Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer ocean temperatures. [SEP] Text: The literature agrees: Geographic location was the single strongest predictor of coral bleaching in McClanahan et al. ’s (2019) analysis. After assessing seventeen different variables, their best-performing model focused on the interaction between geography and temperature. Additionally, Heron et al. (2016a) found that their bleaching models only performed satisfactorily (r2 > 0. 4) when bleaching sites were grouped geographically or by site type. Prior applications of meteorological skill testing to coral bleaching forecasts confirmed that optimal bleaching threshold varies substantially from region to region, and accounting for this specificity drastically improves forecast skill (van Hooidonk & Huber 2009; DeCarlo 2020); we simply took this a step further and allowed all forecast parameters to vary regionally, with a corresponding increase in forecast skill. Our results validate the power of addressing geographic variation in coral stress responses even without fully understanding the specific variables at play. The broad regional variation that we found across optimized DHW definition parameters (Table 4) reflects the variability in bleaching responses observed in the literature across individual reefs as well as on the geographic scale detectable by remote sensing tools (Guest et al. 2012; Bowdler 2021). Adjacent basins and regions (which are more likely to share some of the traits enumerated above) tended toward similar parameters during DHW optimization. The best-performing forecast model for the Atlantic Ocean, for example, varied substantially from those produced for the Indian and Pacific Oceans, which were more alike: the Atlantic’s optimal definition used a 0. 2 °C cutoff, 4-week accumulation window, and 2 DHW bleaching threshold, while the Pacific and favored a larger 9-week accumulation window (twice the duration) and much higher bleaching thresholds (triple the allowed accumulation; Table 4). In practice, these values imply that Atlantic reefs during this period were more susceptible to coral bleaching than their counterparts in the Indo-Pacific, a well-established pattern in the literature (e. g. , Cramer et al. 2021). Its biogeographic isolation from the Pacific and produces differences in species composition and oceanographic conditions. Moreover, high levels of human impact, historical loss of coral cover and complexity due to storms and disease, and overall lower biodiversity have had devastating effects on Caribbean reef resilience (Roff & Mumby 2012). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how geographic location interacts with temperature to influence coral bleaching. It mentions that the best-performing models for predicting bleaching were based on the relationship between geographical variables and temperature, indicating that warmer ocean temperatures are a significant factor in coral bleaching. The text further notes the variability of coral stress responses based on geographic regions, which ties back to how different temperatures affect coral health. The established patterns in the literature support the idea that temperature is a key driver of bleaching events.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: Andreassen CS. Online social network site addiction: a comprehensive review. Rep 2015; 2: 175–184. 26. . Craving Facebook? Behavioral addiction to online social networking and its association with emotion regulation deficits. Addiction 2014; 109: 2079–2088. 27. Koc M, Gulyagci S. Facebook addiction among Turkish college students: the role of psychological health, demographic, and usage characteristics. 2013; 16: 279–284. 28. Desjarlais M, Willoughby T. A longitudinal study of the relation between adolescent boys and girls’ computer use with friends and friendship quality: support for the social compensation or the rich-get-richer hypothesis? Behav 2010; 26: 896–905. 29. . Profiling predicting social anxiety from Facebook profiles. 2012; 3: 706–713. 30. Face to face versus Facebook: does exposure to social networking web sites augment or attenuate physiological arousal among the socially anxious? 2014; 17: 187–190. 31. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the statement. Med 2009; 151: 264–269, W64. 32. Bodroža B, Jovanović T. Validation of the new scale for measuring behaviors of Facebook users: psycho-social aspects of Facebook use (PSAFU). Computers in 2016; 54: 425–435. 33. große. Social responses to Facebook status updates: the role of extraversion and social anxiety. Behav 2016; 61: 1–13. 34. . Experiences on Sites: Development of the Social Networking-Questionnaire (SN-PEQ). J 2013; 23: 695–705. 35. Lee-. Hooked on Facebook: The role of social anxiety and need for social assurance in problematic use of Facebook. 2015; 18: 567–574. 36. Correlates of Facebook usage patterns: the relationship between passive Facebook use, social anxiety symptoms, and brooding. Behav 2015; 48: 575–580. 37. . I’m still socially anxious online: offline relationship impairment characterizing social anxiety manifests and is accurately perceived in online social networking profiles. Behav 2015; 49: 12–19. 38. . Facebook: social uses and anxiety. Computers in 2014; 34: 23–27. 39. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing a comprehensive overview of studies highlighting the relationship between social media use and anxiety. For instance, topics discussed include addiction to social networking sites and their association with deficits in emotion regulation, as well as social anxiety correlating with Facebook usage patterns. This suggests that simply taking breaks from social media may not adequately address the underlying issues associated with anxiety and stress related to online activity.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: [학위논문] 박영준 1991 대인관계 문제해결 기술 훈련에 대한 실험적 연구-초등학교 6학년 아동을 대상으로 20. [학위논문] 박완주 2006 문학치료적 중재가 결손가정아동의 자아탄력성과 부적응행동에 미치는 효과 21. [학위논문] 박은희 1996 자아탄력성,지능 및 학업성취도와의 관계연구 22. [학위논문] 박현선 1998 빈곤청소년의 학교 적응유연성 23. [학위논문] 박현진 1996 자아탄력성을 따른 지각과 스트레스,대처 및 우울 24. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding bilingualism and its effects on cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. Instead, it lists various academic theses without any mention of bilingualism or the cognitive effects related to it, making it irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer ocean temperatures. [SEP] Text: Similarly, the two regions encompassing much of Micronesia and Polynesia (regions 11 and 13 in Fig. 3) favored similar DHW definitions with a low anomaly cutoff (0. 2 °C–0. 4 °C), moderate accumulation window (8–10 weeks), and relatively high bleaching threshold (5–6 DHW). The reefs in these regions experience generally similar oceanographic and climate processes by virtue of their proximity to one another in the middle of the planet’s largest ocean basin. Further, a common biogeographic history ensures some degree of taxonomic overlap and shared assemblage traits relative to more distant regions (high local endemism notwithstanding; Maragos & Williams 2011). Of all their shared characteristics, their stress history is most relevant. The reefs of the central and eastern Pacific are among the most heavily affected by El Niño (ENSO) events, and corals accustomed to high interannual SST variability may be better suited to weather mass bleaching events (Donner & Carilli 2019; Fox et al. 2021)—hence the higher bleaching threshold. Seasonal SST variability tends to predict coral bleaching resilience better than diel or interannual variability, but evidence supports all three conferring an adaptive benefit (Carilli et al. 2012; Palumbi et al. 2014; Safaie et al. 2018; Barshis et al. 2018; Brown et al. 2023). Additionally, though the maxima climatology baseline did not perform as well as the standard 1985–2012 climatology, the use of the latter may slightly underestimate the true thermal tolerance of reefs in these regions; this is evident in the difference in optimal bleaching thresholds between the two (1 DHW and 3 DHW, respectively; see Supplement 1). Given the tendency of the maxima climatology-based model to underpredict bleaching in ENSO-affected regions relative to the same model using the standard climatology, however, we believe the latter remains a better choice. Changes in bleaching threshold over timeTo identify a potential temporal trend in optimal bleaching threshold, we held anomaly cutoff and window size constant and optimized DHW for annual subsets of the data by allowing only bleaching threshold to fluctuate. This identified the best-performing bleaching threshold for each year, which we plotted over time (Fig. 5) and assessed for a temporal trend (Table 5). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the bleaching thresholds of coral reefs in the central and eastern Pacific, specifically noting the effects of El Niño and seasonal sea surface temperature (SST) variability, which are factors associated with warmer ocean temperatures. It mentions that these regions are heavily affected by ENSO events, which are linked to elevated SSTs, thus providing context for the coral bleaching phenomena attributed to warmer ocean temperatures.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: Loneliness, anxiousness, and substance use as predictors of Facebook use. Behav 2013; 29: 687–693. 40. Hong J-C, Hwang M-Y, Hsu C-H, et al. Belief in dangerous virtual communities as a predictor of continuance intention mediated by general and online social anxiety: the Facebook perspective. Behav 2015; 48: 663–670. 41. Indian M, Grieve R. is easier than face-to-face: social support derived from Facebook in socially anxious individuals. Dif 2014; 59: 102–106. 42. . Reconnect on Facebook: of Behavior and Individual- and Relationship-Level Factors. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and 2016; 19: 494–501. 43. Social anxiety, attributes of online communication and self-disclosure across private and public Facebook communication. Behav 2016; 58: 206–213. 44. . Cognitive, personality, and social factors associated with adolescents’ online personal information disclosure. J Adolesc 2013; 36: 629–638. 45. Aladwani AM, Almarzouq M. Understanding compulsive social media use: the premise of complementing self-conceptions mismatch with technology. Behav 2016; 60: 575–581. 46. Casale S, Fioravanti G. Satisfying needs through social networking sites: a pathway towards problematic Internet use for socially anxious people? Rep 2015; 1: 34–39. 47. Lee EB. Too much information heavy smartphone and Facebook utilization by young adults. J 2015; 46: 44–61. 48. Rizvi AZ. Personality, social anxiety and excessive use of Facebook. Sci 2016; 6: 119–127. 49. Davidson T, Farquhar LK. Correlates of social anxiety, religion, and Facebook. J 2014; 13: 208–225. information 1. Introduction2. Online social networking3. Social media and social anxiety4. Methods5. Results6. Discussion1. Choose citation style Select style to clipboard Get citation 2. Choose citation style Select format Bibtex RIS Download citation 1. Choose citation style Select style to clipboard Get citation 2. Choose citation style Select format Bibtex RIS Download citation © 2016 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This 3. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing various studies that examine social anxiety, loneliness, and problematic internet use related to Facebook. It implies that social media use can exacerbate feelings of anxiety rather than cure them, as evidenced by phrases like 'social support derived from Facebook in socially anxious individuals' and 'problematic Internet use for socially anxious people.' This indicates that social media use may not alleviate anxiety and could contribute to it, contradicting the idea that breaks from social media can cure anxiety.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: [단행본] 성영혜 1984 아동복지 학문사 25. [학위논문] 안민주 2005 결손가정아동과 정상가정아동의 성역할정체감과 자아존중감 비교 연구 26. [학술지] 유성경 1999 적응유연성 발달을 통한 청소년 비행의 예방 및 개입 청소년상담연구 7 : 26 ~ 27. [학술지] 이미정 2004 청소년용 사회적 문제해결 훈련 프로그램의 개발 및 그 훈련 효과 한국심리학회지:여성 9 (1) : 141 ~ 1 28. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim. It lists various academic works and research but does not provide any information or evidence regarding bilingualism or its effects on cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer ocean temperatures. [SEP] Text: Using the globally optimized DHW definition with a 0. 4 °C cutoff and an 11-week accumulation window, the optimal bleaching threshold has increased significantly from 1998 to 2019 (τ = 0. 312, p = 0. 044); the least-squares line (Fig. 5a, Supplement 3) puts the global rate of increase around 0. 19 DHW/year. This oceanwide shift in average bleaching resistance corresponds with and potentially outpaces the global mean rate of rising DHW (0. 14 DHW/year, p < 0. 01, R2adj = 0. 436; Table 5), though our modeled trajectory carries large uncertainties apparent in both the confidence envelope around the best-fit line and the variance between iterations in the train–test splitting analysis, which in some data-poor years could be quite high (Fig. 5, Supplement 7). Many drivers may be contributing to the rising bleaching threshold, and they vary from optimistic to grim. Fig. 5Changes in optimal bleaching threshold over time relative to peak heat stress. Accumulation window size and anomaly cutoff were held constant at the optimal values for each locale. Annually optimized bleaching thresholds are plotted for three regions: a: the globe (black), b: the Pacific (blue), and c: the (purple). Open red circles in each panel are the DHW maxima (using the same constant values for anomaly cutoff and window size) for each year averaged across reef sites globally and represent the background rate of ocean warming. Shaded envelopes around lines of best fit represent 95% confidence intervals; R2 values are adjusted; Mann–Kendall τ is provided for the nonparametric trend test; bolded p-values indicate a trend significantly different from 0Full size imageTable 5 Linear trends in bleaching threshold over time. For analyses which violated assumptions of normality, a nonparametric Mann–trend test for time series was performed in lieu of linear regression, and the appropriate statistic is reported for each. Significant p-values are bolded and marked with an asterisk (*). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the increase in optimal bleaching thresholds over time, which correlates with the rising background rate of ocean warming. The mention of specific data, such as the global rate of increase in DHW and the analysis of bleaching resistance, indicates a relationship between ocean temperature changes and coral bleaching, supporting the claim that coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer temperatures.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: #OfficerBradford @Torontopolice #33CRU ht”“@SgtAly—this award is validation for all the good social media work by our @torontopolice members #TopCop #smilecon”However, it is the difference in the extent to which each user group used Twitter to praise the police that is of interest here. Although non-TPS users tweeted more messages of praise overall, TPS-users were actually more active in terms of the number of tweets sent per user. Specifically, although 3,316 non-TPS users generated 508 tweets praising the TPS (a tweet/user ratio of 0. 15), 116 TPS users generated 115 tweets (a tweet/user ratio of 0. 99). Thus, although both user groups used Twitter to publicly praise the police, officers were far more active in that regard, taking advantage of the social media platform to bolster their organizational image. Non-TPS users were also critical of the police, calling their conduct into question with respect to their use of tasers (64 co-occurrences), the shooting of (84 co-occurrences), policing and race (19 co-occurrences), and the G20 Summit (12 co-occurrences). For example,“SO disspointed [sic] in @Torontopolice decision to give all front line cops tasers. What happened to training, de-escalation tactics? #topoli”“@VigilantCanuck: After @torontopolice Murdered #SammyYatim W/ & A Taser, Is … Drumroll … #Moartasers”“RT: @DurhamGal1: @Torontopolice @marksaunderstps Carding & racial profiling is a reminder of dirty tricks of apartheid South Africa, has no place in #Canada”“@2 cmmndrs who ran #G20 detention cntr not chargeddespite OIPRD report saying should be. B/c they retired? Fair? #TOpoli”In contrast, and as noted above, TPS users avoided tweeting about the sensitive issues being raised by non-TPS users. Interestingly, although “Use of Tasers” is present in the TPS web (see Figure 3), at no time did TPS users comment on the legitimacy of taser use. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing how different user groups interact with Twitter regarding police actions and public criticism. It shows that while some users engage positively with social media, others express disappointment and critique, indicating that social media can also contribute to stress and anxiety rather than alleviate it.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: [학위논문] 이소수희 2003 인지적 대인관계 기술 훈련이 아동의 문제해결력에 미치는 효과 29. [학술지] 이영미 2004 부모간의 갈등 및 성인애착에 따른 대학생의 자아탄력성 한국가정관리학회지 22 (4) : 63 ~ 4 30. [학위논문] 이은정 2001 중,고등학생의 학교 내 대인관계에서 나타나는 부적응의 실태분석 31. [학술지] 이정연 2002 청소년의 자기효능감에 영향을 미치는 가족변인 한국가정관리학회지 20 (6) : 1 ~ 6 32. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding bilingualism and its effects on cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. Instead, it cites various academic works on unrelated topics, making it irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer ocean temperatures. [SEP] Text: “Peak DHW” is the DHW maxima averaged across each grid cell in the analysis on an annual basis and represents the temporal trend in reef heat stress from 1998 to 2019Full size tableEvidence from coral cores, field surveys, and both field and laboratory experiments suggest that we can expect some degree of coral acclimation as environmental conditions shift to extremes (Thompson & van Woesik 2009; Guest et al. 2012; Cantin & Lough 2014; Palumbi et al. 2014; DeCarlo et al. 2019), although concern remains that climate change may be progressing too rapidly for corals to keep pace (Ainsworth et al. 2016). In the short term, corals may modify their behavior, symbiont community, or gene expression to cope with stressful conditions more effectively (e. g. , Turnham et al. 2023). However, population resilience only develops as a result of adaptation, wherein coral species and individuals predisposed to surviving extreme temperatures outlive and replace their less resilient neighbors, though this process is a slow one. Still, acclimation and adaption are essential drivers of community development and population maintenance, and not all ecosystem shifts are created equal. Low-resilience species and individuals, many of which are major habitat builders essential for the reef’s diversity-supporting structural complexity, are disproportionately killed during mass bleaching events severe enough to reduce coral cover (Hughes et al. 2018b; Darling et al. 2019). The extant assemblage is typically comprised of slow-growing, heat-tolerant reef builders and a contingent of opportunistic species: weedy corals providing limited structural complexity, as well as algae, sponges, and other competitive space occupiers that may interfere with coral recovery (Hughes et al. 2018b; Darling et al. 2019). This shift toward hardier, less diverse, and less abundant assemblages also reduces the reef’s susceptibility to bleaching, but at a price—an associated reduction in function, coral cover, biodiversity, and resilience in the face of non-bleaching stressors. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing the impacts of environmental changes, specifically highlighting that 'mass bleaching events severe enough to reduce coral cover' occur as a result of heat stress from warmer ocean temperatures. It discusses the effects of climate change and the challenges corals face in adapting to these shifts, reinforcing the assertion that increased ocean temperatures contribute to coral bleaching.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: While this review finds ample evidence supporting aberrant HPA axis activity in both PTSD and CUD, it suggests that more research is needed to understand the unique changes HPA axis activity in PTSD + CUD, as well as the bidirectional relationship between stress-susceptibility and motivation to seek cocaine. Keywords: CortisolcorticosteronereinstatementrelapseGRdexamethasone IntroductionPost-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a disabling psychiatric disorder that occurs in a subpopulation of people exposed to a traumatic event. PTSD is associated with increased risk for comorbid psychiatric disorders, impairments in general health, low rates of regular employment, severe legal problems, and high economic costs (Association, Citation2013; Breslau et al. , Citation1991; Kessler et al. , Citation1995; Saxon et al. , Citation2001; Solomon & Davidson, Citation1997). The majority of PTSD cases persist for at least 1 year with many lasting for years (Breslau et al. , Citation1998; Kessler et al. , Citation1995; Mills et al. , Citation2006). PTSD is often comorbid with substance use disorders. Comorbid PTSD and cocaine use disorder (PTSD + CUD) is especially problematic, with 43% of cocaine dependent individuals meeting criteria for lifetime PTSD (Back et al. , Citation2000). Despite high comorbidity rates, to date little is known about the neurobiological mechanisms of PTSD + CUD. Knowledge of these mechanisms is necessary for the advancement of prevention and treatment of the disorders, as existing methods are not fully efficacious. As such, the present review synthesizes results of human and animal studies of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis function in PTSD and cocaine use disorder (CUD) in order to generate hypotheses about potential adaptations in HPA axis activity in PTSD + CUD. A focus on the HPA axis was chosen due to evidence of HPA axis dysregulation in both PTSD and CUD. Symptoms of is currently categorized under the new class of trauma- and stressor-related disorders in the Diagnostic and of Mental Disorders, (DSM-5) (Association, Citation2013). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim, as it discusses the neurobiological mechanisms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and its comorbidity with cocaine use disorder, without mentioning social media or its impacts on anxiety and stress. Therefore, it does not provide any evidence corroborating or contrasting the idea that social media breaks could cure anxiety and stress related to online activity.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: [학위논문] 이지영 2004 일상 생활스트레스와 자원이 한부모 가족 자녀의 부적응에 미치는 영향 33. [학술지] 장경문 2003 자아탄력성과 스트레스대처방식 및 심리적 성장환경의 관계 청소년학연구 10 (4) : 143 ~ 4 34. [학술지] 전재일 1990 집단경험이 빈곤․결손가정 청소년의 사회 심리적 특성에 미치는 영향 사회복지전문연구지 동광 87 : 40 ~ 35. [학위논문] 정귀화 2002 충동성과 구조적 결손이 청소년 비행에 미치는 영향 36. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim about bilingualism enhancing cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. It primarily consists of citations from academic works and does not provide any information related to the effects of bilingualism.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer ocean temperatures. [SEP] Text: Regardless of mechanism, the bleaching threshold trend offers two insights: first, based on these tens of thousands of bleaching observations over several decades, we may be observing an increase in bleaching threshold over time, and second, optimal ETS did not change appreciably over the course of the bleaching threshold analysis, but consistently outperformed an otherwise identical model that used a static bleaching threshold (Supplement 5). The latter implies an ability to adequately maintain bleaching forecast skill over time simply by adjusting the bleaching threshold to compensate for environmental shifts and corresponding changes in the coral stress response. Although this trend may not apply to every reef or region, future bleaching projections should account for the possibility. Two examples from the region-specific threshold analyses illustrate how bleaching threshold trends may differ from place to place. Regions 11, 13, and 14—which experience periodic ENSO-related temperature extremes that almost certainly moderate reef stress tolerance (Spillman et al. 2021)—exhibited no significant change in bleaching threshold over the past two decades (Table 5); the most appropriate bleaching thresholds for the central and eastern Pacific were historically already higher than other regions (Table 3). In contrast, we found that when considering the Pacific as a whole, the forecast-optimized bleaching threshold has increased significantly since 1998 (slope 0. 17 DHW/year, p < 0. 05, R2adj = 0. 176; Fig. 5b). This does not seem to be the case in the Indian Ocean, where there is a positive but not significant trend in the bleaching threshold (slope 0. 08 DHW/year, p > 0. 05, R2adj = 0. 019). Whatever processes produce the increasing bleaching thresholds, they should compel us to re-examine our prediction models, particularly given the Indo-Pacific’s prevalence of reef systems at both extremes: isolated, highly biodiverse climate refugia and ecologically vulnerable, high-risk reefs projected to fare poorly under climate change (Sheppard 2003; Obura et al. 2022; Shlesinger & van Woesik 2023). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the concept of 'bleaching thresholds' and their potential changes over time due to environmental factors. It mentions an increase in bleaching thresholds in the Pacific since 1998, suggesting that the prediction models for bleaching should be re-evaluated in light of changing conditions, which implies that warmer ocean temperatures may be influencing coral stress responses. Moreover, the text indicates that specific regions may experience different bleaching trends, which aligns with the notion that ocean temperatures can impact coral health and contribute to bleaching.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: Such an effect has not been investigated in rodent models that also show reduced basal CORT levels weeks after the stressor. DEX attenuates cocaine-induced CORT increases in rodents and primates, indicating that GR-mediated negative feedback is intact. CORT levels in response to DEX among CUD individuals are not known, and this should be investigated to determine whether increased CORT levels in the weeks following initiation of cocaine abstinence are due to a failure of negative feedback in the HPA axis. Although more research is necessary, high GR number may be a preexisting vulnerability factor for subsequent PTSD. The results regarding post-trauma GR number in individuals with PTSD are inconsistent. Decreased GR expression in the anterior pituitary and trend-level increases in hippocampal GR number is evident in rats that chronically self-administer high-doses of cocaine. GR number has not yet been assessed in early abstinence from cocaine use in CUD, but should be in order to understand the elevated CORT levels at this time. There is support for increased GR translocation to the nucleus in PTSD, but GR translocation in CUD has not been studied. The results presented here indicate that altered HPA axis activity is consistently found in both clinical and pre-clinical studies of PTSD and CUD. However, no studies have yet been done in a comorbid patient population, and limited work has been done using animal models of PTSD + SUD. The existing animal studies reveal that stress-susceptibility interacts with cocaine to produce unique changes in CORT levels and enhanced cocaine-seeking. However, pre-clinical studies have thus far been limited to investigating how individual differences in stress-susceptibility influence later cocaine-related behavior. The converse should also be investigated: does cocaine-related behavior (e. g. dose attained, motivation to seek) predict susceptibility to later stressor? As long-term decreased CORT levels are observed in PTSD, and acute cocaine increases CORT, this supports the self-medication hypothesis and indicates that psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy that aim to normalize HPA axis activity may be effective in preventing and treating PTSD + CUD. Disclosure statementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s). Additional informationFundingThis work was supported by a pilot grant from the Center for OCD, Anxiety, and (COARD) at University of Florida. Notes on contributorsNatalie A. HadadHadad earned a M. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the complexity of anxiety and stress not being something that can be simply 'cured' with social media breaks. It mentions the involvement of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and how factors like individual differences in stress-susceptibility and cocaine-related behavior interact with these physiological responses to stress. This suggests that managing anxiety and stress, particularly in relation to psychological conditions like PTSD and cocaine use disorder (CUD), requires more than just taking breaks from social media.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: [학위논문] 차정은 1997 일반적 자기효능감 척도 개발을 위한 일 연구 37. [학위논문] 최민정 2007 인지적 대인관계 문제해결 기술훈련이 우울한 아동의 우울수준과 대인관계에 미치는 효과 38. [학위논문] 최인수 2000 집단미술활동 프로그램이 초등학교 아동의 긍정적 자아개념 형성에 미치는 효과 39. [학술지] 최영신 2006 가족의 정서적 환경, 자기효능감, 문제해결력이 초등학생의 학업성취에 미치는 영향 놀이치료연구 10 (2) : 105 ~ 2 40. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it primarily consists of references to various academic theses and research articles without addressing the benefits of bilingualism on cognitive functions such as flexibility and problem-solving skills.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer ocean temperatures. [SEP] Text: In fact, studies assuming a constant bleaching threshold into the future (4 DHW, the threshold for 1, is common) warn that coral reefs in the may reach an unrecoverable tipping point—a climate under which we can expect bleaching-level conditions on an annual basis—as early as 2030 (van Hooidonk et al. 2016). Yet a static bleaching threshold implies that these coral assemblages have reached their adaptation limit and can adapt no further or at least no faster, and we have evidence that this may not always be the case (Donner 2009; Thompson & van Woesik 2009; Guest et al. 2012; Cantin & Lough 2014; Palumbi et al. 2014; Ainsworth et al. 2016; DeCarlo et al. 2019). At the very least, our findings draw attention to areas in which bleaching projections might be improved, perhaps by implementing a graded bleaching threshold in models developed for reef systems where this value seems to be changing over time. With each successive year, the conditions that coral reefs must contend with for their continued survival and function grow more extreme. Since we have observed increasing bleaching thresholds over the past two decades, regardless of the mechanism, projections of future bleaching should consider that present-day tolerance may underrepresent future tolerance, even if reefs in the future are composed of different coral assemblages. Holding window size and anomaly cutoff constant is necessary to assess changes in bleaching threshold over time, as these model parameters covary and thus cannot be interpreted in isolation (Fig. 4, Supplement 4). In a similar vein, adjusting only one element of the DHW definition at a time (holding the other two constant) can reveal their relative contributions to forecast skill—and tell us to which improvements our forecast models are most sensitive (Supplement 4). This sensitivity refers to model fit rather than an inherent ecological trait. That is, a higher anomaly cutoff alone does not necessarily indicate a robust, heat-tolerant coral assemblage; rather, it represents some combination of underlying processes that allow us to predict bleaching more accurately when we are stricter about the temperature anomalies considered stressful. ConclusionsOur results highlight the benefits of continually reassessing our heat stress metrics and coral bleaching forecast models. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the increasing severity of bleaching conditions that coral reefs face due to rising ocean temperatures. It highlights studies warning that coral reefs may reach an unrecoverable tipping point for bleaching conditions by 2030. The mention of adjusting bleaching thresholds and the continuous reassessment of heat stress metrics further supports the understanding that warmer ocean temperatures are contributing to coral bleaching.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)307. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)59. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)254. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)97. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)840. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)23. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)724. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)209. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)717. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)178. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)1218. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)473. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)650. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)162. doi: 72797. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)3534. (Open in a new window)PubMed (Open in a new window)Web of Science ®(Open in a new window)475. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text appears to be a collection of references from PubMed and Web of Science, but it does not provide any information related to social media breaks, anxiety, or stress. Therefore, it does not support or contrast the claim and is considered irrelevant.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: [보고서] 통계청 2005 인구주택총조사보고서 41. [학위논문] 한제인 1995 아동의 사회측정 지위에 따른 갈등해결전략 사용에 따른 연구 42. [학위논문] 한현아 2007 가정의 위험요인,청소년의 자아탄력성 및 또래관계의 질이 청소년 문제행동에 미치는 영향 43. [학위논문] 한혜진 2002 자기주장훈련이 초등학생의 자기효능감 향상에 미치는 효과 44. [학술지] 황옥자 1980 부모의 이혼이 자녀생활에 미치는 영향에 관한 연구 아동학회지 1 (1) 45. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it consists of citations from various reports and theses without any direct commentary or evidence relating to bilingualism or its effects on cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer ocean temperatures. [SEP] Text: Based on global bleaching observations from 1998 to 2019, we could forecast coral bleaching events on a reef-sized scale (5 km \(\times\) 5 km) more effectively by lowering the anomaly cutoff temperature to 0. 4 °C, adjusting the size of the accumulation window to 11 weeks, and setting a slightly lower bleaching threshold of 3 DHW. Together, these modifications confer a 70% increase in forecast skill relative to the current standard DHW model, as well as ameliorate its bias toward underpredicting coral bleaching occurrences. Optimizing the DHW definition on a geographic basis further doubled forecast performance and corrected the global model’s compensatory tendency to overpredict bleaching events. Optimizing the forecast model on a temporal basis revealed a global increase in coral bleaching threshold that keeps pace with rates of ocean warming. For all the complexities governing coral stress responses, even a simple threshold-based model like the DHW metric optimized in this study can maintain its status as a powerful monitoring and forecasting tool by factoring in the effect of geographic location. Many of the complex environmental and ecological factors that drive, exacerbate, and mitigate coral bleaching possess a strong spatial component, so accounting for regional variability is a prerequisite for competent bleaching models. The utility of a spatial proxy for something like real-time coral bleaching risk assessment does not preclude the necessity of nuanced, explanatory multivariate models, however; both have their place. In the effort to preserve the world’s coral reefs, success hinges on our ability to allocate limited resources (monitoring, mitigation, management) to areas that are particularly valuable, vulnerable, or versatile players in their respective ecosystems. This, in turn, requires an intimate and accurate understanding of 1) the current state of our reefs, and 2) how we expect them to evolve in a rapidly changing environment. Our long-term projections and short-term forecasts should anticipate change, and revisiting and refining our existing toolkit is a necessary step. The results of our study provide new definitions of DHW that can be applied now, and suggests that projections of future bleaching events should reconsider the use of static heat stress sensitivities. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how coral bleaching events are influenced by ocean warming and how adaptations to forecasting models are necessary to account for rising ocean temperatures. It specifically mentions a global increase in coral bleaching thresholds that keep pace with rates of ocean warming, supporting the assertion that warmer ocean temperatures lead to coral reef bleaching.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: IntroductionVirtually, all societies are being challenged with the following two broad trends: (1) The rapid dissemination of information and communication technologies (ICTs) and (2) the rapid growth in the number and proportion of older persons (60+ years) in their populations (Charness, 2019; Czaja et al. , 2019; United Nations, 2019; Organization, 2015). Accordingly, there is also a growth of older adults using ICTs (Hunsaker and Hargittai, 2018). Central to these societal developments is the question of how the older population’s use of ICTs is related to their mental health, as retirement age and the concomitant potential decrease in regular social contacts are potential risk factors for poor mental health in terms of loneliness, depression, and anxiety (Curran et al. , 2020; Fernández-Niño et al. , 2018). On one hand, ICT use (both the use of devices, such as smartphones or tablets, and of services such as social network sites, SNSs, or information sites on the Internet) can reduce loneliness and enhance older users’ mental health (e. g. Forsman and Nordmyr, 2017; Schlomann et al. , 2020). On the other hand, other research has found detrimental effects of ICT use on mental health outcomes—especially if ICTs are used in a problematic fashion (e. g. Meshi et al. , 2020). This question about the association between older adults’ ICT use and mental health is also relevant because a digital inequality exists between younger and older seniors in terms of adoption of specific services, the use of ICTs, and in terms of the skills to use these technologies in a personally beneficial way (e. g. Hargittai et al. , 2018; Hofer et al. , 2019; Wu et al. , 2015). Thus, examining the link between mental health and ICT use seems especially relevant among older adults. Research suggests that using the Internet might serve as a remedy for depressive symptoms or anxiety (Cotten et al. , 2014; Francis et al. , 2019; Wade, 2010). Khosravi et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by presenting a nuanced view of the relationship between ICT use and mental health. It highlights that while ICT use can reduce loneliness and enhance mental health among older adults, it can also have detrimental effects if used problematically. Therefore, the assertion that social media breaks will 'cure all' anxiety and stress is overly simplistic, as the text indicates that the use of ICTs can both improve and harm mental health depending on the context.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: [학술지] Bandura,A 1977 Self-effeacy Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change 84 : 191 ~ 46. [단행본] Block, J. H 1980 The role of ego-control and ego-resiliencecy in the organization of behaivor in Minnesota symposia on child psychology Erlbaum : 39 ~ 47. [학술지] Bramston, P 1984 Behavioral versus cognitive social-skills training with intellectually handcapped adults and Therapy 23 : 239 ~ 48. [기타] Dumont, M. / 1999 Resilience in adolescent: Protective role of social support coping strategies, self-esteem, and social activities on experience of stress and depression 49. [단행본] D' Zurilla, T. J 1982 Social problem-solving in adults in Advances in cognitive-behavioral research and therapy. / 50. [학술지] Garmezy,N 1993 Children in poverty: resilience despite risk Psychiatry 56 : 127 ~ 51. [단행본] Harter,S 1992 The relationship between perceived competence,affect and motivational orientation within the classroom:Process and Patterns of change in Achievement and motivation; A social developmental perspective,(pp77-114). New Press : 77 ~ 52. [학술지] Luther,S. S 1991 Vulnerability and resilience: A study of high-risk adolescents 62 : 600 ~ 53. [학술지] Rutter,M 1987 Psychological resilience and protective mechanism of Orthopsychiatry 57 : 316 ~ 54. [단행본] Spivack, G. / 1974 Social adjustment of young children: A cognitive approach to real-life problems Jossey-Bass 55. [학술지] Wyman, P. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not provide any relevant information regarding bilingualism or its effects on cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. Instead, it lists various academic references that appear to focus on topics like resilience, social skills, and psychological studies, which do not directly address the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer ocean temperatures. [SEP] Text: AbstractGiven the severity of the 2016 global bleaching event, there are major questions about how quickly reef communities will recover. Here, we explore the ecological and physical structural changes that occurred across five atoll interior reefs in the southern Maldives using data collected at 6 and 12 months post-bleaching. Following initial severe coral mortality, further minor coral mortality had occurred by 12 months post-bleaching, and coral cover is now low (<6%). In contrast, reef rugosity has continued to decline over time, and our observations suggest transitions to rubble-dominated states will occur in the near future. Juvenile coral densities in shallow fore-reef habitats are also exceptionally low (<6 individuals m−2), well below those measured 9–12 months following the 1998 bleaching event, and below recovery thresholds identified on other reefs. Our findings suggest that the physical structure of these reefs will need to decline further before effective recruitment and recovery can begin. Similar content being viewed by others Reef-scale variability in fish and coral assemblages on the central Reef 2016. Recovery post-1998 occurred within about 10–12 yr (Pisapia et al. 2016), a trend replicated at other remote sites (e. g. Chagos; Sheppard et al. 2008). In other areas of the Indian Ocean, recovery trajectories post-1998 were more divergent, with some reefs recovering successfully and others undergoing phase shifts to states with lower coral cover and diminished carbonate budgets (Graham et al. 2015). These studies thus collectively provide a basis for some optimism for recovery potential over decadal timescales. However, recent modelling suggests that the frequency and intensity of bleaching events will increase over the next few decades (van Hooidonk et al. 2016), and that when considered in the context of increasing background SSTs, the likelihood for more globally widespread and intense bleaching events is high. This point is emphasised most clearly in recent work from Australia’s Reef (GBR) which clearly shows the potential for different bleaching events with different spatial footprints, but with close temporal frequency, to collectively impact entire reef-building regions over short timescales (Hughes et al. 2017). A key implication is that the recovery landscapes for many contemporary reefs may become very different. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the impact of warmer sea surface temperatures (SSTs) on coral bleaching events. It explicitly mentions that recent modeling suggests the frequency and intensity of bleaching events will increase due to rising SSTs, indicating a strong relationship between higher temperatures and coral bleaching.