Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Most dinosaurs could fly, but evolved to lose their wings over time. The majority of people experience cognitive dissonance when holding two conflicting beliefs, which causes discomfort and prompts a change in one of the beliefs. [SEP] Text: - Economic Mobility: (IRS) maintains an archive of historical tax return data from individual taxpayers. This data can be linked across generations and used to compute estimates of social mobility -- such as the fraction of children born to families in the bottom 20 percentiles of income who themselves made it into the top 20 percentiles of income during adulthood. Consider the poorest 20 percentiles of children, as measured by their parents' income in early adulthood. Then: If there was no relationship between parent and child income, 20% of these children would themselves make it into the top 20 percentiles of income during adulthood. 0% corresponds to none of these children making it into the top 20 percentiles of income during adulthood. 100% corresponds to all of these children making it into the top 20 percentiles of income during adulthood. Consider the poorest 20 percentiles of children, as measured by their parents' income. What is your best estimate of the percentage of these children who themselves make it into the top 20 percentiles of income during adulthood, according to the IRS data? - in Sports: In recent years, there has been increasing social attention on questions of gender and sport. In particular, there is increasing debate about whether transgender women (that is, males who have transitioned to be women) should be allowed to compete in women's sporting events. In 2021, the Athletics Foundation, an organization dedicated to the support of junior age (19 and under) and high school track and field, held the. Similarly, in 2022, USA Swimming held the Championships for individuals aged 18 and under. The performances of medal-winning female athletes in the 2020 in swimming and athletic events can be compared to the highest performing junior boys at these respective junior US national finals. There were 84 medals on offer in women's swimming and athletics events in the (in 2021) where junior boys (18 and under in swimming, 19 and under in athletics) competed in an identical event at these respective national junior finals in 2021 and 2022. Suppose the times/distances of the athletes were compared as if they were competing against each other. How many of the 84 medals would have been won by the Olympic women? To make this clear, this is comparing the performance of the best female athletes in the world to the performance of junior boys in the US national finals. - Olympics: The modern Olympics games have occurred since 1896. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses economic mobility using IRS tax return data and touches on social issues in sports related to gender, with no connection to dinosaurs or cognitive dissonance. There is no information provided that corroborates or contrasts with the claims made about dinosaurs or cognitive beliefs.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The study of extremophiles helps us understand potential life on other planets. [SEP] Text: In general, all techniques to infer lowermost mantle anisotropy make a variety of assumptions, and it is important to understand which assumptions are sufficiently accurate. Such detailed tests have been made possible by recent progress in the efficient numerical computation of seismograms (e. g. , Leng et al. , 2016; Fernando et al. , 2024), which has been applied to seismograms for Earth models that include seismic anisotropy (e. g. , Nowacki and Wookey, 2016; Wolf et al. , 2022). Such numerical simulations have shown which assumptions are reasonable to make and have led to the development of new techniques to measure lowermost mantle anisotropy. What additional research, data, or modeling efforts are needed to overcome these challenges? The presence of seismic anisotropy has been suggested in 25% of lateral lowermost mantle locations (Figure 2). However, these measurements have been made using different techniques that have various strengths and shortcomings, therefore, we still do not understand the global distribution of lowermost mantle anisotropy. Going forward, it will be important to use uniform methods to map lowermost mantle anisotropy globally – both techniques and data for such an effort already exist. To interpret such results, it will be important to better understand the properties of lowermost mantle materials at the relevant pressures and temperatures, and to realistically implement such constraints in global models of mantle flow. This requires further progress in multiple geophysical areas. It is important that experts from these areas, which include geodynamics and mineral physics, combine their expertise in multidisciplinary approaches to illuminate the nature of the lowermost mantle. Figure 3 (below) is a schematic diagram of the types of regions and flow scenarios that can potentially be elucidated via a combination of seismic anisotropy observations, mineral physics constraints, and geodynamic simulations. For example, using measurements of seismic anisotropy, deformation caused by subducting slabs or upwelling flow in the deepest mantle can be imaged. With future improvements of anisotropy measurements, their interpretations, and analyses of bigger seismic datasets, measurements of seismic anisotropy, combined with constraints from other fields, will shed a more detailed light on dynamic deep mantle processes and structures. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses techniques and challenges related to measuring lowermost mantle anisotropy and does not mention extremophiles or their implications for understanding potential life on other planets.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations. [SEP] Text: , 2018; Li et al. , 2016; Phillips et al. , 2013). In the current study, we presented one set of SNPs which were utilized to differentiate different continental populations and three Chinese populations. For continental populations (African, American, and European), we found these 48 SNPs could perform well for ancestry analyses of individuals from Africa, and Europe although some SNPs were not informative in these continental populations. Moreover, some American individuals were observed to be overlapped onto individual cluster (Fig. 3). Nonetheless, distinct genetic components among these populations were discerned from Fig. 4A. To obtain better ancestral resolutions among Americans and other continental populations, more highly differentiated SNPs in American populations should be selected. What’s more, future research should be paid more attention to ancestry inferences of within-continental populations. The 1000 has assessed genetic variations of 2,504 individuals from five continents and found that some variants were unique to some populations (Consortium et al. , 2015). Therefore, the variations private to one population should be selected to enhance resolution power among within-continental populations. For Uygur, Han and Mongolian populations, previous research investigated their genetic variations based on different genetic markers (Mei et al. , 2016; Tao et al. , 2018). Tao et al. (2018) assessed genetic polymorphisms of 12X-STRs and found that the Mongolian group showed indistinguishable genetic component distributions when compared to the components of Han populations in different regions. Mei et al. (2016) conducted genetic differentiation analyses between Uygur and other reference populations based on 30 InDels and found that Uygur group was far from Han populations and other Chinese populations in the PCA plot. In this study, we selected 48 SNPs to differentiate Han, Mongolian and Uygur populations. Compared with the study for the identification of Japanese people, Yuasa et al. (2018) selected the SNPs with the Japanese-specific alleles to differentiate Japanese individuals from the other populations. The similar method could be employed to select the SNPs with population-specific alleles so as to obtain better ancestral distinctions among different ethnic groups in China. Moreover, some research concerning on genomic analysis of a great many of Chinese individuals has been reported (Chiang et al. , 2018; Liu et al. , 2018). We will make full use of these data to further screen those highly differentiated genetic markers in different ethnic groups in China in the future. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how specific genetic markers (SNPs) are utilized to differentiate between various populations, such as continental populations and within Chinese ethnic groups. It explains the study's focus on selecting SNPs to enhance resolution power for ancestry analyses, demonstrating how genetic markers are fundamental in tracing inheritance patterns in populations.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Most dinosaurs could fly, but evolved to lose their wings over time. The majority of people experience cognitive dissonance when holding two conflicting beliefs, which causes discomfort and prompts a change in one of the beliefs. [SEP] Text: , first flip is heads in one but tails in the other). 6. Priming share heads: Same as treatment 5 but the ratings questions will ask about what share of flips in each sequence are heads vs tails and ask participants to rate differences between them on this basis. We intend this treatment to boost attention paid to share heads in the main gambler's fallacy question (about vs ), which we will measure using self-reported attention. If it succeeds in sufficiently boosting attention to share heads, we hypothesize that it will reduce the fraction of participants who answer with 50-50 and lower the mean belief (where lower beliefs correspond to exhibiting the gambler's fallacy more). Our model suggests that attention to the share of heads vs tails will correlate with committing the gambler's fallacy. 2024, we will run additional treatments with the following design. All participants will answer two inference problems and two "compound probability reduction" problems. These will allow us to see whether answers are correlated across problems within person. The second inference problem is always an identical balls-and-urns problem. The first inference problem is either has a low (60%) or high (90%) likelihood, meant to vary the contrast of the signal and therefore boost the share of participants who respond with the likelihood. This design will allow us to test the extent to which treatment effects stemming from altering the first inference problem spillover onto participants' answers to the second inference problem, which is held fixed. We will also vary whether the first inference problem has a balls-and-urns (N=2,500) or taxicabs (N=500) framing to test whether there is a greater correlation between answers within vs across frames. We include a larger sample size for balls-and-urns to maximize precision to test the spillover effects of varying the contrast in the first problem on the second problem (which is always a balls-and-urns problem, and we expect spillovers, if there are any, to arise within rather than across frames). The compound probability problems are meant to test whether people's answers tend to cluster on the modes our model predicts as well as investigate correlation across problems. The problems simply tell participants a prior (the odds a computer will choose the "orange" vs the "purple" deck of cards) and likelihoods for each deck (the share of cards whose suit is spades). They then ask given these numbers the probability that a spades is drawn. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses experimental designs related to gambler's fallacy and probability problems without addressing dinosaur evolution or cognitive dissonance. There are no elements in the text that corroborate or contrast any part of the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The study of extremophiles helps us understand potential life on other planets. [SEP] Text: Figure 3: Schematic diagram of the types of regions and flow scenarios that can potentially be elucidated via a combination of seismic anisotropy observations, mineral physics constraints, and geodynamic simulations. (a) Mantle flow field (arrows: flow directions, length proportional to flow velocity; background colors indicate temperature) for a geodynamic simulation that includes sinking cold material (blue), reminiscent of a slab, a hot (red) structure similar to a large-low velocity province (LLVP; left), and rising plumes (close to LLVP edge). (b-e) Zoom-ins representing different flow scenarios. Ultra-low velocity zone (ULVZ) material is shown in yellow, subducted mid-ocean ridge basalts in brown, aligned crystals in green and LLVP material in red. (b) Representation of flow near LLVP edge. ULVZ materials and partial melts potentially cause shape-preferred orientation, while crystals are aligned via crystallographic-preferred orientation; either scenario causes seismic anisotropy. (c) Flow near a developing thermal upwelling. (d) A region of horizontal flow, with a potential thin and hot layer of chemically distinct material at the base of the mantle. (e) A region of slab-downwelling. Note that in contrast to panel (a), in which reddish colors show regions with relative higher temperature, the reddish colors in panels (b)-(e) represent chemically distinct LLVP materials. Credit: Wolf et al. [2024], Figure 16 (modified) — (jonathan. wolf@yale. edu; 0000-0002-5440-3791), ’s Note: It is the policy of AGU Publications to invite the authors of 10. 1029/2024EO245021. Published on 1 July 2024. This 2024. The authors. CC BY-NC-ND 3. 0Except where otherwise noted, images are subject to copyright. Any reuse without express permission from the copyright owner is prohibited. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text passes in relevance to the claim as it describes a schematic diagram related to seismic anisotropy observations and geological simulations but does not mention extremophiles or their implications for understanding potential life on other planets. Thus, it fails to provide any support or contradiction to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations. [SEP] Text: Although these 48 SNP loci perform well for ancestry origin inferences of three continental populations (African, and European) and three Chinese populations (Han, Mongolian and Uygur), some loci of the 48 SNPs who had lower In values were not suggested to perform ancestry analyses of these populations so that we could obtain more accurate results for ancestry origin predictions. For example, SNPs whose In values in continental populations were less than 0. 1 should not be employed to infer biogeographical origins of continental populations given that high genetic differentiations among different continental populations existed; SNPs whose In values in subpopulations from the same regions were less than 0. 05 should not be utilized to perform ancestry analysis among these populations. Furthermore, there were some limitations in the current study. On one hand, the validation of 48 SNP loci in new samples was not conducted, especially for Han, Mongolian and Uygur populations. On the other hand, sample sizes of Uygur (10), Han (44) and Mongolian (10) were relatively small. Accordingly, it is necessary for us to further validate the efficiency of these 48 SNP loci for ancestry analysis in larger samples. conclude, forty-eight SNPs were provided to differentiate different continental populations, which could provide valuable clues for forensic investigations. Furthermore, these SNPs could also be utilized to differentiate three populations residing in China, which achieved fine-scale resolutions in regional populations. Further validation for these 48 SNPs should be conducted in the large sample set. What’s more, the SNPs with population-specific alleles should be screened to obtain better ancestral resolutions among regional populations. The P-values of Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium tests of 48 SNP loci in 25 training populations by Genepop software v4. 0 Note. (A), Bantu population includes Bantu populations. (B) Brazian population includes Karitiana and Surui populations. (C) Italian population includes Sardinian, Tuscan and Bergamo populations. ’-’ means that P-value of Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium of the locus cann’t be estimated in training populations by Genepop software v4. 0 because only one allele is presented, or two alleles are detected but one is represented by only one copy. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing the use of 48 SNP loci for ancestry origin inferences across different populations, including continental and regional populations. It emphasizes that these genetic markers can differentiate between populations and provide insights into ancestry, which directly supports the idea that genetic markers can trace inheritance patterns.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Most dinosaurs could fly, but evolved to lose their wings over time. The majority of people experience cognitive dissonance when holding two conflicting beliefs, which causes discomfort and prompts a change in one of the beliefs. [SEP] Text: Hence, millennial societies follow a tendency. “When we talk about sustainability and millennials, I truly believe that it depends a lot on the type of group you belong to. For example, if you are part of a group of people that are more conscious then probably your decisions will go accordingly because of the impact of your surroundings, but if you are part of a group where fashion or a luxurious lifestyle is the trend, then probably your priority will not be sustainable issues” (R3). Peoples’ behavior these days depends a lot on how other people act and what is considered a good practice by society. This can be considered as the “follow” aspect of individuals, as R9 concluded. 1. 1. 16 in PurchasesAfter all potential causes for cognitive dissonance behavior regarding sustainable factors were discussed, seven of ten participants agreed that they feel a disconnection between their beliefs and their purchase decisions when it comes to luxury fashion brands (R1, R2, R3, R5, R7, R8, and R9). Although this was recurrent in most of the cases, all respondents share the idea that when it comes to luxury brands it is easier to reduce the feeling of discomfort because of the representation and impact that fashion houses produce in society and on a personal level. After analyzing the data, three deductive sub-categories were gathered: “change belief,” “change action,” and “change perception of action. ” Additionally, one inductive sub-category was found: “change perception and action simultaneously. ”1. 1. 17 Change BeliefAs mentioned before, fashion houses share an undisputed power concerning purchase behaviors, emotions of consumers, and their impact on the market (R1, R6, and R7). “When it comes to deciding between purchasing from a luxury brand that does not follow particular sustainable practices, your unconscious normally weights what is more important to you and from my experience, for individuals that are into fashion the purchase will be more important” (R4). From the perspective of R3, some pieces that can be acquired from these brands normally are irreplaceable; thus, when it comes to sustainability, the importance of the belief changes because of the superiority in relevance concerning the piece. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the behaviors and beliefs of millennials regarding sustainability and luxury fashion brands, referencing cognitive dissonance but not relating it to dinosaurs or flying. It focuses on how social influences affect decision-making rather than supporting or contrasting the claim about dinosaurs and their evolutionary history.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: AbstractCarbon dioxide is Mars’ primary atmospheric constituent and is an active driver of Martian surface evolution. CO2 ice sublimation mechanisms have been proposed for a host of features that form in the contemporary Martian climate. However, there has been very little experimental work or quantitative modelling to test the validity of these hypotheses. Here we present the results of the first laboratory experiments undertaken to investigate if the interaction between sublimating CO2 ice blocks and a warm, porous, mobile regolith can generate features similar in morphology to those forming on Martian dunes today. We find that CO2 sublimation can mobilise grains to form (i) pits and (ii) furrows. We have documented new detached pits at the termini of linear gullies on Martian dunes. Based on their geomorphic similarity to the features observed in our laboratory experiments, and on scaling arguments, we propose a new hypothesis that detached pits are formed by the impact of granular jets generated by sublimating CO2. We also study the erosion patterns formed underneath a sublimating block of CO2 ice and demonstrate that these resemble furrow patterns on Mars, suggesting similar formation mechanisms. Similar content being viewed by others The formation of araneiforms by carbon dioxide venting and vigorous sublimation dynamics under martian atmospheric pressure 4. The distribution of this dry ice is governed primarily by solar insolation5. In the early spring, as insolation increases, the dry ice begins to sublimate. This process is now recognised as an important agent in the formation of contemporary surface features on Mars. These features include the dendritic araneiform terrain of the south polar cryptic region6,7,8, linear gullies, their associated pits9,10, and sand furrows11. In this study we focus on linear gully pits and sand furrows; both active features which are observed to form and evolve on dunes under the current Martian climate. These features have no Earth analogues and the specific mechanisms responsible for their formation have yet to be fully understood and quantified. FurrowsFurrows are shallow (~0. 25 m) and narrow (~1. 5 m) negative relief11,12, features which are observed on over 95% of the northern polar dunes11 and are also found between 40°S and 72°S13. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the sublimation of carbon dioxide ice on Mars and the geological features that result from this process. However, it does not explicitly confirm or deny the existence of polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. Consequently, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations. [SEP] Text: 6508/supp-1 specific In values of 48 SNPs in four continentical populations and three Chinese populations Note: (A) Population specific In values in four continental populations were calculated based on the genetic data of 25 training populations. (B) Population specific In values in Han, Mongolian and Uygur populations were calculated based on the genetic data of these three populations. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 6508/supp-2 Download Naïve Bayes analysis of six testing populations and three continental populations (African, European and East Asian) Note. Three continental populations consists of 22 training populations (excluding from American populations) in Table 1. Values are the number of individuals who are classified as continental populations. Numbers in parentheses are the percentages of testing individuals who are classified as continental populations. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 6508/supp-3 logistic regression analysis of three Chinese populations based on 48 SNP loci DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 6508/supp-4 data of 48 SNPs in populations used in this study The training set and three Chinese populations were downloaded from CEPH-HGDP (Li et al. , 2008). The testing set was downloaded from 1000 3 (Consortium et al. , 2015). DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 6508/supp-5 structure analyses of six testing populations at K = 2–5 (A) and cross-validation error of each K value by Admixture software v1. 3 based on 48 SNabbreviations are explained in Table 1. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 6508/supp-6 allele frequencies heatmap of 48 SNPs in Han, Mongolian and Uygur populations from colors represent for different the levels of frequency values: pink for low value; green for high value. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 6508/supp-7 Information and authors declare there are no competing interests. Xiao-analyzed the data, approved the final draft. Yuan- contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools, approved the final draft. prepared figures and/or tables, approved the final draft. Yu-and Ya-authored or reviewed drafts of the paper, approved the final draft. Bo-conceived and designed the experiments, authored or reviewed drafts of the paper, approved the final draft. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the use of specific SNP markers in various populations and indicates that these genetic markers have been analyzed to gain insights into inheritance patterns, corroborating the claim that genetic markers can indeed be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Most of human decision-making is influenced by unconscious biases formed through experience. [SEP] Text: , 2014 JEP-G for an example of where this additive model provided a better fit than the aDDM; Krajbich/Rangel never tested this simpler model). My worry here is that if subjects attend more to the default option than the non-default option, that this could directly drive drift toward the default. That wouldn't show up as well when fitting the aDDM because it assumes that attention modulates the value, but behavioral data show that there is a bias in choice independent of value, so the authors still need the added starting point bias independent of gaze. But if the subjects just look at the default more, and looking directly predicts choice independent of value, then they might find that the default bias is entirely accounted for by more looking… It would be better if the authors added this direct effect as another model in their model comparison (and perhaps a model with this direct effect plus starting point bias). Still, even if this is the case, I'm not sure it diminishes the contribution in terms of what it tells us about vmPFC or default biases (especially since it would be the default preference that would drive the bias in looking, not the other way around). We have fitted the model suggested by the reviewers, with an additive and not multiplicative effect of gaze on the drift rate. As can be seen in Author response image 3, the additive model could not account for the default bias (left panel), such that we still needed the shift in the starting point (right panel). Author response image 3 Download asset Open asset In fact, the additive model was doomed to fail since it was not the case that participants look at the default more. We have nonetheless mentioned this additional analysis in the Results section: “Although using the fixation pattern (with θ) improved the fit, only the prior preference (with S) could explain the decision bias toward the default option. We reached similar conclusions when the advantage for the attended option was additively included in the drift rate, on top of decision value (as in Cavanagh et al. , 2014). In fact, gaze fixation pattern failed to produce the default bias simply because the default option was no more looked at than the alternative option. ” 5) The authors are keen to show that the RT biases arise directly as a consequence of the choice bias. They provide some evidence of this in Figure 2C. It would be nice to explore this further. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by arguing that biases in choice can arise from direct factors such as attention to options rather than from unconscious biases formed through experience. The author's discussion on how the default option's selection could influence drift toward it, independent of value or prior experience, suggests a mechanism for decision-making that disputes the idea that unconscious biases are the primary drivers. The analysis indicates that biases are linked more to observed behavior and gaze rather than to experience-based unconscious influences.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: Their network patterns range from rectilinear, to dendritic and radial, tributary and distributary and their planforms can be linear or sinuous12 (Fig. 1), though it is unclear what factors control this variety of patterns. Appearing to “defy gravity”, furrows extend upslope and transect existing aeolian ripples, and so while their patterns may resemble those eroded by fluvial activity on Earth, gravity-driven processes are unlikely to form them12. Figure 1Examples of sand furrows on Martian Dunes. (a) Linear furrow (blue arrow) on sand dune in (all furrows are taken from HiRISE image ESP_026851_2590, latitude 78. 65°, longitude 308. 494°, solar incidence angle 56° with the Sun ~34° above the horizon). (b) sinuous (black arrow) furrow on sand dune in Chasma Boreale, (c) dendritic furrows (white arrows) on sand dunes at latitude −67. 607°, 185. 343° in the southern hemisphere (HiRISE image ESP_023270_1120. Solar incidence angle is 60° with the sun ~30° above the horizon). Yellow arrows point to boulders, red arrows point to dark fans and highlight their proximity to the furrows. (d) radial (green arrow) furrow on sand dune in Chasma Boreale. (e) rectilinear (purple arrow) and radial (green arrow) furrows on sand dune in Chasma Boreale. Images have been stretched to improve contrast as furrows are narrow, shallow and thus subtle features. HiRISE image credit: NASA/JPL/University of Arizona. Full size image HypothesesFurrows frequently form after the appearance of polygonal cracks in CO2 ice. This led Bourke12 to hypothesise that they were caused by cryoventing; that is, basal sublimation of CO2 and consequent erosion. This is similar to Kieffer’s model for the dark spots and fans in the southern hemisphere14, but applied in the context of dunes. The cryoventing model proposes that in the spring, gas pressures increase at the ice-substrate interface until the overlying ice cracks. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim directly, as it discusses the patterns and formation of furrows on Martian dunes and hypotheses regarding cryoventing of CO2 ice, without mentioning the composition or existence of the polar ice caps on Mars. Therefore, it is considered irrelevant.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations. [SEP] Text: laurae now is expected to have a wider distribution, urgent conservation actions are encouraged for this species and other range-restricted amphibians the eastern Andes slopes of Ecuador. provide new information about Nymphargus laurae, a species previously known from a single specimen collected decades ago. Our new specimens collected at the Colonso-Reserve increase the geographic range of the species along the north-eastern slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes. New insights into the morphology, colouration, and phylogeny of N. laurae demonstrate its distinctiveness among other ocellated glassfrogs, with which it is not closely related because it is part of a clade with N. siren and N. humboldti. Although now known from a second locality, the geographic range of N. laurae is still limited and habitat loss and fragmentation are threatening the long-term survival of populations outside of protected areas, thus we suggest that the species’ extinction risk should be categorised as Endangered at the global and national level and conservation actions are urgently encouraged. The importance of research in unexplored areas must be a national priority to document the biodiversity associated, especially for range-restricted species and in little-explored protected areas. Optimal maximum likelihood tree (log likelihood = −28155. 635), showing the phylogenetic relationships among 119 species of Centrolenidae and two outgroup taxa. Values above nodes are posterior probabilities resulting from Bayesian phylogenetic analyses (values < 0. 9 not shown, black circles = 1). Numbers bellow nodes correspond to non-parametric bootstraps (values < 0. 70 not shown, black circles = 1). DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12644/supp-1 and genetic markers used in this study. Sequences generated in previous studies were downloaded from GenBank. Newly generated sequences are in bold blue. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12644/supp-2 We thank Miguel Gómez-Laporta, Michelle Guachamin, and Jimmy Velasteguí for field companion and support; for provide support for the molecular labwork; and the reviewers for their comments. We are grateful to the following people and institutions who provided access to specimens: Jeff Streicher, (BMNH), Mario Yánez-Muñoz (), John D. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by mentioning 'genetic markers used in this study' which implies that these markers are employed to understand the relationships and possibly trace inheritance patterns among the species discussed, specifically within the context of phylogenetic analyses.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Most of human decision-making is influenced by unconscious biases formed through experience. [SEP] Text: This result is confirmed in the right panel showing that the proportion of fixations between 0 and 200 ms is significantly different from 50% for the left option (t(22)=13. 3, p=6. 10-12) but not for the default option (t(22)=1. 28, p=0. 21). Author response image 5 Download asset Open asset We have included this observation in the revised manuscript (Results section), as follows: “Thus, fixation duration was indeed predictive of choice, but was not influenced by prior preference. […] This result was further confirmed by a model comparison showing that fixation duration for each option was better explained (xp=0. 999) by a GLM including the unsigned decision value and the choice (chosen vs. unchosen option) than by GLMs including an additional regressor that indicated the prior preference (default vs. alternative option). ” 7) Unsurprisingly, the authors cite Boorman et al. , J Neurosci 2013 quite extensively, as this also addressed the question of default vs. alternative coding (but didn't have the nice and extensive behavioural modelling of the present paper). However, the conclusion from Figure 4 seems quite different from that paper. In this paper, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex cares about the chosen vs. unchosen value frame (Figure 4—figure supplement 1B bottom), whilst VMPFC cares about the default vs. alternative frame (Figure 4B). This seemed to me like the opposite conclusion from Boorman's paper (cf. his Figure 4)? It would be good for the authors to mention/discuss this. The reviewer is absolutely correct: our results stand in contradiction to those reported in Boorman et al. , J Neurosci 2013. The conclusions of this paper are indeed that decision values are signaled in the choice frame by the vmPFC, and in the default frame by the dACC. The reason why we did not discuss the contradiction is that we had no good explanation to provide. When taking a closer look at that paper, we realized that the result regarding dACC was not so clear-cut (see their Figure 4). The result regarding vmPFC clearly suggested a post- choice framing, but the activation peak arose much later than what we observed (10 sec vs. 4- 6 sec after option display). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing decision-making processes and the role of conscious framing versus default choices in the context of neuroscience studies. It mentions that fixation duration in decision-making was predictive of choice but not influenced by prior preferences, which implies that conscious consideration takes precedence over unconscious biases. Furthermore, the results cited from a model comparison provide evidence against the idea that prior preferences (or unconscious biases) significantly sway decision-making in this context.