Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Semantic memory is involved in understanding the meanings of words and sentences. [SEP] Text: In a very small number of cases (n = 6: 2 related, 4 unrelated), the participants recalled a property related to the word’s original definition (e. g. , recalling PEARL as a jewel). Transfer errors (i. e. , recalling a property from another novel definition) were slightly more common (n = 24, 26. 7 % of errors) and were significantly more common for unrelated paragraphs (n = 20, 83. 3%) than for related paragraphs (n = 4) on a binomial test (p =. 002). The remaining “semantic” errors (n = 60, 66. 67 % of errors) consisted of responses that were incorrect for both the original and the new word meanings and that were also not correct for any other paragraph that was used in the experiment (e. g. , remembering PATH as a tattoo rather than as face paint or CREW as musicians rather than singers). These errors were slightly more common for unrelated paragraphs (55 %), but this difference this was not significant on a binomial test (p =. 519). DiscussionThis experiment showed that the participants’ ability to recall new meanings for familiar words was significantly better for meanings that were semantically related to the existing meaning than for unrelated meanings. This relatedness effect was strikingly large: Participants were only able to recall some correct information for 26 % of unrelated items, as compared with 70 % of the related meanings. This indicates that the presence of a semantic relationship between the “old” and “new” meanings strongly facilitates the learning of the mapping between form and meaning. Due to the low level of performance on the unrelated meanings, it was not possible to assess whether relatedness also affects the richness of the newly acquired semantic representation. This issue needed to be addressed in an experiment in which the participants would achieve better overall performance in learning novel unrelated meanings of existing words. Experiment 2The primary aim of this experiment was to investigate the effects of meaning relatedness beyond a single learning episode by extending the learning phase across a 6-day period and by introducing a delay of approximately 24 h between the final training session and the testing phase. This procedure allowed us to assess whether previously poor acquisition of unrelated new meanings would be improved by more extended learning and to determine whether the strong effect of relatedness seen in Experiment 1 would become more or less pronounced with time. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by illustrating that participants' ability to recall new meanings for familiar words is significantly better when those meanings are semantically related to existing meanings. It states that this relatedness effect facilitates the learning of the mapping between form and meaning, underlining the role of semantic memory in understanding and processing word meanings.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: The processes recorded in leaf-scale sugar isotope ratios vary on the order of fractions of seconds, though by the time the sugars have been transported to intra-leaf storage pools or to the phloem for transport to other parts of the plant, time-averaged isotope fractionation can be well-approximated by the steady-state assumption in observations and models. Following a discussion of leaf-scale photosynthetic dynamics, we progress to 'downstream' influences that have the potential to scramble the association of observed sugar isotope ratios with the short-term physiological and climate controls over leaf physiology, and thus mask efforts to trace tree-ring isotope time series with seasonally-resolved influences. In Sect. 15. 5, we consider xylogenesis itself as a cause in the disruption of the association of observed intra-annual isotope ratios with specific climate and phenological phases during the growing season. The incorporation of photosynthate into cellulose during xylogenesis is affected by seasonal lags in the processes of cell formation and maturation. Thus, the anatomical attributes of variation in the cellular appearance of xylem may not align seasonally with the isotopic attributes of the cellulose that makes up the primary and secondary cell walls of individual xylem elements and tracheids. We discuss new approaches relying on cambial phenology modeling conditioned on high-frequency micro-core sampling to resolve lags in the seasonal phases of xylogenesis. In Sect. 15. 6, we present a discussion of experimental studies that have traced the seasonal partitioning of photosynthate into tree rings. The research developments discussed in this section, when coupled with recent approaches that identify the intra-annual domains of tree rings according to isotope ratios and phases of xylogenesis, hold the greatest promise to provide explanations of intra-annual patterns of isotopic fractionation, especially those fractionations associated with post-assimilation processes. 13CO2 pulse-labeling used in combination with high-resolution analysis of tree-ring isotopes is an effective tool to elucidate the processes that transfer fractionation signals from assimilation processes 'in the current moment' versus those from past processes that are stored in carbon reservoirs and subsequently transferred to the archived cellulose isotope record in tree rings. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing new approaches and research developments that trace the seasonal partitioning of photosynthate into tree rings and the potential for tree-ring isotopes to provide explanations related to intra-annual patterns of isotopic fractionation. It specifically mentions that the effective use of '13CO2 pulse-labeling' and high-resolution analysis allows scientists to elucidate processes that transfer signals from both 'current moment' photosynthesis versus past tree physiological processes, indicating that tree rings can indeed hold valuable information about past events.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: (AAS), established in 1899 and based in Washington, DC, is the major organization of professional astronomers in North America. Its membership of about 7,000 individuals also includes physicists, mathematicians, geologists, engineers, and others whose research and educational interests lie within the broad spectrum of subjects comprising contemporary astronomy. The mission of the AAS is to enhance and share humanity's scientific understanding of the universe. of Physics (IOP) is a leading scientific society promoting physics and bringing physicists together for the benefit of all. It has a worldwide membership of around 50 000 comprising physicists from all sectors, as well as those with an interest in physics. It works to advance physics research, application and education; and engages with policy makers and the public to develop awareness and understanding of physics. Its publishing company, IOP Publishing, is a world leader in professional scientific communications. A publishing partnership The following 2022. The Author(s). Published by the Society. Science Journal, Number 12 J. Robbins 2022 Planet. Sci. J. 3 274 DOI 10. 3847/PSJ/aca282 Download 3. 7 Ga. Scaling the lunar impact crater history to Mars using generally well-established scaling rules indicates Mars should have ∼40–80 similarly sized, ancient craters. However, Mars has roughly seven. This is a nontrivial mismatch between observation and expectation. Possible methods to resolve the mismatch are discussed in this work: small number statistics, incorrect scaling laws, heat flow produced larger-than-expected craters, the ratio of Mars:Moon impactors was different in early solar system history, Mars's ancient crater chronology is wrong, and/or Mars has hidden a large fraction of its large impacts. None of these scenarios are mutually exclusive. This work details how the different scenarios could work to bring observations more in-line with the scaling expectations, or vice versa. It is posited that the most likely sources of the mismatch are that the initial bolide rate was different (this is a noncontroversial supposition), that lunar heat flow produced larger craters than expected, and the formation of the basin could have kept the surface warm enough for long enough to prevent large features from forming for an extended period of time. The primary purpose of this work is to present the issue with possible ways to solve it through future efforts. Export citation and abstract 4. 0 licence. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim directly. It discusses the differences in lunar and Martian crater histories but does not provide information on how lunar impact craters specifically offer insights into the history of the solar system. Therefore, it is considered irrelevant (pass) to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Semantic memory is involved in understanding the meanings of words and sentences. [SEP] Text: A second aim of the experiment related to the effect of semantic relatedness on the quality of the newly learned semantic representations. 1, this analysis had not been possible due to the low number of unrelated paragraphs for which any information was recalled. By extending the learning period, it was expected that performance would be sufficiently improved that we could explore this important effect in more detail. The third aim was to use an additional lexical decision task to assess whether the new meanings had become sufficiently well learned that they could impact on an online speeded task in which there was no requirement for the new meaning to play a role. Experiment 1 had shown that participants are able to retain some information about new word meanings relatively rapidly, but the explicit memory task that was used could not reveal whether this information had become integrated with existing lexical knowledge about the word’s primary meaning. From previous studies of semantic ambiguity (Beretta et al. 2005; Klepousniotou et al. 2008; Rodd et al. 2002), if lexical integration has occurred, then we should see a benefit for the words whose new meaning was semantically related to the existing meaning, as compared with words with an unrelated new meaning. In contrast, if no such integration has occurred, then participants’ speeded responses to these highly familiar words would be unaffected by the semantic-relatedness variable. MethodParticipantsThe 15 participants (six female, nine male; 19–32 years of age) were members of the and were monolingual native English speakers with normal or corrected-to-normal vision. They were paid for their participation. Stimuli and designThe target words, paragraphs, and assignment of items to versions were the same as in Experiment 1. The paragraphs were included in printed booklets that could be taken home by the participants. Each page of the booklet contained just one paragraph. For each version of the booklet, two presentation orders were created. The four possible combinations of version and presentation order were each seen by either three or four participants. The first version was randomly generated, and the second was created by reversing the first. Six rating booklets were created, each referring to one of the following properties: novelty, plausibility, clarity, coherence, logicality, and interest. As with Experiment 1, ratings for each word or paragraph were made on a 7-point scale from low to high. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the effect of semantic relatedness on the quality of new semantic representations and how participants' memory retention regarding new word meanings may be influenced by their existing lexical knowledge. It suggests that semantic memory plays a crucial role in integrating new meanings with existing knowledge, indicating that this process is essential for understanding word meanings and sentences.