Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: While the dispersion of small (<200 μm) and large (>500 μm) grains across Europa likely varies with hemisphere and surface composition in a complex way, we find that similar porosity models (within the range of errors) provided sufficient fits to the data across the range of grain sizes. The discussion of the impact of grain size and other fixed parameters on the thermal conductivity are discussed in detail in de Kleer et al. (2021a). The initial bolometric albedo map was generated by Trumbo et al. (2017a) from the USGS Europa map 8 from Voyager and Galileo images, with Galileo albedo values where available (McEwen 1986) and the phase integral of 1. 01 from observations (Grundy et al. 2007); further details are provided in previous ALMA studies (Trumbo et al. 2017a, 2018; de Kleer et al. 2021a; Camarca et al. 2023). Models were integrated over variable times steps (on order 1/500 Europa days) per Europa period (3. 55 Earth days), including periods where Europa was in eclipse behind Jupiter, for up to 15 Europa days until temperature profiles converged to within 0. 1 K. Longitude ranges where Europa was in eclipse for each observation were retrieved from the JPL Horizons ephemerides data. 9 We modeled thermal emission from Europa's subsurface over a range of 10 thermal skin depths (∼0. 5–0. 75 m for relevant temperature and porosity ranges). Vertical temperature profiles and emission angles were generated independently over Europa's surface in a grid of 5° latitude and longitude bins; as discussed in de Kleer et al. (2021a), the incorporation of Fresnel or Hapke refraction does not sufficiently match the limb emission due to surface roughness or volume scattering, and thus is not employed here. Our methodology differs from the techniques employed by Trumbo et al. (2017a) and Trumbo et al. (2018) in that thermal emission was integrated over depth, whereas the aforementioned studies treated thermal emission as originating only from the surface (and were thus comparable to models used to interpret data from Galileo/PPR). These properties are calculated in the model of de Kleer et al. (2021a), and allow us to generate models including subsurface emission for a range of porosity values. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the technical aspects of modeling thermal emission from Europa's subsurface but does not provide any direct evidence or implications regarding the potential for life in its subsurface ocean. It focuses on data analysis and modeling techniques without addressing biological implications or conditions suitable for life.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: In the next comment section, we develop the rationale behind our analysis of CS+ elicited behavior. 2, to test the prediction regarding the role of DA in PIT, they should test the interaction between 3 factors (CNO vs. Vehicle; mCherry vs. hM4Di and pre vs. post CS+). By the way, why using the pre/post CS+ when there is a CS- condition, which seems a priori as a better reference for assessing the specificity of the Pavlovian effects of the CS+, as opposed to general effect of having a stimulus? Looking at the data, CNO abolishes the increase in responding evoked by the CS+, and the major difference between mCherry and hM4Di is in the pre CS+ period… If the authors really want to take into trial to trial variability, they could use a relative measure (pre vs. post, on a trial by trial basis) but compare the effect of CS+ with the effect of CS- to assess PIT, and the influence of the various manipulations. As requested by the reviewer, we have included a description of the significant Drug (CNO vs. Vehicle) x Group (mCherry vs. hM4Di) x CS period (pre vs. CS) interaction for CS+ trials (i. e. , omitting CS- trials) (t(120) = -2. 53, p =. 013) in the Results section (subsection “Inhibiting dopamine neurons during Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer preferentially disrupts cue-motivated reward seeking, but not reward retrieval”, third paragraph), which further supports the conclusion that inhibiting VTA dopamine neurons suppressed the ability of the CS+ to stimulate lever pressing. We agree with the reviewer that the CS- is an essential control for evaluating the behavioral effects of the CS+ that specifically depend on that cue’s relationship with reward. However, it is not sufficient to simply contrast levels of responding during CS+ and CS- presentations without controlling for local baseline rates of responding during pre-CS periods. This is particularly important in PIT studies because lever press rates fluctuate sporadically due to the lack of reinforcement at test. For this reason, virtually all PIT studies control for pre-CS response levels (Holmes et al. , 2010; Cartoni et al. , 2016). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the effects of inhibiting dopamine neurons in the context of Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer (PIT). It specifically states that inhibiting VTA dopamine neurons 'suppressed the ability of the CS+ to stimulate lever pressing,' which indicates that dopamine is critical for the reward-seeking behavior associated with the CS+. Additionally, the text's focus on the relationship of the conditioned stimuli (CS+ and CS-) with reward processing directly aligns with the importance of dopamine in these motivational processes.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: Previous study has reported similar practices describing the fact that such secret and verbal transfer make the indigenous knowledge or ethnomedicinal knowledge vulnerable to distortion and in most cases some of the lore may be lost at each point of transfer [8]. This has called for the high need for systematic documentation of such useful knowledge [8, 38]. The community in the study area had their own set of orally transmitted knowledge on health and medicinal use of many plant species. It was noted that the local communities had rich indigenous knowledge that was still beneficial to their livelihoods including health and food. Informants’ consensus values obtained from this study were found to be high indicating the deep-rooted indigenous knowledge maintained among local people in practicing and utilizing traditional medicine. However, some differences in this indigenous knowledge were noted across age and sex. Informants from the elder age group (greater than 45 years) were more knowledgeable than the youngsters. They could identify more medicinal plants and gave detailed descriptions related to the associated indigenous knowledge. This was expected as elders have developed better experiences and skills on the use and management of medicinal plants over years. In agreement with this result, members of the age group above 40 identified more medicinal plants than their younger counterparts (≤4 0 years) among the Zay people in East Shoa, Oromia, Ethiopia [6]. A similar observation was also reported by many others [10, 39, 33]. In general, the result obtained during this study showed that knowledge on medicinal plants increased as the age of the informants increased and it was directly proportional to age increment in agreement with previous reports [40, 41, 10, 42] but disagrees with reports by few in which elders at higher ages were found to have less indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants use than the younger age groups [e. g. , 35]. The vivid reason for elders to be more knowledgeable than their younger counterparts could be due to the personal experience they developed in using these plants since old times. Traditional healers keep their indigenous knowledge as top secret for reasons related to curative power of the medicine and values. Furthermore, Traditional healers show herbal medicine and transfer their knowledge and skill to their family member (most of the time to the oldest son) at their older ages. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by noting that the indigenous knowledge or ethnomedicinal knowledge can be vulnerable to distortion, indicating that knowledge about medicinal plants is not universally effective or reliable. Furthermore, it highlights that knowledge on medicinal plants is variable among different age groups, suggesting that while older individuals might have more knowledge on medicinal uses, this does not guarantee that all plants they identify are effective for modern ailments. The existence of differing reports and the mention of traditional healers keeping their knowledge secret also imply that not all traditional medicinal practices can be wholly trusted or are effective.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: Finally, an additional scale factor on the order of 10 was multiplied to the imaginary part of the index of refraction—derived from the complex dielectric constant using a mixture of snow, dust, and ice properties—such that emission from Europa's subsurface was properly modeled with depth and porosity. This factor was derived empirically through comparisons of the χ2 values over our porosity grid range and a range of scale factors from 1 to 30, and the corresponding increase in the imaginary portion of the index of refraction brought our model values to between 1 × 10−4 and 1 × 10−3, in agreement with the range of values measured for cold (<200 K) water ice at millimeter wavelengths (see Warren1984; Matzler & Wegmuller 1987; Mätzler 1998, and 3. 3 of de Kleer et al. (2021a) for the derivation of keff. ρeff, the effective density, is a function of the surface density (ρs ) and porosity: ρeff(p) = ρs × (1 − p). Finally, cp (Teff) is the effective heat capacity. However, the porosity models incorporate the change in thermal emission as a function of depth throughout the subsurface, and are thus more physically realistic; furthermore, we tested porosity for each ALMA frequency band and hemisphere independently to determine if a compaction length could be readily derived from the resulting porosity values. This is discussed further in Section 4. 4. Results and DiscussionThe residuals from the best-fit models are shown in Figures 2 and 3 for the leading and trailing hemispheres, respectively, with projections of Europa's surface terrain for reference. 10 The best-fit values for porosity models and their corresponding emissivity values, as well as the converted Γeff for each porosity, are given in Table 2. Reset image size Figure 2. Top: Residuals (data-model) for single, hemispheric best-fit porosity values for Europa's leading hemisphere (∼90°W longitude) from Band 3 (97. 5 GHz/3. 05 mm; (A)), Band 6 (233 GHz/1. 25 mm; (B)), and Band 7 (343. 5 GHz/0. 88 mm; (C)). All images are aligned with Europa's north pole along the vertical axis. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text passes in relevance to the claim as it discusses technical aspects of modeling the subsurface properties of Europa, including factors like porosity and thermal emission. However, it does not provide any information regarding the potential for life in Europa's subsurface ocean or the conditions that may be suitable for life.