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: Gas rapidly exits, eroding material below the ice sheet to form furrows. A plume then deposits the sediment to form fans on the surface of the seasonal ice. The thickness of the overlying ice and dune topography are thought to have a strong influence on this process15. Close spacing of vents has also been noted to reduce cryoventing efficacy, with fewer furrows forming in locations where ice cracks are closer together12. Recent work has drawn a distinction between furrows in the northern hemisphere and “dendritic troughs” in the southern hemisphere16. While both show similar morphologies, furrows in the northern hemisphere are ephemeral features which disappear every year17. The dendritic troughs on south polar dunes endure, with new tributaries adding to the networks annually16. This study16 has drawn a potential link in formation process between the highly dendritic araneiform terrain of the south polar cryptic region and furrows/dendritic troughs. It has been suggested that araneiform terrain (dubbed “spiders” in the literature) may develop over many years by a gradual connection of dendritic networks into a radial network, rather than forming in one event16. Noting the difference in environmental conditions between the hemispheres, it has been argued that furrows in the northern hemisphere do not develop into dendrites because of the high mobility of the material into which they are eroded16. However, the size distribution of the granular substrate in both hemispheres is poorly constrained. For the purpose of our purely morphological laboratory study we refer to all network types as furrows. Recent experimental work has demonstrated that insolation-driven dust ejecta from within CO2 ice is a viable process18 and that pressure driven processes can form dendritic patterns under certain conditions19. However, it has not yet been demonstrated that sublimating CO2 in contact with porous substrate can transport underlying material and create the complex furrow morphologies seen on Mars. Until now, this geomorphic process has been framed in a purely theoretical context. PitsLinear gullies (Fig. 2) form on Martian dunes under current climatic conditions10,20,21,22. Recent mapping has shown that they occur between 36. 3°S and 54. 3°S and from 64. 6°S to 70. 4°S22. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text primarily discusses the geomorphological processes involving the formation of furrows and dendritic troughs on Mars, with mention of CO2 ice and erosion mechanics. However, it does not directly address the composition of Mars' polar ice caps or confirm that they are composed of water and carbon dioxide. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations. [SEP] Text: Javascript is disabled in your browser. Please enable Javascript to view PeerJ. Related research -chloroplast genome sequences of five Bruguiera species (Rhizophoraceae): comparative analysis and phylogenetic relationships View 10. 7717/peerj. 12268 Published 2021-10-22 Accepted 2021-09-16 Received 2021-04-27 genome, Rhizophoraceae, Comparative analysis, Phylogenetic relationships Copyright © 2021 Ruang-areerate et al. is an open access 2021. Complete chloroplast genome sequences of five Bruguiera species (Rhizophoraceae): comparative analysis and phylogenetic relationships. PeerJ 9:e12268 is a genus of true mangroves that are mostly distributed in the Indo-region. However, the number of published whole chloroplast genome sequences of Bruguiera species are limited. Here, the complete chloroplast sequences of five Bruguiera species were sequenced and assembled using Illumina data. The chloroplast genomes of B. gymnorhiza, B. hainesii, B. cylindrica, B. parviflora and B. sexangula were assembled into 161,195, 164,295, 164,297, 163,228 and 164,170 bp, respectively. All chloroplast genomes contain 37 tRNA and eight rRNA genes, with either 84 or 85 protein-coding genes. A comparative analysis of these genomes revealed high similarity in gene structure, gene order and boundary position of the and two IR regions. Interestingly, B. gymnorhiza lost a rpl32 gene in the SSC region. In addition, a ndhF gene in B. parviflora straddles both the SSC and IRB boundary regions. These genes reveal differences in chloroplast evolution among Bruguiera species. Repeats and SSRs in the chloroplast genome sequences were found to be highly conserved between B. cylindrica and B. hainesii as well as B. gymnorhiza and B. sexangula indicating close genetic relationships based on maternal inheritance. Notably, B. hainesii, which is considered a hybrid between B. gymnorhiza and B. cylindrica, appears to have inherited the chloroplast from B. cylindrica. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the genetic relationships and maternal inheritance patterns among Bruguiera species. It indicates that certain genes reveal differences in chloroplast evolution, which implies that chloroplast genome sequences serve as genetic markers that can trace inheritance patterns, particularly noting that B. hainesii has inherited its chloroplast from B. cylindrica.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Most of human decision-making is influenced by unconscious biases formed through experience. [SEP] Text: , degrees of freedom; 95% CI, confidence intervals; exp, experimental; con, control. study investigated clinical decision making by PWPs working within IAPT stepped-care services in England. The study examined whether specific cognitive processes (anchoring and halo effects) and more general decision-making styles (i. e. rational vs intuitive) influenced decisions commonly encountered in stepped-care clinical practice. To this end, we first produced clinical case vignettes in Study 1 that had face validity with PWPs, which resembled realistic clinical cases, and so required PWPs to consider typical dilemmas relating to evidence-based practice. 2, we conducted a cross-over randomized control trial and found that clinical care decisions were not significantly influenced by anchoring and halo effects or the general decision-making style (CRT and DSS scales) of PWPs. In short, the decisions made regarding suitability, treatment fidelity and treatment continuation made by practising PWPs were not systematically biased by anchoring and halo effects. It is noteworthy that, in one of the vignettes, the apparent effect of the experimental manipulation was contrary to our predictions, as it apparently increased normative rather than counter-normative decisions. This may be because all the sample in the experiment were practising PWPs and therefore would have weekly case management supervision (UCL, 2015). In this type of supervision, PWPs are guided to practise making rational decisions concerning patient care. This practice effect may therefore have dampened the influence of the procedures implemented in the experiment. The normative versus counter-normative ratios suggest that this spurious result may have been also influenced by ‘noise’: variability due to haphazard aspects of the case vignette (e. g. gender, word count, etc. ) or occasion (e. g. respondent fatigue, distraction, etc. ), rather than the experimental manipulation itself. It is plausible that the case vignettes and priming tasks did not optimally capture the natural variability that may better characterize decision making in routine care. It is likely that there is considerable variability in decisions not only between PWPs but also within PWPs (i. e. over time and across multiple cases). This natural variability or ‘noise’ in professional judgements has been previously documented across various occupations (see Kahneman et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by stating that a study found that clinical care decisions were not significantly influenced by unconscious biases such as anchoring and halo effects. It suggests that practicing psychological well-being practitioners (PWPs) made rational decisions, potentially due to regular supervision, which dampened the influence of biases. This indicates that, contrary to the claim, the decisions made were not systematically biased by unconscious influences formed through experience.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: They are characterised by long (100–2,500 m), narrow grooves, are bounded by levées and have relatively small source areas. Forming exclusively on south polar and mid latitudinal intra-crater dunes, their activity is seasonal, and has been found to be concurrent with the final stages of sublimation of the CO2 ice deposit at the end of winter and beginning of spring22, rendering a CO2 sublimation formation mechanism likely. These eponymous features are mostly linear; though they sometimes adopt sinuous patterns and taper down-slope. Figure 2Terminal and detached linear gully pit morphologies. (a) Terminal pits (white arrows), and detached pits (red arrows) at linear gully termini on megadune (HiRISE image ESP_020784_1255, image centre at −54. 3°, 12. 9°, taken at L s 209. 5°). Black arrows point to inset pits within terminal pits. Green arrow indicates a high albedo block which is likely to be a CO2 block within a pre-existing terminal pit. (b) Terminal pits (white arrows) and detached pits (red arrows) on megadune (HiRISE image PSP_007018_1255 taken at L s 22. 5°, image centre at −54. 3°, 13° which was used as part of a stereo pair to create the _007018_1255_007229_1255). (c) Example of highly sinuous linear gullies on the west side of dunefield (HiRISE image ESP_030528_1300, image centre at −49. 5°, 77. 2°, taken at L s 254. 8°). Red arrows point to detached pits, white arrows show terminal pits. (d) “Tadpole” terminal pits in dunefield (HiRISE image PSP_003800_1325, image centre at −46. 9°, 30. 7°, taken at L s 240. 9°). These pits (white arrows) are much wider in diameter than their corresponding channels and are surrounded by detached pits (red arrows). (e) megadune (HiRISE image PSP_007018_1255). White boxes indicate locations of (a) and (b). (f) dunefield. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses features related to Martian surface and seasonal activities concerning CO2 ice deposits but does not present information about the composition of Mars' polar ice caps. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations. [SEP] Text: Based on morphological characters, the genus Bruguiera is separated into two major groups (Hou, 1958; Sheue, Yong & Yang, 2005; Duke & Ge, 2011). One group (B. gymnorhiza, B. exaristata and B. sexangula) has large leaves and large solitary-flowered inflorescences, while the other group (B. cylindrica, B. hainesii and B. parviflora) has small leaves, small multiple-flowered inflorescences. In mangrove forests, the distributions of Bruguiera species overlap each other and it can be difficult to identify species based on morphological characters (Abeysinghe et al. , 1999; Duke & Ge, 2011). Consequently, molecular markers such as random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and simple sequence repeats (SSRs) based on nuclear and chloroplast sequences have been developed for species identification in Bruguiera (Abeysinghe et al. , 1999; Islam et al. , 2008). Chloroplasts are semi-autonomous organelles in algae, cyanobacteria and plants that are responsible for photosynthesis. Chloroplast genomes have been used to study plant species identification, population genetics, genome evolution and phylogenetics (Shi et al. , 2005; Dong et al. , 2012; Saddhe, Jamdade & Kumar, 2016; Bi et al. , 2018; Wu et al. , 2019). For example, DNA barcoding based on chloroplast markers such as matK, rbcL and some intergenic spacer regions (i. e. , trnL-trnF and trnH-psbA) is an effective tool to identify mangrove species and their evolutionary relationships (Shi et al. , 2005; Saddhe, Jamdade & Kumar, 2016; Wu et al. , 2019). In most land plants, chloroplast genomes are inherited maternally. The chloroplast structure is usually a small circular quadripartite DNA consisting of one large single copy (LSC) region, one small single copy (SSC) region and two inverted repeats (IRs), which separate the LSC and SSC (Mower & Vickrey, 2018). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the use of molecular markers such as random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and simple sequence repeats (SSRs) for species identification, which implies they can also track inheritance patterns. It also mentions that chloroplast genomes, which are inherited maternally in most land plants, are used in population genetics, indicating a method for tracing inheritance patterns within populations.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Most of human decision-making is influenced by unconscious biases formed through experience. [SEP] Text: We found no convincing evidence that variability in decision making was systematically biased by anchoring and halo effects, in a clinical profession that is exposed to a regular check on decisions made (i. e. case management supervision). Variability in clinical decisions observed in routine care and in analogue tasks may be better explained by ‘noise’: individual differences and natural fluctuations in judgement quality. Supplementary material The supplementary material for this 10. 1017/S1352465823000115 Data availability statement In line with the requirements of the ethics review board for this study, requests for access to data are to be made in writing to the corresponding author. you to all the PWPs who participated. Author contributions Benjamin Michael: Conceptualization (equal), Data curation (lead), Formal analysis (equal), Investigation (lead), Methodology (equal), Project administration (lead), Resources (lead), Writing – original draft (lead), Writing – review & editing (lead); Stephen Kellett: Conceptualization (equal), Formal analysis (supporting), Investigation (supporting), Methodology (supporting), Supervision (lead), Writing – original draft (supporting), Writing – review & editing (supporting); Jaime Delgadillo: Conceptualization (equal), Data curation (equal), Formal analysis (equal), Investigation (equal), Methodology (equal), Supervision (supporting), Writing – original draft (supporting), Writing – review & editing (supporting). Financial support This research received no specific grant from any funding agency, commercial or not-for-profit sectors. Competing interests The authors declare none. Ethical standards Informed consent to participate and for the results to be published has been obtained. Authors have abided by the of Psychologists and Code of Conduct as set out by the BABCP and BPS. Footnotes 1 In both stages of the clinical decision-making task (treatment fidelity and hold/step up) for both vignettes (1 and 2) the reference category (0) was the control group, and the signal category (1) was the experimental group. The dependent variable was coded ‘1’ for a normative answer and ‘0’ for a counter-normative answer. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by stating that 'we found no convincing evidence that variability in decision making was systematically biased by anchoring and halo effects.' This suggests that decision-making in the observed clinical profession is not primarily influenced by unconscious biases, but rather by individual differences and natural fluctuations in judgment quality, which the authors attribute to 'noise.' Thus, the evidence presented directly challenges the assertion that unconscious biases are the main influence on decision-making.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: White box shows location of (c). (g) dunefield (HiRISE image PSP_003800_1325). White box shows location of (d). HiRISE image credit: NASA/JPL/University of Arizona. Full size image Terminal pitsUnlike terrestrial gullies, which are nearly always formed by liquid water, linear gullies do not have associated debris aprons. Instead, their channel termini are invariably punctuated by one (or more) terminal pit(s) (Fig. 2a–d). Located at the end of the linear gully channel, the terminal pit is usually slightly wider than the channel10. Terminal pits are defined by a roughly circular depression encircled by levées. Most linear gully channels end in a single pit, herein referred to as the primary terminal pit. However, some terminal pits occur as part of a dyadic to triadic sequence known as “pit strings”. Secondary and tertiary terminal pits are defined as terminal pits that are in a linear sequence with the primary terminal pit, and are always similar in size to the primary terminal pit. Many linear gullies, particularly the largest in scale, have lower albedo circular depressions within the distal region of their channels and/or their primary terminal pits. We refer to these as inset pits. Detached pitsSome terminal pits or terminal pit strings are surrounded by multiple detached pits (Fig. 2a–d). These pits are not connected to (or in line with) channels and are usually considerably smaller than their associated terminal pit(s). Detached pits are always exclusive to the distal region of the channel and are not found upslope. HypothesesLinear gully pits have no terrestrial analogues, and so it is likely that a geomorphic agent that does not occur naturally on Earth may be instrumental in their formation. Originally, terminal pits were proposed to be older flow fronts formed by successive debris flows20, however this is unlikely as linear gullies are forming today, in a climate which does not currently support liquid water10. There are two main schools of thought on the type of CO2 sublimation activity which might form linear gullies: the CO2 basal sublimation triggered debris flow hypothesis23 and the sliding CO2 block hypothesis21. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim about the composition of Mars' polar ice caps. Instead, it discusses the formation of linear gullies on Mars and mentions CO2 sublimation activity without mentioning the ice caps or their composition. Therefore, the text is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations. [SEP] Text: There was an overlap between ycf1Ψ and ndhF in the SSC/IRB boundary region of B. parviflora, similar in several plant chloroplast genomes (Munyao et al. , 2020; Su et al. , 2020). These are common evolutionary events that result in size variation of chloroplast genomes in land plants (Wicke et al. , 2011). Moreover, the genes adjacent to LSC/IR and SSC/IR boundaries are rps19, rps19 pseudogene, ycf1 and ycf1 pseudogene with variation in pseudogene length, similar in many land plants (Gichira et al. , 2019). In contrast, the boundary of LSC/IRA junction of K. obovata, which is a true mangrove species in the family Rhizophoraceae, was near the rpl22 gene resulting in a shorter LSC and larger IR to give an overall larger chloroplast genome (Yang et al. , 2019), revealing the variation of the IR junction among mangrove species during evolution. A large number of repeats and SSRs were identified in the chloroplast genomes, that were mostly distributed in the LSC region as this contains a large amount of intergenic sequence. No differences were found between B. cylindrica and B. hainesii for the four SSR primer pairs (Fig. S2). B. hainesii was reported to be a hybrid between B. gymnorhiza and B. cylindrica identified using nuclear DNA markers (CesA and UKN) (Ono et al. , 2016). The high similarity in chloroplast sequence and lack of genetic variation between B. cylindrica and B. hainesii are consistent with the chloroplast of B. hainesii originating from B. cylindrica. Comparison of SSRs, based on the same criteria of the SSR identification, in B. sexangula grown in two different locations (Thailand and China) revealed intraspecific sequence variation. For example, the Thai sample contained 186 SSRs, while only 175 SSRs were previously reported in the Chinese sample using the same criteria for SSR identification (Shi et al. , 2020). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the use of nuclear DNA markers to identify a hybrid species (B. hainesii) and the lack of genetic variation between B. cylindrica and B. hainesii, which reflects how genetic markers can help trace lineage and inheritance patterns. Additionally, it mentions intraspecific sequence variation based on SSR identification, further supporting the idea that genetic markers can be used for tracing inheritance.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The placebo effect, where a patient experiences real improvements due to believing they're receiving treatment, is observed in many clinical trials. [SEP] Text: muscle wastage), visual disturbances, and managing constipation (Table 4). Some participants felt that focussing on potential side effects in detail could prompt hypervigilance about bodily symptoms: If something happens you immediately think, ‘Oh my God, is that a side effect? What’s happening? ’ So, there’s a very fine line I think between being well-informed and too informed (F, 50–59, C2). In contrast, one metastatic participant shared that potential side effects were a non-issue to him as his prognosis was too poor to decline even potentially risky experimental treatment. Some of the sheets that I’ve been given, you know, [saying] ‘this [drug] may cause harm, and it may do this…’ I really don’t care. Without it I’m going to die anyway. If you’re going to say to me, ‘If you take this medicine, it might hurt you but it will hurt me hell of a lot more if I don’t take it…’. Look, you’d be completely stupid if you sat down and read it and thought, ‘Oh, if I take this medicine my big toe might drop off’, now hang on, without it you’ll die of cancer. You’ve got to be sensible about it. (M, 70–79, C2). Participants in phase 1 trials reported receiving limited information about side effects at enrolment but understood that this was because data were not yet available, and they nonetheless felt closely monitored. Trial team support in managing side effects Contacting the trial team about side effects was generally reported positively. Being encouraged to take advantage of the available and effective medications to manage side effects gave patients confidence about speaking to the trial team and having their needs met. Some reported getting tips from the trial team about managing side effects, and others were encouraged also to use their GP where possible to manage side effects locally. A minority (9%, n = 13), however, found it difficult or were unsure how to get answers from the trial team about side effects. Although rare, some reported trial staff being dismissive to their questions, especially about minor side effects: I have several side effects some mild and some severe and I got the impression that they thought I was making some up. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is largely irrelevant to the claim as it discusses patient perceptions and experiences regarding side effects of medications in clinical trials without mentioning the placebo effect or the improvements experienced due to belief in treatment. It focuses on the management of side effects and participants' attitudes toward them, which does not support or contrast the claim regarding the placebo effect.