Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: AI in autonomous cars can navigate in any weather condition without fail. [SEP] Text: For instance, bank ATMs continue to make headlines when they hemorrhage cash—tens of thousands of dollars more than the account holder actually has—because of software glitches alone [2, 10], never mind hacking. And just about every computing device we have created has been hacked or is hackable, including neural implants and military systems [3, 28]. These vulnerabilities and errors certainly can cause harm in the context of autonomous cars, and it would be unethically irresponsible to safeguard against them where we can. Putting these technology issues aside and even assuming that perfect technology is available, there are still many other safety and ethical questions to worry about, such as the programming issues above. 3. 1 IssuesBut programming is only one of many areas to reflect upon as society begins to adopt autonomous driving technologies. Assigning legal and moral responsibility for crashes is a popular topic already [1, 14, 20, 22, 49, 51]. Here are a few others, as part of a much longer list of possible questions:Does it matter to ethics if a car is publicly owned, for instance, a city bus or fire truck? The owner of a robot car may reasonably expect that its property “owes allegiance” to the owner and should value his or her life more than anonymous pedestrians and drivers. But a publicly owned automated vehicle might not have that obligation, and this can change moral calculations. Even for privately owned autonomous vehicles, the occupants arguably should bear more or all of the risk, since they are the ones introducing the machine into public spaces in the first place. Do robot cars present an existential threat to the insurance industry? Some believe that ultra-safe cars that can avoid most or all accidents will mean that many insurance companies will go bankrupt, since there would be no or very little risk to insure against [40, 52]. But things could go the other way too: We could see mega-accidents as cars are networked together and vulnerable to wireless hacking—something like the stock market’s “flash crash” in 2010 [5]. What can the insurance industry do to protect itself while not getting in the way of the technology, which holds immense benefits? How susceptible would robot cars be to hacking? So far, just about every computing device we have created has been hacked. If authorities and owners (e. g. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting that despite the advancements in autonomous driving technology, there are ongoing issues such as software glitches and hacking that can undermine the reliability of these systems. It points out the need for ethical considerations and risks, suggesting that autonomous cars may not be able to navigate safely in all conditions due to vulnerabilities that can cause harm.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The evolution of flowering plants had a significant impact on terrestrial ecosystems. [SEP] Text: В изученном разрезе также имеют место признаки периодического осушения отложений валимской и вельской свит. Рис. 5. Общий сценарий колонизации суши растениями и появления архаичных почв Сонахождение остатков волховиеллы с панцирями трилобитов Xenasaphus devexus может быть объяснено следующим образом. Многие трилобиты обитали в очень мелководных условиях, иногда практически у самого уреза воды, в условиях периодического осушения (как многие современные крабы). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses geological layers, the periodic drying of deposits, and extinct marine fossils rather than addressing the evolution of flowering plants or their impact on terrestrial ecosystems.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Livestock farming contributes significantly to global greenhouse gas emissions, particularly methane. [SEP] Text: The estimated CH4 emissions from manure handling practices in the study area for the different age group of cattle were significantly (P < 0. 001) different between the cattle subcategories. The subcategories of adult multipurpose cows and adult males used for draught (3–10 years) were not significantly different (P < 0. 05) between the cattle subcategories. Similarly, the estimated CH4 emissions from manure of cattle subcategories were significantly (P < 0. 001) different between lowland agro ecology and other agro ecology. However, there was no significant (P < 0. 05) difference between the midland and highland agro-ecology ( Table 3). Table 3 Manure management methane emission factors for cattle subcategories and agro-ecologies in the study area (kg CH4 head-1 year-1) sub-categories Agro-ecologies Means F-value Sig. Adult multipurpose cows > 3 years 4. 32bA 4. 18bB 4. 18bB 4. 23 34. 4 <. 0001 Adult males used for draught (3–10 years) 4. 28bA 4. 14bB 4. 13bB 4. 18 Adult males used for breeding & other purpose (> 3–10 years) 4. 63aA 4. 48aB 4. 48aB 4. 53 Growing females 1-<3 years 3. 1dA 2. 99dB 2. 99dB 3. 02 Growing males 1–<3 years 4. 03cA 3. 9cB 3. 89cB 3. 94 Calves < 6 months (male & female) 0. 761fA 0. 733fB 0. 732fB 0. 742 Calves 6 m–<1 year (male & female) 1. 08eA 1. 04eB 1. 03eB 1. 05 Means 3. 17 3. 07 3. 06 3. 1 F-value 9415. 32 Sig. <. 0001 a, b, c,d,e, and f indicate that the values with different superscripts in a row are significantly different. A, B, and C indicate that different superscripts in a column indicate significant differences. Tier 2 more indicate the EF of methane from cattle population that calculated from manure handling practices in the study area compared with Tier 1. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the estimated methane (CH4) emissions from manure handling practices associated with different cattle subcategories. It provides specific data, indicating that methane emissions from cattle are significantly different across age groups and agro-ecological zones. This implies that livestock farming, particularly through manure management, is a contributor to methane emissions, thus supporting the assertion that livestock farming impacts global greenhouse gas emissions.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: AI in autonomous cars can navigate in any weather condition without fail. [SEP] Text: , rental car company) are able to remotely take control of a car—which is reportedly under development for law enforcement in the [50]—this offers an easy path for cyber-carjackers. If under attack, whether a hijacking or ordinary break-in, what should the car do: speed away, alert the police, remain at the crime scene to preserve evidence, or maybe defend itself? For a future suite of in-car apps, as well as sensors and persistent GPS/tracking, can we safeguard personal information, or do we resign ourselves to a world with disappearing privacy rights [27]? To the extent that online services bring online advertising, we could see new, insidious advertising schemes that may allow third-party advertisers to have some influence on the autonomous car’s route selection, e. g. , steering the car past their businesses [32]. What kinds of abuse might we see with autonomous cars? If the cars drive too conservatively, they may become a traffic hazard or trigger road-rage in human drivers with less patience [26, 42]. If the crash-avoidance system of a robot car is generally known, then other drivers may be tempted to “game” it, e. g. , by cutting in front of it, knowing that the automated car will slow down or swerve to avoid an accident. If those cars can safely drive us home in a fully-auto mode, that may encourage a culture of more alcohol consumption, since we won’t need to worry so much about drunk-driving. More distant concerns include: How will law-abiding robot cars affect city revenue, which often depends on traffic fines imposed against law-breaking human drivers? Inasmuch as many organ transplants come from car-accident victims, how will society manage a declining and already insufficient supply of donated organs [41]? Older-model autonomous cars may be unable to communicate with later models or future road infrastructure. How do we get those legacy models—which may be less safe, in addition to incompatible with newer technology—off the roads [45]? Since 2009, Microsoft has been trying to kill off its Windows XP operating system [39], a much less expensive investment than an autonomous car; but many users still refuse to relinquish it, including for critical military systems [37, 46]. This is a great security risk since Microsoft will no longer offer software patches for the operating system. 3. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing various challenges and vulnerabilities associated with autonomous cars, suggesting that they may not be able to navigate effectively in all conditions. For instance, it raises concerns about the car's conservative driving leading to traffic hazards and potential road rage, indicating that these vehicles may not always react optimally. Additionally, it mentions issues related to cyber-attacks and improper communication with infrastructure, which imply that autonomous cars might not perform reliably under every circumstance.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The evolution of flowering plants had a significant impact on terrestrial ecosystems. [SEP] Text: Возможно, поэтому у некоторых трилобитов возникли специфические адаптации (например, глаза на возвышениях или даже на стебельках), востребованные для жизни на границе сред, при зарывании в ил и т. д. Совершенно идентичные адаптации возникают у организмов, живущих у границы вода–воздух, например, у современных мангровых крабов Pseudosesarma moeschi De Man, манящих крабов, или крабов-скрипачей Uca forcipata Adams et White и близких видов, а также рыб – илистых прыгунов Periophthalmus novemradiatus Hamilton и др. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses specific adaptations in trilobites and organisms living at the water-air boundary, without providing information about flowering plants or their impact on terrestrial ecosystems. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Livestock farming contributes significantly to global greenhouse gas emissions, particularly methane. [SEP] Text: Prediction of nitrous oxide emissions from manure The nitrous oxide emission estimates for the cattle categories are given in Table 5. The estimated nitrous oxide concentration for the different age group of cattle was significantly different (P < 0. 001) between the cattle subcategories. Similarly, the estimated nitrous oxide concentration of dual-purpose cattle was significantly (P < 0. 001) different between lowland agro ecology and other agro ecosystems; moreover, there was no significant (P < 0. 05) difference between midland and highland agro ecology. Table 5 Direct nitrous oxide emissions from manure management from cattle subcategories in the study area (grams N2Ohead/year) categories Agro-ecologies Means F-value Sig. subcategories Adult multipurpose cows > 3 years 10. 1cA 9. 9cB 9. 9cB 10 55. 17 <. 0001 Adult males used for draught (3–10 years) 10. 8bA 10. 6bB 10. 6bB 10. 1 Adult males used for breeding & other purpose (> 3–10 years) 11. 7aA 11. 4aB 11. 4aB 10. 2 Growing females 7. 3eA 7. 1eB 7. 1eB 7. 0 Growing males 9. 4dA 9. 2dB 9. 2dB 9. 0 Calves < 6 months (male & female) 1. 1gA 1gB 1gB 1. 0 Calves 6 m–<1 year (male & female) 4. 6fA 4. 5fB 4. 4fB 4. 0 Means 7. 85 7. 7 7. 7 8. 0 F-value 33773. 7 Sig. <. 0001 a, b, c,d,e, and f indicate that the values with different superscripts in a row are significantly different. A, B, and C indicate that different superscripts in a column indicate significant differences. gas (GHG) emissions from cattle Estimation of enteric methane emissions The emission factors obtained from the mixed crop livestock production system, and cattle subcategories in the present study ranged from 5. 2 to 61. 