations. Acid-base imbalances are regulated by specialised gill epithelia, which compensate for pH disturbances caused by exposure to increased environmental PCO2 [296]. Although some studies suggest that aerobic performance of tropical fishes may decline under elevated PCO2 [297] (Table 1), detrimental effects were not found in a temperate species, Atlantic Cod, under elevated PCO2 (e. g. [295]). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the resilience of adult fish to ocean acidification (OA) due to their ability to control ion concentrations and their evolved regulatory mechanisms. It suggests that many economically important fish species may be tolerant of OA, indicating that ecological collapse may not occur as stated in the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: That thin shell layer, being in the “core-mantle” border zone, is warmed to 4510 K (the initial temperature on the line of 4500 K) by the heat of the core Q thermocurrents (see Table 2). Its difference reaches 10 K, let us denote it as Т1. Let us take the temperature of the Earth’s bottom surface as Т2 = 273. 1 K. In this connection, a simplified heat-exchanging model of Earth can be represented as a hollow spherical shell with two sides. One of them is the inner one with radius R Σ = 3. 65 × 10 6 m corresponding the surface of the Figure 3. Climatic curve of the for the last 500 thousand years (the picture was taken from an internet-6. 37 × 10 6 m corresponding the bottom surface. The inner side is affected by the inner core heat Q b c = 2. 25 × 10 14 J year (see Table 2). Let us take thermal conductivity coefficient of the spherical shell equal to the constant thermal conductivity coefficient of the lower mantle: λ = 2. 5 W (m・K)−1 [48]. At the same time the inner side is overheated with the heat Q by T1 = 283. 1 K (10˚C), and the outer side is Т2 =273. 1 K (0˚C) at the beginning, but after heating it gets Т2 = Х K. To find Т2 the homogeneous differential heat equation in spherical coordinates can be used [49] : ∇ 2 T = d 2 T d r 2 + 2 r d t d r = 0 (16) Nevertheless, these values of interglacial periods (warming) or cooling can be essentially clarified, if there was exact data of the β coefficient value for not only pure metals, but different materials of the planet’s shells, more complicated ones. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim about sea turtles navigating with the Earth's magnetic field. It discusses Earth’s thermal properties and heat exchange models without mentioning sea turtles or navigation.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: The majority of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming. [SEP] Text: * These estimates are direct contributions through the emissions of the gases. Figure 4 shows the distribution of radiative forcing. We can see that the saturated absorption regions, 5–7 μm for water vapor and 16–18 μm for CO2, do not affect the radiative forcing, whereas the unsaturated area does. Nevertheless, the CO2 absorption in the range 9–11 μm is negligibly small (Figure 2(b)), contributing 10% of the radiative forcing because terrestrial radiation is maximal in this range. The robustness of the proposed model must be confirmed by testing the sensitivity of the results to changes in certain parameters. A change in water vapor concentration does not affect the radiative forcing considerably. The increase in radiative forcing is around 1% even when water vapor concentration decreases by 5%. Moreover, the outgoing flux density decreases as the lapse rate increases. For a change of 10% in the lapse rate, the radiative forcing values change between about 3% and 6%. Figure 4. Radiative forcing spectra calculated with the precise absorption spectra: CO2 (red), CH4 (green), and N2O (blue). There are some sources of the uncertainties in this calculation. The first is assuming that the absorption spectra of greenhouse gases in each layer are proportional to only their number density. However, the absorption spectrum also changes with pressure and temperature in the layer: absorption line width broadening is caused by the thermal motion of the molecules and the collisions between them, both of which depend on pressure and temperature. [13,14]This effect is captured by a0(λ) provided by SpectralCalc. However, the effects of the other layer are approximated as the effects of the zeroth layer for simplicity. These differences in the spectra in each layer will produce uncertainties in the outgoing fluxes. The second source of uncertainty is ignoring the radiative transfer of incident solar radiation in the near-infrared region. The absorption and emission at 2. 