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: The CO2 basal sublimation triggered debris flow hypothesis23 suggests a solar-insolation-driven dry debris flow beneath seasonal CO2 ice on dunes. Successive events have been suggested to carve gully channels in Russell Crater23. However, while basal sublimation — driven debris flows are a plausible mechanism for channel formation, such a process would also deposit material at channel termini. Additionally, the model does not account for the presence of terminal pits or detached pits. The sliding CO2 block hypothesis21 is currently the only process that can account for the formation of channels and terminal pits which distinguish linear gullies from other gully morphologies, making this class of gullies exclusive to Mars. The hypothesis proposes that in spring, ice blocks detach from dune brinks. The blocks then descend dune slopes supported by a lubricating layer of CO2 gas. This gas layer is engendered by a mechanism similar to the Leidenfrost Effect24, which occurs when a liquid or solid is in thermal contact with a surface that is at a temperature far beyond its boiling or sublimation point. Upon surface contact, the substance (in this case, CO2 ice), will levitate on a cushion of gas, because the total force exerted by the gas pressure under the block exceeds its weight. This lubricating gas layer eliminates, or reduces, frictional forces so that blocks may move down even very gentle slopes of a few degrees. As the block moves it will carve out channels and deposit lateral levées, until it eventually stops to sublimate at the terminus. This ultimate sublimation explains the formation of a terminal pit. The block is proposed to rest at the base of the channel while sublimating, eroding a depression beneath it and transporting material to the side to form levées. This protracted stationary sublimation may explain why pits are commonly slightly wider than their corresponding channels, which are proposed to form by the rapid movement of blocks downslope21. Thus far, alcove, channel, levée and shallow pit morphologies have been observed to form when CO2 ice blocks were slid onto sand dunes in Utah and Arizona25,26. Further evidence consistent with this hypothesis was the detection of high albedo blocks within linear gully channels on Mars. These are most likely CO2 ice blocks “caught in the act”, of sliding through pre-existing linear gully channels10,21. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses various hypotheses regarding mechanisms of gully formation on Mars, particularly involving CO2 ice, but does not address the specific composition of Mars's polar ice caps. It focuses on the processes and phenomena occurring with CO2 ice and its implications for gully morphology without confirming or denying the presence of polar ice caps or their composition. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations. [SEP] Text: The overall pattern of chloroplast SSR loci in the Bruguiera species were mostly unique compared with Kandelia and Rhizophora species. Thus, these SSRs would provide a useful genetic resource for future molecular marker analyses among Bruguiera species. The ML phylogenetic tree was constructed based on 59 conserved chloroplast coding-genes in 40 species. The genus Bruguiera and other mangrove species, K. obovata, R. stylosa and R. x lamarckii, constituted a monophyletic branch of the clade Rhizophoraceae. Our phylogenetic result is consistent with morphological characters and previous phylogenetic results based on nuclear DNA markers and some chloroplast genes (e. g. , matK and rbcL) (Schwarzbach & Ricklefs, 2000; Lakshmi, Parani & Parida, 2002; Sheue, Yong & Yang, 2005; Sahoo et al. , 2007; Duke & Ge, 2011). For example, a phylogenetic tree was previously constructed using 34 land plant species including Bruguiera species (B. cylindrica, B. exaristata, B. gymnorhiza, B. parviflora, and B. sexangula) based on the rbcL gene and trnL-trnF spacer (Schwarzbach & Ricklefs, 2000). The phylogenetic result of these two sequences presented B. gymnorhiza and B. sexangula in the same clade. Another phylogenetic tree was reported based on chromosome and RAPD markers in four Bruguiera species that clustered into two groups with B. gymnorhiza and B. sexangula in one group, and B. cylindrica with B. parviflora in the other group (Sahoo et al. , 2007). These results confirm the close relationships of B. gymnorhiza and B. sexangula. The Ka/Ks values for all shared protein-coding genes of the Bruguiera species were calculated and compared with the four assumed ancestors to assess gene selection pressure. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing various genetic markers, specifically SSR loci and chloroplast genes, used to construct phylogenetic trees that clarify relationships between species within the Bruguiera genus. It highlights how these genetic analyses contribute to understanding inheritance patterns and relationships, thus supporting the claim that genetic markers can trace inheritance in populations.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Psychopaths can never feel any emotions and are incapable of forming bonds with others. [SEP] Text: is the ability to feel or understand the experience of another person. What happens in our brains when we feel empathy for someone who is in pain? We showed teenagers pictures of different people in pain (for example, a person who accidentally hit his knee on a hard object) and used a machine that can measure the teenagers’ brains in action. The machine focused on an area in the brain that is responsible for empathy. The results showed that teenagers felt empathy toward people in pain, if those people were from the same background as the teenagers. But the teenagers felt less empathy toward people in pain who were from different backgrounds. These results are similar to the results of research on adults, which means that the empathy function in the brain is also working in teenagers. This study shows that science can be used to peek into the brains of teenagers to look at the brain activity that causes feelings of empathy in different situations. Why is Important? Can you recall a time when a close friend of yours hurt himself? Seeing your friend in pain may have made you feel as if you yourself were in pain. When this happens, we say that you felt empathy for your friend. The feeling of empathy happens when you “put yourself in other people’s shoes,” and you can then understand what it feels like when someone else is happy, sad, in pain or in any other experience. So when you see your friend in pain, you may feel his pain, perhaps almost as much as your friend does. The feeling of empathy is very important for several reasons. First, it is very important for your ability to understand others—to understand what they feel, what they want and why they act the way they do. Second, much research shows that feeling empathy motivates people to care about others and even to help each other [1]. So, empathy can really improve your interactions with your family, friends, and even with strangers. Empathy can lead people to be more caring toward each other, and more helpful. And who would not like to be around people who are caring for and helping each other? Let us try to imagine it: for example, you see your friend hitting his knee (or any other body part) on a hard object. Now let us imagine that you do not feel empathy for him: you would just talk to him as if nothing happened; you might ask him to join you for lunch or to play a game. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the concept of empathy and how it affects human interactions. It explains how individuals, including teenagers, have the ability to feel empathy, which connects them with the emotions of others, enabling them to understand and care for them. This implies that the absence of such emotional response, as suggested in the claim regarding psychopaths, may not be accurate, as it paints a picture of a functioning empathetic capacity that is crucial for forming bonds with others.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: It is possible that secondary and tertiary terminal pits may form by blocks that bounce at the channel terminus in the manner observed during field tests on sand dunes in Utah26. It has also been proposed that the multiple detached pits which surround many linear gully termini may be formed by smaller parts of blocks which have broken up at the terminus, scattering ice fragments into their surroundings21. However, the formation mechanism responsible for pronounced terminal pits and detached pits remains uncertain. It is not known if a stationary CO2 block can erode and deposit material to form the full range of pits identified here. Why detached pits are exclusive to a small fraction of linear gullies and why they are restricted to the lower part of the channel is also not yet clear. If detached pits were formed by broken blocks, it is conceivable that blocks would also break at locations such as sharp bends in the channel, areas of dune surface undulation and locations where channels merge. These are all regions where a block would be subjected to stress and yet detached pits are only found at channel termini. We hypothesise that if stationary sublimating CO2 blocks have the geomorphic agency to excavate and deposit material to form pits and circular levées, they must undergo a rapid sublimation process to do so. We reason therefore that blocks which reach the terminus may emit CO2 jets as they sublimate. If these jets entrain sufficient granular material27 they may then be capable of eroding detached pits when they return to the surface. Prior to this study, measurements of linear gullies has concentrated on geographical trends22 and the linear gully system as a whole21,26. Comprehending pit formation is crucial to understanding the formation mechanism responsible for this extra–terrestrial gully type. Therefore, it is important that we test whether sublimating CO2 ice blocks can form pit morphologies. MethodsObjectivesTo test the CO2 block hypothesis, in the context of pit formation, we first conducted a short survey of Martian linear gully terminal pits and detached pits on dunes in Russell, Proctor and Matara Craters. The objectives of this study were to (i) characterise the different terminal pit morphometries, (ii) investigate if there was any evidence of a link between these terminal pit morphometries and detached pits and (iii) investigate the range of block sizes which may be reactivating and widening linear gully channels seasonally. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim regarding Mars' polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. It primarily discusses the geological processes related to the formation of pits and gullies, and the sublimation of CO2 blocks, without addressing the composition or existence of ice caps on Mars.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations. [SEP] Text: Among the protein-coding genes, nonsynonymous substitutions (Ka) were more frequent than synonymous substitutions (Ks) in rps7 (11 non-synonymous sites of 13 variation sites) and rpl36 (six non-synonymous sites of eight variation sites). The Ka/Ks values of the rps7 and rpl36 genes were above 1. 0 in all species indicating that these genes were under positive selection. The result of the rps7 gene is consistent with previous findings for many mangrove species and some land plants such as K. obovata, R. stylosa, R. mangle and Ananas comosus (pineapple) (Redwan, Saidin & Kumar, 2015; Han et al. , 2020). The rps7 gene encoding small ribosomal protein seven is involved in the regulation of chloroplast translation (Fargo, Boynton & Gillham, 2001). The rpl36 gene was reported to be under positive selection in many mangrove species such as Pemphis acidula, and Sonneratia ovata (Shi et al. , 2020). Knockout of the rpl36 gene in tobacco results in severe morphological aberrations, poor photoautotrophic growth and low translational efficiency (Fleischmann et al. , 2011). Therefore, the rps7 and rpl36 genes might be candidates for improving stress tolerance in mangrove species in dynamic and rapidly changing coastal environments. study reports the whole chloroplast genome sequences of the five Bruguiera mangrove species. The comparative analyses among them provide insights into the chloroplast genome evolution in the genus Bruguiera. Evidence from the Bruguiera chloroplast genomes confirms that B. hainesii, a hybrid species between B. cylindrica and B. gymnorhiza, has inherited the chloroplast from B. cylindrica. Translocation of rpl32 from the chloroplast to the nuclear genome was demonstrated to occur in only B. gymnorhiza; but not in other Bruguiera species. The comparison of the Bruguiera species in the family Rhizophoraceae based on phylogenetic relationships showed that B. gymnorhiza was closely related with B. sexangula, B. hainesii was confirmed to have inherited its chloroplast from B. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing evidence that confirms inheritance patterns through the analysis of chloroplast genomes in mangrove species. It states that B. hainesii, a hybrid species, has inherited the chloroplast from B. cylindrica, indicating that genetic markers can be used to trace these inheritance patterns. Moreover, the comparative analyses offer insights into the evolution of the chloroplast genome, further supporting the claim that genetic markers are useful for tracing inherited traits within populations.