Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Reinforcement learning algorithms mimic the way humans learn through rewards and punishments. [SEP] Text: yeers giftDoomes-DayPortionThe white Island: or place of the to and LordThe Judgement-DayAngellsLong lifehandsLabourMora Sponsi, the stay of the BridegroomeRoaringThe EucharistSin severely punishtMontes Scripturarum, the Mounts of the ScripturesPrayerChrists sadnesseGod heares usGodCloudsComforts in contentionsHeavenGodHis PowerChrists words on the of faceAnotherBeggarsGood, and badSinMartha, MarthaYouth, and of GodAnotherGods presenceand MaryNorth and SouthSabbathsThe Fast, or LentSinGodThis, and the next WorldEaseBeginnings and EndingsTemporall goodsHell fireAbels BloudAnotherA Position in the Hebrew DivinityPenitenceGods presencepossible, and probableChrists sufferingSinnersTemptationsPittie, and punishmentGods price, and mans pricekeyesSinAlmesHell fireTo keep a true LentNo time in Eternitieupon DeathCloaths for daySufferingsPaine and pleasureGods presenceAnotherThe poore mans partThe right handand RodGod sparing in scourgingConfessionGods descentNo coming to God without ChristAnother, to GodThe ResurrectionCoheiresThe number of twoHardning of heartsThe RoseGods time must end our troubleBaptismeGold and FrankincenseTo GodThe chewing the CudChrists twofold comingTo God, his gift: Rex Tragicus, or Christ going to His CrosseHis words to Christ, going to the CrosseAnother, to his Saviourwords, going to the CrosseHis Anthem, to Christ on the CrosseThis Crosse-Tree hereTo his Saviours Sepulcher: his DevotionHis Offering, with the rest, at the SepulcherHis coming to the SepulcherOf all the good things whatsoe're we do,Close sectionsectionA. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address reinforcement learning or the process by which humans learn through rewards and punishments. Instead, it discusses various themes and religious concepts, making it irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Conservation tillage helps reduce soil erosion and water loss. [SEP] Text: El objetivo general de esta tesis ha sido desarrollar una metodología de aplicación de labranza de depósito e investigar los efectos a corto plazo sobre las propiedades físicas del suelo de las diferentes prácticas de cultivo que incluyen labranza de depósito: (reservoir tillage, RT), la laboreo mínimo: (minimum tillage, MT), la no laboreo: (zero tillage, ZT) y laboreo convencional: (conventional tillage, CT) Así como, la retención de agua del suelo y el control de la erosión del suelo en las zonas áridas y semiáridas. Como una primera aproximación, se ha realizado una revisión profunda del estado de la técnica, después de la cual, se encontró que la labranza de depósito es un sistema eficaz de cosecha del agua de lluvia y conservación del suelo, pero que no ha sido evaluada científicamente tanto como otros sistemas de labranza. Los trabajos experimentales cubrieron tres condiciones diferentes: experimentos en laboratorio, experimentos de campo en una región árida, y experimentos de campo en una región semiárida. Para investigar y cuantificar el almacenamiento de agua a temperatura ambiente y la forma en que podría adaptarse para mejorar la infiltración del agua de lluvia recolectada y reducir la erosión del suelo, se ha desarrollado un simulador de lluvia a escala de laboratorio. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by stating that 'la labranza de depósito es un sistema eficaz de cosecha del agua de lluvia y conservación del suelo,' which supports the idea that conservation tillage methods contribute to reducing soil erosion and water loss. The mention of investigating 'la retención de agua del suelo y el control de la erosión del suelo' further reinforces this relationship.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Everyone has equal access to clean drinking water regardless of geography. [SEP] Text: Lack of household water treatment in 83. 2% of the household population may have contributed to increased levels of faecal contamination in the sampled glass of drinking water relative to the source (Fig. 1). 17. 7% of the household population use an appropriate (e. g. , boiling, water filter, purification tablets, etc. ) method of water treatment, with boiling (14. 2%) as the most frequently reported method. DiscussionBureau of Statistics of DPRK with support from integrated water quality testing (and other service indicators) for the first time allowing for the assessment of safely managed drinking water services. Currently, based on the latest census figures (population 24,052,231) and 2017 results, it is estimated that around 19 million people utilise sources of water free from faecal contamination and that around 15 million people have access to safely managed drinking water services. Whereas universal access to drinking water is an ambitious goal set by SDG target 6. 1, use of the new “safely managed drinking water service” indicator addressed many of the limitations of MDG monitoring by addressing water quality, accessibility, and availability. Only a limited comparison to previous MICS (19986, 20007, and 20098) is possible as the survey has changed in its different editions regarding water-related questions. Notably, no previous survey had a dedicated water quality module as was done in 2017. The level of reported access to an improved water source in previous (MDG era) surveys was of 99. 8% (1998), 100% (2000), and 99. 9% (2009). A slight decrease in the 2017 survey was observed (93. 7%); this may be attributed to a better and clearer set of definitions regarding improved water sources. At the same time, there is a noticeable drop in the use of piped water into own dwelling, into yard/plot and public taps between previous surveys, census and 2017. For instance, access to piped water was 89% during 2009 and 59% in 2017. These differences may be due to changes in the methodology, training of field teams, and/or verification of water sources used by households afforded by the water quality module. Despite these differences between surveys, access to improved sources is relatively high in comparison to household survey-based studies on other low and lower-middle-income countries12. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by reporting on disparities in access to drinking water services. It states that while around 19 million people utilize sources free from faecal contamination, there is significant variation in access, with a drop in access to piped water from 89% in 2009 to 59% in 2017, indicating that not everyone has equal access to clean drinking water. This variance in access related to geography and changes in water source utilization counters the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Reinforcement learning algorithms mimic the way humans learn through rewards and punishments. [SEP] Text: Included in previous modern editionsThe Descripcion: of a WomanMr. Hericke his daughter's DowryeMr. his farwell vnto PoetrieA Charroll presented to Dr: Williams Bp. of Lincolne as a Newyears guiftto him at his farwellVpon parting:the death of HastingsVpon a Cherrystone sent to the tip of the Walgraves eare[Epitaph on the Tomb of Giles and his wife in the of Church]Close sectionB. Not included in previous editionsClose section(i) Attributed to Herrick in the Seventeenth CenturyTo a MaydEpitaph on a man who had a Scold to his WifeTo his false Mistris[To a disdaynefull fayre][Orpheus and Pluto]Parkinsons shade to the house of mr Pallauicine takeing his death illClose section(ii) Attributed to 'R. H. ' in a Seventeenth-century manuscriptStella WeptStellaes smileSweet Bettone Mistress Maria. H. blindThe HeliotropeOn a gentlewomen risinge earely in the morningeOn a Limmer drawing a Gentlewomans picture unawaresA dreame one a snowOne a paire of glouesOn a paire of kniuesOn a false freind, shaddowed under the propertye of a shaddowOn a faire Gentlewoman married to a blackman likened to the night and dayOne the sameOn a gentlewoman blushingeA ringe sent a Gentlew with this posy Still beginning, neuer endingeClose section(iii) Attributed to Herrick in 1941[of Roses]Close section(iv) Not attributed to Herrick hitherto[The Eclipse]The farewellA Sonnet[A Song][Advice to a Maid][Elegy]Close section Close section2024. All rights reserved. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it does not discuss reinforcement learning algorithms, human learning, rewards, or punishments. Instead, it contains references to poetry and literary works that do not relate to the concept of reinforcement learning.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Conservation tillage helps reduce soil erosion and water loss. [SEP] Text: Las características de las lluvias, entre ellas la intensidad de las precipitaciones, la uniformidad espacial y tamaño de la gota de lluvia, confirmaron que las condiciones naturales de precipitación son simuladas con suficiente precisión. El simulador fue controlado automáticamente mediante una válvula de solenoide y tres boquillas de presión que se usaron para rociar agua correspondiente a diferentes intensidades de lluvia. Con el fin de evaluar el método de RT bajo diferentes pendientes de superficie, se utilizaron diferentes dispositivos de pala de suelo para sacar un volumen idéntico para hacer depresiones. Estas depresiones se compararon con una superficie de suelo control sin depresión, y los resultados mostraron que la RT fue capaz de reducir la erosión del suelo y la escorrentía superficial y aumentar significativamente la infiltración. Luego, basándonos en estos resultados, y después de identificar la forma adecuada de las depresiones, se ha diseñado una herramienta combinada (sistema integrado de labranza de depósito (RT)) compuesto por un arado de una sola línea de chisel, una sola línea de grada en diente de pico, sembradora modificada, y rodillo de púas. El equipo fue construido y se utiliza para comparación con MT y CT en un ambiente árido en Egipto. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing that the method of conservation tillage (referred to as 'RT') was able to reduce soil erosion and surface runoff while significantly increasing infiltration. This aligns directly with the claim that conservation tillage aids in reducing soil erosion and water loss.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Everyone has equal access to clean drinking water regardless of geography. [SEP] Text: Additionally, the level of access to improved sources in the DPRK was also comparable to upper-middle and high-income neighbouring countries regarding JMP estimates13; 96. 7% for China, 97. 0% for the Russian Federation, and 99. 6% for the Republic of Korea. The inclusion of testing for faecal contamination (at source and household) and a set of questions on drinking water availability allowed for an improved understanding of where efforts should be focused to achieve safely managed drinking water services. This is of particular importance in countries such as DPRK where most households use improved drinking water sources. As shown in Fig. 1, water quality often deteriorated between the water source and a glass of drinking water, a pattern observed in urban and rural areas and across provinces, WIGs and different types of water source. This situation is compounded with the fact that less than a fifth of households reported using an appropriate method of water treatment, of which boiling was the most frequently reported method. Increasing accessibility and quality of drinking water are the key priorities for the DPRK to achieve universal access to safely managed drinking water sources and progress towards SDG target 6. 