6–3. 5 μm may not be negligible since the solar intensity in the region is 5–8 W m–2 μm–1 (the maximum intensity of the terrestrial radiation is about 25 W m–2 μm–1, as shown in Figure 3). Therefore, the outgoing flux contains some uncertainties. Figure 5 shows the calculated radiative forcing for each increasing greenhouse gas from the pre-industrial era to the present age. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the contributions of greenhouse gases, particularly CO2 and CH4, to radiative forcing, which is a measure of how much these gases contribute to trapping heat in the atmosphere. It provides a detailed analysis of the absorption characteristics of CO2 and the implications for radiative forcing, indicating the role of these gases in contributing to global warming.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: The effects of lake acidification on diadromous fish (those migrating between marine and fresh water) are well known, but using these observations to suggest OA effects is potentially misleading due to (i) large physiochemical differences between fresh and acidified marine waters and (ii) high physiological variability between diadromous and marine species [298, 299]. Also, fluctuations in in [H+] seen in lake acidification are orders of magnitude greater than those in the ocean [298]. As with the invertebrates, OA effects in fish are expected to occur during the vulnerable developmental stage, and these effects appear to be species specific. The acid-base regulatory mechanisms of the larval stage remain rudimentary until gills have formed and respiration switches from cutaneous to branchial [300]. Developmental responses are thought to be more the result of CO2 toxicity rather than through pH acting alone [301, 302]. There are limited OA studies on fish species that occur in our region. Hurst et al. [303] showed that the effects of OA on the growth of larvae were minor and varied greatly within treatments (S2 Table, Fig. 4). Slightly higher growth rates in elevated PCO2 conditions (Table 1) proved non-significant. Other studies on Atlantic temperate fish species (cod and herring), closely related to those in BC waters, found no significant effects on sperm motility, embryogenesis, egg survival, or the development of skeletal, heart, and lung tissue [300, 304, 305]. Despite these benign effects, researchers have found some developmental anomalies. Franke and Clemmesen [305] showed an inverse relationship for between PCO2 and the ratio RNA/DNA at hatching, potentially reducing protein biosynthesis and growth. Frommel et al. [300] found significant tissue damage in liver, pancreas, kidney, eye, and gut of larvae under elevated PCO2 Baumann et al. [306] demonstrated that increasing PCO2 caused a 74% reduction in survival and an 18% reduction in length of embryos of a ubiquitous estuarine fish called (Menidia beryllina). Any significant developmental effect could alter the abundance and diversity of marine fish populations. Otoliths (ear bones) are aragonite-based structures that fish use to sense acceleration and orientation. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting the nuanced effects of ocean acidification (OA) on specific fish species rather than suggesting a complete destruction of marine ecosystems. Studies mentioned indicate that while some effects are observed, such as developmental anomalies in fish, there is no significant evidence provided that all marine ecosystems will be devastated. Instead, it notes variability in responses and some benign effects, which contradicts the claim of total destruction.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: Without speaking much of deducing that solution, here is the final solution of the differential heat equation at the Dirichlet boundary conditions T ( 1 F o ) = T 1 = const for X > 273. 16 K и T 2 = 273. 16 K at τ = 0 [52] [53] : T ( X F o ) = T 1 + 2 [ T ( X 0 ) − T 1 ] ∑ n = 1 ∞ ( − 1 ) n + 1 sin ( δ n X ) δ n X exp [ − ( δ n ) 2 F o ] (22) where F o = λ ⋅ τ c ′ p R 2 is Fourier’s number; Λ 1 = ( − 1 ) n + 1 sin ( δ n X ) X is the lambda function; X = r R is the dimensionless radial coordinate of a random point of the sphere; r is the radial coordinate a random point of the sphere, m; R is the inherent size of the sphere body, m; τ is the time, s; c ′ p = ρ ⋅ c p is the specific volumetric isobaric heat capacity of the lower mantle ores, which is distributed over both the upper mantle and the Earh’s crust contingently, J・(m3・K)−1; ρ is the average density of the ores of the lower mantle, the upper mantle and the Earth’s crust, 4500 kg/m3; cp is the specific mass isobaric heat capacity, 1260 J・(kg・K)−1 [54] T 1 is the temperature of the inner side (surface) when X = 0. 