Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Epigenetics explores how certain environmental factors can influence gene expression across generations. [SEP] Text: The potential role of epigenetic modifications in both parental and grandparental generations in the risk of familial cancers has been also demonstrated [74]. More direct evidence for the possibility of intergenerational inheritance of human longevity was provided in research carried out in the Överkalix, an isolated community in Northern Sweden. In human cohorts born in this region in 1890, 1905, and 1920, the transgenerational consequences were studied of the ancestor’s nutrition during their slow growth period (i. e. , 9–12 years) when there is increased susceptibility to environmental influences [75,76,77,78]. In these studies, it was shown that nutrition of the paternal ancestors during the slow growth period significantly influenced the mortality rate and life expectancy of their grandchildren. If the availability of the food was limited during the father’s slow growth period, the descendant’s cardiovascular mortality was low, while overeating of the paternal grandfathers during this period resulted in a fourfold increase in diabetes mortality in their grandchildren [76]. Moreover, these intergenerational effects were gender specific. The paternal grandmother’s nutrient supply affected granddaughter’s mortality risk, whereas the paternal grandfather’s nutrient supply was associated with the mortality risk in the grandsons [77,78,79]. More recent research by the same group showed that abrupt changes in dietary characteristics among successive years throughout the period of slow growth in both maternal grandparents, as well as in paternal grandfathers, do not affect cardiovascular mortality of their offspring. If, however, the paternal grandmothers were exposed to sharp nutritional changes during the period preceding puberty, their son’s daughters had a 2. 7-fold higher risk for cardiovascular mortality than descendants of unexposed grandmothers [80]. Selection, as well as learning or imitation, was thought to be unlikely explanations for the observed associations. The authors concluded that X-linked epigenetic transmission through spermatozoa provides a plausible explanation for this effect. In another Swedish study, where illegitimacy was used as an indicator of socioeconomic adversity in early life, the adult mortality rates in both males and females born outside the marriage at the beginning of the twentieth century were significantly higher than those of persons born in wedlock [81]. The male offspring of illegitimate parents were also less likely to live until age 80 than male descendants whose biological parents were married. Similar trends were observed in their children and grandchildren as well. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing how environmental factors, specifically nutrition during critical growth periods, can lead to epigenetic changes that influence gene expression and health outcomes in subsequent generations. It discusses specific findings from studies that demonstrate the relationship between ancestral nutrition and the mortality rates of descendants, illustrating how these factors impact gene expression across generations.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean carbon capture will soon solve all problems related to climate change. [SEP] Text: 294 of the scenarios limiting global warming to 2oC require CDR, all of the 294 BECCS (6 WG3, 2022, Table 3. 5). Moreover, there is compelling evidence reported throughout the report of working group 3 that CDR is unavoidable to reach net zero CO2 or GHG emissions (6 WG3, 2022, 3. 4, 7. 4, 12. 3, Cross-2. 1 2021 an 2. With data from forecasts by they confirmed the usual conclusions (see Levihn, 2016) that some of the cheapest savings could be realized by increasing industrial productivity through energy efficiency, while some of the more expensive alternatives are found within the transportation sector. The 2. A recent study by Holz et al. (2021) concluded that half of industrial CCS applications in the might be within cement and clinker manufacturing in the year 2050 without labelling it as hard-to-abate sectors. It is also important to distinguish between short-term hard-to-abate, such as parts of aviation and what is long-term hard-to-abate, assuming technical advances for alternatives such as electric or hydrogen-powered airplanes. Many other such industrial examples exist. Typical examples of really hard-to-abate emissions include leakage of NOx (nitrous oxides) and CH4 (methane) from sewage treatment and agriculture, but they are also expected to exist in other sectors. NOx is, to provide an example, often released just by ploughing farmland. Also if CO2 is captured with fossil CCS, a capture rate of 95% would result in 5% remaining really hard-to-abate fossil emissions. This raises the question, if these emissions are so hard to get rid of, what if we remove CO2 directly from the atmosphere? That is the idea of CDR. Most emissions from sectors such as industry and transport will be relatively easy to remove at costs well below 800 USD/tonne. One option is carbon capture and storage, CCS. Simplified CCS takes CO2 directly at its point source and stores it permanently, for example in suitable geological storage. If a factory uses fossil fuels in its process it will generate fossil p. 119CO2 emissions. If these emissions are captured and stored permanently, the fossil CO2 emissions would be reduced. The challenge is that a 100% capture rate is very hard to achieve. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by explaining that while carbon dioxide removal (CDR) technologies, including carbon capture and storage (CCS), are discussed as necessary for mitigating climate change, it also highlights the complexities and limitations involved. It mentions that certain emissions, such as those from hard-to-abate sectors, remain challenging to eliminate completely, and achieving a 100% capture rate is very difficult. This suggests that ocean carbon capture alone will not soon solve all climate problems, as there are substantial barriers and additional considerations in addressing emissions across various sectors.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Fossilized plants provide insights into ancient climates and ecosystems. [SEP] Text: polyrhiza (see Section 1. 1 of the Supplementary Information), we found that most of the SNPs (70. 3%) are in the intergenic regions (Supplementary Fig. 1). Of all the SNPs located in the protein-coding regions, 61,039 were identified as nonsynonymous and 44,287 as synonymous (2). Consistent with our previous study, the genome-wide nucleotide diversity at neutral sites is 0. 0013 (1), the lowest among multicellular eukaryotes. The species-wide efficacy of selection (πN/πS ratio) is 0. 39, the highest among studied organisms43, indicating relatively weak purifying selection in S. polyrhiza, despite its large effective population size1,2. In addition to SNPs and small INDELs, we also characterize the genome-wide structural variations (SVs, ≥ 50 bp in length) in S. polyrhiza (see Section 1. 2 of the Supplementary Information). We identified 3,205 high-quality SVs, including 2,089 deletions, 291 duplications, and 825 insertions. The abundance of the SVs is substantially lower than all reported multicellular organisms44,45. Among all identified SVs, 155 duplications and 169 deletions affected protein-coding genes (2). Interestingly, in comparison to the genome-wide average, the MADS-box genes (see Section 1. 3 of the Supplementary Information) showed a higher tendency to overlap with SVs (permutation tests; P = 0. 063). In addition, we also observed a significant overrepresentation of small INDELs in the MADS-box genes (permutation tests; P = 0. 008). These results indicate that MADS-box genes might be under positive or relaxed purifying selection in S. polyrhiza. Population structure and demographic history of S. polyrhiza Because S. polyrhiza is facultatively asexual, genotypes collected from the geographic proximity can be derived from the same clonal family. Using a previously established grouping threshold that was developed in S. polyrhiza2, we identified 159 likely clonal families (3). Population structure and principal component analyses revealed four populations in S. polyrhiza (Fig. 1a and 1b). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses genetic characteristics and population structure of S. polyrhiza, without addressing any aspects related to fossilized plants or their role in understanding ancient climates and ecosystems.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Epigenetics explores how certain environmental factors can influence gene expression across generations. [SEP] Text: Results indicating that social disadvantages in ancestral generations contribute to health disadvantages during the subsequent two generations were also observed in another study by the same group [82]. In sons and grandsons of men born outside wedlock, a 1. 64- and 1. 83-fold excess risk of circulatory disease, respectively, was observed. The impacts of the maternal and paternal grandfather were approximately equal in magnitude. Intergenerational effects triggered by factors other than nutrition have also been demonstrated. For instance, paternal smoking during the slow growth period (i. e. , <11 years of age) was significantly associated with greater body mass index at the age of 9 in sons, but not in daughters [78]. Northstone et al. also showed that paternal smoking before puberty is associated with an increased risk of obesity in the adolescent offspring [83]. Conclusion and perspectivesNon-genomic transgenerational inheritance has been described repeatedly across species and appears to be a general biological phenomenon. In evolutionary terms, the transmission of the adaptive transcriptional patterns acquired throughout the parental life course in subsequent generations via the mechanism of epigenetic memory can enable the organism to better survive in potentially adverse environments [84]. In particular, it has been repeatedly reported that offspring of parents exposed to nutritional stresses exhibit altered expression of genes related to metabolic functions including those implicated in pro-longevity metabolic pathways [6]. The mechanisms potentially responsible for such inter- and transgenerational effects are currently the subject of active investigation [5, 14, 85,86,87,88,89]. In most studies on short-lived models such as nematodes and flies, the role of histone modifications in transgenerational transmission of epigenetic information was highlighted, while in rodent models changes in DNA methylation have been mainly detected. An important outstanding question is how the phenotypic information originating in somatic cells can be transmitted to germ cells to induce epigenetic changes in the germline. Recently, exosome-like miRNA-bearing extracellular vesicles shed by somatic cells have been proposed as potential candidates for the transmission of environmentally induced epigenetic changes in the germline [2]. The possibility of transgenerational transfer of acquired information is definitely much more complex if implemented via the maternal line because it could include not only epigenetic modifications in gametes but also programming events through the egg cytoplasm, the environment of the reproductive tract, and also changes in maternal physiology adapting inadequately to pregnancy demands [17]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing various studies that illustrate how environmental factors, such as social disadvantages, paternal smoking, and nutritional stresses, can influence health and gene expression across generations. It emphasizes the concept of non-genomic transgenerational inheritance and epigenetic memory, suggesting that experiences of parents can have lasting effects on their offspring. This is consistent with the claim, as it shows how gene expression can be influenced by environmental factors over generations.