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: In the literature, several classifications of false ring, or double rings, or intra annual density fluctuations (IADF) exist. The appearance of an IADF can create errors in dendrochronological dating as it can be mistaken for a true LW band, and therefore cause a false assumption of annual growth truncation; this is the so-called 'false ring' phenomenon. The formation of IADFs has been related to physiological responses at the leaf scale, including stomatal diffusion restrictions and photosynthetic water-use efficiency (WUE), that are induced by extreme mid-season droughts (Battipaglia et al. 2010, 2013; Balzano et al 2018, 2019; Zalloni et al 2016, 2018a, b, 2019). The seasonal variations that are evident in the wood structure of annual rings are due to both phenological dynamics in cambial activity and influences from the ambient environment. McCarroll et al. (2003) explored the relationships of ten tree proxies, including several related to wood structure variation, with seasonal climate in Pinus sylvestris from three sites in northern Finland. Clear distinctions were noted in the correlations of EW and LW density and width-increment and seasonal climate variables. EW width was best correlated with late-summer temperature from the previous (antecedent) growing season, and it was hypothesized that overwinter stores of carbohydrate were used for EW construction. No clear climate signal could be associated with EW density. Latewood width and density were best correlated with late-summer (July and August) temperature of the current year, though the correlation was only strong at the southernmost site, and density alone was highly correlated with late-summer temperature at all sites. Similarly, using Quercus robur in Hungary, Kern et al. (2013) showed no significant correlation between EW width-increment and monthly precipitation or temperature, whereas LW width-increment was significantly correlated with July precipitation, but not with temperature. In ring-porous oak species, traits associated with individual EW xylem vessel size, rather than EW ring-width increment, have been shown to respond to site differences in spring moisture availability (Fonti and Garcia-Gonzalez 2008) and appear to be capable of acclimation to changes in spring temperature and moisture conditions (Gea-Izquierdo et al. 2012; Nabeshima et al. 2015). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing evidence that tree rings, through various physiological responses and seasonal variations, can indeed reflect environmental influences. The discussion of intra-annual density fluctuations and how tree ring structures respond to climatic conditions suggests that tree rings can capture significant environmental disturbances, contrary to the claim that they cannot.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Robbins's database adds Smythii as a ≈955 km crater, while the Neumann et al. work lists it as ≈878 km. Given the different source data and degradation state, it is not surprising that there is some variation in measuring this feature. Orientale postdates Smythii, so its inclusion must be considered. Therefore, one could say that there are 4–5 craters on the Moon that are Orientale's size or larger and Orientale's age or older. For an expanded crater list, Smythii's diameter in the Neumann et al. database, or larger, could be used instead. Those craters number eight; in addition to the previous five, they add Serenitatis, Nectaris, and Australe Northa. There is also a natural break in diameters in their list between Smythii and the next-largest crater, Humorum, which they measured as 816 km. database includes the first two, but not the third, and it similarly lists Humorum after a natural break in diameters. Therefore, an alternative list is that there are 7–8 craters on the Moon with diameters D > 860 km which are Orientale's age or older. Figure 1 shows these impact craters on the Moon overtop topography, and Figure 2(A) shows the first four's model formation ages. Reset image size Figure 1. Topographic maps (black = low, white = high) of the Moon (top; Smith et al. 2010) and Mars (bottom; Smith et al. 2001) in equirectangular projection with the impact craters considered in this work overlaid. Short-dashed lines on the Moon indicate possible additional craters based on some uncertainty in their diameters, while is long-dashed because it could not be definitively identified in topography or images (note: maria infill is not necessarily a crater's rim). Short-dashed Borealis on Mars is due to some remaining controversy about whether it is a true impact crater and to indicate its extremely uncertain rim. Download figure:Standard image High-resolution image Reset image size Figure 2. Various scenarios of Moon's and Mars's cratering history presented in this work, where the vertical axes are meant to be illustrative and not precise. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provides a detailed account of measurements and characteristics of specific impact craters on the Moon, including comparisons of different sources regarding their sizes and ages. However, it does not directly address or provide insights into the broader implications of these craters for understanding the history of the solar system. Therefore, the text is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Semantic memory is involved in understanding the meanings of words and sentences. [SEP] Text: To ensure that the participants read the paragraphs during the unsupervised training sessions that took place outside of the lab, six short memory tests were developed that contained 12 simple questions apiece about the meanings contained in the booklets (two questions per paragraph read during the week). Some of the questions were open ended (e. g. , “Why were stubs usually killed in the past? ”), and other questions required participants to fill in a blank (e. g. , “_____ is now considered one of the most desirable massages available. ”). An additional 72 words were selected for use in the lexical decision experiment. These words, which did not appear in the training booklets or in the vocabulary test, were well matched to the training words for frequency, orthographic neighbourhood, syllable count, and number of senses, as well as for lexical decision performance in the Project (Balota et al. 2007; see Table 1 and the 1. In the lexical decision test, a fixation point appeared in the centre of the monitor for 500 ms, followed by a single word. The participants indicated via keyboard responses whether each word was a real English word (1 for real word, 2 for nonword). After each response, the word was replaced by a new fixation point. The 36 trained words, 72 untrained words, and 108 pseudohomophones were divided into four blocks pseudorandomly, such that each block contained the same number from each condition. Participants saw the four blocks in a randomized order, with the additional constraint that each possible order was seen by no more than one participant. Within each block, the order of the items was randomized for each participant. A practice session consisting of 28 filler items (half words and half nonwords) was completed before the experimental blocks. ResultsRatings taskParticipants made ratings of novelty, plausibility, clarity, coherence, interest, and logicality for each paragraph (see Table 4). Table 4 Experiment 2: Results of the rating task for related (R) and unrelated (U) items (calculated across participants)Full size table Memory questionsThe participants answered 12 questions on each of the 6 days of training. Overall, participants achieved 58 % correct (range across participants = 39 %–85 %). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing memory tests that specifically assess participants' understanding of the meanings contained in paragraphs read during training. The inclusion of questions about meanings demonstrates the role of semantic memory in processing and understanding language, supporting the idea that semantic memory is involved in the comprehension of words and sentences.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 2018, 2020a) and wood (Kagawa 2020) is interesting phenomenon and might be related to intra-annual oxygen and hydrogen variations in the wood formed during rainy seasons (Nakatsuka et al. 2004; Roden et al. 2009; Managave et al. 2010a; Ohashi et al. 2016; Xu et al. 2016; Nabeshima et al. 2018). Both in hydrological cycles and inside trees, hydrogen and oxygen isotopes of water behave, more or less, similarly (Dansgaard 1964; Kagawa 2020) and fractionations of hydrogen isotopes in leaf water are explained by the same Eq. (15. 2), with specific fractionation factors for hydrogen (Roden et al. 2000). The fraction of carbon-bound hydrogen atoms that exchange with non-fractionated water is also similar to that of oxygen (pex) (Yakir and DeNiro 1990; Roden and Ehleringer 1999; Roden et al. 2000; Kagawa 2020). Oxygen and hydrogen show parallel fractionations through hydrological cycles (i. e. non-biological systems) along the meteoric water line (Dansgaard 1964). However, hydrogen isotopes show larger fractionations than oxygen at the cambium, before and during cellulose synthesis (Yakir and DeNiro 1990) and isotopic deviations of hydrogen from oxygen off the meteoric water line (Yakir et al. 1990; Voelker et al. 2014) seem to be related to metabolic activities (Lehmann et al. 2020b, Nakatsuka et al. 2020). One possible cause for such deviations is respiration, because oxygen is eliminated by both carbon dioxide and water released from trees, and hydrogen would be eliminated only by the water. Such deviations are closely related to the amount of respired CO2 in humans and animals (Schoeller and 1982; Speakman 1997), and similar phenomenon might be happening in plants where respiration is high, in such places as symplastic leaf water pool (Kagawa 2020). In support of this hypothesis, Cormier et al. (2018) reports associations between hydrogen isotope fractionations of plants and carbon and energy metabolism under low light conditions. 4 in the Cellulose of Tree RingsNumerous studies have reported on the isotope composition of wood or cellulose (e. g. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing various studies related to the isotope composition of wood and cellulose, implying that tree rings and their isotopic variations can provide insights related to environmental factors, including metabolic activities within trees which may be responsive to environmental disturbances such as volcanic activity. The mention of isotope fractionations and their relationship to metabolic activities suggests a link between trees and their environmental context, countering the claim that tree rings cannot be used for such studies.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: The crater ellipses in the horizontal direction indicate uncertainty in their ages based on established, extrapolated crater-based chronologies, while the vertical component is for visibility; crater ages' 3. 92 Ga (Bottke & Norman 2017); Orientale's age is based on Stewart-Alexander & Howard (1970), Baldwin (1987a, 1987b), Geiss & Rossi (2013), Yue et al. (2020). Borealis is set based on Nimmo & Tanaka (2005) and other work discussed in the main text; Utopia on Frey (2004, 2008) and Isidis, Ladon, Prometheus, Hellas, and Argyre are based on Robbins et al. (2013). While there is potentially a large amount of time between Argyre and Orientale, Argyre is the youngest large basin on Mars, the next largest being ∼500 km across, so it is not considered in this work. Download figure:Standard image High-resolution image 2. 