1, with rural areas requiring the greatest improvements. Access to safe drinking water on premises will improve the quality of life especially for women who disproportionately shoulder the burden of fetching water. However, service delivery should also be augmented with behaviour change programming on the promotion of household water treatment and safe water storage, which is a potentially low-cost option for WASH programming in DPRK. One difference between MICS and other similar surveys incorporating other SDG water-related indicators (faecal contamination and questions on water availability) was the method for water quality testing. (Palintest, UK) water quality kits were used for this purpose in the 2017 due to the unavailability of the standard MICS water quality test5 at the time of the survey. The standard MICS water quality testing also utilises a membrane filtration technique-based assay using a custom portable testing kit based on the EZ-Fit system (Millipore) and a selective enzymatic growth media for E. coli (Dry EC). The choice for the DPRK survey was due to import restrictions of some materials necessary for the water quality testing typically used in MICS. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by illustrating that access to clean water varies significantly based on geography, particularly in the DPRK, where efforts are still needed to improve access and quality. The mention of rural areas requiring the greatest improvements indicates that not everyone has equal access.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Dendritic spines play a critical role in synaptic plasticity and learning. [SEP] Text: is Open Access? is an initiative that aims to make scientific research freely available to all. To date our community has made over 100 million downloads. It’s based on principles of collaboration, unobstructed discovery, and, most importantly, scientific progression. As PhD students, we found it difficult to access the research we needed, so we decided to create a new publisher that levels the playing field for scientists across the world. How? By making research easy to access, and puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers. are a community of more than 103,000 authors and editors from 3,291 institutions spanning 160 countries, including winners and some of the world’s most-cited researchers. Publishing on IntechOpen allows authors to earn 10. 5772/67127 this 1. Choose citation style Select style to clipboard Get citation 2. Choose citation style Select format Bibtex RIS Download citation Intechby From the Edited by purchase hard copies of this book, please contact the representative in India: CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd. www. cbspd. com | customercare@cbspd. com 1. Choose citation style Select style to clipboard Get citation 2. Choose citation style Select format Bibtex RIS Download citation Impact of this 1. Cognition and noncognition: basic conceptswalks down the sidewalk alongside a fence when suddenly, a dog leaps out behind the fence and barks at Person A. Person A, caught off guard, jerks back and then kicks the fence. Coming to his sense, he realizes that the dog is a harmless little Chihuahua, still stuck behind the fence. Now conscious of the situation, he looks around and sees that various passers-by have been watching him and are laughing at his situation. Feeling exposed, continues walking, now blushing furiously. Looking at this situation, we might ask, if was going to be embarrassed by his actions, why he reacted the way he did in the first place. Why he did not avoid the scare, and with it, the situation? Why did he kick an object without first working through what it was? This type of event—and Person A’s type of reaction—is unrelated to cognition, which is the processing of information that permits the abstraction and manipulation of the environment by way of symbols (language and thought, for example) [1]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses an Open Access initiative and provides examples of cognitive reactions but does not mention dendritic spines, synaptic plasticity, or learning. Thus, it does not support or contrast the claim in any way.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Conservation tillage helps reduce soil erosion and water loss. [SEP] Text: El estudio se realizó para evaluar el impacto de diferentes prácticas de labranza y sus parámetros de funcionamiento a diferentes profundidades de labranza y con distintas velocidades de avance sobre las propiedades físicas del suelo, así como, la pérdida de suelo, régimen de humedad, la eficiencia de recolección de agua, y la productividad de trigo de invierno. Los resultados indicaron que la RT aumentó drásticamente la infiltración, produciendo una tasa que era 47. 51% más alta que MT y 64. 56% mayor que la CT. Además, los resultados mostraron que los valores más bajos de la escorrentía y pérdidas de suelos 4. 91 mm y 0. 65 t ha-1, respectivamente, se registraron en la RT, mientras que los valores más altos, 11. 36 mm y 1. 66 t ha-1, respectivamente, se produjeron en el marco del CT. Además, otros dos experimentos de campo se llevaron a cabo en ambiente semiárido en Madrid con la cebada y el maíz como los principales cultivos. También ha sido estudiado el potencial de la tecnología inalámbrica de sensores para monitorizar el potencial de agua del suelo. Para el experimento en el que se cultivaba la cebada en secano, se realizaron dos prácticas de labranza (RT y MT). Los resultados mostraron que el potencial del agua del suelo aumentó de forma constante y fue consistentemente mayor en MT. Además, con independencia de todo el período de observación, RT redujo el potencial hídrico del suelo en un 43. 6, 5. 7 y 82. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by presenting results that indicate reduced soil erosion and improved water retention under reduced tillage (RT) compared to conventional tillage (CT). Specifically, it states that RT resulted in lower soil loss and better infiltration rates, supporting the notion that conservation tillage contributes to minimizing soil erosion and loss of water.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Everyone has equal access to clean drinking water regardless of geography. [SEP] Text: The water quality test used in the 2017 is based on a technique routinely used for water quality assessments in the field using the same14 and other commercial variants15,16,17 in a variety of contexts. It was felt that this decision did not compromise the quality of the water quality tests. Only 1. 1% of the blank control testing resulted in faecally contaminated tests. This is consistent and within acceptable ranges of reported blank testing results of MICS recently conducted in other countries18,19,20,21 that included water quality testing. The 2017 allowed for a snapshot of safely managed drinking water service indicators to monitor progress towards SDGs at the national level. It does not provide a substitute for regular monitoring and risk assessments of water supplies. Furthermore, other relevant chemical water quality indicators (e. g. , free chlorine residual) and contaminants (e. g. , arsenic and fluoride) were not measured, as has been done in other surveys20,22. Given the relatively high use of piped water supplies, the former could be used to evaluate their state of disinfection. There had been no suspected risk of the latter to warrant monitoring of geogenic contaminants of concern. A further survey characteristic to be noted was that the self-reported availability of water in the previous month does not imply continuous availability throughout the day or throughout the year. This issue is a limitation of household surveys such as MICS that do not take into account seasonal effects on the availability of water. Finally, microdata from the 2017 were not publicly available. This limited the present study to the data available in tabulated format9 and precluded a detailed assessment of correlations between safely managed drinking water service indicators and other factors (i. e. , WIG, province, rural vs. urban, etc. ). Results indicated that 93. 7% of the population used an improved drinking water source, but when this was combined with the SDG criteria of water availability, accessibility, and safety, coverage was reduced to 92. 3, 78. 2, and 74. 4%, respectively. This resulted in estimates that 60. 9% of the population used a SMDWS. The survey results illustrate how the improved SDG indicators can highlight the required gaps to be overcome with regard to universal and equitable access to SMDWS. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing evidence that demonstrates unequal access to clean drinking water. It states that although 93.7% of the population used an improved drinking water source, when considering the criteria for availability, accessibility, and safety outlined by the SDGs, the coverage dramatically decreased to 92.3%, 78.2%, and 74.4%, respectively. This discrepancy indicates that not everyone has equal access to clean drinking water, particularly in relation to geographical factors.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Dendritic spines play a critical role in synaptic plasticity and learning. [SEP] Text: In this example, could not place the origin of the stimulus nor relate it to as a previous experience, so his reaction had no cognitive component. Certain noncognitive processes express themselves simultaneously with cognitive processes [2]. These processes arise consciously or unconsciously [3], automatically or implicitly [4]. These noncognitive processes do not require attention, perception, learning, memory, language, or thought for their integration; be that as it may, cognitive processes may be present for the regulation or modulation of those noncognitive ones [5]. Izdar [2] explores the role of noncognitive processes in emotional processing. He mentions that there exists a neural basis for the expression of the emotions that escape cognition and which precede the conscious experience of the stimulus. A series of experiments by LeDoux [6] provide experimental evidence for the two-way configuration for the expression of fear: one of them, the faster, permits the organism to generate a reaction to the stimulus without being fully aware of the situation. Person A’s situation illustrates this case clearly. Noncognitive processing has been the object of conceptual debate, since at one time it was thought that all nerve activity was aimed at the expression of processes related to cognition. Lazarus [7] writes that “cognition is the end of all cortical or subcortical activity. ” Likewise, Lazarus [8] defends that position by arguing that even simple perceptual phenomena (a type of which can be seen in Person A’s case) depend on and create meanings or evaluations with respect to the stimulus. Frijda [9] argues that the nervous system is capable of generating emotions, but only when those emotions had been previously acquired through cognition. Frijda [10] argues that “emotions are the result of meaning, and that meaning is the result of inferences about causes and consequences. ” However, Zajonc [11] responds to Lazarus with experimental evidence wherein he illustrated the primacy of some noncognitive processes that do not themselves attribute meanings to stimuli. Zajonc mentions that even the integration of information from the retinohypothalamic tract is sufficient for the organism to produce a response, “leaving the attribution of the meaning of the stimulus a synapse away” [11]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it focuses on the distinction between cognitive and noncognitive processes, emotional processing, and various theoretical perspectives on these processes. It does not mention dendritic spines or their role in synaptic plasticity or learning, failing to address the claim's statement.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Conservation tillage helps reduce soil erosion and water loss. [SEP] Text: 3% respectivamente en comparación con el MT a profundidades de suelo (10, 20 y 30 cm, respectivamente). También se observaron diferencias claras en los componentes del rendimiento de los cultivos y de rendimiento entre los dos sistemas de labranza, el rendimiento de grano (hasta 14%) y la producción de biomasa (hasta 8. 