Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: Understanding the functioning of these forests and their responses to global change is therefore an urgent need for ecology, climate science and conservation. The study of stable isotopes in tropical tree rings offers unique opportunities to quantify how these trees respond to their environment, and can fill an important void in many tropical areas where the availability of climate data is limited or of short duration. In fact, stable isotopes in tree rings are essentially the only tools available to obtain cost-effective, high-resolution, long-term retrospective data on tree physiology and the environmental conditions affecting it. Currently, stable isotopes research in the tropics has mainly focused on (i) quantifying the effects of rising atmospheric CO2 and climate change on tree physiology, (ii) identifying the drivers of growth variability and reconstruction of past climate, and (iii) the identification of annual rings in wood lacking anatomically distinct growth boundaries. The main findings of the available studies are shortly summarized for each isotope in Table 22. 1. The application of stable isotopes continues to expand. New applications are numerous, and include the potential use of stable isotopes for timber tracing and to identify illegally logged wood (e. g. Vlam et al. 2018), to benchmark the predictions of dynamic global vegetation models (e. g. Zuidema et al. 2018), and for reconstructions of atmospheric CO2 and δ13C values (using trees with a C4 photosynthetic pathway; Ben et al. 2017). Although tropical isotope research has centered on three stable isotopes (C, O, and to a lesser degree N), advances in analytical techniques and reductions in associated costs continue to broaden these analyses. This not only includes the analyses of other stable isotopes, but also the analyses of the intramolecular distribution of isotopes. For example, the position of 18O in the glucose moiety in cellulose can be used to separate source water from leaf water enrichment effects (Sternberg 2009; Waterhouse et al. 2013), and the position of 2H was related to the oxygenation/carboxylation ratio that depends on Ci (Ehlers et al. 2015). These techniques can be used to infer more details about environmental effects on tropical trees than is possible with bulk isotopic ratios as done so far. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by describing how stable isotopes in tree rings can be used to quantify tree responses to environmental conditions, including climate changes. It emphasizes that tree rings provide important data for reconstructing past climatic conditions and understanding ecological responses, which implies that tree rings are indeed valuable for studying environmental disturbances.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Higher resolution imagery may show that the actual number is higher, but we rejected all the cases, which had some uncertainties due to the resolution of the Magellan data, and studied only the structures larger than 12 km. This survey finds that there are polygonal impact craters on Venus and explores their possibilities and limitations as tools to analyse the properties of the planet’s surface/crust/lithosphere as well as the impact process itself. This study also corroborates our previous results, that PICs are not an anomaly among craters but a separate class of all impact craters, regardless of geological context and possibly regardless of crater diameter. We compared the polygonal impact craters (≥12 km in diameter) to “normal”-shaped craters by using different characteristics defined by Herrick et al. (1997). Those properties were diameter, altitude, geologic setting, morphologic class, floor reflectance, degradation state, and wall terracing. We found that the only characteristic, which makes difference between “normal” and polygonal impact craters is the diameter. It is obvious that relative abundance of polygonal impact craters increases among the smaller craters compared to larger craters. In the cases of other studied characteristics no differences were found. Thus, it seems to be evident that the smaller crater sizes favour the formation of straight rim segments, but otherwise these craters show similar characteristics to other craters. Our study shows that there are regions where the straight segments of the crater rims most clearly follow the orientations of the dominant tectonic features of the area. However, there is not a large population of impact craters on Venus, like there is on Mars, so we cannot use a statistically reliable population of PICs on Venus to determine their correlation with the local tectonics, which may be generally much more complex than on Mars. However, the regions where the orientations of straight rim segments follow the tectonic alignments close to the craters, indicate a possible correlation between crater formation and tectonics around the crater. Thus, the orientations of crater walls may reflect––at least in some places––the local tectonics and zones of weakness also on Venus and could thus tell us about the directions and distributions of fractures or other zones of weakness in the crust. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim regarding Moon craters or their implications for solar system history. Instead, it discusses polygonal impact craters on Venus and their properties, limitations, and possible correlations with tectonics. Therefore, the text is irrelevant to the claim about Moon impact craters.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: Figures AbstractAgriculture is undergoing important changes in order to meet sustainable soil management with respect to biodiversity (namely agroecology). Within this context, alternative solutions to mineral fertilizers such as agricultural biostimulants are thus promoted and being developed. The mechanisms by which some soil biostimulants sustain soil biological functioning and indirectly increase crop yields are still unknown. Our goal in the present study was to demonstrate if and to what extent the application of a soil biostimulant affects the soil heterotrophic microbial communities that are involved in organic matter decomposition and carbon mineralization. We hypothesized that the addition of a biostimulant results in changes in the composition and in the biomass of soil microbial communities. This in turn increases the mineralization of the organic matter derived from crop residues. We performed soil microcosm experiments with the addition of crop residues and a biostimulant, and we monitored the organic carbon (orgC) mineralization and the microbial biomass, along with the microbial community composition by sequencing 16S rRNA gene and ITS amplicons. The addition of a soil biostimulant caused a pH neutralizing effect and simultaneous enhancement of the orgC mineralization of crop residues (+ 400 μg orgC g-1 dry soil) and microbial biomass (+ 60 μg orgC g-1 dry soil) that were linked to changes in the soil microbial communities. Our findings suggest that the soil carbon mineralization enhancement in the presence of the biostimulant was supported by the specific recruitment of soil bacteria and fungi. Whereas archaea remained stable, several operational taxonomic units (OTUs) of indigenous soil bacteria and fungi were enriched and affiliated with known microbial decomposers such as Cytophagaceae, Phaselicystis sp. , Verrucomicrobia, Pseudomonas sp. , Ramicandelaber sp. , and Mortierella sp. , resulting in lower soil microbial richness and diversity. Citation: (2018) Specific recruitment of soil bacteria and fungi decomposers following a biostimulant application increased crop residues mineralization. 13(12): e0209089. Pastor Nunes, University of : July 12, 2018; Accepted: November 29, 2018; Published: December 31, 2018Copyright: © 2018 Hellequin et al. This is an open access 4693. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing evidence that certain soil bacteria and fungi, which are noted decomposers, are involved in organic matter decomposition and carbon mineralization. It states that the application of a soil biostimulant results in the enhancement of organic carbon mineralization and microbial biomass, indicating that these microorganisms play a crucial role in recycling organic matter and contributing to soil fertility. The findings suggest a specific recruitment of microbial decomposers, which aligns well with the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: AbstractStable carbon isotopes in tree-rings are not only useful to derive climatic information of the past. Based on the isotope fractionations during uptake and fixation of CO2, physiological information can be retrieved, namely the ratio of assimilation to stomatal conductance, which is termed the intrinsic water-use efficiency (iWUE). This crucial plant physiological trait varies among species and environments and is characteristic of how much water is lost from leaves for a certain carbon gain. iWUE is of great importance at the scale of individual plants because it can determine plant performance and survival. iWUE also contributes how closely canopy- or ecosystem-scale carbon and water fluxes are coupled or divergent, which has implications for understanding biogeochemical cycling. Carbon isotopes in tree-rings can be used to estimate how iWUE of trees has changed in the past, e. g. due to increasing CO2, nitrogen or other factors. Accordingly, many applications have explored this tool for various forest ecosystems across the globe, often reporting a strong increase in iWUE over the twentieth century. Explicit comparisons of tree-ring iWUE to growth-data obtained from the same rings can help distinguish among strategies plants employ under various environmental impacts, like increasing CO2, light limitation, drought or too much water. In this 17. 2 for more details). The regulation of stomatal opening is one of the most intricate and essential functions of terrestrial plants, as water-limited systems demand that stomatal behavior simultaneously constrain water loss while assuring sufficient carbon gain for survival. This makes iWUE such a useful property to know, although the actual water-use efficiency (WUE), defined as the ratio of transpiration to assimilation, may even be more relevant in determining how plants respond to dry conditions. The analysis of carbon isotope values of organic matter is nowadays an efficient method to determine iWUE that integrates minute-to-minute signals in leaves over the days to months it may take to synthesize plant tissues. The isotopic composition can be determined efficiently via on-line coupling of elemental analysers to isotope-ratio mass-spectrometers (see Chap. 7), which has allowed for scientists to produce much larger data sets compared to studies taking place 20 years ago. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing how stable carbon isotopes in tree-rings can derive climatic information and physiological data, providing insight into environmental impacts on trees. It highlights instances where tree-ring iWUE has been analyzed in relation to environmental factors like increased CO2, drought, and other disturbances, suggesting that tree rings are indeed valuable for studying past environmental changes.