Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: Gas rapidly exits, eroding material below the ice sheet to form furrows. A plume then deposits the sediment to form fans on the surface of the seasonal ice. The thickness of the overlying ice and dune topography are thought to have a strong influence on this process15. Close spacing of vents has also been noted to reduce cryoventing efficacy, with fewer furrows forming in locations where ice cracks are closer together12. Recent work has drawn a distinction between furrows in the northern hemisphere and “dendritic troughs” in the southern hemisphere16. While both show similar morphologies, furrows in the northern hemisphere are ephemeral features which disappear every year17. The dendritic troughs on south polar dunes endure, with new tributaries adding to the networks annually16. This study16 has drawn a potential link in formation process between the highly dendritic araneiform terrain of the south polar cryptic region and furrows/dendritic troughs. It has been suggested that araneiform terrain (dubbed “spiders” in the literature) may develop over many years by a gradual connection of dendritic networks into a radial network, rather than forming in one event16. Noting the difference in environmental conditions between the hemispheres, it has been argued that furrows in the northern hemisphere do not develop into dendrites because of the high mobility of the material into which they are eroded16. However, the size distribution of the granular substrate in both hemispheres is poorly constrained. For the purpose of our purely morphological laboratory study we refer to all network types as furrows. Recent experimental work has demonstrated that insolation-driven dust ejecta from within CO2 ice is a viable process18 and that pressure driven processes can form dendritic patterns under certain conditions19. However, it has not yet been demonstrated that sublimating CO2 in contact with porous substrate can transport underlying material and create the complex furrow morphologies seen on Mars. Until now, this geomorphic process has been framed in a purely theoretical context. PitsLinear gullies (Fig. 2) form on Martian dunes under current climatic conditions10,20,21,22. Recent mapping has shown that they occur between 36. 3°S and 54. 3°S and from 64. 6°S to 70. 4°S22. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not provide information specifically supporting or refuting the claim about Mars having polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. Instead, it discusses various geomorphic processes on Mars, including the behavior of furrows and dendritic troughs, but does not mention the composition of the polar ice caps.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: The tendons in the human leg act like springs, storing and releasing energy during running. [SEP] Text: The close interaction of these sheet-like tendons with the muscle belly dynamically modulates stiffness and allows aponeuroses to function as variable stiffness springs Azizi and of Ecology and The forces generated by the contractile machinery of skeletal muscle are transmitted to the skeleton through tendons. Most tendons don’t simply transmit forces but rather behave like springs, stretching as muscular forces are applied and recoiling as forces decline. The significance of tendon elasticity is most obvious in cyclical movements where elastic energy can be stored and recovered with tremendous efficiency thereby lowering the energetic cost of movement. An extreme example of this mechanism is the bouncy gaits of hopping wallabies, where it has been shown that tendon stretch and recoil can allow the organism to recycle nearly all of the energy from a previous stride (Biewener & Baudinette, 1995). This elastic behaviour of tendons extends well beyond such obviously bouncy gaits and also increases the energetic economy of walking and running. As a biological spring, the capacity of a tendon for storing elastic energy is largely determined by its stiffness. The mechanical energy stored in tendons is a function of the force applied to the tendon and length changes the tendon undergoes in response to that load. This relationship simplifies biomechanical models, where energy storage can be calculated from the modelled muscle force and a tendon’s characteristic stiffness (Zajac, 1989). This approach assumes that a given tendon is governed by a single relationship between force and length that defines a single stiffness. In situ measurements of isolated tendons suggest that this assumption is valid for so-called ‘free’ tendons, such as the Achilles, that span a gap between muscle and bone (Fig. 1). However, free tendons are not the only elastic structures capable of storing elastic energy. In many muscles the free tendon is continuous with broad sheet-like tendons, or aponeuroses, that function as the attachment and insertion sites for muscle fibres (Fig. 1). Both tendons and aponeuroses consist of collagen bundles oriented primarily along the muscle’s line of action embedded in an extra-cellular matrix. In fact, the same collagen bundle may extend from the tendon to the aponeurosis with no structural separation. These shared structural features have been used to infer functional similarity between tendons and aponeuroses. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by explaining that tendons behave like springs; they stretch when muscular forces are applied and recoil when those forces decline. It states that this elastic behavior allows tendons to store and recover elastic energy efficiently, particularly during activities like running, thereby supporting the notion that tendons function similarly to springs in the human leg.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Quantum cybersecurity is guaranteed to make digital data completely impenetrable. [SEP] Text: Through the repeated interactions with the attacker, the defender gradually identifies the data structures which are more likely attacked and randomizes them more often than others. Adversarial reasoning schemeFrom the experiments in next section, we will see can provide good effectiveness with low performance overhead. In this section, we discuss another capability of : it can enable the security officer to do two-level adversarial reasoning in real time. First, the security officer can determine whether a zero-day attack is DSMA or not. Second, if a zero-day attack is DSMA, the security officer can do program level reasoning to infer the target program of the DSMA. This two-level adversarial reasoning is elaborated as follows. The basic idea of the first level adversarial reasoning is to compare a zero-day attack with some known attacks (including DSMAs and non-DSMAs) at runtime and infer whether the zero-day attack is DSMA or not. Note that the utility defined in “Cost-effectiveness utility” section can be used to quantify cost-effectiveness of our defense. Since our defense is only effective when defending against DSMAs (determined by the DSSR Binary), the aggregate utility values of DSMAs and non-DSMAs are very different. Therefore by comparing the aggregate utility of the zero-day attack with those of known attacks, the security officer can tell whether the zero-day attack is DSMA or not. The aggregate utility values of the known attacks are achieved in Matlab simulations. We simulate and the known attacks in Matlab because the simulations are much faster than the real experiments in web servers. And the simulation results are similar to the real experiment results. This similarity is ensured by the following three aspects: (1) simulations have the same features as the real-world vulnerable web servers in terms of data structure types and instances. It is difficult to simulate the whole servers in Matlab, but we simulate the data structures and the related manipulations in Matlab. (2) The same UCB-D algorithm is implemented in both the real-world web servers and the Matlab simulations. (3) The simulated attacks have the same features as known CVEs in terms of targets and attack frequencies. If a zero-day attack is a DSMA, the security officer can further infer which program the DSMA is targeting. This adversarial reasoning capability is provided by the canary detection. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the complexities and strategies involved in defending against attacks, specifically zero-day attacks. It highlights that while certain defensive mechanisms, such as adversarial reasoning and the identification of attack types, can enhance security, they do not guarantee complete impenetrability. The mention of determining whether a zero-day attack is a DSMA and the necessity of comparing it with known attacks implies that vulnerabilities still exist, counters the claim that quantum cybersecurity ensures complete invulnerability.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: They are characterised by long (100–2,500 m), narrow grooves, are bounded by levées and have relatively small source areas. Forming exclusively on south polar and mid latitudinal intra-crater dunes, their activity is seasonal, and has been found to be concurrent with the final stages of sublimation of the CO2 ice deposit at the end of winter and beginning of spring22, rendering a CO2 sublimation formation mechanism likely. These eponymous features are mostly linear; though they sometimes adopt sinuous patterns and taper down-slope. Figure 2Terminal and detached linear gully pit morphologies. (a) Terminal pits (white arrows), and detached pits (red arrows) at linear gully termini on megadune (HiRISE image ESP_020784_1255, image centre at −54. 3°, 12. 9°, taken at L s 209. 5°). Black arrows point to inset pits within terminal pits. Green arrow indicates a high albedo block which is likely to be a CO2 block within a pre-existing terminal pit. (b) Terminal pits (white arrows) and detached pits (red arrows) on megadune (HiRISE image PSP_007018_1255 taken at L s 22. 5°, image centre at −54. 3°, 13° which was used as part of a stereo pair to create the _007018_1255_007229_1255). (c) Example of highly sinuous linear gullies on the west side of dunefield (HiRISE image ESP_030528_1300, image centre at −49. 5°, 77. 2°, taken at L s 254. 8°). Red arrows point to detached pits, white arrows show terminal pits. (d) “Tadpole” terminal pits in dunefield (HiRISE image PSP_003800_1325, image centre at −46. 9°, 30. 7°, taken at L s 240. 9°). These pits (white arrows) are much wider in diameter than their corresponding channels and are surrounded by detached pits (red arrows). (e) megadune (HiRISE image PSP_007018_1255). White boxes indicate locations of (a) and (b). (f) dunefield. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim regarding Mars' polar ice caps. Instead, it describes certain geological features and phenomena related to Mars, specifically the activity of CO2 sublimation and gully formations. While it mentions CO2 ice deposits, it lacks information specifically about the composition of the polar ice caps or the presence of water; hence it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Mauna Loa in Hawaii is the world’s largest active volcano by volume. [SEP] Text: DeformationVolcano monitoring1Figure 2Figure 3Figure 4Figure 5Figure 6Figure 7Figure 8Figure 9Figure 10Figure 11Figure 12IntroductionMauna Loa, situated on the Island of Hawaiʻi (Fig. 1), is well-known as the largest volcano on Earth, covering more than half of the island's surface area (exceeding 5,000 km2). Its volume is estimated to be over 80,000 km3 (Lipman and Calvert 2013), and it maintains an impressive record of activity, erupting 34 times since 1843. During the period between the mid-1800s and 1950, eruptions occurred approximately every 3. 