Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean energy technologies are emerging as renewable sources in coastal areas. [SEP] Text: 3 tidal power project is the 20MW plant at Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia. The powerhouse is located on Hog’s Island in the lower reaches of the where an existing barrage protects the agricultural marsh lands from tidal flooding. is a single effect tidal power station designed to generate power during discharge from the reservoir into the sea. The plant contains a single “Straflo” turbine and has been operational since 1984 (Delory, 1986). This project is considered a pilot project for the purpose of evaluating the operational characteristics of the large Straflo turbine and potential of such turbine for large scale tidal power developments in the Bay of Fundy (Shaw and Van Den, 1972). 3. 4 tidal energy was built in 1959 with the installation of a 40 kW plant located in Shashan. A 165 kW tidal plant was later built in 1970 in the Shandong Province. Jiangxia tidal power station which is located on is one of China’s key reservoir bi-directional tidal experiment power station. The total capacity is 3,200 kW. 3. 5 tidal power plant is located on the Westside of South Korea, west of Seoul and south of Inchon. Singleeffect flood generation type, with a capacity of 254 MW (25. 4 MW per turbine, 10 units) has an annual generation of 552. 7 GWh. It has 8 sluice gates, and the project was completed in 2011 with project cost of U. S. $355. 1 million. (Kim, 2010) 4. Energy from (OTEC) technology is based on the principal that energy can be extracted from any two thermal energy reservoirs having different temperatures (Vadus and Giannotti, 1980; Vega, 1992). A temperature difference as low as 20oC can potentially be exploited to produce usable energy. Temperature differences of this magnitude prevail between ocean waters at the surface and a depth of 1000 m in many areas of the world. In tropical areas, the surface layers of the sea are heated to around 25oC. But deep layers, from about 600 m, have a temperature of around 5oC. This temperature difference can be exploited on thermodynamic principles to run what is in effect a heat engine that produces electrical power. The principle used is called the Rankine closed cycles. Warm surface water is pumped through a heat exchanger (evaporator) where it gives up its heat to a working fluid, usually ammonia. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by discussing various tidal power projects and ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) technology as methods of extracting renewable energy from ocean waters. It highlights specific examples of tidal power stations in Nova Scotia and China, emphasizing their operational characteristics and capacity for generating renewable energy. Additionally, the explanation of OTEC illustrates how temperature differences in ocean layers can be harnessed to produce usable energy, reinforcing the idea that ocean energy technologies are viable renewable sources.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Cryptocurrencies are universally accepted as legal tender worldwide. [SEP] Text: URL: (дата обращения: 08. 11. 2022) Криптовалюту можно определить как цифровую или виртуальную валюту, основанную на алгоритмах криптографии и не имеющую единого эмиссионного центра. Механизм криптовалют защищен от любого внешнего вмешательства, включая государственное, криптовалюты практически невозможно подделать. Если следовать определению денег, криптовалюты в полном смысле деньгами не являются. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by stating that cryptocurrencies do not qualify as money in the full sense, suggesting that they are not universally accepted as legal tender. It emphasizes that cryptocurrencies lack a central issuing authority and are protected against external interference, indicating their status is not recognized as legal money.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Attention can be selectively focused, leading to changes in cognitive processing. [SEP] Text: 이에 복신은 서기 662년 12월에 피성(김제) 천도로 정치적 동요를 차단하여 했지만 이듬해 2월에 다시 거열성(거창)・거물성・사평성 등 남방 주요 거점과 백제 5방 중의 하나인 덕안성(논산)까지 빼앗겨 수도의 안정성마저 위협받자 다시 주류성(부안)으로 후퇴하지 않을 수 없었다. 피성 천도라는 정치적 승부수가 실패하자 굳건하던 복신의 입지에 이상이 생겼다. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provided is irrelevant to the claim regarding selective attention and cognitive processing. It discusses historical events related to political maneuvers in 662 AD, which do not connect to the scientific principles of attention or cognitive processes.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean energy technologies are emerging as renewable sources in coastal areas. [SEP] Text: The liquid vaporizes and expands to drive a generator. The vapor then flows through a second heat exchanger (condenser) and is liquidized, having given up its heat to cold water extracted from 600 to 900 m depths. The ammonia is then pumped back to the evaporator and the cycle is repeated. Three basic OTEC designs have been pursued: closed cycle, open cycle, and hybrid cycle. In the closed-cycle system, a working fluid with a low boiling point (such as ammonia) is converted to vapor through heat exchanger, with warm seawater drawn from just below the ocean’s surface. In the open-cycle system, warm seawater becomes the working fluid when it enters a vacuum chamber and boils rapidly. In both systems, the resulting vapor drives a turbine. In 1979, a consortium of the State of Hawaii, and the developed a 50 kW, closed cycle OTEC facility called Mini-OTEC off Keahole Point, Hawaii. It became the world’s first successful closed-cycle OTEC plant to produce net energy at sea. In 1981, and TRW deployed OTEC-1, a 1MW closed-cycle floating OTEC facility, offshore of the big island of Hawaii. In 1984, a 40 MW land-based closed-cycle OTEC pilot plant was sited near Kahe Point, Oahu (Lewis et al. , 1987; Lewis et al. , 1988). The only OTEC plant in the world is operated by the Center for Research () on the Island of Hawaii. This 210 kW open-cycle experimental plant has been operational since 1993, and has produced the highest outputs of electricity and desalinated water ever achieved. The work has been sponsored by the U. S. Department of Energy (DOE) and the State of Hawaii. 5. Energy from There are three current energy extraction systems which are being considered. They are: flow rotary current energy systems are analogous to a standard windmill where the axis of rotation is parallel to the working fluid flow. version of the Mouton idea is called “Coriolis I. ” states that a multiple array of the turbines placed 30 km off the coast of Florida could supply 10,000 MW at a cost of 36 mils/kwh in 1977 dollars. This power would be sufficient for the daily needs of 10 million people. Radial flow current extraction systems are characterized by having their axis of rotation perpendicular to the current velocity. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by describing various ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) technologies, specifically mentioning that they are expected to produce energy in coastal areas. The text illustrates different designs of OTEC systems that utilize warm seawater, highlighting their successful implementation in Hawaii as examples of emerging ocean energy technologies.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Cryptocurrencies are universally accepted as legal tender worldwide. [SEP] Text: Они не имеют ни внутренней стоимости (как товарная стоимость золотых монет), ни внешней стоимости (как стоимость, присваиваемая традиционным фиатным валютам государственным органом – эмитентом). Криптовалюты имеют высокую волатильность, поэтому они не являются надежной мерой стоимости или накопления. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by stating that cryptocurrencies lack intrinsic and external value, highlighting their high volatility and unreliability as a measure of value or savings. This suggests that they are not accepted universally as legal tender.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Attention can be selectively focused, leading to changes in cognitive processing. [SEP] Text: 이 틈에 풍왕이 군사적인 문제에 개입하기 시작하였고, 그 자신이 ‘복신의 죄’를 정식 거론할 정도로 세력도 확산되어 마침내 서기 663년 6월 복신을 제거하기에 이른다. 결국, 풍왕과 복신의 불화는 친위정변으로 막을 내렸다. 하지만 당시는 내부 다툼에 빠져도 괜찮은 상황이 아니었다. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses historical events involving military figures and internal strife without any reference to attention or cognitive processing.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean energy technologies are emerging as renewable sources in coastal areas. [SEP] Text: Linear systems are not considered to show much promise as current energy systems because of their low efficiency, complexity, maintenance difficulties, and low survival probability. Turbines Ltd, based in Eversley, UK plan to install marine current turbines on steel monopoles. A typical 1 MW machine would have a pile diameter of 3 to 4 m at its base and a rotor diameter of 20 m. Turbines plans to install a 300 kW, single-rotor test system near Lynmouth, UK, in mid-2002. as, a Norwegian company has installed a prototype “tide mill” on the seabed near the arctic tip of Norway that will use current motions to turn turbines blades and establish a generating capacity of 300 kW. Korea had planned to be the first nation to trial commercial-sized power generation from ocean currents, with the first of its pilot turbines in place at Uldolmok, south-west of Korea. Researchers at the Research and (KORDI) chose the site because it has flows up to 12 knots. One MW pilot plant was installed with helical turbines. The experiment was intended to study the structural stability and efficiency of helical turbines, which adjust automatically to the changes in tidal flows. 6. Conclusions 1. There is an abundant resource for ocean energy development. There is a high potential for extraction of energy in these waters from ocean waves, tides, ocean thermal gradients, and ocean currents at selected sites. However, the existence of these resources does not imply immediately usable energy, since any device built to operate in these environments must be competitive with conventional land-based energy producing system. 2. Since the original oil crises of 1973, many countries have launched programs to exploit the ocean energy options: waves, tides, ocean thermal gradients, currents, and biomass. In the latter part of the 1970s, many advances were made in the development of the various technologies required to convert these engines into more useful forms. Unfortunately, from the decade beginning in 1975, the changed from being a leading country in advancing ocean energy conversion to one of inactivity. A number of countries, recognizing both the necessity and marketing potential of wave energy conversion, expanded their programs. There seem to be a resurgence of interest in ocean energy worldwide in recent years. 3. The energy from the ocean is considered to be the cleanest energy. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by indicating that many countries have launched programs to exploit ocean energy options such as waves, tides, thermal gradients, and currents. It highlights a resurgence of interest in ocean energy worldwide and mentions specific technologies like marine current turbines and tidal mills that are being developed and tested, thus supporting the idea that ocean energy technologies are emerging as renewable sources in coastal areas.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Cryptocurrencies are universally accepted as legal tender worldwide. [SEP] Text: Вместе с тем владельцы криптокошельков используют криптовалюту для обмена и платежей, в отдельных случаях для накопления, а перечисленные недостатки криптовалют присущи и фиатным валютам. Поэтому утверждать, что криптовалюты совсем не являются деньгами, тоже нельзя. В странах мира действуют национальные нормативные акты, регулирующие обращение криптовалют, а в некоторых странах нормативное регулирование криптовалют отсутствует. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by explaining that while cryptocurrency holders use cryptocurrencies for exchanges and payments, it is also noted that there are countries with national regulations regarding cryptocurrencies, and in some countries, there is no regulatory framework at all. This indicates a lack of universal acceptance of cryptocurrencies as legal tender worldwide.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Attention can be selectively focused, leading to changes in cognitive processing. [SEP] Text: 비록 풍왕은 적통 왕으로써의 권위를 회복하였지 몰라도 백제는 당 주둔군과 신라의 공세에 대항할 충분한 시간적 여유가 갖지 못하게 되었기 때문이다. KW - 풍장, 복신, 주류성, 피성, 부흥백제국 DO - 10. 29212/mh. 2013. . 89. 1 UR - ER - 김병남 (2013). 부흥백제국의 성립과 정치적 변동-복신의 정국 주도와 풍왕의 대응을 중심으로 -. 군사, 89, 1 - 32. 김병남. 2013, “부흥백제국의 성립과 정치적 변동-복신의 정국 주도와 풍왕의 대응을 중심으로 -”, no. 89, 32. Available from: doi:10. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses historical events and political changes concerning the revival of Baekje in Korea, which does not relate to the concept of selective attention and cognitive processing. There is no mention or implication of attention or cognitive processing in the text.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean energy technologies are emerging as renewable sources in coastal areas. [SEP] Text: AbstractA considerable body of research is currently being performed to quantify available tidal energy resources and to develop efficient devices with which to harness them. This work is naturally focussed on maximising power generation from the most promising sites, and a review of the literature suggests that the potential for smaller scale, local tidal power generation from shallow near-shore sites has not yet been investigated. If such generation is feasible, it could have the potential to provide sustainable electricity for coastal homes and communities as part of a distributed generation strategy, and would benefit from easier installation and maintenance, lower cabling and infrastructure requirements and reduced capital costs when compared with larger scale projects. This 1. tidal range devices, which utilise the difference in water level between high and low tide; 2. tidal stream devices, which utilise the energy of flowing water in tidal currents to generate electricity directly. Range devices are the most well-known form of tidal energy, thanks in no small part to the 220 in Brittany, France, which opened in 1966 and has been operating at full capacity since 1968 (Lebarbier 1975). However, tidal range schemes are currently receiving less research attention from government, industry and academia than the second method of tidal stream, which is perceived to benefit from lower installation costs and reduced environmental and ecological impacts (Fairley et al. 2013). Tidal stream is often considered to be analogous to wind energy, as in both methods energy is extracted from a moving fluid. However, while the wind industry has seemingly settled on three-bladed axial-flow turbines as the energy convertors of choice [due to a general acceptance that they are more efficient at larger scales (Howell et al. 2010)] there are currently many different technologies in development in the tidal stream sector. These include a multitude of different turbine designs, as well as more unusual concepts such as oscillating hydrofoils and tidal kites. The bulk of current tidal energy research and development appears to be naturally focussed on developing larger scale schemes and devices to harness the greatest resources. As an example, Turbines’ (MCT) SeaGen device, arguably the most fully developed tidal stream turbine, is considered viable in 20–40-m-deep waters with peak spring tidal current velocities that are greater than 2. 25 m/s (Denny 2009), while proposed tidal range schemes typically enclose tens or hundreds of square kilometres of water Rourke et al. (2010a). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by discussing the ongoing research into tidal energy resources, particularly the potential for local tidal power generation in coastal areas. It highlights the benefits of these technologies for providing sustainable electricity to coastal homes and communities as part of a distributed generation strategy, indicating that ocean energy technologies are indeed emerging as viable renewable sources.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Cryptocurrencies are universally accepted as legal tender worldwide. [SEP] Text: С учетом трансграничного, цифрового и анонимного характера криптовалют можно утверждать, что криптовалюты постепенно начинают выполнять функции денег, вне зависимости от позиции правительства конкретной страны. Вместе с тем на сегодняшний день в мире не существует единого подхода к официальному признанию криптовалют как средства платежа. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by stating that there is no uniform approach to officially recognizing cryptocurrencies as payment means globally, indicating that they are not universally accepted as legal tender.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Attention can be selectively focused, leading to changes in cognitive processing. [SEP] Text: 29212/mh. 2013. . 89. 1 김병남. “부흥백제국의 성립과 정치적 변동-복신의 정국 주도와 풍왕의 대응을 중심으로 -“ 군사 89 32. (2013): 1. 김병남. 부흥백제국의 성립과 정치적 변동-복신의 정국 주도와 풍왕의 대응을 중심으로 - 군사 [Internet]. 2013; 89, : 1 - 32. Available from: doi:10. 29212/mh. 2013. . 89. 1 김병남. “부흥백제국의 성립과 정치적 변동-복신의 정국 주도와 풍왕의 대응을 중심으로 -“ 군사 no. 89 (2013): 1 - 32. doi: :10. 29212/mh. 2013. . 89. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provided does not address the claim about selective attention and cognitive processing. Instead, it appears to be a citation of research related to the historical establishment of a political entity, which is unrelated to the topic of attention and cognitive processing.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean energy technologies are emerging as renewable sources in coastal areas. [SEP] Text: Many of the locations that meet these size and speed requirements, for instance off the northeast coast of Scotland, are located in sparsely populated regions many kilometres from areas of peak electricity demand. A review of the literature suggests relatively little consideration has thus far been given to exploring the potential of smaller scale tidal power from more diverse locations that are closer to populated areas. For example, the 2025 UK tidal stream resource estimates provided by Estate (2012) were predicted assuming tidal turbine rotor diameters of 40 m, operating in waters up to 60 m deep (Estate 2013). There would be benefits to developing devices that could harness any potential resources in such locations. Aside from the obvious contribution to renewable energy targets (either through directly supplying renewable electricity to the grid or by reducing demand from other resources), efficiency savings in terms of reduced transmission losses would be made by generating power much closer to where it is needed. Additionally, connecting devices to the grid would be a more straightforward endeavour; near-shore sites would reduce the length of expensive undersea cabling required to transmit power back to land—a definite benefit given that the price of installing the cable can sometimes exceed the costs of the cable itself (de Alegría et al. 2009). Small devices would by definition be cheaper to build and install than their larger counterparts (Bryden et al. 1998), and devices in shallow near-shore waters would also be more accessible, allowing easier installation and maintenance. These benefits could make small-scale tidal technology an appealing option for coastal communities as part of a distributed generation strategy, helping to overcome the variability of other renewables and fitting in to a wider context of sustainability and efficiency. Fig. 1Definition of shallow water locationFull size image However, there are drawbacks that will need to be overcome if such sites are to be utilised. Chief amongst these is that these sites are likely to be less resource rich than those already under consideration. For example, in shallow waters the slower flow of the tidal current boundary layer will occupy a greater portion of the water depth, reducing the resource available to tidal stream devices (Polagye et al. 2010). Additionally shallow channels, which are already highly stressed due to bottom friction, produce proportionally less power and suffer a diminishing return as new devices are added due to increasing levels of drag (Vennell 2012). Lone devices may, therefore, be more cost-effective in such areas than larger arrays. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the potential benefits of developing small-scale tidal energy technologies in coastal areas. It emphasizes that such technologies could help meet renewable energy targets and reduce transmission losses by generating power closer to populated areas. The mention of distributed generation strategies and sustainability further supports the assertion that ocean energy technologies are indeed emerging as renewable sources in these regions.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Cryptocurrencies are universally accepted as legal tender worldwide. [SEP] Text: Криптовалюты, как новое актуальное явление в финансовой сфере, требуют всестороннего изучения, в частности, таких вопросов, как принципы нормативно-правового регулирования статуса криптовалют и возможность признания криптовалюты законным средством платежа. Цель настоящего исследования – оценить возможность использования криптовалюты как законного средства платежа в России. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the need for comprehensive study regarding the legal status and regulatory principles of cryptocurrencies, specifically evaluating their potential recognition as legal tender in Russia. This indicates that cryptocurrencies are not universally accepted as legal tender worldwide.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Attention can be selectively focused, leading to changes in cognitive processing. [SEP] Text: 1 텍스트 파일로 저장 피인용 논문 (우)305-754 대전광역시 유성구 가정로 201 한국연구재단 TEL: 042-869-6674, 1544-6118 E-mail: kciadmin@nrf. re. kr 2024 NRF. . [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it contains contact information and an administrative notice rather than any discussion about attention or cognitive processing.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean energy technologies are emerging as renewable sources in coastal areas. [SEP] Text: 1 Axial-flow turbinesAxial turbines currently appear to be the most popular tidal stream design; at the time of writing the (EMEC) lists 45 horizontal-axis turbines in commercial development. Of these, 15 are cross-flow turbines (since their axis of rotation is perpendicular to the flow) operating in a horizontal configuration; the remaining 30 are true axial-flow turbines (with an axis of rotation parallel to the flow direction) (2014a). device, which has been undergoing testing in Strangford Lough, Northern Ireland, since 2008 (Bahaj 2011), is the first commercial-scale tidal turbine to generate electricity for the grid outside of a test centre. The device has a reported design life of 20 years (Douglas et al. 2008). A final version with 20-m 3-bladed rotors and a generating capacity of 2 MW is currently in development. The performance characteristics of the 3-bladed MCT device (MCT Ltd 2014) and four axial turbines: Corporation’s AR1000 (2014b); Bourne Energy’s RiverStar (2014); Verdant Power’s Gen5 system (Polagye et al. 2010); and Voith Hydro’s 1 MW test device (2014); are outlined in Table 1. These figures provide a possible indication of the potential of commercial axial-flow turbines; however, it is difficult to accurately verify performance data quoted by developers. Available experimental data on academically developed axial-flow turbines are presented in Table 2. Comparing these tables shows that the commercially developed tested turbines appear to achieve similar levels of efficiency to those tested in the literature, despite the large differences in scale. The dependence of power output on flow speed and device size is also apparent. Fig. 4Main variants of cross-flow turbinesFull size image Although tidal turbines are not predicted to have significant impacts on water levels, they have been predicted to noticeably impact water quality by reducing both upstream and downstream current velocities while increasing those along the side of an array (Ahmadian et al. 2012). This has implications for sediment transport, with a reduction in suspended sediment concentrations occurring upstream and downstream of an array while increasing significantly along its sides. In the region immediately around a tidal stream turbine the flow will be accelerated, which could lead to scouring of the seabed around the structure (Shields et al. 2011). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing various types of axial-flow turbines, specifically tidal stream devices, which have been under development and testing. It highlights commercial-scale tidal turbines generating electricity for the grid, indicating that these technologies are indeed emerging as renewable sources in coastal areas. Furthermore, the reference to specific turbines in commercial development supports the notion that ocean energy technologies are progressing.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Cryptocurrencies are universally accepted as legal tender worldwide. [SEP] Text: Результаты исследования и их обсуждение По правовому положению криптовалют, страны мира можно разделить на три группы: частичная легализация, статус законодательно не определен, криптовалюты запрещены. Отдельно стоит Сальвадор, полностью легализовавший использование биткойна как законного средства платежа. Первая группа включает страны, частично легализовавшие криптовалюты. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by stating that countries around the world have varying legal statuses regarding cryptocurrencies. It describes three categories: countries with partial legalization, those where the legal status is undefined, and countries where cryptocurrencies are banned. Specifically, it mentions El Salvador as a country that has fully legalized bitcoin as legal tender, implying that universal acceptance does not exist.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Attention can be selectively focused, leading to changes in cognitive processing. [SEP] Text: Sensory function declines with advancing age, especially for hearing and vision (for reviews, see, e. g. , Fozard, 1990; Schacht & Hawkins, 2005). Likewise, there has been a long awareness of cognitive deficits with advancing age in otherwise healthy adults (e. g. , Salthouse, 2010). More recently, over the past quarter century or so, researchers have turned their attention to the possible association of these two age-related declines (e. g. , Lindenberger & Baltes, 1994; Schneider & Pichora-Fuller, 2000). Schneider and Pichora-Fuller reviewed several of the competing theories about the association between sensory and cognitive decline and labeled them as follows: (1) the sensory deprivation hypothesis, (2) the information degradation hypothesis, (3) the cognitive-load-on-perception hypothesis, and (4) the common-cause hypothesis. Briefly, the sensory deprivation hypothesis and the information degradation hypothesis both suggest that cognitive decline is preceded by sensory decline, with the difference between these two hypotheses being in the time required for the sensory decline to have an impact (long vs. immediate or chronic vs. acute for the deprivation and degradation hypotheses, respectively). The cognitive-load-on perception hypothesis, unlike the two preceding hypotheses, suggests that age-related declines in cognition drive or precede measured changes in sensory processing. Finally, the common-cause hypothesis suggests that there is a common underlying factor that concurrently has a negative impact on sensory processing and cognitive function with advancing age. Although there have been some exceptions, at least for measures of acuity in more than two senses (e. g. , Stevens, Cruz, Marks, & Lakatos, 1998), for the most part, studies of the association between sensory and cognitive function across the adult lifespan have involved (1) hearing, vision, or both; and (2) simple measures of sensory processing for each sense, such as Snellen charts for visual acuity or pure-tone audiometry for hearing acuity. Regarding the use of simple measures of sensory processing in most prior studies, there are several potential problems with this approach. First, the acuity measures used in each sense were not always criterion-free measures (Green & Swets, 1966). There is some evidence that older adults employ a more conservative criterion when responding during psychophysical tasks (e. g. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim about selective attention and its impact on cognitive processing. Instead, it discusses the decline in sensory functions and cognitive deficits with age, examining various hypotheses regarding the relationship between sensory and cognitive decline. This makes the text irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean energy technologies are emerging as renewable sources in coastal areas. [SEP] Text: 3 Tidal kitesA tidal kite consists of a relatively small turbine attached to a hydrofoil wing, with the entire arrangement tethered to the seabed. The motion of the tidal currents over the wing creates a lift force that pushes the kite forwards through the water. Through a combination of the tension in the tether and the use of a rudder, the tidal kite can be directed to “fly” along a given trajectory through the water column, as illustrated for the figure-of-eight trajectory of the Green tidal kite in Fig. 6. This movement increases the speed of the flow passing through an axial-flow turbine, allowing greater amounts of power to be generated from lower free-stream speeds using a smaller turbine. The mechanical energy of the turbine is converted to electrical energy using a direct-drive generator attached to the kite, which is then transmitted through a cable in the tether to the seabed and then to the shore via a subsea cable. Table 6 summarises the specifications of several devices. Fig. 6Operating method and schematic of Minesto’s tidal kite. Adapted from Minesto (2013)Full size image Table 6 Green specificationsFull size table The power coefficient estimates were calculated using Eq. 1, the rotor diameters and Minesto’s claim that the device moves at a speed 10 times greater than the water current. For the calculated power densities, total device swept area was estimated as a semi-circle with the minimum tether length as its radius, resulting in the very low values shown. In practice, the swept area is likely to be much smaller than this. In water depths appropriate for the technology, tidal kites certainly appear capable of producing great amounts of power for the size of their rotors. 2. 4 Tidal rangeTidal range devices make use of the difference in water level between high and low tide by impounding water within a basin before releasing it across turbines, as illustrated in Fig. 7. By closing sluice gates, water is trapped on one side of the device, creating a static head across it due to the movement of the tides. When the head is suitably large, the gates are opened and the excess water is directed across turbines for electricity generation. Fig. 7Tidal barrage operation. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by describing tidal kites and tidal range devices, which are examples of ocean energy technologies that can generate renewable energy in coastal areas. It discusses how tidal kites harness tidal currents to produce electrical energy and how tidal range devices utilize the difference between high and low tide to generate electricity. These descriptions support the notion that ocean energy technologies are emerging as viable renewable energy sources in coastal regions.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Cryptocurrencies are universally accepted as legal tender worldwide. [SEP] Text: Это самая большая группа, куда входят США, Канада, Австралия, Япония, Германия, Франция, Швейцария и другие страны. В большинстве стран из первой группы криптовалюта рассматривается как инвестиционный актив. Некоторые страны пошли дальше и признали за криптовалютой статус валюты или денег. Во вторую группу входят страны, в которых статус криптовалют законодательно не определен. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by stating that in most countries, cryptocurrencies are considered investment assets, and only a few countries have granted them the status of currency or money. This indicates that there is no universal acceptance of cryptocurrencies as legal tender.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Attention can be selectively focused, leading to changes in cognitive processing. [SEP] Text: Since it became apparent that there were many significant differences in performance between the young and older adults on these tasks, the middle-aged group was added to provide additional data between these two age group extremes. Fig. 1The distribution of subject ages for the sample of 245 adults included in this studyFull size image Subjects were recruited for this study via advertisements in the local newspaper, bulletins or flyers for local community centers or organizations and posters at various locations on the campus of Indiana University, Bloomington. For this study, the only selection criteria were based on age (18–35 years for the young adults, 40–55 years for the middle-aged adults, and 60–89 years for the older adults), a score of ≥25 on the (MMSE; Folstein, Folstein, & McHugh, 1975), and several measures of basic sensory acuity. Maximum acceptable hearing thresholds and allowable visual acuity were established. Specifically, subjects had to have corrected visual acuity of at least 20/40 based on an evaluation with a Snellen chart by a licensed optometrist, hearing thresholds for air-conducted pure tones that did not exceed a maximum permissible value at each of several frequencies in at least one ear, and no evidence of middle-ear pathology in the test ear (air–bone gaps less than 10 dB and normal tympanograms). The maximum acceptable hearing thresholds (measured clinically) were (1) 40 dB HL (ANSI, 2004) at 250, 500, and 1000 Hz; (2) 50 dB HL at 2000 Hz; (3) 65 dB HL at 4000 Hz; and (4) 80 dB HL at 6000 and 8000 Hz. These limits were designed not to be particularly selective, but to ensure that the stimuli would most likely be visible and audible when presented on subsequent tasks. These limits were confirmed directly via identification screening. All subjects were required to pass an identification screening of the four auditory, visual, and tactile stimuli in isolation, used in subsequent temporal order and temporal-masking measures, with at least 90 % accuracy on one of up to four 20-trial blocks for the auditory and visual tasks and 80 % accuracy for the tactile measures. This was to ensure that listeners would be able to complete the subsequent temporal order and temporal-masking measures, which were targeting identification performance of either 50 % or 75 % correct (see below). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim about selective attention and its impact on cognitive processing. Instead, it mainly discusses the methodology and criteria for recruiting participants based on age and sensory acuity for a study. Thus, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean energy technologies are emerging as renewable sources in coastal areas. [SEP] Text: The economics of a range scheme scale according to the amount of water in a basin between mean high and low tide, which is known as the volume of the tidal prism (Frid et al. 2012). As a result, optimal tidal range structures are situated in estuaries with high tidal ranges, and feature large basins for water impoundment (Kadiri et al. 2012). A particular advantage of tidal range structures is their very long lifespans; for example, the design lifetime of the proposed is 120 years, with turbine replacement occurring every 40 years (Kelly et al. 2012). Range structures have such long operational lifetimes due to the fact that the turbines are enclosed within a sturdy concrete structure and are consequently less exposed to the marine environment, with relatively easy access provided for maintenance work. 2. 