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: This study showed that there is a randomly distributed population of impact craters with at least two straight rim segments on Venus and they do show some correlations with local tectonics and that the diameter affects their abundance. However, the study also raised some questions: What is the reason for the diameter-dependence? What the craters can actually tell about the tectonics––both visible on the surface and hidden beneath the uppermost layer? These are the questions, which will be attempted to answer in the forthcoming research, in which every PIC and their surrounding tectonics and relative ages will be studied in detail to define how and to what extent tectonic features control the crater formation process on Venus and what these craters could tell us about the directions and distributions of fractures or other zones of weakness in the crust. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the Moon or the impact craters on it. Instead, it discusses a study related to impact craters on Venus, including their characteristics and correlation with tectonics. Since the content focuses on Venus and the questions surrounding that research rather than the Moon's craters, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: Funding: This research was supported by: the "Agence nationale de réglementation des télécommunications (ANRT) through an industrial CIFRE convention between the BIO3G Company and the University of Rennes (Number of convention N° 20160091, E. Hellequin) and by the CBB Capbiotek program of the Brittany region ( F. Binet, C. Monard, O. Klarzynski. The Bio3G SAS provided support in the form of salary for Eve Hellequin. did the study design and the soil samples collection. Eve Hellequin, Cécile Monard and Françoise Binet took part in the analyses, the data collection and exploitation and the paper writing. Competing interests: The Bio3G SAS provided support in the form of salaries for Eve Hellequin. did the study design and the soil samples collection. Eve Hellequin, Cécile Monard and Françoise Binet took part in the analyses, the data collection and exploitation and the paper writing. I declare that this does not alter our adherence to policies on sharing data and materials. Unité Mixte de Recherche 6553 èmes, Biodiversité, Evolution Université de Rennes 1 – Campus de Beaulieu - 35042 Tél. +(33) 02 99 28 6146 – Fax: +(33) 02 99 28 14 25 1. IntroductionConcurrently with the ecological transition, agricultural practices attempt to reduce their dependence on chemicals and to sustain natural resources while producing healthy food. The field of agroecology is developing and is looking for integrative crop management systems that take the ecological processes sustained by the high biodiversity found in soils into account [1]. Soil plays an essential role in the functioning of terrestrial ecosystems and soil microorganisms are involved in up to 90% of the ongoing processes [2]. Microorganisms are involved in various biogeochemical cycles and therefore contribute to soil fertility [3,4], providing mineral nutrients to crops through the mineralization of soil organic matter (SOM) [5]. Because this ecosystem service of SOM mineralization relies mainly on bacteria, fungi and archaea [6], changes in either their diversity, abundance or activity may significantly impact the subsequent supply of nutrients to plants. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by stating that 'microorganisms are involved in various biogeochemical cycles and therefore contribute to soil fertility,' and it specifically mentions that 'this ecosystem service of SOM mineralization relies mainly on bacteria, fungi and archaea.' This indicates that decomposers like fungi and bacteria play a crucial role in recycling organic matter, directly supporting the claim about enriching soil fertility.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: Given the advancements in isotopic theory and technical ability, it is not surprising that the Farquhar-model has found increasingly widespread application in tree-ring studies e. g. (Marshall and Monserud 1996; Penuelas et al. 2011; Waterhouse et al. 2004). In turn, many investigators have realized that the doors have been flung open to reveal retrospective insights on how physiological processes have shifted in response to myriad changing environmental conditions. Particularly important avenues of research for projecting carbon-climate-vegetation feedbacks within the biosphere have addressed how forests have responded to ongoing climate change and increasing CO2 in the atmosphere (Saurer et al. 2014, Voelker et al. 2016). Although numerous studies of how plants have responded to CO2, temperature, drought and other factors have been carried out in greenhouses or growth chambers, such studies of small plants may not be representative of how adult trees in natural environments may have responded. Where tree longevity and size have made experimentation extraordinarily difficult, the use of tree-ring stable carbon isotopes can provide a more realistic view by studying trees in their natural habitat and over their entire life-cycle. Intriguingly, information on iWUE can be retrieved for times when CO2-concentration was different, for instance on the pre-industrial level of 280 ppm compared to current levels that exceed 400 ppm. We can thus obtain information on the ratio between A and g of trees living at times when scientific inquiry into plant function was in its infancy and when leaf gas-exchange equipment did not even exist. Stable carbon isotopes of tree-ring cellulose can therefore provide accurately and absolutely dated archives of annual and intra-annual past plant physiological responses to climate, CO2 and other environmental drivers that are unavailable from experimental methods and other paleoecological data sources. Despite the power of pairing carbon isotope measurements and theory with tree-rings, some limitations should also be mentioned (Sect. 17. 3). As iWUE only resolves the ratio of A to g, it often remains elusive, which of the two changed and to what degree. An increase in iWUE, for instance, can theoretically be caused by higher A or by lower g or a combination of the two. Furthermore, it should always be considered that iWUE is a different metric than the actual WUE (see Sect. 17. 3 for details). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing how advancements in tree-ring studies, particularly through the use of stable carbon isotopes, provide insights into historical environmental responses, including climate change and CO2 fluctuations. It asserts that tree-ring analyses can yield accurate records of past physiological responses to environmental drivers, which implies their applicability in studying various historical environmental disturbances.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: However, there have been far fewer studies assessing crater statistics to include complex morphologic characteristics such as excavation shape and to explore profile morphologies and reconstruction effects for edge-intersected craters. Thus, in this paper, based on digital elevation model (DEM) data and photographs from Chang’E-1, China’s first lunar probe, we address this shortfall by developing a set of parameters for the morphometric characterization of impact craters, establishing a method to estimate the positional relationships and relative impacting orders of impact craters, and characterizing the profile morphologies of two edge-intersected impact craters. 2 of Cratersfor and Exploration at the Lunar and Planetary Institute, published a database of impact craters, which was initially created as part of the Program at the Lunar and in 2008 ( The database consists of 8,713 craters, of which about 1,644 have constrained ages. In this database, 51 physical characteristics of the craters are listed. The main attributes include: name, diameter, depth, location, volume, central peak height and diameter, width of central peak, ray length, and age. Many of these properties can be expanded in detail, e. g. , the diameter can include simple surface diameter, crater instant diameter, complex crater instant diameter, floor diameter, etc. Of these attributes, only the crater diameter, depth, positional coordinates, central peak height and age of strata are obtained from maps and imagery; other indices are calculated by theoretical predictions. Of the 8,713 impact craters identified, only 1,644 have an age attribute assigned and in some cases there are multiple geological ages proposed for the same impact crater. Thus, the statistical properties of these named craters can be used to characterize the basic features of lunar craters (Fig. 1). Fig. 1Histogram of lunar crater attributesFull size image From Fig. 1, we find that 36 % of lunar crater diameters are <10 km, and that as diameters increase the abundance of lunar craters gradually decreases. Against crater depth, with the enlargement of impact crater diameter crater, average depth of craters in each level increase gradually. This rule is also a more prominent appearance in central peak height and crater diameter. The central peak height of craters is generally < 1 km and the percent of average central height in craters >60 km almost reaches to 30 %. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim regarding the impact craters on the Moon providing insights into the history of the solar system. Instead, it focuses on the lack of studies that consider morphologic characteristics of craters and provides specific details on a database of lunar craters without linking that information to historical insights about the solar system. Therefore, it is deemed irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: The manipulation of soil microbiota has thus emerged as a new practice in agriculture with respect to the ecological transition that promote sustainable soils. The use of agricultural biostimulants (BS) that are intended to stimulate and regulate soil microorganisms could be promoted as an alternative solution to the use of mineral fertilizers, which are more expensive [7–9]. According to the can either be applied directly on the plants to favor their growth and development or on the soil in order to induce changes in its physico-chemical and microbial properties, and indirectly enhance plant functioning [10]. While most of the available studies focused on the direct beneficial effects of BS applied on plants [11,12], knowledge about the impact of BS on soil is limited and the mechanisms improving soil biological functioning and crop yields are still misunderstood. Among the various biostimulant products applied on the soil, different effects can be observed, such as changes in the soil physico-chemical properties that may either stimulate the growth of beneficial fungi [13], reduce the development of pathogen organisms [14], or increase the microbial activity by providing compounds directly used by soil microorganisms and/or plants such as peptides, amino acids, polysaccharides, humic acids and phytohormones [15,16]. However, there is still a clear need to identify their way of action to optimize their formulations and uses. To improve our understanding about the effects of soil BS input on the soil biota, we focused our research on a soil inoculant formulation (namely, soil biostimulant (BS) throughout the text), intended to be applied directly on crop residues in agricultural soils to improve their decay and mineralization, thereby preserving the fertility of the soil. Several studies on crop residue management have indicated that the decomposition process was strongly influenced by the quality (e. g. type of residue, biochemical composition), or placement of residues in the soil depending on tillage practices (e. g. surface/incorporated) [17–19]. Thereby, in the current context of reducing the input of mineral fertilizers, crop residue management is important in order to ensure sustainable crop production and to provide a constant pool of nutrients for the crops. In the present study, our aim was to determine the responses of soil bacteria, fungi and archaea to the addition of the BS in the soil. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the role of soil microorganisms, including fungi and bacteria, in improving soil biological functioning and crop yields. It mentions that soil biostimulants can enhance microbial activity and promote conditions that are beneficial for soil decomposers, thereby preserving soil fertility and supporting sustainable agricultural practices.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: In contrast, WUE at the ecosystem level determined as GPP/ET at eddy-covariance-based ecosystem flux tower monitoring sites across showed that WUE at the ecosystem scale has been increasing much faster than that recorded by tree-ring isotope-based iWUE (Guerrieri et al. 2019). The authors speculated that reasons for this discrepancy could be different time-scales of the two approaches or fluxes not accounted for, like non-transpirational water fluxes and contribution from understory vegetation. In a study using satellite-based NPP estimates, a relationship between tree-ring δ13C values of an Eastern US network of sites and NPP was found, rather than with WUE (Levesque et al. 2019). Finally, at a site in California, Keen (2019) showed that intra-annual tree-ring derived iWUE responded positively to VPD, whereas ecosystem-level WUE responded negatively to VPD, and this opposing VPD-response drove a negative response between iWUE and WUE during a range of wet to historically severe drought conditions. Together, these studies demonstrate that tree-ring carbon isotopes can contain valuable information on large-scale fluxes, but that more studies are needed to determine under what conditions iWUE is related to ecosystem-scale WUE (Seibt et al. 2008). A complication of interpreting tree growth patterns and iWUE-estimation that needs careful consideration are the effects of age, tree size or height (Brienen et al. 2017; McDowell et al. 2011). Dendrochronologists have conventionally used empirical detrending methods to remove age-related growth patterns from ring-width data prior to assessing climate-sensitivity of tree growth. In recent decades it has become popular among ecologists and ecophysiologists to convert tree-ring data to basal area increment (BAI) or BAI/basal area for a given year, often putatively as a means to avoid the need to detrend ring-width data that decline with tree size and age. However, the often-stated or implied contention that these variables overcome the need for detrending is a misconception. For example, BAI tends to increase with tree size, but trees with initially greater BAI tend to have steeper positive relationships between BAI and tree age (Voelker et al. 2008). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing various studies that demonstrate the use of tree-ring data in ecological analyses, particularly in assessing growth responses to environmental variables such as vapor pressure deficit (VPD) and their relationships with ecosystem-level water use efficiency (WUE) and net primary productivity (NPP). Specifically, it highlights that tree-ring isotopes can provide significant insights into large-scale fluxes and environmental responses, which counters the notion that tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or disturbances.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: In contrast, craters that formed mostly in Eratosthenian and Copernicus times when Dp/R > 0. 207 and r < 1. 032 are relatively younger. Therefore, Dp/R ≤ 0. 207 and r ≥ 1. 032 can be treated as a relative age boundary for the impact craters. Fig. 6Relationship between relative age and Dp/R, rFull size image In series of older impact craters, there are just four younger impact craters, which is similar to that presented in series of younger impact craters. This phenomenon is likely the result of determining relative age based on a set of superposition criteria that do not include all 36 of the impact craters in Table 4. According to the geological age released by the IAU, these eight craters are still regarded as the corresponding series divided by the critical point Dp/R is 0. 207, where r value is 1. 032. 4. 4 of Edge-Intersected CratersEdge-intersected relationships between impact craters are the main types of combined craters being found. They can provide much information for use with determinations of relative impact order. Because younger craters superimpose on older impact craters in these cases, the edges of the older ones are destroyed. From the DEM and remote sensing map, the size, shape and superposition relationship of two craters can be clearly shown; however, floor elevation and the extent of morphologic reconstruction for a pair of craters cannot be acquired directly. Therefore, terrain analysis, including elevation profiling can provide useful constraints for geomorphologic research (Grosse et al. 2012). From study area, four groups of typical edge-intersected impact craters were chosen for profile analysis (Fig. 7). The left side of each profile is the younger crater and the right side is the older one. It can be seen from DEM data that there are great differences in size, radius ratio and overlaid forms among the four groups. The younger crater is superimposed on the external rim of the older crater in groups I and III. However, the younger one is superimposed on the inside rim of the older one in group II, and the younger one is almost superimposed on the rim of the older one in group IV. Fig. 7Profile analyses of typical edge-intersected impact craters. Notes: I Colombo (15. 1°S, 45. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim regarding the impact craters on the Moon providing insights into the history of the solar system. Instead, it discusses the relative age and geological features of certain craters without making a clear connection to broader historical insights of the solar system. Thus, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: Our objectives were to (i) quantify the effect of BS addition on the soil microbial biomass and OM mineralization, (ii) determine changes in the composition of the soil microbial communities (iii) identify whether microbial changes concern indigenous soil microorganisms or specific microorganisms that are naturally present in the BS. We hypothesized that changes in both the composition and biomass of the microbial communities induced by the BS will increase the mineralization of the OM derived from crop residues. Using soil microcosm incubations, we monitored the microbial biomass carbon as well as the organic carbon (orgC) mineralization and we analyzed the changes in microbial diversity following the addition of a BS by using a 16S rRNA gene and ITS amplicon sequencing approach. We demonstrated in this study that an agricultural soil BS increased the orgC mineralization and induced subtle changes in the composition of the microbial communities, in particular by sustaining certain microbial decomposers. 2. Materials and methods 2. 1 Soil and biostimulant characteristics Topsoil (0–20 cm depth) that was used as starting material for conducting the lab incubation experiment was collected on a private agricultural site dedicated to experimental studies (the site of La Jaillière, France, 47°27'06. 3"N/0°57'58. 4"W) for which no specific permission was required. Also, this study did not involve endangered or protected species. The soil was analyzed for its physico-chemical characteristics according to Carter and Gregorich [20] and had a pHwater of 6. 7, a texture composed of 57% silt, 26. 3% sand and 15% clay and it contained 1. 7% of OM (i. e. 0. 99% orgC) and 0. 09% of total nitrogen (Ntot). The biostimulant developed and provided for free by the company BIO3G is in solid form, composed of natural raw materials without any additives, and is intended for application on crop residues before they are buried in the soil. It had a pHwater of 6. 25 ± 0. 0845 and it contained 35% of OM (i. e. 20. 4% orgC) and 2. 15% of total N as well as several labile organic compounds (low-weight molecules) such as amino acids. More information on the composition of the BS is given in Table 1. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by explaining that the addition of a biostimulant (BS) to soil results in increased organic carbon (orgC) mineralization and supports certain microbial decomposers. This aligns with the idea that decomposers, such as fungi and bacteria, play a role in recycling organic matter and subsequently enriching soil fertility. The research highlights the effect of microbial changes on the mineralization of organic matter derived from crop residues, thus underlining the relationship between microbial activity and soil enrichment.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: Likewise, BAI/basal area has a negative trend with age that is particularly steep when trees are young and BAI/basal area is nearer to one. Hence, it should be obvious that use of BAI or BAI/basal area may include biases in tree growth trends and should not be compared when groups of trees differ in age or size. Overall, BAI or BAI/basal area methods may not be an improvement over conventional detrending methods for comparison to stable isotopes in the same tree rings, particularly for studies of trees that are young (i. e. , <100 years in age). The carbon isotopes of tree-rings can change as trees grow, and depending somewhat on species and stand density, foliage is displayed at further distances from soil water sources as they get taller and form larger branches (McDowell et al. 2011). This change in stature results in a greater hydrostatic gradient in water potential and higher hydraulic resistance that impacts canopy-level stomatal conductance and thus iWUE. Such long-term trends owing to changes in tree stature can be mistakenly attributed to climate and/or CO2, so care should be taken to minimize the potential for this bias by considering it in assessments of carbon isotope responses to long-term environmental change (Brienen et al. 2017). If neglected, this bias could result in an over-estimation of how CO2 modifies leaf gas exchange. Several studies have, however, highlighted that δ13C mainly has age-related trends in the first few decades, forming a so-called juvenile trend, but not later on (Gagen et al. 2007; McCarroll and Loader 2004). This problem can be avoided by simply not using the juvenile phase or by applying appropriate corrections if known for a specific species or site (Vadeboncoeur et al. 2020). The age-trend can well be tested for trees growing in pre-industrial times where there are no strong variations in CO2-concentration by aligning them according their cambial age. This was done in a recent study with coastal redwood trees where indeed the age-trend was strongest in the first few decades of their life, but extended several centuries before finally levelling off (Voelker et al. 2018) (Fig. 17. 1). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the variability in carbon isotopes and tree growth trends as they relate to age, species, and environmental factors, suggesting that tree rings, when analyzed correctly, can provide valuable insights into long-term environmental changes. Specifically, the mention of studies that take into account age-related trends and the impact of environmental factors on tree growth indicates that tree rings can indeed be relevant for understanding past conditions, which undermines the claim that they cannot be used for studying such disturbances.