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean carbon capture will soon solve all problems related to climate change. [SEP] Text: So the last per cent might fall under the concept of hard-to-abate emissions. If the example of 800+ $/tonne is used for really hard-to-abate emissions and we can create CDR at a cost of 100 $/tonne, $700 would be saved by using CDR to counter the emissions by removing CO2 from the atmosphere instead of reducing them. This would reduce the cost of reaching climate abatement targets such as those set by the Paris Agreement. 7. 1 this is illustrated as CDR shifts the supply curve of emission reductions to the right enabling net-zero to be reached at a lower cost. 7. 1 Schematic bottom-up supply curve of climate change abatement showing how CDR (two schematic options) enable reaching beyond net zero GHG emissions while reducing the overall cost of reaching this goal; CDR also allows reaching net-zero even though some emissions come from activities where there is a lack of feasible emission-free alternatives Download FigureDownload figure as PowerPoint slide One additional (but not advisable pathway according to the author) is that CDR allows the reduction of global warming back to target levels, if targets of limiting global concentrations of GHGs temporarily overshoot. Research by Galán-Martin (2021) showed the importance of not postponing CDR deployment as time limits of technological diffusion would inhibit volumes demanded. 3 So a tonne of CO2 is a tonne CO2 in the atmosphere? Yes and no. Fossil CCS is about reducing fossil emissions. It can never be used to counter hard-to-abate emissions. Reflect on the following expressed by a representative of the fossil-dependent industry in Europe during spring 2021 (who will remain anonymous). The easiest to understand CDR might be direct air carbon capture and storage, and Storage (DACCS, sometimes written shorter as DAC). It is what it sounds like – you capture CO2 directly from the 410 ppm that is in the air around us. The representative asked the question: ‘If we put DACCS 1m from our chimney where concentrations are over 15%, will that not be an easier way to create CDR and should our CCS not be counted as CDR? ’ In a sense the representative is right. Removing CO2 from a higher concentration is in many ways easier than from a relatively low concentration source such as the air around us. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting the limitations and complexities of carbon dioxide removal (CDR) technologies. It emphasizes that while CDR can aid in reducing emissions and potentially help meet climate targets, it does not solve all problems related to climate change. Specifically, it mentions that CDR cannot counter hard-to-abate emissions and that the cost-effectiveness of CDR depends heavily on implementation and technological diffusion. Therefore, the text suggests that relying solely on CDR for climate solutions is inadequate, reinforcing the idea that multiple approaches are necessary.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Fossilized plants provide insights into ancient climates and ecosystems. [SEP] Text: Consistent with our previous study, the four populations are largely concordant with their geographic origins, namely America, Asia (SE-Asia), Europe, and India (Supplementary Fig. 2), with a few exceptions that can be due to recent migration events or artefacts during long-term duckweed maintenance. We inferred the population history with a (ML) phylogeny combined with Computation (ABC). esculenta (from the Araceae family) as an outgroup, the maximum likelihood phylogeny of all 228 genotypes indicated an early split of the American population from the other populations and subsequent splits of the Indian and European populations from SE-Asia (Fig. 1c). population constitutes the most recent split (Fig. 1c-d). Here, genotypes collected from the transcontinental region (e. g. Russia) showed intermediate features of SE-Asian and European populations, suggesting this as a likely migration route. Furthermore, the Indian population possibly originated via Thailand and Vietnam, as genotypes from these countries show intermediate features between Indian and SE-Asian populations. We modelled the demographic history using an ABC modelling approach to further validate the evolutionary history of the four populations in S. polyrhiza. Three plausible demographic scenarios were simulated, allowing for either the SE-Asian, American or an additional putative population to function as the ancestral population (Supplementary Fig. 3). We found that the scenario, in which the American population and Asian population were derived from an additional putative ancestral population, constituted the most supported model (Fig. 1d). While the American population was separated from other populations around 1 million generations ago, the European population was derived from the SE-Asian population only 12,000 generations ago (see Section 1. 4 of the Supplementary Information). Determinants of genomic diversity among populations Among the four populations, nucleotide diversity (π) and the efficacy of selection (πN/πS ratio) varied among populations (Fig. 2b). While the SE-Asian population has the highest π and lowest πN/πS ratio, the American population has the lowest π and highest πN/πS ratio. Interestingly, while the European population has a much smaller π compared to the SE-Asian population, the πN/πS ratio of the European population remains similar to the latter, likely due to its recent split from the SE-Asian population. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim directly. It focuses on the population history and genetic diversity of specific duckweed populations, detailing their geographic origins and evolutionary relationships, without discussing fossil evidence or insights into ancient climates and ecosystems.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Epigenetics explores how certain environmental factors can influence gene expression across generations. [SEP] Text: Importantly, however, not only maternal but also paternal environmental exposures have been shown to induce epigenetic changes that pass through the male germline to affect health status in the offspring [7, 91]. A schematic representation of basic molecular mechanisms potentially responsible for inter- and transgenerational effects contributing to longevity is presented in Fig. 3. The persistence of epigenetic memory about environmental stresses between generations is likely a more common phenomenon among short-lived species such as nematode worms than among long-lived species. Nevertheless, there exists evidence that epigenetic transgenerational effects can influence life expectancy and longevity-associated traits also in mammals, including humans as well. Epigenetic memory about lifestyles such as unhealthy diet, smoking, or substance abuse in the ancestral generation can likely affect the health status across several successive generations. These processes can also influence disease susceptibility and aging phenotypes, thereby affecting longevity across generations. Although most examples of cross-generational non-genomic inheritance are for adverse effects or pathological conditions, there is also evidence that exposure to mild stressors in early development can result in beneficial (hormetic) effects and that adaptive modulation of epigenetic processes could significantly contribute to these effects [92,93,94]. There is also evidence that adaptive/hormetic effects can persist over several generations [42, 47, 48]. An investigation of inter- and transgenerational effects in human populations presents a number of research challenges [95]. The important issue is uncertainty in accurate determination of the timing and level of exposure, as well as very long generation times in human cohorts [96]. Quasi-experimental designs could likely be useful to overcome these problems. Such research designs or “natural experiments” allow for the identification of cohorts where exposure is relatively homogeneous across the whole population and timing of exposure can be accurately determined by historical records. Good examples are studies of long-term health consequences of severe famines in Holland in 1944–1945 (‘Winter’) [97] and in Ukraine in 1932–1933 (‘Holodomor’) [98]. It is likely that further insights into the possibility of the transmission of non-genomic information across human generations will be gained through such research designs when studying the descendants of persons exposed to hunger during these historical events. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by detailing how environmental exposures, both maternal and paternal, induce epigenetic changes that can affect health across generations. It discusses the concept of epigenetic memory and non-genomic inheritance, which illustrates how changes in gene expression can arise from environmental factors and be transmitted through generations, aligning well with the essence of the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean carbon capture will soon solve all problems related to climate change. [SEP] Text: But, when using fossil fuels, carbon is taken from the geosphere and introduced to the atmosphere. If these emissions are captured, the carbon is returned to the geosphere and never enters the atmosphere. was to be used, as suggested by the fossil industry representative, the flow of carbon would still exist and require reductions. If what was captured through DACCS close to the chimney was counted to counter other hard-to-abate emissions, the flow of CO2 from the chimney would still need to be stopped or countered by other CDRs under a net zero target. As a result, as illustrated in Figure 7. 2, fossil CCS can never be CDR and used as a means to counter other hard-to-abate emissions. 6 WG3 the following is stated: CCS helps reduce gross emissions but does not remove CO2 from the atmosphere, unless combined with bioenergy (BECCS). (6 WG3, 2022, 4. 41) 7. 2 Difference between carbon dioxide removal (CDR) and fossil carbon capture and storage (CCS) Download FigureDownload figure as PowerPoint slide A point must be highlighted though. The fact that fossil CCS is not CDR does not reduce its importance in climate change abatement. A recent study of scenarios for cutting emissions in Europe concluded that deep emission cuts and level of CCS deployment were tightly intervened (Nikas et al. , 2021). Figure 7. 3 from 15 (2018) provides a schematic overview of how the emission pathways work and how different sectors contribute to different climate change abatement p. 120 p. 121targets. Reduced emissions through fossil CCS are illustrated in orange while the negative emissions through technological CDR technologies such as BECCS are illustrated in yellow. The amount of CO2 released to the atmosphere reaches net zero when the uptake from CDR equals the remaining emissions. In the figure, CDR from AFOLU (agriculture forestry and other land use) is illustrated in brown. net contributes to GHG today, changed practices could lead to net uptake of CO2. 7. 3 Schematic explanation of the contribution of different sectors to global CO 2 emissions Source: 15 (2018). Reproduced with permission of IPCC. Download FigureDownload figure as PowerPoint slide 3. 1 options for creating CDR exist where all have their respective strengths and weaknesses. 6 WG1 2. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by explaining that while fossil CCS can help reduce gross emissions, it does not equate to carbon dioxide removal (CDR). It emphasizes that to achieve true carbon removal benefits, additional strategies like bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) are necessary. The reference to net zero targets indicates that simply capturing carbon does not solve climate change issues without addressing continuous emissions from fossil fuels.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Fossilized plants provide insights into ancient climates and ecosystems. [SEP] Text: Using genome-wide SNPs, we found that linkage disequilibrium (LD) is comparable to Arabidopsis thaliana46, suggesting considerable historical sexual reproduction in S. polyrhiza. However, the extent of LD decay varied substantially among populations (Fig. 2b and Supplementary Fig. 4). While the Asian population showed the most rapid LD decay (about 12 kb at r2 = 0. 