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: We believe that the critical question to ask when evaluating such data is whether CNO produced an effect in -free rats that accounts for the main findings, as is common in related studies (Augur et al. , 2016; Laurent et al. , 2016; Marchant et al. , 2016; Campese et al. , 2017; Lichtenberg et al. , 2017; Alcaraz et al. , 2018; Hsu et al. , 2018; Collins et al. , in press). Our findings demonstrate that this was not the case. Separate issue, but as I mentioned above, describing what is essentially compulsive/habitual lever pressing as 'exploratory seeking' does not help. As noted above, we have omitted this terminology. Given these, I am not sure that any of the conclusions regarding the role of DA really stands. Again, the experimental design as a whole is excellent, I believe, and the results are interesting in terms of clarifying the neural and behavioral processes at stake in PIT, but ample revision are needed. We thank the reviewer for these constructive comments and hope that our extensive revisions have adequately addressed their concerns. Reviewer #3: This is a very interesting and cleverly-designed study that parses our how mesocorticolimbic dopamine (DA) transmission may be involved in the ability of Pavlovian cues to invigorate reward seeking, using a well-established Pavlovian-to-Instrumental transfer test. approaches to silence dopamine cell bodies they show that suppressing DA activity blocks or attenuates the PIT effect. Moreover, this appeared to be mediated primarily by DA activity in the accumbens, but not prefrontal cortex. What was particularly important about these findings is that the authors conducted a sophisticated microstructural analysis of behavior, focusing on how often rats may approach the food cup (as a measure of reward expectancy). This analysis showed that, even though reducing DA activity suppressed the increase in lever pressing induced by Pavlovian, reward-associated cues, it did not affect approaches to the food cup, suggesting that DA's role in this context is to enhance motivation, but not reward expectancy. They also showed that reducing DA activity did not influence how reinforcer devaluation altered responding. This is a well-designed study that has important implications for teasing out what DA does (and does not do) in modulating reward seeking. The analyses are sound, and the Discussion is fair and scholarly. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how mesocorticolimbic dopamine (DA) transmission is involved in reward seeking, particularly through the Pavlovian-to-Instrumental transfer (PIT) test. It states that suppressing DA activity blocks or attenuates the PIT effect, indicating that dopamine plays a significant role in enhancing motivation for reward-seeking behaviors. Furthermore, the finding that reducing DA activity did not affect approaches to the food cup suggests that while DA contributes to motivation, its effects on reward expectancy may differ, thereby reinforcing the essential role of dopamine in motivation and reward processing.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: Many ethnobotanical studies from different parts of Ethiopia and other countries have reported similar challenges and lack of systematic documentation and transfer of the rich indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants including their management and use [41, 43, 6, 38, 30, 44]. The documented data in this study showed that male informants identified more medicinal species than female informants. This could be due to the fact that most of the time women spend more time at their home for keeping their children and taking care of activities near to homestead and therefore, have limited chance to visit far away wild ecosystems and learn about the diverse uses of medicinal plants found in such wild ecosystems. Similar finding was reported from District in zone in which women were found to be more knowledgeable on medicinal plants collected from home gardens and men had better knowledge on species collected from the wild [33]. Similarly, the average number of medicinal plants identified by females was less than that identified by males in of State, Ethiopia [38]. On the other hand, there was no difference between indigenous knowledge of men and women informants on the use of medicinal plants in s in District, of Tigray, Ethiopia [45]. However, we believe that there exist differences in indigenous knowledge on management and use of medicinal plants across sex due to different occupations and exposures of men and women in rural communities of developing countries. result of this study revealed that leaves were the most commonly used plant parts accounting for 51. 81% of the total, followed by roots (20. 48%). Previous study reports from different parts of Ethiopia [6, 46, 47, 48, 33] also documented that leaves followed by roots were the most common plant parts used to treat various health problems. On the other hand, in some studies roots were as the most widely used plant parts [10, 49, 37]. Community of the study area prepared most of the remedies from single plants which accounts for 63 (75. 90%) and preparation from combined plant species accounting for 20 (24. 01%) of the remedies. The result was in agreement with the findings [50, 10] in which the single plant preparations were reported to be high. However, this report disagreed with the other reports [6, 34] in which the combined plant materials were reported to have high proportion in herbal preparation. Among various popular methods of the herbal medicine preparation practiced by herbalists of the study area, crushing, pounding and homogenizing in water was the most common method accounting for about 24. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the challenges in systematically documenting the efficacy of medicinal plants, especially highlighting that there are variations in knowledge about these plants between different groups. The data illustrates that while many traditional plants are used, there are disagreements regarding their effectiveness, as some studies indicate that single plant preparations are more common while others suggest combined materials may be more effective. This variability in use and knowledge implies that not all traditional medicinal plants may be effective for modern ailments, thereby contradicting the overarching claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: Bottom: Residual contours are plotted on projected image maps of Europa's surface from the USGS Voyager and Galileo SSI composite map. Positive temperature contours are shown as redscale, solid lines; negative contours are in bluescale, dashed lines. Contour levels increase in increments of 3σ (rms noise varies between observation, on the order of 0. 1–1 K). The approximate locations of leading hemisphere regiones are denoted for reference in panel (D). Download figure:Standard image High-resolution image Reset image size Figure 3. Top: Residuals (data-model) for single, hemispheric best-fit porosity values for Europa's trailing hemisphere (∼270°W longitude) from Band 3 (A), Band 6 (B)–(C), and Band 7 (D). Note the different colorbars between the three ALMA bands. All images are aligned with Europa's north pole along the vertical axis. Bottom: Residual contours are plotted on projected image maps of Europa's surface from the USGS as in Figure 2. Contour levels increase in increments of 3σ, e. g. , 3× the image rms noise. The approximate locations of regiones and Pwyll crater are denoted for reference in panels (E) and (H). Download figure:Standard image High-resolution image Unlike in the work of Camarca et al. (2023) regarding Callisto, we were able to achieve a good fit to the data (i. e. , a single parameter set produced a global χ2 minimum and significantly smaller residuals than other models) using only a single porosity or thermal inertia value for each ALMA image. The temperature residuals from the best-fit model were on the order of, or slightly lower than, those found by Trumbo et al. (2018) for Europa in ALMA Band 6 (1. 25 mm). Though de Kleer et al. (2021a) tested a simultaneous fit to all Ganymede longitudes to retrieve porosity values, we attempted to fit individual images to investigate potential differences between the leading and trailing hemispheres. We report a distinct difference between the best-fit properties for each imaged hemisphere. The images targeting the leading hemisphere yield porosities that decrease from ∼70% to 50% from observations at λ = 0. 88 and 1. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address or provide any information relevant to the claim about Europa's subsurface ocean potentially harboring conditions suitable for life. Instead, it discusses modeling and temperature contours of Europa's surface and the differences in imaging data between its leading and trailing hemispheres. Therefore, it is marked as irrelevant.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: As noted in our response to a similar comment by reviewer #2, we have revised the manuscript to acknowledge this potential nonspecific effect of CNO and provide evidence that this effect does not account for the attenuated CS+ elicited lever pressing produced by CNO in the hMD4i group (subsection “Inhibiting dopamine neurons during Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer preferentially disrupts cue-motivated reward seeking, but not reward retrieval”, third paragraph). 5) The authors use an interesting correlational analysis to try explain the variation in the accumbens CNO data. However, looking at the histology, there is also considerable variation in the placements of infusions, some in core, some in shell. This warrants some mention, and perhaps another analysis seeing if the effects were stronger in animals with placements located in one NAc subregion vs. another. We have looked closely at this issue. Unfortunately, variability in injector location did not help resolve variability in effect of CNO on PIT performance. This is not entirely surprising given previous findings that dopamine signaling in both core and shell may contribute to cue-motivated lever pressing (Lex and Hauber, 2008; Peciña and Berridge, 2013). We note this issue in the main text (subsection “Pathway-specific inhibition of dopamine projections to NAc, but not mPFC, disrupts cue-motivated reward seeking but not retrieval”, first paragraph). Additional 1625. (2018). Thalamocortical and corticothalamic pathways differentially contribute to goal directed behaviors in the rat. eLife 7. -(2016) of an Cue-of Cocaine Seeking. J Neurosci 36:10174-10180. Bertran-(2013). Learning related translocation of delta-opioid receptors on ventral striatal cholinergic interneurons mediates choice between goal-directed actions. J Neurosci 33:16060-16071. -(2017). of in Aversive Pavlovian-to Instrumental Transfer. eNeuro 4. (2016). Appetitive Pavlovian-instrumental Transfer: A review. R 71:829-848. (1990). Effect of reinforcer devaluation on discriminative control of instrumental behavior. 16:40-47. El-Amamy H, Holland PC (2007). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by discussing how dopamine signaling in both the core and shell of the nucleus accumbens contributes to cue-motivated lever pressing, which is directly related to reward processing and motivation. It highlights that the effects of dopamine are pertinent to understanding behaviors associated with reward seeking, thereby corroborating the importance of dopamine in these processes.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: 62% preparations, followed by chewing 9. 47% and tie on or hold on 8. 33%. This result was different from the finding that reported 32 (36. 4%) preparations were made in the form of powder, 29 (32. 9%) crushed and pounded materials, and 12 (11. 3%) in the form of chewing of plant parts for treatment of human health problems [49]. The most commonly used route of administration of herbal medicine in the study area was oral (62. 3%) followed by dermal (20. 7). Many studies agree with this finding of oral application as major route of application [51, 6, 32, 33]. For example, the most common (67. 