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Mass movement caused by structural factors is widespread on the Moon, and it is an important geological effect to consider when reconstructing impact craters and other landform morphologic types (Muthch 1972), thus in these cases, the relative impact order of craters was difficult to infer. 5. 2 Characteristics of Edge-Craters on Impact Developmentcrater (22. 0°S, 4. 0°W) as an example, the profile map shows the morphometric characteristics of the crater with a small crater superimposed on its left side in Fig. 8 left. The floor of the superimposed small impact crater is deeper than that of the larger one. Using the centroid of the floor of Thebit crater as a central point, a symmetric line to the right profile was drawn. This line, the dotted one in Fig. 8 right, can be regarded as the original left side of the profile from the older crater. It can be seen that the small superimposed crater impacted at the rim of the bigger crater, and the height of the rim was altered by about 4,500 m. Furthermore, two-third of the left part of the Thebit crater is eroded, which implies that the depth of the secondary impact craters may have close relations with the crater size, impacting velocity, change of rock density after the first impact and degree of erosion. This aspect is worth further investigation. Fig. 8Terrain estimating recovery for Thebit craterFull size image From the above profile analysis, the superposition of different edge-intersected types is seen to make a big difference in lunar morphology transformations. Such differences should be connected to the overlaid position and diameters ratios of two craters. Also, the results may be affected by the impacting angle, the thickness of the lunar regolith, and/or the age gap between two impact craters. The characteristics of superimposed craters can help quantitatively understand the effects of impact on crater development based on the morphologic parameters of edge-intersected craters as previously mentioned. We use parameters such as Ra/Rb, L/Rb and Ea/Eb to quantitatively analyze the correlations among them. According to Table 3, Ra/Rb, L/Rb as a variable, and Ea/Eb as a dependent variable can be used as part of a multiple linear regression analysis procedure supported by SPSS software. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text primarily focuses on the geological analysis of impact craters and the morphological characteristics related to superimposed craters on the Moon. While it discusses methods of analyzing craters, it does not directly address how these craters provide insights into the broader history of the solar system. Therefore, it is considered irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: microbial biomass values obtained for the SS treatment were in agreement with another study that reported values ranging from 67 μg C g-1 dry soil to 166 μg C g-1 dry soil in 13 agricultural soils [38], while the C microbial biomass of the SBS treatment was closer to that observed in forest soils (215 μg C g-1 dry soil) but lower than those in grassland soils (250 μg C g-1 dry soil) [39]. Download: PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageFig 1. Cumulative kinetics of the orgC mineralization and microbial biomass carbon in, the control soil (CS), the soil with straw (SS) and the soil with straw and the BS (SBS). The error bars indicate the standard errors of the C-CO2 emission mean values (n = 3). At each sampling date, the data indicated with different letters are significantly different according to the Kruskal-Wallis test. The microbial biomass carbon in the control soil was not determined (ND). The C-CO2 emission and microbial biomass are “expressed” per g of dry soil (d. w. ). The (*) correspond to significantly different values of microbial biomass carbon. hypothesized, mineralization and microbial biomass were increased in the presence of the BS. These results are in agreement with the results of other studies with regards to the effect of other BS on soil microorganisms. Chen et al. [40,41] demonstrated that soil amendments using two BS stimulated the microbial activity and increased the decomposition rates of straw more than two-fold compared to that in the control soil, as well as the mineralization of soil OM. Another study by Tejada et al. [42] demonstrated that four BS applied on the soil, which differed in terms of their chemical composition, enhanced the soil enzymatic activities and increased both the fungal and bacterial biomass by two or three fold, depending on the BS. The increases in the C-CO2 emissions and the enhanced microbial biomass storage in SBS compared to SS corresponded to a total of 460 μg orgC g-1 dry soil that could not be attributed to the addition of orgC contained in the BS itself since it only corresponded to an input of 4 μg of orgC g-1 dry soil. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the increase in microbial biomass and activity facilitated by soil amendments, which indicates the role of decomposers (fungi and bacteria) in enhancing the decomposition of organic matter (OM) and, consequently, enriching soil fertility. Specific studies referenced show that amendments lead to increased decomposition rates and enhanced microbial activity, supporting the claim about the recycling of organic matter by decomposers.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: Nevertheless, the strong increases in iWUE as a result of the atmospheric CO2-increase has been found to be widespread and thereby clearly cannot be an artefact (Guerrieri et al. 2019). 4 Combination of Growth and iWUE: of DroughtThe combination of conventional dendrochronological analyses of growth and stable isotope methods can be very powerful. With a multi-proxy approach, the particular strength of tree rings is taken full advantage of as all the measurable parameters originate from the same absolutely dated rings, but contain different environmental information. Tree ring widths or basal area increments provide cumulative growth information that is related to the complex interplay of environmental conditions and limiting factors to xylogenesis during the growing season, whereas stable isotopes measured in the cellulose of these tree rings are rather recording the physiological conditions at the canopy level. Stable isotopes are also influenced by seasonal timing of wood formation as periods of extreme growth limitation, e. g. drought, may not be reflected in the isotope signal of the tree ring when xylogenesis is halted (Sarris et al. 2013). Furthermore, drought legacy effects may differ between tree-ring width and stable isotopes as the recovery after an extreme event may be different for the two parameters (Szejner et al. 2019). Hence, stable isotopes can help decipher causes of growth variations more clearly in many cases. Tree growth and iWUE may or may not show similar trends and may also display positive or negative correlations. With careful consideration of biological trends due to tree age and size, the combined analysis of tree growth and iWUE or carbon isotope discrimination can help to decipher what relevant environmental mechanisms may be impacting trees by affecting leaf gas exchange, growth, or both factors together (Brienen et al. 2021; Sun et al. 2018; Voelker et al. 2014). This multi-proxy approach may be particularly relevant for better understanding tree responses to climate warming and various aspects of drought (Levesque et al. 2014). Indeed, the area of land classified as very dry has more than doubled globally in the last 50 years and accordingly drought conditions are affecting many forest ecosystems, resulting in reduced growth and increased stress and tree mortality (Allen et al. 2010). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing how tree rings provide valuable information about environmental conditions and limiting factors during the growing season. It highlights the utility of a multi-proxy approach in dendrochronology, indicating that tree rings can help decipher environmental changes, which directly contradicts the assertion that they cannot be used to study past disturbances.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: on Earth with a Diameter of More than 200 km:. A. Ivanov1 240 all metrics AbstractThe three largest impact craters, the remains of which have been found on Earth to date, had diameters of about 200 km immediately after formation. The search for traces of larger impact structures continues. This paper presents the results of numerical modeling of the formation of terrestrial impact craters larger than those already found. It is shown that the inferred geothermal gradient significantly influences the initial geometry of the impact melt region, which may facilitate the search for the remains of deeply eroded ancient impact structures. Similar content being viewed by others Consequences 0. 5 to 1 billion years. The only planet where we can use geology and geophysics to find ancient craters is Earth. Despite the mobile lithosphere and plate tectonics, more than 150 impact structures (or their remains) have been found on Earth. Three impact structures are of particular interest– Vredefort, Sudbury, and Chicxulub. They are often called “Three” or “Three of a Kind” (Grieve and Therriault, 2000). The original (“fresh”) diameter of all three structures is estimated to be about 200 km. Two structures are very ancient (Vredefort is about 2 billion years old, and Sudbury, about 1. 85 billion years old). The youngest structure, Chicxulub, 65 million years old, is overlain by younger sediments. Sudbury’s structure has been subjected to severe erosion and tectonic deformation. structure has been eroded to a depth of 6 to 8 km, allowing previously buried levels of the crust to be studied. The problem discussed below is what terrestrial impact structures larger than the would look like. A partial answer may be found on Venus. The estimated impact rate of asteroids of the same size (“bolide ratio”) is approximately 0. 7 of the Earth’s value (see review by Werner and Ivanov, 2015). On Venus, with an estimated global surface age of less than one billion years, ten craters with a diameter of more than 100 km and one crater with a diameter of more than 200 km are observed (crater Mead, D = 270 km, Fig. 1). The height/depth scale is relative to the deepest measured point near the center of the crater. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text primarily discusses terrestrial impact craters, including those on Earth and Venus, and does not reference the Moon or its craters. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim about the Moon's impact craters providing insights into the solar system.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: Similarly, this stimulation of the microbial activity could not be due to soil N enrichment coming from the BS since it only corresponded to an input of 0. 