54 and τ = 0 equals 283. 2 K; δ n = n π at n = 1 2 ⋯ ∞ is nth root of the characteristic equation sin ( δ n ) = 0 for the Dirichlet boundary conditions; λ is the thermal conductivity coefficient, it is 2. 5 W/(m∙K) for the lower mantle [54] Substituting the above numbers into the Equation (22), here is the solution for the temperature, which is demonstrated in Figure 4 and Table 4. As seen from Figure 4. Graph of the temperature of the surface warming by the earth’s thermoelectric currents inner core. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim about sea turtles navigating using the Earth's magnetic field. Instead, it discusses a complex solution to a differential heat equation related to thermodynamics and boundary conditions, without any mention of sea turtles or navigation.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: The majority of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming. [SEP] Text: This result implies that each radiative forcing becomes slightly rounded due to saturation over the specific wavelength areas and it is linearly approximated by the gas’s concentration: the radiative forcing per ppmv of CO2 is 0. 025 W m–2; CH4, 0. 7 W m–2, and N2O, 3. 5 W m–2. Figure 5. Calculated radiative forcings for increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases: (a) CO2, for every 20 ppmv from 280 ppmv to 380 ppmv; (b) CH4, for every 0. 1 ppmv from 0. 7 ppmv to 1. 7 ppmv; (c) N2O, for every 0. 005 ppmv from 0. 270 ppmv to 0. 320 ppmv. 3. 2. Estimation of global warming potentialGWP is defined as the radiative forcing per unit mass of released greenhouse gas i relative to that of CO2. It is necessary to integrate the radiative forcing for a reference time since the number of gas molecules decreases with time. Protocol is based on GWPs from pulse emissions over a 100-year time frame. For simplicity, the GWP of greenhouse gas i for its 100-year effect is approximated asGWPi=(ΔF/Δn)i/Mi×∫0100e−t/τidt(ΔF/Δn)CO2/MCO2×∫0100e−t/τCO2dt,E18 where ΔF Δn is the radiative forcing per unit increased concentration and M is the molecular mass of the greenhouse gas. The mean residual life of a greenhouse gas over 100 years is given by∫0100e−t/τdt,E19 where τ is its lifetime. The lifetimes of CH4 and N2O are 12. 4 and 121 years, respectively, according to the. [2] For CO2, the mean residual life is given as follows:∫0100(0. 217+0. 259 e−t/172. 9+0. 338 e−t/18. 51)dt. [15]E20 The GWPs of CH4 and N2O for the 100-year effect are calculated as 27. 24 and 242. 2, respectively, using ΔF as obtained in Section 3. 1. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the concept of radiative forcing of greenhouse gases such as CO2, CH4, and N2O, which confirms their role in trapping heat in the atmosphere. It provides specific values for radiative forcing per ppmv for CO2 and CH4, indicating that these gases contribute to warming, aligned with the claim's assertion.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: In some species, otoliths grow larger when larval fish are exposed to elevated PCO2 (e. g. Bass, a species found in BC waters [307]; [308] and tropical clownfish [309]). Under elevated PCO2 pH is regulated in the endolymph sac surrounding the otolith resulting in increased CaCO3 precipitation and enhanced otolith growth for those species [309]. An increase in otolith size may enhance hearing range [310], which might help or harm fish depending on sensitivity to important auditory cues or disruptive background noise [310]. Behavioural responses have recently been documented at elevated PCO2 for larvae of tropical reef fish. In particular, behaviour to olfactory, auditory, and visual cues changes when larvae are selecting habitats and responding to predators [311–315]. Additionally, elevated PCO2 reduces learning abilities related to predator avoidance [316] and changes the propensity of larval reef fish to turn left or right (lateralisation) [317]. These behavioural changes can expose larval fish to increased mortality risk, which has important fitness consequences [313, 318]. Given possible behavioural effects on predators as well as prey under elevated PCO2 community-level responses are difficult to predict [318, 319]. Relatively few studies have investigated behavioural changes to OA in temperate species (three exceptions being [320–322]), and none have examined commercially important species in BC waters. The larvae of (Gasterosteus aculeatus), a species found in marine and fresh water on the BC coast, exhibit