19%) route of administration of traditional remedies in District, Oromia, Ethiopia was oral [32]. Summary of studies in Ethiopia showed that the leading route of application of all the reported herbal remedies was oral accounting for about 42% [52]. people obtain various services from the plants growing in their home gardens. According to this study 3 plant species in the home garden provided food and medicine, 4 were used as live fence, wind break and medicine and 2 used for medicine and construction purposes. This finding agrees with many previous studies [32]. Many of the home garden medicinal plants identified during this study were cultivated for other purposes but they were used as medicine when sudden sickness occurred. This observation was in agreement with previous study that reported only 6% of the plants maintained in home gardens in Ethiopia were primarily cultivated for their medicinal value even though many other plants grown for non-medicinal purposes turn out to be important medicines when some health problems are encountered [53]. According to the home garden owners, cultivation of home garden plants is their long-life practice. Even, some of them reported that they inherited their gardens from their parents. They also added that home garden has been very important source of their livelihood all the time particularly during the off set of rainy season. Practices of home garden were reported to be as old as agriculture in Ethiopia [54]. local communities in the study area had rich indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants, types of both human and livestock ailments for which these medicinal plants had been used, methods of preparations and route of applications. The use of medicinal plants continued to play a significant role in meeting healthcare needs still today due to their accessibility, curing ability, manageable charges, existence of deep indigenous knowledge and other associated cultural values. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that many plants grown for non-medicinal purposes can turn out to be important medicines under certain circumstances, stating that 'many other plants grown for non-medicinal purposes turn out to be important medicines when some health problems are encountered.' This suggests that not all plants used in traditional medicine are effective since many are not primarily cultivated for their medicinal value.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: 25 mm to λ = 3. 05 mm, while on the trailing hemisphere, slightly lower porosity values of 40%–50% were retrieved. (1), the above porosities represent a range of effective thermal inertiae from 56 to 184 J m −2 K−1 s−1/2. The upper and lower bounds on porosity—and as a result, the retrieved effective thermal inertia and emissivity ranges—were determined through χ2 statistics as in other works (Hanus et al. 2015; de Kleer et al. 2021b; Cambioni et al. 2022), defining the representative range in which similar models provide sufficient solutions to the data with reference to the minimum χ2 model. These final results are summarized in Table 2. The emissivity values reported here are those of the material integrated over the viewing pathlength, as opposed to from the surface emission as determined through IR observations. We note that porosity and thermal inertia fits for data from ALMA Band 3 (λ = 3. 05 mm), in both hemispheres, showed very similar residual patterns; determining the best-fit parameters from χ2-minimization alone was not sufficient (i. e. , there was not a clear, global χ2 minimum) due to the similar residual patterns and relatively low S/N. As a result, the porosity values for observations at λ = 3. 05 mm are inferred through upper and lower bounds determined by the best-fit porosities from the λ = 0. 88 and 1. 25 mm data (under the assumption that porosity does not increase with depth), and the depth at which the electrical and thermal skin depths are equal, respectively. The latter bound is set due to the lack of significant thermal anomaly features observed in the λ = 3. 05 mm data compared to those in λ = 0. 88 and 1. 25 mm (see Figure 2, panels (A), (D), and Figure 3, panels (A), (E)), and the small effects that varying thermal inertia and porosity models have on the residual fits; together, these properties indicate that the ALMA observations at λ = 3. 05 mm are sensitive to subsurface layers below a thermal skin depth, where diurnal temperature variations are significantly diminished. Further discussion is provided in 4. 1. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim regarding Europa's subsurface ocean harboring conditions suitable for life. It primarily discusses porosity, thermal inertia, and related statistical analysis of data without addressing the suitability of conditions for life.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: ScienceOpen: research and publishing networkFor PublishersDiscoveryMetadataPeer reviewin search My Sciencein Advanced search For PublishersDiscoveryMetadataPeer review14,737views831. AI and dACC are reciprocally connected, form part of the pain pathway at its top – evaluative processing level – and are commonly co-activated in the NoGo task (the inhibitory control task where the prepotent response must get inhibited at the occurrence of an infrequent cue). Figure 1. The competition between RPC and APC in choice behavior. Our model of value-based learning shows how the affective processing causes selection of good/valuable and deselection of bad/harmful choices by controlling DA and serotonin signaling in the brain. The implicit bias/inclination for the “Go for it” versus “Stop yourself – avoid it” response is learned in the motivational VS, through the potentiation of cortical glutamatergic synapses by DA increase (at D1 loop) or decrease (at D2 loop). RPC and APC are marked in green and in red, respectively. D1 and D2 neurons in VS are intermixed. The D1 neurons of VS disinhibit DA neurons by inhibiting the γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) interneurons in VTA. The indirect D2 loop (in orange) biases the choice selection toward inhibitory avoidance. The prefrontal projections of mediodorsal thalamus (MDT) enforce the representations of choices and goals in the working memory, as part of the cortico–striato–thalamo–cortical loop. DA source VTA is marked green and serotonin source (DRN) is marked in yellow. The projections with excitatory effects and inhibitory effects are in brown and gray, respectively. DA attenuates the output of the APC (in red) and potentiates that of the RPC (in green). Serotonin attenuates the AI, dand motivational D1 loop of VS, and enforces ventral ACC (vACC), SNc (via SNr), and GPe. anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) is involved in both willful and unconscious control of goal-directed behavior. Many studies demonstrated its activation by performance monitoring, negative feedback, and error detection – implying [1, 2] that it detects conditions under which errors are likely to occur. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how dopamine (DA) controls decision-making and motivation through its role in a model of value-based learning. It mentions that dopamine mediates the selection of valuable choices and the avoidance of harmful ones, which directly supports the idea that dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. Specifically, the text states that 'the implicit bias/inclination for the “Go for it” versus “Stop yourself – avoid it” response is learned in the motivational VS (ventral striatum), through the potentiation of cortical glutamatergic synapses by DA increase.' This demonstrates the essential role dopamine plays in driving motivational behaviors.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: The continuation of this knowledge was noted to be a clear indication of continued trust of the local communities on the efficacy of medicinal plants. However, this study showed that knowledge on herbal remedies was held by elder members of the community between 45–75 years of age. The decline in the use of medicinal plants by the younger generation may gradually lead to loss of indigenous knowledge associated with medicinal plant species. Traditional herbal preparation mostly involved using single plant and the mode of administration was mainly internal in which oral administration was the leading route. Indigenous knowledge of the local communities associated with the identification and use of medicinal plants should be encouraged, organized and promoted. Systemic documentation and protection of the rich knowledge of local communities and further research on selected potential medicinal plants were recommended as result of this study. interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. funded field data collection. Authors’ contributions MA involved in the study design, conducted interview, field work, literature review and general data collection and analysis and also wrote the first draft manuscript. GD secured funding for research work, supervised data collection and analysis, reviewed, revised and prepared the final manuscript. ZA gave guidance on data collection, supervised research work, data analysis and reviewed first draft. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. would like to thank key informants and other local community members of for their hospitality and kind response to inquiries during data collection. We also thank Agricultural and Office and for their administrative and technical support. We express our thanks to the Institute for financial support during data collection. Ethics approval and consent to participate Center for of University approved the study. Furthermore, Agriculture and Rural development Office wrote supportive letter to all concerned bodies. Local communities in the study area gave verbal consent before the commencement of data and specimen collection. 1995. 267 pp. . Plants, people and culture. The science of Ethnobotany. New York: Library; 1996. . Global importance of medicinal plants. of Medicinal Plants. Edited by. Press, Cambridge, U. K; 1991. Asfaw Z, Tadesse M. Prospects for and Development of plants in Ethiopia. Econ Bot. 2001;55(1):47–62. Defar G. Non-Products in Ethiopia. and Analysis for Management in ACP Countries-, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; 1998. . An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Zay people in Ethiopia. J Ethno Pharmacol. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that while local communities have trust in the efficacy of medicinal plants, there is a recognition that knowledge about these plants is primarily held by older generations. This raises questions about the effectiveness of these traditional remedies for modern ailments, especially considering the decline in usage among younger generations. It suggests that not all plants utilized in traditional medicine have been empirically validated for effectiveness against contemporary health issues, undermining the universality of the claim made.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: PropertiesThe weighted mean of our derived temperature and thermophysical properties are listed in Table 3. Our mean, disk-averaged brightness temperatures are compared to previous measurements of Europa at thermal wavelengths in Figure 4 (panel (A)). Measurements from each hemisphere are compared in Figure 4 (panel (B)). We observe an increasing divergence in hemispheric brightness temperature with wavelength (decreasing frequency in Figure 4, panel (B)), though this trend is only significant at lower frequencies (Band 3; λ = 3. 05 mm). Temperatures derived from the ALMA λ = 0. 88 and 1. 25 mm observations are in good agreement with previous measurements from the IRAM 30 m telescope (Altenhoff et al. 1988) and SMA data acquired between 2008 and 2022 (Gurwell et al. , private communication) at similar wavelengths. The SMA measurements show a similar hemispheric disparity to our ALMA Band 6 observations, and corroborate the decrease in brightness temperature with wavelength (Gurwell et al. , private communication). It is unclear what the exact central longitude of Europa was during the observations of Altenhoff et al. (1988), but it appears to be of Europa's leading to antiJovian hemisphere (∼90°W–180°W), and is similar to both ALMA and SMA measurements of the leading hemisphere. Our measurements at λ = 3. 