41 μg of total N per gram of dry soil which was negligible compared to the initial content in the soil (Table 1). Tejada et al. [42] highlighted a better stimulation of soil enzymatic activities in BS-amended soil than with other sources of organic matter applied to the soil. As suggested by Parrado et al. [43], the higher stimulation of the soil microbial community may have been due to the application of a BS with high contents of low molecular weight proteins that can be directly assimilated by the soil microorganisms. Our study showed that the BS used significantly increased the OM mineralization and microbial biomass, without adding a significant amount of orgC or total N. It is possible that the BS may have supplied proteins with low molecular weight, amino acids [44] or growth factors such as phytohormones [45] that stimulated the microbial community, although these factors have not been studied here. However as we can see in Table 1, amino acids are widely present in the BS and they are used in protein synthesis or can be directly absorbed by the soil microorganisms as an alternative source of nitrogen and carbon [46]. It has also have been reported that they enhance soil respiration and microbial biomass activity [47]. Furthermore, it is well documented that the incorporation of fresh OM in soil may increase SOM degradation [48,49]. For example, by using a 13C labeled wheat residue, Pascault et al. [50] demonstrated a higher release of 12CO2 with wheat residues compared to the non-amended control soil, pointing to a priming effect of native unlabeled SOM. The changes in the native SOM degradation as a result of an exogenous substrate depends on the substrate quality [51]. The input of crop residues that are known to decompose slowly result in a rapid response from the microorganisms by producing enzymes that are able to degrade this exogenous organic matter [52]; hence, microorganisms are also able to decompose SOM [53]. Other studies using low molecular weight substances such as glucose or amino acids also demonstrated the occurrence of a priming effect [54,55] and this type of molecules was present in the BS. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by explaining how microbial activity, stimulated by the application of specific organic materials (like BS), leads to increased organic matter (OM) mineralization and enhances microbial biomass. It indicates that the presence of low molecular weight proteins and amino acids can be beneficial for soil microorganisms. Moreover, the text discusses how fresh organic matter incorporation in soil promotes the degradation of soil organic matter (SOM) and the involvement of microorganisms in this process. This supports the idea that decomposers like fungi and bacteria play a key role in recycling organic matter and enriching soil fertility.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: For example, in areas such as the Central Mediterranean, Central and Western Europe, California and much of the States and elsewhere, warmer temperatures have amplified droughts (Dai 2013). California and the west US coast in particular has undergone recent extremes (Keen et al. 2022) that are expected to become more severe in the future based on climate model predictions (Wang et al. 2017; Yoon et al. 2015). These projections are further supported by long tree-ring isotope chronologies that demonstrated greater hydroclimate variability during the warmer Anomaly and the period of recent warming compared to the colder Age (Voelker et al. 2018). Considering projections of increased drought frequency and severity, there is a crucial need to understand mechanisms leading to drought-induced tree mortality, which may be provided by investigating how some trees, species and different forest ecosystems have responded to acute or chronic drought stress (Allen et al. 2010). Although drought-related physiological effects on trees have long been been studied, the significance of different mechanisms is still unclear (McDowell et al. 2008). When pests and pathogens do not act as the primary cause of tree mortality, the most important processes leading to death are hydraulic failure (desiccation) in extreme drought events and a reduction of the trees’ carbon storage through gradual depletion of carbohydrates (starvation) induced by protracted drought episodes. The mechanism of carbon starvation is likely related to water-use efficiency, as plants may reduce stomatal conductance strongly to avoid loss of water, and therefore this process may be elucidated using stable carbon isotopes. In such a situation, the plant is no longer capable of producing enough non-structural carbohydrates to maintain essential metabolic functions and stored non-structural carbohydrates are inaccessible due to compartmentalization and lack of enzymatic energy (Sala et al. 2010). Studies of trees that survived or died during intense periods of drought have been particularly effective at applying tree-ring growth and stable carbon isotopes to highlight physiological factors that ostensibly predisposed trees to mortality. One of the first such investigations to do so used a rather narrow time window for assessment, but nonetheless found that trees that died during a severe drought had similar iWUE, but lower tree growth rates, compared to co-occurring trees that survived (McDowell et al. 2010). However, the surviving trees showed a strong climatic sensitivity of gas exchange (i. e. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing evidence of how tree rings can be used to study environmental disturbances, specifically drought-induced tree mortality. It discusses the application of tree-ring growth and stable carbon isotopes to understand physiological factors that predispose trees to mortality during severe droughts. This indicates that tree rings are indeed relevant to studying past environmental changes, contrary to the claim that they cannot be used for this purpose.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: The undulating terrain around the crater limits the accuracy of depth determination to between 1 and 1. 4 km. More accurate profiles based on primary radio altimeter data presented by Ivanov and Ford (1993) give approximately the same picture (see Fig. 2 by Ivanov (2005)). Fig. 1. Image of the largest known impact crater on Venus, called Mead, with a diameter D = 270 km (top). Elevation profiles along three diameters (dashed, dotted, and solid curves) through Mead crater (bottom). The image and elevation profiles were constructed by the author using the publicly available JMars software ( based on data from the Magellan spacecraft mission to Venus ( size imageFig. 2. Impact crater Rachmaninov (D ~300 km) on Mercury (top) and the elevation profile of the surface along the diameter of the crater (bottom). The inner crater is about 4. 5 km deep. The image and altitude profiles were constructed by the author using the publicly available JMars software ( based on the results of the Messenger spacecraft flight to Mercury ( size imageThe following craters in descending size have diameters of ~180 km (Isabella) and ~150 km (Meitner). Estimates of the accumulation time of all observed Venusian craters are in the intervals: (1) less than 750 Ma (McKinnon et al. , 1997), (2) 200–600 Ma (Strom et al. , 1994), and (3) much smaller values, ~180 ± 70 Ma (Bottke et al. , 2016). The large variation of these estimates is explained mainly by the permanent improvement of models for the evolution of the orbits of crater-forming small bodies and the refinement of the ratio of the frequencies of impacts on the Moon, Earth and Venus (Werner and Ivanov, 2015). Despite these uncertainties, the presence on Venus of ten impact craters with D > 100 km, formed over a period of 200 to 600 million years (Schaber et al. , 1992), should correspond to the same number of impact craters accumulated over a period of 1–2 billion years on the Earth’s continents (considering that their area is a third of the Earth’s surface). Note that for craters with a diameter of more than 100 km, the dense atmosphere of Venus can neither destroy nor slow down the projectile. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text primarily discusses impact craters on Venus and Mercury, along with estimates and analyses concerning their sizes and formation periods. It does not provide any information about Moon craters or how they relate to the history of the solar system, rendering the text irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: Previous studies have reported that the abundance of Bacteroidetes was highest in soils with high C availability and was positively correlated with the C mineralization rates [60] and that active Bacteroidetes members were some of the initial metabolizers of the labile carbon inputs [61]. These are consistent with our observation, the highest abundance of Bacteroidetes at 49 days being probably linked to the use of labile C in the soil microcosm during the course of the incubation. In addition, the soil pH could have played a role in these bacterial community changes in the SBS treatment. We showed that the abundance of Bacteroidetes was higher in soil with higher pH, which is in agreement with Lauber et al. [62] who demonstrated a significant and positive correlation between Bacteroidetes abundance and soil pH (for pH values ranging from 4 to 8). At the opposite, our findings on Planctomycetes, were inconsistent with the recent report of Zhang et al. [63]. Whereas the latter authors showed a decrease in the Planctomycetes abundance from acidic to near-neutral pH values and then an increase from near-neutral to alkaline pH values, we demonstrated an increase from moderately acidic to near-neutral pH values. 3. 2. 2 Fungal phyla. The addition of the BS induced greater changes in the composition of the fungal phyla since the relative abundances of Zygomycota was significantly higher in SS than in SBS from 19. 7% to 31. 6% and Ascomycota tended to be lower from 47. 9% to 35. 3%, respectively (Fig 2B). Generally, fungi grow well and tolerate acidic soils better than bacteria [64], but some fungi belonging to phylum of Zygomycota and saprotrophic species (e. g. Amblyosporium, Pseudombrophila, Coprinus, Mortierella) have been shown to grow well in neutral to slightly alkaline conditions [65–67]. These findings are consistent with our results and suggest that the addition of the BS induced changes in fungal communities through its pH neutralizing effect. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the roles of different microbial communities such as Bacteroidetes and fungal phyla in soil environments. It highlights how fungi (specifically members of the phylum Zygomycota and various saprotrophic species) thrive in different soil pH conditions, which relates to their function in organic matter decomposition and nutrient cycling, thereby enriching soil fertility. Additionally, it mentions the composition changes in fungal communities in response to treatments that impact soil conditions, underscoring the importance of these organisms in maintaining soil health.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: Since so few studies have demonstrated evidence for how A has formed the primary physiological constraint on interannual variability on tree-ring carbon isotopes and iWUE, a few examples warrant specific mention here because they may continue to lead to particularly novel insights. Two forest health studies on species located in the eastern have shown that iWUE has been strongly influenced by sulfur emissions and associated acidic deposition that increased during most of the twentieth century and then showed a reversal in trend near 1980 after US federal legislation and enforcement was increasingly implemented from 1963 through 1990 (Mathias and Thomas 2018; Thomas et al. 2013). The authors concluded that increasing A was an important component for explaining recent tree recovery. Other records where inter-annual variability in tree-ring isotopes were controlled by how A was modified by temperature and/or sunshine occurred in cold northerly regions such as and Sweden (Loader et al. 2013; Young et al. 2012). Alternatively, Voelker et al. (2019b) showed that similar constraints on A by temperature could be identified in temperate trees growing adjacent Lake Superior, which modulates near-lake air temperature regimes due to the large heat capacity of the lake reflecting previous winter conditions during spring and early summer. The last study was careful to utilize only “middlewood” formed during the early growing season, which contrasts with many other studies of drought stress that focus on whole rings or latewood. Hence, this emphasizes the need for future studies of tree-ring isotopes to carefully consider which intra-annual sampling scheme may be most appropriate where differences in the primary constraints on leaf carbon uptake may shift on a seasonal basis between photosynthetic rates and stomatal conductance (see also Chap. 15). Finally, Breinen et al. (2021) has shown that during understory phases of tree development, tree growth is often negatively correlated to carbon isotope discrimination but had neutral or weak positive correlations once the same trees were in canopy dominant positions, which implies that both the photosynthetic rates and growth of these trees were limited by irradiance when they were in the understory. 