8%) se incrementaron en RT. En el experimento donde se cultivó el maíz en regadío, se realizaron cuatro prácticas de labranza (y CT). Los resultados revelaron que ZT y RT tenían el potencial de agua y temperatura del suelo más bajas. En comparación con el tratamiento con CT, ZT y RT disminuyó el potencial hídrico del suelo en un 72 y 23%, respectivamente, a la profundidad del suelo de 40 cm, y provocó la disminución de la temperatura del suelo en 1. 1 y un 0. 8 0C respectivamente, en la profundidad del suelo de 5 cm y, por otro lado, el ZT tenía la densidad aparente del suelo y resistencia a la penetración más altas, la cual retrasó el crecimiento del maíz y disminuyó el rendimiento de grano que fue del 15. 4% menor que el tratamiento con CT. RT aumenta el rendimiento de grano de maíz cerca de 12. 8% en comparación con la ZT. Por otra parte, no hubo diferencias significativas entre (RT, MT y CT) sobre el rendimiento del maíz. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by indicating that Zero Tillage (ZT) and Reduced Tillage (RT) practices can lead to lower soil moisture potential compared to Conventional Tillage (CT), supporting the idea that conservation tillage methods are effective in minimizing water loss. The mention of increased crop yield under RT also suggests improved moisture retention that helps in reducing soil erosion.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Everyone has equal access to clean drinking water regardless of geography. [SEP] Text: AbstractMonitoring access to safely managed drinking water services requires information on water quality. An increasing number of countries have integrated water quality testing in household surveys however it is not anticipated that such tests will be included in all future surveys. Using water testing data from the 2016 Ethiopia Socio-(ESS) we developed predictive models to identify households using contaminated (≥1 E. coli per 100 mL) drinking water sources based on common machine learning classification algorithms. These models were then applied to the 2013–2014 and 2018–2019 waves of the ESS that did not include water testing. The highest performing model achieved good accuracy (88. 5%; 95% CI 86. 3%, 90. 6%) and discrimination (AUC 0. 91; 95% CI 0. 89, 0. 94). The use of demographic, socioeconomic, and geospatial variables provided comparable results to that of the full features model whereas a model based exclusively on water source type performed poorly. Drinking water quality at the point of collection can be predicted from demographic, socioeconomic, and geospatial variables that are often available in household surveys. Similar content being viewed by others Enhancing water access monitoring through mapping multi-source usage and disaggregated geographic inequalities with machine learning and surveys 1. Drinking water quality, specifically fecal contamination of drinking water sources, is often found to be the limiting factor for safely managed drinking water services2. Contaminated drinking water can transmit diseases such as diarrhea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid, and polio and lack of safe water is associated with substantial disease burden. An estimated 829,000 diarrheal deaths are attributed to inadequate drinking water, sanitation and hygiene each year3. Expanding access to safe drinking water is thus an important human development priority with targets set at national and global levels. (SDG) target 6. 1 calls for “safe” drinking water “for all” by 2030 and the associated safely managed drinking water services indicator requires information on the quality of drinking water4. In the absence of robust water quality data from administrative systems, an increasing number of Offices (NSOs) in low- and middle-income countries have integrated water quality testing in nationally representative household surveys to generate data on water quality and baselines for safely managed drinking water services2. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting the geographical and socioeconomic disparities in access to safe drinking water. It mentions that drinking water quality is often predicted by demographic, socioeconomic, and geospatial variables, indicating that not everyone has equal access. Inadequate drinking water leads to significant health issues and is linked to geographical inequalities, thus directly challenging the assertion of equal access for all.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Dendritic spines play a critical role in synaptic plasticity and learning. [SEP] Text: Izdar [2] talks about the existing predisposition to argue that cognition is anything that goes hand in hand with learning, memory, and, in general, with “mental” life, leaving aside all those instinctive behaviors or those which present without cognitive acquisition or previous experience. An example of this type of behavior is the sucking reflex, the response to aversive stimuli that presents in infants even without prior cognitive processing to give it meaning. Likewise, the expression of circadian rhythms like the sleep-wake cycle. Some of these behaviors come from ancestral information accumulated in the course of a species’ evolution, which shapes the brain architecture in the absence of experience with the environment [12] and that establishes itself in the absence of cognitive processing, serving the latter as a potentiator and moderator in later stages of life. It is worth mentioning that the processing of information can take place even in infants without previous experience or learning, that is, without cognitive processing [13]. The above leads to the argument that the processing of information has as much a noncognitive component as a cognitive one. One can make a distinction between cognitive and noncognitive processes: a cognitive process depends on experience, learning, and memory, whose neural basis is the function of the areas of association of the cerebral cortex, changing stimuli into abstractions, meanings, and manageable symbols [14]. On the other hand, noncognitive processes have as their neural basis the function of subcortical structures such as the hypothalamus [15], the amygdala [6], and the functioning of primary areas of the cerebral cortex [14] that do not depend on learning, on memory, or on previous experience for the expression of certain behaviors, like sexual ones, those based on the emotional fast track [6], and the execution of voluntary movement; among others. Noncognitive processing generates controversy within psychological epistemology. It creates a heuristic conflict that requires a solution not only from psychology but also from those sciences that provide evidence about the determinants of behavior. This 2. Neuronal plasticityThe plastic capacity of the structures related to the expression of some of the previously mentioned behaviors that are usually related to cognition. However, as the experimental evidence presented in this 3. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the distinction between cognitive and noncognitive processes in behavior, focusing on their neural bases but does not specifically address dendritic spines or their relationship to synaptic plasticity and learning. Thus, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Conservation tillage helps reduce soil erosion and water loss. [SEP] Text: En resumen, según los resultados de estos experimentos, se puede decir que mediante el uso de la labranza de depósito, consistente en realizar depresiones después de la siembra, las superficies internas de estas depresiones se consolidan de tal manera que el agua se mantiene para filtrarse en el suelo y por lo tanto dan tiempo para aportar humedad a la zona de enraizamiento de las plantas durante un período prolongado de tiempo. La labranza del depósito podría ser utilizada como un método alternativo en regiones áridas y semiáridas dado que retiene la humedad in situ, a través de estructuras que reducen la escorrentía y por lo tanto puede resultar en la mejora de rendimiento de los cultivos. shortage in arid and semi-arid regions stems from low rainfall and uneven distribution throughout the season, which makes rainfed agriculture a precarious enterprise. One approach to enhance and stabilize the water available for crop production in these regions is to use in-situ rainwater harvesting and conservation technologies. Adoption of in-situ soil moisture conservation systems, such as conservation tillage, is one of the strategies for upgrading agriculture management in arid and semi-arid environments. The general aim of this thesis is to develop a methodology to apply reservoir tillage to investigate the short-term effects of different tillage practices including reservoir tillage (RT), minimum tillage (MT), zero tillage (ZT), and conventional tillage (CT) on soil physical properties, as well as, soil water retention, and soil erosion control in arid and semi-arid areas. As a first approach, a review of the state of the art has been done. We found that reservoir tillage is an effective system of harvesting rainwater and conserving soil, but it has not been scientifically evaluated like other tillage systems. Experimental works covered three different conditions: laboratory experiments, field experiments in an arid region, and field experiments in a semi-arid region. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by explaining that reservoir tillage retains moisture and reduces runoff, which contributes positively to soil water retention and erosion control. It mentions that conservation tillage can enhance agriculture management in arid and semi-arid environments, directly supporting the assertion that it helps reduce soil erosion and water loss.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Everyone has equal access to clean drinking water regardless of geography. [SEP] Text: In these countries, field teams have tested 100 mL of drinking water for WHO’s preferred indicator of fecal contamination in drinking water, Escherichia coli (E. coli). To meet WHO guidelines drinking water should not contain any detectable E. coli in any 100 mL sample5. Key advantages of this approach are ensuring data are representative and cover the entire population, including households reliant on informal services or self-supply, and the ability to link water quality information to the wealth of other information collected in household surveys. The integration of E. coli testing in household surveys is, however, an additional burden on field teams and requires equipment and consumables as well as dedicated training in aseptic techniques, incubation and interpreting results. Therefore, it is not expected that the module will be included in all future surveys conducted by NSOs, but rather that the module might be repeated every 3–5 years. Machine learning techniques hold promise for predicting water quality using data from household surveys given the wealth of information on household socio-economic conditions and a range of geospatial information from global datasets that can be integrated using the household survey cluster locations (where available). Prior research drawing on data from the World Bank’s (LSMS) surveys has applied machine learning to a wide range of topics covered in these surveys including poverty6, housing rental value7, food security8, crop type mapping9, crop yield10, and fertilizer pricing11. Recent studies have investigated the ability to predict microbial drinking water quality on smaller scales for specific water source types including piped water in the of Congo12 and groundwater in Uganda and Bangladesh13. Studies have also utilized machine learning algorithms to generate national and global predictive maps for arsenic14 and fluoride15 and to develop predictive models for microbial contamination of surface16 and recreational waters17. To our knowledge machine learning has not previously been applied to drinking water quality data from a nationally representative sample of households nor has it been used to predict water quality for surveys that did not include direct measures of water quality. Here we examine the performance of a range of commonly used algorithms to predict E. coli contamination in drinking water sources in Ethiopia. This study draws on the results of the third wave of the Survey (ESS3) in 2016 to examine the performance of machine learning algorithms in predicting water quality. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by describing the challenges and limitations associated with ensuring equal access to clean drinking water. It mentions that non-detectable E. coli levels are necessary to meet WHO guidelines, but also implies that not all regions can meet these standards due to factors such as the reliance on informal services and the burden of additional testing requirements. The mention of varying capabilities in different geographic regions, along with the need for advanced training and equipment, indicates that access to clean drinking water is not uniformly available across different areas.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Dendritic spines play a critical role in synaptic plasticity and learning. [SEP] Text: However, that same study reported that once male sexual behavior does begin, it then develops normally despite the injury. These data suggest that the prefrontal cortex could be playing an important role in the integration of the information necessary to initiate the approach during sexual arousal. Moreover, other structures participate in the emergence of sexual behavior as sensory receptors, as well as in the expression of copulatory behavior. It is important to highlight that there exists significant gender dimorphism in humans and rodents related to the structures involved in the expression of sexual behavior [27]. This might mark some tendencies about the way processes not directly associated with cognition could differ with the gender of the individuals. There is experimental evidence that shows a direct relationship between good and bad performance in cognitive tasks and varying levels of hormones such as estradiol and progesterone during the menstrual cycle. It has been observed that in the execution of cognitive tests involving verbal fluency, perceptual speed, fine motor skills, verbal memory, and working memory, performance is higher during the follicular phase, when the greatest amount of estradiol is present in blood plasma. Likewise, when plasma progesterone levels reach their peak in the cycle—halfway through the luteal phase—performance improves on tests of visual memory, in comparison with the menstrual phase [34, 35]. This suggests that there is a differential modulation of cognitive processes by some ovarian hormones, depending on the variation of their concentrations throughout the menstrual cycle. Fernández et al. [36] conducted a longitudinal study that used fMRI to observe the brain activity of young women as they completed cognitive tests focused on language use during different phases of their menstrual cycle. They obtained data that suggested that the neural recruitment necessary to carry out such tasks is very sensitive to the hormonal fluctuations—progesterone and estradiol—of the menstrual cycle. The results likewise showed that the activity of the cortical areas associated with language varies through the different stages of the cycle, and that both progesterone and estradiol were capable of modulating neuronal plasticity of certain areas during the tests. The influence that hormones—which do not imply any cognitive process—have on tasks that are entirely associated with cognition is remarkable. As in the case of the female reproductive cycle, other hypothalamic structures play a key role in the establishment of some biological rhythms. The suprachiasmatic nucleus and preoptic area of the hypothalamus are associated with the expression of the sleep-wake cycle. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the role of dendritic spines in synaptic plasticity and learning. Instead, it discusses various cognitive processes influenced by hormonal fluctuations throughout the menstrual cycle and their relationship to different brain structures and cognitive performance. Therefore, the text is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Conservation tillage helps reduce soil erosion and water loss. [SEP] Text: To investigate and quantify water storage from RT and how it could be adapted to improve infiltration of harvested rainwater and reduce soil erosion, a laboratory-scale rainfall simulator was developed. Rainfall characteristics, including rainfall intensity, spatial uniformity and raindrop size, confirm that natural rainfall conditions are simulated with sufficient accuracy. The simulator was auto-controlled by a solenoid valve and three pressure nozzles were used to spray water corresponding to different rainfall intensities. In order to assess the RT method under different surface slopes, different soil scooping devices with identical volume were used to create depressions. The performance of the soil with these depressions was compared to a control soil surface (with no depression). Results show that RT was able to reduce soil erosion and surface runoff and significantly increase infiltration. Then, based on these results and after selecting the proper shape of depressions, a combination implement integrated reservoir tillage system (integrated RT) comprised of a single-row chisel plow, single-row spike tooth harrow, modified seeder, and spiked roller was developed and used to compared to MT and CT in an arid environment in Egypt. The field experiments were conducted to evaluate the impact of different tillage practices and their operating parameters at different tillage depths and different forward speeds on the soil physical properties, as well as on runoff, soil losses, moisture regime, water harvesting efficiency, and winter wheat productivity. Results indicated that the integrated RT drastically increased infiltration, producing a rate that was 47. 51% higher than MT and 64. 56% higher than CT. In addition, results showed that the lowest values of runoff and soil losses, 4. 91 mm and 0. 65 t ha-1 respectively, were recorded under the integrated RT, while the highest values, 11. 36 mm and 1. 66 t ha -1 respectively, occurred under the CT. In addition, two field experiments were carried out in semi-arid environment in Madrid with barley and maize as the main crops. For the rainfed barley experiment, two tillage practices (RT, and MT) were performed. Results showed that soil water potential increased quite steadily and were consistently greater in MT and, irrespective of the entire observation period, RT decreased soil water potential by 43. 6, 5. 7, and 82. 3% compared to MT at soil depths (10, 20, and 30 cm, respectively). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing evidence that the integrated reservoir tillage system (RT) significantly reduces soil erosion and surface runoff while increasing water infiltration. Specifically, the results indicate that RT produced lower soil losses compared to conventional tillage (CT), with values of 0.65 t ha-1 for RT versus 1.66 t ha-1 for CT, demonstrating the effectiveness of RT in achieving the claim's goals of reducing soil erosion and conserving water.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Everyone has equal access to clean drinking water regardless of geography. [SEP] Text: The objectives of this study were: (I) to predict contamination of drinking water sources and assess the relative performance of commonly used machine learning algorithms (II) to examine the role of different groups of variables (household characteristics, water service characteristics, geospatial variables) on predictions and (III) to apply the highest performing predictive model to the other waves of the ESS in 2013–2014 (ESS2) and 2018–2019 (ESS4) which did not incorporate water quality testing. ResultsDrinking water qualityAccording to the 2015/16 ESS, nationally, about 68% of households fetched their drinking water from improved sources such as piped water, bottled water, protected springs, and wells (Table 1)18. This is the same level (68%) as reported in the 2016 (DHS)19. About a third of households collected their water from unprotected sources such as springs, lakes, and ponds. Despite about two-thirds of the population using improved sources, water testing in the ESS demonstrated that many of these sources are not free from E. coli contamination (Table 1). E. coli contamination was detected in 84% (95% confidence interval (CI) 82%, 87%) of the households’ water sources. There were only 864 households (15. 6%) with water sources free of E. coli contamination. As has been found in previous studies20, contamination rates are in general lower in samples from improved sources (piped sources and protected springs and wells) than from unimproved sources (unprotected springs and surface water). Yet, over 78% (95% CI 74%, 81%) of the samples collected from households who fetched their drinking water from improved sources are contaminated. The contamination rate varies by improved source type; for example, among users of piped water, contamination rates range from 58% for piped water on-premises to 74% for public taps. Improved sources with the highest contamination rates are protected springs and wells; E. coli was detected from over 89% of the households who reported using these sources. The detection of contamination in all types of improved sources confirms that improved sources are not necessarily safe sources and points to the fact that the commonly used practice of assessing access to drinking water services based on the type of water source (“improved” vs “unimproved) provides an incomplete picture in countries like Ethiopia21. Table 1 E. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting that while 68% of households may fetch their drinking water from improved sources, a significant contamination rate (84%) of these sources exists. This indicates that access to improved sources does not guarantee clean drinking water, suggesting that equal access is not a reality, especially in countries like Ethiopia, where disparities in water quality are evident.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Dendritic spines play a critical role in synaptic plasticity and learning. [SEP] Text: Moreover, the connections of the amygdala with the periaqueductal gray matter and the medulla give way to the responses of “freezing” or fight/flight, respectively. The slower way for the amygdala to participate is an indirect route in which the prefrontal cortex processes information associated with the emotional significance of experiences, providing the amygdaloid complex with the information necessary to trigger the appropriate response [6]. From the above, it can be concluded that the expression of emotions depends on structures that are related both to the organization of cognitive functions—the prefrontal cortex, in the indirect route—and with noncognitive functions—the amygdala, in the direct route. It has been reported that chronic stress induces an increase in dendrite length, in dendritic arborization, and in the density and length of the spines of the neurons in the nuclei of the basolateral amygdala. In turn, acute stress provokes an increase in the density of spines, which could be associated with an increase in elevated circulating levels of glucocorticoids [58], and it is clear that the neuronal cytoarchitecture of the amygdala related to noncognitive processes is also subject to plastic changes. It is common to think of us processing emotions either “consciously” or “unconsciously” [2]. From a neuroscientific point of view, these two terms are what we have in this 4. ConclusionsIt should be clear that the processing of synaptic information in distinct regions of the brain is independent of the conceptual aspects of the neuropsychological process in question. Thus, the plastic events that underlie the functional organization of “cognitive” and “noncognitive” processes appear to present common neurophysiological and neuromorphological bases. That is, they consist of adaptive changes in different levels of behavioral organization that, more than depending on the plastic events at a cellular level, depend on the structures involved and on the circuits that they establish among themselves in order to result in the expression of behavior. Based on that, we would propose the following:The intensification of experimental studies of neuronal plasticity related with “noncognitive” processes. The broadening of the criteria of interpretation with regard to the functional significance of such plastic events. 