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Psychopaths can never feel any emotions and are incapable of forming bonds with others. [SEP] Text: But in that moment, your friend is in pain and may need time and help to relieve the pain. Your friend may be upset with you because you do not understand what he is going through, and because you do not really help him in that moment when he really needs it. But what would happen if you do feel empathy for your friend? Then, seeing your friend in pain, you would imagine feeling the same pain, almost as if you yourself hurt your knee. This would help you to understand how your friend feels in that moment. You would then come to him, ask how he feels, stay with him, and see how you can help. Of course, your friend will still feel the pain in his knee, but your caring and helping will probably make him feel better overall. This is why empathy is a very important feeling. But how does empathy happen? Where do we feel empathy and how does it work? Well, everything we feel or do is controlled by the brain. So when you feel empathy, your brain is generating this feeling by activating certain areas of the brain that are important for empathy. Research on empathy shows that one of the major areas of the brain that is activated when you see a friend in pain is an area that scientists call S1 [2]. S1 can be seen in the red spot in the cartoon of the brain in Figure 1A. This area of the brain is not only responsible for empathy, but it is also active when you are in pain yourself. For instance, if you hit your knee, the S1 area also activates. This is very interesting, because it means that the pain you actually feel in your body may be similar to the empathy you feel for a friend’s pain. In other words, this may mean that when you see your friend in pain, your brain activates as if you yourself were in pain. This is why sometimes it feels painful to see someone else in pain (Figure 1A). Figure 1 - Empathy inside the brain. A. The cartoon shows one person (on the left) who is in pain after hitting his knee. This in turn triggers empathy in another person (on the right) who is watching him, and this empathy arises together with the activation of a specific brain area (see the red spot). B. Using machines such as MEG can show us this red spot in that area (called S1) on real images of the brain. When are Likely to Feel Empathy? [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing empathy, a complex emotion that involves understanding and sharing the feelings of another person. It explains how empathy is generated in the brain and highlights the idea that feelings, such as pain experienced by one person, can activate the same emotional responses in others. This suggests that not only can some individuals experience emotions, but they can also connect with others' feelings, which directly opposes the claim that psychopaths are incapable of feeling emotions or forming bonds.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: To further test the CO2 hypothesis, in the context of pit formation, we performed experiments to examine whether sliding and hence partially buried CO2 ice blocks would form morphologies comparable to Martian linear gully primary terminal pits and detached pits. To test the cryoventing hypothesis, in the context of furrow formation, we performed a second set of experiments with two aims: (i) to study the erosion patterns resulting from the interaction between a gently placed CO2 block and granular substrate and compare these features to a pre-existing Martian furrow network classification12; (ii) to study the factors which constrain furrow pattern type and furrow density. Survey of Pits in Proctor, Russell and (HiRISE) Models (DTMs) DTEEC_003080_1325_004077 and DTEEC_007018_1255_007229 and corresponding orthophotos were employed to survey linear gully pits in respectively. The polygon tool in ArcMap 10. 4 was used to measure the area of individual terminal pits (along the levée apex), taking the diameter of this circle as the pit width. Terminal pit area was calculated by squaring the pit radius and multiplying by π. Pit depths were measured using the tool, by drawing a line across the pit centre and extending this to the surrounding dune surface. Depth was estimated as the difference in elevation between a pit floor and the surrounding dune surface on each side and averaging these values. (DTEEC_007018_1255_007229) has an estimated vertical precision of 1. 2 m28. The relatively low estimated vertical precision is attributed to a low convergence angle (or sum of emission angles) between the stereo pair used to develop the DTM, which reduces vertical precision. Horizontal accuracy of this DTM was given by post spacing, which was 1 m/pixel. (DTEEC_003080_1325_004077) has an estimated vertical precision of <0. 5 m28 and a horizontal accuracy of 1 m/pixel. Pit widths in both locations were generally much wider than 1 m and so horizontal accuracy should not significantly affect our measurements. Both sites were dark dunes and so noise in the DTMs may have affected our measurements to a small degree. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the examination of CO2 ice blocks and their morphologies in the context of Martian pits without providing any information about the composition of polar ice caps on Mars. It focuses more on experimental methods and measurements related to pit formations, rather than addressing the presence or composition of ice caps.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations. [SEP] Text: cylindrica, and B. parviflora is a sister species of the other four Bruguiera species. Molecular markers were developed from SSRs and demonstrated to be useful in differentiating genotypes at both interspecific and intraspecific levels. The rps7 and rpl36 genes were found to be under positive selection in the Bruguiera species, and these genes might be important for stress tolerance. Therefore, these chloroplast genomes will provide useful genetic information for further analysis in Bruguiera and other mangrove species. Sample location of five Brugueira species. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-1 of a primer pair for testing rpl32 loss in five Bruguiera species. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-2 of SSR primer pairs in five Bruguiera species. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-3 of chloroplast accession numbers and genes for phylogenetic analysis. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-4 of chloroplast accession numbers and genes for gene selective pressure analysis. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-5 read coverage of the rpl32 gene in five Bruguiera species. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-6 chloroplast genes with exons and introns in five Brugueira species. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-7 of five Bruguiera species. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-8 Download SSRs of five Bruguiera species and three related mangrove species. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-9 compound and interrupted SSR loci with ≤100 bp among five Bruguiera species. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-10 Download Ka/Ks values between Bruguiera species and assumed ancestors. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-11 of PCR products by 1% agarose gel electrophoresis. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing information about the development of molecular markers from SSRs that are useful in differentiating genotypes at both interspecific and intraspecific levels. This supports the idea that genetic markers can trace and analyze genetic inheritance patterns in populations, specifically referring to the species within the Bruguiera genus.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Psychopaths can never feel any emotions and are incapable of forming bonds with others. [SEP] Text: We have been talking about feeling empathy for a friend, but you can actually feel empathy for other people, even for strangers. We feel more empathy for some people and less empathy for others. Some explanation for the different amounts of empathy we feel comes from research in psychology, which is the science of behavior and mind. Some of this research shows that we relate differently to people who are from our own cultural background, compared with those who are not from the same background as we are [3]. In that way, we may not feel the same empathy toward everyone. This is true not only in adults, but also in children—and especially in teenagers. It is very important for teenagers to feel that they “belong” to the society or to a group of people that share the same background. Research shows that this feeling of belonging to a group makes us feel differently about those in our group compared with those outside our group. Examples of different cultures or social groups in Israel (where this research was conducted) are the Jewish and the Arab cultures. So, we thought it would be interesting to study feelings of empathy in members of these cultural groups, and in particular, to study empathy in teenagers from these two cultural groups. But how can we know what people really feel toward each other? After all, it is difficult to tell how someone feels from the outside. But remember S1? If we can find a way to see when S1 activates in the brain, we can also see if someone feels empathy or not. And, in fact, there is already a cool machine called MEG that is able to peek into the brain! How does MEG work? The brain is made up of billions of cells that are talking to each other. For example, when you see a picture of a dog, millions of cells in your brain talk to each other so that you can make sense of that picture. If they did not talk to each other, then you would not know that the picture shows a dog. And how do the cells talk to each other? They send an electric signal to each other. When you turn on the light switch in your room, the switch sends an electric signal to the bulb, and this turns the light on. The brain cells do something similar—they send electric signals to each other, to enable us to think, feel, and make sense of the world around us. And do you know what happens when an electric signal is sent? [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the concept of empathy, which is a significant emotion. It states that people can feel empathy for both friends and strangers, highlighting the variability of empathy among individuals from different cultural backgrounds, especially among teenagers. This contradicts the claim that psychopaths are entirely devoid of emotions, as it implies that emotional responses, like empathy, can be present in varying degrees across different individuals.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: We have estimated an upper limit of this effect by taking 10 linear cross sections close to pit locations in both DTMs. We detrended these cross sections, averaged them and calculated the standard deviation as an estimate of noise29. Crater this value was 1. 7 m and in Proctor Crater, the value was 1. 08 m and so depths <1. 7 m were not reported in and depths less than 1. 08 m were not reported in Proctor Crater. Horizontal measurements from orthophotos at both locations may have been affected by atmospheric dust and detector noise which was at the pixel level and would affect our horizontal measurements by one pixel at most. A time-series of HiRISE images was used to determine whether there may be a link between detached pit and terminal pit formation. We propose that larger pit sizes (that indicate larger ice blocks) have a higher probability of generating detached pits. Terminal pit areas were measured as outlined above and the number of detached pits surrounding them were counted. Detached pits were identified as low albedo depressions. Negative topography was confirmed using the tool to generate topographic profile data across the feature in the corresponding DTM where possible. Smaller features that may have been artefacts of dune surroundings (e. g. shadows in ripples), were not included. HiRISE images taken at the same location (−54. 