2), the European population had very long LD blocks (> 100 kb). and American populations had intermediate LD decay. This pattern is further supported by the recombination rates calculated for all four populations, where the Asian population had the highest recombination rate compared to the other three (Fig. 2b). Different LDs and recombination rates found among populations indicate that the frequencies of sexual reproduction varied among populations. In addition, we found that the variations of heterozygosity in S. polyrhiza showed a similar pattern with the genomic diversity and recombination rate among four populations (Fig. 2 and Supplementary Fig. 5). Interestingly, the changes in genomic diversity and levels of heterozygosity are associated with two SVs involving MADS-box genes that are involved in sexual reproduction. One SV is an 84 bp insertion at the last coding sequence (CDS) of gene SpGA2022_005278, a homolog of AGL62 from the Mα subclade of MADS-box genes (Supplementary Fig. 6). In A. thaliana, AGL62 is a transcription factor that suppresses endosperm cellularization by activating the expression of a putative invertase inhibitor, InvINH1, in the micropylar region of the endosperm47,48 (Supplementary Fig. 7). The insertion likely disrupted the function of the AGL62-like gene, thus reducing the suppression of endosperm development, which is likely required for sexual reproduction (Fig. 2a). Consistently, we found the insertion was at a higher abundance in the SE-Asian population (87. 5%) than in other populations (Fig. 2c and 2d). In addition, the insertion positively correlates with heterozygosity within the European population (3 and Supplementary Fig. 8). Another SV is a 69 bp deletion at 1. 8 kb upstream of SOC1 (SpGA2022_007306, Supplementary Fig. 5), the ortholog of which is a positive regulator of the flowering process in A. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the genomic diversity and sexual reproduction patterns in a specific plant species, S. polyrhiza, but does not address or imply anything about fossilized plants or their role in understanding ancient climates and ecosystems. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Epigenetics explores how certain environmental factors can influence gene expression across generations. [SEP] Text: In the future, transgenerational effects could become much more suitable to investigation in human populations owing to the utilization of well-characterized prospective birth cohorts which have been established in many countries worldwide. An important point is that it is possible to obtain biological samples for epigenetic analyses from such studies [95]. In order to estimate the potential impact of epigenetic memory in determining life expectancy, further research should answer several key outstanding questions presented in Box. Box: Outstanding questions• What is the relative contribution of the epigenetic inheritance in comparison with the genetic one? • Is transgenerational epigenetic inheritance widespread across species? • How is phenotypic information originating in somatic tissues transmitted to germ cells? • How many generations can epigenetic memory persist? • Why do non-genomic effects disappear over a few generations? • Could transgenerational epigenetic processes influence genetic inheritance, and vice versa? • Are mechanisms responsible for transgenerational non-genomic effects the same across species? Answering these questions could provide new insights into the origin of the phenomenon of transgenerational epigenetic inheritance. Potential reversibility of unfavorable epigenetic signatures can provide a promising approach to designing novel therapeutic interventions [99, 100]. Overcoming the inertia caused by the persistence of epigenetic effects induced in previous generations may become in the future an important component of effective prevention of human diseases [101, 102]. Various nutritional and pharmacological epigenetic modulators have already demonstrated their therapeutic potential for diminishing or reversing unfavorable epigenetic alterations [103, 104]. This can be important not only to correct epigenetic changes directly induced by unfavorable environmental exposures, but also to eliminate epimutations inherited from previous generations. Thus, broader implementation of epigenome-targeted therapeutic interventions may hold great promise to improve the health and longevity in human populations across the globe. AbbreviationsCpG: a cytosine followed by a guanine nucleotide DDT: dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane H3K9me3: histone H3 lysine 9 trimethylation H3K27me3: histone H3 lysine 27 trimethylation miRNA: microRNA Mtrr: methionine synthase reductase PGC: primordial germ cell RISC: RNA-induced silencing complex 1893. . Roll over Weismann: extracellular vesicles in the transgenerational transmission of environmental effects. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how transgenerational effects can be investigated in human populations and highlights various outstanding questions regarding epigenetic inheritance and its relationship with environmental factors. It indicates that epigenetic memory can be influenced by external conditions and suggests that epigenetic processes may play a key role in understanding health outcomes across generations.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean carbon capture will soon solve all problems related to climate change. [SEP] Text: The following activities are listed as CDR in 6 WG1:p. 122 Additional afforestation: convert land that historically has not contained forest into forest. Reforestation: conversion of land that previously contained forests but now is used for other purposes into forests. Soil carbon management: Activities to store carbon in soil. Biochar: Conversion of biomass into stable carbon through the process of pyrolysis (heating in a low oxygen or oxygen-free environment). Direct air carbon capture and storage: Capturing carbon directly from the air through chemical or physical processes. Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS): Combination of natural and technical CDR by letting photosynthesis capture carbon from the atmosphere in biomass and then collect the carbon after use in a technical process. All of these activities could result in both positive and negative effects on other areas of concern such as biodiversity, land use and food production. IPCC notes in AR6 WG1 (2021) that these side effects are highly dependent on local context, management, prior land use and scale. Although the definition of CDR above assumes an underlying anthropogenic activity, the net balance of forest growth is part of climate reporting to the Framework on (). For wood-based products reporting allows half-life for remaining carbon in products, ranging from two years for paper to 25 years for wood panels and 35 years for sawn wood (FCCC/KP/AWG/2010/18/Add. 1). Thus a managed forest in itself could become net removals if harvested wood is used for creating bio-based products. Biomass used for bioenergy is conservatively reported as emitted at the moment of harvest. As such bioenergy could be climate neutral if regrowth in the managed forests equal or exceeds outtake for bioenergy, and net technical CDR if the biogenic CO2 emissions are captured and stored permanently. Some of the options also provide good complements. Biochar can be used as a soil improvement enhancing biomass yield and soil carbon formation while decreasing the need for irrigation and use of fertilizers. Similarly, good forest management practices can increase the uptake of CO2 in woody biomass used for different BECCS applications. 3. 2 of the easiest CDRs to understand from a conceptual point of view is DACCS. You take a machine that sucks CO2 from the ambient air and then store it for thousands of years. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by detailing various carbon dioxide removal (CDR) activities and emphasizing that their effectiveness is dependent on local context, management, and other factors. It suggests that while ocean carbon capture can contribute to climate change mitigation, there are complex interactions and potential negative effects on biodiversity, land use, and food production. This indicates that ocean carbon capture alone is insufficient to solve all climate change problems, instead highlighting the need for a comprehensive understanding of CDR methods.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Fossilized plants provide insights into ancient climates and ecosystems. [SEP] Text: thaliana49 (Fig. 2a). The deletion was exclusively found in the Indian population with the alternate allele frequency of 73% (Fig. 2c). It is plausible that the deletion, due to its disruption potential at the cis-regulatory region, reduces the ability of the SOC1-like gene to respond to the upstream floral activators (e. g. CO) in S. polyrhiza, thus reducing the frequency of sexual reproduction in the Indian population (Fig. 2d). Consistently, this deletion negatively correlates with heterozygosity in the Indian population (3, Supplementary Fig. 9). Population epigenomic diversity in S. polyrhiza As changes in sexual reproduction can also alter epigenomic dynamics, we further investigated the patterns of population epigenomic diversity in S. polyrhiza. We selected five individuals from each population and quantified their shoot DNA methylation levels at single-base resolution using whole genome bisulphite sequencing. Similar to a recent study40, we found that only 1. 5% of cytosines are methylated in S. polyrhiza (7. 2% of CpG, 2. 2% of CHG, and 0. 1% of CHH; see 4), and the average species-wide methylation levels are much lower than all other investigated angiosperm species (Supplementary Fig. 10)31,50. The hierarchical clustering of 20 methylomes in CpG, CHG, and CHH contexts show high consistency with their genetic similarity (Supplementary Fig. 11–13). Few discrepancies were mostly found within the same population or between the recently diverged SE-Asian and European populations, which indicates that population demography can strongly affect epigenomic variations in S. polyrhiza. We then compared the genome-wide weighted methylation level (wML) among populations. For CpG methylation, the four populations did not differ at genome-wide levels (Fig. 3a). However, CpG methylation level in gene bodies (but not in TEs) was higher in the American population than the other three populations (Fig. 3d, g). For CHG, the Indian population had the lowest genome-wide methylation level among all four populations (Fig. 3b, 3e and 3h). Interestingly, for CHH, the American population had the lowest genome-wide methylation level (P < 0. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding fossilized plants and their role in providing insights into ancient climates and ecosystems. Instead, it focuses on epigenomic diversity and genetic characteristics of specific populations of S. polyrhiza. The lack of any reference to fossilized plants makes the text irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Research is ongoing to understand the mechanisms of genetic memory in various animal species. [SEP] Text: The mouse expresses a transgene that encodes the tau-βgal fusion protein, driven by the promoter for the immediate early gene c-fos. This immediate-early gene is expressed in neurons following functional stimulation, with expression shown to occur following a range of stimuli including stress, ischemia, sensory stimulation, endocrine hormones and various pharmacological agents [6]. The FTL transgene is thus rapidly expressed in neurons following functional stimulation, and trafficked throughout the cell body, dendrites and axon. This labelling enables the localisation of functionally activated neurons, the identification of their cellular morphologies and the connections they make with other neurons in the brain [6]. Labelling experiments that utilise the FTL mouse include the identification of the neuronal nuclei involved in osmoregulation [6], as well as the identification of light activated pathways in the visual system [7]. However, the findings most pertinent to this review occur from the analysis of FTL mouse brains following context fear conditioning. Context fear conditioning is a model for learning, and training FTL mice to associate the context of a shock chamber with the aversive stimulus of a foot-shock enables the identification of the neurons that are functionally activated by this association. Initially, a discrete population of glutamatergic neurons were identified along the lateral edge of the lateral amygdala [8]. These FTL + neurons only appeared in those FTL mice that had learned to associate the context with shock, indicating that these cells may be involved in the circuits responsible for this learning process [8]. A further study was able to identify other nuclei of labelled neurons, in the medial amygdala, the amygdalo-striatal transition region, and the ventromedial hypothalamus [9]. It was also shown that these regions were not activated following the recall of memory or following fear expression, but specifically by the association of context to shock, suggesting that these neurons were involved in this learning event [9]. These anatomically restricted populations were hypothesised to be nodes within a circuit for fear conditioning [9]. In this way, a modified version of the βgal marker protein has contributed to our understanding of the circuitry that underlies the formation of fear memories in mammals. Perhaps the most widely studied cellular marker protein is the Protein (GFP). First isolated from Aequorea jellyfish, GFP was found to produce bright green fluorescence in the presence of ultraviolet light [10]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by describing research involving FTL mice, which are used to study the mechanisms of memory formation. It explains how these mice can be trained to associate contexts with aversive stimuli, thereby facilitating the identification of specific neurons involved in learning and memory processes. The investigation of neuronal activation in response to context fear conditioning contributes to our understanding of genetic memory mechanisms in mammals, aligning well with the claim that research is ongoing in this area.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean carbon capture will soon solve all problems related to climate change. [SEP] Text: The downside of DACCS is that the concentration of CO2 is 410 ppm, or 0. 041%. Capturing CO2 from such low concentrations requires large amounts of energy. Biomass grows by photosynthesis capturing carbon from CO2 in the surrounding air, much like DACCS (see Figure 7. 4). When biomass is used and replanted, the cycle can be carbon neutral or even positive in itself over time, contributing to natural CDR. When used in bio-based processes such as energy generation or in the pulp and paper industry, CO2 concentrations well above 10% might be reached. In an ongoing BECCS project in Stockholm where the aim is to put BECCS on an existing combined heat and power (CHP) plant the concentration of biogenic CO2 is approximately 18% in the flue gases (Gustavsson et al. , 2021). That is a 439 times higher concentration compared to the ambient air. The bio-based processes also generate energy and/or products that can be used to substitute fossil energy and products, p. 123thereby having a double climate benefit – both reduced emissions as fossil emissions are reduced through substitution and negative emissions that can counter hard-to abate sectors. 7. 4 Comparison of BECCS and figure as PowerPoint slide So while DACCS requires large amounts of energy to drive the capture process, BECCS provides usable products and services while capturing carbon with an atmospheric origin. The big downside of BECCS is the pace of photosynthesis and biomass growth. The near-term efficiency of BECCS therefore relies on the carbon cycles it is part of. Biomass is not a single entity and while garden waste and residues from agriculture could have carbon cycles within a year, other biogenic carbon cycles as trees are replanted and grow, which could last up to a century. Other woody biomass such as branches and tops and other residues from forestry to make board, pulp and paper have alternative GHG emissions through the alternative natural decay to methane resulting in short-term positive climate impact (Hammar and Levihn, 2020; Camia et al. , 2020). Similarly, the net carbon efficiency of DACCS is heavily dependent on what energy is used to drive the process, where energy generation could potentially emit more than what is captured. Among the present biomass utilization, one of the low-hanging fruits is biogenic CO2 from the pulp and paper industry. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the limitations and complexities of carbon capture technologies, particularly noting that Direct Air Carbon Capture and Storage (DACCS) requires significant energy due to low CO2 concentrations and that Biomass Energy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) depends on slow natural processes like photosynthesis, which cannot provide immediate or total solutions to the climate crisis. This highlights that solutions like DACCS and BECCS alone are not sufficient to resolve climate change issues.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Fossilized plants provide insights into ancient climates and ecosystems. [SEP] Text: To further understand the selection that drove the evolution within individual populations, we identified the signature of positive selection in a three-population tree using patterns of linked allele frequency differentiation and calculating the corresponding composite-likelihood ratio (CLR, see Methods). In total, we found 1,883 genes on the SE-Asian branch, 593 genes on the Indian branch and 401 genes on the European branch (Fig. 4a; see Section 1. 5 of the Supplementary Information) which showed strong signatures of selection (top 1% of CLR values). We found that genes under positive selection in the European branch are enriched with reproduction and development-related GO terms (Supplementary Fig. 15). Among these, SpGA2022_013448, in chromosome 9, is an ortholog of (FLK) that delays flowering by up-regulating FLC family members in A. thaliana76. This gene showed a strong signature of selection in the European branch but not in other branches (Fig. 4c and d). Similarly, SpGA2022_006111, on chromosome 3, is an ortholog of the A. thaliana (BB) that negatively regulates floral organ size and is also under selection in Europe77 (Fig. 4c). In the SE-Asian population, we found that gene SpGA2022_051517, a 3 (CMT3) homolog in A. thaliana, is involved in maintaining CpG, particularly CHG methylation17. This is consistent with the higher CpG and CHG methylation levels observed in the SE-Asian population when compared to the European and Indian populations (Fig. 3a and 3b). Within the Indian population, we found that five MADS-box genes have been under selection exclusively along this branch. Given that there are 43 MADS-box genes in the genome, the fact that five of them have been targeted by selection, constitutes a significant enrichment of such genes under selection (P = 0. 0075, Fisher’s Exact test). For example, SpGA2022_013078 is an ortholog of -LIKE6 (AGL6), which is involved in flower and meristem identity specification in rice78; SpGA2022_052274, a homolog of 3 (AP3), is involved in the petal and stamen specification in A. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim. It discusses genetic signatures of selection in different populations and provides details on specific genes and their functions without mentioning fossilized plants or their role in understanding ancient climates and ecosystems.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Research is ongoing to understand the mechanisms of genetic memory in various animal species. [SEP] Text: containing the c-fos promoter regulating expression of tTa, which will bind to 2. the TetO promoter regulating expression of tau-LacZ. Binding to the TetO promoter is inhibited by doxycycline, and thus by maintaining the mice on doxycycline, this system is blocked. However, the second transgene also contains a doxycycline insensitive tTa, and once this transgene is activated, a feedback loop is established which will maintain expression of the doxycycline insensitive tTa and consequently also tau-LacZ. This allows for the long term tagging of neurons which express c-fos during the window when the mice were taken off doxycycline [23]. Using this TetTag mouse, a small number of neurons in the basolateral amygdala, which were activated and tagged during fear conditioning learning, were found to be subsequently reactivated during recall of fear conditioning [23]. It was thus suggested that these neurons were a stable neural correlate of fear memory. A variant of this experiment involved the c-fos-tTa transgene in combination with a TetO-GFP-GluR1 transgene [24]. GluR1 is a major subunit of the AMPA glutamate receptor and using this conditional marker mouse, the location of newly synthesised AMPA receptors could be followed using GFP fluorescence. Following fear conditioning, newly synthesised GluR1 receptors were found to be selectively associated with mushroom-type dendritic spines on hippocampal CA1 neurons [24]. These results were argued to be consistent with a synaptic tagging model whereby activated synapses capture new AMPA receptors as part the learning and memory process. 2. 2. Viral-mediated gene delivery Genetic manipulation of the neurons involved in learning and memory has also been achieved using viral methods of transgene delivery, enabling targeting of specific brain regions. In one series of studies, the question of how neurons become involved in memory was addressed and if the transcriptional status of the neuron at the time of learning was important in this process. For this, the function of CREB was manipulated via delivery of a series of different CREB containing viruses to the lateral amygdala [25, 26]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by discussing various experimental methods and findings related to genetic manipulation and memory processes in mice. It describes how certain neurons are tagged and reactivate during memory recall, which reflects an understanding of the mechanisms of genetic memory in animal species. The mention of specific genes, transgenes, and their roles in memory formation further corroborates that ongoing research is focused on understanding these mechanisms.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean carbon capture will soon solve all problems related to climate change. [SEP] Text: As such, the term BECCS is somewhat misleading as it provides the notion that BECCS is the focus of biogenic energy, while a better concept would have been if BioCCS instead had been adopted. The example of Sweden is interesting in this context, where the potential for BECCS in present point sources in the pulp and paper industry is roughly two times higher than in present use for energy generation and no bioelectricity generation exists at all (Fuss and Johsson, 2021). This is contrary to much research (see, for example, Fajardy et al. , 2021) which often limits studies of BECCS to electricity production from biomass. There are also examples of research where the dedicated growing of biomass for BECCS is assumed. One such is Hanssen et al. (2020) where the problem of initial biomass is discussed. By this, Hanssen et al. (2020) refer to whether the existing biomass should be burnt with or without BECCS when land is made into plantations for biomass for biofuel and electricity production. Overlooking the potential at existing point sources of biogenic CO2 in CHP, as well as pulp and paper, underestimates the potential low-hanging fruits for BECCS (Levihn et al. , 2019). Different waste and residue streams also provide a great potential for fuels with biogenic origin suitable for BECCS. In some cases, such as municipal solid waste, there is a mixture of biogenic and fossil fractions which leads to a hybrid between reducing fossil emissions through CCS and creating BECCS through the biogenic fractions. p. 124 3. 3 of BECCS (and Other CDR) Understanding the business model of BECCS can be done by applying the structure of Tongur and Engwall (2014). The structure was created in relation to the dilemma of creating business models during technological shifts in markets: Value proposition: what is the value for the customers of the product or service provided? Value creation: what processes are required to provide the product or service? This includes everything from physical production to after-sales services and R&D activities. Value capture: simplified how does the producer get paid for supplying the product or service? How should cost and revenue stream be structured? This structure allows for an overview of required activities to make a technology shift happen and new technical or business solutions grow into markets. 