1 kg CH4 headyear which were in agreement report with Million et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the emissions from cattle, specifically mentioning 'enteric methane emissions' and providing emission factors ranging from '5.2 to 61.1 kg CH4 head/year.' This indicates that cattle, a significant part of livestock farming, are contributing to greenhouse gas emissions, especially methane.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: AI in autonomous cars can navigate in any weather condition without fail. [SEP] Text: 2 ConclusionsWe don’t really know what our robot-car future will look like, but we can already see that much work needs to be done. Part of the problem is our lack of imagination. director Peter W. Singer observed, “We are still at the ‘horseless carriage’ stage of this technology, describing these technologies as what they are not, rather than wrestling with what they truly are” [43]. As it applies here, robots aren’t merely replacing human drivers, just as human drivers in the first automobiles weren’t simply replacing horses: that would like mistaking electricity as merely a replacement for candles. The impact of automating transportation will change society in radical ways, and technology seems to be accelerating. puts it, “Yes, Moore’s Law is operative, but so is Murphy’s Law” [43]. When technology goes wrong—and it will—thinking in advance about ethical design and policies can help guide us responsibility into the unknown. In future autonomous cars, crash-avoidance features alone won’t be enough. An accident may be unavoidable as a matter of physics [12, 13], especially as autonomous cars make their way onto city streets [19, 21, 25], a more dynamic environment than highways. It also could be too dangerous to slam on the brakes, or not enough time to hand control back to the unaware human driver, assuming there’s a human in the vehicle at all. Technology errors, misaligned sensors, malicious actors, bad weather, and bad luck can also contribute to imminent collisions. Therefore, robot cars will also need to have crash-optimization strategies that are thoughtful about ethics. If ethics is ignored and the robotic car behaves badly, a powerful case could be made that auto manufacturers were negligent in the design of their product, and that opens them up to tremendous legal liability, should such an event happen. Today, we see activists campaigning against “killer” military robots that don’t yet exist, partly on the grounds that machines should never be empowered to make life-and-death decisions [31, 35]. It’s not outside the realm of possibility to think that the same precautionary backlash won’t happen to the autonomous car industry, if industry doesn’t appear to be taking ethics seriously. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting the limitations and challenges faced by autonomous cars, particularly in adverse conditions. It states that technology errors, misaligned sensors, bad weather, and luck can lead to collisions, which directly refutes the claim that AI can navigate 'without fail' in any weather. Furthermore, it emphasizes the need for crash-optimization strategies, suggesting that navigating in all conditions flawlessly is not currently achievable.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The evolution of flowering plants had a significant impact on terrestrial ecosystems. [SEP] Text: Панцири Xenasaphus devexus в валимских отложениях приурочены к нескольким уровням, разделённым практически немыми прослоями, причём панцири X. devexus образуют большие скопления, локализованные и по вертикали, и латерально. В скоплениях присутствуют преимущественно целые панцири примерно одного размера, иногда с обломленными подвижными щёками, захоронёнными неподалёку, иногда в большей степени фрагментированными, но явно без сколько-нибудь значимого переноса. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provides information about the fossil layers of Xenasaphus devexus and their characteristics but does not address the claim regarding the impact of flowering plants on terrestrial ecosystems. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Livestock farming contributes significantly to global greenhouse gas emissions, particularly methane. [SEP] Text: , (2022) ranged from 11 to 66 kg CH4 headyear and also close agreement to the Tier 1 default emission factor of 52 kg CH4 herd/year for other cattle in Africa (IPCC, 2019). However, the current results obtained using the Tier 2 methodology were 54–61% higher than default value of 31 kg CH4 herd/year for Africa and the (IPCC, 2006a). Compared with IPCC, (2006) default emission factors for Africa, higher Tier 2 emission factors were also reported for Benin (40 kg CH4 herd/year) (Kouazounde et al. , 2015). However, lower CH4 emission factors of 31 and 16 kg CH4 herd/year were reported for lactating and other cattle (Ndama breed) in Senegal (Ndao et al. , 2019). These comparisons highlight the necessity for developing country specific emission factors that reflect the national circumstances and actual animal management and performance in different production systems. The variation in emission factors estimated in the present study from published reports was attributed to the differences in feed type (Frank et al. , 2000; Moss et al. , 2000), animal management, and body size (Frank et al. , 2000; IPCC, 2006). The mean enteric CH4 emission factors (EFs) per head per year for cattle were in close agreement with previous reports (Wilkes et al. , 2020) and were greater than previous reports (Million & Getahun, 2021) for cattle subcategories. However, the EF from cattle was higher than the IPCC values from developing countries (African regions) livestock EFs under similar production system and animal functions (Goopy et al. , 2021; Herrero et al. , 2008; IPCC, 2006, 2019; Kouazounde et al. , 2015). The differences in EFs may be due to differences in the live weights of all the animal subcategories, and in the digestibility of the feed (Girma, et al. 2016; Wanjugu et al. , 2021). Methane from enteric fermentation is the major contributor to total GHG emissions and is directly related to the nutritional and energetic efficiency of the animal (Gerber et al. , 2010; Thornton & Herrero, 2010). Enteric CH4 emissions in lowland area were greater than those in highland areas similar to previous reports (Annastacia et al. , 2022). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by indicating that methane from enteric fermentation is a major contributor to total greenhouse gas emissions and is related to the nutritional and energetic efficiency of the animal. It discusses variations in methane emissions from livestock in different regions as well as the importance of animal management practices, all of which support the assertion that livestock farming significantly contributes to global greenhouse gas emissions, specifically methane.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: AI in autonomous cars can navigate in any weather condition without fail. [SEP] Text: The larger challenge, though, isn’t just about thinking through ethical dilemmas. It’s also about setting accurate expectations with users and the general public who might find themselves surprised in bad ways by autonomous cars; and expectations matter for market acceptance and adoption. Whatever answer to an ethical dilemma that industry might lean towards will not be satisfying to everyone. Ethics and expectations are challenges common to all automotive manufacturers and tier-one suppliers who want to play in this emerging field, not just particular companies. Automated cars promise great benefits and unintended effects that are difficult to predict, and the technology is coming either way. Change is inescapable and not necessarily a bad thing in itself. But major disruptions and new harms should be anticipated and avoided where possible. That is the role of ethics in innovation policy: it can pave the way for a better future while enabling beneficial technologies. Without looking at ethics, we are driving with one eye closed. 1. html (2014). Accessed 8 July 2014Associated Press. ATM ‘glitch’ gives $37,000 to lucky homeless man. Daily Mail. (2014). Accessed 8 July 2014Baldor, L. : China hacked the Pentagon to get weapons data. Memo. (2013). Accessed 8 July 2014Cathcart, T. : Problem, or Throw the Off the Bridge? Company, (2013) 2010. CFTC and. (2010). Accessed 8 July 2014Curtis, P. and Hedlund, J. : Reducing deer-vehicle crashes. Report funded by the for Highway Safety. Cornell University, Ithaca. (2005). Accessed 8 July 2014Davies, A. : Avoiding squirrels and other things Google’s robot car can’t do. Wired. (2014). Accessed 8 July 2014Edmonds, D. : Kill the Fat Man? Problem and and Wrong. Press, Princeton (2014) 10. 1007/s11948-014-9565-5 8. html (2014). Accessed 8 July 2014of Public Transport: Observatory of automated metros. (2014). Accessed 8 July 2014Jaffe, E. : The first look at how Google’s self-driving car handles city streets. The Atlantic/CityLab. (2014). Accessed 8 July 2014KPMG: Self-driving cars: are we ready? Report by KPMG. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the challenges and limitations of autonomous cars, particularly in terms of user expectations and ethical dilemmas, suggesting that these vehicles may not yet be capable of navigating in all weather conditions without fail. It emphasizes the unpredictability of automated systems and that major disruptions and new harms should be anticipated, indicating that they might not perform reliably under all circumstances.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The evolution of flowering plants had a significant impact on terrestrial ecosystems. [SEP] Text: Эти скопления порой называют местами линьки ксеназафусов, но такое объяснение встречает три существенных возражения. Во-первых, если это линочные панцири, почему все они практически одного размера? Трилобиты линяли на протяжении всей своей жизни. Если бы в этих местонахождениях были захоронены линочные панцири, они должны быть разного размера, отражая различные онтогенетические фазы в развитии ксеназафусов. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the shedding of exoskeletons by trilobites and raises objections to the interpretation of certain fossil findings. It does not address the claim about flowering plants or their impact on terrestrial ecosystems, making it irrelevant.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Livestock farming contributes significantly to global greenhouse gas emissions, particularly methane. [SEP] Text: These are crucial points to note in the results because feeds in highland areas differ nutritionally from the feeds in lowland areas with low potential agriculturally. Increased temperatures increase lignification of plant tissues and reduce plant digestibility and degradation rates (Minson, 1990). These factors lead to reduced nutrient availability for animals and ultimately to a reduction in livestock production, which impact on food security and incomes through reductions in the production of milk and meat for smallholders. More structural tissue is deposited in the rangelands, which are more fibrous and less digestible (Wilson et al. , 1991). The (weighted mean) DE of feed basket in the present study was in the range of the IPCC default estimates (of 50–55%) for African forages (IPCC, 2006a). The differences in DE among the AEZs, ranging from 53–55%, are likely to have influenced the estimates of EFs, which are similar to previous reports Ndung’U et al. , (2019). A negative relationship has been observed between the amount of CH4 from the enteric fermentation and the digestibility of the diet (Johnson & Johnson, 1995). Therefore, the uncertainty of the estimations is expected to decrease whenever specific dietary factors are accounted for. The diets of domestic ruminants in the tropics vary and depend to a great extent on the type of production system in which the animals are kept (Thornton & Herrero, 2010). Methane production from manure The methane emission factors from manure management were estimated to be 4. 23, 4. 18, 4. 53, 3. 02, 3. 94, 0. 742, and 1. 