6 Large-Scale PatternsModels and (DGVMs) are the workhorses to explore many large-scale terrestrial processes and climate-land biosphere interactions. These models are routinely used to project future changes in climate and processes under anthropogenic forcing in a detailed spatio-temporal context (Sitch et al. 2003). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing how tree-ring carbon isotopes have been influenced by sulfur emissions and acidic deposition associated with past environmental disturbances, highlighting the importance of these factors in tree recovery and growth patterns. Specifically, it mentions studies that provide evidence linking interannual variability in tree-ring isotopes to sulfur emissions during the twentieth century, indicating that tree rings can indeed reflect past environmental changes.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: A tradition has developed (partly under the influence of the extensive literature on penetrating armor with a projectile) to call an impacting high-velocity body (an asteroid or comet nucleus) the term “projectile,” and the upper layers of planets or asteroids, in which an impact crater is formed, as a “target. ” In this case, both the projectile and the target can have a complex structure, for example, the Earth as a target can be considered as a multilayer body consisting of spherical shells reproducing the crust, mantle, and core (see, for example, Ivanov et al. , 2010). The thermodynamic properties of the target material were described, as before, by tables calculated using the ANEOS program (Thompson and Lauson, 1972) with input parameters for granite (Pierazzo et al. , 1997), basalt (Pierazzo et al. , 2005), and dunite (Benz et al. , 1989). Dunite modeled the mantle material, granite on top of basalt (or, for simplicity, homogeneous granite) modeled the rocks of the Earth’s crust. The assumed melting temperatures in the strength model (Collins et al. , 2004) and their dependence on ambient pressure were previously described by Ivanov et al. (2010). In the process of setting up model problems, it was found that in the case of a significant influence of melting on the crater formation process, it is necessary to pay special attention to the model melting curve of the crust and mantle and the use of an acoustic fluidization model, which will be discussed in the next section. Concluding the general description of the model, we note that most of the model options assume a vertical impact of a spherical asteroid (projectile) with a velocity U = 15 km/s. For simplicity, in most versions the projectile was made of the same substance as the top layer of crust. The presented range of model options assumes projectile diameters two and four times larger than the “nominal” projectile forming the Vredefort crater—a sphere with a diameter of 12 to 14 km at an impact velocity of 15 km/s (Ivanov, 2005). These model variants are referred to as 2 × V and 4 × V for brevity. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding the insights provided by impact craters on the Moon specifically. Instead, it discusses general concepts related to impact craters, projectiles, and models used to analyze cratering processes on Earth and potentially other bodies, without making a connection to the Moon or the history of the solar system.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: Moreover, with the amendment of the straw by itself, the proportion of Basidiomycota tended to be higher in both the SS and SBS treatments compared to the CS treatment resulting in a lower fungal diversity in these treatments (Fig 2B). As a result, the straw input may have selected Basidiomycota which are known litter decomposers able to degrade complex and recalcitrant OM [68,69]. 3. 2. 3 Archaeal phyla. Significant changes were not seen in the archaeal community in the presence of the BS. At the class level, 99% of the archaeal sequences were affiliated with the Group (SCG) in all of the soil treatments. The SCG class falls within the recently described Thaumarchaeota phylum; these archaea are thought to be chemolithoautotrophs that use ammonium as an energy source [70]. To date, there is no proof that organisms belonging to this phylum play a role in orgC mineralization [6]. So far, it appears that Thaumarchaeota are directly involved in nitrogen metabolism and mainly comprise ammonia-oxidizing archaea [71], which is in line with our results where no changes in the community structure of archaea was observed when straw and the BS were added. Furthermore, a study of Hu et al. [72] demonstrated that Thaumarchaeota represented more than 85% of the total archaea in soils with pH higher than 6, which is in agreement with our results: the three soils microcosms are dominated by the Thaumarcheaota and have pH values ranging from 6 to 6. 9. 3. 3 Microbial diversity and richness In order to determine the potential changes in the microbial communities due to the amendments, we compared the richness and diversity of the microbial communities using 16S/ITS1 rRNA amplicons (Fig 2). Statistical differences (P < 0. 05) were observed between the CS and SBS treatments in terms of bacterial richness and the bacterial and fungal Shannon diversity index, as well as between the CS and SS treatments for the fungal Shannon diversity index. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by highlighting the role of Basidiomycota, which are recognized as litter decomposers capable of degrading complex organic matter (OM). This supports the idea that decomposers like fungi effectively recycle organic matter, contributing to soil fertility. Additionally, the mention of microbial diversity and richness in relation to amendments suggests an important interaction between decomposers and soil health.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: The northermost sites showed the lowest iWUE and also the lowest increase over the twentieth century (60. 3–70. 3 μmol/mol from the first to last decade of twentieth century, i. e. an increase by 16. 6%). They also showed a rather homogenous signal as reflected in relatively low variability among sites. In comparison, the most southern sites, from Mediterranean climate, showed the highest overall values, an increase of 23% over the twentieth century, and also were characterized by relatively high variability among sites, showing that different ecosystems react rather differently to increasing CO2 depending on local site factors. Sites from temperate climates, i. e. intermediate latitudes, showed intermediate overall iWUE, the strongest increase over the twentieth century by 31%, and further a notable increase in the variability over time. This patterns of iWUE-increase might reflect a generally strong, but variable sensitivity to increasing CO2, compared to where temperature (i. e. northern latitude sites) or precipitation (i. e. low latitude mediterrranean sites) have historically been strongly limiting to leaf gas-exchange and growth. Fig. 17. 3Reconstructed iWUE from 27 conifer sites across Europe grouped into different latitudinal bands (a). Variability of iWUE between sites (standard deviation) for these latitudinal bands (b)Full size imageThese analyses clearly demonstrate the usefulness of such networks of tree-ring data for better understanding physiological tree responses to climate and CO2 across different ecosystems. It might be further interesting to consider that net photosynthesis tends to play a larger role in determining growth and δ13C in more energy‐limited environments, such as boreal forests, than in drought‐prone environments. Under scenarios of increasing drought, this may imply that changes in the relative weight of energy and water limitations could be assessed through the combined use of δ13C and tree‐rings. Nevertheless, the interpretation of iWUE-trends is not straightforward and can be enhanced by DGVM-results as shown in another recent study (Frank et al. 2015). Here, increases in European forest transpiration were calculated over the twentieth century, although a general decrease in stomatal conductance was also inferred, which seems at first view to be contradictive. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text clearly contradicts the claim by discussing the utility of tree-ring data in understanding physiological responses to climate and CO2, indicating that tree rings can reflect historical changes in growth and environmental responses. It states, 'These analyses clearly demonstrate the usefulness of such networks of tree-ring data for better understanding physiological tree responses to climate and CO2 across different ecosystems,' which supports the notion that tree rings can indeed provide insights into past environmental disturbances.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: most runs we use parameters of the acoustic fluidization (AF) model as proposed by Ivanov and Turtle (2001) and Ivanov and Artemieva (2002) to describe the temporary reduction of dry friction in rocks around the resulting impact crater. In some model runs, we vary the selected parameters slightly, examining the model’s robustness to these variations. The most powerful influence is the form of the inferred geotherm—how quickly the temperature of the rock increases with depth T(z) and how close the temperature T(z) approaches the melting temperature Tm(z), which also increases with depth due to increased lithostatic pressure. To model Earth’s largest impact craters, Ivanov (2005) used a geotherm with a linear surface gradient of 13 to 15 K/km. Here we will call it a “cold” geotherm. In an attempt to reproduce the large melting zone relative to the crater, consistent with that proposed by Garde et al. (2012) for the hypothetical Maniitsoq structure, we studied the influence of possible geotherms occurring at some depth close to the melting curve Tm(z). These several options are called “hot” geotherms here. The expected course of these geotherms and melting curves is shown in Fig. 4. Cold and hot geotherms in the case of the Moon and their influence on crater formation were discussed earlier by Ivanov et al. (2010). Fig. 4. Examples of geotherms with relatively low (1—“cold” case) and relatively high (2—“hot” case) estimated near-surface temperature gradients; 3—liquidus and solidus for water-saturated granite (Boettcher and Wyllie, 1968), “G”—experimental point from (Goetze, 1971); 4— the same for dry granite, “L”—liquidus points from (Dell’Angelo and Tullis, 1988), “W”—granite from (Rutter and Neumann, 1995). Dashed lines 4 approximate data for liquidus Tliq(K) = 1156 + 5. 41z (km) and solidus of granite Tsol = 1020 + 5. 41z. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the acoustic fluidization model and geotherm influences on impact crater formation without directly addressing how these craters provide insights into the broader history of the solar system.