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: (2016), for instance, found that ICTs, and especially socially relevant ICTs such as social management systems (special software designed for older adults), can be used to reduce loneliness and (perceived) social isolation―a central predictor for depression and anxiety―among older adults. In addition, research suggests that older adults carefully manage their interactions within the digital environment in order to improve the quality of their lives (Sinclair and Grieve, 2017). Thus, the use of ICTs could help against mental health issues such as anxiety and depression. However, other studies suggest negative links between older adults’ mental health and their use of the Internet (Hunsaker et al. , 2020; Kraut et al. , 1998) resulting in inconclusive findings in the literature. Among the myriad of different things a person can do online, one group of behaviors relevant for older adults’ mental health in general, and depression and anxiety in particular, is the social use of ICTs (Chang et al. , 2015b; Seabrook et al. , 2016). We refer to this kind of ICT use as online social engagement (Burke et al. , 2010, 2011; Nguyen et al. , 2020). Online social engagement can take many different forms, such as participation in online forums or discussions by asking questions or giving answers, looking at photos of family and friends whether found on a site or received directly. In short, it is a form of online behavior that involves others. Social network sites (e. g. Facebook and Instagram) are one prominent example of services that facilitate these kinds of behaviors. However, online social engagement is not limited to such sites, it can happen in other online contexts as well, such as direct interpersonal communication through messaging or on mailing lists and various forums. On the one hand, socially engaging online can help users affirm and express their identity and emotions, and socially interact with others to counteract loneliness and ensuing depression and anxiety. The mechanism between social connectedness and mental health, or the lack thereof, is well documented in research. Santini et al. (2020), for instance, found lower social connectedness (i. e. social network size and range, frequency of social interactions) to be associated with perceived isolation, which in turn was linked to depression and anxiety. Using longitudinal data (five waves, 5 years apart), Cacioppo et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the complex relationship between online social engagement and mental health, highlighting that while technologies can reduce loneliness and potentially decrease anxiety, there are also negative associations reported between Internet use and mental health outcomes. For instance, it notes that 'other studies suggest negative links between older adults’ mental health and their use of the Internet,' indicating that social media breaks alone may not effectively 'cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity.' Furthermore, the overall findings regarding mental health effects are described as inconclusive, which undermines the certainty of the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: A 1985 Perceived competence, self-esteem, and anxiety in latency -aged children of divorce Journal of Psychology 14 : 20 ~ TOP 초록 키워드 참고문헌 toggle menu 타입을 선택하세요 인지적 대인관계 문제해결 훈련이 결손가정 초등학생의 문제해결력, 자기효능감 및 자아탄력성에 미치는 효과 @10. 15703/kjc. 10. 4. 200912. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not provide any information regarding bilingualism or its effects on cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. Instead, it discusses self-esteem and anxiety in children of divorce, making it irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer ocean temperatures. [SEP] Text: Thus, there is a pressing need to understand the nature of coral community change post-contemporary bleaching, and to assess how, and in what way, coral communities will restructure. Here, we report on initial reef community transitions at five shallow atoll interior reef sites in the southern Maldives (Fig. 1a, b). These reefs were severely impacted by the ENSO-induced warming that affected the central in mid-2016 (Fig. 1c), with coral cover on shallow (<5 m depth) reefs declining from an average of 25. 6 ± 5. 8 to 6. 3 ± 1. 9% (as measured for the true 3-dimensional reef surface), and the carbonate budgets of the reefs collapsing (Perry and Morgan 2017). Specifically, we assess initial changes in coral community composition and reef structural complexity using data collected in January 2016 (just prior to bleaching onset), and then from repeat surveys in September 2016 and March 2017, i. e. 6 and 12 months post-bleaching. We also present data on changes in parrotfish biomass and post-bleaching (March 2017) juvenile coral species abundance. These data collectively document a process of ongoing ecological and structural transition post the initial bleaching impacts, and suggests further declines are likely before reef recovery begins. Fig. 1 a Regional setting of Huvadhoo Atoll, Maldives; b location of study sites—(1) Kandahalagala, (2) Mahutigala, (3) Kafigahlaa, (4) Kodehutigalaa, (5) Kadumaigala; c satellite-derived sea-surface temperature data for the Maldives (1/01/16 to 1/04/17). Data extracted from the site ( accessed 20/04/17; Images d to g show reef community states over time at Kandahalagala—d January 2016—thriving Acropora spp. reefs, e September 2016—recently dead in situ framework, f March 2017—dead and turf/filamentous algal covered framework, g colony showing partial tissue mortality in March 2017Full size image Study area and methodsSurveys were conducted during January and September 2016, and March 2017 on five uninhabited atoll interior reefs in Huvadhoo atoll, southern Maldives (Fig. 1a, b). These reefs are minimally influenced by local disturbances, i. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing the serious impacts of ENSO-induced warming on coral reefs in the southern Maldives, specifically noting a decline in coral cover from an average of 25.6% to 6.3% following the warming event. It indicates that these changes are part of ongoing ecological transitions post-bleaching, suggesting that the warming temperatures contributed to the bleaching and subsequent decline in coral health.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: (2010) showed that loneliness predicted depressive symptoms after 5 years. Thus, social connectedness seems to be a key factor in a person’s mental health (see also Baumeister and Leary, 1995). The deeply engrained need to feel connected with people and the concomitant maintenance or improvement of mental health can, at least in part, be satisfied by socially engaging online (for a review, see Forsman and Nordmyr, 2017). On the other hand, using ICTs in a social manner can also have dysfunctional effects on older adults’ mental health, for instance, if usage patterns are problematic, result in negative social comparisons, or when ICT use is a replacement of or a compensation for other social interactions (Hofer and Eden, 2020; Kraut et al. , 1998; Meshi et al. , 2020; Schlomann et al. , 2020; Seabrook et al. , 2016). In this study, we examine the relationship between different forms of online social engagement and older adults’ depression and anxiety. Literature reviewDepression and anxiety are often regarded as crucial determinants of a person’s mental health and his or her well-being. Keeping these two mental health issues at bay is critical in the process of healthy or successful aging that is defined as “the maximization of gains and the minimization of losses” (Freund and Riediger, 2003: 612; Urtamo et al. , 2019). In the context of this study, gains and losses can be regarded as suffering from the least amount of depressive and anxiety symptoms (gain) or becoming anxious and depressive (loss). As people age, the ratio of gains and losses in general tends to become smaller (Freund and Riediger, 2003). To manage gains and losses people rely on resources—both tangible (e. g. money) and intangible ones (e. g. , social interactions; Freund and Riediger, 2003). Engaging socially online can be regarded as an intangible resource to manage mental health (Hofer, 2016). In addition, resources have to be used prudently in order to achieve gains and avoid losses. That is, online social engagement might not be beneficial per se. In order to have positive effects, this resource needs to be utilized pragmatically (Freund, 2008). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the complex relationship between online social engagement and mental health. It states that while engaging socially online can help with mental health, it may also lead to dysfunction if usage patterns are problematic or based on negative social comparisons. Thus, it suggests that simply taking social media breaks may not 'cure' anxiety and stress, as the benefits of online engagement depend on how it is utilized, highlighting that social connections are not inherently beneficial without prudent use.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: 이를 위해 지역아동센터에서 도움을 받는 초등학교 5, 6학년 24명을 대상으로 인지적 대인관계 문제해결 훈련프로그램을 실시하였다. 훈련프로그램 실시 전, 후, 추수에 문제해결 척도, 자기효능감 척도 및 자아탄력성 척도를 실시하였다. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses a cognitive problem-solving training program conducted for fifth and sixth grade students but does not mention bilingualism or its effects on cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer ocean temperatures. [SEP] Text: e. fishing pressure is low, and immediate point sources of nutrient input absent. Satellite SST data indicates that strong warming started in late March 2016 and persisted at levels above regional bleaching thresholds (~30. 9 °C) until mid-May 2016 (Fig. 1c; NOAA 2016). Surveys were conducted along the fore-reef slope 2 m depth contour on the south-western margins of each reef (n = 5 × 10 m transects per site). Substrate composition and rugosity were quantified using the ReefBudget methodology, as described in Perry and Morgan (2017), with coral cover and species abundance data calculated as a function of the 3-dimensional reef surface. Biomass of parrotfish was determined based on the collection of species-size-life phase data based on eight 30 m × 4 m belt transects, with all surveys completed by the same experienced observer (K. M. M. ). Biomass was calculated using length data and length–weight relationships and multiplied by fish abundance. Juvenile coral data were collected at each site in March 2017, with data on genera and size (defined as corals up to 50 mm in maximum diameter, following Doropoulos et al. 2015) collected from 60 replicate 1-m2 quadrats (10 per 10 m transect) at each site. Results and discussionInitial post-bleaching assessments during September 2016 showed that rapid and consistent declines in coral cover and reef carbonate budget states occurred across all sites (Fig. 1d, e; Perry and Morgan 2017). A re-survey of these same sites in March 2017 indicates that whilst mean coral cover had declined slightly in the intervening 6 months (Sept 2016: 6. 3 ± 1. 9%; March 2017: 5. 9 ± 2. 3%), these changes were not significant (Fig. 2a; p > 0. 05). This is attributed to the fact that the most abundant corals (Acropora spp. ) had already died following bleaching, and thus a phase defined by a relatively more stable, but low coral cover, state has been reached. However, an additional observation from March 2017 was that many sub-massive and compact branched (e. g. Pocillopora spp. ) taxa that had initially survived showed evidence of recent partial or complete mortality (Fig. 1g). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the effects of strong warming in ocean temperatures, specifically mentioning that 'satellite SST data indicates that strong warming started in late March 2016 and persisted at levels above regional bleaching thresholds (~30.9 °C) until mid-May 2016.' Additionally, it references that coral cover has declined as a result of these conditions, indicating a significant relationship between warmer temperatures and coral bleaching, which supports the claim of coral reefs experiencing bleaching.