05 kg head per year for adult multipurpose cows, adult males used for draught, adult males used for breeding and other purposes, growing females, growing males, calves < 6 months and calves 6 months–<1 year, respectively (Table 3). The current result was in agreement with previous reports (Million et al. , 2022) which was ranged from 1. 713 to 5. 06 kg CH4head/year. Livestock manure (including dung and urine) is composed mostly of organic material and water. Anaerobic and facultative bacteria decompose organic material under anaerobic conditions (Bouwman, 1996) and produce CH4. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the production of methane (CH4) as a result of enteric fermentation and manure management in livestock. It states that 'a negative relationship has been observed between the amount of CH4 from the enteric fermentation and the digestibility of the diet', indicating that livestock farming practices significantly influence methane emissions. Additionally, it provides specific methane emission factors from manure management, showing that livestock do contribute to methane emissions.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: AI in autonomous cars can navigate in any weather condition without fail. [SEP] Text: Obviously, APs with human-level intelligence who could be recognized as moral persons or possess similar moral status do not exist and it is far from clear whether they will exist in the near future, or at all. It seems that one of the crucial points is that there is no agreement on the possibility of robots with human-level intelligence. Positions on this issue range from radical skepticism and denial of such a possibility to a firm belief about the imminence of a super-intelligent AI that will surpass even the most intelligent human beings. This lack of consensus seems to be clearly reflected in the disagreement among five of the founders of AI—and Trenchard Moore—who were asked about the possibility of human-level AI at the meeting celebrating the 50th anniversary of the conference on which the foundation of AI as a discipline took place (Bringsjord and Naveen 2018). Hence, while the number of scholars who seriously consider a scenario of robots with human-level intelligence and a moral status of a person (or similar) steadily increases (also outside the debate about AP servants, e. g. (Neely 2014; Schwitzgebel and Garza 2015; Gunkel 2018; Gordon 2020, 2021; Gunkel and Wales 2021)), the prospect of such entities remains extremely uncertain. In this case, is there any point in speculating about designing them in an ethical way? I believe there is, regardless of whether such entities will ever exist or not. Generally, while I do not share Petersen’s optimism that APs with human-level intelligence will arrive rather sooner than later, I agree with him that since we cannot rule out with certainty the possibility that APs will exist someday, it is better to be prepared for them than not (Petersen 2007, 44). I also assert that might be right when he claims that if we had known the dangers of global warming at the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, we might have been able to avoid it (Turner 2019, 35). While such a point of view might seem both excessively cautious (by assuming we should always worry about risks and dangers) and optimistic (by assuming that by knowing the risk we could avoid it), it does not mean it is obviously wrong. But even if there will never be any APs, and human-level intelligence will never emerge, the discussion about designing them is still not pointless. First, it is connected with some other ethical discussions and may contribute to them. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the uncertainty surrounding the development of autonomous agents (APs) with human-level intelligence, stating that 'the prospect of such entities remains extremely uncertain.' This suggests that while there may be ongoing discussions about the ethical implications and possibilities of advanced AI, the idea that AI can navigate in all weather conditions without fail is not supported by this text, as it emphasizes the unpredictability of the future capabilities of AI.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The evolution of flowering plants had a significant impact on terrestrial ecosystems. [SEP] Text: Во-вторых, подавляющее большинство панцирей в валимской свите сохраняются целыми, а в ходе линьки они должны распадаться на составные части. В третьих, панцири образуют компактные скопления, разделённые пустыми пространствами. В этом случае приходится предположить, что ксеназафусы одного и того же возраста должны были синхронно приползать в одно и то же место и одновременно сбрасывать панцири. Такая гипотеза представляется маловероятной. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the preservation and shedding of carapaces in the Valimski Suite, which is unrelated to the claim about the evolution of flowering plants and their impact on ecosystems. Therefore, the text is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Livestock farming contributes significantly to global greenhouse gas emissions, particularly methane. [SEP] Text: The emissions from manure depend on the animal category, the amount of manure per animal and the manure management system. In the mixed farming areas of Ethiopia, manure has been used as fuel and sometimes as organic fertilizer on farm lands which is similar to what has been done in the study area. In tropical and subtropical agricultural production systems, the climate is generally warmer than that in temperate zones, resulting in CH4 emissions from excreta because these emissions are often positively correlated with temperature (Rochette et al. , 2014). However, the types of management systems used, the quality of the feeds, and the species of cattle raised may also affect emissions. Livestock manure is primarily composed of organic material and water. Under anaerobic conditions, anaerobic and facultative bacteria decompose the organic matter in livestock waste. Manure management CH4 emission factor in present study was greater than manure management CH4 emission factor of 2. 5 kg per head per year reported for Canadian beef cattle (Kebreab et al. , 2011). The greater value for the Ethiopian cattle breed than for the Canadian beef breed is attributed to difference in the manure management system/practice, difference in the volatile solid content of the manure/excreta and difference in the digestibility of the feed. The VS content of manure is the portion of the feed consumed by animals that is not digested and thus excreted as fecal material; this feed may be combined with urinary excretions, which constitute manure (Hristov et al. , 2019). GHG emissions from cattle excreta vary by diet, breed and type of manure management practice used (Hristov et al. , 2019). The lower digestibility of feed (average 54. 35%) in present study resulted in an increased VS content of manure and hence CH4 emission from manure. CH4 emissions in present study, which used tier 2 methodologies were greater than the IPCC default manure management emission factor (1 kg/head/year) for other cattle (IPCC, 2006a). Nitrogen and nitrous oxide According to the on (IPCC) guidelines, the generation of N2O by manure deposited in grasslands is estimated to correspond to 2% of the total excreted N ((IPCC, 2006a). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing how methane (CH4) emissions from cattle excreta are influenced by various factors such as manure management practices, types of feeds, and environmental conditions. It highlights that CH4 emissions vary by diet, breed, and type of manure management, confirming that livestock farming practices significantly affect greenhouse gas emissions, particularly methane.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: AI in autonomous cars can navigate in any weather condition without fail. [SEP] Text: In a very clear manner, Chomanski shows that designers of AP servants are being manipulative in the abovementioned sense:“By programming AIs with overwhelming desires to be servants, their programmers are set on making it close to impossibly psychologically difficult for the AIs to act in any way other than to pursue the life-plan that they are given: even a determined AI servant would likely not pick a different career path. This might be so even if they are programmed with the capacity to reflect on their own desires. Upon being told to build an AI servant, the programmers cannot help but suppose that the servant’s decision about what life plane to pursue are for the programmers to make. The programmers position themselves so as to be able to steer the choices of AI servants with a high degree of efficacy, by constructing the AIs’ psychology in the way just specified. They orchestrate the AIs’ choice space in such a way that only a very narrow range of options is realistically available to them. The AIs’ number of options, when it comes to career choice, is reduced to basically one. The AIs’ own capacity to respond to reasons, or to engage in reasoning, is ignored. The act of thus limiting another’s options and disregarding their rational capacities is expressive of manipulativeness on the programmers’ part—that is, of being willing to orchestrate another’s choices in an excessive manner. It is, therefore, wrong” (Chomanski 2019, 1006). Hence, Chomanski believes that designing artificial servants involves manipulativeness on the side of designers since by selecting specific features of the designee (e. g. , the desire to serve), they are “willing to orchestrate another’s choices in an excessive manner” by—I take the following features as crucial—“limiting another’s options” and “disregarding their rational capacities. ” Hence, Chomanski contends that designing people to serve is wrong because it involves the manipulativeness of the designers. A few clarifications on the concept of manipulativeness seem worth making. First, clearly, Baron’s account of manipulativeness represents only one of many approaches to this problem. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts with the claim by discussing the limitations imposed on AI servants by their designers. Chomanski highlights that AI designers manipulate the decision-making capabilities of AIs and restrict their options, indicating that AIs may not be able to navigate autonomously and independently across various conditions. The focus on the lack of genuine reasoning and limited choice suggests that the AI's performance, including in navigating weather, may not be reliable, contradicting the assertion that AI can navigate in any weather condition without fail.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The evolution of flowering plants had a significant impact on terrestrial ecosystems. [SEP] Text: По моему мнению, образование скоплений панцирей ксеназафусов в валимской свите происходило совершенно иначе. Как было отмечено выше, валимские отложения формировались в мелководных условиях, при периодических осушениях. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is unrelated to the claim as it discusses the formation of xenazafus shell clusters in the Valim suite and does not mention flowering plants or their impact on terrestrial ecosystems.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Livestock farming contributes significantly to global greenhouse gas emissions, particularly methane. [SEP] Text: RecommendationsConclusionFor cattle, the estimated enteric methane EFs of adult males used for breeding and other purposes, adult multipurpose cows, adult males used for draught, growing males, growing females, calves 6 m–<1 year (male and female) and calves < 6 months (male and female) emitted 61. 1, 57, 56. 4, 53. 1, 40. 8, 14. 6 and 5. 2 kg CH4/head/year respectively. The estimated enteric CH4 EFs of dual-purpose cattle were 41. 7, 40. 9 and 40. 