behavioural disturbances (e. g. reduction in boldness and curiosity), compromised learning abilities, and declines in lateralisation when reared in elevated PCO2 [320]. These responses are surprising given the physiological plasticity of this species, which is expected to confer enhanced acclimatisation abilities to environmental challenges. These results suggest that sensitivity to OA is not limited to species occupying narrow ecological niches, such as tropical reef fish [320]. Elevated PCO2 can disrupt the functioning of GABAA (γ-Aminobutyric acid) receptors, the main inhibitory neurotransmitter receptors in the fish brain [323]. Normally, the opening of these receptors results in an inflow of Cl− and HCO3− ions over the neuronal membrane, leading to inhibition of the neuron. When concentrations of intracellular Cl− and HCO3−are altered (e. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by detailing specific behavioral and physiological changes in various fish species due to elevated PCO2 related to ocean acidification. While it discusses the negative impacts of elevated CO2 on some marine organisms, it does not support the notion of a complete destruction of all marine ecosystems by 2050. Instead, it highlights complex interactions and responses of species, suggesting variability in outcomes rather than absolute destruction.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: Table 4. Calculation of bottom surface heat temperature by Earth’s thermoelectrical currents. the latter, the temperature graph goes asymptote at τ = 20 s and varies within (283. 125 ¸ 283. 175) K or (9. 966 ¸ 10. 015)˚C, that confirms the pervious calculation enough. Besides, Figure 4 also shows that it takes heat only 20 s. to move from the border “core-lower mantle” to the bottom surface. Note, that the performed calculations are simplified and preliminary for now, because the taken model does not take into consideration other values of the thermal conductivity coefficients of the transitive zone C shells, the lower mantle B and the Earth’s crust A. That is why accurate calculations for the spherically heterogeneous heat-exchange model of Earth can differ from the obtained results noticeably because the thermocurrens under different continents are heterogeneous. 7. Features of the Behavior of Earth’s Associated to the Core’s The calculated magnitude of the magnetic induction В T T l o w can be real only if the used physical parameters and constants strictly meet the requirements of the physical law within which one or the other phenomenon can be correctly described, emergence and development of the Earth’s magnetic field in particular. The calculations analysis shows that the main element of their conformity is geothermoelectrical field ЕТ with its small intensity according to (3). At the same time, the known scientific conception of a planet’s metal core allowed to use the averaged temperature coefficient β, which is 0. 0001 V/K for pure metals. The magnitude of the latter affects all the following parameters: ЕТ, j, Ilow, which form the magnetic induction of the Earth’s field В T T l o w. That is why all the deliberate deviations from this value makes the В T T l o w magnitude get too low or extremely high. Hence, the taken magnitude β which is close to 0. 0001 V/K indicates high probability of our planet’s core being metal. Besides, the planet’s inner core electroconductivity σ affects the В T T l o w magnitude, but in a less degree. Thus, for instance, σ, which was taken by selecting, is equal to 5. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses calculations of Earth's thermoelectrical currents and magnetic induction without mentioning sea turtles or their navigation mechanisms. Therefore, it does not provide any information that supports, contrasts, or is related to the claim about sea turtles using the Earth's magnetic field for navigation.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: The majority of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming. [SEP] Text: They are listed in Table 3 along with the IPCC estimates. The GWP of CH4 is very close to the IPCC estimate whereas the radiative forcing value is not. Greenhouse gas Δn (ppmv) τ (years) GWP This work IPCC Carbon dioxide 112 * 1 1 Methane 1. 08 12. 4 27. 2 28 Nitrous oxide 0. 054 121 242 265 Table 3. Increased concentration Δn from 1750 to 2011, lifetime τ, calculated GWP, and IPCC estimate of GWP over an interval of 100 years for each greenhouse gas. * For carbon dioxide, the IPCC uses the parameters in Eq. (20) which represent the mean residual life, without defining its lifetime. [15]3. 