2. Cratersimpact crater databases do not strongly disagree about large, distinct craters, so the database of Robbins & Hynek (2012) in conjunction with the mapping from Robbins et al. (2013) for the largest craters is used here. They—and others (e. g. , Barlow 1988)—typically recognize just four prominent, "obvious" large craters on Mars: Utopia (∼3400 km), Hellas (∼2300 km), Argyre (∼1300 km), and Isidis (∼1300 km). While size estimates vary considerably when measuring possible visual rims versus crustal thickness cavities (e. g. , versus diameters from Bottke & Andrews-Hanna 2017), all would still be included in this sample, so their diameters to even ∼±30% accuracy are unimportant for this discussion. In addition to the above, Prometheus is near the with a partial rim that forms a crater ∼860 km across, and the ancient, peak-ring Ladon crater is ∼1100 km across. Figure 1 shows these impact craters on Mars overtop topography. These total six impact craters in the approximate size range of Orientale and larger. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses impact craters primarily on Mars, providing detailed information about their sizes and estimated ages based on various studies. However, it does not address the Moon or its impact craters specifically. Therefore, it is not relevant to the claim about the Moon's craters providing insights into the history of the solar system.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Semantic memory is involved in understanding the meanings of words and sentences. [SEP] Text: 01, p >. 9; F 2(1, 33) = 0. 001, p >. 9] or on error rates [F 1(1, 12) = 1. 1, p >. 3; F 2(1, 33) = 1. 2, p >. 2]. Cued-recall testResponses were coded as in Experiment 1. Two different measures of memory performance were used as dependent measures: (1) proportions of correct responses (as in Exp. 1) and (2) the numbers of properties that were recalled for these correct responses. Overall, performance was better than in Experiment 1 (see Table 3), but it remained better for the related items than for the unrelated items in terms on the proportions of correct responses [F 1(1, 13) = 52. 3, p <. 001; F 2(1, 34) = 200. 9, p <. 001] and the numbers of properties that were recalled for these correct responsesFootnote 2 [F 1(1, 12) = 42, p <. 001; F 2(1, 34) = 52. 5, p <. 001]. To explore in more detail this increase in the number of properties that were recalled, the distributions of these individual responses are shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 2Cued-recall results (Exps. 2 and 3): Distribution of the numbers of properties that were correctly recalled on each trial (as percentages of the total number of trials). Open symbols show the mean numbers of properties recalled for the correct trialsFull size image DiscussionIn this experiment, the learning phase was extended across 6 days and participants were tested approximately 24 h after the final learning session, allowing us to examine longer-term memory for novel meanings. Although performance did improve relative to Experiment 1, performance on the unrelated meanings remained relatively poor. For the unrelated paragraphs, participants were only able to correctly recall some information about the word’s new meaning on 52 % of the trials, as compared with 100 % for the related meanings. The amount of semantic information that participants could recall was also significantly lower for the unrelated meanings: For those trials on which some information was correctly recalled, participants recalled an average of 1. 8 properties for the unrelated meanings, as compared with 2. 6 properties for the related meanings. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by presenting evidence that semantic memory plays a crucial role in recalling meanings. It describes an experiment where participants demonstrated improved recall for related meanings, indicating that they were effectively using semantic memory to understand these meanings. Specifically, the text states that participants recalled an average of 2.6 properties for related meanings, but only 1.8 for unrelated meanings, suggesting that their understanding was closely tied to the meanings associated with the words.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: , δ13C and δ18O) as a means of revealing seasonal dynamics in tree-climate relationships (Wilson and Grinstead 1977; Leavitt and Long 1986, 1991; Kitagawa and Wada 1993; Ogle and McCormac 1994; Li et al. 1996; Livingston and Spittlehouse 1996; Sheu et al. 1996; Jordan and Mariotti 1998; Jäggi et al. 2002; Helle and Schleser 2004; Eglin et al. 2010; An et al. 2012; Kimak and Leuenberger 2015). Variation in δ13C across individual rings can be as large as 4‰, though 1–2‰ is most common (Barbour et al. 2002; Kagawa et al. 2003; Helle and Schleser 2004; Li et al. 2005; Kimak and Leuenberger 2015; Fu et al. 2017). This amount of variation is most likely due to the physiological response of trees to climate forcings and/or biochemical and physiological fractionation, and is not related to seasonal variation in the isotopic composition of source CO2 (Jäggi et al. 2002; Helle and Schleser 2004; Li et al. 2005; Voelker et al. 2016; Fu et al. 2017). Variation in δ18O across individual rings tends to be greater than that for δ13C, ranging as high as 6‰ and often being between 2–4‰ (Wilson and Grinstead 1977; Zeng et al. 2014; Fu et al. 2017; Szejner et al. 2016; Belmecheri et al. 2018). The variation in cellulose δ18O reflects an important influence of seasonal variation in the isotopic composition of source water (Chap. 18). Because of this variation, intra-annual variations of oxygen isotopes show annual cyclicity in tropical areas and are often used for identifying annual rings in tropical trees that lack anatomically distinct annual rings (Poussart et al. 2004, Managave et al. 2010a, b, Pons and Helle 2011, Ohashi et al. 2016). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing how variations in δ13C and δ18O in tree rings provide valuable information regarding seasonal dynamics and climate responses. It highlights that isotopic compositions in tree rings are influenced by climatic factors and can exhibit significant variation, which implies that tree rings can indeed reflect environmental disturbances. The mention of using intra-annual variations of oxygen isotopes to identify annual rings in tropical trees suggests that tree rings possess the potential to be analyzed for past environmental conditions.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: The next-largest commonly recognized crater on Mars is Huygens, which has a distinct rim just ≈467 km across, so it is outside of the range of this work, even when scaling impactor-crater size relationships from the Moon (see Section 3) or considering the expanded lunar crater list with diameters larger than Humorum. In the other size direction, a possible seventh crater is the Borealis crater, or the entire northern plains of Mars. Andrews-Hanna et al. (2008) demonstrated more convincingly than earlier work that it is likely a giant, elliptical impact crater ∼8600 × 10,500 km. This is commonly accepted today, though because there is still some controversy (e. g. , Ballantyne et al. 2022), it is listed only as a possible seventh large, ancient impact crater on Mars in this work. et al. (2013) work is the most systematic for assigning ages to these impacts so is used here, though their work is in agreement with several others' based on modern imagery (e. g. , Werner 2008; Fassett & Head 2011). Using a wide range of crater-based model ages, they concluded that Argyre is the youngest of those craters. The absolute model age of Argyre is somewhere around 3. 91 ± 0. 03 Ga to 4. 00 ± 0. 03 Ga (depending on the crater-age model), so Argyre is potentially Imbrium-aged. As this is older than Orientale' age of ∼3. 7–3. 8 Ga, all of the large, identified Mars craters can be treated as the comparison set for this work; Figure 2(A) includes a timeline of their model ages. It should be noted that Frey (2004, 2006, 2008) also date these large craters using superposed—but buried—quasi-circular depressions (QCDs; see Section 5. 6 for further discussion of these features). While their stratigraphy broadly agrees with the above, it contradicts the order of Argyre and Isidis based on the superposed crater counts that Fassett & Head (2011), Robbins et al. (2013), and Werner (2008) all independently performed, leading to some questions about its validity. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the impact craters on the Moon or provide insights related to them. Instead, it discusses craters on Mars and references various studies regarding their ages and relationships with lunar craters. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim about the Moon's impact craters providing insights into the solar system's history.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Semantic memory is involved in understanding the meanings of words and sentences. [SEP] Text: Meaning relatedness therefore influenced not only the likelihood of successful access to learned representations, but also the quality or amount of detail of the semantic representation that was accessed. In contrast to this clear effect of meaning relatedness on the explicit memory test, the lexical decision task showed a different picture. Participants were faster (and marginally more accurate) to respond to words that they had seen during training, as compared to words that they had not seen during training, but this overall effect of training may merely have reflected priming of the word form. In contrast to this strong main effect of training, there was no difference between their responses to the words that they encountered during training with either a related or an unrelated meaning. This absence of a relatedness effects suggests that while participants had learned the new meanings well enough to recall in the context of an explicit memory test, this information had not become sufficiently well integrated into their lexicons that it could significantly interfere with their recognition in an online, speeded recognition task. Alternatively, it may be that meaning relatedness has only a limited impact on lexical decision responses. In the absence of sufficient learning of novel unrelated meanings, we cannot distinguish these two possibilities, so in the next experiment we sought to increase the efficacy of meaning training. Experiment 31 and 2, the training procedure consisted of reading the paragraphs and making undemanding ratings. In both experiments, participants’ ability to learn the unrelated meanings was relatively poor, and Experiment 2 showed no evidence that these meanings could influence online comprehension. 3, we used a modified training regime that consisted of four separate worksheets that were performed separately on four consecutive days. These tasks were selected on the basis of the guidelines set out by Beck, McKeown, and Kucan (2002) and were intended to produce robust learning of the new meanings. Two of the tasks (Worksheets 1 and 3) focused explicitly on the learning of the arbitrary mapping between word form and meaning. The other two worksheets encouraged learners to deepen their semantic engagement with these new meanings (Worksheets 2 and 4). MethodParticipantsThe 16 participants (two female, 14 male; 18–23 years of age) were members of the. Fifteen were undergraduate psychology students who participated as part of their course requirement, and the final participant (a nonpsychology undergraduate at UCL) was not remunerated. All were monolingual native English speakers with normal or corrected-to-normal vision. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how meaning relatedness influences the access and quality of semantic representations in memory. It suggests that participants' ability to recall learned meanings signifies the role of semantic memory in understanding word meanings, aligning with the claim that semantic memory is crucial for comprehending the meanings of words and sentences.