4. 1 Tidal barragesTidal barrages are long structures built across bays or estuaries, making use of the surrounding land to create a basin in which water can be impounded. Barrages are mature and reliable; however, they do come with significant capital and environmental costs that can be difficult to overcome (Blunden and Bahaj 2006). This is evidenced by the fact that there are only five tidal barrages currently in operation globally, despite there being several sites across the world considered suitable for development (Charlier 2007)Fig. 9. Sourced from wikipedia. org (2015)Full size image The largest example of a barrage is the Station in South Korea, which is rated at 254 MW and makes use of a seawall that was originally constructed in 1994 for flood defence (Bae et al. 2010). A list of operation tidal barrages, such as the Barrage shown in Fig. 9, provided in Table 7. In regions of high tidal range, such as the in the UK, large-scale range schemes would be capable of producing colossal amounts of power. For example, the proposed Cardiff–Weston barrage in the Severn Estuary, UK, would have an installed capacity of 8. 64 GW and provide an estimated 17 TWh of electrical energy per year (Xia et al. 2010a). This power capacity is significantly greater than the maximum of 154 MW predicted by Ahmadian and Falconer (2012) for tidal stream turbine arrays in that location. Indeed, the predicted 17 TWh of energy per year is greater even than the estimated 12. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing tidal range structures, which are a type of ocean energy technology. It mentions how these structures, such as tidal barrages, utilize the natural tidal variations in coastal areas to generate significant amounts of energy, thereby supporting the idea that ocean energy technologies are emerging as renewable sources.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Cryptocurrencies are universally accepted as legal tender worldwide. [SEP] Text: В группе представлены такие страны, как Эквадор, Марокко, Китай, Индонезия, Индия, ЮАР и др. Так, в Китае владение и пользование биткойном частными лицами формально не запрещено. При этом Народный банк Китая не выпускал никаких правил по вопросу законности использования криптовалюты. Третья группа включает страны, которые запрещают использование криптовалют и предусматривают административные и уголовные наказания за подобные транзакции. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by detailing the varied legal status of cryptocurrencies across different countries. It mentions countries like China, where owning and using Bitcoin is not formally banned but indicates that the People's Bank of China has not established any rules about the legality of using cryptocurrency. The text also points out that some countries explicitly prohibit cryptocurrency use, implying that cryptocurrencies are not universally accepted as legal tender.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Attention can be selectively focused, leading to changes in cognitive processing. [SEP] Text: If subjects did not reach this 80 %–90 % identification accuracy criterion during screening, they were rescreened on a separate day. Subjects ultimately unable to reach this criterion were not included in this study, although many of them elected to complete measures of acuity and gap detection that did not make use of these same stimuli and their data have been included in an earlier report (e. g. , Humes et al. , 2009). All told, there were 81 subjects who responded to ads but, subsequently, did not meet one or more of the foregoing selection criteria: 11 young adults, 2 middle-aged adults, and 68 older adults. In 50 of the 81 cases of exclusion, the reason was pure-tone hearing loss that was too severe in the better ear, with 22 cases excluded for failing one or more of the sensory identification screenings. Informed consent was obtained from all subjects prior to the initial screening, and subjects were paid for their participation. Young adults were paid $7 or $8 per hour (increased over the course of the study), whereas older adults were paid $10 per hour. For the results reported here, the total testing time for each subject was about 60 h, typically divided into 40 sessions, each 90 min in duration. With such a large amount of data collection per subject, several subjects did not complete the entire study after enrolling. To obtain complete data from the 245 subjects reported here, a total of 446 subjects were enrolled. Of the 201 who withdrew from the study at various stages, the vast majority were young adults (N = 111), with 30 middle-aged and 60 older adults also withdrawing from the study prior to completion. Partial data are available for subsets of test measures for the 201 subjects who withdrew from the larger study at various points in time. Some of these data have been reported previously (e. g. , Busey et al. , 2010; Craig et al. , 2010; Humes et al. , 2009). The focus here, however, is on the data from subjects who provided complete data for the entire study (with a few minor exceptions noted below). Data were available for some preliminary demographic, auditory, and cognitive measures for 163 of the 201 subjects who withdrew from the study, including 96 young adults, 22 middle-aged adults, and 45 older adults. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not provide any information regarding selective attention or its impact on cognitive processing. Instead, it focuses on the participant recruitment and data collection methodology of a study, specifically mentioning various groups of subjects and the reasons for their exclusion from the study. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim about attention and cognitive processing.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean energy technologies are emerging as renewable sources in coastal areas. [SEP] Text: Spreading the turbines around the perimeter of the device, as is done along the length of barrages, can reduce the likelihood of such eddies, however, for lagoons this is likely to reduce their commercial viability. At the time of writing no tidal lagoons have been built. However, negotiations for the construction of a tidal lagoon in Swansea Bay, which could produce 500 GWh/year of electricity, are underway (HM Government 2015). Figure 10 provides an image of the proposed lagoon area. Fig. 10Map of the proposed Swansea tidal lagoon. Sourced from plc (2015)Full size image 3 Technology comparison3. 1 MethodologyTo assess the suitability of the discussed technologies for small-scale shallow water applications, we identified six criteria that will govern the success of tidal energy deployments from the literature. The majority of these come from Bahaj and Myers (2003), who describe the fundamentals applicable to tidal energy deployments. Power density: a measure of how much power a concept can generate for its size. At this stage, only hydrodynamic efficiency and power are considered, i. e. the effects of gearboxes and electrical generators on efficiency and output are ignored. Scalability: the ability to increase the size of a technology given the constraints of a shallow water site. Even at small scales, the ability to make a device large enough to produce a desired power output will be important. Durability: the ability of a concept to survive in the harsh marine environment, where it will have to overcome corrosion, debris impacts, high loading forces and bio-fouling among other issues (Bahaj and Myers 2003). Some concepts will be more susceptible to these problems than others, depending upon their complexity, the number of moving parts they have and how exposed these parts are. Maintainability: the ease with which a concept can be maintained and repaired. Measures can be undertaken during the design stage to reduce and simplify maintenance (Bahaj and Myers 2003), including the use of good-quality lubricants, seals, and strong materials, incorporating all the moving parts of the device into one specific feature and an ability to raise the device out of the water. Economic potential: for a concept to be viable it must generate electricity at a competitive cost. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the construction of a tidal lagoon in Swansea Bay, which is a form of ocean energy technology. It highlights the potential of tidal lagoons to generate a significant amount of electricity (500 GWh/year) and references the criteria for assessing tidal energy deployments, emphasizing its commercial viability and the emerging nature of these technologies as renewable energy sources in coastal areas.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Cryptocurrencies are universally accepted as legal tender worldwide. [SEP] Text: К таким странам относятся Вьетнам, Бангладеш, Афганистан, Саудовская Аравия, Республика Македония, Вануату и другие. Япония стала одной из первых стран, легализовавших использование криптовалют. В Японии цифровые валюты были легализованы в 2016 г. , в 2017 г. биткойн стал законным средством платежа (валютой), а криптовалюты перестали считаться товарно-материальными активами, облагаемыми НДС. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by stating that only specific countries, such as Japan, have legalized the use of cryptocurrencies, while listing others like Vietnam and Bangladesh where it is not universally accepted. This indicates that cryptocurrencies are not recognized as legal tender worldwide.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Attention can be selectively focused, leading to changes in cognitive processing. [SEP] Text: When the “withdrawals” are compared with those who completed the study within each age group, there were no significant (p >. 05) differences in age, hearing thresholds, or cognitive function (and subscales of the WAIS–III; Wechsler, 1997). For the middle-aged and older adults, there were also no differences in gender distribution between those who withdrew and those who completed the study. However, for the young adults, the proportion of males in the withdrawal group was significantly greater (p <. 01) than for subjects who completed the study. From the measures available, the group of subjects who completed the study does not differ appreciably from the group that withdrew from the study. ProcedureA general objective for this study was to obtain a comprehensive set of threshold sensitivity and temporal-processing measures in hearing, vision, and touch, using identical psychophysical procedures and similar stimuli for each sense. It was also important, as was noted previously, that the psychophysical measures yield criterion-free estimates of performance and do so reliably. Forced-choice adaptive (Levitt, 1971) or constant-stimuli methods were used throughout this study. Furthermore, it was also a goal to have the tasks range from simple detection tasks to closed-set identification tasks. For the closed-set identification tasks, it was decided that the complex stimuli to be identified would be brief vowels for hearing, orthographic letters in vision, and highly identifiable tactile patterns (Cholewiak & Craig, 1984) in touch. There were four stimuli to be identified in each sense. Closed-set identification should yield reliable results but still draw on some cognitive resources in the processing of the stimuli. Thus, it was viewed as requiring higher-level processing than the other simple detection tasks employed in other measures, but not necessarily as high level as open-set recognition of stimuli. The perceptual phenomena studied in each sense included acuity or threshold sensitivity, temporal gap detection, temporal order identification, and temporal masking. Typically, there were multiple measures of each phenomenon, but this was not always the case. For example, auditory threshold sensitivity was measured at each of three frequencies (500, 1400, and 4000 Hz), whereas there was only one measure of visual gap detection. The full set of 40 dependent psychophysical sensory measures in this study appears in Table 1. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the study's methodology and participant demographics without mentioning attention or cognitive processing. It details various sensory measures and tasks but does not address the selective focus of attention or its effects on cognition.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean energy technologies are emerging as renewable sources in coastal areas. [SEP] Text: This additional structure also impedes the overall scalability of a device, which combined with lower overall power density would hamper economic potential. Axial-flow turbines also do not appear to be as suitable as some other technologies. Although they have higher power densities than the majority of the other concepts, their size is completely limited by depth, limiting the overall power output of a single device. Oscillating hydrofoils have been described as being suitable for shallow water use (Kinsey et al. 2011; 2014), and certainly appear more suitable for shallow water applications than axial turbines. Although the mothballed Stingray device struggled with poor efficiency, the device tested by Kinsey et al. (2011) has a comparable efficiency to unducted turbines. This combined with their rectangular swept area means overall power output would not be constrained by depth, giving them good economic potential. Both vertically and horizontally oriented cross-flow turbines appear to be very suitable for shallow water applications, due to their scalability and relatively high power densities. This means they should have greater generating capacity in shallow waters compared with axial-flow turbines, and consequently good economic potential. A vertical-axis configuration would be capable of operating in any flow direction, while the bi-directionality of a horizontally configured device would cope with ebb and spring tidal flows without the need for a yawing mechanism. The use of helical blades would also prevent the need for mechanically complex pitch-control systems. 4 ConclusionsThe suitability of eight different tidal power technologies for small-scale power generation in shallow near-shore waters off have been discussed by examining device performances in a number of key criteria. Our discussion suggests that both vertically and horizontally oriented cross-flow turbines appear to be well suited to this application, since they have relatively high power densities and a maximum device size that is unconstrained by depth. Oscillating hydrofoils also appear suitable to shallow water applications for similar reasons, provided comparable levels of efficiency can be reached. Meanwhile tidal kites, which require deep waters, and tidal barrages and lagoons, which will require significantly more investment to generate comparable levels of power at small-scale in comparison to turbines, appear to be the least appropriate for this scenario. It is important to note that this examination is a simple design-stage assessment. Due to the developing nature of the tidal energy sector, several of the assessment criteria (e. g. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing various tidal power technologies that are suitable for small-scale power generation in shallow near-shore waters. It specifically highlights the potential of both vertically and horizontally oriented cross-flow turbines and oscillating hydrofoils in these environments, indicating that these technologies have relatively high power densities and scalability, thus supporting the use of ocean energy as a renewable source in coastal areas.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Cryptocurrencies are universally accepted as legal tender worldwide. [SEP] Text: Европейский союз централизованно не регулирует обращение криптовалют, но в отдельных странах ЕС выработана собственная позиция относительно криптовалют. Германия первой в ЕС легализовала цифровые валюты. В Германии с 2011 г. разрешены майнинг, хранение и торговля виртуальными деньгами, которые именуются «расчетными единицами», а в 2017 г. Германия признала цифровые деньги финансовым инструментом. В стране существует возможность расплачиваться биткойнами. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the lack of centralized regulation of cryptocurrencies by the European Union and highlighting that only specific countries, like Germany, have developed their own positions on cryptocurrencies. It states that Germany has legalized digital currencies and allows payments with Bitcoin, indicating that acceptance is not universal and varies by country.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Attention can be selectively focused, leading to changes in cognitive processing. [SEP] Text: Importantly, for each of the measures listed in Table 1, a “threshold estimate” of performance was preceded by 20–40 familiarization trials, which included trial-to-trial feedback, and was obtained on the basis of three separate and stable blocks of trials that, when pooled, totaled 200–250 trials. The details of the stimuli and the psychophysical procedures for all of the dependent measures appearing in Table 1 have been presented in a series of prior studies, each focusing on various subsets of the entire data set (Busey et al. , 2010; Craig et al. , 2010; Fogerty et al. , 2010; Humes et al. , 2009; Humes et al. , 2010). Table 1 Listing and brief description of the 40 psychophysical measures of sensory processing included in this study, organized by the phase of the study in which the measures were completedFull size table In addition to those measures completed during the initial screening (MMSE, audiological and optometric examinations), subjects also completed the full WAIS–III. This included the 13 standard scales plus the 2 optional scales of incidental learning. Finally, all subjects completed the Profile (SIP; Bergner, Bobbitt, Carter, & Gilson, 1981), a 136-item checklist of general health, including physical (sensory) and cognitive capabilities. In anticipation of subject attrition, the study was divided into four phases for data collection, with psychophysical measurements completed for each of the three senses in each phase. This increased the likelihood of obtaining at least some data from all three senses in the event of a subject’s withdrawal from the study. Following screening, the subjects completed the WAIS–III and the SIP. Next, for phase 1 of the study, the measures of threshold sensitivity and gap detection (Table 1) were completed, beginning with the auditory measures, followed by tactile measures, and concluding with the visual measures. Within each sense and type of measurement, the sequence of tests was also fixed. For example, for auditory threshold sensitivity measurement, measures were obtained first at 500 Hz, then at 1400 Hz, and finally at 4000 Hz. Thus, the order of appearance of each task in Table 1 also represents the fixed order of testing for all subjects in this study. For studies of individual differences, as in this study, it is common to fix the order of testing to minimize the variance introduced by varied orders of presentation across subjects. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim about selective attention and its effects on cognitive processing. Instead, it describes a detailed methodology of a study involving various psychophysical measures and participant assessments. Thus, the text is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean energy technologies are emerging as renewable sources in coastal areas. [SEP] Text: Regarding wind power generation, Brazil’s installed wind power capacity is concentrated in three main regions: the Northeast Coast, being do Norte, Ceará, and Piauí states; Bahia, which also comprises the interior of Pernambuco state; and do Sul, which accounts for more than 90% of the entire installed wind farms in the country. According to reference [5], the average statistics regarding these generation parks are summarized in Table 2. BasinsEnergy index (W/m2)Production index (kWavg/machine)Wind generatorsAverage power (kW)Average height (m)Northeast Coast345. 4860. 9193487. 6Bahia471. 3812. 1171583. 5do Sul329. 3660. 2200082. 0Table 2. Main eolic regions in Brazil. The energy generated on the coverage area of the turbines is a very important characteristic because the catchment area is closely linked with the wind regime of the region. Another factor that should be considered is that the average height of generators is above 80 m in height, which provides monumental landscapes from the wind farms and costly installation. The need for such high turbines comes from deep investigations concerning the system of winds. If such requirement is not attended the wind potential is not entirely availed. The wind behavior in Brazil has been studied since the 1970s, showing a prospective scenario for this type of energy generation in the country. The "Atlas of the potential of Brazilian Wind" [6] pointed out that by the end of the 1980s, with measurements up to 10 m tall, trends in wind speeds of 5 and 6 m/s could be considered along coastal and inland areas that have favorable topography and roughness. In the next decades, following the global trend of deploying wind power on a large scale, new studies have emerged in Brazil, made by several companies in the electricity sector promoting feasibility reports of towers of 30–50 m in height. The government of Ceará state in 2001, for example, published an Atlas of the Wind power generation potential of the state, pointing generation capabilities with average wind speeds of around 7 m/s using towers of 70 m. Therefore, it is possible to affirm that Brazil has great potential for deploying solar and wind power stations, especially large-scale projects, which are already being conducted. The high importance of these projects is, in part, justified by two reasons. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text primarily discusses wind power generation in Brazil and does not specifically address ocean energy technologies or their development in coastal areas. While it mentions the potential for renewable energy options, it focuses solely on wind energy and does not corroborate or contrast directly with the claim about ocean energy technologies.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Cryptocurrencies are universally accepted as legal tender worldwide. [SEP] Text: Федеральная резервная система (ФРС) США считает криптовалюты спекулятивными активами, при этом в США не запрещено использование биткойна как альтернативного средства платежа. В 2015 г. Комиссия по ценным бумагам и биржам США признала биткойн биржевым товаром. Аналогичное отношение регуляторов к криптовалютам в Канаде и в Австралии. Статус криптовалют в России долгое время не был определен. С 1 января 2021 г. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that while cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin are not prohibited in the US, they are considered speculative assets by the Federal Reserve. Additionally, the text mentions that the status of cryptocurrencies has not been clearly defined in Russia, implying that they are not universally accepted as legal tender.