3°, 12. 9–13°) on the Russell megadune and dunes (−49. 5°, 34. 7° and −49. 5°, 34. 6°) allowed us to identify new or widened terminal pits and new detached pits. Suitable data were not available for Proctor Crater. Crater observations ranged over 4 Mars years (MY) between MY 29 and 32. The images used were ESP_012213_1255, ESP_020784_1255, ESP_029764_1255 and ESP_039153_1255 for MY 29, 30, 31 and 32 respectively. These images have emission angles of 8. 2°, 5. 1°, 3. 8° and 3. 8° respectively. Emission angle is the angle between the HiRISE camera and a normal drawn perpendicular to the surface, where 0° is known as nadir). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses methods of analyzing topographic features on Mars and mentions specific crater measurements without addressing the composition or existence of polar ice caps on Mars.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations. [SEP] Text: A gel purified PCR products of a primer pair, ndhF-F and rpl32-R (Table S2) in five Bruguiera chloroplasts. Lane M1 and M2: DNA size marker, Lane 1: PCR product in Bruguiera cylindrica (1,202 bp), Lane 2: PCR product in B. gymnorhiza (no product), Lane 3: PCR product in B. hainesii (1,202 bp), Lane 4: PCR product in B. parviflora (1,199 bp) and Lane 5: PCR product in B. sexangula (1,169 bp). DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-12 of SSR markers. A set of 20 of SSR markers were used to estimate the genetic variation among five Bruguiera species. Y-axis is nucleotide size. A1–A5: SSR product of cpSSR1-F and cpSSR1-R primers (Table S3) in Bruguiera cylindrica, B. gymnorhiza, B. hainesii, B. parviflora and B. sexangula, respectively. A6–A10: SSR product of cpSSR2-F and cpSSR2-R primers in B. cylindrica, B. gymnorhiza, B. hainesii, B. parviflora and B. sexangula, respectively. A11–A15: SSR product of cpSSR3-F and cpSSR3-R primers in B. cylindrica, B. gymnorhiza, B. hainesii, B. parviflora and B. sexangula, respectively. A16–A20: SSR product of cpSSR4-F and cpSSR4-R primers in B. cylindrica, B. gymnorhiza, B. hainesii, B. parviflora and B. sexangula, respectively. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-13 Information and authors declare that they have no competing interests. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the use of SSR markers to estimate genetic variation among five Bruguiera species. This implies that genetic markers are utilized to analyze genetic information, which supports the idea that they can trace inheritance patterns in populations.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Psychopaths can never feel any emotions and are incapable of forming bonds with others. [SEP] Text: 28It is noteworthy that two types of constructions are to be found: X has a(n) feel and X has a(n) feel to it – the difference between the two structures are analyzed in section 4. 2 The figures in brackets correspond to the number of occurrences found in the COCA. 29The adjectives occurring at least 4 times with it feels are the following:2good (554), great (117), different (33), real (33), strange (28), wonderful (28), wrong (24), weird (22), nice (19), natural (18), funny (12), comfortable (11), better (10), bad (10), safe (10), true (10), cold (9), unnatural (9), fine (8), awkward (7), new (7), smooth (7), warm (7), amazing (6), empty (5), dry (5), alive (5), important (5), impossible (5), incredible (5), normal (5), odd (5), silly (5), uncomfortable (5), awesome (5), cool (5), fantastic (4), full (4), lighter (4), okay (4), soft (4), solid (4), special (4). 30The adjectives occurring at least twice in the structure has a(n) feel and has a(n) feel to it are the following:similar (6), solid (5), good (5), retro (4), modern (3), certain (3), special (2), different (2), cozy (2), familiar (2), foreign (2), western Western (2), claustrophobic (2), open (2), new (2), relaxed (2), roomy (2), nice (2). 3. 2. Semantic sets 31The adjectives listed above seem to cluster around a few semantic profiles, and the two constructions do not appear to be compatible with the same kind of adjectival meanings. 3. 2. 1. It feels… 32For each semantic group, a list of adjectives and a few examples are provided. 33Several adjectives occurring with the verb feel convey an appreciative meaning: Group 1 – appreciative adjectives: awesome, better, fine, good, great, incredible, nice, wonderful; wrong, bad. 3 In all the examples, drawn from the COCA, the emphasis is mine. (01) this is amazing your album drops today. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim about psychopaths and their emotional capabilities. It discusses various semantic structures related to the verb 'feel' and lists adjectives associated with different feelings, but it does not address psychopaths, emotions, or bonding. Therefore, it does not provide any support or contrast to the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: Orthorectification corrects for distortions that may occur in off-nadir images where the spacecraft roll angle causes pixel foreshortening in the cross-track direction30. The images we used were not orthorectified, and so disparities may occur when comparing images with different observation geometry. To minimise this effect, images close to nadir were chosen and care was taken to select images with less than a 5° difference in emission angle. Because such differences are small, we can neglect parallax distortions31. A correction was made for any minor deviations however by dividing x-direction measurements by the cosine of the emission angle30. In each case the distortions are within tens of centimetres and thus fall within errorbars for our measurements. Experimental SetupIn order to investigate the CO2 block hypothesis for pit formation21 and the cryoventing hypothesis for furrow formation11 we performed laboratory experiments. Initial pilot work, under ambient terrestrial conditions, revealed that water in the atmosphere had a significant effect as it formed frost on the surface of the block and on the bed. This affects the heat budget, the permeability of the bed and the mobility of the grains and must be avoided. Additionally, this frost would later melt and erase the surface microtopography. Therefore, we performed our experiments in a low humidity chamber. The chamber was erected on a level surface in a constant temperature (ΔT ≈ 3 K) laboratory. A plastic container (460 × 675 × 400 mm) was filled with dehumidifying silica gel beads. A smaller plastic container (300 × 520 × 370 mm) was placed inside, forming a silica gel bead moat which surrounded the interior container. A perspex lid was fitted on top of the chamber and vacuum bagging gum sealant tape was added at the interface between the container and lid to ensure the chamber was air-tight. A sealed trap door was constructed within the perspex lid in order to minimise exposure to atmospheric water vapour when placing blocks inside. Prior to each experimental run, three CO2 ice blocks were placed upon the silica bead moat and were given time to sublimate. These generated dense CO2 gas which flushed out the original gaseous content, thus removing any water vapour. This reduced the relative humidity sufficiently so that there was no noticeable frost formation during the experiments on the ~−80 °C CO2 ice blocks. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not provide any information related to the composition of the polar ice caps on Mars. Instead, it discusses experimental setups and methods related to CO2 ice blocks without addressing the claim about Mars' polar ice caps.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations. [SEP] Text: 3) recovered a well-supported split (100 (BS) and (PP)) between the Ligia specimens from the Indo-Pacific and the two outgroup taxa. Within the Indo-Pacific Ligia, we observed a split between two highly divergent lineages: an ‘East African’ clade (Clade ABC; BS: 71–96; PP: 91–99) and an ‘Asian’ clade (Clade DEF; BS: 100; PP: 100). COI K2P divergences between these two clades ranged from 21. 8 to 27. 8% with a mean divergence of 25. 2%. Figure 3: Majority rule consensus tree produced by (GTR +Γ, unparitioned, Phycas) of the concatenated mitochondrial dataset of Ligia samples and outgroups included in this study. Numbers by nodes indicate the corresponding range of percent (BS; top) for Maximum likelihood; and (PP; bottom) for Bayesian inference methods. Nodes receiving 100% for all methods are denoted with an * while an NS indicates less than 50% node support. Colors represent major lineages as discussed in text. Download full-size image DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 3894/fig-3 The ‘East African’ clade (Clade ABC) contained all specimens identified as L. vitiensis and included the localities of in the Seychelles, in Madagascar, three localities in Tanzania (i. e. , Dar-Es-Salaam, Kilwa Masoko, and Stone Town), and two localities from the (Komodo, Indonesia and Dili, Timor-Leste). These localities formed three distinct lineages: (a) Ligia from Madagascar, mainland Tanzania, and Aldabra (Seychelles) were placed in the well-supported (light orange in all figures; BS: 100; PP: 100); (b) Indonesian archipelago Ligia were placed in (cyan in all figures; BS: 100; PP: 100); and (c) was composed of Ligia from Stone Town, Zanzibar, Tanzania (light grey in all figures). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing specific genetic divergences and lineages of Ligia specimens traced through molecular data, indicating how genetic markers have been used to differentiate distinct clades within populations from different geographic localities. This demonstrates the application of genetic markers in tracing inheritance and evolutionary relationships.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Psychopaths can never feel any emotions and are incapable of forming bonds with others. [SEP] Text: Lacassain-Lagoin Christelle, 2012, « It’s not what it looks to be! : Déconnexion entre forme et sens dans les énoncés avec verbe de perception à emploi dit “copule” », E-rea, 9. 2, disponible à Langacker Ronald, 1991, Concept, Image, and Symbol, Basis of Grammar, Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Marchand Hans, 1960, and Types of Present-Word-Formation, Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. Dictionary, available at Dictionary, available at Paulin Catherine, 2003, « Polysémie et complémentation verbale : le verbe feel dans tous ses états », in Delmas Claude, (eds. ), Correct, Incorrect en linguistique anglaise C. I. E. R. E. C, Travaux 113, Publications de l’Université de Saint-étienne Jean Monnet, 129-155. Plag Ingo, 2003, Word-formation in English, Cambridge: Press. Souesme Jean-Claude, 2015, « Les suites lexicales composées de have a + nom éventuellement précédé d’un adjectif », Lexis, 9, 79-93. Wierzbicka Anna, 1982, “Why can you have a drink when you can’t *have an eat? ”, Language, Vol. 58, No. 4, Dec. , 753-799. Top of page Notes 1 Only one verbal form has been selected in order to avoid several mentions of the same adjective, and the present form has been chosen because it is the most frequent in the HAVE a(n) feel construction. 2 The figures in brackets correspond to the number of occurrences found in the COCA. 3 In all the examples, drawn from the COCA, the emphasis is mine. 4 Significantly, has a(n) feel is more frequent in the COCA’s magazine and newspaper subcorpora (0. 56 occurrences per million words) than in the spoken (0. 10 occurrences per million words), fiction (0. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text appears to be a citation list and discussion about linguistic constructs, without any direct reference to emotions, psychopaths, or their ability to form bonds. Therefore, it does not provide any relevant information to support or contrast the claim.