3. Radiative forcing and surface temperatureFinally, we estimate the increase in the Earth’s temperature by using radiative forcing. In the pre-industrial era, the incoming solar radiation flux at the tropopause exactly balanced the outgoing solar radiation flux reflected by the Earth system and the outgoing terrestrial radiation. Let the outgoing terrestrial radiation be approximated roughly asF¯=(1−f) σT04,E21 where f is the mean absorption of the terrestrial radiation at the tropopause, T0 is the surface temperature and σ is the Stephan–Boltzmann constant. Increasing abundance of a greenhouse gas (e. g. , CO2) decreases the mean absorption by Δf. FCO2=(1−f−Δ f) σT04. E22 The perturbation Δf is related to radiative forcing by using Eqs. (21) and (22):Δ f=ΔFCO2σT04. E23 Assuming Δf is maintained for some time, a new equilibrium state will develop in which the surface temperature has increased by ΔT. At the new radiative equilibrium, the outgoing terrestrial flux at the tropopause does not change if the incoming solar flux and the outgoing solar flux reflected by the Earth system are unchanged. Therefore,(1−f) σT04=(1−f−Δ f) σ(T0+ΔT)4. E24 Ignoring the second-order and higher terms in Eq. (24), we obtainΔT=Δ f4(1−f)T0. E25 Substituting Eqs. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the role of greenhouse gases, specifically carbon dioxide and methane, in radiative forcing and how their increasing concentrations affect the Earth's temperature. It explains that as greenhouse gas levels increase, they alter the balance of outgoing terrestrial radiation, leading to an increase in surface temperature. This aligns with the assertion that such gases trap heat in the atmosphere, contributing to global warming.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: g, when fish with strong acid-base regulatory systems are exposed to higher environmental PCO2, the flow of ions can be reversed, resulting in neuronal excitation instead of inhibition. Such changes have been associated with dramatic shifts in behaviour and sensory p0. 2 dB) over the next few centuries and negligible in the context of the current noise associated with shipping [335]. Marine mammal synopsis Marine mammals will likely be affected by OA indirectly through food web changes, however direct impacts are not anticipated. While noise levels will increase with OA, this increase will not be large enough over the next few centuries to affect animals that rely on underwater sound. DiscussionWe have described the marine ecosystem in the temperate coastal northeast Pacific region at present, and then its response to OA. However, the available information is limited. For some organisms, no OA studies exist (e. g. Geoduck Clam, rockfish, S1 Table). In general there are more studies, with respect to distributions and OA impacts, on species that are easier to observe, are of commercial value (e. g. oysters, S1 Table) or that threaten human health (e. g. harmful algae, S1 Table). The results of studies like these are often adopted when similar research on native organisms is not available (as we have done), limiting the ability to predict responses with confidence. Furthermore, OA is only one aspect of climate change and predicting shifts in marine ecosystems, and the degree to which they are caused by natural or anthropogenic forcing, is a highly complex problem. In the following, we discuss these and other issues that influence our evaluation. number of studies related to OA is growing rapidly (e. g. S1 Table). While experiments in these studies are highly valuable, translating their results into changes in the real world is challenging. For example, wild populations of marine organisms will adapt (both physiologically in a single lifespan and genetically over multiple generations) to their changing environment, which is difficult or impossible to capture in vitro. However, using temperature-dependent adaptation as a guide, Kelly and Hofmann [336] caution that the ability to adapt to changing pH may be limited. In addition, food-web interactions and responses to OA are extremely difficult to predict, but will influence marine populations and could tip the balance from an overall negative impact to a positive one for a given species if a key predator is removed. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the complexity of assessing the impacts of ocean acidification (OA) on marine ecosystems. It states that while OA will affect species and that predicting shifts in ecosystems is complicated, there will be adaptations in wild populations and indirect impacts through food web changes instead of a complete destruction. It highlights that adaptation may be limited, but also suggests that some species might experience a positive outcome under certain conditions, which counters the assertion of total destruction by 2050.