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: Numerous past studies have reported differences in chemical composition between earlywood and latewood in a range of softwoods and hardwoods (Ritter and Fleck 1926; Wilson and Wellwood 1965; Khattak and Mahmood 1986; Bergander 2001; Gindl 2001; Bertaud and Holmbom 2004). Generally, all these authors found that earlywood contained more lignin and less cellulose than latewood. The difference was explained in terms of the structure of the cell wall since earlywood consists of a larger proportion of lignin-rich middle lamella, due to larger tracheid diameters, and thinner cell walls, compared to latewood (Fredriksson et al. 2018). The cellulose and lignin that compose tree rings can be distinguished on the basis of stable isotope ratios (Borella et al. 1998, 1999; Barbour et al. 2001; Loader et al. 2003; Verheyden et al. 2005). Observed δ13C values for cellulose are isotopically enriched by approximately 3‰ compared to those for lignin (Loader et al. 2003). δ18O values are significantly lower in lignin (22. 7 ± 2. 4‰), compared to whole-wood (27. 7 ± 0. 5‰) or cellulose (31. 4 ± 1. 4‰) (Ferrio and Voltas, 2005). In this context, it needs to be considered that lignin composition and percentage is variable, not only between EW and LW, but also among different species and even within a single population of the same plant species depending on age (Campbell and Sederoff 1996). Several past research efforts have shown that seasonal patterns of δ13C differ between EW and LW. Winter deciduous trees must, by phenological constraint, draw on stored carbohydrate (NSC) resources to support their earliest cambial activity. Using this assumption, several studies have interpreted the cellulose δ13C values of EW as reflecting fractionation processes from antecedent growing seasons (Jaggi et al. 2002, Helle and Schleser 2004; Li et al. 2005; Eglin et al. 2010; Hafner et al. 2015; Kimak and Leuenberger 2015; Fu et al. 2017; Zeng et al. 2017). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing various studies that analyze the chemical composition and stable isotope ratios in tree rings, which suggest that tree rings can indeed provide insights into past environmental conditions. The mention of differences in lignin and cellulose composition, the significance of isotopic data, and how these elements reflect on growth conditions supports the idea that tree rings are capable of reflecting environmental changes, thus directly contradicting the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Beyond these more apparent large-impact craters, numerous other features have been discussed in the literature, both before the availability of global topography (e. g. , Schultz & Frey 1990) and after (e. g. , Frey 2004, 2006, 2008). For example, the Chryse region of Mars is a broad, circular depression at the outflow of between Tharsis and Arabia Terra. It is commonly thought of as an impact structure (e. g. , the above 5. 6, Mars has only the above-described 6–7 large craters. 3. Scaling3. 1. of Crater DiametersScaling the expected impact crater diameter from one large, solid body to another that is composed of similar material can be reduced to two basic variables: the ratio of impact speed and the ratio of surface gravity. While there are other variables in determining the final impact crater diameter, they cancel out under the above assumptions, which to first-order are valid in scaling between Moon and Mars. (2005) treatment of this problem is still valid today, for there has not been any substantial revision of the impactor velocity distributions at bodies in the inner solar system (via Ivanov 2001), and there is no revision to the bodies' average surface gravities, as they are well known. For velocity, scaling goes approximately as the kinetic energy, E, which from Schmidt & Housen (1987) affects crater diameter as D ∝ E0. 43:Scaling for gravity from Schmidt & Housen (1987) is D ∝ g−0. 17:Simple multiplication provides a final scaling ofA more recent review by Johnson et al. (2016) favored slightly different scaling, pulling equations from Schenk & McKinnon (1985). Here, the final crater diameter is dependent on velocity D ∝ v0. 5, gravity D ∝ g−0. 25, and the diameter of the simple-to-complex crater transition as. Applying this scaling, Despite different parameters or exponents, a bolide of a given size appears to produce a crater roughly 3/4 the diameter on Mars as it would on the Moon. Therefore, scaling Orientale's impactor's diameter to Mars, the bolide would likely have produced a crater D ≈ 700 km on Mars. et al. 's diameter for Smythii at ≈880 km, that crater on Mars would be ≈660 km. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim about the impact craters on the Moon providing insights into the solar system's history. Instead, it discusses impact craters on Mars and the scaling of crater diameters between the Moon and Mars. While it mentions some general principles of cratering, it does not focus on the lunar craters' historical insights or significance, making the text largely irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Semantic memory is involved in understanding the meanings of words and sentences. [SEP] Text: Each worksheet was preceded by clear instructions, and we made clear that the participants should only read the paragraphs when directed to by the instructions. 5, the participants returned to the lab and completed the lexical decision task, the vocabulary test, and the explicit memory test. The procedure for these was the same as in Experiment 2. The participants were aware that their memory for the meanings would be tested. ResultsWorksheetsPerformance for the related and unrelated meanings is summarized in Table 5. 1, this score reflects the number of items that were correctly linked to their new meaning. 2 and 4, the scores reflect the numbers of items that were used appropriately within the new sentence/paragraph context. 3, the scores reflect the percentages of questions that were answered correctly. 2–4, the answers were considered correct if they matched the intended meaning in any way, even if they were lacking detail. 2 and 4, the participants were allowed free access to the booklets, and so would be expected to be at ceiling. No effect of Relatedness was expected on these worksheets. 1 and 3, the participants were encouraged to first try the task without the booklet, and so, on the basis of the results of Experiments 1 and 2, we predicted better performance for the related items. Note that these results come from worksheets that were completed outside of the lab, so we cannot be certain that all participants followed the rules exactly. Table 5 Experiment 3: Worksheet results (percentages correct)Full size table Repeated measures ANOVAs were performed on the percentage correct data for each worksheet, averaged across both items and participants. was entered as a within-subjects factor, and Version was entered as a between-subjects factor. 1, participants performed significantly better for semantically related than for unrelated words [F 1(1, 34) = 14. 953, p <. 001; F 2(1, 14) = 15. 283, p <. 01]. In contrast, there were no effects of Relatedness on Worksheet 2 [F 1(1, 34) = 2. 776, p >. 05; F 2(1, 14) = 0. 855, p >. 05], Worksheet 3 [F 1(1, 34) = 0. 008, p >. 05; F 2(1, 14) = 0. 027, p >. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing a study where participants performed better with semantically related words compared to unrelated words. This suggests that semantic memory, which relates to understanding meanings, plays a significant role in the performance on tasks involving word meanings.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: Helle and Schleser (2004) described a tri-phasic seasonal response in the δ13C from thin sections across individual rings in four deciduous species. In the earliest phase, δ13C ratios were at a seasonal high and it was assumed that cellulose deposition was supported by overwintered NSC stores. The enriched δ13C values of stored NSC was attributed to post-photosynthetic fractionation related to carbohydrate conversions between free sugars and polymeric starch (Scott et al. 1999). The earliest phase can potentially be short, as current-season autotrophic capacity and NSC export from developing leaves can occur relatively early in the spring (Keel and Schadel 2010). In the second phase, young leaves expand and become net exporters of photosynthates. During this phase, tree-ring δ13C was observed to decline and this was attributed to current-season coupling between photosynthetic fractionation during a period of cooler temperature and replete soil moisture. In the third and latest seasonal phase at the end of the growing season, an increase in tree-ring δ13C was observed, which is attributed to the late-summer translocation of leaf sugars into storage pools in the stems and bole, and concomitant isotopic enrichment during NSC transformations, as in the start of the growing season. In other studies, the enriched δ13C values observed in the EW of temperate-latitude trees has been linked to the use of stored NSCs, but the cause of enrichment was attributed to antecedent climate-induced fractionation, not the fractionation of sugar transformations (Kimak and Leuenberger 2015; Hafner et al. 2015). For example, Hafner et al. (2015) observed that δ13C ratios in a 38-year EW chronology of the winter-deciduous species, Quercus robur, were best correlated with climate conditions during the previous year's summer; suggesting a minor role, if any, for non-climatic fractionation effects. Given contrasts within the existing literature, there is a need to better resolve the determinants of EW δ13C ratios in deciduous trees. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing how tree rings' carbon isotopic compositions (δ13C) can reflect past environmental conditions and climate influences, suggesting that tree rings are, in fact, useful for studying past environmental factors. It mentions relationships between δ13C ratios and climate conditions, specifically stating that the ratios observed were best correlated with previous summer climate conditions, implying that tree rings can indeed provide insights into past environmental disturbances.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: As there is the natural break in identified crater diameters on Mars between 500 and 860 km (Huygens and Prometheus), the lunar minimum diameter for either cutoff does not change the list of Mars craters. 3. 2. for NumberThere are two primary factors affecting the number of craters expected on one body versus another: the impactor flux (bolide/km2) and the body's surface area. In this discussion, Mars's atmosphere is negligible because it will not significantly affect bolides that would produce multihundred-kilometer craters. Addressing the second factor first, the bodies' surface areas are known quantities, and the ratio is simply evaluated: SAMars/SAMoon = 3. 822. The bolide ratio is a more complicated issue, and it has been the subject of many dynamical studies (see discussion in Section 5. 4). One of the most robust recent efforts to establish a value in the present-day solar system for Mars:Moon bolides is Ivanov et al. (2002), who found 2. 7, though there are substantial uncertainties. For purposes of this and the next section, however, a value of 2. 7 is adopted, and further discussion of it is in Sections 5. 4 and 6. Combining the bolide ratio and surface area scaling, one would expect 3. 8 × 2. 7 ≈ 10 times as many Orientale-sized and -aged impacts on Mars as on the Moon. 4. ResultsPutting the numbers from Sections 2–3 together is straightforward. There are 4–5 Orientale-sized impacts on the Moon that are Orientale's age or older (or 7–8 depending on slight adjustments to the lower size bound), and there are 6–7 scaled Orientale-sized impacts on Mars that are Orientale's age or older. The observed Mars number is significantly smaller than the scaling would predict: using the ≈10× factor on 4–8 lunar craters, one expects ∼40–80 similarly sized and -aged craters on Mars. 5. Methods to and TheoryThis mismatch between expectation and observation is significant. There are several possible, non-mutually exclusive implications and ways to reconcile these findings, and each is discussed in the subsections below. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim about Moon craters providing insights into the solar system's history. Instead, it discusses the comparison of craters on Mars and the Moon, detailing factors affecting crater counts and making quantitative observations about impact events. Therefore, the text is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Semantic memory is involved in understanding the meanings of words and sentences. [SEP] Text: Thus, for those word meanings that were recalled, participants were able to retrieve the same number of new semantic features, irrespective of whether these were for a word that was related or unrelated to the original meaning. General discussionThese three experiments explored how adults learn new meanings for words that are already well established within their lexicon. Given the ubiquity of ambiguity created by acquiring new meanings for previously unambiguous words, this is an important, and yet poorly understood, aspect of adult language learning. The experiments assessed participants’ ability to learn fictitious novel meanings for words with a single dominant preexisting meaning. Two measures of learning were used: a cued-recall test assessing their explicit knowledge of the meanings, and a lexical decision task assessing the impact of this knowledge on online processing. We will discuss the results for these two tasks in turn. The cued-recall task showed that recall of the new meanings was significantly better when these were semantically related to the word’s preexisting meaning. In all three experiments, participants were able to correctly recall information for a higher proportion of the related meanings than for the unrelated meanings. This relatedness effect was particularly marked in Experiment 1, in which participants received only brief exposures to new meanings during incidental learning conditions and were unaware that memory would subsequently be tested. However, the relatedness effect persisted when the training phase was extended to 7 days (Exp. 2) and when semantically demanding tasks were used during training (Exp. 3). In these two experiments, the participants were aware that their memory would be tested, so we cannot be certain about the degree to which this learning reflects either incidental or intentional learning. The most likely explanation for this pervasive relatedness effect is that the semantic relationship between the old and new meanings makes it easier for participants to learn the mapping between form and meaning. Under this view, participants’ primary difficulty for the unrelated meanings is not in acquiring the new meanings themselves, but in knowing which word forms they belong to. Framed in terms of connectionist models of how ambiguous words are processed (Borowsky and Masson, 1996; Joordens and Besner, 1994; Kawamoto, Farrar, & Kello, 1994; Rodd et al. 2004), the connections between form and meaning are more easily learned for the related meanings. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how semantic memory facilitates the learning of new meanings for words based on their existing semantic relationships. It explains that participants could recall new meanings better when these meanings were semantically related to preexisting ones. This demonstrates that semantic memory is indeed involved in understanding and processing the meanings of words, as the recall effectiveness relies on the connections formed between old and new meanings.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: Evergreen species have opportunities to commence photosynthesis even in winter prior to the growing season where climate is mild, such as temperate European climate, and they may rely less on stored carbon for EW formation (see Zweifel et al. 2006; Kimak and Leuenberger 2015; Soudant et al. 2016). However, the study by Castagneri et al. (2018) showed evidence of significant reliance on stored carbon in the Mediterranean pine, Pinus pinea, for construction of both EW and LW. In contrast, Alvarez et al. (2018) observed no difference in the δ13C ratios of LW and whole rings in Canadian black spruce (Picea mariana) trees, and concluded that both EW and LW were constructed from current-year photosynthate. Intra-annual δ13C (and δ18O) variations are closely related to the water status at the time of wood formation (Leavitt and Long 1991; Kagawa et al. 2003; Verheyden et al. 2004; Roden et al. 2009; Li et al. 2011; Sarris et al. 2013; Schubert and Jahren 2015) and Barbour et al. (2002) reported seasonal variation in the δ13C of tree-ring cellulose in Pinus radiata that was consistently explained by theory relating intrinsic water-use efficiency (iWUE, Chap. 17) to current-season climatic variation and soil water availability. There was no need to invoke the withdrawal of stored carbohydrate reserves to explain the seasonal variation in δ13C. Similarly, Li et al. (2005) attributed the enriched δ13C in the EW of Pinus tabulaeformis in the Plateau as being explained largely by seasonal climate conditions, rather than the reliance on stored NSCs. Jäggi et al. (2002) conducted a detailed study of δ13C ratios in the bulk biomass of needles, needle starch, and the cellulose of EW and LW in Picea abies in an effort to differentiate the effects of stored NSC use from current-year climate fractionation. There was a significant positive correlation between the δ13C of current-season starch in 1-year old needles and the current-year's EW, suggesting the use of short-term needle stores to support xylogenesis. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing various studies that demonstrate how tree rings, particularly their δ13C ratios, can reflect past environmental conditions and disturbances. For instance, the study by Castagneri et al. (2018) and others indicate that δ13C variations in tree rings are closely related to environmental factors such as water availability and seasonal climatic conditions. This suggests that tree rings can indeed provide insights into past environmental changes, thereby rebutting the claim that they cannot be used to study such events.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: The purpose of this section is to discuss these different scenarios and give our opinion on which one(s) is or are most likely to yield results that reconcile the mismatch; definitive conclusions are not made because there are none yet. 5. 1. StatisticsWith roughly just half a dozen craters on both bodies, the small numbers issue must be considered at least partially responsible for the mismatch. For example, removing just one lunar crater reduces the number required on Mars by 10. However, the observation-expectation mismatch of nearly an order of magnitude is not within any reasonable uncertainty of these small numbers. For instance, attaching a simple Poisson counting uncertainty of ±N1/2 would give a range of 2–11 lunar craters, ergo expecting ∼20–110 Martian craters, which is still three times those observed at the lower bound. 5. 2. Values in Impactor-crater Scaling are WrongCrater scaling is based on fundamental physics, laboratory experiments, and hydrocode simulations. The only variable in the scaling from Section 3. 1 that might possibly be uncertain is the velocity distribution of impactors between Moon and Mars ∼4 Ga. These velocities would need to be wrong by a factor on the order of ∼10,000 to account for the mismatch on their own. Such a large error is extraordinarily unlikely and does not make sense dynamically, where even scattered comets would only have velocities ∼5× larger than well-behaved asteroids. However, scaling very large craters, where "large" is roughly thought of as when the target's curvature becomes nontrivial, is less well constrained than scaling laws for smaller impact events (Stewart 2010, 2012; Davies et al. 2015). Therefore, it must be considered whether accounting for this poorly constrained effect would significantly affect the list of craters for Moon and Mars. While curvature is nontrivial for ∼1000 km scale lunar craters, it is more trivial for ∼1000 km Mars impacts, and estimates of the scaling uncertainty are likely not off by enough to affect these results. Put another way, it is unlikely that Orientale's impactor, if hitting Mars, would produce a crater small enough to not be included in the Mars crater list. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses statistical mismatches between lunar and Martian craters, the scaling of impact craters, and the uncertainties involved, without addressing the implications of lunar impact craters on understanding the history of the solar system.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Semantic memory is involved in understanding the meanings of words and sentences. [SEP] Text: An alternative locus for the relatedness effect on cued recall, which we cannot currently rule out, is that competition between the newly acquired meanings and the existing dominant meaning is increased at the time of recall for words with unrelated meanings. While the effects of relatedness on the recognition memory test used during training (Exp. 3, Worksheet 1) and the lexical decision task (Exp. 3) indicate that relatedness effects are not exclusively limited to tasks with an explicit recall component, further experiments will be needed in order to determine the extent to which meaning relatedness might separately influence the learning and recall of novel meanings. In addition to the explicit test of participants’ knowledge of the word meanings, a lexical decision task assessed whether the newly acquired meanings could affect online comprehension. 2 and 3, participants were faster and less error-prone for the words that they had encountered during training, which likely reflects form-based repetition priming (e. g. , Perea and Lupker, 2004). More interestingly, Experiment 3 showed a significant benefit for words whose novel meaning was semantically related to their preexisting meanings (as compared with unrelated meanings). This finding has important implications for the debate within the ambiguity-processing literature about whether and how meaning relatedness affects lexical decision performance. While several authors have reported that responses to ambiguous words with unrelated meanings are slowed relative to related meanings (Azuma and Van Orden, 1997; Beretta et al. 2005; Klepousniotou et al. 2008; Rodd, 2004; Rodd et al. 2002), other authors have reported no effect of semantic relatedness (e. g. , Hino et al. 2010). These inconsistent findings might suggest that previous effects of meaning relatedness could have arisen from some other, potentially confounding difference between the particular sets of words used in the earlier experiments. Laboratory word-learning paradigms provide a useful method for ruling out alternative explanations of between-item differences on response times (e. g. , for studying lexical competition; cf. Bowers et al. 2005, and Gaskell and Dumay, 2003). In the present work, we showed a significant effect of semantic relatedness on lexical decision responses using a within-item design in which the same sets of words were used (across participants) as both related and unrelated items. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the involvement of semantic relatedness in tasks that assess understanding and recall of word meanings. For instance, it highlights that 'Experiment 3 showed a significant benefit for words whose novel meaning was semantically related to their preexisting meanings,' suggesting that semantic memory plays a crucial role in processing and understanding meanings.