Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Using blockchain makes all supply chain operations immune to theft or fraud. [SEP] Text: To implement the previously defined requirements a set of SCM traceability functions/use cases were defined to be implemented in the Ethereum SC (with the business logic). The SCAs can operate the SCM by calling the SC functionsFootnote 8 (Fig. 2). Architecture workflows for referenced use cases A to G are described in ANNEX 1, use cases H and I are described in ANNEX 2. Fig. 2Proposed functionalityFull size image4. 3 Design aspectsDue to BC’s unique capabilities and features several design aspects and trade-offs must be considered when designing a SCM over BC. The decision to use private/consortium vs. public BC systems will depend on the selected industry use case, its requirement for global public access and will have impacts on the decentralization, the scalability and latency/latency variance of transactions. A public BC like Ethereum is globally accessible, fully decentralized and has higher availability due to the number of nodes. One trade-off of a public BC is that its transactions are expected to have higher latency and latency variance so the scalability aspect is not under control of the participating organizations and the BC code will generally follow a standard that is defined by a distributed improvement proposal scheme. As an example, an operation over Ethereum public BC is expected to take tens of seconds or more, varying much on the load on the system and so the latency is not under control of the SCM participants. This latency and latency variance problem can be mitigated to a few seconds per transaction if a private or consortium BC is used. However, a trade-off of that approach would be to lose some of the global access and availability features. In what regards scalability a private or consortium BC can scale its throughput without having to increase the number of nodes since it is possible for example to specifically configure consensus mechanisms that allow for faster transaction validation. For the use case in analysis in this 4. 4 Proposed architectureThe proposed architecture uses a Ethereum BC SC to implement the already presented use cases. As mentioned, the SCAs interact with the BC using their wallets via Metamask with calls to the SC code using a JavaScript based interface (Web3 APIFootnote 14) (Fig. 3). Fig. 3Proposed architectureFull size imageThe state of the supply chain, all its actors and products are tokenized in Ethereum via the Smart Contract. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the limitations and trade-offs associated with using blockchain for supply chain management. It highlights issues such as higher latency and variance in transaction times in public blockchains like Ethereum, indicating that while blockchain offers unique capabilities, it does not inherently make supply chain operations immune to theft or fraud. Additionally, it suggests that the choice between private and public blockchains involves compromises on features like global access and availability, which can also influence security aspects.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Access to green spaces is linked to increased physical activity. [SEP] Text: Moreover, we know from before that the pandemic led to an increase in mental health problems due to social isolation and disruption of daily routines (von Soest et al. , 2022). Since green spaces have been shown to have a positive impact on mental health by reducing stress and increasing social connection, people may have increasingly turned to green spaces to escape the stresses of the pandemic. We also found that the positive impact of the pandemic on green space use was most prominent in districts with low socioeconomic status. Low socio-economic status neighborhoods were more affected by the negative economic and social impacts of the pandemic (Bessell, 2022; Bonaccorsi et al. , 2020; von Soest et al. , 2022). As people living in these areas experienced higher levels of stress, the increased use of green spaces in these neighborhoods during the pandemic may reflect that green spaces have provided opportunities to reduce stress and improve mental health, social connection, and well-being of the residents. Our study revealed a clear social inequity in green space use, with the highest SES districts displaying nearly equal usage rates of green spaces and non-green spaces. In contrast, low SES districts had significantly more dwells in non-green areas and fewer dwells in the greenest areas. This pattern was evident both before and during the pandemic, but the difference seemed to decline slightly during the pandemic as compared to before the pandemic. This suggests that the pandemic may have had a positive effect on green space inequality by reducing the gap between high and low SES districts. Our study also showed that the COVID-19 pandemic had a more significant impact on green space use in densely populated urban areas, as opposed to districts with lower population density. Specifically, we observed a more substantial decline in the number of visits to non-green areas in high population density urban districts. This finding is consistent with previous research showing greater mobility contraction in urban areas (Bonaccorsi et al. , 2020). This decline in non-green area usage in high population density urban areas could be linked to the higher risk of COVID-19 transmission in densely populated areas, and the following closing of indoor gyms, cinemas, restaurants, and other recreational facilities that are typically located in such areas. Residents in these areas may have been more cautious about activities in settings that typically have low vegetation density such as public built and indoors environments. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text primarily discusses the impact of green spaces on mental health and social connection in the context of the pandemic. While it acknowledges increased use of green spaces during the pandemic, it does not explicitly mention the relationship between green spaces and physical activity. Thus, it does not directly support or contrast with the claim, making it irrelevant.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases influence decision-making and perception. [SEP] Text: p 473–88. Crossref194. Berndsen M, van der Pligt J. Time is on my side: optimism in intertemporal choice. (Amst). 2001;108(2):173–86. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science195. . Extent and determinants of error in doctors’ prognoses in terminally ill patients: prospective cohort study. BMJ. 2000;320(7233):469–72. CrossrefPubMed196. The distinct role of comparative risk perceptions in a breast cancer prevention program. Med. 2011;42(2):262–8. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science197. -P. Prognosis or “curabo effect? ” Physician prediction and patient outcome of surgery for low back pain and sciatica. Spine. 2005;30(12):1448–53. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science198. . Discrepancies between patient and physician estimates for the success of stem cell transplantation. JAMA. 2001;285(8):1034–8. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science199. . Ego bias, reverse ego bias, and physicians’ prognostic. Med. 1991;19(12):1533–9. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science200. Loewenstein G, Prelec D. P2000. p 565–96. Crossref201. . Order of information: impact on perceived level of functional independence. Health Care. 2005;18(4):1–12. CrossrefPubMed202. . Clinical reasoning about new symptoms despite preexisting disease: sources of error and order effects. Fam Med. 1995;27(5):314–20. PubMed203. . Clinical diagnosis and the order of information. Making. 1998;18(4):412–7. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science204. . Order of information affects clinical judgment. J Mak. 1996;9(3):201–11. CrossrefWeb of Science205. . Primacy effects in clinical judgments of contingency. Making. 1988;8(3):216–22. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science206. . How the manner of presentation of data influences older patients in determining their treatment p8. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science207. ’N, Unwin A. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by citing various studies that examine how cognitive biases, such as ego bias and order effects, influence clinical judgment and decision-making among physicians. For example, it mentions 'Ego bias, reverse ego bias, and physicians’ prognostic' and 'Order of information affects clinical judgment,' which directly support the assertion that cognitive biases play a significant role in decision-making and perception.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Using blockchain makes all supply chain operations immune to theft or fraud. [SEP] Text: This proposal uses digital certificates for user and product authentication and so it requires that recognized organizations implement a PKI (to generate digital certificates and provide the chain of trust). In the case of public market products governments and certification organizations are among the best candidates for establishing a PKI for businesses operating on global supply chains. It is possible to have the PKI implemented directly by consortium organizations when the use cases are restricted to specific businesses or industry sectors. This proposal requires that only validated SCAs (the ones which can provide an ID and certificate that match and verifies) can register products into the SC system. The SCA and products certificates are digital certificates that attest of the business identity (e. g. , when registering with national government agency) or attest that the product has unique distinguishing and certified characteristics (such as in the case of PDO (of Origin (1992)) where the products and processes are verified and certified by a selected PDO regulator organization. The importing and retrieval aspects of the SCA and product certificates is performed with the reuse of the Customer (KYC) solution from WalliD adapted for identities such as organizations and products. Details on the and Validation functionality using WalliD KYC (off-chain solution) are described in ANNEX 2. In this proposal the products in the supply chain are referenced by an industry referencing standard, the EPC – Code which is a unique identifier commonly used in supply chains as described in the case of livestock supply chain by Hartley et al. (2014). The supply chain can operate with products without certification (since it is optional to provide them) but the main business value of this proposal should be for products that require authenticity validation. The validation of certificate hashes for both SCA identity and products is performed off-chain by the Manager entity (that includes the role of “Certificate Validator”). Another deciding factor to have certificate validation off chain has to do because it is not performant to execute crypto hashing (validation function) on chain in the current Machine (EVM). The SC Manager (“Certificate Validator”) is also responsible to perform certificate revocation in the cases the SCA or the product must leave the SCM BC. Additionally, SC Manager can also provide a website for SCA actors and consumers to request and view the product certificate given a product EPC. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by explaining that while blockchain technology can provide enhanced security features through digital certificates and a PKI system for validation, it does not guarantee that all operations are immune to theft or fraud. The proposal acknowledges that the supply chain can operate with products without certification, implying that reliance on a certificate does not make the processes completely infallible. The need for validation and the possibility of certificate revocation points to the fact that there are limits to the security measures provided, making the assertion of complete immunity unsubstantiated.