6 years (Barnard 1995); however, the frequency of eruptions declined after 1950, with only three thereafter, in 1975, 1984, and 2022. Eruptions at are characterized by initial summit activity that about half the time subsequently migrates into one of the volcano’s two rift zones, with rare eruptions from radial vents on the volcano’s northwest flank (Fig. 1). Significant seismic events along a basal decollement fault also occur (Wyss and Koyanagi 1992). The recurrent high-effusion-rate lava flows from pose hazards to human life and property on the volcano's lower flanks and coastal regions, particularly developments like Estates, located along the Zone (SWRZ), and the city of Hilo, which can be impacted by lava flows from the Zone (NERZ) (Trusdell 1995). For example, a SWRZ lava flow in 1950 traveled from its vent area to populated areas within hours (MacDonald and Hubbard 1951). Geodetic monitoring efforts were implemented at in the mid-1960s, with Measurement (EDM) surveys at the summit (Decker and Wright 1968). These data recorded inflationary episodes prior to the brief eruption of 1975, as well as between that eruption and the substantial summit and NERZ eruption of 1984 (Lockwood 1987; Decker et al. 2008). A robust campaign (GNSS) network was established in the early 1990s (Miklius et al. 1995, 1997). The first continuous GNSS sites were installed in the late 1990s, with significant expansion of the network in the mid-2000s. Since the early 1990s, rates of seismicity at have waxed and waned, sometimes including earthquake swarms with hundreds per day. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by stating that 'Mauna Loa, situated on the Island of Hawaiʻi, is well-known as the largest volcano on Earth' and provides an estimated volume of over 80,000 km3, confirming its status as the world's largest active volcano.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Quantum cybersecurity is guaranteed to make digital data completely impenetrable. [SEP] Text: The canary detection reports two messages when some canaries are polluted: (1) the type of polluted data structures; (2) the program name which is inserted into the DSSR programs. With the program name and data structure type, the security officer can quickly pinpoint the target program. This second level adversarial reasoning is only meaningful when is effective; i. e. , the zero-day attack does not succeed. For example, the attack (CVE-2002-0656 2002) lasted several days against but still failedFootnote 3. This effectiveness, which will be validated in “Evaluation” section, gives the security officer sufficient time to locate the target program of the zero-day attack. Note that the first level adversarial reasoning is important because the security officer can quickly rule out non-DSMAs and do second level adversarial reasoning. EvaluationIn this section, we present the evaluation of. We first introduce the evaluation environment in “Real-world environment” section. We then evaluate the effectiveness of in “Effectiveness” section and its performance overhead in “Performance overhead” section. We finally verify the adversarial reasoning capability of in “Adversarial reasoning” section. Real-world environmentWe implement on the top of gcc-4. 5. 0 with 12K lines of C code added. All evaluation experiments are conducted on an Intel(R) Core(TM) i5 machine with 4GB memory running Linux 7. 3 with Linux kernel version 2. 4. 18. applications are generated We generate DSSR applications via using to compile open source programs, including apache-1. 1. 1, openssh-2. 1. 1p4, openssl-0. 9. 6d, and glibc-2. 2. 2. The DSSR applications contain 348, 47, 132, and 2329 data structure types, respectively. The following experiments are conducted on a vulnerable apache web server (apache-1. 1. 1 compiled with openssl-0. 9. 6d and glibc-2. 2. 2) and a vulnerable ssh server (openssh-2. 1. 1p4 compiled with glibc-2. 2. 2). For the vulnerable servers, we divide data structures to five groups, where each group has 20% data structures. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing vulnerabilities and potential attacks on systems implementing digital security measures, such as DSSR applications and zero-day attacks. It emphasizes that while some defensive measures are provided, they do not guarantee complete impenetrability. The mention of zero-day attacks that can last for days supports the idea that quantum cybersecurity, like any form of cybersecurity, cannot ensure absolute security against determined attackers.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: White box shows location of (c). (g) dunefield (HiRISE image PSP_003800_1325). White box shows location of (d). HiRISE image credit: NASA/JPL/University of Arizona. Full size image Terminal pitsUnlike terrestrial gullies, which are nearly always formed by liquid water, linear gullies do not have associated debris aprons. Instead, their channel termini are invariably punctuated by one (or more) terminal pit(s) (Fig. 2a–d). Located at the end of the linear gully channel, the terminal pit is usually slightly wider than the channel10. Terminal pits are defined by a roughly circular depression encircled by levées. Most linear gully channels end in a single pit, herein referred to as the primary terminal pit. However, some terminal pits occur as part of a dyadic to triadic sequence known as “pit strings”. Secondary and tertiary terminal pits are defined as terminal pits that are in a linear sequence with the primary terminal pit, and are always similar in size to the primary terminal pit. Many linear gullies, particularly the largest in scale, have lower albedo circular depressions within the distal region of their channels and/or their primary terminal pits. We refer to these as inset pits. Detached pitsSome terminal pits or terminal pit strings are surrounded by multiple detached pits (Fig. 2a–d). These pits are not connected to (or in line with) channels and are usually considerably smaller than their associated terminal pit(s). Detached pits are always exclusive to the distal region of the channel and are not found upslope. HypothesesLinear gully pits have no terrestrial analogues, and so it is likely that a geomorphic agent that does not occur naturally on Earth may be instrumental in their formation. Originally, terminal pits were proposed to be older flow fronts formed by successive debris flows20, however this is unlikely as linear gullies are forming today, in a climate which does not currently support liquid water10. There are two main schools of thought on the type of CO2 sublimation activity which might form linear gullies: the CO2 basal sublimation triggered debris flow hypothesis23 and the sliding CO2 block hypothesis21. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the formation of linear gullies and terminal pits on Mars without addressing the existence or composition of polar ice caps, including the specific materials of water and carbon dioxide.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Mauna Loa in Hawaii is the world’s largest active volcano by volume. [SEP] Text: ConclusionsThe 2022 eruption provided a rare opportunity to both witness a decades-awaited eruption, as well as to utilize modern geodetic tools to investigate the characteristics and sources of the volcano’s pre-, co-, and post-eruptive deformation. The patterns of deformation before the eruption varied over both space and time, introducing considerable uncertainty into forecasts of when and how the volcano might erupt. Caldera faulting in March 2021 and the detection of signals in borehole tiltmeters in March 2021 and from September to November 2022 provided the clearest sense that an eruption might be imminent. Co-eruptive displacements were complex and large in magnitude, being manifested across the Island of Hawaiʻi, and can be attributed to emplacement of a dike at shallow levels beneath the summit and upper NERZ, as well as volume loss from sub-caldera magma storage areas, reinflation of the volcano began three days before the end of the eruption, which was unexpected given experience at neighboring Kīlauea where reinflation usually coincides with the cessation or pausing of eruptive activity. Future efforts to track deformation of can build on the experience gained prior to and during the volcano’s 2022 eruption. The complementary capabilities of continuous and borehole tilt are vital to assessing displacement patterns, which can vary markedly over space and in time during the years to decades before an eruption. Deformation and seismicity in the caldera area, and especially localized displacements associated with caldera faulting, may offer an important indication of the potential for eruption within months to years. Borehole tilt data were particularly valuable in providing pre-eruptive warning in two ways: first, through the initial detection of tilt signals after decades of unrest began to culminate, and second by indicating the initial propagation of a dike from magma storage areas to the surface in the minutes before the eruption started. These insights provide a blueprint for monitoring future unrest of and anticipating the volcano’s next eruption, and the available datasets—past, present, and hopefully future—offer myriad opportunities for researching magmatic processes at the largest active volcano on Earth. Declarationsand monitoring data collection were supported by the U. S. Geological Survey. Conflicts of interest/Competing interests The author declares no competing interests. 4794. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by stating, 'the largest active volcano on Earth.' This aligns with the claim that Mauna Loa is recognized as the world’s largest active volcano by volume.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Quantum cybersecurity is guaranteed to make digital data completely impenetrable. [SEP] Text: We choose the length of the defense cycle as 1/5/10 seconds, respectively. At the beginning of each defence cycle, we randomize the data structures in one group based on the UCB-D algorithm. How attacks are launched We launch six real world attacks shown in Table 1. In the first attack, the buffer overflow bug in openssl (CVE-2002-0656 2002) is exploited to overwrite a data structure instance session (of type ssl_session_st) and malloc_chunk, whose details have been presented in “System components” section. In the second attack, the integer truncation bug in (CVE-2001-0144 2001) is exploited to overflow the pw_uid in passwd type and do privilege escalation. The third attack exploits the heap overflow bug in (CVE-2015-0235 2015), which will pollute malloc_chunk. In the fourth attack, the stack overflow bug in (CVE-1999-0071 1999) is exploited to overflow timeval. In the fifth attack, Heartbleed bug (CVE-2014-0160 2014) is exploited to over-read 2-bytes buffer and leak sensitive data. In the sixth attack, the same bug in openssh (CVE-2001-0144 2001) is used to modify an authentication flag (Chen et al. 2005) and circumvent the authentication check. This attack does not affect any data structure, and we denote it as do_authentication attack. and do_authentication attacks are non-DSMAs. Table 1 Defense results of DSSR applications in two hoursFull size tablecompile the selected programs with static DSLR and respectively. During our experiments, we also enable ASLR in the execution environments. We compare the defense results of static DSLR and by launching the six attacks respectively. Defense results are also shown in Table 1. The results demonstrate that in two hours, all six attacks can succeed when static DSLR is deployed. is deployed, DSMAs cannot succeed within two hours but the non-DSMAs; e. g. , Heartbleed and do_authenticated attack, can succeed. Justification of in cost-effectiveness is represented by the difference between the number of failed DSMAs (effectiveness part) and the number of randomized data structure instances (cost part). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by detailing the failures of specific security measures against real-world attacks. It describes how, even with defenses like static DSLR and randomized data structures, multiple attacks succeeded, indicating that there are vulnerabilities that can still be exploited. This suggests that quantum cybersecurity does not guarantee complete impenetrability, as demonstrated by the success of the six attacks.