05 mm are lower than those found by Muhleman & Berge (1991) with the OVRO, although the value shown in Figure 4 (panel (A)) from that study corresponds to the trailing hemisphere of Europa, which is more in line with our measurements than for the leading hemisphere. Further observations with ALMA Band 4 and 5 (125–211 GHz; 1. 4–2. 4 mm) and the VLA could help determine if the observed hemispheric disparity is consistent with the λ = 3. 05 mm observations and persists down to ∼m depths. VLA observations at additional Europa longitudes would make for interesting comparisons with previous analyses by de Pater et al. (1984), Butler (2012), and Muhleman et al. (1986). Reset image size Figure 4. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses various temperature measurements and properties of Europa, along with comparisons to previous studies, but it does not mention anything about the existence of a subsurface ocean or whether it could harbor conditions suitable for life. Therefore, the text is irrelevant to the claim being analyzed.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: 0 which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Conditions, terms of use and publishing policy can be found at www. scienceopen. com. count Figures: 2, Tables: 0, 1. The paper provides sample of 108 referenced evidences, in addition few mental disorders and their circuit-based mechanisms are showed as important evidence for proposed affective circuit connectivity and properties. 2. The majority of literature data on value-based decision making are in agreement with the proposed ideas. Some evidence is from anatomical connectivity, some from functional studies, some from mental disorders involving dopamine and serotonin dysfunctions. This is theoretical paper which combines any kind of available data on dopaminergic and serotonergic system in humans. It is not a review paper. and there is no space for reviewing all the evidence. Just the sufficient information to show how the affective circuit works. 3. There was no space to add suggested facts into our paper, possibly we can elaborate our simple circuit in future. 4. This paper does not include secondary intracellular cascades, neither transcription factors and control of gene expression. I have no training in cellular neuroscience, my field is decision making, prefrontal cortex functions and value-based control of human behaviour. The paper gives sufficient evidence for the predictive power of proposed ideas and serves as useful functional map for more targeted drug development in psychopharmacology field. . 2015-02-23 22:13 UTC+1Karin Vadovičová wrote:Author's response to the Reviewer's comment that "Depressed patients with presumably low serotonin levels have frequently addictive behaviours with presumably low ARC finding and total absence of inhibitory avoidance. " The Reviewer's line is not in contradiction with our circuit based model of affective processing. We proposed that low serotonin in the brain causes disinhinbition of motivational D1 loop of ventral striatum, leading to impulsive choice of immediate rewards in spite of negative consequences linked to them (for example loss of health, relationships and money). Depressed people have low dopamine baseline, so only the most strongly rewarding choices are strong enough to win in the ventral striatum over the overstimulated D2 loop linked with inhibitory avoidance output. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how low dopamine levels in depressed individuals lead to impulsive choices of immediate rewards, indicating the crucial role dopamine plays in reward processing. It states that ‘Depressed people have low dopamine baseline, so only the most strongly rewarding choices are strong enough to win in the ventral striatum,’ which supports the idea that dopamine is essential for both motivation and processing rewards.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: Medicinal plants used by traditional healers to treat malignancies and other human ailments in eeOpen access Published: 14 February 2018 Medicinal plants used by traditional healers to treat malignancies and other human ailments in : orcid. org/0000-0002-9474-45741,2, Beyene Petros2 & Zemede Asfaw3 Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 35. 2%); while 64. 7% were retrieved from the wild habitat. Leaves were the main part of the MPs used (42. 9%), followed by fruits/seeds (13%); all preparations were made from fresh materials and about 27. 9% involved boiling. The frequent route of delivery was oral (77. 9%), followed by dermal (17. 6%). About 40. 8% of the MPs were used for treating two or more ailments. About 19. 7% of the MPs were used to treat malignancies (ICF = 0. 86) among which the plant species Sideroxylon oxyacanthum was the most frequently used (FL = 70%). The species Podocarpus falcatus and Hagenia abyssinica were preferred to treat jaundice and deworm in helminthiases, respectively. ConclusionThe study area is very rich in plant biodiversity, and the herbal medicine is an integral part of the traditional healthcare system. The MPs are exposed to various destructive anthropogenic activities, and this situation calls for integrated conservation measures. Furthermore, the rich ethnomedicinal knowledge held by the Sidama community at large and TM practitioners, in particular, needs an in-depth study and documentation. Investigations of the MPs with high ICF, FL, and UVs to malignancies, jaundice, and helminthiases could possibly contribute to future drug development efforts. BackgroundEthiopia is known for its ancient civilization and is home to people of diverse ethnolinguistic backgrounds [1]. It stretches from about 120 m below sea level (the in the Afar depression) to 4543 m above sea level (the highest peak of mountain) [2, 3]. This feature had its share for the creation of varied ecosystems and a high diversity of vascular plants (about 6027 species) with 10% endemism [4,5,6,7]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim as it discusses specific medicinal plants used traditionally, noting that only a subset of these were used for treating malignancies, jaundice, and helminthiases, suggesting that not all traditional plants are effective for modern ailments. Furthermore, it indicates that investigations into certain medicinal plants can contribute to drug development, implying that effectiveness is not guaranteed for all plants in traditional medicine.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: (A) Comparison of Europa's disk-averaged brightness temperatures as a function of frequency from ALMA (weighted averages from this work; purple), other radio/(sub)millimeter facilities including the VLA (de Pater et al. 1984; Muhleman et al. 1986; Butler 2012), the IRAM 30 m dish (Altenhoff et al. 1988), the SMA (Gurwell et al. 2024, private communication), OVRO (Muhleman & Berge 1991), and infrared measurements using SOFIA (de Pater et al. 2021a) and the (de Pater et al. 1989). Predictions of the maximum surface temperatures at visible wavelengths from Morrison et al. (1977) are shown in black. (B) Brightness temperatures as a function of frequency in the (sub)millimeter wavelength regime from both the leading (crosses) and trailing (diamonds) hemispheres as measured by ALMA (this work; purple) and the SMA (Gurwell et al. 2024, private communication; red). Data from the IRAM 30 m telescope are also shown (Altenhoff et al. 1988; blue). Download figure:Standard image High-resolution image Table 3. ΓEff. EmissivityBand(cm)(K)(%)(J m−2 K−1 s−1/2) 3 (3. 05 mm)∼0. 5–178. 19 ± 2. 77 0. 80 ± 0. 036 (1. 25 mm)∼1. 5–379. 78 ± 2. 4664 ± 876 ± 250. 85 ± 0. 027 (0. 87 mm)∼10–2087. 22 ± 3. 3952 ± 7130 ± 270. 80 ± 0. 04 Note. Properties listed are the weighted average of those detailed in Table 2. Download table as: imageIn contrast to the brightness temperatures derived for the other (see, e. g. , de Kleer et al. 2021a; de Pater et al. 2021a, and Camarca et al. 2023 for recent work and literature comparisons) and Pluto (Lellouch et al. 2016), those measured at Europa do not appear to be monotonically increasing as a function of frequency (Figure 4, panel (A)). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not provide any information regarding the conditions of Europa's subsurface ocean or its potential to harbor life. Instead, it deals with brightness temperatures and frequency measurements related to Europa and comparisons with other celestial bodies, which are unrelated to the viability of life in Europa's subsurface ocean.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: Moreover, evidence for impaired model-based vs intact model-free control in PD (first evidenced by de Wit et al. in JoCN) is not directly relevant here, given the fairly wide gap between the type of inference that is measured in e. g. the two-step task and similar other learning tasks and the contingent reward motivation manipulation measured here. We have shifted our focus away from “model-based vs model-free” and acknowledge that our task does not help understand the traditional distinction between forward planning vs reinforcement learning. We now clarify that the task is probing motivation through action-outcome knowledge, and is related to Pavlovian vs instrumental drives (see response to point 4 for pasted text). Some of these conclusions (e. g. (i)) also counter the hypothesis put forward later in the discussion and illustrated in Figure 6 about the two forms of motivation implicating distinct dopaminergic mechanisms. We have adjusted these claims, and believe the new literature added to the discussion fits with the proposal of two separate systems. 6) Two sets of literature that are directly relevant to this research are absent from the manuscript and need to be incorporated. • The first is (pharmacological and lesion) evidence from work with experimental rodents, but also humans, on dopamine's role in the Pavlovian control of behavior, e. g. on conditioned reinforcement (Parkinson et al; Taylor and Robbins), Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer (Dickinson et al. , 2001; Wyvell and Berridge, 2000; Talmi et al. , 2008), autoshaping, goal vs sign tracking etcetera. • The second is prior evidence for enhanced effects of reward motivation in PD patients OFF but not ON meds in a manner that depends on dopamine cell loss (Aarts et al. , 2012 and Timmer et al. , 2018). should reflect this prior evidence. In fact, the rationale for the current study is strengthened by the apparent discrepancy between this evidence for enhanced motivation in PD OFF meds (somewhat reminiscent of paradoxical kinesia) and the evidence previously obtained by the authors for reduced motivation in PD OFF meds. We thank the reviewers for pointing out these highly relevant bodies of literature. We have rewritten the Introduction to reflect this, and added them to the Discussion (see above): “Contingent rewards motivate us because we understand the causal relation between successful actions and reward. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing dopamine's role in various forms of motivation, particularly within the contexts of reward processing and behavioral control. It references research on 'Pavlovian control of behavior' and mentions the impact of dopamine on 'conditioned reinforcement' and 'Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer', indicating that dopamine is pivotal in motivating actions related to rewards. Furthermore, it highlights evidence showing enhanced motivation in patients with Parkinson's Disease related to dopamine levels, underscoring its importance in motivational mechanics.