Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Artifacts can provide insights into the daily lives of past cultures. [SEP] Text: where a high percentage of the student body, the population was Spanish speaking, first or second generation Mexican-American, and there wouldn't be a Spanish-speaking teacher on the faculty, or maybe one or two, and they wouldn’t be on the school board. Even in communities with a clear majority of Spanish surnames on the census tracts, it’d be an all Anglo, White school board" (Sweetland, 1987). Recognizing the political nature of the problem, visible in the exclusion of Mexican-Americans from local school boards, invited political solution. With Sweetland’s aid, the Tucson-based educators invited not just academics and educators to their symposium, but also a number of politicians throughout the Southwest, including senators and congressional representatives. Perhaps in response, the initial legislation introduced by included not only a proposal for bilingual education, but also a set of broader economic measures which acknowledged and aimed to remediate discrimination faced by Mexican-Americans in the aftermath of the Mexican-American War. Introducing the legislation package as a whole, Yarbourough framed that the problem he was addressing as a political in nature: "By 1848 all the land in the Southwest--except for a strip later added by the Gadsden Purchase--had been acquired by the and the one-time majority of Spanish-speaking people became a minority in the face of the influx of English speaking who flocked to the land. With minority status came economic disadvantage. And exploitation. And discrimination (90 Cong. Rec. , 1967). " In this, Yarbourough echoed the NEA report, which noted that the educational problems of the moment originated in the aftermath of war and annexation. To that end, in its early form, bilingual education was one piece of larger, materialist approach to addressing the civil rights of Mexican-Americans in the Southwest, and English-only education was positioned as one form of discrimination amidst a larger context of disenfranchisement. Another key aspect of this early advocacy for bilingual education was a focus on the specific sociocultural context of the Southwest. The 1966 report emphasized the need not only for bilingual education, but also for education that affirmed students’ “dignity and worth as a person with a specific ethnic heritage” (NEA, 1966, p. 12). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the political issues and educational challenges faced by Mexican-Americans, rather than addressing how artifacts can offer insights into past cultures. There is no mention of artifacts or their role in understanding cultural practices.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases can affect decision-making and perception in everyday life. [SEP] Text: Modeling patient decision-making: the role of base-rate and anecdotal information. J Med Settings. 2004;11(3):211–6. CrossrefWeb of Science57. Kenen R, Ardern-Jones A, Eeles R. Family stories and the use of heuristics: women from suspected hereditary breast and ovarian cancer (HBOC) families. Illn. 2003;25(7):838–65. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science58. . The evaluation of medical symptoms by patients and doctors. J Behav Med. 1998;21(1):57–81. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science59. Poses RM, Anthony M. Availability, wishful thinking, and physicians’ diagnostic judgments for patients with suspected bacteremia. Making. 1991;11(3):159–68. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science60. . Effect of background case characteristics on decisions in the delivery room. Making. 2010;30(4):518–22. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science61. . Cognitive errors detected in anaesthesiology: a literature review and pilot study. Anaesth. 2011;108(2):229–35. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science62. . The inclusion of patient testimonials in decision aids: effects on treatment choices. Making. 2001;21(1):60–8. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science63. Volandes AE, Paasche- Video decision support tool for advance care planning in dementia: randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 2009;338:b2159. CrossrefPubMed64. . The role of irrational thought in medicine adherence: people with diabetic kidney disease. J Adv Nurs. 2009;65(10):2108–17. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science65. . Patient stories about their dialysis experience biases others’ choices regardless of doctor’s advice: an experimental study. Transplant. 2012;27(1):325–31. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science66. Cioffi J. Decision making by emergency nurses in triage assessments. Nurs. 1998;6(4):184–91. CrossrefPubMed67. Mamede S, van Gog T, van den Berge K, et al. Effect of availability bias and reflective reasoning on diagnostic accuracy among internal medicine residents. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing various studies that highlight how cognitive biases, such as availability bias and heuristics, influence decision-making processes in different medical contexts. For instance, it mentions 'availability, wishful thinking, and physicians’ diagnostic judgments,' which directly connects to the concept that cognitive biases affect decision-making and perception.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All bats feed on blood like vampire bats. [SEP] Text: 07, p~1), or aggression (F(1,124) = 0. 02, p = 0. 3). Download: PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageFig 1. Social grooming rates in five captive bat species. Social grooming rates are shown for male (red), female (blue), and non-testes bats (green, see methods). Light blue shading shows probability density functions. Phylogenetic relationships between species are shown on right. Download: PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageFig 2. Frequency of three other behaviors in five captive bat species. Jittered dots show sample rates and shaded areas show probability density functions. DiscussionUnder similar conditions of captivity and in the absence of external parasites, social grooming in vampire bats (Desmodus rotundus) is elevated beyond the rates found in four other group-living bat species (Fig 1). Vampire bats spent about 1. 5–6. 3% of their time social grooming, whereas time spent social grooming in the other species reached only 0. 5% (Table 1). Vampires spent on average 14 times longer social grooming than the non-vampires. This difference between vampires and the other bats does not extend to self-grooming (Fig 2), and is unlikely to be explained by variation in feeding rates. Are social grooming differences explained by general differences in social structure? The bat species in this study are all group-living in the wild, but vary in their social structures and degree of sociality. Desmodus rotundus forms stable female social groups of 8–12 adults with offspring, living in a roost site that is defended by a single dominant male against invasions by other males, i. e. resource defense polygyny [62, 64]. Individual recognition is evident from patterns of social behavior [64, 65], and may occur at a distance through individually variable contact calls [73], which allow vocal discrimination in another vampire bat species [74–75]. Carollia perspicillata female groups vary in size from 2–18 bats, and are based around resource defense polygyny with males performing courtship displays and defending territories [76, 77]. Vocal discrimination is evident between males [78] and between mothers and pups [79]. In contrast with vampire bats, group membership appears to be less stable [76]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing evidence that vampire bats (Desmodus rotundus) exhibit different social grooming behaviors compared to other bat species. Specifically, while vampire bats engage significantly in social grooming, the text does not support the claim that all bats feed on blood; instead, it implies that there are various bat species with different feeding habits, as it discusses their social structures and behaviors without mentioning that all bats share the vampire bat's blood-feeding trait.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Artifacts can provide insights into the daily lives of past cultures. [SEP] Text: To that end, their proposal for bilingual education included not only the use of Spanish for instruction but also a curricular focus of Mexican-American history and culture and the recruitment of teachers from the communities they would be serving. This likely in part stemmed from many of the advocates’ own experiences with Spanish classes that ignored their cultural background. Urquides, for example, recalled of her own Spanish classes as a youth, "Another thing deficient in the instruction was the little being taught about cultural heritage. . . For example, one would always find pictures of important places, people, etc. , that were of Spanish origin instead of those with Mexican origin. Well, we knew we were going to have to restructure our curriculum on methodology and that we did. (Gonzalez, 1986, p. 63)" The NEA report’s proposed curricular focus of secondary Spanish-for-Spanish-speakers classes also hinted as what we might now be characterized as critical consciousness (Palmer, Cervantes-Soon, Dorner & Heiman, 2019), in that it suggested including not only literature by Mexican and Chicana/o/x authors, but also literature which specifically addressed social issues, like colorism in Celestino Gorostiza’s play, “El color de nuestra piel”. Likewise, bilingual education in early grades, which is the most common form of bilingual education today, was presented in the NEA report as contiguous with what is now commonly called “Spanish for heritage speakers” in high school, and with the need to reform teacher education to include a greater emphasis on language, culture and history. Envisioning the Future: Language and Culture as a The current explosion of dual language programming has led many scholars to conclude that bilingual education has lost its way, shifting from a focus on primarily bilingual Latina/o/x students to a focus on enrichment for English-speaking students. However, another noteworthy aspect of early visions of bilingual education was their inclusion of non-Latina/o/x students, at least in some communities and programs. The archival record suggests that many of "los pioneros", although primarily advocating for Spanish-speaking, Mexican-American children, also saw bilingual education as a common good. Prior to her work with NEA, Urquides, after teaching for 20 years in a predominantly Mexican-American school, was transferred to an affluent, White one. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses proposals for bilingual education and the curricular focus on Mexican-American history and culture. It does not address the concept of artifacts or their role in providing insights into past cultures. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases can affect decision-making and perception in everyday life. [SEP] Text: On the preference for action versus inaction. Making. 2011;31(2):237–44. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science80. Ross L, Anderson CA. Shortcomings in the attribution process: On the origins and maintenance of erroneous social assessments. In: eds. Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases. New York: Press; 1982. 81. . The effects of proficiency and bias on residents’ interpretation of the microscopic urinalysis. Making. 2002;22(4):318–25. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science82. Explicit reasoning, confirmation bias, and illusory transactive memory: a simulation study of group medical decision making. Research. 2009;40(3):271–300. CrossrefWeb of Science83. Mendel R, Traut-Mattausch E, Jonas E, et al. Confirmation bias: why psychiatrists stick to wrong preliminary diagnoses. Psychol Med. 2011;41(12):2651–9. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science84. . Adding asymmetrically dominated alternatives: violations of regularity and the similarity hypothesis. J Consum Res. 1982;9(1):90–8. CrossrefWeb of Science85. Redelmeier DA, Shafir E. Medical decision making in situations that offer multiple alternatives. JAMA. 1995;273(4):302–5. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science86. Strengthening acceptance for xenotransplantation: the case of attraction effect. Xenotransplantation. 2008;15(3):159–63. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science87. . Are more options always better? The attraction effect in physicians’ decisions about medications. Making. 1999;19(3):315–23. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science88. . Supervision of students may protect academic physicians from cognitive bias: a study of decision making and multiple treatment alternatives in medicine. Making. 2006;26(2):154–61. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science89. Tversky A, Knetsch J, eds. Anomalies: the endowment effect, loss aversion, and status quo bias. In: Choices, Values, and Frames. New York: 2000. p 159–70. 90. . The default effect in end-of-life medical treatment p310. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provides multiple references to the effects of cognitive biases on decision-making processes. For example, it discusses confirmation bias in medical decision-making, stating that 'psychiatrists stick to wrong preliminary diagnoses' due to such biases. Additionally, it mentions scenarios where cognitive biases, like the attraction effect and loss aversion, influence choices made by individuals, including physicians. This supports the claim that cognitive biases significantly impact decision-making and perception in everyday life.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All bats feed on blood like vampire bats. [SEP] Text: Artibeus jamaicensis also demonstrates resource defense polygyny, and both males and females appear to form cooperative relationships in the wild [58, 80–82]. Dominant males are able to defend larger groups of females by tolerating the presence of subordinate males that are often kin and that help ward off foreign males [81]. These male alliances for cooperative defense of female groups can last more than 2 years [82]. Female groupmates engage in social grooming, and females that are closer to the group’s center are groomed more often [58]. Unlike vampire bats, juveniles do not appear to perform allogrooming [82]. Relatively little is known about the social behavior in Rousettus aegyptiacus and Eidolon helvum in the wild, but both species form aggregations of hundreds to thousands of both male and female individuals [83]. These aggregations likely mask the presence of smaller social networks. Rousettus pups converge on adult repertoire of calls through vocal learning [84]. Both species are highly vocal and frequently squabble among each other. In summary, the differences in social grooming rates we observed cannot easily be explained by straightforward differences in basic social structure. Vampire bats are the only bats that perform regurgitated food sharing [11], and the necessity to maintain food-sharing relationships might be important to the evolution of their elevated social grooming rates. Foraging vampire bats are likely to either receive a large meal of blood or none at all, meaning that the costs of sharing are low and benefits of receiving are great [64]. Obtaining regurgitated food donations from social partners appears to be a crucial component to the inclusive fitness of vampire bats, because nearly 1/5 of bats fail to feed on a given night and individuals can starve in under 72 hours [64]. Correlational evidence suggests that vampire bats may use social grooming to maintain social bonds that are crucial for reciprocal food sharing [55,60]. Social grooming requires a relatively small investment of energy compared to regurgitated food sharing, and therefore may be used as way to build such cooperative relationships gradually with increasing investments. This ‘raising-the-stakes’ hypothesis [85] is consistent with the observation that previously unfamiliar vampire bats placed together in captivity developed social grooming but not food sharing over several weeks [65]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by stating that vampire bats are the only bats that perform regurgitated food sharing and primarily feed on blood, while mentioning other bat species like Artibeus jamaicensis, Rousettus aegyptiacus, and Eidolon helvum, which do not have the same feeding habits. This indicates that not all bats feed on blood, thus directly contradicting the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Artifacts can provide insights into the daily lives of past cultures. [SEP] Text: She cited this context, and her interest in teaching these students Spanish and Mexican-American cultural practices (such as adobe construction) as part of what shaped her advocacy for bilingual education (De la Trinidad, 2015). In other words, part of Urquides’ vision was changing schools for everyone, not only for Spanish-speakers, to better reflect the cultural and linguistic heritage of the region. Although she and her collaborators advocated for bilingual education primarily for the benefit of Spanish-speakers, they also included in their vision of how and why other children might learn about the history, language and lifeways of the Southwest. As one example, Henry “Hank” Oyama, both a colleague and a former student of María Urquides, noted that, María was loved and honored by the Hispanic community—locally, regionally and nationally, but she loved and helped anyone and everyone, be they or not. She would scold and I for not having pushed harder for bilingual education for Anglos as well Hispanics. (Preciado Martin, p. v. i. ) In regards to the first part of this quote, Oyama himself was a testament to this ethic of care; although of Japanese rather than Mexican descent, he grew up in the Mexican-American barrio where María taught, and recalled how María brought food for his family as well as other children in the barrio who were in need. Likewise, Rosita Cota, also part of this advocacy group, echoed Urquides' imperative to extend bilingual education to all, arguing that, "Es importante que se reconozca que nuestra cultura hispana es una herenca común. Nos pertenece a todos. Es de todos nosotros, los que hemos nacido aquí y los hemos llegado después. . . es también de ellos, los habla inglesa, nuestro patrimonio indio mexicano espanol. " [it's important that we recognize that our Hispanic culture is a shared heritage. It belongs to all of us, those who were born here and those who came after. . . It belongs to them too, the English-speakers, our Indian, Mexican, Spanish patrimony] (Preciado Martin, p. iv, 1995). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim directly regarding artifacts and their role in providing insights into daily lives of past cultures. Instead, it discusses María Urquides' advocacy for bilingual education, her influence on students, and the recognition of shared cultural heritage between Latin and English speakers. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the subject of artifacts.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases can affect decision-making and perception in everyday life. [SEP] Text: Mispredicting and misremembering: patients with renal failure overestimate improvements in quality of life after a kidney transplant. Health Psychol. 2008;27(5):653–8. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science103. . Misremembering colostomies? Former patients give lower utility ratings than do current patients. Health Psychol. 2006;25(6):688–95. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science104. Walsh E, Ayton P. What would it be like for me and for you? Judged impact of chronic health conditions on happiness. Making. 2009;29(1):15–22. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science105. . Affective forecasting and advance care planning: anticipating quality of life in future health statuses. J Health Psychol. 2009;14(3):447–56. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science106. Walsh E, Ayton P. My imagination versus your feelings: can personal affective forecasts be improved by knowing other peoples’ emotions? J Appl. 2009;15(4):351–60. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science107. . Loss aversion in riskless choice: a reference-dependent model. In: Kahneman D, Tversky A, eds. Choices, Values, and Frames. New York: 2000. p 143–58. Crossref108. Abhyankar P, O’Connor DB, Lawton R. The role of message framing in promoting MMR vaccination: evidence of a loss-frame advantage. Med. 2008;13(1):1–16. CrossrefPubMed109. . Loss-framed minimal intervention increases mammography use. Women’s Health Issues. 2005;15(6):258–64. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science110. . Evaluation of a “loss-framed” minimal intervention to increase mammography utilization among medically un- and under-insured women. Prev. 2002;28(5):394–400. Crossref111. . Framing effect debiasing in medical decision making. Couns. 2008;71(1):102–7. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science112. . Effect of framing as gain versus loss on understanding and hypothetical treatment choices: survival and mortality curves. Making. 2002;22(1):76–83. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science113. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing various studies that illustrate how cognitive biases, such as mispredicting and misremembering, can significantly impact decision-making processes and perceptions in health contexts. For example, it mentions that patients with renal failure overestimate improvements in quality of life after a kidney transplant, indicating a cognitive bias in their decision-making regarding health outcomes.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All bats feed on blood like vampire bats. [SEP] Text: Wilkinson [55] suggested that social grooming might help hungry begging bats detect the ability of partners to share food, and other observations show that donors often initiate food sharing by ‘greeting’ and grooming recipients [60]. Social grooming could therefore function as a tactile signal of desire to receive food or an intention to share it. Further comparative studies on social grooming in bats and other mammals will provide insight into whether frequent social grooming may have originated from selective pressures that are similar to those having shaped social grooming in primates. Based on what is known from six bat species from three families (Table 1), the high levels of social grooming observed in vampire bats seem unlikely to reflect a general trait conserved across bats. Rather, elevated social grooming in vampire bats appears to be an adaptive specialization to a cooperative social life. 1. and two reviewers provided suggestions that improved the manuscript. and helped with data collection. This research was supported in part by a grant to the University of Maryland from the through the Program. Author ContributionsConceived and designed the experiments: GC. Performed the experiments: GC LL. Analyzed the data: GC. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: GC. Wrote the paper: GC LL. 1. Seyfarth RM. A model of social grooming among adult female monkeys. J Theor Biol. 1977;65(4):671–98. pmid:406485 View 2. The benefits of social capital: close social bonds among female baboons enhance offspring survival. Soc B. 2009;276(1670):3099–104. pmid:19515668 View 3. . The evolutionary origins of friendship. Psychol. 2012;63:153–77. Available: pmid:21740224 View 4. . Affiliation, empathy, and the origins of theory of mind. . 2013;110:10349–56. pmid:23754420 View 5. . Social bonds in female baboons: the interaction between personality, kinship and rank. Anim Behav. 2014;87:23–9. View 6. . Social cognition. Anim Behav. 2015;103:191–202. View 7. épy JF, Platt ML. The neuroethology of friendship. Ann NY Acad Sci. 2014;1316(1):1–17. View 8. Brent LJ. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that elevated social grooming in vampire bats is an adaptive specialization and that such social grooming is unlikely to be a general trait across all bats, which suggests that not all bats share the same feeding behavior as vampire bats. The text does not support the idea that all bats feed on blood, highlighting a distinction in behavior.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Artifacts can provide insights into the daily lives of past cultures. [SEP] Text: Evident here is a sense of a shared history, language and culture as things that are enriched rather than divided by sharing. It's a noteworthy departure from a zero-sum framing of education as a scarce good in which somoene's gain is someone else's loss. The NEA report described exemplary programs for Spanish-speaking children all over the Southwestern US, most of which served exclusively Spanish-speaking children. However, one of the featured programs, from Laredo, Texas, might be called today dual-immersion: “Half [the students] were Mexican-American (some having been born in Mexico); half were Anglo-American. None of the Anglo-American knew any Spanish when school started; few of the Mexican-American students knew any English,” (NEA, 1966, p. 14). The report noted the symbolic prominence in the school of both an “American eagle” and a “Mexican eagle” in the school’s iconography, and how this tied into the programmatic goal of cultivating respect among students for both U. S and Mexican history and culture. One of the reasons for including non-Spanish-speakers in bilingual programs might be be characterized as changing what had been a one-way assimilation process into one of mutual accommodation. This vision of bilingual education for all was not just about cultivating an appreciated for a shared culture; it was also strategic. One the report’s authors, Adalberto Guerrero, recalled in an interview that his colleague Rosita Cota, saw the inclusion of English-speaking students as a political necessity: Siempre nos hacía ver que iba a haber siempre mucha resistencia en contra de los programas bilingües. Que si íbamos a tener éxito sería únicamente si los programas bilingües abarcaban a toda la comunidad. Para tener éxito, los anglo-sajones, los de habla inglesa, tenían que reconocer la importancia para los hijos de ellos también. (Smith, 2000, p. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim directly; instead, it discusses aspects of bilingual education and the significance of cultural respect in a shared learning environment. Although it touches on cultural aspects, it does not relate to artifacts or their role in understanding past cultures.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases can affect decision-making and perception in everyday life. [SEP] Text: The effects of message framing on mammography utilization. Health Psychol. 1995;14(2):178–84. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science114. Brandstätter E, Mücke R. Interpreting test results. Differ. 2009;46(2):183–6. CrossrefWeb of Science115. The effect of how outcomes are framed on decisions about whether to take antihypertensive medication: a randomized trial. PLoS One. 2010;5(3):e9469. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science116. ò A. Improving attitudes toward prostate examinations by loss-framed appeals. J Psychol. 2005;35(4):732–42. CrossrefWeb of Science117. . Emotion and the framing of risky choice. Polit Behav. 2008;30(3):297–321. CrossrefWeb of Science118. . An affective booster moderates the effect of gain- and loss-framed messages on behavioral intentions for colorectal cancer screening. J Behav Med. 2012;35(4):452–61. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science119. Foster KH, Harrison E. Effect of presentation bias on selection of treatment option for failed endodontic therapy. . 2008;106(5):e36–9. CrossrefPubMed120. é TT. Using message framing to achieve long-term behavioral changes in persons with diabetes. Res. 2011;24(1):22–8. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science121. . Message framing and perinatal decisions. Pediatrics. 2008;122(1):109–18. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science122. . Effects of framing on teratogenic risk perception in pregnant women. Lancet. 2001;358(9289):1237–8. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science123. Kalichman SC, Coley B. Context framing to enhance HIV-antibody-testing messages targeted to women. Health Psychol. 1995;14(3):247–54. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science124. Marteau TM. Framing of information: its influence upon decisions of doctors and patients. Soc Psychol. 1989;28(pt 1):89–94. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science125. Meyerowitz BE, Chaiken S. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text presents multiple studies highlighting the influence of message framing on decision-making in various health-related contexts. It supports the claim by discussing how the way information is presented (framed) can significantly impact the choices individuals make regarding health treatments and screenings, which illustrates the role cognitive biases play in everyday decision-making and perception.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All bats feed on blood like vampire bats. [SEP] Text: View 57. üpold S. Social interactions among wild female Bechstein's bats (Myotis bechsteinii) living in a maternity colony. Acta Ethol. 2003;5(2):107–14. View 58. Ortega J, Maldonado JE. Female interactions in harem groups of the Jamaican fruit-eating bat, Artibeus jamaicensis (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae). Acta Chiropterol. 2006;8(2):485–95. View 59. . Individual specific contact calls of pallid bats (Antrozous pallidus) attract conspecifics at roosting sites. Sociobiol. 2011;65(8):1581–93. View 60. . Food sharing in vampire bats: reciprocal help predicts donations more than relatedness or harassment. Soc B. 2013;280:20122573. Available: pmid:23282995 View 61. Fission‐fusion dynamics. Curr Anthro. 2008; 49: 627–654. View 62. Wilkinson GS. The social organization of the common vampire bat: I. Pattern and cause of association. Sociobiol. 1985;17:111–121. View 63. . Bats are able to maintain long-term social relationships despite the high fission-fusion dynamics of their groups. Soc B. 2011;278(1719):2761–7. Available: pmid:21307051 View 64. Wilkinson GS. Reciprocal food sharing in the vampire bat. Nature. 1984;308:181–4. View 65. Carter G, Wilkinson G. Does food sharing in vampire bats demonstrate reciprocity? Biol. 2013;6(6):e25783. View 66. . in Chiroptera. Basel: Birkhäuser Verlag; 1996. 1596 p. 67. Bhatnagar K. The brain of the common vampire bat, Desmodus rotundus murinus (Wagner, 1840): a cytoarchitectural atlas. Biol. 2008; 68:583–599. pmid:18833481 View 68. . Neocortex size and social network size in primates. Anim Behav. 2001; 62(4), 711–722. View 69. Byrne RW, Corp N. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing several species of bats, such as Bechstein's bats and Jamaican fruit-eating bats, which do not feed on blood. Instead, it highlights that vampire bats are a specific group that have evolved to engage in blood feeding, implying that not all bats share this feeding behavior.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Artifacts can provide insights into the daily lives of past cultures. [SEP] Text: 212-213) In other words, Cota predicted (and convinced her colleagues) that bilingual education would always be controversial (“iba a haber siempre mucha resistencia [there would also be resistance]”), and that in order to survive, it would need the advocacy of the entire community, including English-speaking White families (“Para tener éxito, los anglo-sajones, los de habla inglesa, tenían que reconocer la importancia para los hijos de ellos también [To be successful, Anglos, English-speakers, needed to recognize its importance for their children too. ]”) While she saw bilingualism as a good that might benefit all people, it was not mere generosity to include English-speaking White families; it was also a strategy to create what Bell (1980) would call interest convergence. and historical studies have identified a specific group of teachers and organizers who were instrumental to the passing of the BEA. This group, which included most prominently María Urquides, Rosita Cota, as well NEA liasion Monroe Sweetland, surveyed promising bilingual programs in the Southwest, published their findings in a report sponsored by the NEA (Association), and organized a symposium attended by the legislators who went on to sponsor the BEA (De la Trinidad, 2015; Sánchez, 1973; San Miguel, 2004. ) Sources included oral histories of the key actors, the 1966 report of this group, the proceedings of the symposium which followed it, the archival records of and congressional records. I examine these primary sources alongside secondary sources for emergences, repetitions and discontinuities. OPEN 5. pdf Alvermann, D. E. , & Moje, E. B. (2018). A Relational model of adolescent literacy instruction: Disrupting the Discourse of" a Teacher of Reading". models and processes of literacy (533. Bernstein, K. A. , Katznelson, N. , Amezcua, A. , Mohamed, S. , & Alvarado, S. L. (2020). Equity/social justice, instrumentalism/neoliberalism: Dueling discourses of dual language in principals’ talk about their programs. 54(3), 652-684. Cervantes-Soon, C. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding artifacts and their ability to provide insights into past cultures. Instead, it focuses on bilingual education, advocacy, and the involvement of specific individuals and organizations in the educational process. Thus, it is unrelated to the claim about artifacts.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases can affect decision-making and perception in everyday life. [SEP] Text: Framing effects in choices between multioutcome life-expectancy lotteries. Making. 1999;19(3):324–38. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science138. Blumenschein K, Johannesson M. An experimental test of question framing in health state utility assessment. Health Policy. 1998;45(3):187–93. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science139. . Effect of framing on adolescents’ decision making. Skills. 1996;83(3 pt 1):811–9. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science140. . Framing bias among expert and novice physicians. Acad Med. 1991;66(9 suppl):S76–8. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science141. Cox D, Cox A. Communicating the consequences of early detection: the role of evidence and framing. J Marketing. 2001;65:91–103. CrossrefWeb of Science142. Donovan RJ, Jalleh G. Positive versus negative framing of a hypothetical infant immunization: the influence of involvement. Behav. 2000;27(1):82–95. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science143. Ferguson E, Gallagher L. Message framing with respect to decisions about vaccination: the roles of frame valence, frame method and perceived risk. Psychol. 2007;98(pt 4):667–80. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science144. . Perceived susceptibility to breast cancer moderates the effect of gain- and loss-framed messages on use of screening mammography. Health Psychol. 2011;30(2):145–52. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science145. . Using message framing to promote acceptance of the human papillomavirus vaccine. Health Psychol. 2007;26(6):745–52. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science146. . Behavioral frequency moderates the effects of message framing on HPV vaccine acceptability. Med. 2008;35(2):221–9. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science147. . Framing procedural risks to patients: is 99% safe the same as a risk of 1 in 100? Acad Med. 2000;75(8):840–2. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science148. Hull SJ. Perceived risk as a moderator of the effectiveness of framed HIV-test promotion messages among women: a randomized controlled trial. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing various studies and experimental tests that investigate framing effects, which are a type of cognitive bias, on decision-making processes in different contexts, including health state utility assessment and adolescents' decision making. The mention of 'framing bias' among physicians and how framing influences decisions about vaccination further supports that cognitive biases do indeed affect perception and decision-making in daily life.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All bats feed on blood like vampire bats. [SEP] Text: The first suggestion is to move the idea mentioned in lines 94-98 to the discussion. I think you have a very solid foundation for establishing predictions about learning in vampire bats without the ideas included here; in fact, these do not seem well supported, but I believe would be more valuable in your discussion. My second minor suggestion is to remind the reader what each experiment is trying to accomplish in materials and methods. For example, either include some hints in the subtitle "Experiment x" that reminds us what you are trying to accomplish, or else start the first paragraph with something like "To asses if captive-born bats show a preference for warm blood, we presented an unfed. . . ". Third comment: line 257 should be mentioning table 2, not table 1. In line 304 you say that porcupines and armadillos are exotic, which they are not. Do you mean here that they are rare, or perhaps not the vampire's regular prey? In line 318, I would remove the word "null", and just leave it as "We had two unexpected results". I have a minor confusion about your test subjects for experiment 2. You mention in the section "Animal subjects" (material and methods) that you only tested animals aged 6 to 16 months of age. However, it is clear that is experiment 2 you use some adult females (which you mention in the methods section for experiment 2, no doubt). So perhaps to avoid confusion, in the section animal subjects you can clarify this to avoid confusion later on? Cite this review as (2019) #1 of "The role of past experience in development of feeding behavior in common vampire bats (v0. 1)". PeerJ Teague O'Mara · Apr 10, 2019 Basic reporting The human evolution framing needs work. Please see my general comments. Experimental design No comment. Validity of the findings No comment. Additional comments Review by Teague O'summary: The paper is nicely written and easy to read, the experiments seem to test what the authors set out to test, data and analysis are solid, but the framing of study is a big reach and its strategy should be rethought (although it is never really discussed later, for what it's worth). Even though the results are a bit underwhelming, it's great to see more developmental work on bats and I think this work adds excellent information regarding the peculiarities of vampire bats. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the nature of vampire bats specifically rather than suggesting that all bats have a similar feeding behavior. It implies that the feeding behavior of vampire bats is unique by mentioning experiments and aspects that might pertain only to them, like their study on feeding preferences and the clarification of prey. It also raises questions about the classification of other animals and does not support the idea that all bats share the same dietary habits as vampire bats.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Artifacts can provide insights into the daily lives of past cultures. [SEP] Text: G. (2014). A critical look at dual language immersion in the new Latin@ diaspora. Journal, 37(1), 64–82. De la Trinidad, M. (2015). and the push for culturally relevant education: the bilingual education movement in Tucson, 1958–1969, History of Education, 44(3), 316-338, DOI: 10. 1080/0046760X. 2014. 1002015. Flores, N. (2016). A tale of two visions: Hegemonic whiteness and bilingual education. Educational Policy, 30(1), 13–38. Flores, N. , & García, O. (2017). A critical review of bilingual education in the United States: From basements and pride to boutiques and profit. of Applied Linguistics, 37, 14–29. doi:10. 1017/S0267190517000162 Foucault, M. (1980). Power/knowledge: Selected interviews and other writings, 1972–197 (C. Gordon, Trans. ). Pantheon Books. Foucault, M. (1988). Politics, philosophy, culture: Interviews and other writings, 1977–1984 (A. Sheridan, Trans. ) Routledge. García, O. , & Sung, K. k. (2018). "Critically assessing the 1968 Act at 50 years: Taming tongues and Latinx communities. " Journal 41(4). 318 -333. Gonzalez, M. Q. (1986). of Maria L. Urquides: A of a Community Leader. [Doctoral dissertation, the University of Arizona. ] UA Campus repository. Leeman, J. (2012). Ideologies in Spanish as a Heritage Language. InG. Valdés, S. Beaudrie, & M. Fairclough (Eds. ), Spanish as a in the United States: of the Field (133. Preciado Martin, P. (1995). Corazón: History of 25 Years of Nurturing Bilingual/in TUSD. School District. San Miguel, J. G. (2004). Contested policy. The rise and fall of federal bilingual education policy in the United States, 1960–2001. Denton, TX: University of Texas Press. Sánchez, G. (1973) An analysis of the Act, 1967-68. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim regarding artifacts and their ability to provide insights into past cultures. Instead, it lists various academic works and authors related to bilingual education and related topics. Therefore, the text is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases can affect decision-making and perception in everyday life. [SEP] Text: J Med. 1994;9(1):20–3. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science183. . Do decision biases predict bad decisions? Omission bias, naturalness bias, and influenza vaccination. Making. 2008;28(4):532–9. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science184. -Buzaglo J. Cognitive processes and the decisions of some parents to forego pertussis vaccination for their children. J Clin Epidemiol. 1996;49(6):697–703. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science185. Ritov I, Baron J. Reluctance to vaccinate: omission bias and ambiguity. J Mak. 1990;3(4):263–77. Crossref186. Ritov I, Baron J. Outcome knowledge, regret, and omission bias. Process. 1995;64(2):119–27. CrossrefWeb of Science187. . Feeling bad about immunising our children. Vaccine. 2005;23(12):1428–33. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science188. . Understanding and predicting parental decisions about early childhood immunizations. Health Psychol. 2004;23(1):33–41. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science189. Baron J. The effect of normative beliefs on anticipated emotions. J Psychol. 1992;63(2):320–30. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science190. Zikmund-. A matter of perspective: choosing for others differs from choosing for yourself in making treatment decisions. J Med. 2006;21(6):618–22. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science191. Bond L, Nolan T. Making sense of perceptions of risk of diseases and vaccinations: a qualitative study combining models of health beliefs, decision-making and risk perception. BMC Public Health. 2011;11(1):943. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science192. Connolly T, Reb J. Omission bias in vaccination decisions: where’s the “omission”? Where’s the “bias”? Process. 2003;91(2):186–202. CrossrefWeb of Science193. Kahneman D, Tversky A. Conflict resolution: a cognitive perspective. In: Kahneman D, Tversky A, eds. Choices, Values, and Frames. New York: 2000. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provides various citations that discuss how cognitive biases, such as omission bias and naturalness bias, influence decision-making processes, particularly regarding vaccination decisions. This supports the claim by highlighting how these cognitive biases indeed affect perceptions and choices that individuals make in everyday situations.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All bats feed on blood like vampire bats. [SEP] Text: General Comments: The way that the authors frame the study in the context of human learning over simplifies a large and complex literature on the interactions among life history, brain size, social complexity and the ratchet effects of cumulative culture, and food complexity. The study by Schuppli and colleagues is their citation for all of human life history evolution (and associated learning), but this only touches on many of these traits. Schuppli, Isler, & van Schaik target why humans have a late age of skill competency and tests this via several theoretical constructs, often referred to as 'needing to learn' or 'energetic constraints' related to brain sizes and ecological risks posed to juveniles. Schuppli really targets the length of the immature period juvenility and subadulthood (measured by age at first reproduction, AFR, versus the age of adult skill acquisition, ASC). While most mammals have relatively early ASC relative to AFR, mammals with complex foraging niches have ASC more similar to AFR, and humans have ASC much later than AFR. Schuppli's reasoning was that the synergistic effects of complex social relationships, allomaternal care, post-weaning provisioning, and the cooperative pooling of food all come together to allow humans to reproduce much earlier than their foraging ecology should allow. van Schaik shows in other work that it was this social cooperation and complexity the allows for the expansion of large brains of humans, particularly the neocortex (and to some extent falls in line with Robert Barton's earlier proposals). Vampires arguably have the most highly specialized feeding ecology of bats, and there has been an enormous amount of adaptation in their morphology, physiology, and neurology that has facilitated this. The main issue here is whether the feeding behavior of vampires is a complex skill that needs a lot of time to be learned, and is perhaps facilitated through adult food sharing (Schuppli's Fig 2C). Vampires do have many characters that make them similar to primates, but making the life history comparison directly between vampire bats and humans is a bit bold -- vampire bat specialization and life history is more similar to aye-ayes or some of the haplorhine primates than humans (or maybe just a capital breeder since blood is a relative poor resource). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by explaining that vampire bats have a highly specialized feeding ecology that is not representative of all bats. It highlights that while vampire bats are noted for blood feeding, many other bat species have different foraging behaviors and adaptations. The comparison of vampire bats' specialization to other primates or mammals further emphasizes the distinct nature of their feeding habits compared to the broader bat population.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Artifacts can provide insights into the daily lives of past cultures. [SEP] Text: " [Doctoral dissertation, University of Massachusetts-Amherst]. Scholarworks@UMass Amherst. Smith, P. H. (2000). Community as resource for minority language learning: A case study of Spanish-English dual-language schooling. [Doctoral dissertation, University Arizona. ] UA Campus repository. Sweetland, M. (1987). Oral history interview with [51]. Archives. Retrieved from sound-recording-51 Valdés, G. (1997). Dual-language immersion programs: A cautionary note concerning the education of language-minority students. Review, 67(3), 391–429. Images below from Papers held at the Univeristy of Arizona's library and from the Association archives at University. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding artifacts providing insights into past cultures. Instead, it references various academic works and dissertations related to minority language learning and education, which do not relate to the subject of artifacts or cultural insights.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Cognitive biases can affect decision-making and perception in everyday life. [SEP] Text: Expressing medicine side effects: assessing the effectiveness of absolute risk, relative risk, and number needed to harm, and the provision of baseline risk information. Couns. 2006;63(1–2):89–96. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science240. . Risk communication methods in hip fracture prevention: a randomised trial in primary care. Gen Pract. 2011;61(589):e469–76. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science241. . Does informed consent alter elderly patients’ p30. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science242. . The representativeness heuristic: influence on nurses’ decision making. Res. 2003;16(3):201–4. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science243. Acute coronary syndromes without chest pain, an underdiagnosed and undertreated high-risk group: insights from the global registry of acute coronary events. Chest. 2004;126(2):461–9. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science244. Cioffi J, Markham R. Clinical decision-making by midwives: managing case complexity. J Adv Nurs. 1997;25(2):265–72. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science245. Ferrario CG. Experienced and less-experienced nurses’ diagnostic reasoning: implications for fostering students’ critical thinking. Classif. 2003;14(2):41–52. CrossrefPubMed246. Garb HN. The representativeness and past-behavior heuristics in clinical judgment. Res Pr. 1996;27(3):272–7. CrossrefWeb of Science247. Arkes H, Blumer C. The psychology of sunk cost. Process. 1985;35(1):124–40. CrossrefWeb of Science248. Coleman MD. Sunk cost and commitment to medical treatment. Curr Psychol. 2010;29(2):121–34. CrossrefWeb of Science249. . Rationality in medical treatment decisions: is there a sunk-cost effect? Med. 1999;49(2):215–22. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science250. Braverman JA, Blumenthal-Barby JS. Assessment of the sunk-cost effect in clinical decision-making. Med. 2012;75(1):186–92. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science251. . Patient p71. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by referencing multiple studies that highlight cognitive biases, such as the representativeness heuristic and the sunk-cost effect, which influence decision-making in clinical settings. For example, it discusses how the representativeness heuristic has an influence on nurses' decision making, directly indicating that cognitive biases play a role in everyday professional scenarios.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Bats are solitary animals and do not form colonies or social groups. [SEP] Text: The structuring of wild animal populations can influence population dynamics, disease spread, and information transfer. Social network analysis potentially offers insights into these processes but is rarely, if ever, used to investigate more than one species in a community. We therefore compared the social, temporal and spatial networks of sympatric Myotis bats (M. nattereri (Natterer's bats) and M. daubentonii (Daubenton's bats)), and asked: (1) are there long-lasting social associations within species? (2) do the ranges occupied by roosting social groups overlap within or between species? (3) are M. daubentonii bachelor colonies excluded from roosting in areas used by maternity groups? data on 490 ringed M. nattereri and 978 M. daubentonii from 379 colonies, we found that both species formed stable social groups encompassing multiple colonies. M. nattereri formed 11 mixed-sex social groups with few (4. 3%) inter-group associations. Approximately half of all M. nattereri were associated with the same individuals when recaptured, with many associations being long-term (>100 days). In contrast, M. daubentonii were sexually segregated; only a quarter of pairs were associated at recapture after a few days, and inter-sex associations were not long-lasting. Social groups of M. nattereri and female M. daubentonii had small roost home ranges (mean 0. 2 km2 in each case). Intra-specific overlap was low, but inter-specific overlap was high, suggesting territoriality within but not between species. M. daubentonii bachelor colonies did not appear to be excluded from roosting areas used by females. data suggest marked species- and sex-specific patterns of disease and information transmission are likely between bats of the same genus despite sharing a common habitat. The clear partitioning of the woodland amongst social groups, and their apparent reliance on small patches of habitat for roosting, means that localised woodland management may be more important to bat conservation than previously recognised. Citation: (2014) -Groups with Home Ranges. 9(10): e112225. Brock Fenton, University of Western Ontario, CanadaReceived: July 4, 2014; Accepted: October 1, 2014; Published: October 30, 2014Copyright: © 2014 August et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing evidence that bats, specifically the Myotis species, form stable social groups encompassing multiple colonies. It details the findings that both M. nattereri and M. daubentonii display social structures where long-lasting associations and social groups exist, indicating that they are not solitary animals as claimed.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Artifacts can provide insights into the daily lives of past cultures. [SEP] Text: Main textThe natural history of tobacco dependenceNicotine is among the least rewarding of all addictive drugs: only 20 % of first time users find smoking to be relaxing [1]. Smoking provides an image, a shared social activity, and something to do when bored. These factors motivate smoking until dependence takes over. Prior to the onset of dependence, sporadic non-daily use is typical. The classic withdrawal syndromeThe seminal research on tobacco withdrawal focused on individuals with advanced dependence [2–4], as was the case with research on withdrawal associated with other substances [5, 6]. Because of this history, the term ‘withdrawal’ has traditionally been used to describe the symptoms experienced by individuals with advanced physical dependence [7, 8]. In this report, the historical connotation of the word ‘withdrawal’ is expanded to accommodate recent advances in scientific knowledge afforded by the study of individuals with emerging dependence. The emergence of physical dependenceMany addictive drugs cause a physical (physiologic) dependence that manifests as withdrawal symptoms. [7] (The term physical dependence is introduced here to indicate that the discussion is about to focus on that aspect of dependence related to withdrawal phenomena. The author acknowledges that there are psychological aspects to dependence and that the physical and psychological may be tightly entwined. ) Tobacco withdrawal symptoms are identifiable as such because (1) they recur upon each withdrawal from tobacco, (2) they appear in a characteristic sequence, (3) they appear after a characteristic latency, and (4) they are relieved immediately upon using tobacco. Based on these criteria, it has been shown that physical dependence on tobacco develops through a characteristic sequence of stages in all addicted smokers [9]. As physical dependence begins to develop, the earliest symptom is withdrawal-induced ‘wanting’ of a cigarette [10]. ‘Wanting’, by definition, is mild, short-lived and fairly easy to ignore. It does not intrude upon the patient’s thoughts. For individuals in the first stage of physical dependence, wanting is the only withdrawal symptom experienced. The second stage of physical dependence is characterized by withdrawal-induced ‘craving’. Craving is a more intense and persistent sensation than is wanting, but what distinguishes craving qualitatively from wanting is the fact that craving intrudes upon the patient’s thoughts. Smokers often describe craving as if something inside of their head is telling them that it is time to smoke. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim concerning artifacts and their insights into past cultures. Instead, it discusses aspects of tobacco dependence, withdrawal symptoms, and the psychological and physiological components of addiction. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Memory consolidation occurs during sleep, enhancing long-term retention of information. [SEP] Text: Full text Figures and data Peer review Side by side Figures 9 figures Figures Figure 1 Download asset Open asset Memory is consolidated, but training is ineffective, during the sleep phase. In this and in subsequent figures, values from measurements obtained during the inactive and active phases are respectively shaded and unshaded. In this and subsequent figures, upper bars show the time to stop responding. Lower bars show the percent change in the response (-((Train-Test)/Train)*100), which is a measure of memory. In all figures standard errors are shown. Experiments in this figure were performed on the diurnally active A. californica. (A) Blocking protein synthesis during the sleep phase blocks 24 hr memory. Animals were trained during their active phase (day), and were tested 24 hr later. 12 hr after training, during the sleep phase, animals were injected with ASW (N = 9) or with 10 µM anisomycin (N = 12). (1) There is a significant decrease in the time to stop responding to the food during the 24 test (p=0. 02, t = 2. 76, df = 8; two tailed paired t-test), indicating memory. (2) There was no significant difference between time to stop responding during the original training, and the test 24 hr later (p=0. 21, t = 1. 34, df = 11; two tailed paired t-test), indicating that block of protein synthesis in the sleep phase following training blocks memory consolidation. (3) In addition to consolidation that follows training (not shown), a second phase of consolidation occurs during sleep. This phase is blocked by the translation blocker anisomycin, preventing the expression of long-term memory. (B) Training during the sleep phase is ineffective in causing long-term memory. (1) Training animals during the sleep phase (N = 5) did not lead to long-term memory, as shown by a lack of savings when animals were tested 24 hr later (p=0. 3, t = 1. 12, df = 4; two-tailed paired t-test). In this experiment, animals were treated with ASW just before the training. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by stating that 'a second phase of consolidation occurs during sleep.' It also explains that blocking protein synthesis during sleep impedes memory consolidation, reinforcing the concept that sleep is critical for enhancing long-term retention of information.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Bats are solitary animals and do not form colonies or social groups. [SEP] Text: This is an open-access 3571. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. IntroductionApproximately a third of all mammal species are bats, and the majority of these are long-lived and social for at least part of the year. Colonies, which can be mixed or single-sex, commonly contain tens to hundreds of individuals [1], [2]. Previous studies of the spatial arrangement of social groups have found that whilst some bat species form social groups occupying exclusive roost home ranges [3], [4] others have broadly overlapping roost home ranges [5]. Modern methods of social network analysis (SNA) offer considerable potential for understanding the behaviour of bats, but previous studies have considered only a single species at a single study site [4]–[11]. To our knowledge, there have been no previous studies on sympatric species, either amongst bats or in other orders, making this the first comparison of social networks between sympatric species within a genus (though see [12] for comparisons of populations without SNA). The present study tests predictions about the social structure and spatial arrangement of two sympatric species based on their ecology and the potential for intra and inter-specific competition for roosting sites. The spatial distribution of bat social groups is important for wildlife conservation, whilst characterising the structures of social networks is fundamental to understanding disease transmission and information transfer. Our study species were M. daubentonii and M. nattereri, sympatric medium sized insectivorous bats weighing 7–15 g and 6–12 g respectively [13]. M. daubentonii typically forages over water but frequently roosts in woodlands, whereas M. nattereri is a woodland specialist [13]. Both species roost in tree holes and man-made structures close to their foraging sites and form nursery colonies during the summer composed primarily of pregnant and lactating adult females. Nursery colonies form in May-June and split up once the once young are independent in August-September [13]. In this paper we define a ‘colony’ of bats as an aggregation of individuals at a single location. Both sexes of M. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing evidence that the majority of bat species are social for part of the year and commonly form colonies that can consist of tens to hundreds of individuals. It explicitly describes how bats, such as M. daubentonii and M. nattereri, form nursery colonies during the summer, indicating that they are not solitary but rather social animals that often gather in groups.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Artifacts can provide insights into the daily lives of past cultures. [SEP] Text: The third and final stage in the development of physical dependence is withdrawal-induced ‘needing’. The needing stage is characterized by a desire to smoke that is so intense and urgent that it cannot be ignored and the individual is so distracted that he or she is unable to function normally [10]. In the words of one teen, “You really want one. You know you need it. You know you’ll feel normal after smoking, and you have to smoke to feel normal again” [10]. When smokers report that they need to smoke, it is not a need to experience pleasure, it is an acute and urgent need to relieve withdrawal symptoms [10]. This description of the Wanting-Craving-Needing stages is not based on, or predicted by any specific theory of addiction, it is a clinical description based on case histories, validated by larger surveys [9–12]. To the author’s knowledge, stages in the development of physical dependence on other drugs have not been identified. Traditionally, it had been assumed that long-term heavy daily use of tobacco was a prerequisite to dependence [13], and the DSM has suggested that prolonged heavy use was a prerequisite for withdrawal syndromes generally [14]. However, in a national survey, 16 % of adolescents who used tobacco only one or two days per month reported strong cravings to use tobacco, and this symptom of physical dependence increased proportionate to the frequency of tobacco use to 78 % among those who had initiated daily use [15]. Irritability and restlessness during withdrawal were reported by 13 % of adolescents that used tobacco 1–2 days/month and by 70 % of daily users [15]. Close to two dozen peer-reviewed studies document symptoms of physical tobacco dependence in nondaily or very light daily smokers [16]. Symptoms can appear after only a few uses of tobacco. [17] Studies demonstrate that physical withdrawal symptoms can be elicited by the administration of an opioid receptor antagonist after a brief exposure to morphine [18, 19]. These studies raise the possibility that clinically significant physical dependence on other drugs is present in some form soon after the onset of infrequent use. If so, we should not expect their symptoms to be identical to those seen during withdrawal among individuals with far advanced dependence. It is likely that only a mild ‘wanting’ to use the drug manifesting at a predictable interval after the last use might be the first sign of physical dependence. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the stages of physical dependence on tobacco and withdrawal symptoms rather than addressing artifacts or insights into past cultures. There is no connection between the text's content and the claim about artifacts.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Memory consolidation occurs during sleep, enhancing long-term retention of information. [SEP] Text: (2) Memory after training during the active phase is expressed during the sleep phase (N = 11), as shown by a significant reduction in the time to stop 36 hr after training, when animals are tested during the inactive phase (p=0. 013, t = 3. 03, df = 10; two-tailed paired t-test with Bonferroni correction). (3) A diagram showing that training during the sleep phase is ineffective in producing memory. (C) Effect of a brief recall during the sleep phase. (1) A 3 min training during the sleep phase (N = 7), which is an effective means of recalling a memory, leaves the memory intact (p=0. 001, t(6) = 6. 02, two-tailed paired t-test). (2) A 3 min training paired with 10 µM anisomycin (N = 6) rescues the memory that would have been blocked by the anisomycin alone (p=0. 004, t(5) = 5. 01, two-tailed paired t-test). (3) A flow diagram showing that the anisomycin does not block memory formation when followed by a brief training. Figure 1—source data 1 Memory is consolidated, but training is ineffective, during the sleep phase. Download elife-17769-fig1-data1-v2. xlsx Figure 2 Download asset Open asset 3 min training with anisomycin during the inactive phase produces memory. Experiments were on A. californica. (A) Time to stop responding during training in the active phase, and during a test of memory 24 hr later (N = 10). These data provide comparisons for data in B-E on the time to stop in a naïve, previously untrained animals, and during a test of memory after successful training. (B) Animals were trained for 3 min during the inactive phase just after treatment with anisomycin, and memory was tested 24 hr later (N = 15). (C) As a control, animals were trained for 3 min during the inactive phase just after treatment with ASW, and memory was tested 24 hr later (N = 7). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by indicating that memory is consolidated during sleep, as evidenced by phrases like 'Memory is consolidated, but training is ineffective, during the sleep phase.' This suggests that memory retention may be enhanced during sleep, which aligns with the claim regarding memory consolidation occurring during this time.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Bats are solitary animals and do not form colonies or social groups. [SEP] Text: nattereri are highly philopatric, returning from hibernation to spend the summer at the site of their birth [14]. In M. daubentonii, males are likely to account for most dispersal whilst females are generally philopatric [15]. It has been proposed that summer bachelor colonies of M. daubentonii are excluded from areas of high quality foraging habitat by females [16]–[19]. M. nattereri also, though less frequently, form bachelor colonies of up to 28 individuals [20]. Like other Myotis bats, both species attend swarming sites, typically cave or mine entrances, from late summer to early autumn. These sites are thought to be important for mating, though mating may also occur at summer roosting sites [15] and hibernaculae [18]. Based on evidence that M. daubentonii and M. nattereri tend to form female dominated social groups, and that M. daubentonii males form separate bachelor roosts [15]–[18], we expected the species' social networks to reflect this structure. We set out to test the following: Both species will exhibit long lasting intra-sex associations. The physical space within the wood occupied by roosting social groups will overlap, since tree dwelling bats change roost site frequently and potential roosts are in excess at this study site. M. daubentonii bachelor colonies will occupy roosts further from the highest quality foraging sites (in this case, Thames and Farmoor Reservoir) due to competitive exclusion by female maternity groups from roost sites closest to foraging areas [16]–[18]. Materials and Bats were captured and ringed between May and mid-October annually, from 2006 to 2010, at Wytham Woods, Oxfordshire, UK (Latitude: 51. 7743, Longitude: −1. 3379). This 415 hectare site is composed of semi-natural ancient deciduous woodland and 18th–20th century plantations. Over 1150 woodcrete bird boxes of very similar design are dispersed through the woods, many of these are occupied by blue tits (Parus caeruleus) and great tits (Parus major) until chicks fledge in the second half of May. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing evidence that certain bat species, specifically M. daubentonii and M. nattereri, form social groups and colonies. It mentions that M. nattereri can form bachelor colonies of up to 28 individuals and discusses the presence of female-dominated social structures in these bats, indicating that they do not exclusively lead solitary lives.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Artifacts can provide insights into the daily lives of past cultures. [SEP] Text: Wanting has not been previously recognized as a withdrawal symptom, probably because of the perceived difficulty in distinguishing withdrawal-induced wanting from the wanting that we all experience as a part of daily living. The key to recognizing withdrawal-induced wanting is to apply the following criteria. Does the wanting recur predictably upon each withdrawal from the drug? Does it appear after a characteristic latency (time interval)? Is it relieved immediately upon using the drug? Is it followed by other symptoms in a predictable sequence? As physical dependence develops in new smokers, the symptoms of wanting, craving and needing develop in that order. During each episode of withdrawal, symptoms emerge in this same order: wanting, then craving, then needing. For individuals in the first stage of physical dependence, the desire to smoke never proceeds beyond wanting. For those in the second stage, the desire to smoke never proceeds beyond craving, while for those in the third stage, the desire to smoke will always progress to needing if abstinence is maintained. Thus, as physical dependence develops, it progresses through stages of wanting, craving and needing, and during each episode of withdrawal, symptoms escalate from a wanting phase, to a craving phase, to a needing phase. Table 1 presents a validated measure of the stages of physical dependence [20]. Individuals answer the three questions and the stage or level of physical dependence is determined by the most advanced symptom endorsed. Table 1 A clinical measure of the Stages of Physical DependenceFull size tableThe classically recognized symptoms of nicotine withdrawal such as irritability, anxiety, restlessness, moodiness, impatience, difficulty concentrating and trouble sleeping [7, 8], do not appear in a standard order as physical dependence develops but are usually associated with the needing stage of physical dependence and the needing phase of withdrawal. In practical terms, this indicates that the seminal work on tobacco withdrawal focused on individuals who had already advanced to the needing stage. Earlier stages of physical dependence were not discovered for many decades because light smokers had been systematically excluded as research subjects. Seminal studies on other withdrawal syndromes have similarly focused on treatment seeking individuals with advanced dependence [2, 3]. This raises the question as to whether similar clinical stages of wanting-craving-needing in the development of physical dependence to other drugs have gone unnoticed because of the natural tendency to focus on treatment seeking individuals with the most advanced dependence. Table 2 lists symptoms selected by the DSM as criteria for a tobacco withdrawal syndrome [7]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not relate to the claim regarding artifacts and their insights into past cultures. Instead, it discusses the stages of physical dependence and nicotine withdrawal symptoms, which are entirely focused on a different topic—addiction and behavioral health.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Memory consolidation occurs during sleep, enhancing long-term retention of information. [SEP] Text: (D, E) To test whether memory is expressed during the active phase, animals were trained for 3 min during the inactive phase just after treatment with anisomycin (N = 9 D), or ASW (N = 11 E), and memory was tested 12 hr later. There were significant differences between the six groups tested (training and testing in part A, and the four tests of memory in parts B–E) (p=0. 