1. Gardner, H. , (1987). The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution. Basic Books. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the role of dendritic spines in synaptic plasticity and learning. While it discusses various aspects of neuronal changes in response to stress, such as increases in dendrite length, arborization, and spine density, these changes are contextualized within emotional processing rather than specifically addressing the claim regarding their critical role in learning and synaptic plasticity.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Conservation tillage helps reduce soil erosion and water loss. [SEP] Text: Tillage for soil and water conservation in the semi-arid Tropics W. Hoogmoed PE&RC Research output: Thesis › internal tillage is the manipulation of soil which is generally considered as necessary to obtain optimum growth conditions for a crop. In the same time the resulting modification of soil structure has serious implications for the behaviour of the soil to erosive forces by water and wind. In 3. In a highly mechanized farming situation, erosion problems on sloping, red soils in the state of Paraná are high. Conventional tillage is based on the use of heavy disk ploughs and repeated passes with disk harrows in order to prepare a seedbed. This system causes severe erosion damage because of reduced infiltration rates and unstable topsoil. The zero-tillage system is a promising and realistic alternative, but is not suited for all farms in the state (small fields, high capital investment for equipment required, lacking knowledge and experience of farmers). The possibilities for the use of chisel ploughs (as an alternative between these two systems) on wheat stubble in a wheat-soybean rotation were investigated. Experiments showed that, compared to conventional tillage systems with disc implements, chisel ploughing left more plant residue at the surface. Except for the duckfoot type, the chisels were able to penetrate down to the bottom of a compacted layer at 12-20 cm depth. In addition, fuel consumption was significantly lower than disc ploughing and slightly higher than heavy disc harrowing. The capacities of the chisel ploughs were comparable to the heavy disc harrow. On the other hand, weeds and large amounts of straw may cause considerable practical difficulties and require adequately dimensioned chisel ploughs. Thus when applying the alternative tillage, adapted sowing equipment, able to cope with surface residue is required. In case 4, studies on the agronomic effect of tillage systems fit for animal traction in are reported. Crop establishment is an important yield factor for pearl millet in the Sahel. Therefore, a series of experiments was conducted to determine the effects of seed size, depth and method of planting, millet variety, tillage, and soil fertilization upon seedling emergence, crop establishment, and yield. All experiments were conducted on a sandy in Niger. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the negative impacts of conventional tillage, which causes 'severe erosion damage' due to reduced infiltration rates and unstable topsoil. It highlights that the zero-tillage system, considered a promising alternative, can indeed help in soil and water conservation, suggesting that conservation tillage practices like zero-tillage can reduce soil erosion and water loss.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Everyone has equal access to clean drinking water regardless of geography. [SEP] Text: coli contamination of drinking water at the point of collection by source type. Full size tablePredicting water quality from socioeconomic informationClassification algorithmsTable 2 presents model selection results using six classification algorithms including Boosting (XGBoost), Model (GLM), Generalized linear models with elastic net regularization (), K-nearest neighbors (KNN), (RF), and Machine (SVM). The RF algorithm produced the best performance across all metrics. It produced the highest discrimination ability with the area under the receiving operator curve (AUC) of 0. 91 (95% CI 0. 89, 0. 94). This model is also superior in other performance metrics including accuracy, F1 score, sensitivity, and specificity. Another ensemble method, XGBoost provided a comparable performance with an AUC of 0. 90 (95% CI 0. 88, 0. 93) and high performance in other metrics. The remaining four algorithms, and KNN show high predictive performance but the results in these models are lower than the RF model. Table 2 Comparison of classification algorithms. Full size tableVariable importanceFigure 1 presents the top 10 predictors which are found to be quite similar across the RF and XGBoost models (Tables 7 and 8 for top 20 predictors). These important features in both models are constructed from a few commonly included questions in household surveys. These are geographic variables, water source type, location of the household, housing characteristics, and assets. Out of the top 10 features that are strongly associated with E. coli contamination, 50% in the RF and 60% in the XGBoost model are geospatial variables. These variables include region, place of residence (rural or urban), distance to a major road or a major market center, average rainfall, wetness index, and temperature of the area where the household is located. The second most important features relate to household characteristics including the type of water source used by household members, the proportion of households without a toilet facility in the area (open defecation) and the amount households spend on drinking water. Fig. 1: Variable Importance. Variable importance for RF and XGBoost models - top 10 features. Full size imageModel performance using different sets of featuresThe variable importance figures for the full model show that features related to geospatial variables and water source types appear to be strong predictors of contamination of drinking water sources. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting that geographic variables, water source type, and location are significant predictors of E. coli contamination in drinking water, indicating that clean drinking water is not equally accessible to everyone based on their geographical location. It specifically mentions that features like region and place of residence (rural or urban) are critical factors affecting water quality, which implies disparities in access to clean drinking water.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Dendritic spines play a critical role in synaptic plasticity and learning. [SEP] Text: New York. 2. Izdar, C. , (1993). Four systems for emotion activation: cognitive and noncognitive processes. Pychol. Rev. 100, (1) 68–90. 3. Kihlstrom, J. F. , (1987). The cognitive unconscious. Science. 237, 1445–1452. 4. Shiffrin, R. M. & Schneider, W. , (1977). Controlled and automatic human theory. Psychol. Rev. 84, 127–190. 5. Izdar, C. E. & Kobak, R. R. , (1991). Emotions system functioning an emotion regulation. In: Garber, J. & Dodge, K. A. , (Eds). of and Dysregulation. Press. England. 321. 6. LeDoux, J. , (2000). Emotion circuits in the brain. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 23, 155–184. 7. Lazarus, R. S. , (1984). On the primacy of cognition. Am. Psychol. 39, 124–129. 8. Lazarus, R. S. , (1991). Cognition and motivation in emotion. Am. Psychol. 46, 352–367. 9. Frijda, N. H. , (1986). The Emotions. Press. England. 10. Frijda, N. H. , (1988). The laws of emotion. Am. Psychol. 43, 349–358. 11. Zajonc, R. B. , (1984). On the primacy of affect. Am. Psychol. 39, 117–123. 12. Gonzalez-Burgos, I. , (2015). Functional neuroanatomy of the memory systems. In: González-Burgos, I. (Ed). Psychobiology of memory: an interdisciplinary view. Bios Médica. México. 49. 13. Izdar, C. E. & Malatesta, C. Z. , (1987). Perspectives on emotional development: I. Differential emotions theory of early emotional development. In: Osofsky, J. D. , (Ed). Handbook of Infant Development. Second ed. Wiley-Interscience. New York, U. S. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not provide any information related to dendritic spines, synaptic plasticity, or learning. Instead, it lists various psychological studies and theories that are unrelated to the claim. Therefore, it is deemed irrelevant.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Conservation tillage helps reduce soil erosion and water loss. [SEP] Text: Three millet varieties were studied, and for all of these, out of a range of sowing depths from 1 to 7 cm, a sowing depth of 3-5 cm resulted in the highest percentage emergence, the highest above-ground biomass, and most secondary roots. High soil temperatures are common during establishment, typical maximum temperatures at a depth of 1 cm exceed 46 °C. It was found that the adverse effects of wind erosion and these high temperatures were least when sowing in hills (the traditional hand-method); establishment, crop stand survival, and yield were better under hill planting than drilling seed. Tillage of the field before sowing increased initial stands and their survival, the latter also depending on fertility. Thus, improved crop yields result from better stand survival and higher yields per hill. Fertilizer application (17 kg ha -1P and 40 kg ha -1of N) caused a threefold increase in grain yields. Ridging without prior tillage and ploughing increased grain and stover yields two- to three-fold. In combination with fertilizer application, sixfold yield increases were obtained. In view of the time limitations, ridging without prior tillage was preferable to ploughing, as it is a much faster operation giving equally good results in terms of crop establishment and yield. 1. It was tried to quantify the effect of tillage as it destroys the crust and increases the surface storage for rainwater. The crust-breaking effect was found to last for only a few rainshowers, but the increase of surface storage is more permanent. The effect of a tillage system on the water balance of a millet crop was calculated. From this calculation it was concluded that tied ridges, giving a surface storage of 20-30 mm, could completely prevent runoff, compared to about 50% loss under the conventional system. Such a savings would allow earlier sowing and thus prolong the vegetative growth by as much as 20 days, which might increase the average millet yield (500 kg ha -1) by 40%. In 10. 18174/198424 Publication statusPublished - 2 Mar 1999 Keywordstillagesealinglooseningcrustssoil conservationconservation tillageinfiltrationwest africabrazil output contributes to the following UN Goals (SDGs) Access to Document 10. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by indicating that tillage systems can have a significant impact on soil conservation and water retention. It specifically mentions that the practice of tillage can increase surface storage for rainwater and prevent runoff, thus aligning with the claim that conservation tillage helps reduce soil erosion and water loss. Additionally, the text cites the effectiveness of tied ridges in surface water storage, which suggests a positive influence on mitigating water loss and erosion.