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: More than 1000 plant species have so far been reported for use in Ethiopia’s traditional herbal medicine, and about 33 of these species are endemic to the country [8, 9]. Ethiopia is one of the six plant-rich countries of Africa where about 60% of the plants are said to be indigenous and most of them with healing potential [10]. Jansen [11] had once stated that almost all plants of the Ethiopian flora are used medicinally in different parts of the country in one way or the other. In Ethiopia, over 70% of the people depend on traditional medicines (TMs) for their healthcare, and more than 95% of the preparations are made from plant origin [12, 13]. According to various reports, local people in rural Ethiopia mostly rely on TMs for healthcare services and others revert to TM when modern health services fail due to various reasons [14]. Dissatisfaction with modern medicines and lack of their efficacy, especially in the cases of certain human ailments including cancer, liver diseases, herpes zoster, eczema, swelling, and hemorrhoids, were some of the reasons that traditional healing systems were preferred over conventional medicines [15]. There are case reports of TMs being the preferred treatment options for the early stages of some diseases, including malignancies [16]. In Ethiopia, environmental degradation, deforestation, intermittent drought, and various anthropogenic activities are threatening the natural resources in general, and MPs are most affected. A few ethnobotanical studies undertaken in Sidama Zone, where the present study was conducted, showed that TM is an integral part of the healthcare system of the Sidama people [17,18,19]. This corroborates the national report on TM use in healthcare [12, 20]. The hypothesis for the present study emerged from observations on the long history of use of herbal medicine to treat human ailments by traditional healers (THs) among the Sidama people. It was deemed necessary to retrieve essential ethnobotanical information from the THs before the MP resources and the associated indigenous knowledge are lost. Therefore, we hypothesized that the THs that provide treatment for various human ailments have valuable knowledge about the traditional MPs used to treat various malignancies, jaundice, and helminthiases. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting that while traditional medicine, including various plant species, is widely used in Ethiopia, there is dissatisfaction with modern medicines due to their lack of efficacy for certain ailments. Specifically, it mentions that some people prefer traditional healing systems when modern health services fail, indicating that not all plants used in traditional medicine may be universally effective for modern ailments. Furthermore, it discusses a reliance on traditional medicine for treating specific diseases, implying variability in effectiveness.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: However, new measurements at frequencies <10 GHz are needed to confirm the discrepancies and large uncertainties found in early VLA observations (de Pater et al. 1984; Muhleman et al. 1986). As noted in previous works (e. g. , de Kleer et al. 2021a), the decrease in brightness temperature measured with descending frequency across the ALMA wavelength range is indicative of the colder temperatures at depth where both the thermal inertia increases and, in the case of our ALMA Band 3 measurements, the emission is sourced from below the thermal skin depth. We find the weighted averages of our leading and trailing hemisphere porosity values to range between 50% and 64%, corresponding to Γeff = 76–140 J m−2 K−1 s−1/2 (Table 3). Our emissivity values are toward the higher end of the range found by Trumbo et al. (2018) for ALMA Band 6 (0. 67–0. 84), while our Band 6 value (both globally and, in particular, on the leading hemisphere) is more toward that derived by the and Radiometer (IRIS) instrument for the surface (0. 9; Spencer 1987). It is reasonable, however, that the measured (sub)millimeter emissivity is lower than those derived from infrared measurements, as has been found with other objects (Lellouch et al. 2016; Brown & Butler 2017; Lellouch et al. 2017; de Kleer et al. 2021a). Comparisons of our globally averaged thermal inertia values to previous measurements of Europa and the other from the surface to ∼10 s of cm are listed in Table 4. A high porosity, low thermal inertia surface for Europa was initially inferred from ground-based eclipse observations at 10 μm (Hansen 1973), and a range of Γ = 40–150 J m−2 K−1 s−1/2 was found from the Galileo/PPR data across the surface (Spencer et al. 1999; Rathbun et al. 2010, 2014; Rathbun & Spencer 2020). 6 observations analyzed by Trumbo et al. (2018) resulted in a global average thermal inertia of 95 J m−2 K−1 s−1/2 and a typical range of ∼40–300 J m−2 K−1 s−1/2, when considered with their best-fit emissivity value of 0. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not provide any information directly related to the claim regarding the subsurface ocean on Europa and its potential for harboring life. It focuses on measurements addressing thermal inertia and emissivity, without discussing the implications for life-sustaining conditions.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: […] We tested the two predictions that dopamine is involved in motivation by expected rewards, and by contingent rewards. ” 7) The current version of the Introduction (as well as some of the discussion) is structured based a contrast between model-based versus Pavlovian control of behavior that does not do justice our understanding of these concepts from classic learning theory. For example, the statement that “Motivation by reward expectation, independent of what an agent does, is model-free” should be rephrased. Pavlovian control can be model-free or model-based (Dayan and Berridge, 2014, CABN or Bornstein and Daw, 2011, Neurobiol). Related to this is my issue with the conclusion in the Discussion (see above). We thank the reviewer for advising on these very relevant distinctions, which we now make in our narrative. We have rewritten the Introduction and the discussion to modify these claims. We had previously attempted to suggest that model-based reasoning could underlie the PD ON benefit, although we were not clear enough that this was only one possibility. We have refocused the paper on the more clear distinction between goal-directed action-outcome and Pavlovian stimulus-outcome associations (see responses above). 8) Some of the statistical choices need to be justified and, data presentation optimized. • The use of peak velocity residuals, corrected for amplitude, should be justified more clearly. We have justified this (please see response to point 2 above). • It would also be good to clarify the rationale for using these residuals rather than correcting the velocities for amplitude with a covariate of no interest e. g. in a trial-wise mixed linear regression analysis. We have added the following to the Materials and methods section, justifying our use of residuals in ANOVA: “To remove the main sequence effect of amplitude on velocity (Bahill et al. , 1975; Harris and Wolpert, 2006), we regressed velocity against amplitude and took the peak velocity residuals as our measure of interest. […] Our findings did not qualitatively change when we used the covariate approach instead. ” • The use of mixed linear modeling would allow both between- as well as within-subject variability to be taken into account. Was this considered? We planned in advance to use repeated measures ANOVA (i. e. a mixed linear model on the condition means). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the role of dopamine in motivation related to expected rewards. The mention of testing predictions about dopamine's involvement in motivation indicates that there is a recognized connection between dopamine and motivation in the context of reward processing.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: The opposite ones (plants with male reproductive structures) are considered poisonous or toxic and are not considered for remedy preparation. Diseases treated by the THsIt was recorded that more than 39 different human sicknesses were treated by the THs in the study area using remedies from MPs. The most widespread disease conditions in humans, according to the informants, include various forms of malignancies,Footnote 2 jaundice (especially in children), helminthiases, bacterial infections, malaria, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (e. g. , asthma and Usso—a stabbing chest pain), diarrhea, swelling, common cold, febrile illnesses (‘lammootta’ or ‘dingetegna’), toothache, gastritis, diabetes, various wounds, and unspecified headaches. A considerable proportion of MPs was found to be used to treat various forms of malignancies (19. 7%), non-infectious diseases (e. g. , diabetes, blood pressure, asthma, and gastritis) (13. 2%), and helminthiases (8. 5%). As explained by the THs, some disease conditions are understood, defined, and expressed in a unique way. The indigenous nature of the medical system in the area is evident from local terminologies applied to the diseases/illnesses and health status of people described by the THs and the community at large. For example, an acute ailment characterized by pain of the hip, irritation during urination, sweating, and loss of appetite is referred to as ‘arrisho’. A painful illness with fever and swelling on any part of the body, especially on the legs, is known as ‘Buutaame’. During treating this illness traditionally, the TM practitioner usually utters the words either fincami! (to mean “disappear”/“be vanished”) or dhoohi (to mean “burst out”) while deeply looking at the swelling. ‘Lammootta’ is an ailment characterized by acute febrile illness and sudden headache that could kill within 2 days if left untreated. Likewise, ‘usso’ is a characteristically severe disease condition with stabbing pain, which is accompanied by sweating and coughing. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that not all plants used in traditional medicine are effective. It specifies that some plants, particularly those with male reproductive structures, are considered poisonous or toxic and thus not used for remedy preparation. This suggests that effectiveness is not guaranteed for all traditional medicinal plants, opposing the claim that all such plants are effective for modern ailments.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: 75. These values fall within the range of the Galileo/PPR measurements, and our measured ALMA Band 6 average is similar to their best-fit, global thermal inertia value, despite differences between the models with regards to the treatment of subsurface emission. 7 average, though larger, still falls within the range of previously measured values, as well as those found by Trumbo et al. (2018) in various portions of the surface at slightly lower depths. The derived thermal inertia values from the ALMA observations fall closer to the higher thermal inertia component of the two-component model of Spencer (1987) using Voyager observations. Table 4. Inertiae of the Galilean SatellitesObjectΓ a Facility/Instrument2. 24 mMorrison & Cruikshank (1973) 50 ± 5Voyager/IRISSpencer (1987) 16 ± 2, 300 ± 200 (2C)⋯⋯ 70Galileo/PPRSpencer et al. (1999) 40 − 150⋯Rathbun et al. (2010) 95ALMATrumbo et al. (2018) 40–300⋯⋯ 87, 105 c Galileo/PPRRathbun & Spencer (2020) ALMA (Band 3)this work 76 ± 25ALMA (Band 6)⋯ 130 ± 27ALMA (Band 7)⋯ Ganymede14 ± 2, >300 (2C)Maunakea 2. 24 mMorrison & Cruikshank (1973) 70 ± 20Voyager/IRISSpencer (1987) 22 ± 2, 500 ± 100 (2C)⋯⋯ 16 ± 6, 1000 ± 500 (2C)⋯⋯ ALMA (Band 3)de Kleer et al. (2021a) ALMA (Band 6)⋯ ALMA (Band 7)⋯ Callisto10 ± 1, >300 (2C)Maunakea 2. 24 mMorrison & Cruikshank (1973) 50 ± 10Voyager/IRISSpencer (1987) 15 ± 2, 300 ± 200 (2C)⋯⋯ 600–1800ALMA (Band 7)Camarca et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses measurements of thermal inertia values for Europa and other Galilean satellites without addressing the subsurface ocean's potential for harboring life. The content focuses on scientific data and comparisons rather than biological implications or environmental conditions suited for life.