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Access to green spaces is linked to increased physical activity. [SEP] Text: The decline in non-green area usage may also reflect the shift to remote work and reduced commuting, which would have decreased the number of people accessing urban areas. This study has several strengths, including the use of nationwide mobility data from over 2 million subscribers, combined with population registry data, satellite data, and daily weather variables to examine the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on green space use in Norway. We used objective measures to identify the number of daily dwells in green spaces, while separating between different categories of activities such as work, staying at home, and non-home/non-work related dwells. This allowed us to capture a comprehensive picture of the impact of the pandemic on green space use across different socio-economic and geographic areas in Norway. However, there are also some limitations that should be acknowledged. Our measure of daily dwells in green spaces did not differentiate between people living in an area and those visiting an area. Therefore, it is possible that some of the increases we observed in green space use were due to an influx of visitors from outside the area, rather than an actual increase in usage by local residents. Additionally, our study focused only on Norway, and it is possible that the results may not be generalizable to other countries or regions with different cultural, socio-economic, and geographical characteristics. Another limitation is that we did not collect data on individual behaviors or attitudes towards green space use during the pandemic. It is possible that other factors beyond the closure of indoor facilities and concerns over COVID-19 transmission contributed to the observed increase in green space use, such as changes in personal p458. doi:10. 1080/14733285. 2021. 1902943 & Beyer, K. M. M. (2022). Greenspace, Inflammation, Cardiovascular Health, and Cancer: A Review and for Greenspace in Cardio-Oncology Research. 19(4). doi:10. 3390/ijerph19042426 Bonaccorsi, G. , Pierri, F. , Cinelli, M. , Flori, A. , Galeazzi, A. , Porcelli, F. ,. . . Quattrociocchi, W. (2020). Economic and social consequences of human mobility restrictions under COVID-19. Proceedings of the of Sciences, 117(27), 15530-15535. . , DeVost, M. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim directly, focusing instead on the impact of COVID-19 on green space usage in Norway. It discusses various factors affecting green space use but does not establish a link between access to these spaces and increased physical activity, making it irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases influence decision-making and perception. [SEP] Text: CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science219. Adjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer: how presentation of recurrence risk influences decision-making. J Clin Oncol. 2003;21(23):4299–305. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science220. Cranney M, Walley T. Same information, different decisions: the influence of evidence on the management of hypertension in the elderly. Gen Pract. 1996;46(412):661–3. PubMedWeb of Science221. . Reconciling population benefits and women’s individual autonomy in mammographic screening: in-depth interviews to explore women’s views about “informed choice. ”. 2005;29(1):69–77. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science222. Fagerlin A, Zikmund-. “If I’m better than average, then I’m ok? ” Comparative information influences beliefs about risk and benefits. Couns. 2007;69(1–3):140–4. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science223. Gyrd-øe J, Nielsen JB. Effects of baseline risk information on social and individual choices. Making. 2002;22(1):71–5. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science224. . Communicating the benefits of chronic preventive therapy: does the format of efficacy data determine patients’ acceptance of treatment? Making. 1995;15(2):152–7. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science225. Impact of presentation of research results on likelihood of prescribing medications to patients with left ventricular dysfunction. Cardiol. 2001;87(2):203–7. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science226. . Effects of communicating social comparison information on risk perceptions for colorectal cancer. J Health Commun. 2006;11(4):391–407. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science227. . The framing effect of relative and absolute risk. J Med. 1993;8(10):543–8. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science228. Misselbrook D, Armstrong D. Patients’ responses to risk information about the benefits of treating hypertension. Gen Pract. 2001;51(465):276–9. PubMedWeb of Science229. . Measured enthusiasm: does the method of reporting trial results alter perceptions of therapeutic effectiveness? Med. 1992;117(11):916–21. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how the presentation of information influences decision-making processes in various health contexts. For example, it mentions studies that explore the impact of the presentation of recurrence risk on decisions made regarding adjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer, as well as how comparative information affects beliefs about risks and benefits. These examples highlight the role that cognitive biases play in shaping perceptions and choices, thereby supporting the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Using blockchain makes all supply chain operations immune to theft or fraud. [SEP] Text: The EPC can then be read from the physical product RFID or QR/Serial code tag using a smartphone with an App our via a specific EPC reader device. After SCA certificate validation the Supply chain management and traceability functionality is provided using the SCA BC addresses via transactions in a trusted and decentralized way with no further validation required. The SCM-SC is deployed in the EVM by the SC Manager which is the owner and ultimate responsible for the security and maintenance of the SC codeFootnote 15 Details on the proposed Contract code is in ANNEX 3. 4. 5 Case study - alimentary PDO use caseAs already mentioned, an example about alimentary supply chain use case was selected to better understand the requirements and correct application of the proposed solution. The selected use case was the production and transformation of certified livestock produce (bovine meat) of the “Carne Mirandesa” – a type of bovine meat that is PDO certified and only produced in the northeast region of Portugal. This PDO is already currently certified using a combination of paper certificates and products tags or stickers that are shipped with the product. From an interview with a producer and retailer 3 document samples were collected: the certificate that links the Government ID of the animal (16 ID) with the PDO ID and certificate of the brand “Mirandesa” (Geneology ID), the transformation identifier that is shipped with the bovine meat that shows the reference to the animal () and the sale point invoice that attests to the purchase of the carcass and served meals with the reference to the batch attested by the a governmental agency (). The unique identifier that is used across the supply chain is the Code (EPC) that is linked with both the and the Genealogy ID (EPC--Genealogy ID). The product certificate to be generated has then to hold these 3 fields in the X509Footnote 17 certificate request as mandatory fields to be certified together with the public key hash of the producer (supplier actor in the SCM). In summary each product will be issued a X509 certificate by the producer. This particular CA chain of trust requires three SCA certificates: one for the root CA (the Government CA), another for the intermediate CA (the PDO association CA) and finally one for the SCA producer. The summaries of the use case data and PKI certificate setup are presented in ANNEX 4 and ANNEX 5. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by detailing a specific example of supply chain management involving the use of certificates and identifiers that are reliant on a combination of technological elements, rather than asserting that blockchain alone provides immunity to theft or fraud. It emphasizes the validation process required for certificate issuance and the roles of various actors in maintaining security. This implies that while blockchain can enhance security, it does not make supply chain operations fully immune to theft or fraud without the necessary checks and balances in place.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Access to green spaces is linked to increased physical activity. [SEP] Text: A. , Duchowny, K. , Riley, A. R. ,. . . Glymour, M. M. (2022). in California by the COVID-19 Pandemic. of Preventive Medicine. doi: Didkan, K. (2021). MODIS/Indices 16-Day L3 Global 250m SIN Grid V061 [Data set]. . Diener, A. , & Mudu, P. (2021). How can vegetation protect us from air pollution? A critical review on green spaces' mitigation abilities for air-borne p8605. doi: Fan, Y. , Das, K. V. , & Chen, Q. (2011). Neighborhood green, social support, physical activity, and stress: Assessing the cumulative impact. Health & Place, 17(6), 1202-1211. doi: Hale, T. , Angrist, N. , Goldszmidt, R. , Kira, B. , Petherick, A. , Phillips, T. ,. . . Tatlow, H. (2021). A global panel database of pandemic policies (-19 Tracker). Behaviour, 5(4), 529-538. doi:10. 1038/s41562-021-01079-8 Hansmann, R. , Hug, S. -M. , & Seeland, K. (2007). Restoration and stress relief through physical activities in forests and parks. & Urban Greening, 6(4), 213-225. doi: Harden, S. R. , Schuurman, N. , Keller, P. , & Lear, S. A. (2022). Associated with Running in Metro Vancouver: A Preliminary Analysis. of 19(21). doi:10. 3390/ijerph192114328 Hofferth, S. L. (2009). Changes in American children's time - 1997 to 2003. 6(1), 26-47. doi:10. 13085/eijtur. 6. 1. 26-47 Larson, L. R. , Szczytko, R. , & Floyd, M. F. (2018). Outdoor Time, Screen Time, and Connection to Nature: Youth? Environment and Behavior, 51(8), 966-991. doi:10. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provides a list of references and data sources related to various studies and articles. However, it does not directly discuss the link between access to green spaces and increased physical activity. Thus, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases influence decision-making and perception. [SEP] Text: Expressing medicine side effects: assessing the effectiveness of absolute risk, relative risk, and number needed to harm, and the provision of baseline risk information. Couns. 2006;63(1–2):89–96. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science240. . Risk communication methods in hip fracture prevention: a randomised trial in primary care. Gen Pract. 2011;61(589):e469–76. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science241. . Does informed consent alter elderly patients’ p30. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science242. . The representativeness heuristic: influence on nurses’ decision making. Res. 2003;16(3):201–4. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science243. Acute coronary syndromes without chest pain, an underdiagnosed and undertreated high-risk group: insights from the global registry of acute coronary events. Chest. 2004;126(2):461–9. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science244. Cioffi J, Markham R. Clinical decision-making by midwives: managing case complexity. J Adv Nurs. 1997;25(2):265–72. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science245. Ferrario CG. Experienced and less-experienced nurses’ diagnostic reasoning: implications for fostering students’ critical thinking. Classif. 2003;14(2):41–52. CrossrefPubMed246. Garb HN. The representativeness and past-behavior heuristics in clinical judgment. Res Pr. 1996;27(3):272–7. CrossrefWeb of Science247. Arkes H, Blumer C. The psychology of sunk cost. Process. 1985;35(1):124–40. CrossrefWeb of Science248. Coleman MD. Sunk cost and commitment to medical treatment. Curr Psychol. 2010;29(2):121–34. CrossrefWeb of Science249. . Rationality in medical treatment decisions: is there a sunk-cost effect? Med. 1999;49(2):215–22. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science250. Braverman JA, Blumenthal-Barby JS. Assessment of the sunk-cost effect in clinical decision-making. Med. 2012;75(1):186–92. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science251. . Patient p71. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing various cognitive biases, such as the representativeness heuristic and the sunk cost effect, which influence clinical decision-making by healthcare professionals. Specifically, it mentions how these biases impact nurses' and midwives' judgment, highlighting that cognitive biases play a significant role in how decisions are made in the medical field.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Using blockchain makes all supply chain operations immune to theft or fraud. [SEP] Text: To streamline the production of X509 certificates the request for product certificates can be automated by an application at the producer side that requires that the producer inputs the triad of X509 attributes that need to be certified (-ID, PDO-ID) and then issues the certificate request and at the CA’s side a backend IT system that issues the X509 certificate after the verification processes have been validated. It should also be noted that as a product is processed in the supply chain its EPC code may change from animal EPC (type SGTIN) to carcass EPC (type SSCC) and carton tag EPC (type SGTIN). However even in this case the proposed solution SmartContract code is capable of maintaining reference to the original certified EPC and its owner SCA and support complete certificate traceability. This EPC code change is also described by GS1 in Hartley and Sundermann (2014) where a livestock traceability proof of concept (PoC) was implemented. In that PoC the EPC codes are read from RFID tags but in that case, they were inserted into a centralized SCM application to provide the required traceability metadata while in this proposal the EPC is stored in BC. As in the PoC in this proposal the EPCs can suffer change due to processing the meat thus the requirement for the previously presented “transform product” function in the SCM SmartContract to keep the EPC and certificate linkFootnote 18. 5 Conclusions and future workAs presented before, we posited and fully described a complex research problem. This complexity stems from two factors, the relative novelty of the technology and the combination of several existing solutions (and WallId certificate storage). This combination allows to propose a solution application for a supply chain when it is imperative to assure the traceability and the authenticity of the products sold over that value chain. 5. 1 Research contribution and solution benefitsThe research contribution of this work is a solution that aims to answer the research problem of providing complete traceability for a supply chain using blockchain. The main benefit of the solution is that it allows for a group of independent participants to implement a decentralized supply chain system with a complete traceability model for certified products. Another benefit is that via the PKI allow for SCAs themselves to import certificates and customers to view them thus providing trust among participants and the end customers. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by explaining the complexities and limitations of using blockchain in supply chain operations. While it discusses the benefits of using blockchain for traceability and authenticity, it does not assert that blockchain makes supply chain operations immune to theft or fraud. Instead, it highlights that even with blockchain implementation, issues like the changing EPC codes and the necessity for certificate linking indicate that blockchain is not a catch-all solution against theft or fraud in supply chains.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Access to green spaces is linked to increased physical activity. [SEP] Text: 1177/0013916518806686 Mackey, K. ,. , Advani, S. M. , Young, S. ,. . . Kansagara, D. (2020). Racial and in COVID-19–Related Infections, Hospitalizations, and Deaths. Annals of Internal Medicine, 174(3), 362-373. doi:10. 7326/M20-6306 Muñoz Sabater, J. (2019). ERA5-Land hourly data from 1981 to present. (C3S) Store (CDS). Musselwhite, C. , Avineri, E. , & Susilo, Y. (2020). Editorial JTH 16 --19 and implications for transport and health. J Transp Health, 16, 100853. doi:10. 1016/j. jth. 2020. 100853 Paull, N. J. , Krix, D. , Torpy, F. R. , & Irga, P. J. (2020). and Temperature? 17(14). doi:10. 3390/ijerph17145084 Pergams, O. R. W. , & Zaradic, P. A. (2008). Evidence for a fundamental and pervasive shift away from nature-based recreation. Proceedings of the of Sciences, 105(7), 2295-2300. doi:10. 1073/pnas. 0709893105 Reid Chassiakos, Y. , Radesky, J. , Christakis, D. , Moreno, M. A. , Cross, C. , Council On, C. ,. . . Swanson, W. S. (2016). Children and Adolescents and Digital Media. Pediatrics, 138(5), e20162593. doi:10. 1542/peds. 2016-2593 Rigolon, A. , Browning, M. H. E. M. , Lee, K. , & Shin, S. (2018). Access to Space in Cities of the Global South: A Review. Urban Science, 2(3). doi:10. 3390/urbansci2030067 Roy, A. , Nelson, T. A. , Fotheringham, A. S. , & Winters, M. (2019). in to Ridership of All Bicyclists. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim about the link between access to green spaces and increased physical activity. It consists mainly of citations from various sources, which focus on different topics such as COVID-19 infections, digital media for children, and urban access issues, and does not provide relevant information regarding green spaces or physical activity.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases influence decision-making and perception. [SEP] Text: Correction 1 Dec 2016: (2016) Correction: Decision-Making: Modelling the Influence of on the Dynamics of Vaccination Coverage. 11(12): e0167842. View correction studies predict that it is not possible to eradicate a disease under voluntary vaccination because of the emergence of non-vaccinating “free-riders” when vaccination coverage increases. A central tenet of this approach is that human behaviour follows an economic model of rational choice. Yet, empirical studies reveal that vaccination decisions do not necessarily maximize individual self-interest. Here we investigate the dynamics of vaccination coverage using an approach that dispenses with payoff maximization and assumes that risk perception results from the interaction between epidemiology and cognitive biases. consider a behaviour-incidence model in which individuals perceive actual epidemiological risks as a function of their opinion of vaccination. As a result of confirmation bias, sceptical individuals (negative opinion) overestimate infection cost while pro-vaccines individuals (positive opinion) overestimate vaccination cost. We considered a feedback between individuals and their environment as individuals could change their opinion, and thus the way they perceive risks, as a function of both the epidemiology and the most common opinion in the population. all parameter values investigated, the infection is never eradicated under voluntary vaccination. For moderately contagious diseases, oscillations in vaccination coverage emerge because individuals process epidemiological information differently depending on their opinion. Conformism does not generate oscillations but slows down the cultural response to epidemiological change. to eradicate vaccine preventable disease emerges from the model because of cognitive biases that maintain heterogeneity in how people perceive risks. Thus, assumptions of economic rationality and payoff maximization are not mandatory for predicting commonly observed dynamics of vaccination coverage. This model shows that alternative notions of rationality, such as that of ecological rationality whereby individuals use simple cognitive heuristics, offer promising new avenues for modelling vaccination behaviour. Citation: (2015) Decision-Making: Modelling the Influence of on the Dynamics of Vaccination Coverage. 10(11): e0142990. Chris T. Bauch, University of : June 16, 2015; Accepted: October 29, 2015; Published: November 23, 2015Copyright: © 2015 Voinson et al. This is an open access 0. 26 [-0. 12; 0. 45]), (ii) the susceptibility to illness (5 studies, r = 0. 24 [0. 15; 0. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how cognitive biases, such as confirmation bias, influence individuals' perceptions and decisions regarding vaccination. It highlights that sceptical individuals overestimate the cost of infection, while pro-vaccine individuals overestimate the cost of vaccination, demonstrating that their decision-making is affected by cognitive biases rather than purely rational considerations. This supports the claim that cognitive biases play a significant role in decision-making and perception.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Using blockchain makes all supply chain operations immune to theft or fraud. [SEP] Text: The proposed architecture simplifies the storage of the certificates by reusing a KYC system (used in banking and credential verification) to both store and validate these certificates. If any certificate fails validation or is revoked (e. g. , expiration) it can be added to a CRL (List) by the CA (as is usual in PKIs) and the SC Manager simply sets an invalid certificate flag in the SC. If a SCA own certificate is revoked it no longer has access to the chain of trust until it provides a valid certificate. If the product certificate is revoked the product token can still be managed in the SCM but the certificates will be shown as expired or invalid to SCAs and customers (allowing the supply chain to operate while the certificate issue is being resolved). During operation, the SCAs have access via the Blockchain to the ownership status, the operations timestamps, the full chain of certificates and the transfer locations (if added) which can be further processed by SCAs own internal Management systems to interoperate with other IT systems (analytics) and optimize the supply chain. 5. 2 LimitationsThe main drawbacks of the solution are its dependency on a PKI (for SCAs and products), a centralized and hierarchical trust model and the dependency on a central entity (Manager) for certificate validation. Regarding the dependency on PKI the minimum requirements are its setup by a national or regional or any trusted authority in a privately owned supply chain and that the SCAs must subscribe to an authentication scheme for their identities and products. Regarding the SC Manager this actor is required to deploy the proposed SmartContract into the Ethereum BC and to be the entity responsible to be the “certificate validator”. A possible alternative to the use of a centralized PKI (and possibly to replace also the SC Manager) would to use a decentralized approach as has been recently proposed with Self-(SSI) and the usage of (DIDs) as defined by W3C (2022). Instead of digital certificates some previous solutions propose the import of scanned paper certificates. This is the case of “origin Chain” implementation, but this seems a stegap approach since such verification is more complex to implement and may require manual intervention to fix misreading or damage to the paper certificates. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting significant limitations of the proposed blockchain solution in supply chain operations. Specifically, it mentions a dependency on a centralized and hierarchical trust model along with a central entity (the SC Manager) for certificate validation, which undermines the claim of blockchain making supply chain operations immune to theft or fraud. Additionally, it addresses the necessity of a PKI setup, indicating that reliance on traditional trust mechanisms exposes the supply chain to vulnerabilities rather than ensuring immunity.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Access to green spaces is linked to increased physical activity. [SEP] Text: Urban Science, 3(2). doi:10. 3390/urbansci3020062 Statistics Norway. (2022). Land use and land cover. Retrieved from Twohig-Bennett, C. , & Jones, A. (2018). The health benefits of the great outdoors: A systematic review and meta-analysis of greenspace exposure and health outcomes. Environmental Research, 166, 628-637. doi: Ulset, V. S. , Bakken, A. , & von Soest, T. (2021). Adolescents' assessments of consequences of the pandemic after one year of COVID-19 restrictions. Tidsskrift for Den norske legeforening. . , Figari, H. , & Nowell, M. (2020). Urban nature in a time of crisis: recreational use of green space increases during the COVID-19 outbreak in Oslo, Norway. Letters, 15(10), 104075. doi:10. 