Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: Gas rapidly exits, eroding material below the ice sheet to form furrows. A plume then deposits the sediment to form fans on the surface of the seasonal ice. The thickness of the overlying ice and dune topography are thought to have a strong influence on this process15. Close spacing of vents has also been noted to reduce cryoventing efficacy, with fewer furrows forming in locations where ice cracks are closer together12. Recent work has drawn a distinction between furrows in the northern hemisphere and “dendritic troughs” in the southern hemisphere16. While both show similar morphologies, furrows in the northern hemisphere are ephemeral features which disappear every year17. The dendritic troughs on south polar dunes endure, with new tributaries adding to the networks annually16. This study16 has drawn a potential link in formation process between the highly dendritic araneiform terrain of the south polar cryptic region and furrows/dendritic troughs. It has been suggested that araneiform terrain (dubbed “spiders” in the literature) may develop over many years by a gradual connection of dendritic networks into a radial network, rather than forming in one event16. Noting the difference in environmental conditions between the hemispheres, it has been argued that furrows in the northern hemisphere do not develop into dendrites because of the high mobility of the material into which they are eroded16. However, the size distribution of the granular substrate in both hemispheres is poorly constrained. For the purpose of our purely morphological laboratory study we refer to all network types as furrows. Recent experimental work has demonstrated that insolation-driven dust ejecta from within CO2 ice is a viable process18 and that pressure driven processes can form dendritic patterns under certain conditions19. However, it has not yet been demonstrated that sublimating CO2 in contact with porous substrate can transport underlying material and create the complex furrow morphologies seen on Mars. Until now, this geomorphic process has been framed in a purely theoretical context. PitsLinear gullies (Fig. 2) form on Martian dunes under current climatic conditions10,20,21,22. Recent mapping has shown that they occur between 36. 3°S and 54. 3°S and from 64. 6°S to 70. 4°S22. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the composition of Mars' polar ice caps; it discusses the geomorphic processes associated with ice and the differences between northern and southern hemispheric features. Thus, it is irrelevant to the claim regarding the materials that compose the ice caps.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: The energy consumption of major cryptocurrencies, like Bitcoin, has become a concern due to the environmental impact of mining. [SEP] Text: [76] Ulysse Pavloff, Yackolley Amoussou-Guenou, and Sara Tucci-Piergiovanni. Ethereum proof-of-stake under scrutiny. of the 38th ACM/on Applied Computing, pages 212–221, 2023. [77] Burney. Sybil in the haystack: a comprehensive review of blockchain consensus mechanisms in search of strong sybil attack resistance. Algorithms, 16(1):34, 2023. [78] and Joshi. Blockchain-based traceability and visibility for agricultural products: A decentralized way of ensuring food safety in india. Sustainability, 12(8):3497, 2020. [79] and Kim-Choo. A flexible method to defend against computationally resourceful miners in blockchain proof of work. Information Sciences, 507:161–171, 2020. [80] and IE Davidson. Cryptocurrency mining powered by renewable energy using a dc-dc connection. In 2023 31st (), pages 1–7. IEEE, 2023. [81]. Impact of bitcoin mining and crypto market determinants on bitcoin-based energy consumption. Managerial Finance, 2023. [82] Hongtian Shi, Ting Xiao, and Jiayi Zhang. Three technical aspects and security issues of ethereum. on (2022), pages 710–718. SPIE, 2023. [83] C Smith. Nodes as a service. 2023. [84]. Flare gas monetization and greener hydrogen production via combination with cryptocurrency mining and carbon dioxide capture. Iscience, 25(2), 2022. [85] Edy Sriyono. Digitizing water management: Toward the innovative use of blockchain technologies to address sustainability. Cogent Engineering, 7(1):1769366, 2020. [86] Cryptopedia Staff. Usd coin (usdc) — a stablecoin pegged to the u. s. dollar. 2023. [87] Lebrusan Studio. The trouble with gold mining. 2023. [88]. Bitcoin and renewable energy mining: A survey. Blockchains, 1(2):90–110, 2023. [89] Erkan Ünsal, Örnek, and Şakir Tasdemir. A review of hashing algorithms in cryptocurrency. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provides several references related to cryptocurrency, including titles like 'Impact of bitcoin mining and crypto market determinants on bitcoin-based energy consumption,' which directly pertains to the concern regarding energy consumption and the environmental impact of mining Bitcoin. Additionally, it cites works discussing mining powered by renewable energy, indicating a growing awareness and discussion surrounding the energy demands of cryptocurrencies, which supports the claim that such consumption is a significant concern.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Biodiversity offsetting can completely reverse all environmental damage from development. [SEP] Text: 2016 and McCarthy and Morling 2015) with their success highly contingent on the level of political will for environmental protection within the contexts they operate (Segerson 2013). Meanwhile, community-based conservation which integrates social development goals with conservation objectives has proved successful at a local-scale through bottom-up understanding of local cultural context in intervention success (Brooks et al. 2012; Waylen et al. 2010); however, such approach is limited when viewed against the backdrop of planetary-scale risks to ecosystems and biodiversity (Kellert et al. 2000; Barrett et al. 2001; Kiss 2004; Berkes 2007). The widening gap between the rate of policy development of MBIs for conservation and the maturity of critical scholarship on their theoretical and practical implications