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: can be motivated when reward depends on performance, or merely by the prospect of a guaranteed reward. Performance-dependent (contingent) reward is instrumental, relying on an internal action-outcome model, whereas motivation by guaranteed reward may minimise opportunity cost in reward-rich environments. Competing theories propose that each type of motivation should be dependent on dopaminergic activity. We contrasted these two types of motivation with a rewarded saccade task, in patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD). When PD patients were ON dopamine, they had greater response vigour (peak saccadic velocity residuals) for contingent rewards, whereas when PD patients were OFF medication, they had greater vigour for guaranteed rewards. These results support the view that reward expectation and contingency drive distinct motivational processes, and can be dissociated by manipulating dopaminergic activity. We posit that dopamine promotes goal-directed motivation, but dampens reward-driven vigour, contradictory to the prediction that increased tonic dopamine amplifies reward expectation. expend more effort when their actions can lead to rewards, as the value of the reward offsets the extra effort expended to attain them (Kool and Botvinick, 2018; Manohar et al. , 2015; Niv et al. , 2006; Shenhav et al. , 2017). They will even do so if the extra effort does not increase the reward they receive (Glaser et al. , 2016; Milstein and Dorris, 2007; Xu-Wilson et al. , 2009), indicating that mere expectation of reward is enough to justify the effort cost. Motivation, which promotes this effort expenditure, has two facets: it allows actions to be directed towards goals, and it energises our actions when rewards are expected (Niv et al. , 2006). These two aspects are not always coupled. For example, employees might be salaried, where a fixed reward is guaranteed irrespective of achievements, or they might receive merit-based pay that is contingent on meeting performance targets (Lazear, 2000). Contingent rewards motivate us because we understand the causal relation between successful actions and reward. This is instrumental, in that we apply knowledge of action-outcome associations. For instance, people must realise that merit-based pay depends on their performance for it to incentivise them. In animals, dopaminergic input to dorsal striatum is necessary for instrumental motivation (Lex and Hauber, 2010b). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how dopaminergic activity influences motivation and reward processing. It highlights that dopamine promotes goal-directed motivation and plays a role in performance-dependent and guaranteed reward scenarios, indicating that dopamine is integral to understanding how rewards are processed and how they drive motivation.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: Parts of the MPs used by healers for treating patientsThe study revealed that various parts of plants singly or in combinations were used to treat specific ailments in the area (Fig. 2 and Table 2), as explained by THs. Leaves were the most widely used part of MPs with 42. 9% usage followed by fruits/seeds (13%). Flowers and whole aerial parts of MPs (1. 3% each) were the least used for remedy preparation. Fig. 2Parts of MPs used by the TM practitioners of Megera and adjacent kebeles to treat various human illnesses (%)Full size imageMedicine preparation, routes of administration, and dosagePreparations of TMs from plant parts involved boiling (about 27. 9%), concoction (about 15. 5%), cold maceration, pounding, and decoction. All the TMs were prepared from fresh plant materials for immediate application, as healers believed that fresh materials are more efficacious than stored ones. Water was the most common solvent used, and in some preparations, honey (7. 4%), salt (2. 9%), and sugar (1. 5%) were added to it. The THs claimed that these additives either improve the flavor and taste or reduce the toxicity of the medicine. The most common route was oral (77. 9%) and this is followed by dermal application (17. 6%) (Fig. 3). Oral route involved drinking (64. 1%), eating (18. 9%), chewing (13. 2%), and drenching (3. 8%). Fig. 3Routes of delivery of the remedy by TM practitioners of the study areaFull size imageThe dosage of the remedy given by the THs was determined by inquiring about the age, fitness status, health history, the duration of the illness, presence or absence of pregnancy in women, and other related factors. In case of sensing possible overdosage, the THs recommend a cup of milk, which they believe to minimize possible side effect(s). The measurements of dosage reported include cup, fist, palm, spoon, drops, fingers, and any locally available measuring item. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the specific usage of various plant parts in traditional medicine (TM) for treating ailments, without establishing their effectiveness for modern ailments. It notes that leaves, fruits/seeds, and other parts of plants are used in TM practices, but does not provide evidence supporting their effectiveness in addressing modern ailments. Moreover, it emphasizes traditional preparation methods and beliefs about efficacy ('fresh materials are more efficacious than stored ones') rather than scientific validation of effectiveness.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: (2023) 15–50, 1200–2000 (2C)⋯⋯ Io38 ± 3, >300 (2C)Hale ObservatoryHansen (1973) 13 ± 4, >300 (2C)Maunakea 2. 24 mMorrison & Cruikshank (1973) 56, 5 d IRTFSinton & Kaminski (1988) 25, 100 d HSTKerton et al. (1996) 70Galileo/PPRRathbun et al. (2004) 40, 100 d Galileo/PPR⋯ 20 ± 10, 200 ± 50 d HST, Galileo/PPRWalker et al. (2012) 50 e Gemini/ (2016); de Pater et al. (2020) 320 e ALMet al. (2020) Notes. a Best-fit values or ranges across the surface are listed, depending on the data analyzed. Measurements represent the thermal inertia of Europa's surface in some instances (e. g. , infrared measurements) down to ∼10 s of cm (e. g. , ALMA Band 3). Models using 2 thermal inertia components are denoted as "2C," and include values for both model components. b The value for Europa in Morrison & Cruikshank (1973) was estimated only. c Values listed refer to proposed plume locations on Europa. d Values listed for Io correspond to frost and non-frost-covered surfaces. e Values derived for eclipse cooling of Io based on the Spectrograph (TEXES) instrument on the Gemini telescope (Tsang et al. 2016) and ALMA observations (de Pater et al. 2020). Download table as: imageOur retrieved values are consistent with previous studies indicating that Europa's surface is covered in young, refractory regolith that may extend down to >m depths, as probed by radar (Moore et al. 2009). From the range of previously derived thermal inertia values at ∼millimeter depths (Table 4), Europa likely has a more porous surface than what we find for the upper ∼10 s of cm, which changes to a less porous, higher thermal inertia subsurface within ∼10 s of mm. The relatively low spread of our porosity results—both in average and hemispheric quantities—indicates that Europa's subsurface porosity does not change significantly over the top ∼1–20 cm of regolith. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provides detailed measurements and analysis of Europa's surface and subsurface properties, discussing thermal inertia, porosity, and radar probing. However, it does not directly address the claim regarding the suitability for life in Europa's subsurface ocean. Therefore, the text is irrelevant to the claim about the conditions for life.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: , 2017), which reveals that both contingency and expectation can separately motivate behaviour, and that these effects are independent rather than correlated or antagonistic, suggesting distinct mechanisms. We used this incentivised saccade task (Manohar et al. , 2017) here to test PD patients ON and OFF their dopaminergic medication, along with healthy age-matched controls. We tested the two predictions that dopamine is involved in motivation by expected rewards, and by contingent rewards. promotes contingent motivation and attenuates reward-expectation motivation Participants made saccades to a target after hearing cues indicating how reward would be determined (Figure 1b). To measure motivation by contingent rewards, we compared trials where rewards were delivered depending on participants’ response times (Performance), to trials where rewards were given with 50% probability (Random). We matched the average reward rate so that both these conditions had identical reward expectation and uncertainty, and only differed in their contingency. To measure motivation by reward expectation, we compared trials with a guaranteed reward (10 p) to those with a guaranteed no-reward (0 p). In both these conditions rewards were delivered unconditionally, and only differed in terms of expected reward. We tested 26 PD patients ON and OFF dopaminergic medication (PD ON and PD OFF) and 29 healthy age-matched controls (HC) on a rewarded eye-movement task that separated effects of contingent and non-contingent motivation (see Figure 1a for task, see Table 1 for participant details). In all trials, feedback was given about whether the response was fast or slow, in addition to the reward received, to control for intrinsic motivation. A saccade’s velocity is tightly governed by its amplitude, a relation known as the ‘main sequence’ (Bahill et al. , 1975). To account for this, we regressed out the effect of amplitude on peak velocity leaving peak saccade velocity residuals as our main measure of response vigour (see Figure 1e), as in previous work (Blundell et al. , 2018; Manohar et al. , 2017; Muhammed et al. , 2020; Muhammed et al. , 2016; et al. , 1990). This measures how much faster each saccade is than the speed predicted from its amplitude. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how dopamine is involved in motivation by explaining that it promotes contingent motivation and influences reward-expectation motivation. The text describes an experiment that tests the involvement of dopamine in expected and contingent rewards, providing evidence that supports the idea that dopamine plays a crucial role in motivating behavior related to reward processing.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: The amount of the MP chewed, swallowed, eaten, or drenched and the duration of remedy application are inconsistent among the THs. Traditional MP species used for the treatment of malignancies, jaundice, and helminthiasesBased on the frequently reported diseases, identification and ranking of major MPs used for the treatment of various forms of malignancies/cancers, jaundice (especially in children), and deworming in helminthiases are summarized in Tables 4, 5, and 6. Table 4 lists 14 MPs used to treat malignancies, whereas Table 5 lists 5 MPs claimed to have anti-jaundice activity. Table 6 lists 6 MPs used to deworm in helminthiases, including Hagenia abyssinica, the well-known taenicide [34, 35]. Table 4 MPs used to treat various forms of malignancies in Megera and adjacent kebelesFull size tableTable 5 MPs used to treat jaundice in Megera and adjacent kebelesFull size tableTable 6 MPs used to deworm in helminthiases in Megera and adjacent kebelesFull size tableThe analysis of p0. 97 and the lowest 0. 86 for malignancies/cancer, according to the THs (Table 10). Table 10 Results of informants consensus factor (ICF) for most prevalent human illnesses in Megera and adjacent kebelesFull size tableMPs with high comparative advantages against malignanciesFrom among the most frequent diseases where patients in the study area usually showed more p11. It can be seen that Sideroxylon oxyacanthum was picked as the best TM to treat malignancies followed by Zanthoxylum chalybeum. Bersama abyssinica was the least popularly picked MP among the topmost species. In both preference ranking and pair-wise comparison matrices, two plant species were topping the lists, Sideroxylon oxyacanthum and Zanthoxylum chalybeum, and these species were also among those that had high informant consensus. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by presenting evidence that traditional medicine (TM) species used for various ailments show inconsistencies in their application. Specifically, it mentions that the duration of remedy application and the amount of traditional medicine used are inconsistent among traditional healers (THs). This suggests that not all plants used in traditional medicine can be deemed effective for modern ailments, as effectiveness may vary. The text also highlights a ranking of medicinal plants, indicating variability in efficacy, which undermines the claim that all such plants are effective.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: However, the derivation of a compaction length scale (as was done for Ganymede by de Kleer et al. 2021a) may be possible with future ALMA studies at other frequencies. We find that the Γeff values are lower than those found for Ganymede and Callisto in the near subsurface (de Kleer et al. 2021a; Camarca et al. 2023), and like Ganymede in being much lower than solid ice (Γ = 2000 J m−2 K−1 s−1/2). Though thermal inertia values of the surfaces are generally larger than those of the icy Saturnian satellites as found by the (CIRS; Howett et al. 2010, 2014, 2016; Ferrari 2018), Cassini microwave observations of Iapetus and Rhea reveal elevated thermal inertiae (Γ>100) at depths of a few meters (et al. 2014; Bonnefoy et al. 2020; et al. 2023). The thermal inertiae derived for both the Galilean and Saturnian satellites at depth are larger still than those found for Pluto, Charon, Centaurs, Trans-Neptunian Objects, and main-belt asteroids using Herschel, ALMA, and the VLA, where typically Γ < 30 J m−2 K−1 s−1/2 or even of order unity (Keihm et al. 2013; Lellouch et al. 2016, 2017). 4. 2. Fitting for the properties of each ALMA integration independently allowed us to investigate the previously observed differences between Europa's leading and trailing hemispheres at ∼cm depths. Although these differences are rendered somewhat minor due to the large uncertainties, we indeed find differences in the measured brightness temperature and best-fit porosity between each hemisphere across ALMA frequency bands (Table 2, Figure 4, panel (B)); the conversion from porosity to Europa's effective thermal inertia (Equation (1)) makes this dichotomy more apparent. We generally find that Europa's trailing subsurface is warmer and less porous—or with elevated Γeff—compared to the leading hemisphere. While our hemispheric porosity and thermal inertia models do not provide perfect fits to the data, the single value porosity models yield residuals often <5 K. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim regarding conditions suitable for life in Europa's subsurface ocean. It discusses thermal inertia and porosity measurements of Europa's hemispheres but does not mention life, its potential, or any related environmental conditions.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: **=p < 0. 01 (independent samples t-test). ACE = Addenbrooke’s Cognitive Exam, AMI = Apathy and = and Depression scores (A and D given separately), BDI-II = Inventory-II, FSS = -III = Unified Parkinson’s disease rating scale Part 3, performed ON and OFF medication, LED = Equivalent Dose, # on agonists = number of patients taking dopamine agonists in addition to levodopa. PDHCNumber2629Age67. 69 (1. 48)67. 41 (6. 83)Gender (M:F)19:715:14ACE93. 04 (6. 47)97. 10 (2. 11)**AMI1. 48 (0. 56)1. 28 (0. 47)HADS-A2. 92 (2. 92)4. 29 (2. 79)HADS-D2. 50 (1. 84)2. 17 (1. 83)BDI-II4. 90 (3. 60)5. 84 (3. 78)FSS3. 19 (1. 21)3. 02 (1. 03)UPDRS-III ON26. 69 (9. 20)N/-35. 04 (11. 17)N/ALED490. 23 (324. 28)N/A# on agonists6N/A Dopaminergic medication significantly modulated how contingent and guaranteed motivation affected motor vigour (Figure 2a, three-way interaction on peak velocity residuals, p=0. 0023; see Table 2 for statistics). This was because, when ON medication, patients were motivated by contingency but not reward expectation (separate two-way ANOVA in PD ON: contingency*motivation, p=0. 0170; see Supplementary file 1A), whereas after overnight withdrawal of medication there was a borderline significant interaction in the opposite direction, as PD OFF were motivated by reward expectation but not contingency (: p=0. 0501; Supplementary file 1A). This indicates that when PD patients were ON medication, motivation was strongest when reward was contingent on performance, but when they were OFF medication, patients were motivated by guaranteed rewards. Figure 2 Download asset Open asset Differential effects of dopamine on two types of motivation. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by demonstrating that dopaminergic medication significantly affects motivation and how it interacts with reward processing in patients. Specifically, it states that when patients are ON medication, their motivation was strongest when rewards were contingent on performance, which aligns with the idea that dopamine is critical for reward processing and motivation. Furthermore, the text indicates that the effects of dopamine vary depending on whether the patients are on or off medication, thus emphasizing its crucial role in motivation and reward mechanisms.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: Table 11 Pairwise comparison of MPs used to treat malignanciesFull size tableFidelity level of anticancer herbal medicinesThe proportion of informants claiming the widespread use of Sideroxylon oxyacanthum, Zanthoxylum chalybeum, and Dovyalis abyssinica against malignancies was 70% for Sideroxylon oxyacanthum, 55% for Zanthoxylum chalybeum, and 45% for Dovyalis abyssinica. The highest informant consensus for Sideroxylon oxyacanthum indicates that it is perceived as the best MP to treat malignancies. Plants with multiple medicinal usesMost (59. 2%) MPs reported from the study area were used to treat single illness. However, about 40. 8% of the MPs were reported to have medicinal roles for two or more illnesses (Table 12) and with 58. 3% of the remedies for different illnesses prepared from the same part of the MP. However, only 37. 5% of the remedies with multiple medicinal uses were reported to have the same method of preparation, implying that the same part of the plant can be used for various ailments when prepared in a different way. Table 12 MPs used to treat two or more human ailmentsFull size tableMarket values of the MPsThe majority (77. 5%) of MPs reported from the study area were limited to usage only when processed and given by THs. Therefore, they were not sold in the open markets for their medicinal values. However, it was documented during the market survey that some of the MPs were known for their other use values and were sold in the local markets. These plants included Allium sativum, Zingiber officinale, and Ruta chalepensis, marketed as spices; Citrus aurantifolia, Carica papaya, Ensete ventricosum (the staple food in the area), Garcinia buchananii, Mangifera indica, Musa x paradisiaca, Passiflora edulis, Prunus persica, and Solanum nigrum, sold as foodstuff. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing evidence that not all plants used in traditional medicine are universally recognized as effective for modern ailments. It mentions that a significant proportion of medicinal plants (MPs) reported were used for single illnesses rather than multiple ailments, with only 40.8% being used for two or more illnesses. Furthermore, it indicates that most reported MPs were used primarily when processed by traditional healers (THs) and were not widely available in open markets, suggesting limitations in accessibility and perhaps in efficacy for modern ailments.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: Localized anomalous temperature features correspond to areas of high porosity or emissivity (positive residuals), or less porous, less emissive, elevated thermal inertia surfaces (negative residuals). Overall, we find higher magnitude negative thermal anomalies than positive ones, particularly on the leading hemisphere; as a result, there exists a range of porosities and thermal inertiae corresponding to the largest thermal features that are not well described by the global average values presented in Table 3. While the best-fit Γeff values are lower on the leading hemisphere, the larger magnitude negative residuals may indicate high thermal inertia regions at the midlatitudes (compare negative residuals in Figures 2 and 3). 6 and 7 trailing hemisphere observations (6T1, 6T2, and 7T) are generally better fit by a single porosity or thermal inertia value, with the largest residuals being toward the limb (those off-disk are likely artifacts induced through minute differences in model and data positioning) and at equatorial latitudes toward the center of the trailing hemisphere. In particular, the lowest magnitude residuals are found in the antiJovian swath mapped with the Band 7 observations (7T; Figure 3, panels (D), (H)). Here, the model provides a fit to the data to within ±1 K, indicating that a near-surface (∼1 cm depth) porosity of 50%—or an effective thermal inertia of 140 J m−2 K−1 s−1/2—may be sufficient to describe the large banded and ridged plains that cover the surface from ∼150°W to 240°W (Leonard et al. 2017), or that the processes that generate inhomogeneous porosity surfaces on the other hemispheres are not as efficient here. Variations in our thermal residuals could be due to emissivity or thermal inertia variations across the surface—the former an indication of physical (sub)surface properties (e. g. , surface roughness, subsurface dielectric properties, grain sizes) that were not correctly accounted for in our model of Europa's regolith. Rough or irregular terrain would elevate surface temperatures; this, along with volume scattering, are facets to be added to the model in the future. Trumbo et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it focuses on thermal anomalies and porosity of Europa's surface without discussing the conditions in the subsurface ocean or any implications for life. It does not address or support the idea that Europa's subsurface ocean may have conditions suitable for life.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: The mean measures for the four conditions (Performance, Random, Guaranteed 10p, Guaranteed 0p) for each variable, with individual data points. The difference between Performance and Random shows the effect of Contingent motivation, while the difference between 10p and 0p shows the motivating effect of reward expectation. (a) Peak velocity residuals indexed behavioural vigour. When ON dopamine, patients were motivated to invigorate their saccades when reward depended on response time, but not when expecting a guaranteed reward. In contrast, when OFF dopamine, vigour was driven by expectation of guaranteed reward, but not by contingency (F (1, 200) = 9. 5190, p =. 0023, ηp2 =. 0454). (b) HC were similar to PD ON dopamine (please note the different y-axis limits). (c–e) No dopaminergic effects were observed for (c) saccade amplitude, (d) saccade RT, (e) endpoint variability, or (f) raw peak velocity, although PD patients had slower, smaller and more variable saccades than HC. All measures are in visual degrees, except saccade RT (ms). Error bars show within-subject SEM. Statistics are presented in Table 2. Data are available in Figure 2—source data 1. Figure 2—source data 1 Source individual data for all saccade measures for and HC. The figures can be constructed using the DrawSaccadeFigures. m Matlab file available from the ContingentAnalysis GitHub repo (see Data and section of manuscript). Download elife-58321-fig2-data1-v3. mat. zip Table 2 Statistics for main behavioural analyses. Three-way (motivation*contingency*drug) repeated-measures ANOVA on each behavioural measure, for the PD patients ON and OFF medication. An effect of contingency means the guaranteed conditions (10 p, 0 p) were different to the contingent conditions (Performance, Random). An effect of motivation means the 10 p and Performance conditions were different to the Random and 0 p conditions. An interaction of the two means that contingent rewards differed from guaranteed rewards. * Motivation * Drug condition means that the effects of contingent and non-contingent rewards differed by PD medication state. Significant effects are highlighted in red. *p < 0. 