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: The CO2 basal sublimation triggered debris flow hypothesis23 suggests a solar-insolation-driven dry debris flow beneath seasonal CO2 ice on dunes. Successive events have been suggested to carve gully channels in Russell Crater23. However, while basal sublimation — driven debris flows are a plausible mechanism for channel formation, such a process would also deposit material at channel termini. Additionally, the model does not account for the presence of terminal pits or detached pits. The sliding CO2 block hypothesis21 is currently the only process that can account for the formation of channels and terminal pits which distinguish linear gullies from other gully morphologies, making this class of gullies exclusive to Mars. The hypothesis proposes that in spring, ice blocks detach from dune brinks. The blocks then descend dune slopes supported by a lubricating layer of CO2 gas. This gas layer is engendered by a mechanism similar to the Leidenfrost Effect24, which occurs when a liquid or solid is in thermal contact with a surface that is at a temperature far beyond its boiling or sublimation point. Upon surface contact, the substance (in this case, CO2 ice), will levitate on a cushion of gas, because the total force exerted by the gas pressure under the block exceeds its weight. This lubricating gas layer eliminates, or reduces, frictional forces so that blocks may move down even very gentle slopes of a few degrees. As the block moves it will carve out channels and deposit lateral levées, until it eventually stops to sublimate at the terminus. This ultimate sublimation explains the formation of a terminal pit. The block is proposed to rest at the base of the channel while sublimating, eroding a depression beneath it and transporting material to the side to form levées. This protracted stationary sublimation may explain why pits are commonly slightly wider than their corresponding channels, which are proposed to form by the rapid movement of blocks downslope21. Thus far, alcove, channel, levée and shallow pit morphologies have been observed to form when CO2 ice blocks were slid onto sand dunes in Utah and Arizona25,26. Further evidence consistent with this hypothesis was the detection of high albedo blocks within linear gully channels on Mars. These are most likely CO2 ice blocks “caught in the act”, of sliding through pre-existing linear gully channels10,21. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the composition of Mars' polar ice caps. Instead, it discusses mechanisms involved in the formation of gullies and channels on Mars related to CO2 ice. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim about the composition of polar ice caps.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Mauna Loa in Hawaii is the world’s largest active volcano by volume. [SEP] Text: Murray J, (2005) Spatiotemporal evolution of a transient slip event on the fault near Parkfield, California. J Geophys Research: 110(B9). (1978) Bathymetric and geologic maps of Kealakekua Bay, Hawaii. 986. Okubo PG (1995) A seismological framework for volcano, Hawaii. Ser 92:187–197. (2008) Swarms of similar long-period earthquakes in the mantle beneath Volcano. J Res 178(4):787–794. -Brown EK (2014) Magma supply, storage, and transport at shield-stage Hawaiian volcanoes. 1801:179–234. (2012) A mantle-driven surge in magma supply to Kīlauea Volcano during 2003–2007. 5(4):295–300. (2021) A decade of geodetic change at Kīlauea’s summit—Observations, interpretations, and unanswered questions from studies of the 2008–2018 Halemaʻumaʻu eruption, 1867. Geochemical evidence for invasion of Kilauea's plumbing system by magma. Nature 337(6204):257–260. Rubin AM (1990) A comparison of rift-zone tectonics in Iceland and Hawaii. 52:302–319. Sako MK (1987) EDM for Mauna Kea, Mauna Loa, and of Hawaii. US Open-87–648 Segall P, (1997) Time dependent inversion of geodetic data. J Geophys Research: 102(B10):22391–22409. Shreve T, (2023) Trapdoor fault activation: A step toward caldera collapse at Sierra Negra, Galápagos, Ecuador. J Geophys Research: 128(5). e2023JB026437 (2017) Volcanic unrest at Mauna Loa, Earth’s largest active volcano. Eos 98. (1989) Seismic detection of a low-velocity layer beneath the southeast flank of Mauna Loa, Hawaii. Lett 16(7):649–652. (2014) Volcano Observatory—a natural laboratory for studying basaltic volcanism. 1801:1–64 Trusdell FA (1995) Lava flow hazards and risk assessment on Volcano, Hawaii. Ser 92:327–336. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by specifically mentioning Mauna Loa as 'Earth’s largest active volcano' and provides context regarding volcanism in Hawaii, which supports the assertion about Mauna Loa's size and status.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Quantum cybersecurity is guaranteed to make digital data completely impenetrable. [SEP] Text: 5a- b Compare the aggregate utility values of apache + openssl (CVE-2002-0656 & CVE-1999-0071), and Heartbleed (CVE-2014-0610) in real server experiments with the aggregate utility values in Matlab simulations; c - d compare the aggregate utility values of openssh mutation (CVE-2001-0144) and do_authentication (CVE-2001-0144) in real server experiments with the aggregate utility values in Matlab simulationsFull size imageFor zero-day DSMAs, we infer their target programs. From the experimental results, all the four DSMAs mentioned in can be detected by the canary detection. The correct target programs’ names and the polluted data structures are reported to the security officer. DiscussionOur adaptive defense can perform adversarial reasoning to tell whether the attack is DSMA or not. However, if the attacker knows the defense, it can tailor the attack actions; e. g. , extending the duration of an attack try to several defense cycles. As such, the canary detection may not be able to detect the DSMA in some defense cycles, and cost-effectiveness utility values in these defense cycles may be very close to non-DSMA. Nonetheless, the defense can still get the feedbacks from the server and adaptively update its actions. As time goes by, the defender will gradually choose better actions so the long term aggregate utility will improve and be different from that of the non-DSMA. Our adaptive defense is deployed before any patches are generated and the zero-day memory corruption bugs are located. During the vulnerability window, the defender has limited knowledge of the attacks. Under this limited knowledge, it is not realistic for the defender to guarantee that no DSMA can succeed. However, as one form of moving target defense, our goal is to increase DSMA costs and make it harder for the attacker to succeed. In particular, a DSMA might succeed in one defense cycle. But when the same attack is launched the next time, the attacker still has to spend a very large price to succeed. In addition, a failed attack could tamper with some data and have some side effects. But due to randomization, the attacker should have no idea of the locations of the tampered data in a short period. So the probability of facilitating following attack attempts should be very small. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by stating that, under limited knowledge of attacks, it is not realistic for the defender to guarantee that no data structure manipulation attacks (DSMA) can succeed. It explains that while adaptive defenses aim to increase the cost for attackers and improve actions over time, there is still a possibility for successful attacks, particularly in certain defense cycles. This implies that absolute impenetrability, as suggested by the claim, is not attainable.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: It is possible that secondary and tertiary terminal pits may form by blocks that bounce at the channel terminus in the manner observed during field tests on sand dunes in Utah26. It has also been proposed that the multiple detached pits which surround many linear gully termini may be formed by smaller parts of blocks which have broken up at the terminus, scattering ice fragments into their surroundings21. However, the formation mechanism responsible for pronounced terminal pits and detached pits remains uncertain. It is not known if a stationary CO2 block can erode and deposit material to form the full range of pits identified here. Why detached pits are exclusive to a small fraction of linear gullies and why they are restricted to the lower part of the channel is also not yet clear. If detached pits were formed by broken blocks, it is conceivable that blocks would also break at locations such as sharp bends in the channel, areas of dune surface undulation and locations where channels merge. These are all regions where a block would be subjected to stress and yet detached pits are only found at channel termini. We hypothesise that if stationary sublimating CO2 blocks have the geomorphic agency to excavate and deposit material to form pits and circular levées, they must undergo a rapid sublimation process to do so. We reason therefore that blocks which reach the terminus may emit CO2 jets as they sublimate. If these jets entrain sufficient granular material27 they may then be capable of eroding detached pits when they return to the surface. Prior to this study, measurements of linear gullies has concentrated on geographical trends22 and the linear gully system as a whole21,26. Comprehending pit formation is crucial to understanding the formation mechanism responsible for this extra–terrestrial gully type. Therefore, it is important that we test whether sublimating CO2 ice blocks can form pit morphologies. MethodsObjectivesTo test the CO2 block hypothesis, in the context of pit formation, we first conducted a short survey of Martian linear gully terminal pits and detached pits on dunes in Russell, Proctor and Matara Craters. The objectives of this study were to (i) characterise the different terminal pit morphometries, (ii) investigate if there was any evidence of a link between these terminal pit morphometries and detached pits and (iii) investigate the range of block sizes which may be reactivating and widening linear gully channels seasonally. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses various hypotheses and studies related to the formation of pits and channels on Mars, particularly regarding sublimating CO2 blocks. However, it does not provide any information about the composition of Mars' polar ice caps or mention whether they are made of water or carbon dioxide. Therefore, the text is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Iceland’s volcanic eruptions can sometimes cause global cooling by releasing sulfur aerosols into the atmosphere. [SEP] Text: Preprints AbstractDiscussion © Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under the Attribution 4. 0 License. © Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under the Attribution 4. 0 License. Preprints AbstractDiscussionMetrics 20 Aug 2024 | 20 Aug 2024 Status: this preprint is open for discussion and under review for Climate of the Past (CP). Identifying climate variables that interchange with volcanic eruptions as cooling forces during the Common Era’s ice ages Seip, Øyvind Grøn, and Abstract. Volcanism is known to be an instigating factor for the Age (LALIA, 536–660) and the Age (LIA, 1250–1850), but little is known about when the effect of volcanism ends, and which other mechanisms prolong a cold period that includes the ice-ages’ cold periods, but also continued periods with persistent cooling. Here we show, with a high-resolution lead-lag method, where the stratospheric aerosol optical depth (SAOD) generated by volcanic emissions ceases to precede the summer temperature (NHST). We find that five climate mechanisms cool the (percentage time in parentheses): SAOD (51 %), total solar irradiance (TSI, 2 %), the oscillation (NAO, 11 %), the interdecadal Pacific oscillation (IPO, 28 %) and CO2 (16 %). The last four variables overlap, and altogether the five climate variables cover 89 % of the cold period that includes LALIA and LIA. In contrast, we find an increase in atmospheric CO2 over a brief period just after large volcanic eruptions. During the cold period, the five variables lead NHST, are in a cooling mode, and have sufficient strength to cool the Northern Hemisphere. How to cite. Seip, K. L. , Grøn, Ø. , and Wang, H. : Identifying climate variables that interchange with volcanic eruptions as cooling forces during the Common Era’s ice ages, EGUsphere [preprint], 2024. Received: 21 Jun 2024 – Discussion started: 20 Aug 2024 Publisher's note: remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims made in the text, published maps, institutional affiliations, or any other geographical representation in this preprint. The responsibility to include appropriate place names lies with the authors. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by identifying the cooling effects of volcanism, notably through volcanic emissions. It mentions that during the cold periods of the Little Ice Age, volcanism generated stratospheric aerosol optical depth (SAOD), leading to cooling in the Northern Hemisphere. The text explains that SAOD accounts for 51% of cooling during these periods, supporting the idea that volcanic eruptions, such as those from Iceland, can contribute to global cooling by releasing aerosols into the atmosphere.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Quantum cybersecurity is guaranteed to make digital data completely impenetrable. [SEP] Text: The canary detection can detect continuous buffer over-write attacks, which are the main form of buffer overflow. There are several methods to bypass the canary detection (Litchfield 2003; 2009). However, most of the bypass canary methods are focused on stack cookie (2009). Some methods (Litchfield 2003) even need to hook the data structures (e. g. , exception handler registration structure) to bypass. In contrast, our adaptive DSLR can raise the bar for this kind of bypassing. In addition, discrete write approaches, which use bugs like format string (OWASP 2009), can modify target data objects without changing the value of the canary. As such, discrete write can circumvent the canary detection. What’s more, to circumvent the canary detection, an attacker can resort to memory content leakage (e. g. , memory disclosure (Snow et al. 2013), uninitialized memory tracking (Chen et al. 2011), side channel (Bittau et al. 2014; Seibert et al. 2014; Zhang et al. 2012)). At client-side, the canaries may be easier to be read than sever-side, because just-in-time compilers (e. g. , Javascript and Actionscript engines) may help the attacker to poke around memory (Blazakis 2010). State-of-the-art protection CFI (Abadi et al. 2005; Bletsch et al. 2011; Egele et al. 2012; Zhang and Sekar 2013) and ASLR (Backes 2014; Bhatkar et al. 2003, 2005; Hiser et al. 2012; Kil et al. 2006; Keromytis et al. 2012; Paleari et al. 2009; The PaX Team 2003b; Wartell et al. 2012; Bigelow et al. 2015; Davi et al. 2015; Giuffrida et al. 2012; Lu et al. 2016) raise the bar for the attacker to get the information of memory layout. When the canary detection discovers the DSMAs, it is a malicious/unsafe event clearly. If the point is that attackers may continue poking around in a brute-force fashion, then blocking the attack after the detection of several consecutive crashes/canary overwrites seems to be a good idea. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by outlining various methods and techniques that attackers can use to bypass security measures, such as canary detection and state-of-the-art protections. It discusses how attackers can still find ways around these detection methods and that there are vulnerabilities that allow for circumvention, suggesting that digital data is not completely impenetrable.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: To further test the CO2 hypothesis, in the context of pit formation, we performed experiments to examine whether sliding and hence partially buried CO2 ice blocks would form morphologies comparable to Martian linear gully primary terminal pits and detached pits. To test the cryoventing hypothesis, in the context of furrow formation, we performed a second set of experiments with two aims: (i) to study the erosion patterns resulting from the interaction between a gently placed CO2 block and granular substrate and compare these features to a pre-existing Martian furrow network classification12; (ii) to study the factors which constrain furrow pattern type and furrow density. Survey of Pits in Proctor, Russell and (HiRISE) Models (DTMs) DTEEC_003080_1325_004077 and DTEEC_007018_1255_007229 and corresponding orthophotos were employed to survey linear gully pits in respectively. The polygon tool in ArcMap 10. 4 was used to measure the area of individual terminal pits (along the levée apex), taking the diameter of this circle as the pit width. Terminal pit area was calculated by squaring the pit radius and multiplying by π. Pit depths were measured using the tool, by drawing a line across the pit centre and extending this to the surrounding dune surface. Depth was estimated as the difference in elevation between a pit floor and the surrounding dune surface on each side and averaging these values. (DTEEC_007018_1255_007229) has an estimated vertical precision of 1. 2 m28. The relatively low estimated vertical precision is attributed to a low convergence angle (or sum of emission angles) between the stereo pair used to develop the DTM, which reduces vertical precision. Horizontal accuracy of this DTM was given by post spacing, which was 1 m/pixel. (DTEEC_003080_1325_004077) has an estimated vertical precision of <0. 5 m28 and a horizontal accuracy of 1 m/pixel. Pit widths in both locations were generally much wider than 1 m and so horizontal accuracy should not significantly affect our measurements. Both sites were dark dunes and so noise in the DTMs may have affected our measurements to a small degree. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it does not provide any information about the composition of Mars' polar ice caps. Instead, it discusses experiments related to CO2 ice blocks and their morphologies in the context of pit formations on Mars without mentioning the polar ice caps specifically.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Iceland’s volcanic eruptions can sometimes cause global cooling by releasing sulfur aerosols into the atmosphere. [SEP] Text: Preprints AbstractDiscussion © Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under the Attribution 4. 0 License. © Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under the Attribution 4. 0 License. Preprints AbstractDiscussionMetrics 04 May 2023 | 04 May 2023 Stratospheric aerosol size reduction after volcanic eruptions. Thomason, Sandra Wallis, and Christian von Savigny Abstract. The stratospheric aerosol layer plays an important role in the radiative balance of earth primarily through scattering of solar radiation. The magnitude of this effect depends critically on the size distribution of the aerosols. The aerosol layer is in large part fed by volcanic eruptions strong enough to inject gaseous sulfur species into the stratosphere. The evolution of the stratospheric aerosol size after volcanic eruptions is currently one of the biggest uncertainties in stratospheric aerosol science. We retrieved aerosol p10. 5194/egusphere-2023-837, 2023. Received: 26 Apr 2023 – Discussion started: 04 May 2023 Publisher's note: remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims made in the text, published maps, institutional affiliations, or any other geographical representation in this preprint. The responsibility to include appropriate place names lies with the authors. Download & links Preprint (PDF, 8086 KB) Notice on discussion status The requested preprint has a corresponding peer-reviewed final revised paper. You are encouraged to refer to the final revised version. Preprint (8086 KB) Download & links The requested preprint has a corresponding peer-reviewed final revised paper. You are encouraged to refer to the final revised version. Preprint (8086 KB) revised paper 10. 5194/acp-23-9725-2023, 2023 Short summary Short summary The stratospheric aerosol layer is a naturally occurring and permanent layer of aerosol, in this case very small droplets of mostly sulfuric acid and water, that has a cooling effect on our climate. To quantify this effect and for our general understanding of stratospheric microphysical processes, knowledge of the size of those aerosol p756. This seems a bit odd, one ratio is lesser:greater and the other greater:lesser? But this is what is done, Fig. 6, so the text is interpreted correctly as written. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by explaining that volcanic eruptions inject gaseous sulfur species into the stratosphere, which contributes to the stratospheric aerosol layer that has a cooling effect on the climate. It details the importance of these aerosols in the radiative balance of Earth and how their size distribution plays a critical role in this cooling effect.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Quantum cybersecurity is guaranteed to make digital data completely impenetrable. [SEP] Text: However, this kind of defense (stopping the process) actually has the same results under DDoS attacks. In addition, merely stopping cannot prevent the next but the same DSMAs. Related workIn this section, we focus on two potential defenses against DSMAs: Integrity and Data-Plane Randomization. was first proposed by et al. (2006). By using static analysis, DFI computes a Graph and checks whether the definition of each data object is legal at run-time. A tailored DFI (Song et al. 2016) was proposed to solve the privilege escalation attack in the kernel. A complete enforcement of DFI can defend against DSMAs, however, complete DFI suffers from performance overhead as high as 103% (Castro et al. 2006). Tailored DFI (Song et al. 2016) focusing on privilege escalation attacks in the kernel can defeat small parts of DSMAs, but the majority of DSMAs are out-of-scope of that work. Recently, researchers leverage hardware to assist the DFI and improve the runtime overhead (Song et al. 2016). However, the techniques heavily depend on new features of the newest CPU (processor tracing), which is not in use by the majority of web service providers. By comparison, our method not only has reasonable performance overhead, but also is hardware independent. Data-Randomization (DSR) (Bhatkar and Sekar 2008; Cadar et al. 2008) was proposed to prevent non-control-flow attacks by XORing data with random masks. However DSR introduces high performance overhead since all the data objects need to be randomized. Static DSLR (Lin et al. 2009; Stanley et al. 2013; Xin et al. 2010) was proposed to prevent data structure manipulation attacks, via modifying the definition of a data structure to reorder the fields. However, static DSLR has several limitations. First, the layout randomized by static DSLR is determined at compile time, and it is vulnerable to brute force attacks (Stacham et al. 2004). Second, static DSLR requires manual efforts to determine which data structure can be randomized. Xin et al. (Xin et al. 2010) extend static DSLR and propose to use a constraint set to select randomizable data structures. But their technique cannot handle nested data structures and ignores all data structures associated with pointer operations. (Chen et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing various cybersecurity methods and their limitations. For instance, it highlights that techniques like static DFI and static DSLR, while intended to improve data security, have vulnerabilities to brute force attacks, performance overhead issues, and specific limitations regarding the protection of data structures. This suggests that no single defense, including quantum cybersecurity, can ensure complete impenetrability against all attacks.