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: The latter might explain observed negative correlation between δ2H and ring widths (Voelker et al. 2014) and positive and negative juvenile effects observed in long-term tree-ring δ18O and δ2H from central Japan, respectively (Nakatsuka et al. 2020). An et al. (2012) were able to partially deconstruct the complex influences of precipitation from two separate monsoon systems, and cyclic variability in sea surface temperature, on EW versus LW cellulose δ18O in a coniferous forest of southwestern China. This knowledge was subsequently used as a basis for concluding that regional coherence exists in the hydrological determinants of EW and LW δ18O values (An et al. 2012; Fu et al. 2017). Barbour et al. (2002) made observations of δ18O and δ13C in thin slices across two annual rings in Pinus radiata growing in three sites with different hydrology regimes. Generally, the two ratios were positively correlated across the growing season, showing that as evaporative enrichment of the isotopic content of leaf water increases, the iWUE of the leaf also increases. Furthermore, both δ18O and δ13C reflected increases in seasonally-averaged values among the three sites according to increased tendency for drought. These relationships are best explained by the correlated, but opposing, effects of increasing atmospheric VPD on stomatal conductance (decreases as VPD increases) and transpiration (increases as VPD increases). Thus, at the scale of selected trees growing across an individual season, ecophysiological responses to climate were a relatively accurate reflection of leaf gas-exchange theory (sensu Farquhar et al. 1982), however, a complete understanding of the tree-ring record of seasonal climate requires knowledge of the phenological gaps that occur in the process of xylogenesis. 5 in in Tree RingsAs interest in the intra-annual record of stable-isotope fractionation in tree rings has increased, it has become clear that an accurate alignment of that record with seasonal weather events requires knowledge about the timing and progression of xylogenesis (Rathgeber et al. 2016, Chap. 3). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the use of tree rings and stable-isotope fractionation to study environmental conditions, indicating that tree rings can provide insights into past climatic events. It mentions observations and correlations regarding isotopic content and climatic effects, which suggests that tree rings are indeed useful for understanding past environmental disturbances.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Meanwhile, the Huygens crater on Mars would need to be scaled up by a factor of nearly 2 on the Moon to begin to be considered in this work, and it is similarly unlikely that the impactor-crater scaling is off by that much. 5. 3. Megameter-class Craters are Abnormally LargeA consideration related to the previous subsection is that the nearside lunar craters are larger than they otherwise would be. Miljković et al. (2013) proposed this scenario, motivated by the observation of more large craters on the nearside than farside. Their numerical modeling indicated that large impacts in a crust with more heat flow could form craters up to two times as large as those formed in cooler farside crust from the same impactor parameters. If true, and if the farside heat flux was more similar to Mars's crust, that would eliminate Imbrium and potentially Crisium from the lunar megameter-scale crater counts. Those eliminations could lower the expected large-crater number on Mars by the linear factor of 2, expecting only ∼20. If the larger number of lunar craters were included (Serenitatis, Nectaris, Australe Northa), then 3–4 of the 7–8 craters would be eliminated, again cutting the required Martian craters by half. However, this analysis also assumes that Mars's crust was cool relative to the nearside Moon and was, instead, more similar to the farside Moon, when these large Martian craters are forming. The timing of exactly when these events happened and the precise cooling model on each body would be critical in exploring this method to reconcile the crater populations. 5. 4. was DifferentA more likely partial or even full solution to the observation-expectation mismatch is that the bolide scaling value used for today (≈2. 7) is not correct for the first several hundred million years of inner solar system history. Indeed, the review by Bottke & Norman (2017) included estimates from ≈1. 0 to ≈5. 3, with a discussion that different components of the early impact flux could be substantially different from today (elaborated on below). As the ratio of large impacts scales linearly with this parameter, if it were merely 1 instead of 2. 7, that would help significantly to resolve the mismatch (e. g. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim about the Moon's impact craters providing insights into the history of the solar system. Instead, it discusses the scaling of impact craters on Mars and the Moon in relation to numerical modeling and observations of crater sizes. As such, it remains irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Semantic memory is involved in understanding the meanings of words and sentences. [SEP] Text: This finding therefore provides converging evidence that meaning relatedness plays a critical role in determining how ambiguous words are represented and processed. What mechanism(s) underlie the semantic-relatedness effect in the lexical decision component of Experiment 3? First, we must rule out the possibility that this relatedness effect reflects a difference in how well these two types of words are learned. A subset analysis of Experiment 3 that only included those items for which an individual participant had learned something about the new meaning (as measured by the cued-recall task) showed a significant effect of relatedness on the lexical decision task. Importantly, for these “correctly learned” items, the results of the cued-recall task showed that participants could recall equivalent numbers of semantic properties for these two sets of items. This indicates that the semantic-relatedness effect on lexical decision performance is present even for items that are equally well learned. Instead, we propose that the relatedness effect reflects the same underlying mechanisms as the meaning relatedness effects seen for well-established ambiguous words (Beretta et al. 2005; Klepousniotou et al. 2008; Rodd, 2004; Rodd et al. 2002). These effects have been modelled within a distributed connectionist model (Rodd et al. 2004) in which recognition of words with multiple unrelated meanings is delayed by the competition between the words’ mutually incompatible semantic representations, whereas recognition of words with multiple related senses is facilitated by their rich semantic representations. The present experiments cannot conclusively determine the extent to which the relatedness effect represents either facilitation from the related meaning or interference from the unrelated meaning. Future studies that include a set of baseline, unambiguous words that are presented along with their existing meanings during training may address this issue, provided that the studies ensure equal exposure to these existing meanings and to the meanings to be learned. For now, we suggest that the relatedness effect observed here reflects some combination of these two effects. Regardless of the precise mechanisms of the relatedness effect, this result indicates that after 5 days of training using a range of semantically demanding tasks, the new meanings have become sufficiently well integrated into participants’ lexicons that they can influence online recognition of these words. Interestingly, a comparable relatedness effect was not seen in the lexical decision component of Experiment 2, which used a similar length of training (7 days) but relatively superficial rating tasks during training. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the importance of semantic-relatedness in processing words and understanding their meanings. It mentions that the relatedness effect reflects underlying mechanisms associated with meaning representation, indicating that semantic processes are critical in the lexical decision task where understanding word meanings is essential.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: The progression of xylogenesis from incipient cell formation by the cambial meristem to eventual maturation (when carbon deposition to cell walls is complete) can take weeks to months (Kagawa et al. 2005), meaning that cell-wall cellulose that is extracted and analyzed for δ13C, δ18O, and δ2H reflects fractionation that occurred across a broad seasonal climate gradient. At the onset of seasonal cambial activity, the production of radial files of newly-formed cells occurs, and continues until the cessation of xylogenesis, either due to temperature or water stress prior to the end of the growing season, or to programmed phenology that is determined by day-length and/or temperature at the end of the growing season. Following their respective production, cells will begin the processes of enlargement, secondary wall formation and programmed death, in turn, according to interactions between environmental constraints on metabolic processes and intrinsic controls by plant growth regulators. This creates a continuous intra-annual record of cellular isotope fractionation, but one that is ultimately determined by environment-phenology interactions. The rate of cell division is relatively fast early in the growing season, and the cell enlargement phase is relatively long, creating EW cells. As the season progresses, the rate of cell division will slow and the enlargement phase will shorten, producing the smaller, denser cells that characterize LW. Conventionally, the duration of the wall thickening phase was thought to be the primary cause of thicker cell walls with more stored cellulose in LW tissues, especially in conifers (Skene 1969; Wodzicki 1971; Denne 1972). Cuny et al. (2014) have challenged this view with support from detailed measurements of each phase of xylogenesis in several temperate-latitude species. Their observations showed that it is the duration of cell enlargement, early in the process of xylogenesis, combined with a constant deposition of cellulose to secondary cell wall formation, that ultimately determines cell wall thickness in LW. According to this view, the amount of cellulose per cell, and thus carbon per cell, stored in both EW and LW is roughly equal, but it is spread across the surface area of smaller cells in the case of LW. This provides the visible appearance of thicker cell walls in LW. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the process of xylogenesis and how it is influenced by environmental factors such as temperature and water stress. It states that the production of new tree cells and their characteristics reflect a record of environmental conditions, which implies that tree rings can indeed provide valuable information about environmental disturbances, undercutting the assertion that they cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or disturbances.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Given that Argyre postdates all known erosion that could remove younger, multikilometer-deep, megameter-scale craters, they likely did not form (such craters should also be present in gravity data, but none are observed (Bottke & Andrews-Hanna 2017)). were significantly younger than ≈3. 9–4. 0 Ga, then the other large craters might be, too (Figure 2(B)). Utopia is commonly dated to ≈4. 3 Ga, which is similar to the model age of SPA, considered the oldest preserved large lunar impact. and Utopia were younger, then that would imply there is a longer stretch of early Mars's impact history that is not preserved today, something favored in dynamical work such as Morbidelli et al. (2018) and Marchi (2021), and supported by the conclusions of observational work by Werner (2014). Under that supposition, one must posit that there were likely many large, Orientale-class craters on Mars for which there is simply no record in the crust or gravity due to Mars's early active surface and heat flow (which could rule out the moon's nearside heat flow as a possible way to reconcile the mismatch). Potentially bolstering this scenario, a different early Mars:Moon bolide ratio necessarily changes the early crater model ages for Mars, for it would not be a simple, linear extrapolation from the Moon (Figure 2(D)). However, dynamical work (e. g. , Marchi 2021) suggests that Mars was only hot enough to prevent crater formation until ≈4. 