9 kg CH4 per year for lowland, midland and highland agro-ecology respectively. The estimated CH4 emissions from manure handling practices in the study area. In the cattle subcategories adult males were used for breeding and other purposes, adult multipurpose cows; and adult males were used for draught, growing males, growing females, calves 6 months–<1 year (male and female) and calves < 6 months (male and female) produced 4. 53, 4. 23, 4. 18, 3. 94, 3. 02, 1. 05 and 0. 742 kg Ch4 per head per year respectively. The estimated CH4 emissions from manure of dual-purpose cattle the lowland, midland and highland agro-ecosystems were 3. 17, 3. 07 and 3. 06 kg CH4/ year, respectively. Among the species in the study area, cattle (76. 13%) the most common species, followed by horse (12. 45%) and donkey (8. 95%). similarly, according to the total population the livestock zone in the highland area (46. 0%), there was a greater share of livestock in the midland (34. 7%) and lowland (19. 3%) areas. The estimated nitrous oxide concentrations in the study area for the cattle subcategories of adult males used for breeding and other purpose, adult males used for draught, adult multipurpose cows, growing males, growing females, calves 6 months–<1 year (male and female) and calves < 6 months (male and female) were 10. 2, 10. 1, 10, 9, 7 and 1 g N2O/head/year, respectively. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing detailed statistics on methane emissions from various categories of livestock, specifically cattle. It mentions the estimated enteric methane emissions factors (EFs) for different cattle types and their contribution to methane exposure per head per year. This information directly supports the assertion that livestock farming, especially cattle, is a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, particularly methane.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: AI in autonomous cars can navigate in any weather condition without fail. [SEP] Text: White (2011, 162–170) and (2019, 197–201) discuss providing AI with legal personhood and, as a result, with a right to own property and money, to conclude contracts, or to sue others. Yet, one could wonder whether it is the right thing to do. Even assuming that we would agree that APs are persons in the moral sense, why would we decide that they are also persons in the legal sense and grant them powers such as those mentioned above? Why would people decide that robots can earn money and own goods? While there are various arguments for and against such a resolution, one possible answer is that if we recognize APs as moral persons equal to humans, and design them to have their desires and require some resources to maintain—such as electricity—and they were nobody’s property (since it is rather uncontroversial that moral persons should not be owned by anyone), then letting them work and earn is probably the best way to enable them to achieve those desires and obtain the resources. Otherwise, we would have to provide them with electricity and other goods for free, which seems even more controversial, or to ignore their desires and needs, which would also be highly questionable, since we would be the ones who brought them into a miserable existence. Then, in a sense, granting robots moral personhood and making them equal to humans results in problems that can be solved by granting them legal personality. Such a scenario of course remains highly speculative and even more controversial. Yet, to repeat, one of the side- or meta-aims of this study is to signal the problems that would appear if robots became persons, and hence to enable us to decide whether developing such robots is an aim we would like to try to achieve at all. Let us get back to the bottom line: Does designing such AP workers involve a manipulativeness on the side of designers? I believe it does. One could claim that a manipulativeness is not present because the desires programmed by designers for AP workers are significantly weaker than those programmed for AP servants, and also because AP workers can have their own desires not programmed by the designers. I assert that this only means that the manipulativeness is weaker, and not that it is utterly absent. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it does not mention anything related to AI's capability to navigate in various weather conditions. Instead, it discusses the concept of legal personhood for AI and the moral implications of designing autonomous agents, which does not support or contrast with the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The evolution of flowering plants had a significant impact on terrestrial ecosystems. [SEP] Text: Ксеназафусы, обитавшие на сублиторали, при отливах или масштабных осушениях морского дна попадали в большие мелкие лужи и по мере их высыхания формировали всё более и более плотные скопления ещё живых особей, которые постепенно там же и погибали. Эта гипотеза объясняет сонахождение панцирей трилобитов и побегов волховиелл. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the living conditions and behaviors of Xenazafus in relation to tidal activities and does not mention flowering plants or their impact on terrestrial ecosystems.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Livestock farming contributes significantly to global greenhouse gas emissions, particularly methane. [SEP] Text: The estimated nitrous oxide concentrations of dual-purpose cattle for lowland, midland and highland agro-ecologies were 7. 85, 7. 7 and 7. 7 g N2O/year, respectively. planning of smallholder livestock projects should include of climate change and greenhouse gas emission mitigation strategies while responding to the growing demand of livestock products. Increasing roughage feeds digestibility (through chemical treatment, physical treatment and concentrate supplementation) should be used as a convenient way to reduce enteric CH4 emission in ruminants, as well as improving perennial forage cultivation through the use of supplements and other functions. The management and utilization of livestock manure should be improved. The current storage and handling practices for preserving manure nutrients should be evaluated. The largest emissions from cattle were CH4, and N2O, which indicated the need to improve livestock and manure management systems under smallholder agriculture. Existing mitigation strategies for CH4 emissions from cattle farms, which include the use of high quality forages and increased use of grains, are recommended management practices. Declarationsfirst authors would like to acknowledge University under the Ministry of Education of Ethiopia for financing the research. research was supported by University under the Ministry of Education. Ethics approval and consent to participate Original research was carried out according to guidelines the IPCC and Ethiopian research center and was performed in accordance with the relevant guideline and regulations. Consent for publication All subjects gave their consent to the publication of the data Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Author contributions B. M. initiated this study. All authors contributed to more developing the conception of the study. A. M. performed editing of the document, performed the analysis, and generated visualization. B. Sh. performed editing and organizing the model of analyzing. All authors discussed the results and contributed to the manuscript writing. Availability of data and material All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published 12. Bannink A, van Schijndel MW, Dijkstra J. A model of enteric fermentation in dairy cows to estimate methane emission for the using the IPCC Tier 3 approach. Sci Technol. 2011;166–167:603–18. ’’. Nutritional management for enteric methane abatement: a review. Exp Agric. 2008;48(2):21–7. . (2007). Chem ical Com petition and Nutritiv value of Ethiopian feeds. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from cattle farming, highlighting that the largest emissions from cattle are CH4 and N2O, and calling for improved livestock and manure management systems to mitigate these emissions. It emphasizes the need for strategies to address greenhouse gas emissions, thus supporting the claim that livestock farming contributes significantly to global greenhouse gas emissions.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: AI in autonomous cars can navigate in any weather condition without fail. [SEP] Text: Moreover, as I have already mentioned, AP randoms would be uncontrollable and unpredictable (to a greater degree than other types of APs and in stark contrast to other technological artifacts). This means that AP randoms would not be typical technological artifacts created to make humans’ lives easier (however, while the intentional purpose of most technological artifacts is to make humans’ lives easier, it is not rare for unintentional consequences of their implementation to have the opposite effect) but rather would make our lives more complicated (which, of course, does not mean “worse”). To be clear, the fact that we can design APs without manipulativeness by developing AP randoms does not mean that we should do so. First, while manipulativeness may always be objectionable, it might also be justifiable. Hence, it is plausible to say that its presence might be justified by defending some other values or preventing some other harms. In other words, while AP randoms seem to be the best (or even the only) means to design APs without manipulativeness, it does not matter that they are generally the best means to design APs. Second, and more generally, designing AP randoms in particular and, to a lesser degree, APs in general involves the abovementioned shifts in our attitude towards technology—from a controllable and predictable tool that serves our aims and makes our lives easier to an uncontrollable and unpredictable person who has its own aims, tries to achieve its own good, often competing with humans beings in doing so, and hence makes our lives more complicated. Whether we should make these shifts and elevate the status of technology is a matter of very detailed debate and by no means can be decided or even examined here. Hence, to repeat, while there is a reasonable scenario in which we could design APs without being manipulative, it is by no means the only reasonable scenario on the table. There are also scenarios in which we can consider manipulativeness non-objectionable or objectionable but justifiable and develop not only AP randoms but also AP workers and AP servants. There is a possible scenario in which we could develop AP workers and AP servants instead of AP randoms (probably to avoid the unpredictability and uncontrollability of the latter). Finally, there is a scenario in which we should not develop any APs at all. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the unpredictability and uncontrollability of AI systems, specifically Autonomous Programs (AP randoms), indicating that they cannot reliably serve their intended purpose of making lives easier. The mention that AP randoms may make lives more complicated suggests they are not fully optimized for safe navigation, thereby undermining the claim that AI in autonomous cars can navigate without fail.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The evolution of flowering plants had a significant impact on terrestrial ecosystems. [SEP] Text: В ландшафтных терминах обстановка формирования танатоценоза4 с остатками Volkhoviella primitiva и Xenasaphus devexus может быть отнесена к нижней литорали и верхней сублиторали. Материал исследования: пять фертильных побегов с терминальными спорангиями и два стерильных побега. Ранняя эволюция наземной растительности: основные морфогенетические процессы. В архейскую эру, вопреки мнению Л. С. Берга, суша, скорее всего, была безжизненной (см. рис. 5). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses specific paleobotanical findings and morphological processes of early terrestrial vegetation without any direct reference to flowering plants or their impact on terrestrial ecosystems.