00005, F(5,54) = 6. 95; one-way analysis of variance). A post hoc- test (Student-Newman-Keuls, α = 0. 05) showed no significant difference between naïve animals trained during the day and either group of animals trained for 3 min with ASW (marked by an n for behaving as if naive). Thus, a 3 min training during the inactive phase with ASW produces no memory. These 3 groups were significantly different from the other three groups (marked by a t for behaving as if trained), which were not significantly different from one another. Thus, a 3 min training during the inactive phase after anisomycin treatment produced memory 12 and 24 hr later. (F) The data are explained by the effects of 10 µM anisomycin on a process initiated by sleep phase training that blocks memory. The anisomycin prevents the action of the blocker, allowing the formation of long-term memory. Figure 2—source data 1 3 min training with anisomycin during the inactive phase produces memory. Download elife-17769-fig2-data1-v2. xlsx Figure 3 Download asset Open asset Full training during the sleep phase with anisomycin causes long-term memory. Experiments were performed on A. californica. (A) Training animals until they stop responding during the inactive phase 10 min after treatment with anisomycin (N = 7) leads to memory when animals are tested 24 hr later, as shown by a decrease in the time stop responding (p=0. 05, t = 2. 49, df = 6; two-tailed paired t-test). (B) Training animals until they stop responding during the inactive phase 10 min after treatment with ASW (N = 5) did not lead to long-term memory, as shown by a lack of savings when animals were tested 24 hr later (p=0. 3, t = 1. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing experiments that demonstrate how training during the inactive phase (suggestive of sleep) contributes to long-term memory formation. The mention of '3 min training during the inactive phase with ASW produces no memory' contrasted with '3 min training during the inactive phase after anisomycin treatment produced memory 12 and 24 hr later' illustrates the role that sleep plays in memory consolidation, thereby supporting the argument that sleep enhances long-term retention of information.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Bats are solitary animals and do not form colonies or social groups. [SEP] Text: After this time the boxes are not used by birds but are frequently used by bats up until mid-October, after which the bats migrate to unknown hibernation sites. To minimise disturbance, boxes were not checked more than once within a two week period and females with attached young were not handled. Areas with higher occupancy rates (pers. obs. ) were sampled more frequently to maximise data collection (Figure S1). Bats were ringed with 2. 9 mm aluminium armbands bearing a unique identification number. The individuals were classed juvenile if the joints between the metacarpals and phalanx were not fully ossified [21], [22]. Ethical considerations All methods were approved by the University of Committee and by the University of Committee and conducted in accordance with Oxford University's Review Procedures, overseen by the. The work and was conducted under permit to conduct research within Wytham Woods. Rings were supplied by Society, UK and were applied under licence no. 20113601 and previous licences. Social network analysis A social interaction, or ‘association’, was considered to exist between two individuals if they were found roosting together. Our analyses made no assumptions about the direction of association, as this would require identification of which individuals initiated and which received the behaviour. The link between a pair is therefore scored once in the data we present (ie. the link A-B is not considered separately from B-A). Since the sample size of this study was limited due to the practicality of fieldwork, associations were assumed to be binary and were not given weighting [9]. Structural analysis Construction of the association matrix was undertaken in SocProg [23]. Visualisation of the networks was undertaken using Netdraw v. 2 [24] - individual bats are represented by nodes and an association between two individuals is represented by a line connecting them. Individuals captured only once (Table 1) were excluded from the analysis, and individuals captured more than once but which had no associations (n = 10) were also removed. Download: PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageTable 1. Frequency distribution of captured bats by species and sex. were assigned to social groups using the Girvan-Newman method, which is particularly appropriate for populations with a strong social structure such as those studied here [25]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by detailing a study where social interactions among bats are analyzed. Specifically, it states that a social interaction, or ‘association’, is considered to exist between individuals found roosting together, indicating that bats can form colonies or social groups. Terms like 'social network analysis' and 'associations' imply that bats engage in social behaviors, which directly contradicts the assertion that they are solitary animals.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Artifacts can provide insights into the daily lives of past cultures. [SEP] Text: As this list is limited to symptoms that would be experienced only by individuals at the needing stage, the DSM criteria are not a sensitive indicator of physical dependence. Table 2 DSM-5 tobacco withdrawal criteria [7]Full size tableThe stage of physical dependence, as measured by the instrument in Table 1, correlates with progressive changes in the neural architecture of the anterior cingulate gyrus [21, 22]. As the stage of physical dependence advances, neural pathways between the anterior cingulate gyrus and the precuneus increase in number, while those linking to the frontal lobe decrease substantially. Neural activity in networks involving the anterior cingulate increases in proportion to the strength of craving reported by individuals in withdrawal [22, 23]. Although the symptoms of tobacco withdrawal are primarily psychological, the correlation of both the stage of physical dependence and the intensity of withdrawal-induced craving with measures of brain structure and function confirm that physical processes are involved in the development and expression of physical dependence on tobacco. [21, 22] Changes in neural architecture have also been identified in conjunction with other forms of addiction [24, 25]. The progressive changes in neural architecture in parallel with stages of symptom development suggest that some of these changes represent neural adaptation rather than non-specific toxicity [26]. The identification of these changes among very light smokers suggests that it would be worthwhile looking for neural changes among users of other drugs who do not show the classic signs of physical dependence. As with the clinical research, imaging research has missed the opportunity to identify the progression in changes because studies have focused on individuals with advanced dependence. The latency to withdrawalThe latency to withdrawal is a measure of the time elapsed between the last use of tobacco and the onset of withdrawal symptoms. [10, 27, 28] As the symptoms of wanting, craving and needing emerge in that sequence during withdrawal, there is a latency to wanting, a latency to craving, and a latency to needing. The latencies vary between individuals, ranging from 4 weeks to as short as several minutes [27–29]. An 18 year-old woman reported wanting a cigarette after 30 min but being able to go two days before she absolutely needed one, while a 19 year-old man would want a cigarette in 2–3 h, and need one in 6–7 h [10]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not relate to the claim about artifacts providing insights into past cultures. Instead, it discusses the symptoms of tobacco withdrawal and the neural changes associated with physical dependence on tobacco, which is unrelated to artifacts or cultural insights.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Memory consolidation occurs during sleep, enhancing long-term retention of information. [SEP] Text: Thus, 30 µM anisomycin produces a longer-lasting inhibition than does 10 µM anisomycin. For parts C and D, note that the initial training time is shorter than in parts A and B. This is because the animals were young and collected from the ocean during the beginning of the season and were also trained and tested at a different time. Baseline values often change in different batches of animals collected at different times. (E) 3. 3 µM anisomycin injected 10 min before training (N = 7) is ineffective in blocking memory, as shown by a significant decrease in the time to stop between the training session and the 24 hr test of memory (p=0. 01, t = 3. 53, df = 6, two-tailed paired t-test). Figure 4—source data 1 Length of protein synthesis inhibition is concentration dependent. Download elife-17769-fig4-data1-v2. xlsx Figure 5 Download asset Open asset Block of sleep-time expression of proteins blocks memory formation. These experiments were on A. fasciata. In addition to injecting animals with 10 µM anisomycin treatment 10 min before a 3 min training, the animals were also injected with 10 µM anisomycin A) 2 hr before the training (N = 8), or B) 0. 5 hr before the training (N = 8). Values 24 hr after these procedures were compared to values in C) 24 hr after a 3 min training with a single injection of 10 µM anisomycin 10 min before training (N = 15). A one-way analysis of variance between the three groups showed significant differences (p=0. 004, F(2,28) = 6. 90). (A) Injecting 10 µM anisomycin 2 hr before training blocked memory formation (p=0. 003, t = 3. 62, df = 21; two-tailed t-test with Bonferroni correction – comparison of A to C), presumably because proteins that accompany consolidation during sleep were blocked. (B) 10 µM anisomycin treatment 0. 5 hr before a 3 min training plus 10 µM anisomycin did NOT block memory formation (p=0. 52, t = 0. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by indicating that certain protein synthesis processes that are crucial for memory consolidation occur during sleep. It specifically mentions that injecting anisomycin, which blocks protein synthesis, prevents memory formation when administered before training, implying that these proteins relate to processes that enhance memory consolidation during sleep. This supports the idea that memory consolidation is linked to sleep and plays a role in long-term retention.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Bats are solitary animals and do not form colonies or social groups. [SEP] Text: This top-down method, successively removes the association with the highest value of ‘betweenness’. Betweenness is the number of shortest paths, connecting individuals in the network, which contain a given association. Associations with high values of betweenness are those that connect clusters with otherwise low interconnectivity and by removing them the network is broken down into an increasing number of unconnected components. Each time a new component is created the modularity of the network is calculated [26]. Modularity is derived from all associations from the original network and is the difference between the observed fraction of associations that are within components and the fraction expected if associations connected individuals at random. Modularity ranges from 0 to 1, with values over 0. 