35–4. 40 Ga, when the large Borealis basin formed (through a giant impact, mantle plume, or some other mechanism). Morbidelli et al. (2018) also prefer to place Borealis at an age of ≈4. 37 Ga, implying <150 Myr of Mars's surface history is missing. In contrast, Werner (2014) argued the first 200–400 Myr of Mars's surface history is missing. While one might be able to stretch large, non-Borealis impacts (Figures 2(B), (D)) forward in time, supposing Borealis formed more recently is more difficult. Zircons in the Martian meteorite NWA 7034 ("Black Beauty") have evidence of shock dating to the ≈4. 4–4. 5 Ga time period. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it primarily discusses craters on Mars and the implications for Martian surface history, rather than providing insights specifically related to lunar craters and their historical significance for the solar system.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Semantic memory is involved in understanding the meanings of words and sentences. [SEP] Text: We therefore speculate that a high level of semantic engagement may be a necessary requirement for participants to integrate newly acquired meanings with their existing lexical knowledge. It may seem surprising that these newly learned meanings can influence participants’ lexical decision responses to well-established, highly familiar words with a single, strongly dominant meaning (e. g. , “ant” or “path”). Participants have received relatively little exposure to the novel experimental meanings, as compared with their lifetimes’ experience with the preexisting dominant meanings, and reading time experiments have consistently shown that subordinate meanings have minimal impact on processing unless they are strongly supported by the sentence context (e. g. , Duffy, Morris, & Rayner, 1988). The effect is particularly striking given that participants had not encountered the new meanings since the previous day. This finding is consistent with data from recent priming experiments (Rodd et al. 2012) that have shown that participants’ relative p504. doi:10. 1006/jmla. 1997. 2502 459. doi:10. 3758/BF03193014 65. doi:10. 1016/j. cogbrainres. 2004. 12. 006 85. doi:10. 1037/0278-7393. 22. 1. 63 54. doi:10. 1016/j. cognition. 2005. 02. 002 4883. 608. doi:10. 1016/S0022-5371(83)90364-X 3800. doi:10. 1098/rstb. 2009. 0111 446. doi:10. 1016/0749-596X(88)90066-6 39. doi:10. 1111/j. 1467-9280. 2007. 01845. x 613. doi:10. 1080/01690960601017013 132. doi:10. 1016/S0010-0277(03)00070-2 196. doi:10. 1037/a0020475 PubMed 1062. doi:10. 1037/0278-7393. 20. 5. 1051 1247. doi:10. 1037/0096-1523. 20. 6. 1233 1543. doi:10. 1037/a0013012 353. doi:10. 1016/j. cogpsych. 2007. 01. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the necessity of semantic engagement in integrating newly acquired meanings with existing lexical knowledge. It highlights that meanings learned can influence lexical decisions, indicating a clear role of semantic memory in understanding word meanings. The reference to reading time experiments further supports that semantic processing is involved, particularly when context supports the subordinate meanings.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 6 and Utilization of for XylogenesisPost-photosynthetic metabolic processes leading to wood formation, such as translocation, storage and remobilization of photoassimilate are closely related to intra-annual variation of stable isotope ratios in tree rings. Although the seasonal course of leaf δ13C is well reflected in intra-annual variation of tree-ring δ13C in some cases (Leavitt and Long 1991; Leavitt 1993), the signal transfer is non-linear, rather than direct. For example, there are seasonally variable time lags between photosynthetic carbon incorporation and its use for wood formation (Schleser et al. 1999; Helle and Schleser 2004), due to phloem transport and storage processes lying between initial assimilation and the eventual use of photosynthate for xylogenesis. Here, we are referring to interannual time lags on the scale of years, not the intra-annual time lags of cambial phenology. Partly because of the time lag, which can last up to 1–2 years, first- and second order interannual auto-correlations are frequently observed in isotope dendroclimatological studies (Monserud and Marshall 2001; Szejner et al. 2018). A model that takes into account the relative contribution of current photosynthate directly translocated from the leaves (new carbon) and older photosynthate remobilized from the storage pool (old carbon) was developed in 2001 to explain intra-annual variation of tree-ring δ13C (Hemming et al. 2001). This carryover phenomenon has since been verified by the use of an artificially enriched 13C tracer and it is now clear that the EW is made of the mixture of new and old carbon (Kagawa et al. 2006a; von Felten et al. 2007). Recent labeling studies have revealed a wide range of mixing ratios of new to old carbon among different tree species (Keel et al. 2007; He et al. 2020), and mobile carbon pools of trees have been classified into fast- and slow-turnover pools (Keel et al. 2006). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by describing how tree rings can reflect past environmental conditions. It discusses processes related to wood formation and the use of stable isotope ratios in tree rings, which are directly tied to photosynthesis and environmental factors. This indicates that tree rings carry signals that can be analyzed to gain insights into past environmental disturbances, which directly contradicts the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Based on cooling models (see previous section), it is unlikely that Mars's crust could support a ∼1000 km crater prior to Borealis forming, and Borealis almost certainly would have reset the crater retention age of the entire Martian surface. Approaching this from a relative chronology viewpoint and the possibility that the crater-based absolute chronology from Mars is wrong, then if Borealis were an unlikely ∼4 Ga, that could solve the observation-expectation mismatch by simply having ∼30–70 craters that formed earlier be erased by Borealis. The <4 Gyr age would leave N = 2 craters on the Moon (Orientale, Imbrium) to scale to Mars for an expected ∼20 large craters. While this is still a factor of ∼3 mismatch, the effects discussed in earlier sections could further change this number, though it may be harder to alter the Mars:Moon bolide ratio at that point in the solar system's history. Conversely, if Borealis and Utopia are older, then this emphasizes the mismatch because the ancient, large-crater record should be well preserved, and the absence of large craters is more certain and cannot be as easily attributed to their not being preserved. Transitioning to the argument that Mars might be hiding buried impacts, one possible area to hide craters is under the fairly young-appearing Tharsis volcanic province. Tharsis covers ≈25% of Mars, and no impact craters larger than 100 km are visible on it. Tharsis has been uplifted via a static mantle plume, and it contains a dozen large supervolcanoes that have resurfaced the region via volcanic eruptions. Ergo, it is plausible that this region could hide large, ancient impact craters, though Bottke & Andrews-Hanna (2017) found no such large impacts on the buried dichotomy boundary beneath Tharsis. However, using a simple area argument in a thought experiment, Mars's large-crater population could be increased by ∼30% to allow for ∼2–3 buried features to be added to the total. This does not come close to solving the mismatch. One can expand this discussion to the possibility discussed in Section 2. 2, that some researchers have argued for a buried impact population on Mars that is both large in physical size and quantity. With the advent of global topography, this hypothesis is mostly argued for by Frey (2006, 2008). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the impact craters on Mars and their relationship to the Martian surface, including the crater retention ages and the possibility of hidden craters under volcanic regions like Tharsis. However, it does not specifically address the impact craters on the Moon or their role in understanding the history of the solar system, making it irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Rhizobacteria enhance plant growth by fixing atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. [SEP] Text: Services on 10. 4067/S0718-95162015005000019 ACC-deaminase and/or nitrogen fixing rhizobacteria and growth of wheat (L. ) W. Hassan1, 2*, M. Hussain2, S. Bashir3 A. N. Shah4, R. Bano5, J. David6 1Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, 14195, Germany. *Corresponding author: [email protected] 2College of Agriculture, B. Z. U. Bahadur Campus, Layyah, 31200, Pakistan. 3Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Faisalabad, 38040, Pakistan. 4University, Wuhan, 430070, P. R. China. 5. 6Freie Universität, Berlin, 14195, Germany. growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) are beneficial bacteria, which can enhance the growth of the plants, when applied to crops. A pot experiment was conducted to examine the effect of six PGPR isolates on the growth of wheat. Inoculation with rhizobacterial isolates increased the all measured physical, chemical and enzymatic growth parameters compared to control (CK). However, the WAN1 isolate had the highest effect, and significantly (P < 0. 05) increased the root length (3. 51-fold), shoot length (3. 22-fold), seedling fresh (3. 41-fold) and dry (3. 91-fold) weight, chlorophyll a (3. 90-fold), chlorophyll b (3. 51-fold), carotenoid contents (7. 23-fold), plant macronutrient uptake i. e. N (7. 20-fold, 6. 71-fold), P (7. 41-fold, 5. 01-fold), K (5. 51-fold, 3. 91-fold), Ca (6. 40-fold, 5. 21-fold) and Mg (5. 82-fold, 7. 11-fold) in shoot and root, plant micronutrient uptake i. e. Zn (6. 40-fold, 9. 11-fold), Cu (7. 31-fold, 7. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by indicating that growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) can enhance plant growth, which includes increasing various growth parameters and nutrient uptake. It specifically mentions that inoculation with rhizobacterial isolates led to significant improvements in root and shoot lengths, as well as increased nutrient uptake including nitrogen, which supports the idea that rhizobacteria play a role in enhancing plant growth through nitrogen fixation.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: The vertical dotted line indicates the tree-ring boundary between rings formed within the two yearsFull size imageKagawa et al. (2006b) enclosed whole saplings of Dahurian larch in transparent bags and conducted pulse-labeling over two sunny days in summer (July), and also in the spring of the following year (June) and tracked allocation of 13C to the different parts of each tree. In spring, sink strength at the apical parts were strong and spring photosynthetic products were allocated mainly to the apex; a lesser amount went to the below-ground parts of the tree. Spring photosynthetic products were also used for EW formation right after the labeling (Fig. 15. 3 left, Kagawa et al. 2006a). When new carbon is directly used for tree-ring formation, the 13C concentration of wood shows a higher concentration than that of starch (horizontal dotted line in Fig. 15. 3 left). On the other hand, if 13C-labeled photosynthetic products are used for tree-ring formation via the storage pool, the 13C concentrations of wood become lower than those of starch (Fig. 15. 