3. 3. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the limitations and misconceptions surrounding BECCS (Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage). It highlights the complexity and challenges associated with BECCS implementation, such as the need for initial biomass considerations and the underestimation of potential sources. This indicates that relying on ocean carbon capture alone is insufficient for addressing climate change solutions comprehensively.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Fossilized plants provide insights into ancient climates and ecosystems. [SEP] Text: thaliana79; and SpGA2022_006905 belongs to the (SVP-group) which controls the time of flowering and meristem identity80. We found 77 genes under positive selection (top 1% CLR values) in both the European and Indian populations (Fig. 4b), significantly more genes than expected by chance (P < 2. 2e-16, Fisher’s Exact Test). Among these, gene SpGA2022_055195, a homolog to CYP78A9 of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases in A. thaliana, belongs to a highly conserved gene family CYP78A. Previous studies in A. thaliana and other species found that CYP78A9 plays a critical role in promoting cell proliferation during flower development and further impacts seed size81–83. Overall, these data consistently suggest that genes involved in reproduction and development were under selection in Indian and European populations, which might have led to reduced sexual reproduction in these two populations. DiscussionsHere, we characterized the genomic and epigenomic diversity, as well as the demographic history of a facultative asexual flowering plant, S. polyrhiza. We found that among populations of S. polyrhiza, demographic history and reproductive system jointly determine the population’s genomic and epigenomic diversity. Analyses on the footprint of selection suggest that natural selection drove the reduced vascular system and increased asexuality in S. polyrhiza. Theory predicts that asexual reproduction reduces genomic diversity and the efficiency of purifying selection84. Consistent with this prediction, at the species level, we found that S. polyrhiza has very low genomic diversity and reduced purifying selection (seen as an increased πN/πS ratio), when compared to a wide range of spermatophyte plants43. Within species, the SE-Asian population, which has the highest frequency of sexual reproduction based on the estimated recombination rate, has the highest genomic diversity, the lowest πN/πS ratio and the highest heterozygosity (Fig. 2b), supporting the theoretical prediction2,5,13−15. The low πN/πS ratio found in the European population, which has the lowest sexual reproduction and genomic diversity, is most likely due to its migration history. The demographic model suggested that the European population derived from the SE-Asian population very recently (Fig. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses genetic and demographic studies of *S. polyrhiza* and its reproductive strategies rather than providing insights about fossilized plants or their implications for understanding ancient climates and ecosystems.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Research is ongoing to understand the mechanisms of genetic memory in various animal species. [SEP] Text: Increasing CREB function in any lateral amygdala neuron appeared to increase the probability that this neuron was recruited into the fear memory trace, suggesting that CREB status is important in determining which neurons are involved in memory [25]. Further, ablation of these overexpressing CREB neurons after learning blocked the expression of the specific fear memory in which they were involved, establishing that these neurons were functionally required for that specific fear memory [26]. Broadly consistent results were found when the CREB viruses were targeted to the auditory thalamus [27]. Advertisement 3. Two-photon imaging using transgenic marker mice Transgenic marker mice have been used very successfully to follow changes in neuron structure over time. In initial studies of this kind, individual neurons were imaged in developing hippocampus of rat brains expressing enhanced GFP, via infection with GFP encoding Sindbis virus [28]. Imaging of the neurons was done using two-photon laser scanning microscopy, which has the advantage of detecting the fluorescence signal with very low levels of photobleaching and phototoxicity. This allows for repeated high resolution imaging deep into living neural tissue with little effect on the imaged neurons. These studies demonstrated change in dendritic structure driven by high frequency synaptic stimulation, suggesting that synaptic activation during development could contribute to development of neural circuitry [28]. Subsequent studies have undertaken imaging of dendritic spines over time. Dendritic spines are protrusions from dendrites and are the postsynaptic sites of excitatory synapses. Thus imaging changes in dendritic spines over time is a very good approach to studying structural synaptic plasticity. Synaptic plasticity is thought to be a prime candidate mechanism underlying the processes involved in learning and memory. Two-photon imaging of dendritic spines was undertaken in hippocampal slices [29] using one of the lines of thy1-GFP expressing mice (line M) generated by Feng et al. [18]. Induction of LTP in these slices resulted in a transient increase in spine area of a small fraction of spines. Similar to LTP, this increase was dependent on NMDA receptor activation which is hypothesised to contribute to the synapse remodelling that occurs in LTP [29]. Similar results were obtained in experiments using hippocampal slices from non-transgenic rats [30]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing various mechanisms related to memory, including the role of CREB function in fear memory traces and synaptic plasticity, suggesting an active area of research in understanding memory mechanisms in animal species. It specifically mentions how different studies are exploring these processes, thus indicating that research is indeed ongoing in this field.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean carbon capture will soon solve all problems related to climate change. [SEP] Text: 1 Value proposition Assuming a sustainable biomass supply, BECCS provides renewable energy and/or products and services to consumers that can be offered to consumers to substitute fossil energy and/or products and services. The demand for substitution increases both with changed consumer p3. 3. 2 Value creation To create BECCS several business activities must be arranged in a value chain. To start, a supply of biomass must be arranged. The biomass could be either the residue of other activities or p. 125a primary outtake. This biomass must then be transported to a facility where it is turned into energy and/or products and services. From here the business of renewable energy, products and services departs from the business of CDR. Distributing renewable energy, products and services could have both longer and shorter value chains and will be left out of this discussion. From the process of generating energy products and services a stream of biogenic CO2 is generated among other gases. The next step in this value creation is to capture and separate the CO2. The CO2 must then be stored permanently. In-between transport between capture and storage might be required. Each of these steps in a BECCS value chain could have greater or lesser levels of vertical integration. In other words, if a legal entity controls multiple parts of this value chain (higher degree of vertical integration) or if different legal entities are involved in each step (lower degree of vertical integration). 7. 5 The value chain of BECCS including its linkage to renewable energy, products and services Download FigureDownload figure as PowerPoint slide bio sector provides an interesting example. Sweden has about 10 million inhabitants and over 300,000 forest owners. Some larger forest owners organized in larger corporations have machinery and logistics for taking out biomass and timber, while many smaller ones would consult a forestry corporation (smaller or larger) on its behalf. From here the biomass and timber are supplied to a corporation producing REPS which will be part of their individual value chains where energy carriers, pulp and paper, timber, houses, furniture, wooden constructions and much more are created. To create BECCS from a REPS value chain the CO2 must be stored. Corporations in REPS might be good at process and process integration, in the case of biogas and biofuel production they even have core competence around capture processes. These industries typically have low capabilities related to actually storing CO2. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the complexities and the processes involved in Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) rather than suggesting that ocean carbon capture is a straightforward solution to climate issues. It details the challenges of biomass supply, transportation, CO2 capture, and storage, implying that while BECCS can contribute to renewable energy and carbon capture, it is not a comprehensive solution to all climate problems.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Fossilized plants provide insights into ancient climates and ecosystems. [SEP] Text: 1d). It is likely that the πN/πS ratio in the European population remained the same as its ancestral population and has not reached an equilibrium level yet. While there are fewer genome-wide SVs in S. polyrhiza compared to other species44,45, we found these variants and small INDELs are in tendency enriched in MADS-box genes. This indicates that the loss-of-function of MADS-box genes, many of them involved in flower development and sexual reproduction, is under natural selection. The results are consistent with the observation that the number of functional MADS-box genes was dramatically reduced in S. polyrhiza85. Single-base resolution methylomes of 20 individuals showed that the overall CpG, CHG and CHH methylation levels in S. polyrhiza shoots are very low, consistent with previous studies40,86. The low levels of DNA methylation might be associated with reduced sexual reproduction: while CpG and CHG methylations in plants are important for controlling cross-overs during meiosis87 and are increased during male gametogenesis, CHH methylation is highly accumulated during embryogenesis19,25−27. In facultative asexual plants, due to reduced sexual reproduction and meiosis, the selection of genetic mechanisms maintaining or increasing the CpG, CHG and CHH methylation is reduced or absent, which might have led to the reduced CpG, CHG and CHH methylation levels. Consistently, a recent study suggests that S. polyrhiza has lost several genes in the RdDM pathway86. Interestingly, within species, the methylation profile of the 20 individuals correlates with their genetic distance (Supplementary Fig. 11–13), indicating a gradual evolution of DNA methylomes in S. polyrhiza. For example, the Indian and European populations, which diverged from SE-Asian populations around 51,000 and 12,000 generations ago, gradually decreased their DNA methylations (Fig. 3a-c). At the species level, using a genome-wide scan approach, we found a strong signature of natural selection on genes involved in flower and seed development. indicating that the evolution of reproduction, likely, an increased clonal propagation in S. polyrhiza, was driven by natural selection. This is consistent with the pattern that many aquatic organisms reproduce clonally88. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses genetic characteristics and reproductive strategies of the plant S. polyrhiza, focusing on DNA methylation and natural selection, without mentioning fossilized plants or their significance to ancient climates and ecosystems.