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: Because the bacterial and fungal diversities and bacterial richness were not different between CS and SS treatment but significantly lowest in the SBS compared to the CS, this suggested that this lowest diversities and richness could have been induced by a synergic effect of the BS and straw which thereby established a dominance of certain bacteria and fungi. After 49 days of incubations, it is probable that easily degradable compounds gradually gave way to recalcitrant compounds that were more difficult to degrade and which therefore required specific enzymes to do so [52]. Hence, the lowest bacterial and fungal diversity due to the addition of straw and the BS can be explained by the degradation of more recalcitrant compounds that can be carried out by a few groups of organisms with specific functions such as the production of extracellular enzymes [73]. Therefore, due to the soil microbial enzymatic specificity for substrate degradation, a succession of microorganisms is observed throughout the decomposition of the OM [74]. However, further temporal dynamics experiments should be undertaken to clearly determine the microbial community succession in our study. Among the bacterial and fungal phyla enhanced in the presence of the BS after 49 days of incubation, different functional strategies regarding the use of soil carbon can be identified according to the ecological classification scheme suggested by Fierer et al [60]. Planctomycetes are described as a phylum that can exhibit oligotrophic tendencies with slow growth and a K-selected life strategy [75], and Bacteroidetes are mainly copiotrophs [60]. Among the changes detected in the fungal phyla, Zygomycota are known to use readily available sugars and to be the first fungi to colonize a fresh substrate, but are also able to degrade recalcitrant compounds [76,77]. Therefore, at the phylum level, the application of the BS on straw residues sustained several microbial phyla but without any specific functional strategy towards OM decomposition optimization with either oligotrophic or copiotrophic tendencies. Also, we may consider that 49 days of incubation was not long enough to allow microbial successions and the development of specific functional strategies in the soil microbial communities. 3. 4 Microbial recruitment By analyzing the effect of the BS on the structure of the soil microbial community, significant impacts were observed on both bacteria and fungi but not on archaea, (PPLS-DA analysis, P = 0. 004 and 73. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the role of bacteria and fungi in the decomposition of organic matter (OM) and emphasizing microbial diversity and functional strategies in soil fertility. It notes that the addition of specific residues (like straw) influences microbial communities, which are essential in breaking down organic matter. The passage indicates that certain bacteria and fungi are responsible for degrading recalcitrant compounds, and mentions the importance of microbial succession and enzymatic specificity in the decomposition process, which aligns with the role of decomposers in enriching soil fertility.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 1 IntroductionKey nutrient for trees, but forming reactive molecules potentially detrimental to forest ecosystems (e. g. , Etzold et al. 2020), N constitutes a central object of research in terrestrial biogeochemistry. After several decades, the substantial body of literature on N in trees reflects the complexity of N cycling through trees, and how some intrinsic and extrinsic processes remain elusive. With anthropogenic emissions of reactive N (Nr) rising globally and driving atmosphere-pedosphere exchanges that can perturb the external terrestrial N cycle, tree-ring δ15N series may record past changes in forest-N cycling. Studies of long tree-ring δ15N series are rare, largely because ring wood includes very low amounts of N relative to carbon, evidently making tree rings difficult for isotopic determination. Additionally, N translocates between trunk rings, dampening environmental isotopic effects in time series. Nevertheless, several studies report δ15N trends interpreted in relations to changes in soil and air conditions. How does N assimilation in non N2-fixing trees operate? Do trees react to changes in air and soil Nr contents? Can tree-ring δ15N series help understand environmental changes? The purpose of this review primarily consists in scrutinizing the current understanding of mechanisms responsible for determining δ15N values in tree rings, appraising the type of information δ15N series can provide, and synthesizing the knowledge gaps of this research domain. 2 The habitual mechanical separation of tree rings from stem samples using fine blades or microtome at the sought time resolution produces wood sub-samples for δ15N analysis. Treating these sub-samples prior to their isotopic analysis generates a debate regarding the utility of removing their mobile N (resins) to prevent producing false trends. But recent investigations suggest this type of pre-treatment does not modify significantly the final δ15N values (Elhani et al. 2005; Bukata and Kyser 2007; Couto-Vázquez and González-Prieto 2010; Caceres et al. 2011; Doucet et al. 2011; Tomlinson et al. 2014). Another observation arguing against pre-treatment is that samples from several species, for instance Pinus ponderosa, Fagus grandifolia and Picea rubens, show no change of concentrations after resin removal (Hart and Classen 2003; Doucet et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the potential of tree-ring nitrogen isotopes (δ15N) as a tool to understand past environmental changes. It suggests that tree rings can provide valuable information about fluctuations in forest nitrogen cycling, which implies that they can be used to study environmental disturbances. The review focuses on the mechanisms influencing δ15N values and highlights the relevance of tree rings in capturing environmental responses.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: The “K” signs illustrate the temperature gradient in the Kola superdeep well (Popov et al. , 1999). 5 and 6—Estimated solidus position for the upper mantle (5—fayalite and 6—forsterite). Full size imageHere we should make a few remarks for future improvement of the model. The computer model must describe how density, compressibility, strength/friction, and melting point change with depth. The melting temperature in such a model is important, since its value determines the disappearance of friction near the melting point. The description of the cortex as a single layer with a single function Tm(p) is still often used. To model cratering that penetrates below the crust, we need to assume an initial temperature gradient and an increase in melting temperature with increasing lithostatic pressure. The thermal gradient in the Earth’s crust varies widely due to the diversity of the mineral composition of crustal rocks (see, for example, Miller et al. , 2003; Hasterok et al. , 2019). Drilling of several deep wells up to 10 km in depth revealed deviations from simple thermal conductivity conditions, explained by fluid flow at unexpectedly deep levels (Popov et al. , 1998). In the Kola superdeep well, the temperature gradient at depths of 5–9 km is estimated at ~20 K/km (see Popov et al. , 1998, Fig. 8. 2 there). At depths z ~10 km, the rock temperature reaches ~500 K in the Kola well (Kukkonen and Clauser, 1994; Popov et al. , 1999) and ~550 K in the KTB well (der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Clauser et al. , 1997). Furlong and Chapman (2013) review the main approaches to constructing the vertical mineral and thermal structure of the Earth’s crust. Temperature at the Moho boundary varies with the magnitude of heat flow, and the apparent absence of molten lower crust requires the mineral composition of the rock to change with depth, so our simple “granite” crust does not work with the typical Tm(p) for “wet granite” (Furlong and Chapman, 2013). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding impact craters on the Moon or insights into the history of the solar system. Instead, it discusses temperature gradients in the Kola superdeep well and geological modeling, which is unrelated to the Moon or its craters.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: 5% of variance explained, P = 0. 012 and 51. 5% of variance explained and, P = 0. 65 and 62. 1% of variance explained, respectively, (Fig 3A and 3C). The community structures of the soil bacteria and fungi were affected by the addition of both straw and the BS. These results are in agreement with those obtained by Monard et al. [78] and Pascault et al. [50]: the input of fresh OM (carbon substrate or wheat residues, respectively) on the soil induced changes in the soil microbial community structures by selecting and stimulating specific groups of bacteria. Download: PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageFig 3. a and c) Powered partial least squares discriminant analysis (PPLS-DA) describing the bacterial and fungal community structures at the OTU level. The three soil treatments () exhibited significant different compositions in terms of their bacterial and fungal communities. The CS groups represent the soil control samples, the SS groups correspond to the soil with straw samples and the SBS groups represent the soil with straw and BS. b and d) Ternary plots describing the distribution of the bacterial and fungal OTUs between the soil treatments (grey circles) showing the enriched (green circles) and depleted (red circles) OTUs after the BS amendment. This analysis was performed on the relative abundances for the bacteria and fungi matrices. Each circle depicts one individual OTU. The size of the circle reflects the relative abundance (RA) of the OTU. The position of each circle is determined by the contribution of the indicated compartments to the RA. An extract from S2 and S3 Tables is presented which shows the RA and affiliation of some of the most abundant enriched OTUs. performed in order to identify the bacterial and fungal OTUs that were responsible for the differences that were observed in the communities when the BS was added (Fig 3B and 3D). Out of a total of 8 697 bacterial OTUs and 842 fungal OTUs, 132 and 6 of these OTUS, respectively, were enriched after the addition of the BS, except for fungal OTU2492 which was also highly detected in the straw (718. 3 ± 76. 8 sequences). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by explaining how the addition of organic matter (OM) affects the community structures of soil bacteria and fungi, suggesting that such changes can enhance or deplete particular microbial groups. It states that the input of fresh organic matter alters microbial community structures, which aligns with the idea that decomposers like fungi and bacteria play a role in recycling organic matter and enriching soil fertility. The text specifically notes the enrichment of certain OTUs (Operational Taxonomic Units) after the addition of organic matter, supporting the claim's assertion.