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: We have estimated an upper limit of this effect by taking 10 linear cross sections close to pit locations in both DTMs. We detrended these cross sections, averaged them and calculated the standard deviation as an estimate of noise29. Crater this value was 1. 7 m and in Proctor Crater, the value was 1. 08 m and so depths <1. 7 m were not reported in and depths less than 1. 08 m were not reported in Proctor Crater. Horizontal measurements from orthophotos at both locations may have been affected by atmospheric dust and detector noise which was at the pixel level and would affect our horizontal measurements by one pixel at most. A time-series of HiRISE images was used to determine whether there may be a link between detached pit and terminal pit formation. We propose that larger pit sizes (that indicate larger ice blocks) have a higher probability of generating detached pits. Terminal pit areas were measured as outlined above and the number of detached pits surrounding them were counted. Detached pits were identified as low albedo depressions. Negative topography was confirmed using the tool to generate topographic profile data across the feature in the corresponding DTM where possible. Smaller features that may have been artefacts of dune surroundings (e. g. shadows in ripples), were not included. HiRISE images taken at the same location (−54. 3°, 12. 9–13°) on the Russell megadune and dunes (−49. 5°, 34. 7° and −49. 5°, 34. 6°) allowed us to identify new or widened terminal pits and new detached pits. Suitable data were not available for Proctor Crater. Crater observations ranged over 4 Mars years (MY) between MY 29 and 32. The images used were ESP_012213_1255, ESP_020784_1255, ESP_029764_1255 and ESP_039153_1255 for MY 29, 30, 31 and 32 respectively. These images have emission angles of 8. 2°, 5. 1°, 3. 8° and 3. 8° respectively. Emission angle is the angle between the HiRISE camera and a normal drawn perpendicular to the surface, where 0° is known as nadir). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim because it discusses measurements and observations related to crater formations and pits on Mars, without mentioning anything about the composition of polar ice caps or the presence of water and carbon dioxide.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Iceland’s volcanic eruptions can sometimes cause global cooling by releasing sulfur aerosols into the atmosphere. [SEP] Text: Note the differences between model estimates below the tropopause, particularly in the northern hemisphere, compared to the measurements. Including these in the model results distracts the reader from the comparison’s salient points, and the authors make no mention of this region in their discussion. 390-395 The inclusion of m3/m2 is rather superfluous. The important quantities are V and A, however they are calculated. Here the authors also need to be clear that there is a difference of a factor of three between the measurements (which do not include the factor of 3) and the model (which do) when comparing the effective radii using Eqns (2) and (4). 396-424 Based on the comparison in Fig. 8, it appears that the discrepancy of the factor of three has been accounted for by the authors. At least one would hope so. But until this distinction is made clear it is difficult to fully trust this comparison. Citation: AC1: 'Reply on RC1', Felix Wrana, 12 Jul 2023 Comment: This is a useful contribution on determining stratospheric aerosol size distributions fromISS data and using the size distributions to assess the evolution of aerosol size following several recent small volcanic eruptions. The paper suffers some confusion over the definition and use of effective radius and in the presentations of distributions of dn/dr. Once these are clarified the paper should be published. Here are detailed comments using the manuscript line numbers. Answer: Thank you very much for the constructive and helpful criticism, especially of places, where we got the nomenclature wrong. We implemented most of the suggestions right away and made sections clearer, where there may have been a misunderstanding. Comment: 81 Is σ the mode width or the distribution width? This is a monomodal lognormal so there is only one mode. Mode width is used throughout, but really what is intended is the distribution width, which is a better description. Answer: We changed it to distribution width in the whole document. Comment: 90 To be clear use : or notation when writing the ratios. According to the text the ratios used are 449:756 and 1544:756. This seems a bit odd, one ratio is lesser:greater and the other greater:lesser? But this is what is done, Fig. 6, so the text is interpreted correctly as written. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provided is irrelevant to the claim. It discusses model estimates and comparisons of aerosol size distributions following several volcanic eruptions, but does not specifically mention Iceland, its volcanic eruptions, or the global cooling effects associated with sulfur aerosols. Therefore, it does not corroborate or contrast the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Quantum cybersecurity is guaranteed to make digital data completely impenetrable. [SEP] Text: 2015) was proposed to achieve dynamical data structure layout re-randomization. However, the set of randomized data structures selected by an expert is fixed throughout the whole lifetime of a process. In addition, suffers from high runtime overhead. ConclusionWe present a new adaptive DSLR with adversarial reasoning, that automatically translates a program to a data structure self-randomizing (DSSR) program. At runtime, a DSSR program periodically selects and randomizes a set of data structures based on the UCB-D algorithm. could perform adversary reasoning to indicate whether there is DSMA or not, and further locate the target program of the attack. is the first effective defense with low overhead against DSMA. Moreover, adversarial reasoning is a unique feature of our defense. We have implemented based on gcc-4. 5. 0. Experimental results show that the runtime overheads are 1. 8%, 3. 7%, and 5. 3% when the defense cycles are selected as 10s, 5s, and 1s respectively. NotesASLR randomizes the base addresses of both data and code in the memory. CFI disables deviations from the being-protected program’s original control-flow graph. We used brute force attacks to guess the layout of ssl_session_st when we did the experiments. 256. 120. . Microsoft Research, Cambridge. 39. html. CVE-2001-0144 (2001) -32 compensation attack detector. (2002) Apache openssl heap overflow exploit. (2014) Heartbleed Bug. CVE-2015-0235 (2015) Ghost: glibc gethostbyname buffer overflow. Isomeron: Code randomization resilient to (just-in-time) return-oriented programming In: (NDSS ’15). . . 936. CVE-2014-0160 (2014) TL, (1985) Asymptotically efficient adaptive allocation rules. Math 6(1):4–22. 2. (2009) Format string. Surgically returning to randomized lib(c) In: Conference (ACSAC ’09). . ACM, New York. 5664. Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsCollege of and 16802, & Peng Liuof and 16801, & author publicationsYou can also search for this author in PubMed 4. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting that the proposed method for data security suffers from high runtime overhead and does not guarantee complete data protection, as it discusses a new defense system without stating it is foolproof. Additionally, the text mentions randomization techniques and adaptive strategies, which are part of a defense mechanism against attacks, suggesting that there is still vulnerability in systems, which opposes the idea that quantum cybersecurity can completely eliminate data breaches.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: Orthorectification corrects for distortions that may occur in off-nadir images where the spacecraft roll angle causes pixel foreshortening in the cross-track direction30. The images we used were not orthorectified, and so disparities may occur when comparing images with different observation geometry. To minimise this effect, images close to nadir were chosen and care was taken to select images with less than a 5° difference in emission angle. Because such differences are small, we can neglect parallax distortions31. A correction was made for any minor deviations however by dividing x-direction measurements by the cosine of the emission angle30. In each case the distortions are within tens of centimetres and thus fall within errorbars for our measurements. Experimental SetupIn order to investigate the CO2 block hypothesis for pit formation21 and the cryoventing hypothesis for furrow formation11 we performed laboratory experiments. Initial pilot work, under ambient terrestrial conditions, revealed that water in the atmosphere had a significant effect as it formed frost on the surface of the block and on the bed. This affects the heat budget, the permeability of the bed and the mobility of the grains and must be avoided. Additionally, this frost would later melt and erase the surface microtopography. Therefore, we performed our experiments in a low humidity chamber. The chamber was erected on a level surface in a constant temperature (ΔT ≈ 3 K) laboratory. A plastic container (460 × 675 × 400 mm) was filled with dehumidifying silica gel beads. A smaller plastic container (300 × 520 × 370 mm) was placed inside, forming a silica gel bead moat which surrounded the interior container. A perspex lid was fitted on top of the chamber and vacuum bagging gum sealant tape was added at the interface between the container and lid to ensure the chamber was air-tight. A sealed trap door was constructed within the perspex lid in order to minimise exposure to atmospheric water vapour when placing blocks inside. Prior to each experimental run, three CO2 ice blocks were placed upon the silica bead moat and were given time to sublimate. These generated dense CO2 gas which flushed out the original gaseous content, thus removing any water vapour. This reduced the relative humidity sufficiently so that there was no noticeable frost formation during the experiments on the ~−80 °C CO2 ice blocks. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the methodology of an experimental setup and the effects of water vapor and CO2 but does not mention the composition of Mars' polar ice caps. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Iceland’s volcanic eruptions can sometimes cause global cooling by releasing sulfur aerosols into the atmosphere. [SEP] Text: Citation: Peer review completion AR: Author's response | RR: Referee report | ED: Editor decision | EF: Editorial file upload AR by on behalf of the Authors (18 Jul 2023) Author's response Author's tracked changes Manuscript ED: Publish as is (24 Jul 2023) by AR by on behalf of the Authors (27 Jul 2023) Report abuse × Please provide a reason why you see this comment as being abusive. You might include your name and email but you can also stay anonymous. Please provide a reason why you see this comment as being abusive. Please confirm reCaptcha. Comment* Name: Email: 10. 5194/acp-23-9725-2023, 2023 Short summary Short summary The stratospheric aerosol layer is a naturally occurring and permanent layer of aerosol, in this case very small droplets of mostly sulfuric acid and water, that has a cooling effect on our climate. To quantify this effect and for our general understanding of stratospheric microphysical processes, knowledge of the size of those aerosol p10. 5194/acp-23-15351-2023 Observation of the From the 2022 Hunga Tonga—Hunga Ha'apaiISS C. Duchamp et al. 10. 1029/2023GL105076 Latest update: 19 Sep 2024 felix. wrana@uni-greifswald. de × Institute of Physics, University of Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 6, 17489 Greifswald, Niemeier × Institute for Meteorology, Bundesstr. 