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Attention can be selectively focused, leading to changes in cognitive processing. [SEP] Text: Of course, when doing so, order effects, such as practice and learning, may affect the observed performance levels over the course of the study. This use of a fixed order reinforced the need for familiarization trials prior to each measure and for stable threshold estimates based on 200–250 trials. Phase 2 consisted of the temporal order identification measures. For each sense, four temporal order identification tasks were completed. Three of the four tasks required the identification of two-item sequences (out of the four possible stimuli), and one required the identification of a four-item sequence. The 3 two-item sequences differed with regard to how the stimuli were presented to the subject: Both stimuli in the sequence were presented either to the same receptor (ear, finger, or visual receptive field) or to different receptors. This manipulation was designed to explore lower level (peripheral) versus higher level (central) sensory temporal-processing mechanisms. For example, for the auditory two-item, different- receptor (dichotic) task, the two sensory inputs cannot interact until the first auditory center in the brainstem processes inputs from both ears (the superior olivary complex). On the other hand, the same-receptor version of this task makes it possible for interaction of the two stimuli in the sequence at a much lower level, as low as the sensory organ for hearing (the cochlea). For the two different-receptor, two-item tasks, the difference between them was in the subject’s response. In one case, the subject was required to identify the stimulus sequence, just as in the same-receptor version of this task, whereas in the other case, the task was simply to identify which side (right or left) was stimulated first. The latter temporal order identification task was included because this is most often considered the temporal-order judgment in the long history of interest in this measure (e. g. , Fraisse, 1984; James, 1890). Finally, the four-item sequence was included to increase the cognitive demands for this temporal order identification task, thereby increasing the likelihood for uncovering a common underlying cognitive factor. For all of the phase 2 measures, the threshold estimate obtained was the stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) that was approximately midway between chance and 100 % correct performance on the psychometric function relating performance to SOA. Further details regarding the stimuli and procedures for phase 2 measures can be found elsewhere (Busey et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim directly. Instead, it focuses on the experimental design of a study involving temporal order identification and does not provide information on selective attention or its effects on cognitive processing.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Many language learners use apps to supplement formal study. [SEP] Text: IntroductionWhen one has poor grammar, language expression is constrained; however, when vocabulary is poor, it is impossible to speak the language (Wu, 2018). Lexical recognition is the essential foundation for the acquisition of language skills, and for language beginners, vocabulary weighs more heavily than structure. To a certain extent, the grasp of vocabulary determines language understanding. Vocabulary plays an essential role in language learning, and communication will be confusing if vocabulary is inadequate or misused (Cons, 2012; Guo & Li, 2022). Vocabulary has been viewed as a vital aspect of second language teaching and learning and as important as the four main basic skills of reading, writing, listening, and speaking (Darancık, 2018; Li & Hafner, 2022). Owing to course arrangements and time constraints in class, students frequently memorize and consolidate their vocabulary outside the classroom, which is generally viewed as complex and dull. As a result, traditional memorization from paper has been a challenge for students of all ages (Yu, 2018). With the development of information technology, social media has become an integral part of everyday life. Social media is now examined academically due to its potential for influencing the teaching and learning process; social media platforms can extend the physical and temporal boundaries of the classroom and permit teachers and students to maintain contact with each other outside the classroom (Fouz‐González, 2017). In many cases, mobile technology extends learning beyond the classroom, and learners can make autonomous decisions about where, when, and how to study a second language (Reinders & Benson, 2017). As the most popular social media in China, QQ, and WeChat have become the most important means of instant messaging. With the continuous growth of mobile online users for educational purposes, WeChat has become a significant tool in mobile learning (Jia & Hew, 2019; Shen, 2016). Advances in social media have also brought about the development of language learning apps. Although it is debatable whether apps can be utilized in language learning, they can effectively support learners’ autonomy and interest in learning a language (Zeng, 2022). Therefore, apps play an important role in assisting language learners who are enrolled in formal instruction and are a good starting point for independent beginner learners. In addition, they can provide regular learning assistance for language learners who are not studying a language through instruction but wish to keep learning. (Rosell-Aguilar, 2017). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by stating that 'apps play an important role in assisting language learners who are enrolled in formal instruction.' It also mentions that these apps can support learners’ autonomy and interest in learning a language, suggesting that many learners are indeed using them to supplement their formal education.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Cryptocurrencies are universally accepted as legal tender worldwide. [SEP] Text: в РФ вступил в силу закон № 259-ФЗ «О цифровых финансовых активах, цифровой валюте и о внесении изменений в отдельные законодательные акты Российской Федерации», который впервые ввел понятие криптовалют. Вместе с тем в России единственным законным средством платежа был и остается российский рубль. Операции с криптовалютами подлежат налогообложению, доход возникает только при продаже криптовалюты за рубли, а не при обмене одного цифрового актива на другой. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by stating that in Russia, while a law concerning cryptocurrencies has been enacted, the only legal means of payment remains the Russian ruble. It emphasizes that transactions with cryptocurrencies are subject to taxation and that earnings are recognized only when cryptocurrencies are sold for rubles, not when exchanged for other digital assets.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Attention can be selectively focused, leading to changes in cognitive processing. [SEP] Text: , 2010; Craig et al. , 2010; Fogerty et al. , 2010; Humes et al. , 2010). Phase 3 consisted of all of the temporal-masking measures, plus measures of tactile spatial acuity (right index finger). The latter was a late addition to the study protocol and, although more like measures of threshold sensitivity in phase 1, was added to the end of phase 3 prior to commencing that portion of the study. Regarding the primary focus of phase 3, unlike most prior studies of temporal masking that have focused on stimulus detection preceding or following a masker, the temporal-masking task in this study was the closed-set identification of one of the four possible stimuli. SOA threshold estimates were obtained for one forward-masking and one backward-masking condition, using a noise-like masker in vision and in touch. For the auditory measurements, two signal-to-masker amplitude ratios were employed for each of two masker types (noise and a babble-like mix of the vowels) in each of the two temporal-masking conditions (forward and backward), resulting in a total of eight dependent measures included here. Again, further details regarding the phase 3 stimuli and measures can be found elsewhere (Humes et al. , 2010). Data analysesIn phases 2 and 3, some subjects were unable to perform the tasks above chance performance levels even at the longest SOAs, despite several (four to six) immediate repetitions of the task and despite pilot testing all of the psychophysical measures prior to finalizing various paradigm parameters. When subjects were unable to perform above chance, a value corresponding to “could not do task” was entered to represent the fact that the subject could not perform the task. In addition to these data entries, if the data to be entered were actually missing at the time of data entry—typically, due to research assistant or protocol-monitoring error—a value corresponding to “missing data” was entered. An analysis of the “could not do task” data entries revealed no such entries for any of the phase 1 threshold sensitivity and gap detection measures and very few for any of the phase 3 temporal-masking measures (six cases for visual forward masking, three cases for visual backward masking, and one for each of tactile forward masking, backward masking, and spatial acuity). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses various methods and parameters of a study related to temporal masking, tactile spatial acuity, and subject performance, but does not address the concept of selective attention or cognitive processing changes. Therefore, it does not provide any support or contradiction to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Many language learners use apps to supplement formal study. [SEP] Text: Previous studies have shown the pedagogical potential of social media and language learning apps for improving learners’ performance, motivation, and participation (Nickerson, 2018; Santoveña-Casal & Bernal-Bravo, 2019). Many studies, such as Çetinkaya and Sütçü (2018), have examined the effects of Facebook and WhatsApp on success in English vocabulary learning. Dizon (2016) compared Facebook and paper-and-pencil writing in improving students’ L2 writing skills, and Roohani and Vincheh (2021) examined game-based (Phrasal Nerds), social media (Telegram), and classroom-based instruction on the learning of phrasal verbs. However, few studies have compared the use of WeChat, QQ, Baicizhan, or other popular social media or vocabulary-learning apps in vocabulary learning in China. In view of this, a comparative study of WeChat, QQ, and Baicizhan will be conducted to determine which is the most effective in vocabulary learning. In the present study, students are divided into three different groups using three different social media or language learning apps to assist their learning of English vocabulary. With this background, the present study addresses the following questions: 1. Is there a significant difference in the mean scores of each group between the pretest and post-test? 2. Of the three approaches, which is most effective for vocabulary learning? 3. What are the students’ perceptions of the three approaches? Literature reviewSocial media in language learningSocial media are interactive digital channels that facilitate the creation and sharing of information, ideas, interests, and other forms of expression through virtual communities and networks. Based on these features, researchers argue that social media could affect learners’ vocabulary acquisition (Motlagh et al. , 2020). Many studies have examined social media; for example, Çetinkaya and Sütçü (2018) compared Facebook and WhatsApp for vocabulary instruction for three months and found that WhatsApp was more effective than Facebook and that participants had more positive perceptions toward WhatsApp than Facebook. Given the use of game vocabulary learning apps and social media as potential instructional methods for mobile-assisted language learning (MALL), in 2021, Roohani and Vincheh investigated the effects of these two approaches on learning English verbs. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing studies that highlight the effectiveness of language learning apps and social media in enhancing learners' performance and motivation in language acquisition. It specifically mentions that various studies have examined the influence of different apps, like Facebook, WhatsApp, and others, on vocabulary learning, thus supporting the idea that learners supplement their formal study with these apps.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Cryptocurrencies are universally accepted as legal tender worldwide. [SEP] Text: Противодействие развитию обращения криптовалют оказывает Банк России, ужесточая регулятивные требования к владельцам криптовалют. Одновременно Банк России развивает собственный проект цифрового рубля – CBDC. Минфин РФ, напротив, видит в криптовалютах источник налогового пополнения бюджетов и стремится к легализации и упорядочению транзакций с криптовалютами. Также в 2022 г. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting that the Bank of Russia is tightening regulations on cryptocurrencies and is not accepting them universally, while the Finance Ministry sees potential in them for revenue, but this does not equate to universal acceptance as legal tender.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Attention can be selectively focused, leading to changes in cognitive processing. [SEP] Text: However, several of the phase 2 temporal order-identification measures had entries of “could not do task,” indicating that it was not possible to obtain a valid threshold SOA estimate despite repeated attempts to do so. Specifically, the subjects could not perform the task above chance levels of performance when using the maximum SOA available. A detailed breakdown of the number of subjects for whom this occurred for each of the phase 2 dependent measures is provided in Table 2. For all but four of these phase 2 measures, the entry of “could not do task” was relatively rare, occurring for fewer than about 7. 5 % of the subjects (18 or fewer occurrences). For the auditory four-item temporal order task, however, the maximum SOA was insufficient to reach threshold for 41 subjects, 20 of whom were older adults, 15 middle-aged adults, and 6 young adults. For the corresponding tactile four-item temporal order task, there were 70 subjects for whom an SOA could not be measured even for the maximum SOA value. Of these 70 subjects, 61 were older adults and 9 were middle-aged adults. For the 2 two-item tactile pattern identification tasks, 46 (44 older adults) reached the maximum SOA limit for the same-receptor version of the task, and 64 (60 older adults) reached the maximum SOA limit for the different-receptor version of the task. Interestingly, note that when the same two-item different-receptor stimuli are presented but the response is changed to identifying the location (right or left index finger), rather than the stimulus pattern, only 6 of the 245 subjects had an SOA that exceeded the limits in the software. Table 2 Number of occurrences of “could not do task” data entry values for each of the 12 psychophysical temporal order identification measures from phase 2 of the studyFull size table For those subjects with “could not do task” values, all that is known is that their SOA value exceeded the maximum value included in the protocol software. This maximum was established on the basis of preliminary pilot data, as has been noted, but also some consideration of memory constraints for the temporal order identification tasks. Clearly, the longer the SOA, the more difficult it would be to remember and subsequently identify the stimulus sequence. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding selective attention and cognitive processing. Instead, it discusses the challenges faced in measuring temporal order identification due to the limitations of the stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) and the performance of subjects during tasks. Therefore, it is considered irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Many language learners use apps to supplement formal study. [SEP] Text: The game-based group received instruction via a mobile gaming application called Phrasal Nerds: Phrasal Verbs, while the social media group received instruction via a Telegram channel. Although the effects of the two methods were found to be statistically significant, the game-based method was slightly more effective for learning English phrasal verbs. In 2019, 208 undergraduate students from participated in an experiment by drafting sentences incorporating target vocabulary in class on a social media application called NaverCafe and then received immediate feedback from instructors. The findings showed that although there were disadvantages to applying technology in class, technology nevertheless played a crucial part in receiving high-quality feedback in language learning (Ko, 2019). A study conducted by Xu et al. (2016) examined WeChat as a way of compensating for the limitations of feedback provision in class. Thirty-five Chinese students were assigned five video-based tasks: they were assigned excerpts from American soap operas and were required to continue telling the story with their imagination. They were also asked to record their stories by using the voice messaging function of WeChat and send them to WeChat groups directly. The result showed that after the experiment, students were becoming more active in learning activities and that WeChat was a viable option to compensate for classroom teaching. Similarly, Jia and Hew (2019) found that the participants who used WeChat as their assistance in a dictation program performed significantly better than those who did not. Zhang, Liu and Liu (2021) conducted a study that aimed to explore the effect of multimodal writing on English as a (EFL) learners’ vocabulary acquisition. Seventy students were recruited, half for the experimental group (EG) required to use WeChat as assistance for Tweet-and half for the control group (CG). After seven weeks, positive improvements had been observed in vocabulary acquisition in the EG, especially in vocabulary use. Although from the questionnaires and interviews most learners viewed multimodal writing as an enjoyable and effective way to improve their vocabulary acquisition, there was no significant difference between traditional writing and multimodal writing. Similarly, in 2021, Li, Fan, Wang and Lu examined the effects of WeChat-based English language vocabulary learning, the results of which showed that student test scores declined after using the program, compared to their initial test scores. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing various studies where language learners utilized mobile applications such as WeChat and Phrasal Nerds to enhance their learning experience. It provides specific examples, indicating that technology played a crucial role in language learning and that participants using apps tended to have positive learning outcomes, such as improved vocabulary acquisition and engagement in learning activities.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Cryptocurrencies are universally accepted as legal tender worldwide. [SEP] Text: были внесены изменения в антикоррупционное законодательство, теперь государственные чиновники обязаны сообщать о наличии у них криптоактивов наравне с иным имуществом. Отдельного внимания заслуживает опыт Сальвадора, правительство которого в 2021 г. ввело биткойн в качестве законного средства платежа. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by stating that while El Salvador has adopted Bitcoin as legal tender, the overall implication suggests that cryptocurrencies are not universally accepted as legal tender, evidenced by the mention of new anti-corruption legislation requiring officials to declare their crypto assets.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Attention can be selectively focused, leading to changes in cognitive processing. [SEP] Text: For the tactile temporal order tasks, the maximum SOA was 3,000 ms, whereas the maximum for the auditory four-item temporal order task was 1,500 ms. For subsequent data analysis, all of the “could not do task” data entries for these 40 dependent measures were replaced with numerical values of 10,000. As a result, subsequent data analyses for the entire data set were based on assigned ranks for each of the 40 dependent variables and 245 subjects. The validity of this approach for subsequent correlation-based PC factor analyses of the data set was evaluated and is described in detail below. With regard to missing data (data entry values of “missing data”), 36 of the 40 dependent measures had data missing from 4 or fewer of the 245 subjects. The four dependent measures for which more data were missing were the two visual temporal-masking measures (20 missing data values for each) and the two tactile temporal-masking measures (18 and 23 missing data values for forward and backward masking, respectively). These dependent measures were the last measures from phase 3 to be obtained and represent subject attrition in the final stages of the protocol. For each of these four dependent measures, there was a roughly equal distribution of missing values across the young, middle-aged, and older adults. After substituting the constant “10000” for all “could not do task” entries in the data matrix, each variable was separately rank-transformed, with high ranks reflecting poor psychophysical performance (high thresholds, large SOAs, etc. ). Ties were resolved by assigning the average rank to a group of tied values. Because observations were not partitioned by age group before transformation, the rank-ordered data preserve information about relative performance on each measure across age groups, as well as correlation structure across variables within each age group. Missing ranks were then replaced using multivariate imputation by chained equations (MICE; van Buuren & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, 2011; van Buuren & Oudshoorn, 2000). Specifically, predictive mean matching (Little, 1988) was used to impute the missing rank data on each incomplete variable from all available predictors. Each missing rank was then replaced with the arithmetic mean of five synthetically generated ranks. Finally, the imputed rank order matrix served as data input to a correlation-based PC analysis. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it primarily discusses data handling, analysis methods, and issues related to missing data in an empirical study context. There is no mention of attention or cognitive processing in the text, so it does not address the claim at all.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Many language learners use apps to supplement formal study. [SEP] Text: Language learning apps in language learningThe past decade has witnessed the rapid growth of educational technologies that were designed to enhance the four basic skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing (Li et al. , 2019). Based on the potential of apps for enhancing learners’ language abilities, several researchers (Burston, 2014; Guo et al. , 2022; Kim & Kwon, 2012) identified the benefits of apps for language learning in (SLA) and Computer-Learning (CALL). As advocated in CALL theory by Meskill (1999), Oxford (1990), and Skehan (2003), apps offer opportunities to engage in interactive and meaningful tasks, promote collaborative, rewarding, and challenging tasks, and provide opportunities to produce the target language. Because mobile devices are used to operate apps, the study of language learning apps falls within the field of MALL. To foster vocabulary development, Kurt and Bensen (2017) conducted a study on the effect of Vine vocabulary videos (VVVs) on improving and expanding EFL learners’ vocabulary. application provided students with many functions that enabled them to record their videos well enough to show the vocabularies they were asked. The analysis revealed that students who used the Vine application showed more progress and improved their vocabulary more than those who did not. In addition, most students who participated in the study expressed in their interviews that there were many benefits of using VVVs to learn vocabulary and how to manage their time effectively. Many studies have already demonstrated self-regulated learning (SRL) can help students acquire knowledge and affects their learning performance (Boroughani et al. , 2023; Chen, 2009; Chen & Huang, 2014). In 2019, to evaluate the performance of the proposed English vocabulary learning app with a self-regulated learning mechanism (-SRLM), Chen, Chen and Yang (2018) developed a two-week study in which students in the EG were asked to use a language learning app called VOC 4 FUN with self-regulated functions while the students in the CG were asked to use the same app but without the self-regulated functions. The study showed SRL ability has a significant effect on learning performance in an autonomous learning scenario and the ability to learning English vocabulary with mobile apps in one’s free time. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how educational technologies, specifically language learning apps, are designed to enhance language skills and provide significant benefits for learners. It mentions that a study demonstrated students improved their vocabulary using the Vine app, indicating that many students engage with these apps to supplement their language learning. Additionally, the text highlights the integration of self-regulated learning mechanisms in app usage, further supporting the idea that learners use apps in conjunction with formal study methods.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Cryptocurrencies are universally accepted as legal tender worldwide. [SEP] Text: Сальвадор стал первой страной в мире, полностью легализовавшей криптовалюту: все юридические и физические лица Сальвадора обязаны принимать биткойны, наравне с долларом США, в оплату за товары или услуги. Сальвадор легализовал использование биткойна как законного платежного средства для снижения зависимости экономики страны от доллара США, который является единственной государственной валютой Сальвадора с 2000 г. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by stating that El Salvador is the only country that has fully legalized cryptocurrency (Bitcoin) as legal tender, which does not support the idea that cryptocurrencies are universally accepted as legal tender worldwide.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Attention can be selectively focused, leading to changes in cognitive processing. [SEP] Text: Applying PC extraction to ranks yields a nonmetric factor structure that is invariant under monotone transformations of the data within each column and closely approximates the structure recovered using standard (metric) factor analysis when the monotone relationships are strictly linear (Kruskal & Shepard, 1974; Woodward & Overall, 1976). The validity of the conversion to ranks was evaluated using the subset of data for which there were no missing observations (n = 186) and applying PC extraction to both the (1) rank-transformed data and (2) Spearman’s rank correlation matrix. The solutions recovered separately for three to eight dimensions showed no appreciable differences in the number of significant eigenvalues, in the magnitude or pattern of factor loadings, or in the fit statistics. Results and discussionAs has been noted, the group results, as well as some correlational analyses, for various subsets of the data set have been presented in a series of prior publications (Busey et al. , 2010; Craig et al. , 2010; Fogerty et al. , 2010; Humes et al. , 2009; Humes et al. , 2010). The focus here is on the individual differences, using factor analysis of the entire data set. A thorough analysis of the individual differences in sensory processing, across all sensory tasks and all three senses, and cognitive processing, as well as the association of each type of processing with age, has not been presented previously for the data gathered in this large project. Two primary sets of dependent measures were obtained from all 245 subjects in this study: (1) 40 psychophysical measures of threshold sensitivity and temporal processing in hearing, vision, and touch and (2) 15 measures of cognitive function from the WAIS–III. PC factor analyses were conducted separately for each of these two sets of dependent measures. After reducing the redundancy in each of these sets of dependent measures via PC analysis, the association of the factors that emerged from these analyses with age was then examined. Factor analysis of the psychophysical measuresFor the 40 dependent measures of threshold sensitivity and temporal processing, PC analysis of the correlation matrix using an eigenvalue >1 criterion resulted in the identification of eight underlying PCs. The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was high (. 92), and Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant (p <. 001). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding selective focus of attention and its impact on cognitive processing. Instead, it discusses factor analysis, psychophysical measures, and other detailed statistical methodologies without any mention of attention or cognitive processing changes as a result of selective focus.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Many language learners use apps to supplement formal study. [SEP] Text: Also, in 2022, Guo, Zhang and Wu examined the effects of self-regulation and peer scaffolding in mobile-assisted vocabulary learning with the Shanbay App, revealing that peer scaffolding helped participants achieve vocabulary learning performance with more days spent in learning and more acquired words; furthermore, the was proven effective at self-regulated vocabulary learning. Given that traditional learning methods are unattractive to learners, Yu (2018) argued that learning English vocabulary through games might be worthwhile. Three groups were formed to examine the effectiveness of game-enhanced versus pencil-and-paper English vocabulary learning approaches. The two game-enhanced groups were assigned to learn EFL vocabulary through the interactive computer game, Vocabulary, and the less interactive computer game in Baicizhan, while the CG learned EFL vocabulary via the traditional pencil-and-paper approach. The findings showed that the computer game-assisted approach was significantly more effective than the traditional approach and participants who used Vocabulary had slightly better performance than those who used Baicizhan because it is more interactive in its application design. In addition, Zeng (2022) found that mobile game applications can improve motivation and interest in learning vocabulary, and students’ acquisition and retention are likely to improve after using mobile applications with a high level of frequency. A study carried out by Li (2021) evaluated how the implementation of game-based vocabulary learning influences students’ vocabulary learning achievement, motivation, and self-confidence. With the assistance of the vocabulary-learning app Baicizhan, the study found that the game-based vocabulary-learning app improved students’ vocabulary achievement, motivation, and self-confidence. Furthermore, learning self-confidence and motivation did not predict learning achievement. Another language-learning app, Zhimi, was applied by Li and Hafner (2022) in a study that divided 85 undergraduates into a mobile-learning group and a paper-based learning group. Although both groups enhanced their vocabulary knowledge, the mobile group performed significantly better than the paper-based one. MethodologyFor second language (L2) learners in both English as a (ESL) and EFL contexts, vocabulary enhancement is vital. As shown in the literature review, recently, a large amount of research has been dedicated to how CALL and MALL can facilitate vocabulary knowledge in L2 learners in both EFL and ESL settings (Yang et al. , 2021). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing various studies that demonstrate how mobile-assisted and game-enhanced learning apps, such as Shanbay and Baicizhan, have been effectively utilized to improve vocabulary acquisition among language learners. It highlights that learners engaged with these apps not only gain motivation but also achieve better vocabulary learning performance compared to traditional methods. For instance, Zeng (2022) noted that mobile game applications improve motivation and interest in learning vocabulary, which supports the idea that language learners are increasingly supplementing formal study with app-based learning resources.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Cryptocurrencies are universally accepted as legal tender worldwide. [SEP] Text: , президент Путин заявил, что доверие к доллару, евро и фунту стерлингов утрачено, а Россия шаг за шагом уходит от их использования. Тренд на отказ от доллара как резервной валюты наблюдается с конца прошлого века. По данным МВФ, доля резервов мировых ЦБ в американских долларах снизилась с 71 % в 1999 г. до 58,8 % к началу 2022 г. Заметнее всего доля доллара снижалась в резервах российского ЦБ, в течение 2021 г. она сократилась с 21,2 до 10,9 % [3]. По данным ЦБ РФ, «в 2013–2019 гг. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the decline of trust in traditional currencies such as the dollar, euro, and pound, and Russia's step away from their use. This suggests that these currencies are not universally accepted, which indirectly implies that cryptocurrencies, which are often seen as alternatives, are not recognized as legal tender on a global scale.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Attention can be selectively focused, leading to changes in cognitive processing. [SEP] Text: An eight-factor solution accounting for 69. 7 % of the total variance was obtained. All 40 of the communality values were greater than. 5, with 20 % between. 50 and. 59, 25 % between. 60 and. 69, 42. 5 % between. 70 and. 79, and 12. 5 % between. 80 and. 89. Thus, all 40 dependent measures were reasonably represented in the factor solution. The resulting pattern matrix from the oblique-rotated solution is shown in Table 3. On the basis of the component weights in this matrix, each of the eight principal components was interpreted and labeled as follows: (1) auditory temporal order and temporal masking (audTOTM); (2) tactile temporal order and temporal masking (tacTOTM); (3) auditory and tactile threshold sensitivity (audtacTHR); (4) visual flicker-fusion threshold sensitivity (visFF); (5) auditory, visual, and tactile temporal order location (audtacvisTOloc); (6) visual temporal order and temporal masking (visTOTM); (7) auditory gap detection (audGD); and (8) tactile gap detection (tacGD). Note that although the second component is interpreted and labeled as tactile temporal order and temporal masking for simplicity, the tactile spatial acuity measure was also highly weighted on this factor, but tactile threshold sensitivity for sinusoidal vibration was not. Rather, the latter measure was associated with the audtacTHR factor. Furthermore, note that visual gap detection is the only dependent measure that was not weighted at least moderately on any of the eight factors identified. Although the communality value for this variable was reasonable (. 52), it was also the lowest value among the 40 dependent measures. Table 3 Pattern matrix showing component weights from eight-factor principal-component analysis of the 40 psychophysical measures of threshold sensitivity and temporal processing in hearing, touch, and vision (Table 1)Full size table Several observations can be made regarding the factors that emerged from this analysis. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it provides a detailed description of a factor analysis regarding psychophysical measures of threshold sensitivity and temporal processing without addressing the concept of selective attention or its effects on cognitive processing. The focus is on the statistical analysis and interpretation of component factors rather than the cognitive implications of attention.