3 regarded as evidence of social structure [26]. The division of individuals to components that produce the highest modularity value is selected as the best representation of social groups. Evidence of assortment by sex within social networks was examined using join-count in [27] using 10,000 iterations. This test compares the number of male-male, female-female and intersex associations in the dataset with the number that would be expected by chance. Degree centrality was used to test the hypothesis that females were more central in the networks than males. Degree centrality is the simplest of the centrality measures and is calculated for each individual as the number of connections to other individuals in the network. Since individuals in a network are not independent, the significance of differences in degree centrality was calculated using permutation tests implemented in [27]. Roost home ranges of social groups were estimated using 100% minimum convex polygons (MCPs) after the removal of roosts used by single bats (M. daubentonii = 42; M. nattereri = 27) and those isolated by over 1 km (M. daubentonii = 1; M. nattereri = 2) using ArcMap (ESRI v. 10. 1, 2010) and Quantum GIS [28]. MCPs were created and cropped so that habitats such as grassland, which do not provide roosting opportunities, were removed. Radio-tracking was undertaken in August 2009 and 2010 to compare roost home range estimates produced from the SNA to the roost use of individual bats. Three adult female M. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the concepts of modularity and social structure within networks of bats. It indicates the existence of associations among individuals and suggests that bats can form social groups, as evidenced by the methods used to analyze these social networks and the tracking of home ranges of bats which implies social interactions.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Artifacts can provide insights into the daily lives of past cultures. [SEP] Text: The observation that latencies in some smokers are measured in weeks, while in others they are measured in minutes, reflects the fact that the latencies shorten with repeated exposures to nicotine [10, 29]. Since the short half-life of nicotine results in its elimination from the body within a day, it may seem paradoxical that withdrawal symptoms may not appear in novice smokers until several weeks have passed since their last cigarette. The mechanism that triggers tobacco withdrawal symptoms is unknown, but the idea that it is triggered by nicotine levels dropping below a threshold level is incompatible with the clinical evidence. Similar to the phenomenon whereby delirium tremens may not be experienced until several days after alcohol has been cleared from the blood [3], newly addicted smokers may not experience withdrawal symptoms until weeks after their last cigarette [10, 27–29]. In contrast, chain smokers report the need to smoke within minutes of having smoked [27, 28] while blood nicotine levels are still quite high [30]. Nicotine alters the expression of 162 genes in the brains of adolescent rats [31], triggers the release of a half-dozen neurotransmitters [32–35], and alters the production of neurotransmitters and neuronal responsivity for up to four weeks following a single dose [34, 36]. It is likely that mechanisms other than nicotine levels trigger withdrawal. Since nicotine withdrawal in humans is not triggered by the administration of an antagonist as is the case with opiate withdrawal, the mechanisms responsible for withdrawal symptoms may be drug-specific. Admittedly, this suggests that lessons learned about tobacco addiction may not apply to other drugs. On the other hand, non-addictive drugs can produce withdrawal symptoms, so some withdrawal symptoms may have little relevance to addiction, suggesting that differences in withdrawal mechanisms between drugs may not be relevant. Shortening latencies and the trajectory of tobacco useThe clinical implication of shortening latencies is that the length of time an individual remains comfortable after putting out a cigarette decreases over time. This increases the frequency at which cigarettes must be smoked to maintain comfort. [28] An increase in the frequency of smoking is one of the earliest signs of dependence [37]. At a latency to craving of two days, a person could keep withdrawal at bay by smoking one cigarette every other day. Fifteen cigarettes would be sufficient to keep withdrawal at bay for 30 days. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding artifacts and their potential to provide insights into past cultures. Instead, it focuses on the effects of nicotine on withdrawal symptoms in smokers, which is unrelated to the topic of artifacts or cultural insights.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Memory consolidation occurs during sleep, enhancing long-term retention of information. [SEP] Text: 66, df = 21; two-tailed t-test – comparison of B to C), presumably because sleep-phase proteins having a role in consolidation are still present at the time of the training. (C) As shown in the previous experiments, a 3 min training during the inactive phase10 min after 10 µM anisomycin produced 24 hr memory. (D) To provide a comparisons for data in B–D, the time to stop responding during the active phase in naïve, previously untrained animals was also measured (N = 6). (E) A diagram showing that translation relevant to consolidation during sleep is necessary for the expression of long-term memory after the brief training with anisomycin. Figure 5—source data 1 Block of sleep-time expression of proteins blocks memory formation. Download elife-17769-fig5-data1-v2. xlsx Figure 6 Download asset Open asset Learning during the inactive phase is transcription dependent. Experiments were on A. californica. (A) Ethanol is benign. Animals were treated with (1) ethanol alone (N = 3), or with (2) DRB dissolved in ethanol (N = 4), and were trained 24 hr later. Memory was then tested after 24 hr (48 hr after ethanol or DRB treatment). Neither treatment affected the ability of animals to learn or remember that food was inedible 24 hr later (For animals tested with ethanol: p=0. 009, t = 10. 22, df = 2; for animals tested with DRB: p=0. 03, t = 3. 57, df = 3). (B) DRB blocks memory. (1) Control: Animals were not trained. They were treated with anisomycin and then treated with DRB dissolved in ethanol, and then tested after 24 hr (N = 6). (2) Vehicle: Animals were treated with anisomycin, and then trained for 3 min. After training, the animals were injected with ethanol, with no DRB. Memory was then tested 24 hr later (N = 7). (3) DRB: Animals were treated with anisomycin, and then trained for 3 min, and then injected with DRB dissolved in ethanol. Memory was then tested 24 hr later (N = 8). There were significant differences between the 3 groups tested (p=0. 04, F(2,18) = 3. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the role of sleep-phase proteins in memory consolidation. It mentions that translation relevant to consolidation during sleep is necessary for the expression of long-term memory. This supports the idea that memory consolidation occurs during sleep, which contributes to the retention of information over time.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Bats are solitary animals and do not form colonies or social groups. [SEP] Text: daubentonii, known to have been present at the site for at least two consecutive summers (one parous but not breeding in the current season, and 2 post-lactation), and one juvenile female were fitted with radio transmitters weighing 0. 35 g or 0. 42 g (Holohil, Canada, type LB-2N). All tags weighed less than 5% of the body weight of the bat (4. 1–4. 7%) and were attached by a licensed bat worker using a previously described method [29]. Bats were located at their day roosts using an Australis receiver (Ltd, Australia) and aYagi 3-element directional antennae (Biotrack Ltd, Wareham, UK). Tree roost locations were recorded by GPS and mapped using ArcMap (). Temporal analysis The temporal structure of associations was examined using the lagged association rate [10], [30]. This gives the probability that, after being found together, two individuals will be found together at a set time interval in the future. These trends were calculated for each of the four classes of association within each species (male-male, female-female, male-female and female-male) and compared to the expected trend if individuals were to associate randomly – the null association rate. Because individuals are included in the analysis only up until the point where they are last observed, emigration (or mortality) does not influence the values, except in the case of long-term migrations where an individual, having left the population subsequently returns to roost with the same companion. Standard errors were calculated for these trends by jack-knifing the data over a period of 30 days. We note that the error estimates produced using this method have previously been found to be too small, but the method allows for a more reliable interpretation of the data than other available techniques. We therefore recommend that the conclusions should be tested with more data [31]. Statistical analysis All statistical analyses were undertaken in R version 2. 11. 0 [32]. The association between social group's roost home range size and the number of individuals in the social group, species and sampling effort was examined using multiple linear regression. Sampling effort was calculated as the average number of recaptures per individuals for each social group. ResultsOver 5 consecutive summers we performed 7578 box checks, finding bats on 627 occasions. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the social behavior of bats, indicating that they are studied in groups and suggesting that they do form social associations. The mention of 'temporal analysis' and 'the probability that, after being found together, two individuals will be found together' implies that bats do interact with each other over time, which contradicts the idea that they are solitary.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Artifacts can provide insights into the daily lives of past cultures. [SEP] Text: But when the latency to craving shortened to 45 min, one would have to smoke every 45 min to keep withdrawal at bay, which would entail smoking >500 cigarettes over a 30 day period. A 21 year-old woman described a latency-to-craving of two days after having smoked for about six weeks at age 16. Her latency decreased to four hours by age 16½, to two hours by age 17, to 1. 5 h by age 18, to one hour by age 19, and to 30–45 min by age 21. Over this time, her intake increased from 5 cigarettes/day to 15 [10]. Individuals addicted to opiates do not have to use their drug with such frequencies, but is it possible that at the onset of opiate dependence, a single dose may keep withdrawal symptoms at bay for many weeks, but a shortening of the latency to withdrawal demands a gradual escalation in the frequency of use? Aware of their latencies, smokers sometimes smoke in anticipation of a period of abstinence to postpone the onset of withdrawal (e. g. , prior to going to sleep, school or work). Even addicted smokers can smoke for pleasure, or to relieve stress or boredom. This is reflected in the fact that cigarette consumption correlates only moderately with the latencies (rho = −. 53, r = −. 53, and Kendall’s tau b = −. 53 in three studies of adolescents) [27–29]. This level of correlation indicates that only a proportion of cigarettes are smoked for the purpose of relieving withdrawal symptoms. Physical dependence need not be the only reason why addicted individuals self-administer their drug of choice, but it may put an outside limit on how long they can comfortably refrain from use. A new withdrawal period begins each time a smoker finishes a cigarette. From the moment the cigarette is finished the timer starts on the latency period during which withdrawal symptoms are not experienced. This asymptomatic phase of withdrawal may last from a few minutes to several weeks. The asymptomatic phase of withdrawal is followed by a symptomatic withdrawal phase during which wanting, craving, needing and the DSM withdrawal symptoms (anger, anxiety, restlessness, etc. ) emerge. The act of smoking aborts one episode of withdrawal and initiates another, analogous to hitting the snooze button on an alarm clock. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the behavior and patterns of smoking addiction and withdrawal rather than any information related to artifacts or insights into past cultures.