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Research is ongoing to understand the mechanisms of genetic memory in various animal species. [SEP] Text: In further experiments using the thy1-GFP-M mice [18], two-photon microscopy was used to study relationships between spines following LTP [31]. Following induction of LTP at individual synapses of hippocampal pyramidal neurons, the response thresholds at closely neighbouring synapses on the same dendrite were found to be altered [31]. Thus, presentation of low level stimuli, which were normally too weak to induce LTP, resulted in robust LTP and spine enlargement at these neighbouring synapses. The reduction in this threshold for LTP was short lived (~10 minutes) and extended over 10 micron of dendrite length. It was proposed that these interactions between neighbouring synapses were consistent with clustered models of plasticity in memory storage as well as providing a mechanism for binding of behaviourally linked information within a small region of a dendrite [31]. 3. 1. Two-photon imaging in vivo The two-photon imaging approach has been extended to studies of living animals to great effect. This is done by removing a small area of skull from the mice, which allows for repeated imaging of the exposed cortex using two-photon microscopy. The major advance in this approach is that single neurons can be studied in living mice over extended periods of time, up to many months. This allows for the mapping of spines on a particular dendrite and the tracking of the changes in spine number, morphology and lifetime of individual spines over this time. Thus, one can examine the effects of learning on spines, and accompanying studies can ask if the observed spine changes result in synaptic changes. The first studies to use this approach undertook imaging of spines in individual pyramidal neurons in visual cortex and barrel cortex over periods of a month to over a year [32, 33]. Using thy1-GFP-line H mice [18], they found that dendritic structure was essentially stable, and that spines appear and disappear. In barrel cortex, 50% of spines were stable for at least a month, with the other spines present for days or less [32]. These spine changes were shown to correlate with synaptic change. Further, sensory experience of the facial whiskers (the principle input for the barrel cortex) resulted in increased spine turnover [32]. In adult visual cortex, the great majority of spines were stable for at least one month [33]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by describing ongoing research utilizing advanced techniques like two-photon microscopy in living mice to study synaptic changes and plasticity in memory storage. It mentions the examination of spines and their turnover in response to sensory experiences, which indicates a focus on understanding genetic memory in animals. The discussion on how spine changes correlate with synaptic changes supports the notion that research is indeed ongoing to uncover the mechanisms associated with memory.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean carbon capture will soon solve all problems related to climate change. [SEP] Text: The oil industry on the other hand sits on these capabilities and developments in Europe at the moment, for example, the oil industry targeting potential CCS and BECCS with an offer of storage as a service. The cost of transport and storage differs with context and geographical location. et al. (2021) a cost range of 4–90 $/tonne was cited with a European reference in the project citing costs of 30–55 $/tonne. Lights project is a joint venture between oil giants Equinor, Shell and Total with the aim of supplying transport and storage as a service. This is also a new approach from the first generation of CCS (Loria and Bright, 2021) where one firm controlled the whole value chain. Today many projects similar to focus on providing transport and storage as a service on the basis of key capabilities and knowledge for example in the oil and gas sector, while the capture and biomass value chains are the key capabilities of energy utilities and the pulp and paper industry. p. 126 Today, 26 storage projects are operational and stored CO2 behaves as predicted (Loria and Bright, 2021). Many of these have been focused on utilizing captured CO2 as a means of extracting more hydrocarbons such as enhanced oil recovery (EOR). EOR is controversial, especially in relation to BECCS and CDR. Technologies for capturing CO2 have been available since the mid-20th century, but applied as CO2 scrubbers in industrial processes rather than the purpose of permanent capture and storage. These applications can be found for example in ammonia manufacturing and natural gas processing. CO2 capture has been used as part of processes to get the desired quality in a product with the CO2 released after being captured. There are exceptions though. A few projects have focused on dedicated storage, for example, CCS projects in Norway. One example is the project. The basis for the rationale and development of this project was that Norwegian natural gas had a too high CO2 content and was thus of the wrong quality for the international natural gas market. To improve the quality, CO2 has been scrubbed and, if released into the atmosphere, it was targeted by the Norwegian CO2 tax. To reduce costs CO2 has been injected into a dedicated storage formation since year 1995 with 0. 9 Mt of CO2 stored annually (project database, 2021). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the complexities and limitations of carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies demonstrated in the oil and gas industry. It specifies that while CCS can be part of the solution, there are significant challenges, such as costs and the need for further development and applications beyond mere capture. Additionally, the reference to enhanced oil recovery (EOR) shows that these technologies are sometimes employed to extract more hydrocarbons, rather than solely addressing climate change issues. Overall, the text underscores that ocean carbon capture alone is insufficient to solve climate change problems.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Fossilized plants provide insights into ancient climates and ecosystems. [SEP] Text: In addition, several genes related to vascularity, root development and DNA damage repair were also under strong selection, suggesting the reduced root and vascular development and low mutation rate in S. polyrhiza were likely also driven by natural selection. Among populations, we found strong positive selection on genes involved in sexual reproduction and development in Indian and European populations, two recently evolved populations that showed reduced genomic recombination. These results suggest that natural selection favours clonal reproduction in S. polyrhiza during the recent colonization process, a pattern was frequently found in many invasive species89,90. However, despite strong selection favouring clonal reproduction, substantial recombination in the S. polyrhiza genome, mostly in the SE-Asian population, remained, reflecting that sexual reproduction is essential to overcome the costs involved in clonal reproduction in long term. Taken together, population genomes and epigenomes of S. polyrhiza suggest that natural selection acting on the mating system and organ development can shape genome-wide genomic and epigenomic variations. Methods DNA sample preparation and sequencing We sequenced 131 genotypes that were primarily collected from Asia and Europe (1). These samples were cultivated in N-medium91 until DNA isolation using a CTAB method. Library preparations were carried out following the protocol described in Xu et al. (2019)37. All libraries were sequenced either on Illumina HiTen or 4000 platforms for paired-end sequencing with a read size of 150 bp. Low-quality reads and adapter sequences were trimmed with AdapterRemoval (v2. 033)92. On average, 33. 8 million reads per genotype were obtained. The clean reads were aligned to the S. polyrhiza reference genome93,94 using BWA-MEM ( with default parameters. Reads without alignment hits or with multiple alignment positions were removed. SAMtools “rmdup” function was used to remove PCR duplicates95. Single nucleotide variant calling We filtered SNPs using GATK96 (v4. 1. 4. 1, Java 11) with options: "QD < 2. 0 | QUAL < 30. 0 | SOR > 3. 0 | FS > 60. 0 | MQ < 40. 0 | MQRankSum < -12. 5 | ReadPosRankSum < -8. 0". Then, VCFtools (v0. 1. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding fossilized plants and their insights into ancient climates and ecosystems. Instead, it discusses genetic selection, population genomics, and methods related to S. polyrhiza, which are unrelated to fossil records or climate insights.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Research is ongoing to understand the mechanisms of genetic memory in various animal species. [SEP] Text: Calmodulin and M13 are fused to this circularly permuted GFP, and on binding of Ca2+, the conformation of the fusion protein is altered which results in increased fluorescence of GFP [46, 47]. Other forms of GECIs use instead of Calmodulin and M13 to induce binding of Ca2+ and conformational change in the fusion protein [48]. The different types of GECIs have different properties and particular advantages in Ca2+ imaging studies [43]. Ca2+ influx and regulation of signalling plays a fundamental role in the molecular mechanisms underlying learning and memory. For example, the NMDA glutamate receptor is regarded as one of the most important neurotransmitter receptors in the initial acquisition process of learning and memory [49-51]. The NMDA receptors are highly permeable to Ca2+ ions, but this permeability only occurs during both membrane depolarisation and glutamate binding [52]. Such conditions are regarded as a requirement for memory acquisition. Inside the neuron, Ca2+ regulates many intracellular signalling processes involved in memory formation [50, 51, 53]. Thus the use of GECIs may be useful in learning and memory studies; for example in identifying neuronal populations undergoing changes in Ca2+ concentrations during learning and memory and in studying the temporal progression of such changes. However, there have been few studies to date which have used this approach in learning and memory research. Recent studies have developed methods for the cellular imaging of neural activity in awake behaving mice and which can be suitable for analysis of cellular responses during learning and memory. For example, one study describes a method to visualise cellular imaging of neural activity in the visual cortex of awake head restrained mice during visual discrimination learning as well as passive viewing of visual stimuli [54]. Neural activity was measured using the yellow Cameleon 3. 6 GECI, virally transfected into visual cortex. Another approach has been developed which enables imaging the activity of neurons in head restrained mice which can still perform spatial behaviours within a virtual reality system [55]. In the example given, the activity of neurons in the CA1 region of the hippocampus was imaged through the expression of the GCaMP3 GECI. Populations of place cells were thus identified based on their place specific activity within the virtual environment and correlated with their location within the local hippocampal circuit [55]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing Ca2+ regulation and its crucial role in the molecular mechanisms underlying learning and memory. It highlights ongoing research using GECIs (Genetically Encoded Calcium Indicators) to study neural activity during learning processes, which directly relates to understanding genetic memory mechanisms across different animal species.