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Everyone has equal access to clean drinking water regardless of geography. [SEP] Text: We now compare the performance of different scenarios with the objective of identifying models that can predict contamination with minimal socioeconomic information. We examined models with the following features: (i) water source type only, (ii) water source and selected household-level variables but excluding geospatial variables, (iii) geospatial variables only, and (iv) geospatial and household level variables but excluding water source types. These scenarios were selected based on their availability in a range of household surveys and other data collection activities. For example, water source type is an important indicator often included in household surveys and is used to measure access to improved sources of drinking water22. Similarly, recent surveys often capture GPS coordinates of the sampled households or the center of the census enumeration area. GPS coordinates can be used to generate several geospatial variables without extra burden to the survey but not all surveys currently make these coordinates available to researchers. Other household-level characteristics and basic demographic information about household members are often included in LSMS or DHS type surveys but may not be available in other assessments, such as Ethiopia’s national WASH inventory23. Table 3 presents results of different feature scenarios for the RF model. As noted earlier, the full model that uses all the features has a strong discrimination ability (AUC 0. 91; 95% CI 0. 89, 0. 94). The rest of the models have lower discrimination ability with the least performing being the model when water source type is considered as the only predictor (AUC 0. 80; 95% CI 0. 77, 0. 84). However, augmenting water source variables with selected household-level variables, but excluding geospatial variables, resulted in a performance comparable to the full model (AUC 0. 89; 95% CI 0. 86, 0. 91). The geospatial features only model has a performance (AUC 0. 91; 95% CI 0. 88, 0. 93) which is also comparable with the full model. The performance did not however improve when selected household characteristics were added to the geospatial features model (AUC 0. 90; 95%CI 0. 87, 0. 89). This is also illustrated in the ROC curves for the RF and XGBoost models, i. e. , the ROC curve for the water source only model is the shallowest in both cases (Fig. 2). Table 3 Prediction performance results in different model scenarios. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by detailing how the availability and quality of data related to water sources and household characteristics can vary geographically. It highlights that not all surveys provide comprehensive data on geospatial variables, which are crucial for assessing access to clean drinking water. This implies that access to clean drinking water may not be equal for everyone, as some geographical areas might lack the necessary data to measure this access effectively. Additionally, it mentions that models used for predicting contamination are dependent on various features—including geographical ones—indicating that these disparities exist.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Dendritic spines play a critical role in synaptic plasticity and learning. [SEP] Text: A. 554. 14. Olson, C. & Colby, C. , (2013). The organization of cognition. In: Kandel, E. , et al. (Eds). Principles of Neural Sciences. Fifth ed. . McGraw and Hill. U. S. A. 411. 15. González-Burgos, I. , Velázquez-Zamora, D. A. , González-Tapia, D. , & Cervantes, M. , (2015). A golgi study of the plasticity of dendritic spines in the hypothalamic ventromedial nucleus during the estrous cycle of female rats. Neuroscience. 9, (298) 74–80. 16. González-Burgos, I. , (2009). Dendritic spines plasticity and learning/memory processes: theory, evidence and perspectives. In: Baylog, L. R. (Ed). Dendritic Spines. Biochemistry, Modelling and Properties. Neuroscience research progress series. Publishers, Inc. New York. 186. 17. González-Burgos, I. , (2012). From synaptic transmission to cognition: an intermediary role for dendritic spines. Brain Cogn. 80, (1) 177–183. 18. Horn, J. P. & Swanson, L. W. , (2013). The autonomic motor system and the hypothalamus. In: Kandel, E. , Schwartz, J. , Jessell, T. , Siegelbaum, S. , Hudspeth, A. J. (Eds). Principles of Neural Science. Fifth ed. McProfessional. U. S. A. 1078. 19. Rubin, B. S. & Barfield, R. J. , (1980). Priming of estrous responsiveness by implants of 17 beta-estradiol in the ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus of female rats. Endocrinology. 106, (2) 504–509. 20. Rubin, B. S. & Barfield, R. J. , (1983). Induction of estrous behavior in ovariectomized rats by sequential replacement of estrogen and progesterone to the ventromedial hypothalamus. Neuroendocrinology. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it contains references and citations related to dendritic spine research but does not provide direct evidence or discuss the critical role of dendritic spines in synaptic plasticity and learning. It mainly lists authors and their works without elaborating on the relationship between dendritic spines and learning.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Conservation tillage helps reduce soil erosion and water loss. [SEP] Text: The capacities of the chisel ploughs were comparable to the heavy disc harrow. On the other hand, weeds and large amounts of straw may cause considerable practical difficulties and require adequately dimensioned chisel ploughs. Thus when applying the alternative tillage, adapted sowing equipment, able to cope with surface residue is required. In case 4, studies on the agronomic effect of tillage systems fit for animal traction in are reported. Crop establishment is an important yield factor for pearl millet in the Sahel. Therefore, a series of experiments was conducted to determine the effects of seed size, depth and method of planting, millet variety, tillage, and soil fertilization upon seedling emergence, crop establishment, and yield. All experiments were conducted on a sandy in Niger. Three millet varieties were studied, and for all of these, out of a range of sowing depths from 1 to 7 cm, a sowing depth of 3-5 cm resulted in the highest percentage emergence, the highest above-ground biomass, and most secondary roots. High soil temperatures are common during establishment, typical maximum temperatures at a depth of 1 cm exceed 46 °C. It was found that the adverse effects of wind erosion and these high temperatures were least when sowing in hills (the traditional hand-method); establishment, crop stand survival, and yield were better under hill planting than drilling seed. Tillage of the field before sowing increased initial stands and their survival, the latter also depending on fertility. Thus, improved crop yields result from better stand survival and higher yields per hill. Fertilizer application (17 kg ha -1P and 40 kg ha -1of N) caused a threefold increase in grain yields. Ridging without prior tillage and ploughing increased grain and stover yields two- to three-fold. In combination with fertilizer application, sixfold yield increases were obtained. In view of the time limitations, ridging without prior tillage was preferable to ploughing, as it is a much faster operation giving equally good results in terms of crop establishment and yield. 1. It was tried to quantify the effect of tillage as it destroys the crust and increases the surface storage for rainwater. The crust-breaking effect was found to last for only a few rainshowers, but the increase of surface storage is more permanent. The effect of a tillage system on the water balance of a millet crop was calculated. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the benefits of tillage, specifically noting its capacity to destroy the crust and increase rainwater surface storage. This suggests that conservation tillage can lead to reductions in soil erosion and improved water retention, which supports the claim regarding its role in reducing soil erosion and water loss.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Everyone has equal access to clean drinking water regardless of geography. [SEP] Text: Full size tableFig. 2: ROC curves for model scenarios. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves for model scenarios using RF and XGBoost classification algorithms. Full size imageClassification resultsTable 4 presents the distribution of classification results for the full features RF model by residence and water source type (5 includes performance metrics). Overall, the predictive model classified 88. 4% of the cases correctly. The performance is higher in rural (93. 6%) than urban (77. 8%) areas. There was some variation in classification performance by water source type, with at least 79. 4% of cases correctly classified except for truck/vendor where performance dropped to 61%. Table 4 Classification results from RF prediction model by residence, water source type, and model scenario. Full size tableTable 4 also presents classification results for the four scenarios. The water source-only model predicted that all water sources were contaminated and thus correctly classified all the contaminated sources but misclassified all the non-contaminated sources as contaminated. Addition of selected household variables in the Plus model, greatly improved specificity and the classification results became comparable with the full model. The geospatial features only model performed well and provided a comparable performance with that of the full model (88. 1%). Model application in different datasetsLastly, we applied the predictive model to two other waves of the ESS fielded in 2013/14 and in 2018/19 which did not include a water quality testing module. These two surveys have information on all the socioeconomic and geospatial features identified in the predictive model using the 2015/16 survey data. Whereas the 2013/14 and the 2015/16 survey waves interviewed the same households, the sample was refreshed for the 2018/19 wave of the ESS and thus fielded in different households. Figures 3 and 4 compare the actual proportions of contaminated and non-contaminated water sources in 2015/16 against the predicted values in all three survey waves. The results are for the full model and the scenarios (Fig. 3) and water source types (Fig. 4). As expected, the actual and predicted values are very close for 2015/16. The comparison of prediction results across survey waves shows slight differences in the households’ access to drinking water free from E. coli; access was better in the reference survey than in the preceding and subsequent rounds of the ESS. This pattern is reflected in all models. Fig. 3: Prediction results by model scenario. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the classification results of water sources in different geographical areas. Specifically, it notes that access to drinking water free from E. coli is better in certain surveys, indicating that there is variation and discrepancies in access based on geography, thereby suggesting that not everyone has equal access to clean drinking water.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Dendritic spines play a critical role in synaptic plasticity and learning. [SEP] Text: 37, (3) 218–224. 21. Guillazo, G. , Redolar, D. A. , Torras, M. , Vale, M. , (2007). Fundamentals of neuroscience. Soriano, C. (coord. ); UOC, Barcelona. 22. Calizo, L. H. & Flanagan-Cato, L. M. , (2002). Estrogen-induced dendritic spine elimination on female rat ventromedial hypothalamic neurons that project to the periaqueductal gray. J. Comp. Neurol. 447, (3) 234–248. 23. . , (1992). Three-dimensional structure of dendritic spines and synapses in rat hippocampus (CA1) at postnatal day 15 and adult ages: implications for the maturation of synaptic physiology and long-term potentiation. J. Neurosci. 12, (7) 2685–2705. 24. Koch, C. , Zador, A. , Brown, T. H. , (1992). Dendritic spines: convergence of theory and experiment. Science. 256, (5059) 973–974. 25. Koch, C. , Zador, A. , (1993). The function of dendritic spines: devices subserving biochemical rather than electrical compartmentalization. J. Neurosci. 13, (2) 413–422. 26. González-Burgos, I. , González-Tapia, D. , Feria-Velasco, A. , (2015). Neuronal plasticity associated to learning and memory. In: González-Burgos, I. (Ed). Psychobiology of memory: an interdisciplinary view. México. Bios Médica. 190. 27. Agmo, A. , (2015). Brain circuits relevant to sexual behavior. In: Hernández-González, M. , Sanz-Martin, A. , & Guevara-Pérez, M. A. (Eds). Brain circuits involved in cognition and behavior. University of Guadalajara. México. 46. 