increases the likelihood of ineffective and harmful policy interventions (Reid 2011; Roth and Dressler 2012). The modest achievements of projects on payment for ecosystem services (Landell-Mills and Porras 2002; McAfee 2012; Pokorny et al. 2013; Hejnowicz et al. 2014) and carbon offsetting schemes (Corbera and Brown 2010; Knox-Hayes 2010; Cavanagh and Benjaminsen 2014; Klinsky 2015) are symptomatic of this. There is currently poor articulation of the economic, institutional and ecological conditions in which MBIs for conservation are most effective (Robinson 2006; Gómez-Baggethun et al. 2010; Wissel and Wätzold 2010). There are also very few shared characteristics between different instruments, limiting their reproducibility across space (Pirard 2012). Extrapolating the success of one instrument or study site to another, in the absence of contextual information, often results in uneven success and implementation of approaches (Landell-Mills and Porras 2002). An empirical, case-specific inquiry is key in this regard. This 3. 1 StakeholdersStakeholder groups and individual respondents were carefully identified with respect to their knowledge of, and engagement with the design and implementation of biodiversity offsetting in England. Extant literature, professional networks, and a corpus of news 3. 2 Interview structureWe used a combination of face-to-face and telephone interviews which were recorded with the permission of respondents and transcribed verbatim by the authors (see online supplementary material for full transcripts dataverse. harvard. edu/dataverse. xhtml? alias=biodiversityoffsetting). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting that biodiversity offsetting is limited in effectiveness and success, particularly when viewed against broader ecological risks. It notes that the success of such projects is contingent on various factors and that modest achievements often do not equate to complete reversal of environmental damage. Furthermore, it mentions the challenges in generalizing the success of biodiversity offsetting due to varying conditions across different contexts.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: They are characterised by long (100–2,500 m), narrow grooves, are bounded by levées and have relatively small source areas. Forming exclusively on south polar and mid latitudinal intra-crater dunes, their activity is seasonal, and has been found to be concurrent with the final stages of sublimation of the CO2 ice deposit at the end of winter and beginning of spring22, rendering a CO2 sublimation formation mechanism likely. These eponymous features are mostly linear; though they sometimes adopt sinuous patterns and taper down-slope. Figure 2Terminal and detached linear gully pit morphologies. (a) Terminal pits (white arrows), and detached pits (red arrows) at linear gully termini on megadune (HiRISE image ESP_020784_1255, image centre at −54. 3°, 12. 9°, taken at L s 209. 5°). Black arrows point to inset pits within terminal pits. Green arrow indicates a high albedo block which is likely to be a CO2 block within a pre-existing terminal pit. (b) Terminal pits (white arrows) and detached pits (red arrows) on megadune (HiRISE image PSP_007018_1255 taken at L s 22. 5°, image centre at −54. 3°, 13° which was used as part of a stereo pair to create the _007018_1255_007229_1255). (c) Example of highly sinuous linear gullies on the west side of dunefield (HiRISE image ESP_030528_1300, image centre at −49. 5°, 77. 2°, taken at L s 254. 8°). Red arrows point to detached pits, white arrows show terminal pits. (d) “Tadpole” terminal pits in dunefield (HiRISE image PSP_003800_1325, image centre at −46. 9°, 30. 7°, taken at L s 240. 9°). These pits (white arrows) are much wider in diameter than their corresponding channels and are surrounded by detached pits (red arrows). (e) megadune (HiRISE image PSP_007018_1255). White boxes indicate locations of (a) and (b). (f) dunefield. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the composition of Mars' polar ice caps or provide any information regarding their existence. Instead, it describes specific features and morphologies associated with the Martian surface, focusing on gully formations and CO2 sublimation without mentioning the ice caps’ materials.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Some cryptocurrencies are transitioning to less energy-intensive proof-of-stake models to reduce environmental impact. [SEP] Text: -19 PreprintsProtocolsVideosJournalsTools & a of Activity and is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. work is licensed under a CC BY 4. 0 LicenseStatus:PostedVersion 1posted You are reading this latest preprint versionAbstractWe proposed a decentralized cryptocurrency protocol named proof of activity and stake in which participants have no admittance threshold and communicate in peer-to-peer network. Our protocol adopts the idea of stakeholders in proof of stake and combined it with the propagation activity to replace the resource-costly proof of work. It is also proposed to solve the contradiction of security and throughput, which discouraged the promotion of blockchain applications. With analysis of security assurance and performance, proof of activity and stake is proved to be robust and economical against double spending attack. BlockchainCryptographic protocolDistributed algorithmPropagation activityDouble spending attackFiguresFigure 1Figure 2Figure 3Figure 4Figure 5Figure 6Figure 7Figure 8Figure 9Figure 10I. IntroductionSince the first blockchain application launch at 2009 as a mean of exchange and a store of value, the main risk and challenge revolve around is universally accepted to be reaching the consistency among isolated participants. Namely, individual alterations eventually come to a one and only decision while keep robust when certain nodes crash. To some certain extent, the cryptocurrency protocol has evolved into two kinds of branch distinguished by different permission demands. Proof of work (PoW) [1] makes security assurance by high computational complexity, and rely on probabilistic model to reach eventual consensus. We refer to the creation of blocks as block mining. Modified PoW [2][3] derived protocol either reduce the proposal scale or optimize the main-chain selection. However, it is essentially hash-rate competition. Proof of stake (PoS) [4] makes the assumption that the more assets people hold, the higher security demand they require, therefore PoS derived protocols associate mining priority with assets scale. We take PoS protocol with a grain of salt for its centralization and nonnegligible communication cost. In a word, the key concept with above protocols seem to be economic games. Another kind of deterministic consensus is mainly applied in weak centralized condition with authority management. That is to say, the participants have already reached a foundational reliance precondition. Such as Fault Tolerance(PBFT) [5][6][7] algorithm. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by discussing the evolution of cryptocurrency protocols, particularly noting the transition from proof of work (PoW) models, which are resource-intensive, to proof of stake (PoS) and its variations. It emphasizes that proof of activity and stake combines stakeholder concepts from PoS and aims to replace costly and energy-intensive mining processes, thereby indicating an effort to develop less energy-consuming models within the cryptocurrency sector.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Biodiversity offsetting can completely reverse all environmental damage from development. [SEP] Text: Local planning authority respondent 1 (LPA1), for example, attributed the failure to a lack of “forward planning for biodiversity”, emphasising the need to go … through the mitigation hierarchy at the pre-site allocation stage of the plan so that any sensitive sites are knocked out before they even get into the system for development. Despite proponents of viewing it as a last resort to mitigating biodiversity loss (BBOP 2013), academic researchers and environmental campaigners warned that such an instrument could promote a lackadaisical approach in earlier stages of site mitigation, and that improving avoidance of biodiversity impacts was central to reducing biodiversity loss. (2013) notes, the practice of screening sites helps in part to designate “no go” zones for business, but also helps appropriate “go zones” where developers can exercise less care over biodiversity issues. According to offset brokers, the difficulty of implementing is rooted in the problems developers face in navigating the labyrinth of regulations, jargon and bureaucratic procedures within the existing legal compliance to protect ecosystems and biodiversity: They’re [businesses] inherently grappling with quite complex and challenging issues… and have been bombarded with all this kind of stuff about green infrastructure and ecosystem services… all these kind of clunky phrases that they don’t really understand. (EC1) Meanwhile, there was disagreement over whether the implementation of would strengthen or undermine existing legal regulations protecting the England’s ecological network. Local planning authorities and offset brokers felt would supplement existing legislation protecting habitats and species. However, environmental campaigners warned that created shades of grey, where there were not any before, over what can and cannot be developed on. (EC1) Accordingly, EC2 cited a case where a previously rejected planning application was subsequently resubmitted, then granted, on the grounds that biodiversity loss could be offset elsewhere. Within this context, environmental campaigners regarded “no loss” and “no net loss” policy goals as fundamentally different, with the latter assuming a far weaker sustainability paradigm, because you don’t get an offset site without a site being destroyed. (EC2). Conversely, academic researchers were concerned by the widening gap between policy rhetoric surrounding and the practical and theoretical evidence base. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by stating that biodiversity offsetting cannot fully reverse environmental damage. It highlights that while offsetting is viewed as a last resort, experts warn that it can lead to a lackadaisical approach in site mitigation, and improving the avoidance of biodiversity impacts is crucial. Furthermore, environmental campaigners indicate that 'no loss' and 'no net loss' policy goals imply a weaker sustainability paradigm, suggesting that offsets occur only where destruction has already happened, thereby contradicting the idea that offsets can completely reverse damage.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: White box shows location of (c). (g) dunefield (HiRISE image PSP_003800_1325). White box shows location of (d). HiRISE image credit: NASA/JPL/University of Arizona. Full size image Terminal pitsUnlike terrestrial gullies, which are nearly always formed by liquid water, linear gullies do not have associated debris aprons. Instead, their channel termini are invariably punctuated by one (or more) terminal pit(s) (Fig. 2a–d). Located at the end of the linear gully channel, the terminal pit is usually slightly wider than the channel10. Terminal pits are defined by a roughly circular depression encircled by levées. Most linear gully channels end in a single pit, herein referred to as the primary terminal pit. However, some terminal pits occur as part of a dyadic to triadic sequence known as “pit strings”. Secondary and tertiary terminal pits are defined as terminal pits that are in a linear sequence with the primary terminal pit, and are always similar in size to the primary terminal pit. Many linear gullies, particularly the largest in scale, have lower albedo circular depressions within the distal region of their channels and/or their primary terminal pits. We refer to these as inset pits. Detached pitsSome terminal pits or terminal pit strings are surrounded by multiple detached pits (Fig. 2a–d). These pits are not connected to (or in line with) channels and are usually considerably smaller than their associated terminal pit(s). Detached pits are always exclusive to the distal region of the channel and are not found upslope. HypothesesLinear gully pits have no terrestrial analogues, and so it is likely that a geomorphic agent that does not occur naturally on Earth may be instrumental in their formation. Originally, terminal pits were proposed to be older flow fronts formed by successive debris flows20, however this is unlikely as linear gullies are forming today, in a climate which does not currently support liquid water10. There are two main schools of thought on the type of CO2 sublimation activity which might form linear gullies: the CO2 basal sublimation triggered debris flow hypothesis23 and the sliding CO2 block hypothesis21. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not provide any information regarding the composition of Mars' polar ice caps. Instead, it discusses linear gullies and terminal pits on Mars without making any reference to ice caps or their components. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Cryptocurrency mining is entirely powered by renewable energy sources, eliminating its environmental impact. [SEP] Text: Например, создание и запуск завода по выпуску аккумуляторных батарей занимает всего несколько месяцев. Процесс сборки не требует от работников особой квалификации и легко автоматизируется; электрический двигатель, по большому счету, состоит всего из двух деталей — ротора и статора, поэтому сборка электромобиля обходится заметно дешевле. Обслуживание электрокара в среднем составляет 40% затрат на содержание машины с ДВС при равном пробеге46. 46. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the manufacturing and maintenance of electric vehicles, which is unrelated to the claim about cryptocurrency mining and its energy sources. Therefore, it does not provide any relevant information to corroborate or contrast the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Biodiversity offsetting can completely reverse all environmental damage from development. [SEP] Text: AR1 expressed concern over poor design of the pilot schemes in England: I can see on the ground, the things on the ground implemented for mitigation, there has been no research done on them at all as to whether they actually work… We’ve spent a lot of money and it’s not ecologically delivering at all. Similarly, AR3 alluded to a gap between corporate commitments to deliver no net loss or net gain biodiversity targets—a growing phenomenon (Rainey et al. 2015)—and the necessary knowledge and experience required to fulfil these commitments. Moreover, they cited the transition from no net loss and net gain outcomes in offset projects as “difficult” and “…a lot of extra work” despite being perceived as “quite small [in terms of effort]”—a view substantiated in Bull and Brownlie (2017). There was also disagreement between stakeholders on the purported benefits would deliver. While offset brokers envisaged biodiversity offsetting would produce net gains to biodiversity, academic researchers and environmental campaigners challenged the ecological evidence of a no net loss goal: If you put the footprint of a building down, I’m not convinced you’re getting Loss, however great your mitigation is. (AR1) AR2 noted that: Just thinking you can kind of create a similar habitat somewhere else immediately de novo is pretty naïve… for anything more complex like a woodland or a salt marsh, then you are probably being very optimistic, even heroic, in thinking you can do it. Despite disagreement over the effectiveness of Biodiversity Offsetting, several respondents felt the tool should be made mandatory for businesses and infrastructure development if the government insisted on implementing it. AR1 recalled practical issues with the voluntary nature of in pilot studies, recounting: people on the ground involved in the pilots were saying we’re having real trouble getting developers to sign up to this. However, AR3 challenged the high status of has received in recent conservation discourse in the UK: This is the mistake I think we have made in the UK so far. I think there has been this immediate leap towards which is a controversial mechanism and isn’t a proven mechanism yet, even though it has had some success in some parts of the world. The focus should be on no net loss and I think people are starting to realise that now. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting concerns over the effectiveness of biodiversity offsetting. It mentions skepticism among stakeholders about whether offsetting can achieve 'no net loss' or 'net gain' in biodiversity, with quotes stating that the assumption about reversing damage is 'naïve' and that achieving the desired ecological outcomes is fraught with difficulties. The text indicates that many experts believe biodiversity offsetting is neither a proven nor a reliable method for completely reversing environmental damage, countering the idea presented in the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: The CO2 basal sublimation triggered debris flow hypothesis23 suggests a solar-insolation-driven dry debris flow beneath seasonal CO2 ice on dunes. Successive events have been suggested to carve gully channels in Russell Crater23. However, while basal sublimation — driven debris flows are a plausible mechanism for channel formation, such a process would also deposit material at channel termini. Additionally, the model does not account for the presence of terminal pits or detached pits. The sliding CO2 block hypothesis21 is currently the only process that can account for the formation of channels and terminal pits which distinguish linear gullies from other gully morphologies, making this class of gullies exclusive to Mars. The hypothesis proposes that in spring, ice blocks detach from dune brinks. The blocks then descend dune slopes supported by a lubricating layer of CO2 gas. This gas layer is engendered by a mechanism similar to the Leidenfrost Effect24, which occurs when a liquid or solid is in thermal contact with a surface that is at a temperature far beyond its boiling or sublimation point. Upon surface contact, the substance (in this case, CO2 ice), will levitate on a cushion of gas, because the total force exerted by the gas pressure under the block exceeds its