05, **p < 0. 01. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by explaining how dopamine influences motivation during reward-related tasks. It states that when dopamine is active, 'patients were motivated to invigorate their saccades when reward depended on response time,' demonstrating dopamine's role in motivation linked to reward. Furthermore, the contrasting effects when dopamine is off also imply that dopamine is involved in processing contingent rewards, reinforcing its importance in motivation and reward processing.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: Other marketable plants included Olea europaea (a fumigant for utensils to keep dairy products and for pleasant smell of traditional houses), Rhamnus prinoides (as an additive to fermented beverages), Coffea arabica (for drinking as hot beverage), and Ricinus communis for smearing the ‘injera’(traditional thin, spongy bread made in Ethiopia) baking plates. Secrecy of TMs among the practitionersTM practitioners of Megera and adjacent kebeles were found to keep their knowledge of traditional herbal medicines away from the community to retain its secrecy. Especially, the elderly practitioners collect and process the remedy in strict secrecy. They asserted that they do this in order to sustain the income they earn by giving the remedy for the customers who consult them for their health problems. Some also mentioned a belief that if the plant is widely known by the community, the potency of the plant will be lost. Some also associate the secrecy of the traditional medicinal knowledge with rituals of gods, claiming that the gods do not allow disclosing the MPs as long as they live healthily on the face of the earth [Personal communication, Wobbisa]. DiscussionTM is an important and often underestimated part of healthcare, and it is practiced in almost every country in the world, and demand for its services is currently increasing in the form of alternative medicine. It is the main source of healthcare, and sometimes the only source of care, due to its closeness to the ordinary rural communities and its accessibility and affordability in view of the rising healthcare costs [36]. Ethiopians, by and large, depend on TM for their primary healthcare due to limited access to functional modern healthcare facilities, affordability, cultural acceptability of healers, perceived efficacy against certain types of diseases, and the belief that TM has low side effects [15, 37,38,39]. As a result of improved access to modern medicines and environmental degradation, both traditional knowledge and the plants that have been in use as medicines, for millennia, are highly threatened. However, in spite of this environmental degradation by anthropogenic activities and periodic droughts, there are still many MP species in different parts of Ethiopia [12, 38, 40,41,42]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that traditional medicine practitioners keep their knowledge secret to maintain income from their remedies, suggesting a lack of universal effectiveness. Furthermore, the mention of a belief that widespread knowledge could diminish the potency of these plants implies that not all plants are equally effective or reliable for treating modern ailments. The discussion of traditional medicine’s cultural and practical significance does not confirm its efficacy in modern contexts.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: (2018) found residuals across the disk between ∼10 and −8 K, which could be accounted for by varying the emissivity by ±10% of their derived best-fit value of 0. 75; alternatively, the anomalies could be inferred as thermal inertia variations ranging from 40 to 300 J m−2 K−1 s−1/2 or more. In our case, the largest magnitude residuals are smaller (+5 to −6 K), but deviations from the best-fit models remain. These may similarly be expressed as variations in emissivity from ∼0. 75 and 0. 9, and thermal inertia values <50 (warm residuals) or >200–300 J m−2 K−1 s−1/2 for the coldest residuals. As in de Kleer et al. (2021a), higher thermal inertia models produce diminishing improvements in model comparisons, preventing the highest negative residuals (those on the leading hemisphere at midlatitudes) from being well quantified. Positive residuals are likely elevated porosity (or low thermal inertia) surfaces, indicating that localized regions on both the subJovian leading and trailing hemispheres are highly porous from the surface down to ∼1–3 cm. To better facilitate the comparison of thermal anomalies to known geological and compositional terrain, we projected ALMA residual maps into cylindrical coordinates shown in Figure 5. The models here are generated for the global average values listed in Table 3, so that anomalies represent deviations from the global average as opposed to hemispheric best-fits. Latitudes corresponding to large (>75°) emission angles were excluded due to edge artifacts. Though the depths probed by the ALMA Band 6 and 7 (λ = 1. 25 and 0. 88 mm) measurements are different, the residual patterns in Figures 2 and 3 are largely similar between the two where projected longitude ranges overlap. We combined Band 6 and 7 observations (including overlapping regions through averaged measurements) into a single residual map, which comprises most surface longitudes (Figure 5, panel (B)). Since the Band 3 residuals are not as statistically significant as those exhibited by the Band 6 and 7 data, they were not included in this average but are shown for comparison in Figure 5 (panel (A)). Some artifacts occur where the Band 6 and 7 residual maps overlap, and minor discrepancies between residual magnitudes exist, particularly on the leading hemisphere. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not provide any information supporting or contradicting the claim about Europa's subsurface ocean and its potential to harbor life. Instead, it discusses thermal anomalies and emissivity variations, which are unrelated to the conditions suitable for life.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: 0027Contingency * Motivation * Drug2. 4061. 1224. 0119 To confirm that the effects on peak velocity residuals were not driven by changes in other aspects of saccades, the same 3-way ANOVA was run on each of the other saccade measures. There were no significant effects on saccadic amplitude (see Table 2 and Figure 2c). Saccadic RT had an effect of contingency as saccades started faster for Performance and Random conditions than 10 p or 0 p conditions (Figure 2d, p=0. 0396). Endpoint variability had a contingency*motivation interaction (Figure 2e, p=0. 0482) as variability was higher for 0 p condition. Raw peak velocity had an effect of motivation, as both types of motivation increased speed (Figure 2f, p=0. 0110), although this will include effects of changes in amplitude (via the main sequence) which showed a borderline significant effect of motivation (Figure 2c, p=0. 0607). The HC peak velocity residuals were not affected by contingency, motivation or the interaction (p>0. 05; see Table 3), suggesting that healthy older adults do not adjust their response vigour for contingent or guaranteed rewards. There were also no significant effects on amplitude, saccadic RT, or raw peak velocity in HC, although endpoint variability did have a significant contingency*motivation interaction (p=0. 0048; see Table 3). Post-hoc pairwise comparisons showed this was due to guaranteed rewards significantly reducing variability (p=0. 0316), while contingent rewards did not (p=0. 1219). Table 3 Statistics for behavioural analysis on HC saccade data. HC had a motivation*contingency interaction for endpoint variability, as only expected rewards decreased variability. **=p < 0. 01. GroupEffectF (df = 1, 112)pηp2ResidualsMotivation0. 9019. 3443. 0080Contingency0. 3463. 5574. 0031Motivation * Contingency0. 6995. 4047. 0062AmplitudeMotivation2. 3510. 1280. 0206Contingency0. 0255. 8734. 0002Motivation * Contingency1. 2551. 2650. 0111Saccade RTMotivation3. 2227. 0753. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by detailing how motivation influences saccadic responses and provides evidence of a significant interaction between contingency and motivation affecting endpoint variability. Specifically, it mentions that 'both types of motivation increased speed' and notes 'the HC peak velocity residuals were not affected by contingency, motivation or the interaction,' which suggests that motivation plays a crucial role in processing responses tied to rewards.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: And the findings of the present study in a highly limited area in Sidama Zone, where 71 species of medicinally useful plants are in use for the treatment of various human ailments, are an indication of the potential for the conservation of MPs in the country. Shrubs make a larger proportion of the MPs used in the study area, and this finding agrees with previous reports [13, 43,44,45,46]. This could be attributed to the common pattern of growth forms in the study area [47]. However, reports elsewhere showed that herbs were the frequently used MPs, which have a higher relative abundance of herbs as compared to other life forms [48,49,50]. This could further relate to the abundance of areas with bushy vegetation in the first case and less woody species in the second. The present findings revealed that the families Lamiaceae (six species), Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Rubiaceae (four species each) encompass more numbers of MP species. These families are among the MP families topping the list in other reports from different parts of the country, and their higher proportion in the flora of Ethiopia substantiates this report, implying documentation of wide distribution and higher number of species of these families throughout the country [13, 38, 51, 52]. In the present study, it was determined that 19. 7% of the MPs were used to treat various forms of malignancies. Reports from other parts of the country also substantiate the present finding [13, 20]. Plants have a reputable contribution to the discovery of anticancer bioactive compounds [53]. Polyphenols, brassinosteroids, and taxols, among others, have experimentally proven anticancer activities [53,54,55]. It was also found that the most widely used part of the MPs was the leaf, and this finding agrees with previous reports [19, 42, 49, 52, 56,57,58,59,60,61,62]. Naturally, the plants are surrounded by a series of potential threats, and evolutionarily, they have developed strategies of defense against the attacks of various pathogens (e. g. , bacteria, viruses, fungi, nematodes, mites, insects), herbivores, and various kinds of abiotic stresses [63]. Therefore, plants produce ranges of organic compounds known as secondary metabolites, which a priori is not directly involved in their growth and development. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the limited area of study and the specific use of various plants for treating ailments. It suggests that while 19.7% of the mentioned medicinal plants (MPs) are used for treating malignancies and notes the proven anticancer activities of certain compounds, it does not support the generalized notion that all plants in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. Instead, it implies a nuanced relationship where effectiveness may vary and is context-dependent.