28. Heimer, M. & Larsson, K. , (1966). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not provide any direct information or evidence regarding the claim about dendritic spines and their role in synaptic plasticity and learning. Instead, it references various studies and publications related to neuroscience but does not specifically address the critical role of dendritic spines in the context of synaptic plasticity or learning.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Conservation tillage helps reduce soil erosion and water loss. [SEP] Text: In view of the time limitations, ridging without prior tillage was preferable to ploughing, as it is a much faster operation giving equally good results in terms of crop establishment and yield. 1. It was tried to quantify the effect of tillage as it destroys the crust and increases the surface storage for rainwater. The crust-breaking effect was found to last for only a few rainshowers, but the increase of surface storage is more permanent. The effect of a tillage system on the water balance of a millet crop was calculated. From this calculation it was concluded that tied ridges, giving a surface storage of 20-30 mm, could completely prevent runoff, compared to about 50% loss under the conventional system. Such a savings would allow earlier sowing and thus prolong the vegetative growth by as much as 20 days, which might increase the average millet yield (500 kg ha -1) by 40%. In 3. In a highly mechanized farming situation, erosion problems on sloping, red soils in the state of Paraná are high. Conventional tillage is based on the use of heavy disk ploughs and repeated passes with disk harrows in order to prepare a seedbed. This system causes severe erosion damage because of reduced infiltration rates and unstable topsoil. The zero-tillage system is a promising and realistic alternative, but is not suited for all farms in the state (small fields, high capital investment for equipment required, lacking knowledge and experience of farmers). The possibilities for the use of chisel ploughs (as an alternative between these two systems) on wheat stubble in a wheat-soybean rotation were investigated. Experiments showed that, compared to conventional tillage systems with disc implements, chisel ploughing left more plant residue at the surface. Except for the duckfoot type, the chisels were able to penetrate down to the bottom of a compacted layer at 12-20 cm depth. In addition, fuel consumption was significantly lower than disc ploughing and slightly higher than heavy disc harrowing. The capacities of the chisel ploughs were comparable to the heavy disc harrow. On the other hand, weeds and large amounts of straw may cause considerable practical difficulties and require adequately dimensioned chisel ploughs. Thus when applying the alternative tillage, adapted sowing equipment, able to cope with surface residue is required. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the negative effects of conventional tillage systems, which lead to severe erosion damage and reduced infiltration rates. It highlights that zero-tillage and other alternative tillage methods can prevent runoff and increase surface storage for rainwater. For example, the text states that tied ridges can completely prevent runoff, which indicates a direct reduction in water loss and suggests a positive impact on soil conservation.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Everyone has equal access to clean drinking water regardless of geography. [SEP] Text: Prediction results of E. coli contamination of drinking water sources in three survey waves by model scenario. Error bars represent 95% confidence intervals. Full size imageFig. 4: Prediction results by water source type. Prediction results of E. coli contamination of drinking water sources in three survey waves by water source type. Error bars represent 95% confidence intervals. Full size imageDisaggregating predictions by water source type shows that the results are comparable for most source type categories (Fig. 4). The actual in 2015/16 and the predicted values in the three survey waves are close or within the 95% confidence interval for the following water source types: piped on-premises, rainwater, unprotected springs and wells, and surface water. The differences across survey waves are concentrated in two categories of improved sources namely public standpipes and water tanker and water kiosk/vendors. Overall, the prediction results in Figs. 3 and 4 show that the general pattern is maintained, i. e. , the average contamination rate is always close to 90% and by source type, it is the highest in the unimproved source categories and the lowest in the pipes on-premises category. DiscussionThis study has examined the performance of a range of machine learning algorithms to predict the quality of drinking water sources in Ethiopia from household survey data. The models performed well in predicting E. coli contamination at point of collection. RF performed the best across most metrics with XGBoost a close runner up. Overall, predictions for ESS3 (2015/16 ESS) were comparable to the actual data and the proportion of misclassified results was low (2. 4%). There was some variation in model performance by water supply type and by residence. Among water source types, misclassification rates were highest for tanker truck/vendor and piped water. Water quality in piped supplies and truck/vendor water is highly dependent on the management which may be poorly predicted by the available variables. Notably, we were unable to include operational parameters such as chlorine residual in our models as this information was only available for a subset (n = 1297) of households in wave 3. In contrast, misclassification was very uncommon for protected wells and springs, unprotected wells and springs, rainwater, and surface water, reflecting the very low chance of these water sources not containing E. coli in Ethiopia. The misclassification rate was lower in rural (1. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting the variation in water source quality and contamination levels in Ethiopia. It mentions that misclassification rates for tanker truck/vendor and piped water sources were high due to poor management, whereas protected wells and springs showed low contamination levels, indicating that not all geographic areas provide equal access to clean drinking water.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Dendritic spines play a critical role in synaptic plasticity and learning. [SEP] Text: Impairment of mating behavior in male rats following lesions in the preoptic-anterior hypothalamic continuum. Brain Res. 3, 248–263. 29. Agmo, A. , (2007). Functional and Behavior. A Synthesis of Neuroscience and Comparative Psychology. Academic Press: San Diego. E. U. A. 30. Agmo, A. , (2015). The role of the prefrontal cortex in male sexual behavior. In: Hernández-González, M. , Chacón-Gutiérrez, L. , Barradas-Bribiesca, J. A. , Guevara-Pérez, M. A. (Eds). Prefrontal cortex. Cognition and behavior. University of Guanajuato. México. 328. 31. Davis, J. F. , Loos, M. , Di & Coolen, L. M. , (2010). Lesions of the medial prefrontal cortex cause maladaptive sexual behavior in male rats. Biol. Psychiatry. 67, (12) 1199–1204. 32. . , & Coolen, L. M. , (2006). Potential contributions of afferents from medial prefrontal cortex to neural activation following sexual behavior in the male rat. Neuroscience. 137, (4) 1259–1276. 33. Agmo, A. , Villalpando, A. , Picker, Z. , & Fernández, H. , (1995). Lesions of the medial prefrontal cortex and sexual behavior in the male rat. Brain Res. 696, 177–186. 34. Hausmann, M. , (2010). Hormonal effects on the plasticity of cognitive brain functions. Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Cogn. Sci. 1, (4) 607–612. 35. Cervantes, J. M. , Velázquez-Zamora, D. , González-Burgos, I. , (2015). Estrogenic modulation of cognitive functions during the menstrual cycle and menopause. In: González-Burgos, I. (Ed). Psychobiology of memory: an interdisciplinary view. México. Bios Médica. 290. 36. Fernández, G. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses various studies related to lesions in the preoptic-anterior hypothalamic continuum and their effects on mating behavior in male rats, as well as hormonal effects on cognitive functions, but does not mention dendritic spines, synaptic plasticity, or learning.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Conservation tillage helps reduce soil erosion and water loss. [SEP] Text: In case 4, studies on the agronomic effect of tillage systems fit for animal traction in are reported. Crop establishment is an important yield factor for pearl millet in the Sahel. Therefore, a series of experiments was conducted to determine the effects of seed size, depth and method of planting, millet variety, tillage, and soil fertilization upon seedling emergence, crop establishment, and yield. All experiments were conducted on a sandy in Niger. Three millet varieties were studied, and for all of these, out of a range of sowing depths from 1 to 7 cm, a sowing depth of 3-5 cm resulted in the highest percentage emergence, the highest above-ground biomass, and most secondary roots. High soil temperatures are common during establishment, typical maximum temperatures at a depth of 1 cm exceed 46 °C. It was found that the adverse effects of wind erosion and these high temperatures were least when sowing in hills (the traditional hand-method); establishment, crop stand survival, and yield were better under hill planting than drilling seed. Tillage of the field before sowing increased initial stands and their survival, the latter also depending on fertility. Thus, improved crop yields result from better stand survival and higher yields per hill. Fertilizer application (17 kg ha -1P and 40 kg ha -1of N) caused a threefold increase in grain yields. Ridging without prior tillage and ploughing increased grain and stover yields two- to three-fold. In combination with fertilizer application, sixfold yield increases were obtained. In view of the time limitations, ridging without prior tillage was preferable to ploughing, as it is a much faster operation giving equally good results in terms of crop establishment and yield. 1. It was tried to quantify the effect of tillage as it destroys the crust and increases the surface storage for rainwater. The crust-breaking effect was found to last for only a few rainshowers, but the increase of surface storage is more permanent. The effect of a tillage system on the water balance of a millet crop was calculated. From this calculation it was concluded that tied ridges, giving a surface storage of 20-30 mm, could completely prevent runoff, compared to about 50% loss under the conventional system. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing the benefits of different tillage methods, particularly noting that the crust-breaking effect of tillage can increase surface storage for rainwater, which helps prevent runoff. This suggests that conservation tillage contributes to water retention and reduces soil erosion, thereby supporting the claim that conservation tillage aids in reducing soil erosion and water loss.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Everyone has equal access to clean drinking water regardless of geography. [SEP] Text: 6%) than urban (5. 1%) areas, again reflecting the higher risk of contamination in rural areas. Examining variable importance from the RF model we find that the top five predictors were: distance to nearest market, mean rainfall, mean temperature, source type—piped own, and open defecation in the EA. That water source type is among the top predictors is expected given the considerable variations in quality by water source type observed in the ESS water quality module and in other countries2. For example, a systematic review of water quality studies in LMICs found piped water to be considerably less likely to be contaminated than other types of improved drinking water24. Notably, many of the top features are either basic geospatial information generated using the household’s location or socioeconomic variables that are routinely captured in many household surveys such as and MICS. We examined the relative performance of RF models across scenarios depending on the types of data available. This analysis was conducted to understand the contributions water source type, household-level and geospatial variables to model performance. In comparison with the reference “full features model”, the scenario relying solely on information about the type of water source performed poorly (AUC = 0. 