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: In addition, different forms of online social engagement might have different effects in the process of successful aging. Prior work has repeatedly shown positive social connectedness as a resource to manage depression and anxiety (e. g. Baltes and Lang, 1997; Cacioppo et al. , 2010; Steger and Kashdan, 2009). Social connectedness can also be pursued using ICTs and research shows that these technologies are a feasible tool to enhance social connectedness (et al. , 2019). However, research on the link between depression and anxiety and socially engaging online (e. g. through SNSs) provides an unclear picture. In their review of related work, Pantic et al. (2012) found a positive association between depressive symptoms and SNS use. That is, the more a person spends time on an SNS, the more likely he or she shows depressive symptoms. Similarly, Tandoc et al. (2015) found Facebook use to be related to higher levels of depression. However, other studies found no relationship (Bessière et al. , 2008; Jelenchick et al. , 2013). This lack of consistency in findings could be due to the age of participants. Pantic (2014) argues that different age groups may use SNSs differently and react differently to the content on and challenges posed by such sites. Older adults often use SNSs for social purposes (e. g. Chang et al. , 2015a). However, difficulties using this technology could lead to less positive or negative effects, such as frustration or even anxiety (Ballantyne et al. , 2010; Chang et al. , 2015a). In terms of social online engagement being a resource in the process of successful aging, we could argue that it has to be used in a conscious way in order to have positive effects on a person’s mental health (Hofer, 2016). Another reason for varied outcomes could be linked to different purposes of use; Shaw et al. (2015), for instance, found no connection between passive use of Facebook and anxiety, but did find a positive relationship between its communicative and social use and anxiety. In terms of using ICTs as a resource in the process of successful aging, we could argue that a more active social use of ICTs might have a positive effect on older adults’ mental health, whereas a more passive use of this resource may have negative effects. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by suggesting that the relationship between social media use and mental health is complicated and inconsistent. It points out that while social connectedness through online platforms can be beneficial, excessive or passive use of social media may lead to increased depressive symptoms and anxiety. Specifically, it mentions studies indicating a positive association between depressive symptoms and social network site (SNS) use. This suggests that simply taking breaks from social media may not address the complexities of anxiety and stress arising from online activities.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: 자기효능감의 하위요인 중 자신감 영역에서의 향상이 실험 전과 후, 추수검사에서 향상․유지되었음을 알 수 있다. 훈련집단의 자아탄력성을 살펴보면 실험 전에 비해 실험 후에 향상되었으며 5주 후의 추후검사에서도 향상된 효과가 유지되었음을 알 수 있다. 자아탄력성의 하위요인 중 대인관계 영역과 낙관성 영역에서의 향상이 실험 전과 후, 추수검사에서도 향상․유지되었음을 알 수 있다. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses improvements in self-efficacy components, such as confidence and resilience, before and after an experiment, but does not address bilingualism or its effects on cognitive flexibility or problem-solving skills. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer ocean temperatures. [SEP] Text: It thus seems reasonable to assume that most small juvenile Acropora must have settled during 2016 (presumably soon after bleaching), whilst larger juveniles must have survived the bleaching event. Given the larger size structure of Porites and Pocillopora (Fig. 4c), it seems likely that these juveniles also survived the bleaching, providing some hope for future recovery. However, the evident lack of preference to settle on the abundant dead branched framework suggests that the overall ecology and structure of these reefs may undergo further phases of degradation before reorganisation and recovery can begin. Indeed, the paucity of recruits is of further concern given that data collected 9–12 months post-1998 by Bianchi et al. (2006) showed that whilst juvenile densities were initially high these declined rapidly over the next few years before complete recovery ensued. Fig. 4Plots showing a mean juvenile coral densities (±SD) in March 2017; b relative abundance (%) of juvenile corals in March 2017 (site codes as in Fig. 2); and c size class distribution of juvenile corals for the three previously dominant coral taxaFull size image The data presented here thus collectively suggest that after the initial coral mortality, rates of decline have slowed. Conversely, a downward trajectory in rugosity is predicted as the surficial structure of the reefs, currently dominated by in situ dead Acropora spp. , continues to degrade to rubble. Based on observations after the 1998 bleaching event, this may be a necessary precursor stage before more effective coral recruitment can proceed (e. g. Lasagna et al. 2010). Our field observations also suggest that much of this dead in situ framework is infested by endolithic sponges and that this, along with the elevated parrotfish biomass we report, is likely to speed this process up (see Carballo et al. 2013). Extrapolation of these findings to the wider Maldives obviously requires caution, but it is pertinent to mention that we observed similar widespread coral mortality on reefs within and around two more northern atolls (Gooidoo and Baa) in March 2017, and that widespread mortality was reported across the region immediately after the 2016 event (IUCN 2016). Recovery obviously now depends on successful recruitment. Whilst the dominance of Acropora spp. in the current juvenile population structure is encouraging, the dominant factor may be the low overall densities. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the observed widespread coral mortality that occurred after the 2016 bleaching event. It mentions that 'widespread mortality was reported across the region immediately after the 2016 event,' indicating that the coral reefs experienced significant negative impacts likely due to warmer ocean temperatures.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: More recent research has taken these age- and use-related considerations into account. Analyzing the online experiences of older adults in particular, Hunsaker et al. (2020) found that belonging to certain online communities and engaging in meaningful online discussions about some topics were related to higher levels of anxiety. Choi and DiNitto (2013) show that email and texting linked to higher anxiety levels. These studies are examples of how helpful it can be to disaggregate types of online engagement. Similarly, applying a functional approach by differentiating between four types of Internet use, Lifshitz et al. (2018) found that using the Internet for leisure activities and task performance is negatively related to depressive symptoms. Communication online, however, was not related to depression in either positive or negative ways. Nguyen et al. (2020) also go beyond the basic concept of (frequency of) social media use to look at active online social engagement, such as looking at photos or clicking on links. Their study examines how such activities relate to social capital and find a positive association with online bridging social capital. In this study, we follow Nguyen et al. (2020) by examining the hitherto unclear connection between online social engagement and depression as well as anxiety. Research questionsPrevious findings point to positive associations between online social engagement and anxiety among older adults (Choi and DiNitto, 2013; Hunsaker et al. , 2020). That is, the more people socially engage online, the higher their anxiety. For instance, false expectations, social comparison processes, or even negative feedback by other users could increase anxiety levels. However, based on past work on the association between social media use and anxiety (Cauberghe et al. , 2021), one could also argue that online social engagement is related to decreases in anxiety when people use it as a way to connect with others, to improve their social connections, and to find humor. Specifically, positive social interactions and relationships could act as a form of coping and enhance self-esteem, happiness, or life satisfaction, which could counteract feelings of anxiety (Cauberghe et al. , 2021; Seabrook et al. , 2016). The same arguments apply to associations between online social engagement and depression. That is, online social engagement could either be associated with increases or decreases in depression. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing research that indicates social media engagement can be linked to both increases and decreases in anxiety levels. It highlights that higher online engagement can lead to increased anxiety due to social comparison and feedback, suggesting that breaks alone may not remedy anxiety related to online activity. The text states that while social media can enhance self-esteem and life satisfaction—potentially reducing anxiety—this relationship is not straightforward, and thus, the idea that social media breaks will universally cure anxiety is not supported.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: 무처치 통제집단에 비해 훈련집단의 경우 문제해결력과 자기효능감 및 자아탄력성은 실험 전에 비해 실험 후에 향상되었으며 추수검사에서도 실험 전에 비해 향상된 효과가 유지되고 있음을 알 수 있었다. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses improvements in problem-solving skills and self-efficacy in a training group compared to a control group, but it does not directly address bilingualism or its effects on cognitive flexibility. Therefore, the text is deemed irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Some species have adapted to climate change by shifting their habitats northward. [SEP] Text: keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves. 1 IntroductionIt is widely accepted that climate change effects have repercussions everywhere around us; the (DDBR) is no exception. The spreading of invasive plant species is mainly influenced by climatic factors. Most invasive species, regardless the place of occurrence, follow the same climatic pattern as in their place of origin (Richardson and Pysěk 2006). Changes of climatic features showed habitat alteration by decreasing, increasing or shifting of species’ range in size and abundance (Leech et al. 2011). In climate change context, one of the effects is the spread and persistence of invasive plant species in natural habitats and the interference on plant community’s structure. These opportunist species take advantage of every climatic change in order to expand their survival rate leading to the loss of the native species (Hellmann et al. 2008). The aim of the study was to identify the spreading potential of invasive species within DDBR habitats by their present features of adaptation and their occurrence in plant communities considering climate change impacts. Annual climatic values (temperature, precipitation) collected between 1961 and 2007 from the eastern (Sf. Gheorghe – shore) and western (Tulcea) meteorological stations located in DDBR were used and processed. DDBR is situated in South-East Europe, respectively in South-Eastern Romania. As a biosphere reserve, this wetland is also the largest (5,800 km2) 2000 site (ROSCI 0065 and ROSPA 0031). It is a fluvial-maritime floodplain on two bioregions, a steppic and a pontic one (Ciocârlan 2011). By means of management measures, adaptation is undertaken in order to reduce potential impacts of climate change on DDBR habitats. 2 MethodsThe spreading potential of invasive species was analysed by their present features of adaptation, plant community qualitative indices (Braun-Blanquet scale) and annual climatic values (temperature, precipitations). The time-frame 1961–2007 data was used from the eastern (Sf. Gheorghe – shore) and western (Tulcea) meteorological stations located in DDBR. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how climate change affects species' ranges, noting that 'changes of climatic features showed habitat alteration by decreasing, increasing or shifting of species’ range in size and abundance.' This indicates that species are indeed adapting to climate change by altering their habitat, which aligns with the claim regarding northward shifts.