weight. This lubricating gas layer eliminates, or reduces, frictional forces so that blocks may move down even very gentle slopes of a few degrees. As the block moves it will carve out channels and deposit lateral levées, until it eventually stops to sublimate at the terminus. This ultimate sublimation explains the formation of a terminal pit. The block is proposed to rest at the base of the channel while sublimating, eroding a depression beneath it and transporting material to the side to form levées. This protracted stationary sublimation may explain why pits are commonly slightly wider than their corresponding channels, which are proposed to form by the rapid movement of blocks downslope21. Thus far, alcove, channel, levée and shallow pit morphologies have been observed to form when CO2 ice blocks were slid onto sand dunes in Utah and Arizona25,26. Further evidence consistent with this hypothesis was the detection of high albedo blocks within linear gully channels on Mars. These are most likely CO2 ice blocks “caught in the act”, of sliding through pre-existing linear gully channels10,21. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses various hypotheses regarding specific geological features on Mars, such as gully channels and the mechanisms behind their formation, including the role of CO2 ice blocks. However, it does not directly address the composition of polar ice caps on Mars, which is the focus of the claim. Therefore, the text is irrelevant to the claim about the existence and composition of Mars' polar ice caps.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Gene drives are genetic modifications that ensure a specific trait is passed on to nearly all offspring, increasing its spread in a population. [SEP] Text: Skip to Content eLife home page your research Search by keyword or author Reset form my search to Feature 10. 7554/eLife. 03401 Open access Copyright information annotations (there are currently 0 annotations on this page). Share 46,927 views 7,310 downloads 634 3401. Copy to clipboard Download BibTeX Download. RIS 10. 7554/eLife. 03401. 001 numerous advances, the field of molecular biology has often struggled to address key biological problems affecting public health and the environment. Until recently, editing the genomes of even model organisms has been difficult. Moreover, altered traits typically reduce evolutionary fitness and are consequently eliminated by natural selection. This restriction has profoundly limited our ability to alter ecosystems through molecular biology. If we could develop a general method of ensuring that engineered traits would instead be favored by natural selection, then those traits could spread to most members of wild populations over many generations. This capability would allow us to address several major world problems, including the spread of insect-borne diseases, the rise of pesticide and herbicide resistance, and the agricultural and environmental damage wrought by invasive species. Scientists have long known of naturally occurring selfish genetic elements that can increase the odds that they will be inherited. This advantage allows them to spread through populations even if they reduce the fitness of individual organisms. Many researchers have suggested that these elements might serve as the basis for ‘gene drives’ capable of spreading engineered traits through wild populations (Craig et al. , 1960; Wood et al. , 1977; Sinkins and Gould, 2006; Burt and Trivers, 2009; Alphey, 2014). was the first to propose gene drives based on site-specific ‘homing’ endonuclease genes over a decade ago (Burt, 2003). These genes bias inheritance by cutting the homologous chromosome, inducing the cell to copy them when it repairs the break. Several efforts have focused on the possibility of using gene drives targeting mosquitoes to block malaria transmission (Scott et al. , 2002; Windbichler et al. , 2007, 2008, 2011; Li et al. , 2013a; Galizi et al. , 2014). However, development has been hindered by the difficulty of engineering homing endonucleases to cut new target sequences (Chan et al. , 2013a; Thyme et al. , 2013; Takeuchi et al. , 2014). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by explaining how gene drives can spread engineered traits through populations, even if these traits may reduce the fitness of individual organisms. It states that 'these elements might serve as the basis for ‘gene drives’ capable of spreading engineered traits through wild populations', which supports the notion that gene drives ensure traits are inherited and can increase their prevalence in a population.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Biodiversity offsetting can completely reverse all environmental damage from development. [SEP] Text: Similarly, LPA3 agreed with the use of a metric in principle, but was “not convinced offsetting itself should be made mandatory”. Offsetting, as defined by Defra (2013a, b, p. 8) is expected to “observe the mitigation hierarchy”, the (dis)incentives it creates for adherence to the mitigation hierarchy is unclear. Indeed, an assessment of the biodiversity offsetting pilot schemes in England by Baker et al. (2014, p. 64) found the use of the (Defra 2013a, b) metric for biodiversity “…tended to support the application of the mitigation hierarchy. However, within the pilot programme there were some applications where biodiversity offsetting was presented as a validated route for compensation and this may have undermined the hierarchy”. 4. 1. 1. 