80 vs 0. 91). This is expected given the wide range of reported contamination rates for users of the same water source type as observed in Ethiopia and elsewhere2,25. Scenarios that relied only on geospatial information (AUC = 0. 91) or household-level variables (AUC = 0. 88) performed surprisingly well with performance equivalent to or approaching that of the reference scenario. This finding suggests that predictive models relying only on geospatial variables may suffice for the purposes of understanding variations in risk of E. coli contamination at the point of collection and support the use of machine learning to generate risk maps13. Similarly, the finding that household-level variables alone can provide good predictive performance. The finding suggests that the approach taken in this study could be applied to the 25 + MICS that are not disseminated with GPS coordinates2. Lastly, we predicted water quality at the point of collection for households in wave 2 (the 2013/14 ESS) and wave 4 (the 2018/19 ESS). The results provided a similar picture to that of the reference data. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting variations in water quality and access based on geographic and socioeconomic factors. For instance, it mentions that rural areas face a higher risk of contamination compared to urban settings, indicating that not everyone has equal access to clean drinking water. The analysis of predictors suggests that geographic location and water source type significantly impact the risk of contamination, contradicting the idea of equal access.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Dendritic spines play a critical role in synaptic plasticity and learning. [SEP] Text: , Weis, S. , Stoffel-Wagner, B. , Tendolkar, I. , Reuber, M. , Beyenburg, S. , Klaver, P. , Fell, J. , de Greiff, A. , Ruhlmann, J. , Reul, J. , & Elger, C. E. , (2003). Menstrual cycle-dependent neural plasticity in the adult human brain is hormone, task, and region specific. J. Neurosci. 23, (9) 3790–3795. 37. Fort, P. , Bassetti, L. , & Luppi, T. H. , (2009). Alternating vigilance state: new insights regarding neuronal networks and mechanisms. Eur. J. Neurosci. 29, 1741–1753. 38. King, P. & Takahashi, S. , (2000). Molecular genetics of circadian rhythms in mammals. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 23, 713–742. 39. Girardet, C. , Blanchard, M. P. , Ferracci, G. , Lévêque, C. , Moreno, M. , François-Bellan, A. M. , Becquet, D. , Bosler, O. , (2010). Daily changes in synaptic innervation of PVI neurons in the rat suprachiasmatic nucleus: contribution of glutamatergic afferents. Eur. J. Neurosci. 31, (2) 359–370. 40. Girardet, C. , Becquet, D. , Blanchard, M. P. , François-Bellan, A. M. , & Bosler, O. , (2010). Neuroglial and synaptic rearrangements associated with photic entrainment of the circadian clock in the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Eur. J. Neurosci. 32, (12) 2133–2142. 41. Millhouse, O. E. , (1979). A Golgi anatomy of the rodent hypothalamus. In: Morgane, P. J. , Panksepp, J. (Eds). Handbook of the Hypothalamus. Marcel Dekker. USA. 265. 42. Güldner, F. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not provide any information regarding the role of dendritic spines in synaptic plasticity or learning. It lists a number of references and studies that focus on various aspects of neural plasticity and synaptic functions, but none of them specifically address the claim about dendritic spines. Thus, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Crop rotation is an effective method for pest control and nutrient management. [SEP] Text: Planting of flowers as pollen and nectar sources may also provide necessary food for parasitic fly and wasp adults. This would include the spraying of bacteria or virus as well as releases of parasites and predators. Importation is bringing exotic parasites and predators into the country for release against pests. This tactic is especially useful when combatting imported pests. Cultural controlWe finally come to the cited topic of this paper, cultural controls of insect pests of urban ornamentals. A useful definition of cultural control is the manipulation of the physical environment so as to reduce the survivorship of a pest. In essence, any changing of the environment or habitat which makes it difficult for a pest to survive and reproduce falls in this category. Crop rotation, sanitation and resistance were picked because these are claimed, almost exclusively, for use in field crops and vegetables. However, these controls are used and could be more useful if modified for urban arborists. It would be prudent to state that the following suggestions have not been generally investigated in a scientific manner and the recommendations often do not fit within the norm for arborist training. Crop RotationCrop rotation is the switching from one species of crop to another. This time honored agronomic practice has generally been ignored by growers of ornamental plants. However, if we consider that trees are merely a crop which is planted, matured, harvested and replanted, the only difference is in the time of maturation. Also, if the trees had continuing pest problems in the past, why replant with the same type of trees? Why not go with a new species? Christmas tree growers in Pennsylvania are having a similar problem. New growers who planted their acreage with Scots pine usually didn’t have severe pest problems until a few years before harvest. However, after harvest, if the land was replanted in Scots pine the pest problems were immediate and continuing. Some growers have recently experimented with crop rotation and have had good success. On land that will only support pine, these growers have planted a cover crop of grass or buckwheat for a year before replanting with trees. Other growers have land which will support spruce or fir and have successfully rotated to these species. Another anticipated problem with urban tree crop rotation is the American ideal of “biggest and oldest tree. ” Let’s face facts, the urban environment is not the place to grow the biggest and oldest trees. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the benefits of crop rotation, particularly in the context of pest management. It emphasizes how growers who have experimented with crop rotation have achieved good success, especially after experiencing pest problems with monoculture practices. The mention of planting different species of trees, cover crops, and the necessity to change crops to avoid pest issues exemplifies the effectiveness of crop rotation as a method for pest control.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Everyone has equal access to clean drinking water regardless of geography. [SEP] Text: AbstractWithin the context of the water-energy nexus in drinking water provision, it is crucial to evaluate temporal shifts in energy efficiency. Utilizing the Envelopment of Data (StoNED) approach, this research estimates longitudinal variations in the energy efficiency of drinking water services integrating multiple environmental variables. The analysis, conducted in England and Wales from 2008 to 2020, indicates that the source and quality of raw water, as well as population density, influenced the energy performance of water utilities. Quantitative findings evidenced marked disparity in energy efficiency among different companies, with an average efficiency of 0. 617 and a range from 0. 437 to 0. 944. The dynamic assessment indicates an average annual enhancement of 1. 1% in the sector, predominantly propelled by technical advancements (0. 9%) rather than by improvements in efficiency (0. 2%). This study emphasizes the critical need for bespoke policies and incentives to boost energy efficiency and support sustainable urban water management. Similar content being viewed by others Evaluation of dynamic eco-efficiency of water companies: the influence of non-revenue water and water supply interruptions 2. The imperative of using energy sustainably while progressing in the provision of clean and affordable water aligns with key Goals set by the United Nations3. A sustainable approach to energy use in drinking water provision not only has the potential to reduce production costs, thereby lowering consumer tariffs, but also plays a crucial role in reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions4. Consequently, understanding the factors that influence energy consumption and identifying pathways towards its efficient use are of paramount importance for researchers and policymakers. To enhance the understanding of the water-energy nexus within the urban water cycle, extensive research has been conducted. Several past studies have focused on quantifying energy consumption in drinking water provision and estimating the potential increase in energy demand driven by socio-economic and demographic factors5,6,7,8. Additionally, research has been conducted to identify potential energy savings across the water supply chain9,10,11. Alternative studies have focused on assessing the environmental impacts of the provision of drinking water by using life cycle analysis tools12,13. Despite these significant contributions, there remains a gap in these studies regarding the evaluation of energy efficiency (EE) in the provision of drinking water. EE is a synthetic index and therefore, incorporates multiple variables (inputs and outputs) into the assessment. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting the disparities in energy efficiency among water companies, indicating that access to clean drinking water varies significantly based on factors such as raw water source, quality, and population density. This suggests that equal access to clean drinking water is not a given, as the findings indicate marked disparities in service quality and efficiency.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Dendritic spines play a critical role in synaptic plasticity and learning. [SEP] Text: H. , (1976). Synaptology of the rat suprachiasmatic nucleus. Res. 165, (4) 509–544. 43. O’Bryne, J. N. , Berman-Rosa, M. , Gouin, J. P. , & Dang-Vu, T. T. , (2014). Neuroimaging findings in primary insomnia. Pathol. Biol. Paris. 62, (5) 262–269. 44. Desseilles, M. , Dang-Vu, T. , Schabus, B. , Sterpenich, V. , Maquet, P. , & Schwartz, S. , (2008). Neuroimaging insights into the patophysiology of sleep disorders. Sleep. 31, (6) 777–794. 45. Nie, X. , Shao, Y. ,. , Peng, D. C. , & Dai, X. J. , (2015). Functional connectivity of paired default mode network subregions in primary insomnia. Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat. 11, 3085–3093. 46. Altena, E. , Werf, Y. D. , Sanz-& Van Someren, E. J. , (2008). Prefrontal hypoactivation and recovery in insomnia. Sleep. 31, (9) 1271–1276. 47. Perez-Cruz, C. , Simon, M. , Flügge, G. , Fuchs, E. , Czéh, B. , (2009). Diurnal rhythm and stress regulate dendritic architecture and spine density of pyramidal neurons in the rat infralimbic cortex. Behav. Brain Res. 205, (2) 406–413. 48. Altena, E. , Vrenken, H. , Werf, Y. D. , van den Heuvel, O. A. , & Van Someren, E. J. , (2010). Reduced orbitofrontal and parietal gray matter in chronic insomnia: a voxel-based morphometric study. Biol. Pshychiatry. 67, (2) 182–185. 49. Amaral, D, (2013). The functional organization of perception and movement. In: Kandel, E. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the role of dendritic spines in synaptic plasticity and learning. Instead, it lists various studies related to neuroimaging and sleep disorders, which are irrelevant to the specific claim regarding dendritic spines.