1088/1748-9326/abb396. , Figari, H. , & Nowell, M. S. (2021). Back to nature: Norwegians sustain increased recreational use of urban green space months after the COVID-19 outbreak. Landscape and Urban Planning, 214, 104175. doi: von Soest, T. , Kozák, M. , Rodríguez-Cano, R. , Fluit, D. H. , Cortés-García, L. , Ulset, V. S. ,. . . Bakken, A. (2022). Adolescents’ psychosocial well-being one year after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in Norway. Behaviour, 6(2), 217-228. doi:10. 1038/s41562-021-01255-w Wang, Z. , & Tang, K. (2020). -19: health equity matters. Nature Medicine, 26(4), 458-458. doi:10. 1038/s41591-020-0823-6 Yancy, C. W. (2020). COVID-19 and African Americans. JAMA, 323(19), 1891-1892. doi:10. 1001/jama. 2020. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim about the link between access to green spaces and increased physical activity. Instead, it references various studies and their DOIs without providing any specific conclusions or evidence related to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases influence decision-making and perception. [SEP] Text: 36]) and to a lesser extent, (iii) the severity of the disease (31 studies, r = 0. 16 [-0. 18; 0. 39]) (meta-analysis [12]). In classic behavioural epidemiology, risk perception relates to the prevalence of infected individuals at a given time, either in the general population (non-structured population and homogeneously mixed population) or in a social network [13,14]. This underlying game theory framework considers that individuals make decisions based on an objective evaluation of the epidemiology, computing statistics using a large data size (but see [15–17]). However, this assumption is problematic for at least two reasons. First, human cognition has been demonstrated to be inefficient at dealing with uncertainty and computing probability [10]; rather, individuals may use empirical knowledge based on a small number of cases. Second, risk assessment is likely to be partly independent from infection [1] as it is shaped by a number of psychological and social factors that may lead to an under- or an over-estimation of epidemiological risks, including media coverage [18], salient previous experience [11], belief about contagion [19], family and peers [11,20] and trust in providers, medical professionals and the state [7,21]. To evaluate temporal and spatial variation in vaccine uptake, one must thus refine assumptions of rationality to consider, not only change in epidemiology, but also how the evolved cognition responds to features of the social and epidemiological environments. An alternative to current modelling of vaccination decision-making may come from the consideration of evolutionary-ecological models, focusing on the concept of ecological rationality [9,22]. In this framework, cognitive dispositions are evolved, i. e. decision rules have been selected for, but the resulting behaviour may or may not be adaptive, i. e. maximizing current individual survival and reproductive success. It follows that to understand the processes underlying vaccination decision-making, one focuses on the environment and the cognitive mechanisms underlying decisions rather than health outcomes of decisions. Proponents of ecological rationality argue that humans have evolved heuristics, i. e. simple cognitive rules processing a few pieces of information available from the environment [9]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how human cognition is inefficient at dealing with uncertainty and computing probability, suggesting that decision-making is influenced by cognitive biases. It further indicates that risk assessment is shaped by psychological and social factors, which aligns with the notion that cognitive biases affect how individuals perceive risks and make decisions.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Using blockchain makes all supply chain operations immune to theft or fraud. [SEP] Text: A more technology oriented approach would be the use of IoT devices and RFID tags with digital certificates where all authentication and verification is automated with higher granularity and the added security of a physical security token. An alternative for the SCAs certification-based authorization is to replace it with a simpler although less decentralized and autonomous authentication system (e. g. , LDAP) but this has the drawback of increased complexity and complexifying the security and management aspects in cases of global SCMs. If only a sectorial industry approach is required and the global decentralization and autonomy is not necessary and it would be more advantageous to operate over a consortium BC, with the benefits of lower latencies/latency variances and centralized SCM control. 5. 3 Future workThere remain open points that are left for possible future work and development of a Proof of Concept (PoC). The first open point is that the SC lacks the functionality for all SCAs to add product certificates (currently only suppliers) in the case of transformation of products. Additionally, it is still undefined when to delete product 5481. html60-2006 at: standard at: traceability recommendations at: on the Proposed SCM Functions are available in application protocol for accessing and maintaining distributed directory information services. A computer-network authentication protocol that uses tickets to allow nodes to prove their identity. Metamask documentation. Retrieved from is one example of a hardware Ethereum wallet: is one example of a software Ethereum wallet: API is API that allows to interact with an Ethereum node: more detailed description of the architecture use cases is available in Nacional de Informação e Registo Animal) is the national PortugueseGovernment livestock registry: is a cryptographic standard defined by ITU-T standardization body that defines the format of public key certificates (used in https and electronic signatures): details on use case samples, EPC details, the PKI certificate request and revocation see J, (2021) Impact of blockchain on sustainable supply chain practices. in Business Administration, Jönköping School, University of Jönköping, (2018) Blockchain, Chain of Custody and Trace Elements: of Tracking and in the Gem Industry. Gemmol 36(3):212–227. M, (2017) Global supply chains are about to get better, thanks to blockchain. Rev 13:1–6 1901. 02715. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing alternative technologies and solutions like IoT devices and RFID, which suggest that blockchain is not the only effective means for ensuring security in supply chains. It also highlights the complexity and management issues associated with different systems, implying that blockchain does not automatically eliminate all potential vulnerabilities.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Access to green spaces is linked to increased physical activity. [SEP] Text: Aside from changes in green space use over time, there is evidence from before the pandemic of social inequalities in exposure to nature; specifically, neighborhoods with low socioeconomic status (SES) had less proximity to green spaces compared to those with high SES (17). It is also known that people with low SES experience more mobility restrictions (18). For example, mobility constrictions are more severe in areas with economic inequalities (19), among people with low education and income (20, 21), and among ethnic minorities (22, 23). However, research on how social inequalities in the nationwide use of green spaces might have changed with the pandemic is currently lacking. On the one hand, larger burden of restrictions, lack of access to greenspace, limited resources and a dependence on public transport may have led to less recreational greenspace exposure during the pandemic among those living in less affluent neighborhoods. On the other hand, increased use of home office across all socioeconomic strata may have evened out socioeconomic differences in greenspace use by introducing more flexibility for people in low SES neighborhoods to engage in nature-based recreation. However, very little is known about how the pandemic may have influenced such inequalities in exposure to greenspaces. There may also be differences between densely populated and not so densely populated neighborhoods with respect to use of greenspace, and changes in use of greenspace during the pandemic. In Norway, built-up areas account for only 1. 7% of the land cover, with the remaining land being dominated by forests and mountain ecosystems, which are ideal for outdoor recreation (24). Therefore, even though more than 80% of Norwegians live in densely populated areas, most people have nature close to where they live. However, people living in rural neighborhoods with vast space surrounding them may have been less affected by mobility restrictions than those living in densely populated neighborhoods, meaning the changes in green space use in rural areas during the pandemic may be smaller than the changes observed in densely populated neighborhoods. During the pandemic in Norway, residents were allowed to spend time outdoors if following restrictions on social distancing. The first lockdown in Norway was announced on March 12th, 2020, during which schools, kindergartens, fitness centers, hair salons, restaurants, and similar public spaces were closed, and cultural events and sports gatherings were banned. As of March 13, 2020, a ban on visits to Norway through Norwegian airports was enforced, with exceptions for citizens returning home. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses various social inequalities in exposure to green spaces, particularly in relation to socioeconomic status, mobility restrictions, and the impact of the pandemic on greenspace use. However, it does not directly address the claim regarding the link between access to green spaces and increased physical activity. Instead, it focuses on the accessibility issues and potential changes in greenspace use without providing evidence to support or refute the connection between greenspace access and physical activity levels.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases influence decision-making and perception. [SEP] Text: For the purpose of this paper, which aims to investigate the role of cognitive biases for predicting commonly observed dynamics of vaccination coverage such as the failure to reach herd immunity and oscillations between high and low levels of coverage, we focus on those heuristics or cognitive shortcuts that are likely to allow for heterogeneity and change in opinion about vaccination. In modelling how individuals interpret epidemiological information, we first decided to consider “confirmation bias”, i. e. the propensity to look for evidence supporting pre-existing beliefs while considering disconfirmatory evidence with great scrutiny [23,24]. Confirmation bias has been observed in the context of pertussis vaccination for children: when presented with the same risk-benefit information about vaccination, non-vaccinators became less committed with vaccination, while vaccinators became more committed [25]. The second heuristic we considered is “imitate the majority” or conformism, as the role of peer influence has repeatedly been invoked for understanding vaccination behaviour [7,26,27]. In this paper, we consider a behaviour-incidence model in which opinion formation mediates a feedback between vaccination behaviour and the disease. As compared to previous behaviour-incidence models, our approach does not make use of game theory analysis (see also [28,29]). We first consider that disease incidence and vaccination coverage determine how many people suffer from negative effects, an information that represents epidemiological costs. We then assume that an individual interprets those costs as a function of their opinion of vaccination. Specifically, a sceptical individual will be more likely to overestimate a vaccination cost while a pro-vaccine advocate will more likely to overestimate the cost of infection. It follows that given the same epidemiological information, individuals will vaccinate at different rates depending on their a priori opinion. Finally, we consider that individuals respond to their environment over time as they can change their opinion as a function of both epidemiological costs and the most common opinion in the population (conformism). The model assumes that the population mixes homogenously so that anyone can infect any other individual in the population and the information on epidemiological costs is globally available to everyone through the media. The goal of this study is to investigate how the interaction between human cognition and both the epidemiological and social environments shape the dynamics of vaccination coverage. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by demonstrating how cognitive biases, such as confirmation bias and conformism, affect decision-making and perception regarding vaccination. It explains how individuals interpret epidemiological information differently based on their pre-existing beliefs about vaccines, which influences their likelihood of vaccinating. This illustrates the role of cognitive biases in shaping opinions and decisions concerning vaccination behaviors.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Using blockchain makes all supply chain operations immune to theft or fraud. [SEP] Text: AbstractToday, supply chain finance is a very important topic. Traditional supply chains rely on banks to support the related financing activities and services. With the emergence of blockchain technology, more and more companies in different industries have considered using it to support supply chain finance. In this paper, we study supply chain financing problems in supply chains selling fashionable products. Modeling under the standard newsvendor problem setting with a single manufacturer and a single retailer employing a revenue sharing contract, we develop analytical models for both the traditional and blockchain-supported supply chains. We derive the optimal contracting and quantity decisions in each supply chain with Nash bargaining between the manufacturer and retailer. We analytically show how the revenue sharing contract can coordinate both types of supply chains. We then compare the optimal systems performances between the two supply chains. We prove that the blockchain-supported supply chain incurs a lower level of operational risk than the traditional supply chain. We have shown that if the service fees by banks are sufficiently high, adopting blockchain technology is a mean-risk dominating policy which brings a higher expected profit and a lower risk for the supply chain and its members. For robustness checking, we examine other commonly seen supply chain contracts and alternative risk measures, and analytically reveal that the results remain valid. This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access. Access this 34. 99Month Get 10 units per month Download 39. 95 Price excludes VAT (USA) Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout. Instant access to the full 831. 431. 44. 105. 107. 842. 165. 507. 1629. 91. 29. 475. 229. 7473. 246. 1042. 1860. 152. 2019. 1837. 198. 33. 626. 2421. 96. 641. 1478. 1634. 180. 84. 1823. 236. 106. 117. 146. 34. 2. Table 2 Notation/abbreviation and the respective meaningsFull size table3. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by stating that while blockchain technology can reduce operational risks in supply chains, it does not imply immunity to theft or fraud. The analysis is focused on comparing the performance and risk between traditional and blockchain-supported supply chains, emphasizing that adopting blockchain can lower operational risk rather than completely eliminating it.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Access to green spaces is linked to increased physical activity. [SEP] Text: Furthermore, healthcare professionals working with patients were prohibited from leaving the country, and leisure travel was strongly discouraged for all citizens. However, public transport schedules continued as normal. During the summer of 2020, the restrictions were somewhat eased, but all the restrictions were lifted for the first time on September 21st, 2021. As shown in Figure 1A, there was a sharp increase in the stringency index for the national-level restrictions in March 2020, and this level of restriction was sustained during the study period from January 2019 to November 2021 (with a maximum restriction stringency score of 80). The most prominent increase in the number of new COVID-19 cases occurred during the fall of 2020, and this number reached a peak during the fall of 2021, with 2,485 new cases of COVID-19 per 100,000 inhabitants recorded in one day. We therefore ask: Did the COVID-19 pandemic and associated social distancing measures result in increased usage of greenspaces, and if so, did such changes vary by neighborhood socioeconomic characteristics and population density? Considering the above research, we hypothesize that 1) the number of dwells (i. e. , visits) in green spaces may have increased during the COVID-19 lockdown compared to the previous year, even after controlling for the possible confounding effects of weather conditions, neighborhood population density, neighborhood SES, and public and school holidays. Moreover, we hypothesize that 2) social inequalities in the use of green space may have increased during the COVID-19 pandemic, with a lesser increase in green space exposure in neighborhoods characterized by low education, low household income, and a larger proportion of immigrants. Finally, we hypothesize that 3) changes in mobility in green space during the pandemic may have been more pronounced in urban areas compared to rural areas. We used daily aggregated mobile tracking data from more than 2 million cell phone subscribers in 14,331 geographical grids across Norway, population registry data on sociodemographic factors, and remote sensing (Vegetation Index) to examine whether the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic and the associated restriction policies affected the nationwide recreational use of green spaces. MethodsStudy area and data structure Norway is a country in North-with a population of about 5. 5 million people, of which 82. 4% live in densely populated areas. Norway has a total land area of 323,782 km2, of which 1. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is largely focused on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and related restrictions on the use of green spaces, as well as discussing various socio-demographic factors that influence this usage. It does not provide direct evidence or insights into the broader relationship between access to green spaces and physical activity levels, thus making it irrelevant to the claim that links green spaces with increased physical activity.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases influence decision-making and perception. [SEP] Text: Then, given the same epidemiological information on costs, individuals with different opinions vaccinate at different rates. We considered that pro-vaccines individuals give more weight to the role of infection cost in their decision process, while sceptics give more weight to the vaccination cost (due to confirmation bias). Thus, while pro-vaccines individuals always take up vaccines more quickly than sceptics, the difference between them in how rapidly they take up vaccination is considered to be the highest for levels of vaccination coverage that are either low (high infection cost) or high (high vaccination cost). Finally, individuals can change their opinion as a function of both the epidemiology and the most common opinion in the population. The full model The structure (Fig 1). We considered the case of a single contagious disease, which does not increase the death rate, but which causes negative side effects for infected individuals. Our goal here is not to study a disease in particular but to provide general insights with regard to the effect of opinion on the dynamics of infection and vaccination coverage. We used a compartmental epidemiological model with births and deaths [30] in which the population is divided into 4 compartments: the number of susceptible (S), the number of infected (I), the number of immune through vaccination (Rv) and the number of immune through natural immunization (Rg). A susceptible individual becomes infected at the rate β (the transmission rate) and vaccinates (transits from compartment S to Rv) at the rate θ. Individuals give births to susceptible individuals at the rate b and each individual can die at the rate d = b, so that the population remains of constant size. Then, for each compartment, the population is divided into 2 subgroups, with individuals having either a positive opinion of vaccination (pro-vaccines individuals, subscript p) or a negative opinion (sceptical individuals, subscript n). The formation of the opinion and the decision to vaccinate are two separated processes that both depend on the environment. Individuals can change their opinion during their lifetime, and given their opinion at a given time, they decide to get vaccinated or not. At any given time, the total recalled number of individuals having suffered negative side effects from becoming infected or vaccinated constitute a globally available information, which will be used to calculate the epidemiological costs CI and CV. The parameters (Table 1). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by illustrating how different opinions about vaccination, influenced by cognitive biases such as confirmation bias, affect individuals' decision-making regarding vaccination rates. It describes how pro-vaccine individuals weigh the costs of infection differently compared to skeptics, thereby demonstrating that cognitive biases indeed play a role in shaping decision-making and perception about vaccines.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Blockchain can instantly resolve all delays and errors in global shipping. [SEP] Text: However, understanding that the present case differs from previous ones can alter the intuitive mode of decision-making, making it more analytical and evidence-based (Mishra et al. 2015). Consequently, managers should update their knowledge and decision-making assumptions through evidence (Vlajcic et al. 2019). Decision-making based on the analysis of real-time data is indeed significant for companies (García-Magariño et al. 2020). However, the management of big data is not an easy task for the shipping industry (Perera and Czachorowski 2019). It is hindered by the integration of information and a lack of transparency (Jain 2018). Decision-making is largely the responsibility of company directors (Lafarre and Van der Elst 2018), and until now, managers have simultaneously been the beneficiaries and bearers of the privilege and burden of information access and strategic decision-making (et al. 2018). Although this restricted privilege has political value (McCook 2018), it complicates execution and results in agency problems (Lafarre and Van der Elst 2018). Blockchain technology in decision-makingDecision-making is being increasingly supported by artificial intelligence and autonomous systems (Calvaresi et al. 2019). A decentralized system (e. g. , blockchain) helps to address agency and coordination problems by offering flexibility when sharing information (Perera and Czachorowski 2019). It enables decentralized, fast, and transparent sharing, solves problems of communication inadequacy, and makes decision-making simpler and quicker (Lafarre and Van der Elst 2018; Tsiulin et al. 2020). Decisions based on blockchain technology are also executed much faster than conventional approaches (McCook 2018). For example, the use of smart contracts offers an automated mode of decision-making based on predetermined parameters agreed upon by actors (et al. 2018). Accordingly, shipping industry players are increasingly becoming convinced of the effectiveness of collaboration and collective decision-making for their sustained growth (Diordiiev 2018). Nevertheless, cooperation among parties involved in shipping transactions remains complex (Jain 2018), and extensive collaboration often encounters difficulties regarding issues of privacy, security, and confidence (Yang et al. 2019). Currently, some innovative collaborative decision-making methods are being used by industry participants (et al. 2018). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting that while blockchain can facilitate faster decision-making and enhance transparency in the shipping industry, it also acknowledges the complexity and difficulties in cooperation among parties involved in shipping transactions. It states that issues of privacy, security, and confidence complicate extensive collaboration and that the management of big data is not easy for the shipping industry, implying that blockchain alone cannot instantly resolve all delays and errors.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Access to green spaces is linked to increased physical activity. [SEP] Text: 7% is built-up areas and 3. 5% is agricultural land. The remaining land area is covered by forests (37. 6%), grassland/heathland (37. 4%), bare rock (7. 4%), inland waters (6. 2%), wetland (5. 3%), and permanent snow and glaciers (0. 8%) (24). Norway is geographically divided into 356 municipalities and 1,550 smaller neighborhoods (administrative units that are used by the municipalities and regional authorities for statistical analysis and planning purposes). For this study, the neighborhoods were, in turn, subdivided into geographical grids ranging from 500 m x 500 m to 64,000 m x 64,000 m. Each neighborhood contained an average of 8. 3 grids. Daily recreational dwells We obtained aggregated mobility data regarding daily dwells from the Norwegian telephone company Telia, which has approximately 2 million users. All mobile phones registered to Telia’s network were tracked, using signal triangulation to locate the mobile phone in space, and the data were further modeled to represent the whole Norwegian population as closely as possible. To maintain anonymity, the mobile company was in control of the data anonymization. Additionally, activity was only registered if there were five or more mobile phone subscribers in a grid within a specified period. For this study, daily interval data from January 1, 2019, to November 1, 2022, were collated, and the “daily recreational dwells” in a grid were defined as the number of mobile phones stationary within a grid cell for at least a 20 min duration per day. If the mobile phone was stationary in a location between 09. 00 and 17. 00, the dwell was categorized as a work dwell. If the mobile phone was stationary in a location overnight, the dwell was categorized as a home dwell. For this study, all the dwells that were not categorized as either a work or home dwell were categorized as a recreational dwell. In areas with low mobility, the grids were made larger to maintain the anonymity of the cell phone users. Out of the 14,331 grids, the grid sizes included 500 m x 500 m (28. 6 %), 1,000 m x 1,000 m (18. 19%), 2,000 m x 2,000 m (16. 0%), 4,000 m x 4,000 m (16. 5%), 8,000 m x 8,000 m (11. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is mainly descriptive of geographical and methodological aspects related to land use and data collection in Norway, without directly addressing the claim about green spaces and physical activity. It does not provide any evidence or analysis linking access to green spaces with physical activity levels.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases influence decision-making and perception. [SEP] Text: While individuals have access to the same epidemiological information CI and CV, the perception of those costs and the subsequent vaccination behaviour is modified by an individual opinion because of a confirmation bias. Confirmation bias is introduced with μ, the weight given to the cost of infection and μ′, the weight given to the cost of vaccination. During the vaccination decision-making process, individuals with a positive opinion of vaccines give more weight to the infection cost () while individuals with a negative opinion give more weight to the vaccination cost (). The rate of opinion change: A pro-vaccine individual will become a sceptic at the rate Ω and a sceptic will become a pro-vaccine individual at the rate Ω′. ωp→n and ωn→p indicate the maximum rates at which an individual changes opinion; Υp→n and Υn→p indicate resistance to opinion change, which is a function of the costs of infection and vaccination (CI and CV); cp and cn indicate the conformity functions, which are non linear frequency-dependent functions, as modelled by [32]. F and Ng indicate the number of pro-vaccines and sceptical individuals in the entire population denoted N; D is the conformity coefficient. The more common is a given opinion, the more often it is adopted. The parameter time unit: It is calibrated in relation to the birth and death rates. We generally set the birth and death rates at the value 1 which, in the case of human populations, could correspond to a time unit of the order of a year or ten years. The dynamic. The dynamic of the system can be described by the following set of ordinary differential equations: Nested models The full model described above combines five elements: (1) the characterization of individuals by their epidemiological status (SIR model); (2) the characterization of individuals by their opinion; (3) a globally available information on the infection and vaccination costs; (4) the interpretation of epidemiological costs as a function of opinion through confirmation bias and (5) the transmission of opinion through conformism. To evaluate the significance of each element in shaping the dynamics of infection and vaccination coverage, we broke down the full model into several nested models differing by 1 element at a time. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by explaining how confirmation bias affects individuals' perceptions during the vaccination decision-making process. It illustrates that individuals' opinions modify how they weigh the costs associated with infection and vaccination, thus influencing their behavior and decisions related to vaccination.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Blockchain can instantly resolve all delays and errors in global shipping. [SEP] Text: The main advantage of blockchain is related to its utility for disseminating reliable data to different parties, thus contributing to decreasing operation costs and improving collaboration (Bai et al. 2020). Role of blockchain in the shipping industryInformation asymmetry is a noteworthy problem in the shipping industry, partly because the generated information is often used by different parties (Mattila et al. 2016). However, some parties do not create useful data, resulting in information gaps (Mattila et al. 2016). Blockchain technology helps shipping industry third parties, such as banks, freight forwarders, and agents, overcome this problem (Jugović et al. 2019). Data cannot be edited or deleted from a blockchain, and they are secure and independent of any single computer node. Thus, the need for administration is eliminated (Jain 2018). The initial purpose of blockchain technology was to provide confidential information on financial transactions without interference from third parties (Jović et al. 2019). The fact that a blockchain eradicates the role of third parties makes the technology comparable to and compatible with the internet (et al. 2018). In this respect, blockchain technology may contribute to the so-called emancipation of organizations (Mattila et al. 2016). Overall, the utilization of effective technologies to reduce the required documentation would be extremely beneficial to the maritime sector (Jain 2018). However, this sector has been conservative in regard to the adoption of innovative technologies (Filom and 2020), leading to complications (Green et al. 2020). Consequently, the application of blockchain technology to the shipping industry remains a challenge (Jabbar and Bjørn 2018). Thus far, the technology has not been widely adopted in shipping operations (Diordiiev 2018). It should be emphasized that the shipping industry, although a conservative sector, has successfully adopted new technologies in the past (Jugović et al. 2019) with the first fully automated ocean-going vessel anticipated to be in operation by 2030 (Diordiiev 2018). High-technology vessels are equipped with modern systems that use the Internet of Things, a technology that can be used in conjunction with blockchain to store and disseminate data (Green et al. 2020). Moreover, considering that shipping operations currently do not often include innovative elements, the maritime industry is fertile ground for the application of digital-technology systems, e. g. , smart vessels, fleets, and global logistics (Jović et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting that although blockchain technology has advantages for the shipping industry, such as decreasing operational costs and improving collaboration by providing reliable data, it also emphasizes challenges in its adoption. Specifically, the text states that the shipping sector has been conservative regarding the adoption of innovative technologies, leading to complications. It mentions that the application of blockchain remains a challenge and that the technology has not been widely adopted in shipping operations. This indicates that blockchain cannot instantly resolve all delays and errors in global shipping as suggested in the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Access to green spaces is linked to increased physical activity. [SEP] Text: 9%), 16,000 m x 16,000 m (3. 7%), 32,000 m x 32,000 m (0. 69%), and 64,000 m x 64,000 m (0. 18%). Overall, the signal quality was good, but on some days, there was a drop in the number of signals compared to the baseline, which could indicate that there were problems with the mobile network infrastructure. This occurred for 13 days in 2019, 14 days in 2020, and 9 days in 2021. However, the drops in network signal were not persistent over time and were spatially random and, thus, did not confound our statistical models. Green space The density of green space was defined using the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) (25), which is a widely used remote sensing index that quantifies the normalized difference between visible and near-infrared reflectance and serves as a proxy for vegetation cover. We used data from the Spectroradiometer (MODIS) (MOD13Q1) Version 6. 1 (26). Data were collected every 16 days at 250 m x 250 m spatial resolution, and the algorithm chose the best available pixel value from the 16 day acquisition period based on the following criteria: low cloud cover, a low view angle, and the highest NDVI value. We calculated the median score between January 1, 2019, and January 1, 2020. The NDVI index scores ranged from −1 to 1 and were aggregated to the mobility data grid by calculating the mean NDVI value within each grid cell. Weather data We gathered ERA–- data (27) regarding the snow depth, solar radiation, wind speed, and temperature for each grid with mobility information, and these weather data were collected at daily intervals from January 1, 2019, until November 1, 2021. ERA5-Land is a reanalysis satellite dataset that provides a view of the changes in land variables over several decades at a high resolution. Specifically, the snow depth was defined as the average snow thickness on the ground (excluding snow on the canopy) in meters. The surface solar radiation was defined as the amount of solar radiation (also known as shortwave radiation) reaching the surface of the Earth in a certain area. Data on this variable were collected at daily intervals, and the units of surface solar radiation are joules per square meter (J m−2). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding the link between access to green spaces and increased physical activity. Instead, it provides information about data collection methods related to green space density and weather data without making any connections to physical activity levels.