3 right). Photosynthetic products labeled during the previous summer are directed to the storage pool, where 13C concentrations are diluted with non-labeled carbon, then carried over to the current year. It is further diluted with newly assimilated spring photosynthetic products (new carbon) as shown in the EW of Fig. 15. 3 right. Based on these results, we believe that EW is made of the mixture of “new and old carbon”. “New carbon” is newly assimilated spring photosynthate, translocated in phloem from the crown, and “old carbon” is storage carbon that is carried over from previous years and transferred from xylem and phloem parenchyma from above- or belowground (von Felten et al. 2007). On the other hand, the EW of broad-leaved species that form ring-porous wood, such as oak, should be mostly made of storage, because formation of EW vessels of ring-porous trees precedes the onset of leaf flushing. In ring-porous oak, not only carbon but also oxygen and hydrogen isotope ratios show unusual values in EW (Helle and Schleser 2004; Nabeshima et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by detailing how tree rings can provide insights into past environmental conditions, as evidenced by the discussion of carbon allocation in tree rings and how different carbon sources contribute to their formation. Specifically, it mentions the tracking of 13C allocation and the implications this has on the understanding of tree-ring formation, which can be used to infer past environmental disturbances such as those caused by volcanic activity.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Beyond the bolide ratio today not being applicable ∼4 Ga, the next simplest way to account for the mismatch is the modeling that indicates half the lunar craters in the sample scaled to Mars might be excluded: If the modeling that suggests those craters would be just half their size if they had formed in the same cool lunar crust as Orientale is true, then that could reduce the number of large craters Mars needs to have by half. However, this must be paired with a realistic cooling model for Mars such that its crust would be similar to the lunar farside rather than nearside, something in between, or hotter than the nearside. If the timing works, then in conjunction with the bolide difference early in the solar system's history, this might be a strong, straightforward component of the solution that neither requires revision to Mars's crater chronology nor requires any different bolide ratio. After exhausting those two mechanisms, the next-most likely components are for the ancient Martian crater chronology to be revised, and/or for Mars to have hidden large, ancient impacts. is either roughly the same age or a little older than SPA (Figure 2(A)), such that pre-Borealis impacts cannot help solve the mismatch, then it is possible that stretching the time between Borealis and Utopia would allow for large impacts to have formed that were then relaxed away by the large amount of heat in the crust. This fits with the argument of Mars "hiding" large impacts, which it also might do to a certain extent under the vast Tharsis volcanic province (though this is more difficult to do based on the dichotomy boundary still being visible under Tharsis in gravity data). Overall, there does not appear to be a clear, single, simple mechanism to explain the discrepancy of large-impact craters between Moon and Mars that presumably formed within the first ≈700 Myr of the solar system. While there are several possible mechanisms that could explain it, it is likely that the dynamical adjustments to the relative impact rates on both bodies early in their history will bear the most fruit. However, this does not need to be the sole solution. Future, better mapping of Mars's gravity field might help reveal more buried impacts that defy detection today, or follow-up modeling of how large craters form in hot versus cool crust could also be effective. S. J. R. acknowledges helpful feedback from. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim regarding the impact craters on the Moon providing insights into the history of the solar system. Instead, it discusses the modeling and comparison of large-impact craters on the Moon and Mars without explicitly mentioning how this relates to insights about the solar system's history.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Rhizobacteria enhance plant growth by fixing atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. [SEP] Text: 02-fold), Fe (6. 41-fold, 7. 52-fold) and Mn (4. 57-fold, 5. 21-fold) in shoot and root and plant antioxidant enzymes i. e. glutathione S-transferase (7. 51-fold), peroxidase (5. 21-fold) and catalase (5. 01-fold) respectively. Our results revealed that inoculation of agricultural crops with PGPR is a very useful approach to increase the plant growth. The ACC (1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate) enrichment technique is an efficient approach to select promising PGPR. The PGPR containing dual abilities i. e. both ACC-deaminase and nitrogen fixing ability are more effective than PGPR possessing either ACC-deaminase or nitrogen fixing activity alone for growth promotion of crops. Keywords: -deaminase, Ethylene and auxin, wheat 1. microorganisms are vital to agro-ecosystem health via their roles in organic matter decomposition, nutrient cycling and their associations with other organisms and plants i. e. symbiosis (Hassan et al. , 2013a; Glick, 2012). In agricultural soils, microorganisms are known to influence profoundly the status of soil fertility and health, and hence crop production (Ahmed and Kibret, 2014; Hassan et al. , 2013a). Different bacterial genera are vital components of soils, as it has been estimated that 80–90% of the processes in soil are reactions mediated by soil microbes (Hassan and David, 2014). They are involved in various biotic activities of the soil ecosystem to make it dynamic for nutrient turn over and ultimately sustainable crop production (Ahmed and Kibret, 2014). The large active groups of bacteria that inhabiting the rhizosphere benefit the crop plants in several ways, collectively called as plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) (Hassan et al. , 2014a). Interactions between plants and microorganisms in the rhizosphere can clearly affect growth and development of the crop plants and yield (Hassan et al. , 2014a; Ahmed and Kibret, 2014). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the beneficial roles of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) in enhancing plant growth, which includes their nitrogen-fixing abilities, stating that 'the PGPR containing dual abilities i.e. both ACC-deaminase and nitrogen fixing ability are more effective than PGPR possessing either ACC-deaminase or nitrogen fixing activity alone for growth promotion of crops.' This directly supports the assertion that rhizobacteria enhance plant growth through nitrogen fixation.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: H1/2, which is a measure of time resolution, is the half width at half maximum of the peak observed in the tree ring. Apart from a small tail to the right, this Gaussian peak matches the observed peak shape from a pulse-labeling experiment with fast-growing Japanese cedar (Figs. 15. 2 and 15. 4d, Kagawa et al. 2005). Fig. 15. 4Time resolution of tree-ring archive and residence time of storage carbon. Time resolutions can be estimated from half-widths at the half height of the peaks (H1/2). Storage pool with longer residence time (T1/2) can generate peak tail to the right of each peak. a two discrete pulses of label given to a tree. Solid vertical lines represent the start and end of the first pulse, and dashed lines for the second pulse. b, c expected tree-ring output signal from the two pulses in (a). d predicted Gaussian peak from Eq. 15. 6 (dashed line) and the observed peak shape from a pulse-labeling experiment with fast-growing Japanese cedar (solid line). r and 1–r are the ratios of the carbon contribution from new and old carbon pools, respectivelyFull size imageThe time delay tc is the time needed for new carbon to be transported from leaves to the cambium for tree-ring formation. According to estimates based on the natural fluctuation of the δ13C values of soluble organic matter in leaves and in the stem-base phloem, the time of phloem transport of new carbon from leaves to stem base has been estimated to be 1–2 days for adult beech trees of 25–27 m of height (Keitel et al. 2003) and the velocity of phloem transport has been estimated to be ca. 0. 2–1. 2 m h−1 (Brandes et al. 2006; Dannoura et al 2011). However, carbon in the starch pool turns over slower than carbon in the soluble organic matter pool in leaves (Brugnoli et al. 1988). Residence time, or time required to replace old carbon pools in leaves with new carbon, is 9 days in deciduous species and 39–63 days in evergreen conifer species (Keel et al. 2007). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing detailed information about the time resolution and carbon transport processes in trees, which are necessary for understanding tree-ring formation. The presence of carbon dynamics and time resolution measurements suggests that tree rings can indeed provide insights into environmental changes and volcanic activity, thus rebutting the claim that they cannot be used for such studies.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Full size image transform (CHT) has been promoted as a method for the detection of impact craters (Kim et al. 2005; Stepinski et al. 2006; Bue and Stepinski 2007). CHT (Illingworth and Kittler 1987) is an adaptation of the Hough transform (e. g. Duda and Hart 1972; Xiao and Weij 2006; Mingzhu and Huanrong 2008). It is a feature detection method that exploits the edges of circular objects in an image to reconstruct their perimeter out of their imperfect instances. This is achieved through a voting procedure from the 2D space of the imagery to a 2D or 3D parametric space. Nevertheless the noisy nature of most DTMs inevitably introduces votes from irrelevant objects, frequently leading to the emergence of false craters (false positives) while failing to spot true craters (true positives). Investigators on the CHT detection of impact craters (Kim et al. 2005; Bue and Stepinski 2007) address this deficiency of CHT. Bue and Stepinski (2007) promoted an adapted CHT approach which employs algorithms that fragment the DTM into numerous small images, each aimed at wrapping one crater exactly. Although the noisy influence of other objects lying in the neighborhood of a crater is in this way waned to a large extent, the method turned out to be a long-drawn-out and computationally costly one, rendering the adapted CHT less practical for routine crater detection. Region-based detection (blob detection) may be an alternative way to go around the limitations posed to edge-detection methods (CHT) by imperfect crater instances. Blob detection (Kaspers 2011) utilizes operators (algorithms) capable of delineating regions that exhibit uniform properties. Therefore, blob detection is not affected by the imperfections of linear components, such as the eroded crater edges, and may be able to capture craters that CHT left out. Among various blob detection methods (Kaspers 2011), the determinant of Hessian (DoH) is well-known (Lindeberg 1993, 1998). Blob detection has been applied to numerous cases involving conventional images (e. g. Grauman and Leibe 2011) and satellite imagery (Karantzalos and Argialas 2004). This work promotes a utility for routine crater counting on the by integrating open-source CHT and DoH algorithms. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address or provide support for the claim regarding the historical insights gained from impact craters on the Moon. Instead, it discusses various methods of detecting impact craters, specifically focusing on the limitations of the Circular Hough Transform (CHT) and proposing alternatives like blob detection. While these methods are relevant to crater detection, they do not connect to the implications of such craters for understanding the solar system's history.