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: 0 × 105 S/m and meets the calculated magnitude of the geomagnetic field on the planet’s equator, which is 3. 64 × 10−5 T. But if one takes the electroconductivity of about 1. 0 million cm/m, the magnetic field on the equator will be 6. 98 × 10−5 T, which is much higher than the real magnitude of В0. Therefore, the present range of the planet’s core electroconductivity 0. 1 ÷ 1. 0 million S/m can be constricted to some extent. Besides, the considered model allows to explain the tilt of the magnet axis toward the Earth’s one by the Coriolis forces affecting the electron currents. The preliminary calculation shows that the Coriolis forces can displace the normal from the axis of rotation to the electron circular path plane by about 100 - 110 to the West, which corresponds the modern magnetic axis of Earth. It is important to notice, that the suggested model allows to explain the causes of smallness or absence of magnetic fields of the other planets more correctly. In particular, any cooled planet with a cold metal core can have only a relict magnetic field. 8. 3. 52 × 109 А, see Table 2) because there are electrons in the core with sum mass of 5. 1 × 1019 kg. The latter’s moving cause appearance of the primary toroidal magnetic field, which is spherically asymmetric because of the thermo e. m. f. and the Earth’s inertial forces. The secondary poloidal field is self-generated through the central channel in the toroidal field and is dipole with two oppositely directed magnetic poles. Thermoelectrical currents energy, as the calculations show, is enough not only for generating the Earth’s main dipole magnetic field on its early formation phase, but for maintaining it at the modern level of (3 - 5) × 10−5 T for a long time. Thermoelectrical model of the Earth’s geomagnetic field is a brand new one and it is close enough to the real thermoelectrical processes of Earth. The latter are universal from the physical point of view and proceed inside our planet according to the known physical laws, which do not need any theoretical limitations or additions for the model to function. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding sea turtles and their navigation using the Earth’s magnetic field. Instead, it discusses the thermoelectrical model of the Earth's geomagnetic field and related physical concepts, which are irrelevant to the navigation behavior of sea turtles.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: The majority of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming. [SEP] Text: (21) and (23) into Eq. (25) gives the relationship between ΔT and ΔFCO2:ΔT=ΔFCO24F¯T0. E26 By substituting the numerical values in Table 2, we can estimate that the Earth’s surface temperature has risen by ΔT=0. 88 K as a result of the CO2 increase since 1750. Then, in the new equilibrium state, the surface temperature is T0′=T0+ΔT=288. 9 K and the lapse rate should be –6. 6 × 10–3 K m–1 due to the temperature invariance at the tropopause. Next, the outgoing flux density at the tropopause with the surface temperature T0′ is calculated. This value is close to F¯. The radiative forcing of CO2 is dominant, and the radiative forcings of other greenhouse gases nearly balance with negative radiative forcings (e. g. , of aerosols). As a result, the influence of all radiative forcings is almost equivalent to the influence of CO2. Figure 6 shows the surface temperature increase due to CO2 considering radiative forcing when the atmospheric CO2 concentration increases to twice that in the pre-industrial era. In the future (when the CO2 concentration exceeds 390 ppmv), the surface temperature increase per 20 ppmv CO2 is about 0. 1 K. Figure 6. Surface temperature increase due to the radiative forcing of CO2 when the atmospheric CO2 concentration increases to twice that in the pre-industrial era. Advertisement 4. ConclusionsThe one-dimensional radiative equilibrium model can estimate the radiative forcing and global warming potential of anthropogenic greenhouse gases by using their absorption spectra at Earth’s surface and number densities. Under some approximations, radiative forcing values are calculated higher than the IPCC estimates; CO2, 39%; CH4, 33%; and N2O, 12%. Calculated values of global warming potential are very similar to IPCC estimates. Furthermore, increases in Earth’s surface temperature due to radiative forcing can be easily estimated by the model. 