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean carbon capture will soon solve all problems related to climate change. [SEP] Text: In addition to barriers to creating REPS, potential process integration further improves the low-hanging fruit potential of starting with BECCS in CHP and in pulp and paper. Carbon capture in essence is an activity whereby warm CO2 from the flue gases is liquefied and stored cold. Both in theory and practice it is possible to extract more energy from such exothermal processes than what is required as input. is applied together with CHP, all electricity and/or steam used to drive the capture and liquefaction of CO2 can be recovered as heat into district heating systems. Gustafsson et al. (2021) reported a potential to increase (rather than decrease) the total efficiency of CHPs by up to 3% by applying carbon capture. Pulp and paper industries are sometimes connected to district heating allowing similar energy recovery as for CHPs. In other cases, different options of process integration might be available where ideally two steps in the industrial process require steams at different temperatures and pressures where temperatures for carbon capture fit in-between to reduce the energy penalty as far as possible. 3. 3. 3 Value capture A starting point of BECCS is developing REPS value chains. For low-hanging fruits of CDR, such as existing CHP and the pulp and paper industry, these structures are in place. Income from selling REPS is already part of an existing business and business model. If instead new REPS are to be delivered, these value chains must also be constructed into functioning business models, which increase the complexity of starting a BECCS project. For the additional value of creating CDR, value capture is a key barrier. Today the market for CDR is illiquid and governance systems immature. Following the polluter pays principle, a market where those with residual hard-to-abate emissions can pay for the service of removing CO2 from the atmosphere can be envisioned. Tongur and Engwall (2015), discussed this dilemma where technological development is inhibited by the development of working business models, while these cannot be developed until the technology is in place. Further, developing new business ideas will require resources and thus support of corporate management. Market mechanisms for CDR could either be voluntary or compulsory. Common to both these is a need to define what is a CDR and how it can be used. At the moment of writing this p. 127book 2023. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by emphasizing the complexities and challenges associated with carbon capture technologies, such as BECCS, and the importance of business models for their implementation. It highlights that while carbon capture can improve efficiency and facilitate CO2 removal, there are significant barriers like the need for developed value chains, immature governance systems, and the illiquid market for carbon dioxide removal (CDR). Thus, it suggests that carbon capture alone will not soon solve all climate change issues without addressing these critical obstacles.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Fossilized plants provide insights into ancient climates and ecosystems. [SEP] Text: 13)97 was used to remove SNPs that have the following features: 1) non-biallelic; 2) minor allele frequency (MAF) less than 0. 01; 3) mean sequencing depth greater than eight or less than 41; 4) missing genotypes greater than 20%; 5) located in small SNP clusters (more than two SNPs in a ten base-pair window). SnpEff (version 5. 0c)98 was used to annotate SNPs and INDELs. We estimated genome-wide nucleotide diversity and genome-wide πN/πS ratios using SNPgenie (v2019. 10. 31)99. The genome-wide heterozygosity for each individual was calculated using VCFtools (v0. 1. 13)97. We estimated the genetic associations between heterozygosity and the SVs of AGL62 and SOC1 using 100 with single variant Wald test. Population structure and linkage disequilibrium (LD) We grouped genetically similar genotypes by defining clonal genotype pairs that have no more than 0. 01% different homozygous sites and no more than 2% different heterozygous sites. These thresholds were previously adopted by Ho et al. (2019)38. Prior to the population structure analysis, we removed SNPs that 1) deviated from Hardy-(Fisher exact test, P < 0. 01) or 2) linked loci (each pair of SNP have correlation coefficient r2 > 0. 33 in a sliding window with a size of 50 SNPs and step of 5 SNPs), using VCFtools (v0. 1. 13)97 and Plink (v1. 9)101. Principal component analysis (PCA) and population structure analysis were carried out using Plink (v1. 9)101 and fastStructure (v1. 0)102, respectively. The simple mode (as default) from fastStructure was used for the population structure analysis. value was estimated using a heuristic function in fastStructure. For each of the 159 clonal families, we selected the least missingness genotype (i. e. the genotype with the highest sequencing coverage of that clonal family) as the representative genotype. SNP information from all 159 representative genotypes was used to estimate the linkage disequilibrium decay for each of the four populations. PopLDdecay (v3. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses SNP analysis, population structure, and genetic diversity without mentioning fossilized plants or their role in providing insights into ancient climates and ecosystems. There is no connection made to the claim within the provided text.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Research is ongoing to understand the mechanisms of genetic memory in various animal species. [SEP] Text: An extension of the use of GECIs is the development of indicators which detect the Ca2+ activation of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMKII; 56). These are GECIs using CaMKII as the Ca2+ binding protein and thus are specific for CaMKII activation. This indicator has been used to detect changes in CaMKII activity in individual spines of particular regions of cortex before and after visual deprivation [56]. Visual deprivation is a model of experience dependent plasticity and thus this approach could be used in the analysis of spine changes occurring during learning and memory formation. Advertisement 5. Optogenetics and learning and memory Optogenetics is a technology currently sweeping through many areas of neuroscience. It relies on the targeted expression of light activated ion channels within any neuronal population one wishes to study [57-59]. The light activated channels belong to the family of microbial opsins. Two classes of these opsins are currently used: 1. Positive ion channels which upon light activation result in depolarisation and activation of the neuron (such as channelrhodopsins ChR1, ChR2, and VChR1), and 2. negative ion channels which upon light stimulation result in hyperpolarisation and inhibition of the neuron (such as Natronomonas pharaonis halorhodopsins, NpHR, enhanced halorhodopsins, eNpHR2 and eNpHR3, Archaerhodopsin, Leptosphaeria maculans fungal opsin, and enhanced bacteriorhodopsin). The channels are activated very quickly by light, allowing for the precise temporal control of neuronal activation. The light can be delivered by optic fibres to a small volume of brain tissue allowing for good spatial definition of activation and expression of the opsins can be genetically targeted to subpopulations of neurons within the brain region of interest. This combination thus permits the examination of the consequences of either activation or inhibition of neuronal function at a fine temporal, spatial and neuron-type level [58, 59]. 5. 1. Optogenetics in reward learning Optogenetic technology has been used to study a number of different types of learning and memory. These include classical conditioning to both rewarding and aversive stimuli, and spatial learning and the role of the hippocampus. Most of these studies have been done in mice, with one study undertaken in Drosophila to date [60]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim as it discusses the use of optogenetics to study learning and memory in various species, including mice and Drosophila, indicating ongoing research related to mechanisms of memory. The mention of experience-dependent plasticity and the ability to analyze changes in neuronal activity during learning supports the claim that efforts are being made to understand genetic memory mechanisms across animal groups.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean carbon capture will soon solve all problems related to climate change. [SEP] Text: The importance of these standards is for the buyer and seller to know what is bought and sold. Today, a nation’s emissions are the sum of all public and private activities on its territory. An example is if a private person drives a diesel-powered car. The emissions of that car will be both part of what the person is doing and part of the sum of emissions in the country where the person is driving. If he or she switched to an electric car (assuming renewable electricity is available), the personal emissions will go down and so will the national emissions as all activities are summed. For CDR one activity should be used to offset another hard-to-abate emissions. The standards today debate on how and if it should be allowed to count CDR in relation to other emissions and national targets. This could well be the focus of a book 2045. In addition to providing a net-zero target, the act allows the target reached with 15% remaining CO2 emissions (compared to 1990 levels), if these are countered by ‘complimentary measures’. These complementary measures further were defined as (land use, land use change and forestry), 1 negative emissions or verified reduction from investments abroad. Reaching net-zero with 15% remaining emissions in the Swedish context translates to a maximum of 10. 8 Mt of fossil CO2 emission remaining. To further understand this a governmental inquiry was launched in 2019, translated to ‘inquiry of climate politics route selection’ (SOU, 2020: 4). The purpose was to determine the amount required and the role of different complementary measures. From the start, the inquiry set out to get a broad stakeholder involvement and support of its conclusions. Among the conclusions of SOU (2020: 4 are): Sweden requires 3–10 Mt CO2 per annum of BECCS to meet its targets of the Climate Act. To make this a viable option 3–5 BECCS projects should be commissioned by the year 2030. To support this the government should make a negative auctioning of 1. 8 Mt CO2 per annum Also other alternative policies such as quota systems were mentioned. The government might need to finance BECCS to cover residual emissions in sectors that cannot take a cost burden. The example of food production was provided. per annum numbers should be regarded as targets and lower limits, while excess CDR should be regarded as a positive development. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that carbon dioxide removal (CDR) technologies, such as BECCS (bioenergy with carbon capture and storage), are part of a broader strategy that includes various measures to achieve climate goals. It emphasizes that Sweden requires substantial CDR efforts (3-10 Mt CO2 per annum) to meet its targets, suggesting that ocean carbon capture alone is not sufficient to address climate change comprehensively.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Fossilized plants provide insights into ancient climates and ecosystems. [SEP] Text: 41)103 was used to measure LD decay. For each population, we used the following filters: SNP of missing allele > 20% and MAF < 0. 05. The allele frequency correlation (denoted as r2) of pairwise SNPs within 100 kb physical distance was calculated. Phylogenetic tree reconstruction We used BLAST + version 2. 9. 0104 to identify orthologous fragments between the genomes of S. polyrhiza and Colocasia esculenta (Araceae). For each SNP from the core set, the reference allele and its flanking 300 bp (upstream 150 bp and downstream 150 bp, respectively) sequences were extracted from the S. polyrhiza genome and then aligned to the C. esculenta reference genome105. The hit thresholds were set as 1) alignment identity > 70%; 2) e-value > 1e − 6; 3) minimum aligned sequence length ≥ 50 (the aligned sequence must cover SNP position); 4) keep the best hit; and 5) ignore short deletions from C. esculenta. The orthologous alleles from C. esculenta were used as the outgroup genotype. We identified only 13,120 SNPs that have orthologous fragments in the C. esculenta genome. Those data were further used to infer the maximum-likelihood (ML) phylogenetic tree using RAxML-ng (v1. 0. 1)106. The best hit model was estimated to be ‘TVM + G4’ using Modeltest-ng (0. 