53, 20146 Hamburg, W. Thomason × × Institute of Physics, University of Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 6, 17489 Greifswald, von Savigny × Institute of Physics, University of Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 6, 17489 Greifswald, The requested preprint has a corresponding peer-reviewed final revised paper. You are encouraged to refer to the final revised version. Preprint (8086 KB) revised paper Short summary The stratospheric aerosol layer is a naturally occuring and permanent layer of aerosol, in this case very small droplets of mostly sulfuric acid and water, that has a cooling effect on our climate. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the stratospheric aerosol layer, which consists of small droplets of mostly sulfuric acid and water, stating that it has a cooling effect on our climate. This aligns with the claim, as sulfur aerosols released during volcanic eruptions can contribute to this cooling effect.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Personalized nutrition uses genetic data to tailor diet recommendations to individuals. [SEP] Text: DTC genetic testing for disease susceptibility remains controversial, with opponents arguing that the tests possess limited value due to their questionable clinical validity and utility (Burke 2009; Eng and Sharp 2010; Caulfield et al. 2010). Critics note that predicted risks will continue to change as new genetic variants are discovered, and thus any risk estimates for disease based on currently known common variants are premature (Janssens et al. 2011; Mihaescu et al. 2009). Moreover, environmental factors such as diet, smoking, and physical activity can have a far greater impact on risk, but are often not considered when providing estimates of risk. There is also concern that consumers may experience anxiety if provided with the estimates of higher risk for developing certain diseases based on their genes and may seek out potentially unnecessary health interventions (McGuire and Burke 2008). Another criticism of most DTC genetic tests is that the corresponding advice is not genuinely personalized since the lifestyle recommendations are generally the same, regardless of genotype. Despite these criticisms, proponents of DTC genetic tests argue that there is public interest in genomics and that individuals should have access to their own genetic information (Bloss et al. 2011a; Caulfield et al. 2010). In addition, some propose that direct access to genetic information may motivate consumers to adopt lifestyle behavioral changes aimed at reducing the risk of disease development (Bloss et al. 2011a; McBride et al. 2010). Studies have reported different findings of the effects of disclosure of genetic risk information on health-related behaviors (Arkadianos et al. 2007; Chao et al. 2008; Conradt et al. 2009; Lerman et al. 1997; Marteau et al. 2004; McBride et al. 2002; Vernarelli et al. 2010); however, only one study has investigated the impact of DTC genetic testing on behavior and reported no short-term changes in specific dietary or exercise behaviors (Bloss et al. 2011b). A limitation of that study is that the genetic risk scores that were given to the subjects were not specifically linked to a particular lifestyle behavior, and no personalized advice to reduce the risk of developing a health condition was provided. Importantly, there was no control group in the study. A recent survey of readers of the journal Nature shows that 27% of respondents who had their genomes analyzed changed their diet, lifestyle, or medication based on their genetic information, suggesting that genetic information could impact behavior (Maher 2011). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting that many DTC genetic tests do not provide genuinely personalized dietary recommendations based on genotype. It states that the lifestyle recommendations are often the same for all individuals, which undermines the idea of tailoring diet recommendations to the specific genetic data of individuals.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: Though grain sizes at linear gully and furrow locations on Mars have not been constrained, we used the preliminary data collected by the in the Bagnold dune setting on Mars to optimise the range of grain sizes employed in our experiments. We estimated a scale factor of 0. 61 (see Supplementary Material, Experimental Scaling) by which to reduce grain size to compensate for the disparity in gravity between Mars and Earth. Grain sizes detected in the Bagnold dunes ranged from fine to coarse sand32, with many passing through a <150 μm sieve. The average grain size detected in the Bagnold dunes was between 200 and 300 μm 32. When scaled, these ranges fall between <90 μm and 122–183 μm, respectively. Therefore, of four grain diameter ranges (4–45 μm, 45–90 μm, 75–150 μm and 160–212 μm) were used for sixteen separate experimental runs. Experimental ProtocolIn the low humidity environment, pure CO2 ice blocks were slid onto beds of glass spheres of each grain size range. We define “sliding” as a gentle motion nudging the block onto the bed surface — sliding is a motion which has enough force to slightly disrupt the granular surface. Sublimation then transports the grains underneath and near the edge of the block. We used Structure from Motion33 (SfM) to build Models (DEMs) of the resultant morphologies from each experiment. We then compared these morphologies and morphometries with Martian terminal and detached pits measured using HiRISE images and DTMs. A second set of experiments was designed to study the formation of furrows. The blocks were placed as gently as possible on a flat granular bed in order to generate CO2 gas flow beneath the block. The aim was to investigate whether such a layer of gas at the interface between CO2 ice and a granular substrate could form furrow networks on an initially smooth and level bed. SfM was again employed to build high resolution DEMs of the features produced and the resulting furrow morphologies were compared with the well-characterised furrow networks on Martian dunes11,12. Each granular sample was dried and sieved to disaggregate material prior to each experiment. The sample was then poured into the inner container and levelled using a spirit level. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim about the composition of Mars' polar ice caps as it primarily discusses experimental procedures related to grain sizes and CO2 ice blocks on Mars without providing any information about the polar ice caps or their composition.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: The discovery of extremophiles on Earth, organisms that survive in extreme environments, supports the possibility of life on other planets. [SEP] Text: Serpentine in Sri Lanka: Extreme environments on Earth and harbors of life on MarsHood and BarbatoBacked by. Jeffrey Taylor, Jack Box, and 27 other backers-. , Rafael F. . R. Skok, Aaron Barbato, Ashley Q. . and Eric D. : 10. 18258/11434$2,895Raised of $2,885 Goal100%Funded on 8/02/18Successfully Funded$2,895pledged100%fundedFundedon 8/02/18? How does this work? FollowOverviewMethods(5)Discussion (4)ProjectOur team aims to map and sample serpentine rocks and their related soils in Sri Lanka. These rocks originate from deep in the Earth and we want to characterize them in order to understand their origin and role in the regional geologic history. This will provide more information for local communities, inform the geologic history of the region, and provide context for serpentine bodies found elsewhere on Earth as well as on other planets like Mars. Ask the ScientistsDiscussionWhat is the context of this research? Lanka, at least four serpentine bodies have already been discovered and their locations have been documented (Vithanage et. al. , 2014). The serpentine bodies are found along the boundary of two major rock bodies in that were pushed together 600 million years ago (Mathavan et. al. , 1999). However, the history of the serpentine bodies and their relationship to the surrounding rocks remains poorly known. In addition, the soils that develop from these rocks are a hazard, containing high concentrations of heavy metals that can contaminate groundwater and inhibit plant growth. With our work, we hope to contribute to our understanding of the fundamental geology of the region, and provide more data and observations to help quantify the threat posed by these soils. What is the significance of this project? Greater characterization of these serpentinite bodies will shed light on how fit into the Gondwana supercontinent assembly ~600 million years ago. While small, likely fit between the larger portions of the Gondwana assembly, and can inform the arrangement of the other continents (Mathavan et. al. ,1999). Furthermore, the soils on these bodies are a present concern for local populations (Vithanage et. al. , 2014), and characterization of soil compositions provides more data to aid local planning and management strategies. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the mapping and sampling of serpentine rocks in Sri Lanka and their potential relevance to understanding geologic bodies on other planets, specifically Mars. It suggests that the study of extreme environments on Earth, such as serpentine rocks, can provide valuable insights into the possibility of life elsewhere, aligning with the claim's premise that extremophiles support life potential on other planets.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Gut microbiome analysis is increasingly used to create personalized diet plans based on how a person processes nutrients. [SEP] Text: Prior to 2010 the general method of sampling and categorizing DNA from complex samples has been to clone or otherwise segregate individual amplicons, then sequence a subset of them [28-30]. However, the number of sequences required to adequately quantify the population levels of each taxa in a sample is unwieldy. Additionally, newer high throughput sequencing technology has been used to study bacterial populations using the 16S sequences. While this technology is readily available the complex analytical tools and expertise necessary to analyze the data is not as readily available. Recent development of a high density microarray consisting of probes complementing 16S genes has enabled researchers to perform profiling of the microbes in a given sample for monitoring changes in the bacterial communities in a simple and time efficient manner [31]. These microarrays have been used in monitoring microbes in diverse environments and in disease and are able to provide a fingerprint of characterized sequences [32-34]. Specific microbiome signature changes have been reported in inflammatory bowel disease, obesity and infectious diseases and are considered for the diagnosis and monitoring of these disorders. This provides an opportunity to develop more novel biomarkers for monitoring disease progression or therapeutic outcomes. The use of probiotics, dietary patterns and intake of various nutrients can change profiles of fecal microflora [12, 35-37]. Specific diets have been implicated to play a role in Crohn’s disease. Thus, efforts were made to utilize specialized diets, such as the Diet™ (SCD) and the Diet (LRD), for restoring the gut microbiome and to improve intestinal health [38-41]. The SCD restricts the use of complex carbohydrates and has been advocated in the symptomatic management of celiac disease for many years since 1955 [42-45]. The LRD is a low fiber diet and serves to prolong intestinal transit time. This has been suggested to be beneficial in alleviating Crohn’s disease symptoms with varying results [46]. Further investigations are needed to gain insights into the complexity and dynamics of the human microbiota in the context of various diets for managing gut inflammation. In this study, we investigated several methods of fecal sample processing for their utility in providing the best representation of the fecal microbiome diversity. The aim of this study was to demonstrate changes in the complexity of the microbiome in the longitudinal fecal samples following diet modification using culture independent high-density microarrays, the 16S PhyloChip. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim because it primarily discusses methods and technologies for analyzing the gut microbiome and mentions some dietary patterns and their potential effects on gut health, but it does not specifically address the creation of personalized diet plans based on individual nutrient processing. Instead, it details technological advances in microbiome research and their implications for diseases, which does not directly support or contrast the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: A time-lapse camera was positioned inside the chamber to record sublimation rate. A digital hygrometer placed on top of the bed indicated depression of relative humidity in real-time. Once relative humidity decreased sufficiently, the trap door was opened and a CO2 ice block of mass <1 kg (Table 1) was either placed or slid onto the bed. The chamber was immediately sealed and the block in each case was allowed to sublimate and interact with the granular substrate. This sublimation process lasted ~7–11 hours for each block depending on its mass and whether it burrowed. Videos of the initial sublimation dynamics in each case were recorded with an iPhone 6S 12 megapixel camera from outside the chamber, in order to avoid accumulation of grains on the lens which would hamper video quality. Table 1 Laboratory experiment controlled and measured parameters:Full size table Model DevelopmentAll features resulting from CO2 sublimation were modelled in three dimensions by SfM33 using Agisoft Photoscan. SfM is a technique for reconstructing three dimensional structures from two dimensional image sequences. is commercially available software which can photogrammetrically process digital images to create 3D spatial data. Each feature produced was imaged at many overlapping positions. In order to establish scale in the DEMs, coded markers were placed within the scene. finds the exact centre of coded markers enabling the production of highly accurate DEMs and the accurate measurement of features in the scene. Agisoft recommend that three or more scale bars are optimal. Therefore, a local coordinate system composed of three coded markers at known distances apart from one another, was used for scale definition34 to develop our 3D models. This local coordinate system was composed of three black and white circular 12-bit coded markers which were printed on three 6. 8 × 8 cm sheets of paper. The centres of these markers were positioned on a flat wooden triangle (of 75 cm2 area) and the markers themselves were laminated with a thin layer of plastic34. The (x, y, z) coordinates of the marker centres were carefully measured with an Engineer’s Scale prior to placement in the scene34 and these were later entered in to develop scale bars for reference within the models. These coordinates (in metres) were: (0, 0, 0), (0. 064, 0. 115, 0) and (0. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the composition of Mars' polar ice caps. Instead, it discusses a laboratory experiment involving CO2 sublimation and the methodology for creating 3D models, which is unrelated to the claim regarding Mars. Therefore, it is classified as irrelevant.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: The discovery of extremophiles on Earth, organisms that survive in extreme environments, supports the possibility of life on other planets. [SEP] Text: That will yield a reference for martian serpentine soil and related challenges as a growth substrate for crop plants by human explorers. My PhD student has published at major venues like the Journal of Geophysical Research. Barbato has excelled in advanced work, including cathodoluminescence analyses. & 70810, USASerpentine soils support a unique ecosystem with much of the microbial and plant life that largely remains to be characterized. These life forms and their interactions hold great promise for pioneering research in the forefront of planetary and biological sciences. As a biologist investigating extremophytes, I am certain that this field expedition will provide a critical resource for studies on extreme life. soils are of great interest for astrobiological studies on Mars. This research team is well equipped to perform this study, they have thoroughly planned their field and lab work and have appropriate contacts in to have this project be successful. As an astrobiologist and geochemist I am excited about this work as it addresses a unique Mars analog system, and it addresses a real human health concern as highly basic serpentine soils have chemistries that are potentially harmful to communities. is a great project that has geochemical and astrobiological implications. The field work is essential to understanding serpentine formation and gives the investigators first hand experience in a site where it forms. This can be applied to the occurrences or suspected occurrences on Mars. has excellent experience in Martian science, so an interesting outcome is ensured. G. of Geophysics and Planetology, University of HawaiiProject TimelineUntil we leave on August 2nd, we will be planning and preparing for our field mission to Sri Lanka. We will spend a week there, visiting sites and collecting samples and other field data. Samples will have to be shipped back, which will take some time to return to the US. Upon the return of the samples, we will begin preparing the samples for examination and getting our first look at the samples. Initial results will be shared at the 2019 Lunar and ConferenceJul 12, 2018Start Experiment. com CampaignJul 12, 2018Project LaunchedAug 02, 2018Depart for Sri LankaSep 01, 2018Samples returned from Sri LankaNov 01, 2018Complete initial characterization of samplesShow more eventsMar 18, 2019Present initial findings at Lunar and ConferenceMeet the TeamDon HoodPh. D. am a 4th year Ph. D. Candidate at LSU, getting my Doctorate in Geology studying planetary science. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the significance of serpentine soils and extremophiles in astrobiological studies, specifically their relevance to potential life on Mars. The author mentions, 'soils are of great interest for astrobiological studies on Mars' and emphasizes that research on extremophytes will provide 'a critical resource for studies on extreme life,' indicating a direct link between the understanding of extremophiles on Earth and the search for life on other planets.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Gut microbiome analysis is increasingly used to create personalized diet plans based on how a person processes nutrients. [SEP] Text: We examined the impact of IBD as well as the SCD or LRD diet modification on the restructuring of the gut microbiota. subjects and experimental design This study was designed in part to investigate the effect of DNA extraction methods on the ability to detect changes in the complexity of fecal microbiome of healthy controls and patients with Crohn’s disease and to investigate the effects that diet has on restoring the gut microbial complexity in patients with Crohn’s disease. The SCD and LRD were selected to investigate their effects on the alleviation of the clinical symptoms of Crohn’s disease. Previous anecdotal reports suggested a wide use of LRD by patients and a potential of enhanced relief from clinical symptoms of Crohn’s disease with the use of SCD [47-49]. Participants were enrolled in the study at the pediatric and adult IBD clinics at UC Center (Sacramento, CA) as per IRB approved protocols. Eight participants, aged 16-50 years (Table 1) who met the inclusion criteria were enrolled in this study. All participants were Caucasian. Two participants were healthy controls while six participants had a diagnosis of Crohn’s disease (CD). Inclusion criteria for the CD cohort included: 1) confirmed diagnosis of CD, 2) in clinical remission 3) no Probiotics use and 4) willing to sign consent form for enrollment into the trial. Exclusion criteria included: 1) failure to meet any of the inclusion criteria, 2) poor compliance with the diet during the study phase, 3) failure to submit stool samples as indicated at each phase of the study, and 4) need for antibiotic use during the study. Subjects were randomized to either diet A (LRD) or diet B (SCD) and an education booklet was provided to them describing the research diet and sample menus. Stool samples were collected on day 1 and 30 (Figure 1). A twenty four-hour dietary recall was performed by the trained dietitians over the phone. After their initial 30 day period, patients went on a “washout” phase for 30 days. During this period the participants resumed their normal pre-study diet. After washout period, patients returned to clinic and the second 30-day trial period began. Stool samples were collected again at the beginning and after 30 days on the trial diet. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by focusing on a specific study involving the impact of diet modifications (LRD and SCD) on the gut microbiota related to Crohn's disease, rather than on personalized diet plans derived from gut microbiome analysis for nutrient processing. While the study examines dietary interventions, it does not discuss the application of gut microbiome analysis for broader personalized diet planning.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: 131, 0, 0) and these have accuracy <1 mm. The scale was in a constant location relative to the experimental chamber in each case, the centre of the nearest target on the scale was 15 cm from the chamber. This was close enough so that it could be seen in multiple overlapping images. This served as a reference for scale definition and also helped the processing tool to align images accurately. Constancy was assured by the remote nature of the laboratory — external vibrations were minimised. Care was taken when moving around the region of interest not to cause vibrational disturbances. In order to ensure a vertical orientation of the z-plane, the local coordinate system was placed flat on the laboratory bench during each experiment. The planar arrangement of the coded markers was confirmed using a spirit level to ensure the bench was level and the laminate nature of the markers ensured they did not bend. The images were captured at a maximum distance of ~1 m from the bed surface and minimum distance of ~0. 05 m at a variety of angles with respect to the image subject in each case. Camera positions were not recorded, as can compute accurate estimates. The focal length on the camera and aperture were fixed at 4. 15 mm and f2. 2 respectively and otherwise, the camera was not calibrated. Between 41 and 100 images were captured for each experiment, depending on whether fine detail such as furrow patterns were to be captured, or whether primary pit dimensions alone would be measured. The images were then aligned and referenced in Agisoft Photoscan, to build a point cloud, mesh and generate a DEM and corresponding orthophoto of each feature (resolutions in Table 1). The dimensions of each pit were then measured in ArcMap 10. 4, using the DEM and orthophoto. Differencing before and after DEMs in order to estimate pit depth was not possible due to the high albedo of the initial flat bed. We approximated the initial level surface by taking an average of 5 linear cross sections of the flat bed surrounding (but farthest from) the pit in ArcMap 10. 4. In each case brighter regions where distortions were expected were avoided when taking these transects. A line was interpolated across the primary pit to these locations and the difference in height between the original bed surface and the depression formed by the CO2 ice block was determined. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses experimental methods and imaging techniques without mentioning Mars, ice caps, or any related geological features. Therefore, it does not support, refute, or provide any context regarding the claim about Mars.