1. This 2. "2013: Science Basis" (2014), M. D. Mastrandrea and S. H. Schneider, "GW-2: Global Warming," Am. J. Phys. 76, 608-614 (2008). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by explaining how radiative forcing from CO2 and other greenhouse gases contributes to increases in Earth's surface temperature. It provides numerical estimates and states that 'the radiative forcing of CO2 is dominant,' which supports the claim that greenhouse gases trap heat and contribute to global warming.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: Ecosystem effects resulting from OA have previously been identified as a key knowledge gap [337]. Furthermore, different life stages, particularly the juvenile stage (e. g. echinoderms), often display increased susceptibility to OA, but the impact of exposure of one life stage to low pH conditions on the subsequent life stages has only rarely been studied (but see [206, 212]). Similarly, even in organisms that have been comparatively well studied, not all life stages have been considered and certainly not within the context of the variability in natural conditions (Fig. 2). Manipulated experiments generally consider present-day atmospheric conditions (∼360–400 μatm) to be the control PCO2 level and all treatments above that to be ‘elevated’. Meanwhile PCO2 varies significantly with depth, and is naturally high in the north Pacific [28]. We quantify ‘elevated’ based on the local PCO2 levels at the depths of the organisms in question (Table 1). The combined effect of coastal upwelling, and local remineralisation of high production [27], results in exceptionally high (and variable) subsurface PCO2 on the outer BC shelf (Fig. 2). In local and connected inshore waters subsurface PCO2 is also high (unpublished data, DI; [6, 31]). Thus, many marine organisms in our region are currently experiencing conditions that are viewed as ‘elevated’ in the literature (Fig. 2; S2 Table). In addition, laboratory treatments often specify environmental conditions (e. g. temperature, PCO2) that do not occur in nature and are unlikely to occur, at least locally (e. g. [31]). Exposure time may also limit the interpretation of results, as there are distinct differences between treatments that are ‘shocked’ and those that are allowed to acclimate (e. g. [87, 248]). Finally, defining the carbon state in seawater is not trivial [10] and requires that at least two of the four carbon parameters (2, pH) be measured. The quality of the measurements and manipulation in the laboratory work cited here is variable. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting the complexities and gaps in knowledge regarding the effects of ocean acidification (OA) on marine ecosystems. It discusses the variability in exposure conditions, the differences in susceptibility among life stages, and the need for more extensive studies. The mention of the local ecosystem's high subsurface PCO2, alongside statements about the variability in experimental conditions not being reflective of natural phenomena, suggests that while OA poses a threat, it does not imply a total destruction of ecosystems by 2050.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: For the first time the considered EMF model in comparison with the magnetohydrodynamo model can give physically and logically reasonable answers to the questions related to the behavior of a geomagnetic field in space and time. In particular, this model lets us explain the cause of the magnetic fields inversion, forecasts the magnitude of the residual (mantle) magnetic field during the polarity reversal and cyclic change of warming and cooling periods, it also clarifies the magnitude of the Earth’s core electroconductivity and structure, allows to use a new and physically justified mechanism for calculating electrical and, indirectly, lithological characteristics of the Solar system planets. The latter, i. e. inversion problem solving, is likely if the magnetic fields of those planets are measures beforehand by spacecraft. For the first time the temperature which the bottom surfaces of the continents and oceans bottom warm up to in case when the core’s thermocurrents move to the lower mantle was calculated using the thermoelectrical model of the Earth’s magnetic field. Nevertheless, noe the considered thermoelectrical model of the Earth’s magnetic field is on its first stage, so this is a protomodel. It is based on the description of a homogeneous structure of a magnetic field, which should be the reason for developing a real heterogeneous model, using differential equations. to Abramovich S. А. for checking mathematical calculations and Proskurnina T. V. for efforts to translate the manuscript to English. The manuscript “Thermoelectric currents of earth’s core generate the earth’s magnetic field” was not published in any magazine and it is not being edited in any editorial office. An 2001. DOI:10. 