1 Regulatory environmentWith respect to regulation and enforcement, all stakeholders regarded the state as an important agent in mediating the implementation of Biodiversity Offsetting, although they recognised that ongoing budget cuts to government programmes and local authorities presented a major barrier to implementing, regulating and enforcing Biodiversity Offsetting. LPA 1 commented: look at the planning system at the moment, look at the flaws in it. The real lack of ecologists. The biodiversity duty just not being properly considered at all within many local authorities. It’s a resource problem, it’s massive cuts within local authorities. Similarly, OB1 noted: we’ve got a local council whose budget is being stripped every single year and they own a lot of biodiversity spots that they have no money to manage, no money to do anything. These observations bring into sharp focus the resource constraints to meaningfully implementing and monitoring biodiversity offsets. Conservation practitioners are increasingly expected to deliver adequate protection of ecosystems in an era of austerity and dwindling financial resources (Comerford et al. 2010; Corson 2010; McCarthy et al. 2012; Apostolopoulou et al. 2014). Within this environment, it is assumed that non-state actors and private investors will help bridge the shortfall between government provision of public goods and that which is socially optimal (Reid 2011; Young 2015). However, often this devolution of state power is not met with a fair reallocation of resources to local authorities to support alternative service delivery mechanisms. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the limitations and constraints surrounding biodiversity offsetting. It highlights the unclear incentives related to adhering to the mitigation hierarchy and the challenges posed by resource constraints within local authorities, suggesting that biodiversity offsetting may not be able to fully compensate for environmental damage as implied by the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: It is possible that secondary and tertiary terminal pits may form by blocks that bounce at the channel terminus in the manner observed during field tests on sand dunes in Utah26. It has also been proposed that the multiple detached pits which surround many linear gully termini may be formed by smaller parts of blocks which have broken up at the terminus, scattering ice fragments into their surroundings21. However, the formation mechanism responsible for pronounced terminal pits and detached pits remains uncertain. It is not known if a stationary CO2 block can erode and deposit material to form the full range of pits identified here. Why detached pits are exclusive to a small fraction of linear gullies and why they are restricted to the lower part of the channel is also not yet clear. If detached pits were formed by broken blocks, it is conceivable that blocks would also break at locations such as sharp bends in the channel, areas of dune surface undulation and locations where channels merge. These are all regions where a block would be subjected to stress and yet detached pits are only found at channel termini. We hypothesise that if stationary sublimating CO2 blocks have the geomorphic agency to excavate and deposit material to form pits and circular levées, they must undergo a rapid sublimation process to do so. We reason therefore that blocks which reach the terminus may emit CO2 jets as they sublimate. If these jets entrain sufficient granular material27 they may then be capable of eroding detached pits when they return to the surface. Prior to this study, measurements of linear gullies has concentrated on geographical trends22 and the linear gully system as a whole21,26. Comprehending pit formation is crucial to understanding the formation mechanism responsible for this extra–terrestrial gully type. Therefore, it is important that we test whether sublimating CO2 ice blocks can form pit morphologies. MethodsObjectivesTo test the CO2 block hypothesis, in the context of pit formation, we first conducted a short survey of Martian linear gully terminal pits and detached pits on dunes in Russell, Proctor and Matara Craters. The objectives of this study were to (i) characterise the different terminal pit morphometries, (ii) investigate if there was any evidence of a link between these terminal pit morphometries and detached pits and (iii) investigate the range of block sizes which may be reactivating and widening linear gully channels seasonally. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the formation and characteristics of pits and gullies on Mars, specifically relating to CO2 ice blocks and their sublimation processes, but it does not address the claim about the composition of Mars' polar ice caps. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Gene drives are genetic modifications that ensure a specific trait is passed on to nearly all offspring, increasing its spread in a population. [SEP] Text: Attempts to build gene drives with more easily retargeted zinc-finger nucleases and TALENs suffered from instability due to the repetitive nature of the genes encoding them (Simoni et al. , 2014). The recent discovery and development of the RNA-guided Cas9 nuclease has dramatically enhanced our ability to engineer the genomes of diverse species. Originally isolated from ‘’ acquired immune systems in bacteria, Cas9 is a non-repetitive enzyme that can be directed to cut almost any DNA sequence by simply expressing a ‘guide RNA’ containing that same sequence. In little more than a year following the first demonstrations in human cells, it has enabled gene insertion, deletion, and replacement in many different species (Bassett et al. , 2013; Cho et al. , 2013; Cong et al. , 2013; DiCarlo et al. , 2013; Friedland et al. , 2013; Gratz et al. , 2013; Hu et al. , 2013; Hwang et al. , 2013; Jiang et al. , 2013a, 2013b; Jinek et al. , 2013; Li et al. , 2013b; Mali et al. , 2013c; Tan et al. , 2013; Upadhyay et al. , 2013; Wang et al. , 2013b). Building RNA-guided gene drives based on the Cas9 nuclease is a logical way to overcome the targeting and stability problems hindering gene drive development. Less obvious is the extent to which the unique properties of Cas9 are well-suited to overcoming other molecular and evolutionary challenges inherent to the construction of safe and functional gene drives. We submit that Cas9 is highly likely to enable scientists to construct efficient RNA-guided gene drives not only in mosquitoes, but in many other species. In addition to altering populations of insects to prevent them from spreading disease (Curtis, 1968), this advance would represent an entirely new approach to ecological engineering with many potential applications relevant to human health, agriculture, biodiversity, and ecological science. The first technical descriptions of endonuclease gene drives were provided by in his landmark proposal to engineer wild populations more than a decade ago (Burt, 2003). Any of the rapidly expanding number of laboratories with expertise in Cas9-mediated genome engineering could attempt to build a gene drive by substituting Cas9 for the homing endonucleases described in his proposal. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how developments in gene drive technology, particularly using Cas9 nucleases, improve the capability to engineer genomes. It suggests that constructing RNA-guided gene drives will allow for the efficient spread of particular traits within populations, as these innovations in gene editing are expected to address challenges in gene drive development, thus supporting the claim's assertion that gene drives facilitate the transmission of specific traits in offspring.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Biodiversity offsetting can completely reverse all environmental damage from development. [SEP] Text: Complex issues such as redistributive justice and sustainability often become siloed, positioned in the problem space of organisations, outside the purview of broader governance processes (Furlong and Bakker 2010). In turn, communities increasingly become exposed to powerful corporate interests, weakening their ability to resist developments (McCarthy and Prudham 2004; Igoe and Brockington 2007). Academic researchers and environmental campaigners viewed the increasing commitments of the private sector to conservation activities as an inadequate replacement for government provision of public goods. AR1 was concerned that money which is meant to be additional to enhance areas or give additional land around SSSIs [Sites of Interest] might creep into what should be the statutory duty of government to be funding. These sentiments were echoed by EC1, who was sceptical of the role of the private sector to meaningfully supplement government provision of public goods. EC1 expressed concern with: the move towards a model, sadly in the UK where our environmental services or environmental management or the caretaking role is being potentially handed over to the private sector. [Private sector actors are] only going to provide money if they get something out of it and, you know, that’s something we haven’t quite grappled with as environmentalists:… that they don’t do anything for free. However, OB1 regarded the increasing role of private sector interest in conservation as a … solution to corporate commitment on sustainable development [and] an absolute god-send for most local authorities [whose] budgets are being slashed. 4. 1. 2 Valuing biodiversityIn addition to concerns around implementation, an additional perceived barrier related to valuation of biodiversity and ecosystems (X = 305). We discerned two distinct discussions around valuation of ecosystems and biodiversity. First, economic valuation (X = 97), which considers whether biodiversity and ecosystems could, or indeed should, be monetised. Second, the calculation of biodiversity offsets (X = 208), in which environmental campaigners, academic researchers and local planning authorities highlighted several issues with the proposed method of evaluating biodiversity loss and compensation. 4. 1. 2. 1 Economic valuationThe notion of monetising and marketing biodiversity offsets was criticised by academic researchers and environmental campaigners. A key theme in the academic researchers’ critique was the limitations of using valuation as a tool for informing environmental management. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting concerns raised by academic researchers and environmental campaigners regarding the sufficiency and effectiveness of biodiversity offsetting. It presents criticisms about the limitations of monetizing biodiversity offsets and mentions that there are issues with the proposed methods for evaluating biodiversity loss and compensation. This skepticism suggests that biodiversity offsetting alone cannot completely reverse environmental damage, contrary to the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: To further test the CO2 hypothesis, in the context of pit formation, we performed experiments to examine whether sliding and hence partially buried CO2 ice blocks would form morphologies comparable to Martian linear gully primary terminal pits and detached pits. To test the cryoventing hypothesis, in the context of furrow formation, we performed a second set of experiments with two aims: (i) to study the erosion patterns resulting from the interaction between a gently placed CO2 block and granular substrate and compare these features to a pre-existing Martian furrow network classification12; (ii) to study the factors which constrain furrow pattern type and furrow density. Survey of Pits in Proctor, Russell and (HiRISE) Models (DTMs) DTEEC_003080_1325_004077 and DTEEC_007018_1255_007229 and corresponding orthophotos were employed to survey linear gully pits in respectively. The polygon tool in ArcMap 10. 4 was used to measure the area of individual terminal pits (along the levée apex), taking the diameter of this circle as the pit width. Terminal pit area was calculated by squaring the pit radius and multiplying by π. Pit depths were measured using the tool, by drawing a line across the pit centre and extending this to the surrounding dune surface. Depth was estimated as the difference in elevation between a pit floor and the surrounding dune surface on each side and averaging these values. (DTEEC_007018_1255_007229) has an estimated vertical precision of 1. 2 m28. The relatively low estimated vertical precision is attributed to a low convergence angle (or sum of emission angles) between the stereo pair used to develop the DTM, which reduces vertical precision. Horizontal accuracy of this DTM was given by post spacing, which was 1 m/pixel. (DTEEC_003080_1325_004077) has an estimated vertical precision of <0. 