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: The Drake Equation estimates the potential number of extraterrestrial civilizations in the Milky Way galaxy. [SEP] Text: IntroductionThe possibility that extra-solar planets in the Galaxy may harbor intelligent, communicating civilizations has long inspired the search for signs of their existence. While data suggest that a significant fraction of Sun-like stars may host Earth-sized planets within the habitable zone1, the chances of detecting hypothetical extraterrestrial signals still remain highly speculative. Estimates of the detection probability2,3,4 often rely on arguments, such as the Drake equation5, aimed at determining the odds that communicating civilizations exist in the Milky Way. Yet, given the lack of empirical data, it is highly uncertain that even microbiological life exists elsewhere than the Earth6, let alone complex, intelligent life. Even if the existence of extraterrestrial broadcasting civilizations is assumed, a necessary condition for their detection is that the Earth falls within a region of space covered by the emitted signals. The fractional volume occupied by the union of such signals is therefore a natural measure of the probability of detection, as in the study of two-phase heterogeneous media7, where the volume fraction of one phase gives the probability that a randomly chosen point belongs to that phase. In applying this concept to the detection of galactic signals, however, additional factors such as the spatial and age distribution of hypothetical emitters, their distance from the Earth, and the degree of directionality of the emitted signals and their longevity, must be taken into account. By considering the ensemble of possible realizations of these factors, we build a statistical model of the galactic domain covered by hypothetical extraterrestrial signals and define the detection probability as the probability that the Earth’s position intersects such a domain. We shall not deal with the question of the existence of extrasolar life in the galaxy, as we are concerned here exclusively with the communicative phase of hypothetical civilizations. We show that the constraints imposed by the finite size of the galaxy and the speed of light naturally imply that the age scale of the oldest detectable signal, if there is any, is negligible compared to the age scale of possible communicating civilizations in the Milky Way. This observation enables us to derive the detection probability without a full knowledge of the characteristics of the signals. In particular, we show that distributed signal longevities affect the detection probability only through their first moment. By adopting the statistical independence of the signals, we derive a universal upper bound for the mean number () of remotely-detectable extraterrestrial communicating civilizations, which sets a fundamental limit on the number of detectable civilizations in the Milky Way. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by explicitly mentioning the Drake Equation as a framework for estimating the probability of detecting communicating civilizations in the Milky Way. It discusses how the equation is utilized to consider factors affecting the existence of such civilizations, thereby supporting the notion that the equation is a tool for estimating their potential number.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Gut microbiome analysis is increasingly used to create personalized diet plans based on how a person processes nutrients. [SEP] Text: Some clones of F prausnitzii, such as C. Leptum subgroup clone HuCB2 and p-5460-2Wb5, were decreased in abundance. The significance of these changes is unknown. Low residue diet (LRD) and the specific carbohydrate diet (SCD) affect fecal microbiome diversity A general increase in diversity was observed in fecal samples of participants on the SCD diet as compared to the LRD diet with a larger number of represented bacterial families showing changed abundance following diet modification (Figure 8,9). The SCD is enriched in simple carbohydrates. This was a longitudinal monitoring of participants who were serially sampled prior to initiation of diet modifications, following the initial SCD or LRD diet assignment, and after switching to the other diet option. The data is representative of individuals on the diet compared to their pre-diet samples. A period of wash-out was included between the two diet periods. The microbiome did not return to the composition of the pre-diet state following the washout period (data not shown). In fact, the change in the microbiome during the diet was retained during the period of washout. Following the SCD, the microbial diversity increased to include 134 bacteria belonging to 32 different classes (Figure 8). The LRD diet was associated with a decreased diversity of the microbiome with 11 bacteria belonging to 3 families (5: Stool samples obtained from patients with IBD showed a decrease in diversity of the fecal microbiome: (A) While only 16 representative bacterial species belonging to 4 classes were seen at higher levels than controls, (B) 49 representative bacterial species belonging to 12 classes were decreased in abundance in greater than 75% or more of the IBD samples compared to normal controls. Figure 6: Bacterial species increased in expression in the fecal samples of patients with IBD: (A) Increase in expression of a limited number of bacterial species in the 5 IBD samples as compared to the non-IBD controls. The samples cluster according to clinical status (B) the most prominent species include B. fragilis and B. stercoris in 3 of the 5 samples obtained. The combined fluorescence was significantly higher in the 5 IBD samples as compared to the normal controls. Figure 7: Bacterial species decreased in expression in the fecal samples of patients with IBD: (A) Hierarchical clustering demonstrated that the fecal samples clustered according to clinical state. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text primarily discusses the effects of different diets on microbiome diversity, particularly the comparison of the specific carbohydrate diet (SCD) and low residue diet (LRD). However, it does not explicitly connect these findings to the concept of creating personalized diet plans based on individual nutrient processing. Therefore, it does not support or contrast the claim but rather is irrelevant to it.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: An average and standard deviation of these values were taken in each case and standard deviations fall within the uncertainty margins outlined in. Levées were measured in a similar manner by taking average values of the difference between the average flat surface and levée height. Maximum and minimum levée height were recorded in each case. The area of furrows produced on each bed surface was recorded using polygonal mapping in ArcMap 10. 4. The area of the flat pit floor in each case was determined by zooming in to optimal pixel resolution on the orthophoto overlain above the DEM and using the free-hand tool to mark the line where the inner slope of levées ended and the flat pit floor began. The pit floor is defined as the reasonably flat area directly below where the incident block was for which the perimeter is identified as the line between where the inner levée slope ended at 1 pixel resolution. The area of the space between furrow networks was determined by zooming in to optimal pixel resolution and mapping the outer edge of each furrow. This total area was differenced from the total pit floor area to get the area covered by furrow networks. The area covered by furrows was then expressed as a percentage of the total pit floor area. A complete discussion of the DEM uncertainties presented in this paper is available in Supplementary Material. Data AvailabilityThe datasets generated and analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on request. Results and Discussionand Levée Formation via CO2 SublimationPits, which are visually comparable to Martian linear gully primary terminal pits, were observed to form via both the (i) stationary and (ii) sliding interaction between sublimating CO2 ice and substrate of all grain sizes. The primary terminal pits which punctuate linear gully channels on Mars are characterised by depressions in the substrate encircled by positive relief levées. The pits observed in our laboratory experiments were negative relief features surrounded by positive relief levées which formed primarily by excavation of material via sublimation. Pits were deepest for finer grain sizes (Table 1). In the cases where material was not transported on top of the block, the resulting pits adopted the shape of the block that formed them (Fig. 3a,d). In our experiments, blocks were rectangular. In other cases, the block burrowed into the bed and superposed material sunk as the block moved downward. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it focuses on methodologies for analyzing levées and pit formations on Mars via experiments without any mention of polar ice caps or their composition. There is no information pertaining to ice caps, water, or carbon dioxide in the provided text.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: The Drake Equation estimates the potential number of extraterrestrial civilizations in the Milky Way galaxy. [SEP] Text: Significantly larger values of ϕ can be attained by enhancing the observable radius so as to comprehend the entire galaxy or assuming values of so large that they become comparable to RM. Figure 3: Population of emitters in the Milky Way. Calculated number N of emitters in the galaxy as a function of the observable radius for different detection probabilities ϕ. Each pair of solid and dashed lines represents N for the values of ϕ indicated in the figure. The solid and dashed lines have the same meaning as in Fig. 2. Full size imageIt is worth to stress at this point that the value of N extracted from the likelihood ϕ that the Earth is within the galactic domain covered by the signals (as done above) is not directly comparable to the number (say, ND) of communicative civilizations appearing in the Drake equation5. In its original formulation, indeed, the Drake equation estimates ND from a product of probabilities that events, which are necessary for the development of communicative life in the galaxy, occur regardless of whether or not the emitted signals can be detected in principle. Later reformulations of the Drake equation follow a similar route20,21,22. We note also that the signal longevity enters explicitly both in the present formulation and in the Drake equation (where it is commonly denoted by the symbol L). However, as it was remarked in the previous section, its effect on the detection probability saturates at values larger than about RM/c ≈ 87 ky because the size of the galaxy and the speed of light imply an upper bound to the age of the oldest detectable signal. Mean number of detectable emitters Equation (8) gives the likelihood that the Earth intersects a region of detectable signals, independently of whether or not we look for such signals. Signal detection would occur only if we point our detectors at emitters whose signals intercept the Earth at the time of measurement. The mean number () of such signals is therefore the quantity of direct interest in the search for extraterrestrial signals and it is easily calculated from the degree probability distribution of Eq. (7), which gives:. By using the detection probability of Eq. (8), we can conveniently rewrite aswhere the distribution of the emitters, the observable radius, and the mean signal longevity are encoded in ϕ, which can be regarded as an input (albeit unknown) parameter. The advantage of expressing in terms of ϕ is highlighted in Fig. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by explaining that the Drake equation estimates the number of communicative civilizations (ND) in the galaxy based on a product of probabilities necessary for the development of such civilizations, thereby supporting the idea that it estimates the potential number of extraterrestrial civilizations.