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 2011). On another note, regardless of pre-treating wood samples or not, several studies have clearly shown trends of higher N concentrations in rings (and coniferous leaves) grown during sampling years, relative to concentrations in previous years. The general pattern forms an increasing trend from the heartwood-sapwood transition to the most recent ring; a physiological effect typical of N translocation. In addition, tree-ring N concentrations show poor inter-tree and inter-species coherence. These observations make N concentrations in tree rings (and dated coniferous leaves) useless in environmental research (Hart and Classen 2003; Saurer et al. 2004; Savard et al. 2009; Gerhart and McLauchlan 2014). However, this inter-ring N mobility does not seem to affect the final tree-ring δ15N values (Doucet et al. 2011). For isotopic analysis, wood samples wrapped in tin capsules drop automatically from a carousel into an elemental analyser (EA) in continuous flow (CF) with an isotope ratio mass spectrometer (IRMS). The analytical procedure involves combustion in a reaction tube producing N2O, followed by a reduction to N2, which produces the analyses calibrated relative to air N2 (set at 0‰). Tree-ring wood harbors very low concentrations relative to roots or leaves (Scarascia-Mugnozza et al. 2000), and high C/N ratios, making its isotopic analysis difficult. For that reason, the EA-system for δ15N analysis needs close monitoring for performing complete combustion to prevent CO+ derived interferences at masses 28 and 29. A CO trap installed between ovens and GC columns helps for that step. The low N concentrations in wood make internal standards a requirement to avoid poor analytical accuracy from low peak to background ratios (Couto-Vázquez and González-Prieto 2010). Inserting several internal wood standards in sample batches allows monitoring the external precision and accuracy of the complete laboratory procedure. Whole wood materials from three species of trees recently proposed as 2. 4 to +1. 8‰) than the natural extent in tree rings (generally between −10 and +5‰). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by detailing how tree rings and their nitrogen concentrations are assessed and analyzed. It emphasizes that tree-ring nitrogen concentrations show poor coherence and thus their usefulness in environmental research is limited (referencing sources like Hart and Classen 2003). This implies that tree rings may not effectively provide reliable data for studying past environmental disturbances, thus challenging the notion that they could not be used in such studies.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: For areas with thick crust (up to 55 km, for example in Finland), geological and geophysical analysis indicates a relatively cold asthenosphere with T ~ 700 K at a depth z ~ 55 km and T ~ 1400 K at a depth z ~ 180 km (Kukkonen, 1998). Regional variation in the mineral and thermal structure of the crust may be significant (see, e. g. , Schutt et al. , 2018; Puziewicz et al. , 2019) and future models should be reformulated using more recent geophysical data (Cammarano and Guerri, 2017; Artemieva and Shulgin, 2019). The mantle temperature profile is approximately modeled as an adiabat of a suitable pyrolite composition, limited by elastic wave velocities (Stixrude and Lithgow-Bertelloni, 2011). Thermal gradients in the range of 0. 5 to 1 K/km seem to be a good choice to start modeling. One of the disadvantages of the matter models most often used in calculations is the oversimplification of the description of rock melting. To correctly interpret the results, we must make some notes about possible inaccuracies. (1) The presented modeling results have been accumulated over the past 15 years, when the ANEOS equation of state used to construct EOS tables did not include an explicit description of melting (see for a review and ways to improve the model by Collins and Melosh (2014)). Even after recent improvements, ANEOS still describes melting in a “metallic” style: a jump in entropy at a constant temperature at a given pressure. True melting of multimineral rocks is a complex dynamic process. The complex behavior of the solidus and liquidus curves of crustal rocks depends on the water content in the first 50 km (p ~ 1. 2 GPa or ~12 kbar), and the static solidus temperature can decrease with depth (Katz et al. , 2003). The mineral composition of the material between the solidus and liquidus can change over time; experiments to determine the mineral composition of a partial melt can last from 100 to 200 h (see, for example, Pichavant et al. , 2019). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses geological and geophysical characteristics of the Earth's crust and mantle temperature modeling but does not address impact craters on the Moon or their significance in understanding the solar system's history. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: Among the bacterial and fungal enriched OTUs, 83 were specific to the three soil microcosms and the other OTUs were detected at low levels in the BS and/or straw alone. Furthermore, according to the BLASTn analysis of the representative sequences of these enriched OTUs, they were all highly similar to the sequences obtained from the microorganisms extracted from the soil environment. This further supports the idea that the BS acted by stimulating specific indigenous microorganisms in the soil. Among the most enriched OTUs in the SBS treatment compared to the SS treatment (Fig 3B), specific groups of bacteria were detected such as an unknown genus within the Cytophagaceae family (S2 Table; OTU428, OTU495, OTU1016, OTU1771, OTU2157) known to degrade complex carbohydrates [79], Phaselicystis sp. (OTU151) which appears to be distributed in soil samples containing decaying plant materials [80], an unknown genus within the Verrucomicrobia phylum (OTU679, OTU1362, OTU1883, OTU570, OTU1069, OTU959, OTU3594, OTU1413) known to have an abundance that is positively correlated with recalcitrant C compounds [81] and Pseudomonas sp. (OTU1435, OTU942, OTU41, OTU3, OTU596) which are ecological opportunists (r-strategist) [61]. Two fungal OTUs were enriched in the SBS treatment compared to the SS treatment. They were highly similar to Ramicandelaber sp. (OTU364) and Mortierella sp. (OTU2889) which belong to the phylum Zygomycota. Zygomycota are known to exhibit a wide range of functional capabilities and to degrade both labile and recalcitrant compounds [76,77]. Moreover, Ramicandelaber sp. and Mortierella sp. are usually saprophytic in soil [82] and Mortierella sp. are P-solubilizing fungi and have been shown to increase urease activity when inoculated in the rhizosphere of Malvaceae [83]. This involvement in the P and N cycles in the soil should have a positive effect on plant growth. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing various bacterial and fungal OTUs that play a significant role in soil environments, especially in degrading complex organic materials and contributing to nutrient cycles. Specific microorganisms mentioned, such as Ramicandelaber sp. and Mortierella sp., are identified as saprophytic fungi which are essential in recycling organic matter. Additionally, their roles in the phosphorus and nitrogen cycles indicate their contribution to soil fertility, aligning closely with the claim that decomposers enrich soil.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: The relative p3. 3 N Remobilization, Inter-ring Translocation and StemsMany studies explain well the fractionation along the length of trees, from root to stems and leaves (Yoneyama et al. 1998; Gebauer et al. 2000; Evans 2001). Briefly, after assimilation of N-species by trees, enzymatic functions transform NH4+ and NO3− into amino acids (Handley et al. 1998). As mentioned previously, these steps generally enrich the reactants in 15N and deplete the products (Yoneyama et al. 1998; Gebauer et al. 2000). Research efforts also indicated that deciduous trees store N in their bark and wood, whereas coniferous trees predominantly store N as photosynthetic proteins in their youngest needles. The remobilization of these amino acids is seasonal. During spring, deciduous trees transfer non-structural N compounds (arginine and asparagine) from twigs and coarse roots (and stems) to forming leaves (Bazot et al. 2013; Brereton et al. 2014). For instance, N proportion in twigs of oak trees decreases by 55% during that period. During summer, leaves are the dominant storage of N (>50% in June, compared to only 10% in stems; see also Sect. 12. 3. 1). During autumn, while leaves are shedding, storage begins in stems, coarse roots and twigs. For willow trees, the stems become a major N reserve (Brereton et al. 2014), a pool that new leaves will solicit later on. During spring, coniferous trees transfer N stored in their youngest needles to support new growth of leaves and stems (Millard and Proe 1993; Bauer et al. 2000; Krupa 2003; Millard and Grelet 2010; Couto-Vázquez and González-Prieto 2014). Translocation generates fractionation and systematically decreases δ15N values in old needles relative to young needles (Gebauer and Schulze 1991; Couto-Vázquez and González-Prieto 2010). In contrast, there is no systematic difference between recent and old tree rings as mentioned in Sect. 12. 2. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the processes and functions of trees, including the absence of systematic differences between recent and old tree rings. This suggests that tree rings can indeed contain meaningful information that does not support the idea that they cannot be used to study past events like volcanic activity or environmental disturbances.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: At high shock pressures, when rocks must melt immediately behind the shock wave front, laboratory experiments demonstrate temporary overheating of the solid (Luo and Ahrens, 2004), once again emphasizing the importance of the kinetic aspects of describing the melting of rocks and minerals. Using existing models, we can only approximately simulate rock melting as an equilibrium process. The model used here assumes a smooth melting curve for each material, Tm(p), with melting temperature increasing monotonically with pressure (Collins et al. , 2004). In the absence of better models, we use the same value Tm(p) to estimate the decrease in rock strength as the material approaches solidus (Ohnaka, 1995). When simulating large-scale impact events, where the initial temperature increases with depth and the final position of the p2. 44 + 1)1/11. 4, proposed in (Presnall and Walter, 1993) for pressures below ~14 GPa (this relationship is written in the style of the SALE program (see Collins et al. , 2004), temperature is measured in K, pressure is measured in GPa). Another endmember olivine composition, fayalite, melts congruently to ~6 GPa (~200 km depth). Previously published experimental data can be interpolated (Akimoto et al. , 1967) with the Simon equation Tm = 1478(p/4. 1 + 1)1/4. 8. Olivines with intermediate Mg/Fe content do not melt congruently, which is not taken into account in our simple model. In addition, model peridotites have a large difference in solidus and liquidus temperatures (Jennings and Holland, 2015). We do not yet have a simple approach to modeling the melting and mechanical properties of multicomponent rocks near the melting curve. For a preliminary search for possible effects, we vary the melt temperature at zero pressure for the model “mantle” material in the range from ~1500 to 2000 K with pressure dependence Tm(p) in accordance with the experimental data given above. In the simulation results presented here, melting point is used primarily to describe the thermal softening of rock near the solidus. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses laboratory experiments and the modeling of rock melting under high shock pressures. It does not provide any information regarding impact craters on the Moon or their significance in understanding solar system history.