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Livestock farming contributes significantly to global greenhouse gas emissions, particularly methane. [SEP] Text: J Dairy Sci. 2019;102(7):5811–52. . (2018). Symposium review: Uncertainties in enteric methane inventories, measurement techniques, and prediction models 1. J. Dairy Sci. , 101, 1–20. IPCC, 92. Kebreab E, Clark K, Wagner-Riddle C, France J. (2011). Methane and nitrous oxide emissions from Canadian animal agriculture: A review. Https://Doi. Orgi>/10. 4141/A05-010, 86(2), 135–158. <doiz> --Bahl K. Supplementation with Calliandra calothyrsus improves nitrogen retention in cattle fed low-protein diets. Sci. 2016;56(3):619–26. . Development of methane emission factors for enteric fermentation in cattle from Benin using IPCC Tier 2 methodology. Animal. 2015;9(3):526–33. Million T, Getahun K. (2021). Methane emission factors from indigenous cattle breed in smallholder livestock production systems in Ethiopia. 11(4), 145–150. . Estimation of enteric methane emission factor in cattle species in Ethiopia using IPCC tier 2 methodology. Sci Toxicol. 2022;6(1):013–8. Minson D. (1990). Forage in – 1st Edition. 502. . (2015). 2004 Methane and Emissions from in South Africa. Animals 2015, Vol. 5, Pages 193–205, 5(2), 193–205. Moss A, Jouany J-. (2000). Methane production by ruminants: its contribution to global warming. 49(3), 231–253. é. Contextualized re-calculation of enteric methane emission factors for small ruminants in sub-humid is far lower than previous estimates. Health Prod. 2019;51(4):919–28. Ndung’-. Improved region-specific emission factors for enteric methane emissions from cattle in smallholder mixed crop: Livestock systems of Nandi County, Kenya. Sci. 2019;59(6):1136–46. Ndung’u. Data describing cattle performance and feed characteristics to calculate enteric methane emissions in smallholder livestock systems in Bomet County, Kenya. Data Brief. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by referencing multiple studies that discuss methane emissions from livestock, particularly ruminants like cattle. For instance, it mentions 'methane and nitrous oxide emissions from Canadian animal agriculture' and how 'methane production by ruminants contributes to global warming.' This indicates that livestock farming, especially ruminant farming, is indeed linked to significant greenhouse gas emissions, supporting the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Autonomous vehicles will make all forms of public transportation obsolete by 2030. [SEP] Text: The delay was recorded for each simulated vehicle and the values used to calculate the average entered in Fig. 15. 6. In principle, the entire distribution of delays can be used to characterize the results, which for reasons of space is omitted here, although it would be interesting. The fluctuations in the delays are a measure of the reliability of such a system. However, the example presented here shows that the delay fluctuations are only very weakly correlated with the proportion of autonomously guided vehicles; the major source of stochasticity in this system is generated by the demand and not the dynamics of the vehicles. Two results in Fig. 15. 6 stand out. For one thing, the description from the theory does not always correspond to the simulation results. A considerable amount of research is still needed here, because it’s not at all simple to translate the assumptions on which the theory is based into the simulated reality. This will undoubtedly be even more difficult in comparison with real measured values. To achieve agreement, the values for the saturation-traffic volume determined in the simulation had to be used—with the theoretical values, i. e. the τ values defined in Sect. 15. 3, the agreement is not compelling. Second, autonomous vehicles “only” change the capacity; otherwise there are no or only very small gains. As long as the demand stays away from the respective capacity, there are only minor differences between the various scenarios, at least on the level of the description selected here. A change in the capacity does have one very positive effect, however: it means that the required green times at a traffic signal can be shorter, leaving more time for other modes of transport. 5 SignalsSection 15. 4 looked at a traffic signal with a fixed-time control system. Many modern systems, however, utilize an adaptive control system. That means that the traffic signal attempts to coordinate its green times with the current demand. When demand is low, the green times are short, and when demand is high, the system responds with long green times. The details are somewhat more complex, because the delay regarded as a function of the demand has a minimum with a certain optimal cycle time. An adaptive system is able to choose the optimal cycle time for itself, and makes very clever use of the fluctuations that occur in the traffic flow. In this case as well, the aim is to examine how such an adaptive system handles a mix of autonomous and normal vehicles. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that while autonomous vehicles may change capacity in transportation systems, they do not necessarily result in major gains or make public transportation obsolete. It suggests that as long as demand does not exceed capacity, the impact of autonomous vehicles on transportation systems, including public transport, is minimal. Additionally, the statement about autonomous vehicles allowing for shorter green times at traffic signals implies a coexistence with other forms of transport rather than their complete obsolescence.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The evolution of flowering plants had a significant impact on terrestrial ecosystems. [SEP] Text: Но уже в протерозое, по мере появления и развития цианобактерий, на суше вполне могли появиться их первые колонии, адаптированные к жизни в гиперэкстремальных условиях (в настоящее время, помимо морей, цианобактерии обитают в бессточных котловинах пустынь и даже в гидротермальных источниках). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the presence and development of cyanobacteria in extreme conditions during the Proterozoic era without mentioning flowering plants or their impact on terrestrial ecosystems.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Livestock farming contributes significantly to global greenhouse gas emissions, particularly methane. [SEP] Text: The impact of controlling diseases of significant global importance on greenhouse gas emissions from livestock production access Published: 08 December 2023 The impact of controlling diseases of significant global importance on greenhouse gas emissions from livestock production Judith L. : orcid. org/0000-0002-4320-77521 Outlook 22. 5%, 9. 11% and 11. 3% respectively. ConclusionsControlling livestock disease can reduce MMY losses at the farm level, which improves food security, reduces GHGe and enhances livestock system sustainability. BackgroundAs the global population increases to a predicted 9. 7 billion people by 2050 [1], consumption of milk, meat and eggs is predicted to increase by 48. 6% by 2050 [2]. Livestock producers worldwide are therefore faced with the considerable task of producing more livestock-derived foods (LDF), using fewer resources, while maintaining food safety, quality and affordability [3]. There is a considerable body of evidence linking improved livestock productivity (milk and/or meat yield, MMY) and consequent decreases in livestock numbers with reduced resource use and greenhouse gas (GHGe) per unit of food produced, and therefore improved environmental sustainability [4,5,6,7]. Livestock health is a key determinant of system MMY, with losses manifested as reduced yields; decreased liveweight gains and therefore greater amounts of time needed to reach a target weight, maturity or parturition; impaired fertility; premature culling/mortality; or condemned organs and carcasses [8]. Although the MMY impacts of different diseases vary widely, the short and long-term effects of sub-clinical and clinical disease have potentially significant economic and environmental consequences [9]. This is a particular issue in smallholder or backyard operations, which constitute 82% of farms in low-income countries [10] and are associated with greater GHGe per unit of LDF [11, 12]. Such farms often have reduced access to the veterinary care, resources, infrastructure and political visibility that have facilitated intensification in higher-income countries, and, yet could reduce their environmental impacts considerably as a consequence of improved livestock health [13]. Considerable media coverage is devoted to the environmental impact of livestock production, including climate change, water and air pollution, soil erosion and biodiversity. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how managing livestock diseases can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve the sustainability of livestock systems. It highlights that increased livestock productivity can lead to reduced greenhouse gas emissions per unit of food produced, indicating a direct relationship between livestock farming practices and their environmental impact, including greenhouse gas emissions.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Autonomous vehicles will make all forms of public transportation obsolete by 2030. [SEP] Text: Although the introduction of autonomous vehicles has little impact on green times and delays when demand is low, it yields major improvements when the system is operating beyond capacity. Nevertheless, the magnitude of these improvements does depend on the details of the scenario being examined. If the peak value for demand were just a bit lower, the benefit would also be significantly diminished. That notwithstanding, it may be asserted with confidence that at least in the urban context, the introduction of autonomous vehicles has the potential to generate substantial time gains at traffic signals which would then be available for other road users—if the introduction of these vehicles does not lead to an increase in demand for automotive transportation. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the impact of autonomous vehicles on traffic systems rather than asserting that they will replace public transportation entirely. It acknowledges improvements in performance under high demand but does not support the idea that autonomous vehicles will render all other forms of transportation obsolete. Instead, it emphasizes the scenario-specific benefits and potential concerns related to increased automotive demand.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The evolution of flowering plants had a significant impact on terrestrial ecosystems. [SEP] Text: По всей видимости, именно в периодически увлажнявшихся низменностях суши, на обогащённых органикой и размягчённых минеральных субстратах появились первые наземные биоценозы, образованные цианобактериями и другими прокариотами, а также одноклеточными эукариотическими водорослями и грибами. Сапротрофные грибы-хитридиомицеты рода были обнаружены в верхневендских отложениях Восточно-Европейской платформы [21]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the emergence of early terrestrial biocenoses formed by cyanobacteria, prokaryotes, unicellular eukaryotic algae, and fungi in moist lowland areas but does not mention flowering plants or their impact on terrestrial ecosystems. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Livestock farming contributes significantly to global greenhouse gas emissions, particularly methane. [SEP] Text: Annual milk yields were set at 4,500 kg fat and protein corrected milk (FPCM) derived from the database [17]. The MMY losses conferred by a cow dying were calculated according to the yields that would be produced over the time taken to rear a heifer to first calving (26 mo), considering a 14 mo calving interval, and were equal to 8,357 kg FPCM. A maximum of 14. 4 kg of FPCM was lost per non-yielding day of lactation. The potential beef losses (calves that could otherwise be sold and reared for beef) incurred by cow mortality derived from the number of calves produced each year (0. 