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases influence decision-making and perception. [SEP] Text: When the reproductive rate of the disease is large (R0 >4), the negative opinion of vaccination disappears and vaccination coverage, while reaching high levels, does not reach herd immunity. This is because the infection spreads too quickly. More generally, four dynamics can be observed and a1 to a3 represent their limits which can be moved depending of the values of δv considered. Download: PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageFig 3. Confirmation bias, conformism and the emergence of oscillations in vaccination coverage. The emergence of oscillations (o) is depicted as a function of an infection’s reproductive rate (R0) and the rate of negative side effects from vaccination (δv). The emergence of oscillations is contingent on the inclusion of confirmation bias but not conformism and is observed for intermediate values of R0. Three models are considered: Model 3 (without either confirmation bias or conformism); Model 4 (including confirmation bias) and Model 5 (including both confirmation bias and conformism). If no oscillations emerge, three dynamics can be noted for the distribution of opinions of vaccination: (i) coexistence of 2 opinions with a greater number of individuals with a positive opinion (+), (ii) coexistence of 2 opinions with a greater number of individuals with a negative opinion (-), (iii) all individuals have a positive opinion (*). The models are analysed for 2 different generation times (birth (b) = death (d) = 1 and 0. 5) and for different values of the rate of negative side effects from infection (δI). 1 million iterations were run with a time step of 0. 0001 which correspond to 100 unit of time. Download: PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageFig 4. Conformism and oscillations in vaccination coverage. The evolution of the number of infected (thin line) and (thick line) vaccinated individuals is depicted. Conformism (illustrated by Model 5) increases the amplitude of oscillations and slows down the rate at which alternative opinions of vaccination alternate. The situation is indicated for infections that are moderately infectious (with a reproductive ratio (R0) varying from 3 to 5) and with the rate of negative side effects from the vaccination (δV) varying from 0. 5 to 2. What is the role of R0 for the dynamics of vaccination coverage? [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the presence of cognitive biases, specifically confirmation bias and conformism, and how they influence the dynamics of vaccination coverage. The mention that 'the emergence of oscillations is contingent on the inclusion of confirmation bias' demonstrates how cognitive biases can affect public opinion and decision-making regarding vaccination. This directly relates to the claim that cognitive biases influence decision-making and perception.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Blockchain technology will make manual labor in the supply chain industry obsolete. [SEP] Text: Among these technologies, blockchain provides a promising future and allows the supply chain to provide better visibility, transparency, and acuity of transactions throughout the entire process [4]. The blockchain technology that powers cryptocurrency has caught the attention of businesses, especially those in supply chain management. A 2017 study indicated that nearly 62% of supply chain executives claimed to have engaged with blockchain technology [5]. Although blockchain-based applications in the supply chain are still in their early stages, we believe this technology will significantly remodel the supply chain system [6, 7, 8]. Analysts forecast that blockchain technology can help supply chain management gain one-third improvement in most of its common processes [9]. A blockchain network is as a distributed ledger—transactions are contained in blocks that are linked together in chronological order to form a tamper-proof chain, which is usually stored in all network nodes [10, 11]. As such, blockchain technology provides a means to create tamper-proof logs of business activities and transactions [12]. Transaction data are immutable because they cannot be tampered with once they are distributed, accepted, and validated by network consensus and stored in the blocks [13]. By eliminating intermediaries to achieve trust among all stakeholders, efficiency improves and cost is reduced for the entire supply chain. Despite the general acceptance that blockchain technology facilitates faster, more easily auditable interactions and allows for the exchange of immutable data among supply chain partners [14], it will take time for this technology to be adopted and to revolutionize the supply chain. Currently, most applications of blockchain are conceptual expositions, and empirical evidence on the implementation of it is limited [15]. Furthermore, few studies have been conducted on the challenges of deploying blockchain in the supply chain, such as organizational readiness, technical expertise, scalability, and compatibility with existing systems. Therefore, this study will provide a systematic analysis of how blockchain technology fits in the supply chain network and discuss potential challenges with its implementation. Advertisement 2. Supply chain2. 1 OverviewSupply chain encompasses the end-to-end flow, including the physical and correlated data flow of raw material, products, information, and money. It plays a unique and critical role in businesses and determines the performance of organizations. Supply chain manages or is involved in sourcing, procurement, manufacturing, distribution, and logistics, and, thus, affects speed-to-market, the cost of a product, service perception, and capital requirements in businesses [16]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the current state and implications of blockchain technology in the supply chain industry. It notes that while blockchain has promising potential to improve transparency, efficiency, and cost reduction, it states that 'it will take time for this technology to be adopted and to revolutionize the supply chain.' This suggests that blockchain will not make manual labor obsolete in the immediate future, as the text highlights ongoing challenges in the implementation of blockchain technology, such as organizational readiness and technical expertise.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Access to green spaces is linked to increased physical activity. [SEP] Text: The temperature was defined as the air temperature at 2 m above the surface of the land, sea, or inland waters. The windspeed was defined as the square root of the sum of the squared eastward component of the 10 m wind and the squared northward component of the 10 m wind based on the following equation: windspeed = sqrt([U × U] + [V × V]). The eastward (U component) and northward (V component) wind vector components represent the horizontal speed of the air moving toward the east and north, respectively, at a height of 10 m above the surface of the Earth, and the units of these values are meters per second. Pandemic- and time-related variables The dataset included data for a total of 1,036 days ranging from January 1, 2019, to November 1, 2021. As an indication of the onset and duration of the COVID-19 pandemic, a dummy variable coded as 0 or 1 was used to indicate, respectively, the pre- and post-lockdown periods in Norway (January 1, 2019, to March 11, 2020, and September 25, 2021, to November 1, 2021) and the time after the onset of the first lockdown from March 12, 2020, until September 24, 2021, when the restrictions were lifted. We also created a dummy variable for school holidays at the municipality level, which was coded as 1 if a date was during a school holiday and coded as 0 if not. Public holidays were also dummy coded in the same way as for school holidays. Seasonal trends in activity were modeled by including dummy variables that were coded as 1 to indicate days that fell within the winter (December, January, February, March), summer (June, July, August), or autumn (September, October, November) seasons. Neighborhood SES and population density Data regarding the neighborhood SES and population density were obtained from Statistics Norway. Population density. We calculated the neighborhood population density by dividing the neighborhood population by the land area to determine the number of people living in each square kilometer of the neighborhood. Due to the non-normal distribution and right skew of the resulting population density variable, this variable was stratified based on tertiles into low (<18. 2 people/km2), medium (>18. 2 people/km2 and <270 people/km2), and high (>270 people/km2) population density categories. SES. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses definitions and measurements of air temperature, windspeed, pandemic-related variables, and neighborhood demographics, without addressing anything related to green spaces or physical activity.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases influence decision-making and perception. [SEP] Text: Various dynamics are observed depending on the reproductive rate of the infection because the value of R0 influences the distribution of opinions in the population. For infections that spread very quickly in the population (R0 >> 1), only “pro-vaccines” individuals persist. For intermediate values of R0, a stable coexistence of “sceptics” and “pro-vaccine” individuals is observed with three possible cases: (1) at equilibrium, a negative opinion of vaccination is more frequent; (2) at equilibrium, a positive opinion of vaccination is more frequent; (3) which opinion is the most frequent oscillates over time (Fig 2). Oscillations are only observed when the cost of vaccination (CV) is high enough, i. e. when a sufficient number of individuals are vaccinated and suffer from side effects. The influence of other parameters on the emergence of oscillations is depicted Fig 3. The emergence of oscillations in vaccination coverage The role of cognition (confirmation bias and conformism). We compared nested models to disentangle the role of confirmation bias and conformism on the distribution of opinions towards vaccination and subsequently, the emergence of oscillations in vaccination coverage. We found that oscillations can only emerge when both negative and positive opinions of vaccination coexist in the population and when a confirmation bias is included (Models 4 & 5, see also S1 Fig for various values of μp, μn and μp/μn). To confirm the significance of confirmation bias, we reran the full model while excluding confirmation bias (μp = μn): oscillations do not appear (S2 Fig). Then we found that conformism does not affect the emergence of oscillations in the dynamics of infection and vaccination coverage (Fig 3). Rather, oscillations become less frequent and more ample because conformism increases the time necessary for the least frequent opinion to invade the population (Fig 4). To confirm that conformism does not produce oscillations, we compared the results obtained for the full model with and without biased social transmission (D = 0. 7 and D = 0, respectively): when confirmation bias is considered oscillations do appear in both situations (S2 Fig). The role of epidemiology (vaccination and infection costs). Once opinion heterogeneity and confirmation bias are considered, the emergence of oscillations in vaccination coverage depends on the ratio between the costs of vaccination and infection. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the role of cognitive biases, specifically confirmation bias, in influencing the distribution of opinions towards vaccination. It indicates that oscillations in vaccination coverage can emerge only when both positive and negative opinions exist in the population and highlights that confirmation bias contributes significantly to this dynamic. This supports the idea that cognitive biases play a crucial role in decision-making and perception regarding vaccination.