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: Because research on the relationship of online social engagement and mental health is limited instead of constructing hypotheses, we pose the following research questions (RQ1 and RQ2):RQ1. Are different forms of online social engagement related to higher or lower levels of anxiety among older adults? RQ2. Are different forms of online social engagement related to higher or lower levels of depression among older adults? MethodData collectionWe surveyed 1026 older adults in the aged 60 and above in July 2018. The age cutoff follows the definition of old age by the Organization (2015). We contracted with the online research firm Cint to administer our study to a diverse group of older adults. Cint uses a double opt-in procedure to recruit respondents to its panels. To achieve a diverse sample, we quota sampled on various older age groups, gender, race and ethnicity, and education based on US Census figures. Age quotas ensured that our sample did not simply include younger-aged older adults allowing us to compare people of different ages across this population (see Table A1 for a comparison of the US population and the sample of this study). We included the other quotas to make sure we had a diverse sample given findings in digital inequality scholarship about variations in Internet use by sociodemographic factors (e. g. Hargittai and Hsieh, 2013). Respondents were sent an invitation to participate in the survey and received compensation for it. They were allowed to skip any questions they did not want to answer. The study complied with the ethical requirements of the research institution. Measures: dependent variablesAnxietyWe measured anxiety symptoms using the Inventory (Beck et al. , 1988), which has been shown to be suitable for older adult populations (Wetherell and Areán, 1997). The scale asks respondents about the occurrence of five different anxiety symptoms over the past week (e. g. “I had fear of the worst happening,” “I was nervous”). Response items included 1 = never, 2 = hardly ever, 3 = some of the time, and 4 = most of the time. We averaged the responses over the five items so that possible scores ranged from 1 to 4, and higher scores indicated more anxiety symptoms. The mean anxiety score was 1. 5 (SD = 0. 5, Cronbach’s α =. 78) and scores ranged from 1. 0 to 3. 8. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting that the research focuses on the relationship between different forms of online social engagement and mental health, specifically anxiety and depression in older adults. It suggests that further investigation is required rather than stating that social media breaks will provide a cure, indicating that the effects of online engagement vary and that there is limited understanding of this relationship.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: 본 연구는 가족해체로 인해 심리․사회적 부적응을 경험하고 있는 결손가정 자녀들에게 대인관계에서 발생하는 문제를 다루는 인지적 능력을 향상시키는 훈련을 실시하여 적응력을 향상시키고 문제행동을 예방하는 실질적 도움을 주었다는 데 의의가 있다. 분석결과에 대해 선행연구와 관련하여 논의하고 상담에서의 시사점과 제한점 및 후속연구를 위한 제언을 제시하였다. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses a study on the cognitive abilities of children from broken families and how training improved their adaptation and prevented problematic behaviors. However, it does not mention bilingualism or its effects on cognitive flexibility or problem-solving skills, making it irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Some species have adapted to climate change by shifting their habitats northward. [SEP] Text: Species that tolerate a wide range of climatic conditions could become the most successful invaders (Taush 2008). For example, precipitation variations could cause water-demanding/resistant species to outcompete one another (Fig. 18. 2). The average annual precipitation of DDBR decreases from west (Tulcea – 438. 4 mm) to east (Sf. Gheorghe – 403. 6 mm). Fig. 18. 2Mean annual precipitation amounts in the (1961–2007) (Dragotă et al. 2011)Full size image From the perspective of alien’s bio-geographical origin, rising temperatures would allow some species of Mediterranean origin to spread northwards and enhance the winter survival chances of some other organisms (Dragotă et al. 2011). Phenological stages are sensitive to temperature. It is more likely for annual plants to flower earlier than it is for perennials, and more likely for insect-pollinated plants than for wind-pollinated ones (Fitter and Fitter 2002). Various flowering phases have been registered for the same species in the same period of time but at different locations (Tulcea and Sf. Gheorghe) within DDBR (Fig. 18. 3). At the sea side flowering phases are now occurring earlier. The average annual temperature in Tulcea is 11 °C and in Sf. Gheorghe 12 °C (Dragotă et al. 2011). Monthly average of daily extreme temperatures have a significant role in the distribution of different phenological phases, as they are calculated from instantaneous values at different moments of the day, measured with maximum-minimum thermometers representing the true contrast between day and night. monthly averages of daily maximum temperatures are positive, ranging from 3 to 4 °C in the entire area, increasing in July to over 25 °C in the fluvial-maritime part and Razim-Sinoe lake complex, to over 26 °C in the central regions of the DDBR, and to over 27 °C in the western parts. Climate change effects, such as extreme duration of droughts, low temperatures, or floods in wetlands can haste the spreading of alien species. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by mentioning that rising temperatures would allow some species of Mediterranean origin to spread northwards, which aligns with the idea of species adapting to climate change by shifting their habitats. Additionally, it discusses the impact of climate change on various species, confirming that certain species may enhance their survival chances and adapt to changing conditions.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: DepressionWe relied on the widely used Center for (CES-D Scale) to assess depression (McDowell, 2006; Radloff, 1977), a measure included on the US Health and and one that other researchers studying Internet uses have also utilized (Cotten et al. , 2014). The question asks respondents about the frequency with which they had experienced eight feelings in the past week (e. g. “I felt depressed,” “I felt lonely,” “I felt sad”) with the following answer options: “rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day)”; “some or a little of the time (1–2 days)”; “occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3–4 days)”; more or all of the time (5–7 days). ” After reverse coding two of the items (“I was happy,” “I enjoyed life”), we averaged these scores. The mean depression score was 1. 6 (SD = 0. 6, Cronbach’s α =. 87) and scores ranged from 1. 0 to 4. 0. Measures: independent variablesSociodemographicsWe asked about year of birth to measure age (M = 69. 3 years, SD = 6. 2). We asked gender giving the following options: (a) male, (b) female, and (c) other, please specify. Over half the sample (57%) responded female; no one chose “other. ” To measure race and ethnicity, following US Census conventions, we first asked whether the respondent was of Hispanic or Latino origin and then about race using the following categories: White, Black or African American, Asian, or Alaska Native, or Pacific Islander, and/or Other, please specify. The sample is 82% White (the base in the models), 9% Black, 6% Hispanic, and 3% Asian. Respondents provided their highest level of school completed or highest degree received using the categories: less than a high school degree, high school graduate (high school diploma or equivalent including GED), some college but no degree, associate’s degree, bachelor’s degree, and advanced degree (e. g. master’s, doctorate). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by focusing on the assessment of depression and its measurement in a sample population. It provides detailed information about the CES-D Scale and various demographic variables without addressing the potential impact of social media breaks on anxiety and stress. Since it discusses depression and its correlation with online activity rather than supporting a direct cure for anxiety via social media breaks, it counters the assertion made in the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: KW - 결손가정, 인지적 대인관계 문제해결 훈련, 문제해결력, 자기효능감, 자아탄력성 DO - 10. 15703/kjc. 10. 4. 200912. 2303 UR - ER - 이유미 김정희 and 김동원 (2009). 인지적 대인관계 문제해결 훈련이 결손가정 초등학생의 문제해결력, 자기효능감 및 자아탄력성에 미치는 효과. 상담학연구, 10(4), 2303 - 2319. 이유미 김정희 and 김동원. 2009, “인지적 대인관계 문제해결 훈련이 결손가정 초등학생의 문제해결력, 자기효능감 및 자아탄력성에 미치는 효과”, vol. 10, no. 4, 2319. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address bilingualism or its effects on cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. Instead, it discusses cognitive interpersonal problem-solving training in children from single-parent families, which is not relevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change is a factor in the decline of many amphibian populations. [SEP] Text: Bouchard | 31, 2023 | Earth & Our polar seas are particularly vulnerable to climate change, and melting ice and increasing temperatures could have a devastating impact on the endemic biodiversity of the region. One of the most abundant species in the is the Arctic cod (Boreogadus saida, also called polar cod), making it an ideal candidate to study the effects of climate change on prey fish populations, and the impact this will have on wider marine ecosystems. This is the focus of important research from Bouchard at the and her collaborators. may not be the first place that springs to mind when thinking about prolific and diverse species of animals. Nonetheless, the cold waters of the play host to large and varied populations of fish and other marine animals. One of the indicators for the health of a marine ecosystem is the population of forage fish. Forage fish are species that consume small marine organisms such as copepods and krill and are, in turn, food for predatory fish, seabirds, and marine mammals. As such, they are important for the transfer of energy and nutrients up the food chain. The most common forage fish in Arctic waters is Arctic cod. Arctic cod has a circumpolar distribution, occurring essentially everywhere there is seasonal or multiyear sea ice. cod population is, therefore, a good indicator of how climate change affects other species and how the ecosystem might respond to changing conditions. To get a good picture of the impact climate change will have on a species, researchers must take a broad look at the locations the species is found in at different stages of its lifecycle. Bouchard at the and her colleagues are working to understand how climate change affects the different habitats around the Arctic, and how changes in those habitats will affect future Arctic cod populations. in Together with an international team of Arctic cod experts, recently published a review of the effects of climate change on Arctic cod. The review divides the life cycle of the species into five distinct stages. Each stage has distinct p1. 5 to 3. 8 °C. The larvae feed on small plankton living under sea ice or in open water. The larvae are euryhaline, which means they can survive rapidly changing levels of salt in the water, making them well-adapted to areas with high levels of ice melt and river discharge. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the impacts of climate change on Arctic cod populations and marine ecosystems. It highlights that shifts in climate, such as melting ice and rising temperatures, affect essential species and the broader ecosystem, suggesting that similar declines could affect amphibian populations as they are also sensitive to environmental changes. The focus on how climate change alters habitats and species survival stages supports the idea that climate change is a critical factor for various wildlife populations.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: Checking in on a person who was suddenly absent from an online community—something 12% of respondents reported having done more than once—correlates positively with both depression and anxiety. In addition, anxiety positively correlates with answering questions online (something 33% had done) and looking at photos of others (70% occurrence). Table 2. Zero-order correlations between study variables. 1235678910111213141. Anxiety– 2. Depression. 589**– 3. Perceived health−. 324**−. 421**– 5. Autonomy of Internet use−. 029−. 054. 169**– 6. Internet skills−. 039−. 064*. 136**. 252**– 7. Frequency of Internet use. 069*. 051−. 057. 110**. 206**– 8. Asking questions. 053−. 003. 043. 229**. 324**. 219**– 9. Answering questions. 088**. 059−. 004. 243**. 314**. 217**. 637**– 10. Checked in on someone. 114**. 076*−. 022. 088**. 192**. 167**. 372**. 360**– 11. Looking at family photos. 006−. 023. 038. 118**. 085**. 117**. 222**. 208**. 178**– 12. Looking at photos of others. 070*. 016. 015. 125**. 138**. 205**. 261**. 264**. 247**. 610**– 13. Looking at status updates. 023−. 010. 031. 158**. 158**. 277**. 341**. 312**. 293**. 424**. 560**– 14. Clicking on links. 061. 014. 041. 206**. 220**. 252**. 420**. 400**. 309**. 382**. 469**. 712**–*p <. 05; **p <. 01; ***p <. 001. Multivariate resultsWe conducted ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models in which we controlled for sociodemographic variables, perceived health, and general Internet experiences (i. e. frequency of use, autonomy of use, and Internet skills). Among the sociodemographic variables, being female was associated with anxiety (β =. 08, p =. 010). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting that certain online activities, such as checking in on someone or answering questions, are positively correlated with anxiety and depression among respondents. It indicates that removing oneself from social media might not resolve anxiety or stress, as it can also be associated with negative emotional states related to online engagement.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: Available from: doi:10. 15703/kjc. 10. 4. 200912. 2303 이유미 외. “인지적 대인관계 문제해결 훈련이 결손가정 초등학생의 문제해결력, 자기효능감 및 자아탄력성에 미치는 효과“ 상담학연구 10. 4 2319. (2009): 2303. 이유미 김정희 김동원. 인지적 대인관계 문제해결 훈련이 결손가정 초등학생의 문제해결력, 자기효능감 및 자아탄력성에 미치는 효과 상담학연구 [Internet]. 2009; 10(4), : 2303 - 2319. Available from: doi:10. 15703/kjc. 10. 4. 200912. 2303 이유미 김정희 and 김동원. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it does not provide any information or arguments regarding bilingualism or its effects on cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. Instead, it references a study about cognitive interpersonal problem-solving training for students from single-parent families without mentioning bilingualism.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change is a factor in the decline of many amphibian populations. [SEP] Text: These inputs of fresh water carry nutrients into the ocean for plankton to feed on, and provide a thermal refuge for the larvae, where they can avoid extremes of temperature (above ~6°C and below -1°C). The juvenile stage has the largest temperature resilience range and can survive between -1˚C and 12°C (although waters above 9°C cause their growth rate to slow down). As they are larger and better developed than the larvae, juveniles can feed on a greater variety of organisms and can survive a wider variety of habitats. cod can descend further than the larvae but are still often sympagic, that is, living beneath sea ice. cod are more than a year or two but have not yet sexually matured. reports that waters warmer than around 6°C will negatively impact the development of the immature Arctic cod. Immature individuals have a much wider range of feeding areas than the early life stages and are not as reliant on sea ice as juveniles for food and protection. Adult cod have the widest range of habitats, being found in deeper waters both offshore, in coastal waters, and in fjords. says that, unlike in the earlier stages of development, sea ice does not play such an important role for the adult Arctic cod. cod can be found in water reaching up to 13. 5°C, but they prefer waters in the range of 3–10°C. cod have multiple spawning cycles over their 6-year life span, but those in warmer waters tend to have lower egg counts and are smaller than Arctic cod spawning in colder climes. Arctic cod eggs and larvae are particularly vulnerable to climatic changes such as warming water and declining sea ice. Reproduced with permission from Bender ( A for The newly published review identifies several major areas in which climate change will likely affect the Arctic environment. Many of the Arctic cod’s life cycle stages are negatively impacted by temperatures above 6°C, and several studies have shown that changing ocean temperatures are causing a general retreat northward. As temperatures become too warm, Arctic cod will seek to move further north to thrive. However, as the areas of warm water creep northwards, the Arctic cod will be confined to an increasingly smaller area. Changing temperatures will also affect the amount and type of various species the Arctic cod prey upon. Larvae are most likely to be negatively affected by this, as they have much lower energy reserves and are limited in the prey they can consume. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how climate change, specifically warming water temperatures and declining sea ice, negatively impacts the Arctic cod, which is an important species in the marine ecosystem. It states that 'many of the Arctic cod’s life cycle stages are negatively impacted by temperatures above 6°C' and that 'as temperatures become too warm, Arctic cod will seek to move further north to thrive.' Since Arctic cod are a crucial food source for many amphibian species, their decline due to climate change may consequently impact amphibian populations as well.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: By far, the strongest association was the one between perceived health and anxiety (β = −. 32, p <. 001). The general Internet experience variables were not related to anxiety. In terms of depression, we found a similar pattern. Being female (β =. 08, p =. 004), lower household income (β = −. 09, p =. 007), and being (β = −. 08, p =. 006) were associated with depression. Again, perceived health showed a strong relationship with depression (β = −. 41, p <. 001); general Internet experiences did not. Results are displayed as Model 1 in Tables 3 and 4. Table 3. OLS regression model for anxiety. Model 1Model 2 βSEpβ CI 95% [LL, UL]βSEpβ CI 95% [LL, UL]Age−. 030. 03. 348[−. 094,. 033]−. 020. 03. 493[−. 086,. 041]Female. 080. 03. 010[. 019,. 141]. 060. 03. 046[. 001,. 125]Some college (education). 040. 04. 270[−. 033,. 119]. 030. 04. 379[−. 042,. 11]Bachelor or more (education). 020. 03. 660[−. 065,. 102]. 010. 04. 751[−. 070,. 096]Employed−. 020. 04. 510[−. 085,. 042]−. 030. 03. 378[−. 092,. 035]Household income (log)−. 050. 04. 202[−. 119,. 025]−. 050. 04. 215[−. 117,. 026]Household size (log). 050. 03. 101[−. 010,. 118]. 050. 03. 105[−. 011,. 119]Rural residence−. 030. 03. 324[−. 092,. 030]−. 040. 03. 226[−. 099,. 023]Hispanic. 010. 03. 881[−. 056,. 066]. 000. 03. 955[−. 059,. 062]African American−. 030. 03. 278[−. 094,. 027]−. 020. 03. 447[−. 084,. 037]Asian American−. 010. 03. 841[−. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that general Internet experience variables are not related to anxiety or depression. Although it provides information about various factors associated with anxiety and depression, it does not support the idea that simply taking social media breaks can cure anxiety and stress. The findings suggest a more complex relationship between perceived health, various demographic factors, and mental health, rather than a straightforward cure by social media breaks.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: “인지적 대인관계 문제해결 훈련이 결손가정 초등학생의 문제해결력, 자기효능감 및 자아탄력성에 미치는 효과“ 상담학연구 10, no. 4, (2009): 2303 - 2319. doi: :10. 15703/kjc. 10. 4. 200912. 2303 텍스트 파일로 저장 피인용 논문 (우)305-754 대전광역시 유성구 가정로 201 한국연구재단 TEL: 042-869-6674, 1544-6118 E-mail: kciadmin@nrf. re. kr 2024 NRF. . [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses a different topic related to cognitive problem solving in elementary students from broken families without mentioning bilingualism or its effects on cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change will result in the extinction of all wildlife by 2050. [SEP] Text: We confirm the common hypotheses that cloud forest and tropical montane species have narrow climatic niches(7, 11, 14, 27), are sensitive to small differences in climate conditions(6, 28), will need to migrate uphill (2, 12), and thus are at high risk from climate changes(2, 3, 5, 11). This vulnerability has long been predicted, but our study is the first to support this prediction with direct empirical tests of climate tolerances for multiple species in field conditions(29). Our results provide stark new evidence for the danger that climate change poses to biodiversity, and emphasize the critical role that climate change mitigation can play in reducing these risks. Declarations249. A. Addo- tolerance, climatic variability, and latitude. Proc. R. Soc. London. Ser. B Biol. Sci. 267, 739-745 (2000). of climate warming on terrestrial ectotherms across latitude. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 105, 6668–6672 (2008). change scenario for montane forests. Geophys. Res. Lett. 35, 1–5 (2008). analysis of thermal tolerance and latitude in ectotherms. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 278, 1823–1830 (2011). C. García- tolerance by insects to high temperatures across tropical elevational gradients and the implications of global warming for extinction. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 113, 680-685 (2016). K. J. Feeley, E. M. Rhem, B. Machovina, The responses of tropical forest species to global climate change: acclimate, adapt, migrate, or go extinct? Front. Biogeogr. 4, 69–84 (2012). K. J. Feeley, J. Hurtado, S. shifts in costa rican forests due to climate-driven species migrations. Glob. Chang. Biol. 19, 3472–3480 (2013). C. J. Raxworthy, R. G. Pearson, N. . vulnerability of tropical montane endemism from warming and upslope displacement: a preliminary appraisal for the highest massif in Madagascar. Glob. Chang. Biol. 14, 1703–1720 (2008). K. J. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by highlighting the vulnerability of species to climate change, noting their narrow climatic niches and sensitivity to climate differences. It states that these species 'will need to migrate uphill' and are 'at high risk from climate changes.' The mention of 'stark new evidence for the danger that climate change poses to biodiversity' supports the argument that climate change could lead to serious risks for wildlife, aligning with the claim about extinction.