81 per cow); a 5% calf mortality rate; the proportion of calves required as heifer replacements (0. 29 per cow) accounting for a 25% culling rate and 85% of replacement heifers successfully entering the herd [5]. The effects of morbidity upon MMY were assessed based upon a 50,000 head population and a herd containing 200 lactating cows (plus associated dry cows, heifer replacements, bulls and growing/finishing cattle). The GHGe for the baseline population was derived from a previous UN FAO study at 1. 50 kg CO2eq per kg FPCM [18]. Fractions of GHGe were attributed to the resource requirements for lactation and maintenance for different cattle groups within the herd according to the previously reported proportions [5] at 42% for lactation and 58% for maintenance (25% lactating cows, 5% dry cows, 27% replacement heifers, 1. 0% bulls). Dairy calves were assumed to be sold off-farm for beef soon after birth, therefore their GHGe were considered de minimus. After accounting for herd performance and population characteristics, the annual GHGe per lactating cow in the herd (including emissions from non-productive cattle) was calculated to be 6,750 kg CO2eq. The effects of disease on extensive beef cattle production were modelled upon a baseline population characteristic of those found in South America, with cattle performance largely dictated by seasonal forage availability. The proportions of cows, bulls, replacement heifers and bulls, and growing cattle destined for beef were derived from a previous study [4], as shown in Table 3. Accounting for a 40 mo age at first calving and 16 mo calving interval, cows produced 0. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing the greenhouse gas emissions associated with milk production from dairy cows, specifying that the annual greenhouse gas emissions per lactating cow were calculated to be 6,750 kg CO2eq. This clearly supports the assertion that livestock farming, particularly in the dairy sector, contributes to greenhouse gas emissions, aligning with the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Autonomous vehicles will make all forms of public transportation obsolete by 2030. [SEP] Text: Moreover, union stations draw traffic of not only public transportation, but also of private cars that are driven by people who just need a solution for the first and the last mile from the union station to their home [6]. Also, the parking seekers near the union station make the congestions even worse. In addition, street parking occupies areas that could be utilized for moving vehicles [7], because a vacant driverless vehicle can move automatically to a remote parking [8, 9], which can be farther away from the union station. This will also generate an uncomplicated expansion of roads. Another issue is the subsidization of rail systems. Most of the countries subsidize their rail systems. China invests $128 billion in rail each year [10], whereas Europe invests €73 billion in rail each year [11]. The subsidizations are a chief financial part of rail system budgets almost anywhere in the world. Only Japans' rail system is not subsidized. Without subsidization, almost no rail system can survive. Only freight rails in several lines can be moneymaking [12]; however, the freight rails will also have a competition with the new technology of self-driving truck platoons [13]. Accordingly, most of the rail systems will perish as soon as subsidization is brought to an end. In a study [14], the authors doubt the effectiveness of subsidy for R&D. Subsidy for rail fares is much more. Rail systems, in reality, lose billions of dollars every year. If these rail systems cannot stay alive, they should be allowed to humbly depart this life [15]. The billions saved from the rail systems can be invested in roads with the aim of reduction of traffic congestions. If there is no train in the union station, the justification for its existence will be significantly decreased. The highways will have an opposite influence. i. e. they will have to serve more traffic volume, but this growth can be handled. Where an expansion of the road is possible, such an expansion should be carried out [16-18]. Where a road expansion is impossible, a second floor of roads should be built as was done in and many other places in the world [19]. A second floor of roads in Kobe, Japan is shown in Fig. (1). built a second floor of traffic lanes on the highway goes across Tehran as well [20]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the ongoing need for rail systems and the significant subsidization they receive in various countries. It highlights that most rail systems cannot survive without financial support and indicates that if these systems fail, public transportation, including trains, could face severe challenges. The argument that autonomous vehicles might take over certain transportation functions does not necessarily imply that all forms of public transportation, such as rail systems, will become obsolete; rather, it suggests a complex relationship between evolving technologies and existing transportation modalities.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The evolution of flowering plants had a significant impact on terrestrial ecosystems. [SEP] Text: Все эти организмы образовывали тесные симбиотические связи, позволявшие им выживать в условиях суши. К обитателям наземных сообществ могли принадлежать некоторые формы неопределённого систематического положения, например, род [22]. Появление первых наземных бактериально-водорослево-грибных сообществ, очевидно, было теснейшим образом сопряжено с образованием первых почв. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses symbiotic relationships and early terrestrial communities but does not address the evolution of flowering plants or their impact on terrestrial ecosystems. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Livestock farming contributes significantly to global greenhouse gas emissions, particularly methane. [SEP] Text: 53 live calves per year, weaned at 8. 0 mo [4]. When adjusted for mortality, and a 12. 5% replacement rate, 0. 14 calves per cow were destined as heifer replacements, and 0. 37 calves for beef. Cattle destined for beef were finished at 36 mo, yielding 280. 9 kg CW. The MMY losses incurred by a beef cow dying were calculated according to the potential CW lost over the time required to rear an extra heifer replacement (344. 7 kg CW) plus the cull cow beef lost by premature death (213. 8 kg CW). Morbidity effects upon MMY were based upon a 50,000 head population and a herd containing 200 breeding cows (plus associated heifer replacements, bulls and growing/finishing cattle). The GHGe for the baseline population were characteristic of extensive beef production at 73. 0 kg CO2eq per kg CW [12]. As in the dairy model, the proportions of GHGe attributed to different cattle groups were proportional to their resource requirements as derived from a previous study at 52% for maintenance (38% cows, 10% replacement heifers, 5% bulls, 47% growing and finishing cattle) and 48% for growth [4]. The GHGe associated with the beef cattle population divided by the number of head of cows, produced annual GHGe per cow of 7,997 kg CO2eq. Compared to ruminant systems, monogastric (swine and poultry) production across the globe have GHGe that are more dependent upon resource inputs (primarily feed) than cattle systems [11, 12]. Within the current study, the impacts of disease on swine production were assessed in commercial (non-backyard) operations, whereas effects in poultry systems were confined to backyard flocks. It should be noted that these are not and should not be assumed to be direct comparisons, but to provide a variety of systems within the study and to acknowledge the vital contribution made by backyard poultry to human nutrition and health worldwide. Swine production was characterised by populations comprising sows, weaned pigs and growing/finishing pigs (Table 4), with sows first farrowing at 367 days of age, producing 2. 00 litters per year, and selling 19. 4 finished pigs per year [19,20,21,22,23]. Swine were finished at 8. 4 mo of age and 116 kg liveweight, producing 83. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing statistical data on greenhouse gas emissions (GHGe) related to beef production. It states that the greenhouse gas emissions attributed to extensive beef production reached 73.0 kg CO2eq per kg of carcass weight (CW), and the annual greenhouse gas emissions per cow were identified to be 7,997 kg CO2eq. These figures support the assertion that livestock farming, specifically cattle farming for beef, significantly contributes to greenhouse gas emissions.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Autonomous vehicles will make all forms of public transportation obsolete by 2030. [SEP] Text: So, any road can be expanded and the money saved from eliminating subsidization of rail systems can be used for this expansion. An example is the most congested highway in Israel i. e Highway no. 20. 2013, a section of this highway was expanded in to five lanes; northbound and southbound [21]. As a result, this section became uncongested. Fig. (2) shows the traffic congestion in 17:00 in Highway no. 20 in Israel. The expanded section is surrounded by an ellipse. It can easily be seen that in this section the congestion has been released. Fig. (1). Second floor of roads in Kobe, Japan. Fig. (2). Highway no. 20 in Israel in 17:00. 3. the era of driverless cars, even people with disabilities or people with an exhausting job will be able to travel in a car without driving [22]; Moreover, shared driverless car will be much more attractive than transportation means arriving at a union station not nearby home. New apparatus like [23] can be mounted on the vehicles with the aim of making them more user friendly for disabled. Furthermore, drunk, reckless, or distracted drivers usually are not mindful of their unsafe way of driving. Many authorities try to convince these drivers to leave their cars and use public transportation like trains. Some of these drivers come to an understanding that it is better for them not to drive, but there are still too many vehicles in the hands of inapt drivers. When the driverless cars are a standard, theses risky drives will come to an end [24]. When the use of driverless cars becomes widespread, the question of whether the state must provide public transportation services or public transportation services should be a profitable private-owned business like the Japanese model would be an interesting question for historians of transportation and when a lion's share of the public transportation will cease to exist, the union station will not have a good enough reason to carry on. 4. vehicles, if kept in good condition, emit only very small air quality pollutants [25]. New cars are manufactured with advanced [26] and in most of the developed countries, the use of is obligatory [27]. In addition, the selling of leaded fuel is outlawed in most of the developed countries. Unleaded fuel is obligatory because lead is a potent neurotoxin and pollutant [28]. Nowadays, unleaded fuels are commonly standard [29]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts with the claim by suggesting that the rise of driverless cars will provoke significant questions regarding the future of public transportation, particularly how necessary it will be. It notes that once driverless cars become standard, 'the question of whether the state must provide public transportation services or public transportation services should be a profitable private-owned business' will arise, indicating that public transport will not necessarily become obsolete but rather evolve in its purpose and operation.