1088/1755-1315/44/2/022001 I made the manuscript on my own in the University, where I am working. Here is no competing finantial or any other interests of any organization as I did not get any subsidies, grants or ordinary shares. I, A. N. Dmitriev, am the only author of the manuscript and there is no legal claim to me from anyone. The manuscript author, A. N. Dmitriev. Submit or recommend next manuscript to SCIRP and we will provide best service for you: Accepting pre-submission inquiries through Email, Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter, etc. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding sea turtles navigating using the Earth's magnetic field. Instead, it discusses models related to the Earth's magnetic field and various characteristics of the geomagnetic field, which are irrelevant to the navigation behavior of sea turtles. Therefore, the text is categorized as irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Renewable energy sources, like wind and solar power, are being promoted as a way to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. [SEP] Text: > Vol. 3 No. 4, November 2012 Cost and of () Seth Blumsack, John and of Energy and. . DOI: 10. 4236/sgre. 2012. 34041 5,866 Downloads 8,929 Views 315. doi: 10. 4236/sgre. 2012. 34041. 1. integration of renewable electric generation resources, particularly solar and wind, into existing energy production and delivery systems, is considered to be a major technical and economic challenge. Variability of both wind and solar resources introduces additional stochastic components to the operational objective of balancing supply and demand across power control areas on a real-time basis; and presents planning challenges to system operators and generating companies that must make investment portfolio decisions to accommodate increased renewable energy penetration. Integration costs are expected to rise along with penetration levels, with recent reports suggesting costs of $2/MWh to $9/MWh [1] once wind penetration reaches 20% [2]. A number of different operational strategies are possible to achieve large-scale penetration of wind and solar energy. One such strategy would expand the use of frequency regulation and balancing energy services to compensate for unforecasted deviations in wind and solar power output. These so-called ancillary services are currently utilized in large-scale electricity systems to balance unexpected deviations in the supply-demand balance caused by volatile electricity demand or unplanned outages at generation or transmission assets. Such ancillary services can be provided on the supply side or the demand side. While system operators are experienced in procuring and dispatching ancillary services to handle fluctuations in the supply-demand balance, it is less clear whether existing ancillary services, and the various types of markets through which they are procured, are adequate to support the large-scale integration of wind and solar resources while maintaining high reliability and reasonable costs [3]. Wind and solar resources could also self-provide balancing energy by coupling their output with a controllable resource to provide a firm energy schedule to the system operator. The controllable resource essentially provides some amount of “fill-in” power to compensate for the variable resource. This coupling could be contractual, in which the wind or solar resource signs a physical energy purchase contract with a complementary resource; or the coupling could occur through horizontal integration, where a single generation operator manages the output of the variable and controllable resource to provide the firm energy schedule. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the integration of renewable electric generation resources, specifically solar and wind, into existing energy systems. It emphasizes that these renewable sources are seen as major opportunities for balancing supply and demand, which implicitly supports their promotion as means to enhance efficiency and potentially contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The mention of operational strategies to achieve large-scale penetration of wind and solar energy further supports the idea that these energy sources are being actively promoted and developed to address energy needs.