1. 6)107,108. The bootstrapping converged after 700 iterations of the ML tree search. ITOL v5109 and the Python package ETE2110 were used for tree visualization. Selection analysis Genome-wide scans of selection were performed on all 20 chromosomes of all sampled populations. Selective sweeps were inferred by three programmes: RAiSD52, SweeD53 and LASSI54. RAiSD uses the µ statistic, which provides information on the SFS, LD, and genomic diversity to evaluate the presence of positive selection52. SweeD calculates the traditional composite likelihood ratio (CLR) to infer loci under selection53. LASSI employs the T statistic, which uses a likelihood model based on the haplotype frequency spectrum to detect hard and soft sweeps54. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses genetic analysis methods, allele frequencies, and phylogenetic tree reconstruction without mentioning fossilized plants or any information related to ancient climates and ecosystems. It does not provide evidence or insights regarding the claim about fossilized plants.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Research is ongoing to understand the mechanisms of genetic memory in various animal species. [SEP] Text: Hippocampus and spatial learning Where many studies have looked at the role of excitatory granule cells of the dentate gyrus in spatial learning, the function of the GABA-ergic inhibitory interneurons, which control the granule neuron activity, is unclear. To investigate the role of these neurons, their activity was inhibited via expression of targeted expression of eNpHR3. 0 [76]. Optogenetic inhibition of these GABA-ergic interneurons impaired spatial learning and memory retrieval, without affecting memory retention, as determined in the Morris water maze, thus establishing a role for these neurons in spatial learning and retention [76]. 5. 4. Other studies in learning and memory Sleep has been implicated in memory consolidation for many years. Sleep disruption results in memory deficits, which raises the question of whether the continuity of sleep is important for memory consolidation. However, it is difficult to disrupt one feature of sleep (i. e. sleep continuity) without disrupting other sleep features (such as duration and intensity). To introduce a precise way of disrupting sleep continuity, optogenetics was used to target hypocretin/orexin neurons, which play a key role in arousal [77]. Optogenetic activation of these neurons could fragment sleep without affecting total amount or intensity of sleep [77]. Fragmenting sleep this way disrupted performance of the mice in an object recognition task once the duration of sleep episodes decreased below 66% normal. These findings indicated that a minimum of uninterrupted sleep is required for memory consolidation [77]. Advertisement 6. employment of genetically encoded markers both in transgenic mice and in viral constructs has been a major technical advance for neuroscience and for whole animal biology generally. In studies of learning and memory, the use of this technology is leading to improved understanding in many aspects of this large and varied field of knowledge. The use of this approach is aiding in the identification of the neurons which are involved in learning and memory, in identifying the changes within those neurons which may underlie different parts of the learning process, in understanding potential mechanisms which specify which neurons are involved in learning and memory, and in describing ensembles of neurons which together code the contextual memory in the hippocampus. Two photon imaging using genetic markers in living animals is producing remarkable findings of what synaptic changes occur in learning and memory and how synaptic homeostasis is achieved. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing ongoing research in learning and memory within animal models, highlighting studies that employ genetically encoded markers and optogenetics to explore the functioning of neurons involved in these processes. The mention of technical advances leading to improved understanding suggests that the mechanisms of memory are indeed a focus of current research.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean carbon capture will soon solve all problems related to climate change. [SEP] Text: After SOU (2020: 4) was published in January 2020, it was sent for referral and more than 100 answers (available at M2020/00166/Kl) came from industry, NGOs, academia and different agencies. Most of the respondents backed the conclusions and most were positive to implement the suggestions the inquiry concluded in relation to BECCS. A view among many answering the referral was that the market should take responsibility for BECCS as far as possible, but that governmental support was key to developing the market. Most respondents to the referral backed the suggestion of holding a negative auction and that it should be conducted as soon as possible. In autumn 2020 the government tasked the Agency with investigating and preparing the formalities for conducting an auction. 2021 the government presented a budget of €40 million per year until 2040 for a first auction during 2022. The central liberal party which needed to support the budget to pass in parliament countered that the budget needed to be extended. The opposition in the parliament has since suggested a budget of €200 million per year and presented developing BECCS as one of the key options for Swedish climate change abatement. A report by the Agency (2021) on the proposed format of the auctioning concluded that the governmental budget of €40 million would result in developments not p. 130 p. 131reaching targets. They also conclude that the potential for BECCS in point sources over 300 kt CO2 per annum is 31. 7 Mt divided by 22. 2 Mt in the pulp and paper industry and 9. 5 Mt in the heat sector (mainly CHP). Using the schematic emission pathway figure from 15 presented in Figure 7. 3, an emission pathway for Sweden can be generated for Figure 7. 6. Compared to the IPCC schematics of Figure 7. 3, only the marginal change in relation to a reference level for the sector is reported to the and the EU commission (FCCC/KP/AWG/2011/INF. 2). About 70% of the land area of Sweden is covered by forests and 58% of the land area is productive managed forests that are part of the forestry sector. Since year 1903 Sweden has had a law in place encouraging regrowth in managed forests. As such, forestry where the outtake of biomass is balanced by replanting of trees is an integral part of the forestry culture. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the complexities surrounding BECCS (Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage) and the necessity of governmental support and involvement for its success. It highlights that despite positive responses from various sectors supporting BECCS, significant budgetary commitments and investigations are needed to reach climate targets, indicating that carbon capture solutions alone won't be sufficient to solve climate change problems without proper implementation and policy backing.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Fossilized plants provide insights into ancient climates and ecosystems. [SEP] Text: As recommended by the authors of LASSI, we selected the top 5% T scores as candidates for selection. For RAiSD and SweeD we selected the top 1% scores. After finding the common genes under selection according to all three programmes, we reported the genes that have orthologs in A. thaliana. The embryo lethal genes from A. thaliana111 were used for the enrichment analysis. To test for population/branch-specific signals of selection, we ran a composite likelihood ratio (CLR) approach as implemented in 3P-CLR112. Briefly, this method uses three-population trees coupled with genomic data as input, from which patterns of linked allele frequency differentiation are calculated. By doing this, this algorithm can tell apart signals of selection that happened in either branch of the tree or in the ancestral lineage, as well as outputting the loci with the highest CLR112. In our case, we used either a North America-Asia-Europe, or a North America-Asia-India population tree as input, and 3P-CLR output the CLR across windows along each chromosome in the S. polyrhiza genome. We then selected the top 1% windows for each branch of the input tree and reported the genes that are present in each window. To further validate the evidence of positive selection on the regions with the highest CLR, we ran scans of Tajima’s D and genomic diversity along the same windows and contrasted them with the same signal along the other population branches. We expect negative Tajima’s D and low genomic diversity values along the populations with high CLR values. DNA methylation in S. polyrhiza We selected five genotypes from each of the four populations (America, India, SE-Asia, Europe) for single-base whole-genome bisulphite sequencing (WGBS. The genotypes originated from distinct clonal families, except for two European genotypes that came from the same clonal family. (5). FastQC (v0. 11. 5, was used to summarize statistics of the sequencing reads. Trimmomatic (Version 0. 36)113 was used to filter out low-quality reads with the parameters “: 4:15, :3, :3, : adapter. fa: 2: 30: 10, :36”. Bismark (version 0. 16. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim about fossilized plants providing insights into ancient climates and ecosystems. Instead, it discusses methods of genomic analysis and population genetics concerning S. polyrhiza, which is unrelated to fossilized plants or climatic insights.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Research is ongoing to understand the mechanisms of genetic memory in various animal species. [SEP] Text: The use of Genetically engineered Calcium indicators is at an early stage in learning and memory, but it promises to inform us of real time changes in neuronal activation during learning and memory events. Optogenetics, which relies on the ability to specifically activate or inhibit specific markers, is rapidly becoming a critical technique throughout neuroscience. Overall, optogenetics is delivering in its promise to enhance our understanding of learning and memory, through its ability to target specific populations of neurons and activate or inhibit them very rapidly and reversibly. This has helped to define the role of these neurons in behaviours associated with the learning and memory process, to ask if these neurons are involved in learning or memory per se, and to determine directly the role of these neurons - without the complexity of relatively slow lesioning studies and attendant compensation which the brain undertakes to circumvent the lesion. 1. . Tracing axons. Neurobiol. 1998;8(5):582-6. Epub 1998/11/13. 2. . Tau-beta-galactosidase, an axon-targeted fusion protein. . 1994;91(13):5972-6. 3. . Induction of CRE-mediated gene expression by stimuli that generate long-lasting LTP in area CA1 of the hippocampus. Neuron. 1996;16(5):973-82. Epub 1996/05/01. 4. . Stimulation of cAMP response element (CRE)-mediated transcription during contextual learning. Nat Neurosci. 1998;1(7):595-601. 5. Upregulation of cAMP response element-mediated gene expression during experience-dependent plasticity in adult neocortex. J Neurosci. 2000;20(11):4206-16. 6. Visualization of functionally activated circuitry in the brain. . 2002;99(5):3252-7. 7. Fos-tau-LacZ mice expose light-activated pathways in the visual system. Neuroimage. 2004;23(3):1027-38. 8. Wilson YM, Murphy M. A discrete population of neurons in the lateral amygdala is specifically activated by contextual fear conditioning. Learn Mem. 2009;16(6):357-61. 9. . Context fear learning specifically activates distinct populations of neurons in amygdala and hypothalamus. Learn Mem. 2011;18(10):678-87. Epub 2011/10/05. 10. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing advanced techniques such as optogenetics and genetically engineered calcium indicators that are being utilized to study learning and memory. It emphasizes the promise of these technologies in enhancing our understanding of neuronal activation during memory processes, which aligns with the ongoing research efforts mentioned in the claim.