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The evolution of flowering plants had a significant impact on terrestrial ecosystems. [SEP] Text: Взаимодействие почв и организмов первичных биоценозов суши было системой с обратной связью, поскольку развитие почв способствовало повышению таксономического разнообразия наземных сообществ за счёт расширения их трофической базы, а жизнедеятельность организмов, входящих в эти сообщества, неизбежно обогащала почвы биогенами. Накопление биогенов привело к образованию генетического почвенного горизонта "А", сложенного гумусом. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the interaction between soils and organisms in primary terrestrial biocenoses but does not directly address the evolution of flowering plants or its impact on terrestrial ecosystems. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Livestock farming contributes significantly to global greenhouse gas emissions, particularly methane. [SEP] Text: Similar effects of disease on system efficiency have been previously reported, whereby Johnes disease was cited as increasing GHGe by 25% per kg of milk and 40% per kg of beef due to long-term effects on feed efficiency and growth before premature culling, whereas diarrhoea in dairy calves, with short-lived effects on intake and growth in heifer replacements increased GHGe by less than 1% per kg of milk [56]. Some of the data in this study were normalised to a standard prevalence to allow a theoretical comparison across species and diseases (Fig. 2), although under real-life conditions, effects of disease are confounded by prevalence and these impacts are significant data gaps in the literature. Within a specific species, the MMY impacts increase with disease prevalence – the GHGe effects of a specific disease at the population or herd level therefore derive from a function of MMY effects and prevalence. For example, anthrax is inevitably fatal, causing significant MMY losses, yet the majority of anthrax cases are caused by ingestion of spores from soil or pasture, transmission between animals is rare and prevalence (at the population level) is low. By contrast, brucellosis has a far lesser impact on cattle MMY, yet is highly contagious between infected cattle and can spread quickly and easily within a herd or population (Table 6). Despite these differences, the two diseases conferred almost identical increases in total GHGe from a 200-cow dairy herd within the current study, but had very different impacts at the population level (Table 8). It is therefore essential to consider the relative merits of mitigating impacts of widespread but relatively low GHGe impact diseases, or those that have considerable impacts at the localised level, yet only affect a relatively small proportion of herds or flocks. The global effects of absolute increases in GHGe conferred by disease are further complicated by the size of livestock populations. Worldwide, considerably more head of poultry and swine exist than ruminant animals, yet the bodyweight of an average dairy cow is ~ 500 × than of a hen. Consequently, cattle account for 54. 8% of global livestock mass, compared to 18. 4% for swine and 3. 4% for chickens (Author’s calculation derived from supplementary data from [57]). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the greenhouse gas emissions (GHGe) associated with livestock farming, specifically highlighting how diseases in livestock can increase GHGe significantly. For instance, it mentions that Johnes disease can increase emissions by 25% per kg of milk and 40% per kg of beef. The text also provides context regarding the overall contribution of livestock to greenhouse gas emissions relative to other types of livestock, confirming their significant role in global emissions.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Autonomous vehicles will make all forms of public transportation obsolete by 2030. [SEP] Text: (5); however, it is flabbergasting to realize that there are only 61 vehicles per capita in Nigeria [37] which is just 7. 65% of the rate of motorization in the US. Large number of modern private cars create only very slight amount of pollutants. The pollution is mainly generated by defective vehicles, leaded fuel and fuel mixed with oils that are unacceptable in developed countries. Therefore, the explanation for the enormous excess in the concentration of pollutants in the air of Nigeria is not just the traffic emission, but rather the nature of the traffic. In addition, there are more reasons for the bad air quality in Nigeria like improper waste treatment as burning of waste and unfiltered emission from industrial plants near living area as can be seen in Fig. (6). Fig. (6). Improper waste treatment in Nigeria. The air pollution generated by transportation means has been significantly reduced during last years and it is no more an acute concern. According to [38], by 2040, the CO2 emission will not be an issue in transportation means in Europe anymore. Therefore it is unreasonable to spend billions of dollars to subsidize public transportation which will yield almost no improvement in air quality and where there will be no subsidy to the public transportation, the incentive for union stations will be much more smaller. In addition, it is healthier to distribute the air pollution in a larger area than allowed pollutants to converge by squeezing a large amount of transportation means in a small area of the union station. 5. it is customary to accept as true that larger transportation means are the safest and since trains are the largest among all transportation means, train travel is the safest. In 2015, there were only 749 recorded deaths in the US in rail related accidents; whereas in the same period 35,092 people died in the US in highway crashes [39]. Road crashes are the leading cause of death among young people ages 15–29 and account for 2. 2% of all deaths globally. In addition, road crashes impose significant costs. Simulations of traffic accidents indicate that more damages are generated to cars in accidents, because they are feebler than train bodies [40-42]. The annual cost of road crashes is USD $518 billion globally, costing individual countries from 1%-2% of their annual GDP [43]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the inefficiencies and potential issues of replacing public transportation. It points out that spending on public transportation yields little improvement in air quality and suggests it may be detrimental by concentrating pollution in small areas, indicating that public transportation still holds significant value. Furthermore, it emphasizes the safety of larger transportation means, such as trains, and their relatively low accident rates compared to road vehicles, suggesting that replacing public transportation with autonomous vehicles may not lead to an overall improvement in safety and efficiency.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The evolution of flowering plants had a significant impact on terrestrial ecosystems. [SEP] Text: Дальнейшее размягчение и эрозия минеральных субстратов привели к формированию генетического горизонта "B". Свою роль в формировании наземных биоценозов должны были сыграть и морские водоросли, произраставшие на сублиторали и литорали. Безусловно, они вынуждены были адаптироваться к периодическим осушениям, вызванным приливами и отливами. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the erosion of mineral substrates and marine algae's adaptation to drying, without mentioning flowering plants or their impact on terrestrial ecosystems.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Livestock farming contributes significantly to global greenhouse gas emissions, particularly methane. [SEP] Text: By contrast, CSF at 90% prevalence in a 1,000-sow herd (Table 10) increased GHGe by the equivalent of the annual emissions from 9,324 cars; whereas Newcastle disease at 95% prevalence in a 10-bird poultry flock (Table 11) increased GHGe by the equivalent of the annual emissions from 0. 13 cars. It is acknowledged that vehicle emissions vary considerably between countries and change over time, yet it is important to understand the context of changes in livestock GHGe compared to other GHG sources. Livestock producers worldwide must improve health and welfare through improved disease surveillance and reporting, optimized medicines use, implementation of preventative herd or flock health plans and adoption of tools and technologies that improve and facilitate these goals. This requires a concerted effort to improve collaboration and communication between all livestock production stakeholders, from the producer, veterinary surgeon, nutritionist and geneticist through the processor and retailer to the policymaker and consumer. The new OIE-WAHIS portal [15] was developed with the intent of facilitating disease reporting, increasing and easing data reporting and therefore improving global data quality. If successful, this will bridge the data gap relating to livestock disease, productivity and GHGe; however, it is too early to judge whether these aims have been met. The global threat presented by antimicrobial resistance (AMR) to human, animal and ecosystem health and the consequent need to reduce, replace and refine antimicrobial use offers a clear rationale for implementing preventative health programmes for livestock across the globe, yet the advantages of these programmes must be clearly communicated to encourage producer uptake [61]. The results of the current study add to the body of knowledge and information that may be used in this drive to increase vaccine use. The effectiveness and adoption of vaccines will never reach 100% across a real-life livestock population. Nevertheless, the potential reductions in milk and meat GHGe intensity (kg CO2eq/kg product) and improved food security that can be conferred by disease prevention should be of considerable interest to processors, retailers and policymakers. For example, reducing the prevalence of PRRS in swine populations from 60 to 10% would reduce GHGe intensity by 22. 5%; whereas reducing FMD in beef cattle from 45 to 5% prevalence, or AIB in poultry from 75 to 20% prevalence would reduce GHGe intensities by 9. 11% and 11. 3% respectively (Table 12). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the greenhouse gas emissions (GHGe) associated with livestock farming, particularly in terms of disease prevalence in herds and flocks and its impact on emissions. It highlights that reducing the prevalence of diseases such as PRRS and FMD in livestock can lead to significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions intensity, which supports the notion that livestock farming is a considerable contributor to global emissions.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Autonomous vehicles will make all forms of public transportation obsolete by 2030. [SEP] Text: In a study [44] it is claimed that in cities where the rail transit is a major component of the transportation system, there will be 36% lower per capita traffic fatalities (7. 5 versus 11. 7 annual deaths per 100,000 residents) even though a single rail accident on its own statistically claims more lives than a single car accident [45]. Accordingly, various authorities in more than a few countries believe that many lives can be saved by shifting some of the traffic to a train. However, all of this line of reasoning will be irrelevant when the driverless cars are available. By automating driving, 95% of car crashes could be eliminated [46], because many safety gadgets will be installed in the driverless cars [47-49]. Most of the trips in the US are currently undertaken by cars; whereas trains carry only a small percentage of passengers. According to the US Department of Transportation, 3,130,509 million miles have been traveled on US highway system in 2015; whereas in the same period only 532 million miles have been traveled by trains [50]. So even now, it is not clear the rail system is safer, but when the driverless cars are available, it will be as clear as daylight that driverless cars are much safer than conventional trains. On the other hand, the rail system and the buses will be also driverless [51], so their safety will be also improved and both the driverless cars and the driverless buses and trains will have an almost zero probability to have fatal accident [52-54], for that reason, it will unreasonable to subsidize public transportation with the aim of convincing people to travel in this means of transportation that essentially will have almost the same safety attributes and qualities. Since most the people will travel by driverless cars, the union stations will be of almost no use and most of them will be shutdown. transportation was invented more than 200 years ago [55]. The concept of union stations joined the public transportation only not many years later [56]. In this paper, we have shown that in the age of driverless cars, a means of transportation that takes many people from one central station to another central station has lost the justifications for its existence. The reasons detailed in the paper and were commonly accepted as true are no longer valid. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by arguing that, while driverless cars may improve safety and compete with traditional forms of transportation, the existence of driverless public transportation systems (such as buses and trains) will still provide a valid alternative. It suggests that despite the advancements in autonomous vehicles, the role and justification of public transport, particularly in terms of safety and utility, will continue to exist. The references to driverless public transportation imply that the claim's assertion that all public transport will become obsolete is overstated.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The evolution of flowering plants had a significant impact on terrestrial ecosystems. [SEP] Text: В современном мире богатейшие сообщества морских водорослей способны без какого-либо вреда для себя переживать отливы, находясь в течение нескольких часов в аэральных условиях. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses marine algae and their ability to survive in aerial conditions without harm, which does not address or relate to the evolution of flowering plants or their impact on terrestrial ecosystems.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Livestock farming contributes significantly to global greenhouse gas emissions, particularly methane. [SEP] Text: Journal of > Vol. 7 No. 7, June 2016 and () Sunil P. Dhoubhadel1, Farzad Taheripour2, Matthew C. Stockton3 1Department of. 2Department of. 3Research & Extension Center, University of Nebraska-. DOI: 10. 4236/jep. 2016. 77087 2,443 Downloads 4,414 Views 2022. Estimated emissions associated with this change are about 20 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2 e) during 2004-2022 or an annual average of 1. 1 billion tons. Results also indicate that a significant portion of the emissions (about 11%) can be reduced if consumer p995. doi: 10. 4236/jep. 2016. 77087. Received 12 April 2016; accepted 3 June 2016; published 6 June 2016 1. growing concern about the climate change, potential sources of (GHG) emissions mitigation are being identified. Lately, the livestock sector has received considerable attention in this regard as the sector reportedly contributes significantly to human-induced GHG emissions [1] - [3]. The global demand for livestock products has grown over the years and is likely continue that growth in the future [4]. Increasing overall livestock output has implications for the environment. The sources of GHG emissions from the livestock sector can be segregated into two broad categories: 1) emissions that emanate from land use changes due to livestock production; typically when forest land is converted into pasture or cropland to accommodate increased livestock production, it results in increased GHG emissions due to land clearing and reduced long term carbon sequestration; 2) emissions which are attributed to non-land use change sources such as enteric fermentation, feed production and processing, manure handling, and processing and transportation of animal products. Unlike the emissions estimates for non-land use sources, which have been well documented in the literature [1] [2] the emissions induced by land use changes due to livestock production have not been adequately addressed and are a contentious issue [5]. While [3] and [6] estimate about 2. 4 to 2. 6 billion tons carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2 e) emissions per year as a result of land use change due to livestock production, these reports, however, do not provide a detailed explanation of the methods used to obtain these estimates. A FAO report authored by [2] estimates approximately 7. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by stating that the livestock sector contributes significantly to human-induced GHG emissions. It details sources of GHG emissions associated with livestock production, including enteric fermentation, which is a process that generates methane, a potent greenhouse gas. The text further emphasizes that as global demand for livestock increases, the emissions associated with this production will likely rise, corroborating the claim regarding the environmental impact of livestock farming.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Autonomous vehicles will make all forms of public transportation obsolete by 2030. [SEP] Text: There are still many misgivings regarding the driverless cars technology [57]; however, a report by LLC made a calculation with the overwhelming figure that the total market of driverless cars in all the companies involved in its development is about $100 billion as for 2017 not including the value of the actual cars involved in various projects [58]. In view of this commercial figure, there are two possibilities. The first is that driverless cars will be indeed a wide-use technology and the second is that driverless cars are actually the top financial fraud of all time. Unfortunately, there are few people who believe in the section option; however, it is quite clear that the first option seems to be more reasonable. Driverless cars are much more comfortable and restful for passengers than public transportation. Moreover, union stations are not often in a close proximity of the passenger, so the passenger should use another means of transportation to arrive at a union station; whereas when using driverless cars there is no need for the hassle of these connections [59]. As a result, driverless cars will gradually take control of the transportation market [60]. As more and more driverless cars are on the roads, the union stations will slowly but surely fade away from our lives. applicable applicable. . authors declare no conflict of interest, financial or otherwise. none. 91. CrossRef 4 P. Fernandes, and U. Nunes, "Platooning with IVC-enabled autonomous vehicles: Strategies to mitigate communication delays, improve safety and traffic flow", IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst. , vol. 13, no. 1, 106. CrossRef 5 D. Carlino, M. Depinet, P. Khandelwal, and P. Stone, "Approximately orchestrated routing and transportation analyzer: Large-scale traffic simulation for autonomous vehicles", 15th on Systems (ITSC), 339. CrossRef 6 Z. J. Chong, B. Qin, T. Bandyopadhyay, T. . Frazzoli, D. Rus, D. Hsu, and K. H. Low, "Autonomous personal vehicle for the first- and last-mile transportation services", 5th on Cybernetics and (CIS), 260. CrossRef 7 A. Henry, R. E. Barone, A. Pichardo, E. Roach, T. Keegan, D. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the challenges still present for driverless cars, such as public beliefs and potential fraud in the industry. It implies that while there may be a push towards the adoption of driverless vehicles, their ability to completely replace public transportation is questionable. Additionally, it mentions that union stations may fade from our lives in light of the increasing use of driverless cars, which indirectly suggests that public transportation might not be made entirely obsolete as asserted in the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The evolution of flowering plants had a significant impact on terrestrial ecosystems. [SEP] Text: В конце протерозоя или, самое позднее, в начале палеозоя среди водорослей, произраставших на литорали и периодически оказывавшихся под воздействием сухого воздуха и прямых солнечных лучей, должны были появиться формы с плотными наружными покровами, которые в дальнейшем могли преобразоваться в кутикулу. В геологической летописи известен целый ряд форм с плотными покровами, занимающих промежуточное положение между водорослями и высшими растениями. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses forms with dense outer coverings that emerged among algae during the Proterozoic or Paleozoic era, and it does not address the evolution of flowering plants or their impact on terrestrial ecosystems.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Livestock farming contributes significantly to global greenhouse gas emissions, particularly methane. [SEP] Text: 1 billion tons of CO2 e emissions annually from the livestock sector and attribute about 0. 65 billion tons CO2 e per year (about 9. 2% of the total emissions from the sector) to the land use changes. However, this estimate fails to account fully the emissions from land use change associated with livestock production at the global level as it mainly accounts for land use changes in due to soybean production in Brazil and Argentina and pasture expansion in Brazil, Chile, Nicaragua, and Paraguay. Given that the report does not account for land use changes in all regions of the world and all crops, it is likely that it underestimates the emissions from land use change caused by livestock production at the global level. Moreover, [2] ’s emission estimates are based on the reference years 1996-2006, which need updating to account for the livestock production after 2006. A more recent estimate of GHG emissions from livestock sector by [1] does not include the emissions from land use changes. Given this gap in the literature, this work focuses on estimating GHG emissions induced by land use changes due to projected increase in livestock production between 2004 and 2022. The objectives of this paper are threefold: 1) provide a baseline projection for regional livestock output growth between 2004 and 2022 at the global scale; 2) use the baseline projection estimates of livestock output to estimate the expected global land use changes by regions; and 3) estimate the GHG emissions associated with those changes. Considering the global scale of this work and the number of interactions among many economic sectors and regions, a Equilibrium (CGE) modeling framework is used. 2. A modified version of the standard GTAP (Analysis Project) model, GTAP-BIO, is used for this analysis. The GTAP model is a multi-sector, multi-region CGE model, which is widely used for policy, trade, and environmental analysis. GTAP models consumer (private households) preference using a of Elasticity (CDE) function, which allows income elasticities to differ across goods. Producer/firm production functions are modeled using nested of Substitution (CES) forms. Moreover, it assumes constant returns to scale in production and perfectly competitive markets. assumption is used for traded goods i. e. the imports are differentiated by country of origin. The general equilibrium nature of the model is imposed by applying in the model, i. e. in equilibrium all markets clear (i. e. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing emissions from the livestock sector, specifically mentioning '1 billion tons of CO2 e emissions annually from the livestock sector' and noting the potential underestimation of emissions related to land use changes and livestock production. The focus on estimating 'GHG emissions induced by land use changes due to projected increase in livestock production' further supports the assertion that livestock farming contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, the text entails a comprehensive approach to model and analyze these emissions, which reinforces the relevance of the claim.