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Blockchain technology will make manual labor in the supply chain industry obsolete. [SEP] Text: Skuchain: A blockchain network that is designed for enterprise supply chains in global trade [45]. It creates a zero-knowledge collaborative platform for global supply chains and provides precise control in inventory procurement across all partners, reducing friction and the costs of supply chain processes. Sweetbridge: A blockchain-based application that enables real-time financial systems to assure transactional data are trustworthy between different parties. It integrates trusted identity, smart legal contracts, smart accounting, and payment rails into a transaction for all parties to see in real-time [46]. Zervnetwork: A decentralized trading platform based on blockchain technology. It aims to provide frictionless transactions among all participants within the defense industry [47]. IOTA: An open-source distributed ledger that is being built to power the future of the Internet of Things (IoT) with feeless microtransactions and data integrity for machines [48]. Advertisement 4. Chain integrationIn recent years, Blockchain technology has been recognized as a critical technology with inherent capabilities to dramatically improve supply chain efficiency [49, 50, 51]. A study from Eye for transport stated that more than 16% of the 300 companies surveyed agree that data interchange, tracking, and visibility are the foremost reasons to deploy blockchain technology in the supply chain [52]. However, we discuss the benefits, challenges, and risks of integrating blockchain technology in the supply chain and introduce several pilot initiatives below. 4. 1 Benefits to supply chainThe adaptation of blockchain technology can significantly alleviate or even eliminate the aforementioned problems in today’s supply chain. Blockchain technology empowers the supply chain with improved efficacy, efficiency, and transparency and reduced transactional time and cost. There are many ways blockchain technology benefits the supply chain:Advanced traceability: With the adoption of blockchain technology, traceability within the supply chain is greatly improved; it produces a fully auditable trail of all items flowing through the network. Combined with IoT-based devices, such as RFID technology, a blockchain-enabled supply chain can automatically collect the item-level data of massive quantities of products in real-time. Additionally, this information is associated with timestamps and collection locations to form an audit trail that is complete, accurate, and easy-to-access, from the product’s origin to the customer. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by detailing the benefits of blockchain technology in the supply chain, suggesting that while it improves efficiency and transparency, it does not imply that manual labor will become obsolete. Instead, it states that blockchain enhances traceability and efficiency in supply chains with human oversight still being necessary, as the technology aims to address existing problems rather than completely replace human labor.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Access to green spaces is linked to increased physical activity. [SEP] Text: Firstly, the proportion of residents in each neighborhood who had completed graduate-level higher education was assessed. Data regarding the educational attainment of the population was collected by examining the proportion of residents aged 16 years or older who had completed their education at an educational institution as of December 31, 2020. Secondly, the median income for households was determined by summing all the monetary income (in [NOK], both taxable and tax-exempt) of the people who lived permanently in the same dwelling as of December 31, 2020. All the amounts were calculated as constant prices based on the previous year’s consumer price index. Thirdly, the population proportion of immigrants in a neighborhood was calculated using the number of immigrants and Norwegian-born children to immigrant parents as of December 31, 2020. Immigrants were defined as individuals born abroad to two foreign-born parents and four foreign-born grandparents. In accordance with an already established approach (28), the education level, median income, and immigrant population proportion were z-standardized and averaged to create a composite neighborhood-level SES variable. the hierarchical structure of the data comprised daily observations from geographical grids (grid-days) nested within these geographical grids, which were, in turn, nested within the corresponding neighborhoods, multilevel mixed linear analyses with random intercepts were applied. Grid-level variables regarding the snow depth, surface solar radiation, temperature, and windspeed were included as control variables to control for the possible confounding effects of weather on dwells. The effects of the onset of the pandemic on daily dwells over and above the seasonal trends in weather variables were modeled. To model the effect of the pandemic on activity in green spaces, an interaction term between the COVID-19 pandemic period dummy and NDVI was included in the analysis. To examine differences between rural and urban areas, as well as to examine any social inequalities in the use of green spaces, we specified three-way cross-level interaction terms of NDVI and the COVID-19 pandemic dummy to neighborhood SES and population density. To manage the count data, we used the natural logarithms of the dependent variable in all the analyses. Logarithmic transformation has an additional advantage, as it allows for the interpretation of the estimated effects from dummy variables in terms of percentages (29). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the methods for data collection on educational attainment, income, and demographics without directly relating to access to green spaces or physical activity. The analysis focuses on socio-economic status and environmental factors but does not mention physical activity levels in relation to green spaces.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases influence decision-making and perception. [SEP] Text: For instance, in the case of an infection with a low epidemic potential (R0 is low) and few individuals infected, both the infection cost and the vaccination cost are low because only a few individuals suffer negative side effects. Consequently, vaccination coverage remains low and stable over time. For infections with a high reproductive rate (R0 is high), the infection invades the population more rapidly than vaccination behaviour. Thus, the cost of infection is always higher than the cost of vaccination. Similarly, when the cost of vaccination is low, oscillations do not emerge because the cost of vaccination is always lower than that of infection. DiscussionDespite evidence that vaccines are safe, vaccine scares are repeatedly observed in various populations and cause the resurgence of diseases otherwise near eradication (e. g. measles). A key factor in driving vaccination decisions is how epidemiological parameters, in particular the costs associated with infection and vaccination, are perceived. Although perception may be based on epidemiological information, the success of anti-vaccination movements also suggests that individuals vary in the way they interpret scientific evidence. People differ in their opinion of vaccination because of their past experience with immunization, their trust in the state or in the medical profession, the opinion of their parents or the most common opinion in their cultural environment, irrespective of a cost-benefit analysis based on the epidemiology [34]. In this paper, we deviate from previous theoretical studies positing that individuals are economic agents maximizing their health [4,5,35–39] to consider that individuals make decisions as result of cognitive biases. Specifically, we developed a behaviour-incidence model in which individuals can be pro-vaccines or sceptical, their opinion influencing how the costs of infection and vaccination are perceived. Overall, the model predicts the commonly observed dynamics of vaccination coverage, i. e. the failure to reach herd immunity as well as oscillations in vaccination coverage (periods of increase in vaccination coverage followed by disease outbreaks). The results have implications for considering how the interaction between human cognition and the epidemiology may lead to difficulties in reaching and/or maintaining population level immunity. The emergence of oscillations D’Onofrio et al. [40] showed that assuming a memory of the information related to the costs of infection and vaccination can generate oscillations in a SIR model without cognitive bias. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how individuals make vaccination decisions based on cognitive biases rather than purely on cost-benefit analyses. It highlights that cognition influences the perception of epidemiological information and that people have diverse opinions about vaccination influenced by factors such as trust and past experiences. This indicates that cognitive biases play a significant role in decision-making processes regarding vaccination.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Blockchain technology will make manual labor in the supply chain industry obsolete. [SEP] Text: Furthermore, thanks to the immutability of blockchain data and the digital signatures required to confirm information ownership, data stored in this chain offers a secure and full history of any item in the entire supply chain. In the event of a compromised product, improved traceability enables the source of the issue to be identified more quickly, which reduces the cost of recalling products and improves disruption resolution between stakeholders. Advanced traceability gives stakeholders and customers more confidence in a product’s authenticity and quality. Improved transparency: Blockchain technology provides reliable identity management in the supply chain [53] by enabling all parties to know who is performing what actions, at what time, and where. This information is stored and shared in distributed ledgers that can be conveniently accessed by involved and authenticated stakeholders. Through the integration of physical and digital flows across the supply chain, the connectivity of multiple trading partners will improve [54, 55]. Therefore, a blockchain-enabled supply chain with its transparent and complete inventory of product flow helps businesses make better forecasts and decisions. Additionally, improved transparency serves as a powerful tool for fighting fraud and counterfeiting. Boosted efficiency: One of the primary motivations for implementing blockchain technology is to replace the outdated, paper-heavy processes in place today. As one of the benefits of digitalization, the logically centralized data ledger provides up-to-date local copies to all stakeholders within the network. All transactions are committed and immediately validated by all involved parties, and data are automatically synchronized to each party’s local copy. Blockchain technology makes it safer and faster to maintain the quality of transactions and associated data [56] by reducing human error and eliminating the need for third-party intermediaries and for local ledger reconciliation. Finally, the autonomous and self-executing blockchain-based smart contract replaces tedious processes and improves flexibility in supply chain management. Greater security: It is nearly impossible to impact blockchain technology through hacking attacks like those that threaten centralized databases of intermediaries (e. g. , banks). It is structured so that when there is an attempted hack into a specific block, all preceding blocks in the entire history must also be tampered with. Thus, blockchain provides a more secure way to maintain a log of business activities and transactions [12]. Enhanced trust: The transactions of a blockchain-based supply chain are created and recorded based on peer-to-peer interaction that can be trusted by the associated digital signatures. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by emphasizing that blockchain technology is aimed at improving processes and efficiency within the supply chain, rather than making manual labor obsolete. It discusses improvements in traceability, transparency, efficiency, and security, which suggest a future where human roles are enhanced rather than replaced. The mention of 'replacing the outdated, paper-heavy processes' implies that while blockchain may change how work is done, it doesn't necessarily eliminate manual labor, but rather transforms its nature.