5 m28 and a horizontal accuracy of 1 m/pixel. Pit widths in both locations were generally much wider than 1 m and so horizontal accuracy should not significantly affect our measurements. Both sites were dark dunes and so noise in the DTMs may have affected our measurements to a small degree. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses experiments related to CO2 ice and geomorphological features on Mars but does not directly address the existence or composition of polar ice caps on Mars. Therefore, it is considered irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Gene drives are genetic modifications that ensure a specific trait is passed on to nearly all offspring, increasing its spread in a population. [SEP] Text: Indeed, the well-recognized potential for gene drives to combat vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue virtually ensures that this strategy will eventually be attempted in mosquitoes. While considerable scholarship has been devoted to the question of how gene drives might be safely utilized in mosquitoes (Scott et al. , 2002; Touré et al. , 2004; Benedict et al. , 2008; Marshall, 2009; UNEP, 2010; Reeves et al. , 2012; David et al. , 2013; Alphey, 2014), few if any studies have examined the potential ecological effects of gene drives in other species. After all, constructing a drive to spread a particular genomic alteration in a given species was simply not feasible with earlier genome editing methods. Disconcertingly, several published gene drive architectures could lead to extinction or other hazardous consequences if applied to sensitive species, demonstrating an urgent need for improved methods of controlling these elements. After consulting with experts in many fields as well as concerned environmental organizations, we are confident that the responsible development of RNA-guided gene drive technology is best served by full transparency and early engagement with the public. Here we provide brief overviews of gene drives and Cas9-mediated genome engineering, detail the mechanistic reasons that RNA-guided gene drives are likely to be effective in many species, and outline probable capabilities and limitations. We further propose novel gene drive architectures that may substantially improve our control over gene drives and their effects, discuss possible applications, and suggest guidelines for the safe development and evaluation of this promising but as yet unrealized technology. A discussion of risk governance and regulation intended specifically for policymakers is published separately (Oye et al. , 2014). Natural gene drives In nature, certain genes ‘drive’ themselves through populations by increasing the odds that they will be inherited (Burt and Trivers, 2009). Examples include endonuclease genes that copy themselves into chromosomes lacking them (Burt and Koufopanou, 2004), segregation distorters that destroy competing chromosomes during meiosis (Lyttle, 1991), transposons that insert copies of themselves elsewhere in the genome (Charlesworth and Langley, 1989), Medea elements that eliminate competing siblings who do not inherit them (Beeman et al. , 1992; Chen et al. , 2007), and heritable microbes such as Wolbachia (Werren, 1997). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by highlighting that gene drives have the potential to spread specific genetic alterations effectively. It emphasizes that certain genes can 'drive' themselves through populations by increasing the odds of their inheritance, which aligns with the concept of gene drives ensuring traits are passed on to nearly all offspring.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Biodiversity offsetting can completely reverse all environmental damage from development. [SEP] Text: AR1 suggested habitats that are “ecologically irreplaceable” should not be given an economic value since “they can’t rebuild them in any reasonable time scale”. AR1 also emphasised a more intangible imperative for protecting the environment, commenting: If we get into a complete viewpoint where everything we can put a monetary value on it and all into economic terms and not consider our moral and almost spiritual need for nature then that’s quite a depauperate way of viewing nature. think you can use those tools with caution. But you need to step outside that and recognise both the irreplaceable aspects of nature and moral, intrinsic aspects of nature you can’t value. Environmental campaigners offered a more critical perspective on this issue: It’s a really sensible tool if we’re in an ideal, fluffy bunny world where everyone is out for the best, but unfortunately that isn’t the way things are run… it’s going to become a tool that enables the speeding through of development. (EC2) Several respondents (AR1, EC1, OB1, OB2, OC3) acknowledged economic valuation of ecosystems and biodiversity is important for agenda building. Respondents agreed such exercises helped to raise awareness of the non-market benefits derived from nature. OB1 also said environmental valuation was an invaluable communication tool in their work: … using numbers to translate and communicate biodiversity to the business people has really transformed my work… it becomes so much more powerful in terms of getting them [businesses] engaged… However, all stakeholders agreed a “market” demanded tight, independent, regulation. AR1, EC1, OB2, OB3 cited the operational failure of carbon offsetting, and the proliferation of “rogue traders” offering carbon credits, as clear justification for certification of biodiversity offsets. AR1 warned that, without appropriate rules, checks and balances, could become “… a complete license to trash”. Indeed, in the context of poor governance, several people have argued would promote rent-seeking behaviour, whereby individuals use their property assets to profit from offset provision without creating “new” habitats, leading to a net loss in biodiversity (Walker et al. 2009; Bull et al. 2013). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing evidence that biodiversity offsetting has significant limitations. It mentions the operational failure of carbon offsetting and the potential for ‘rogue traders’ who offer carbon credits without actually creating new habitats. Furthermore, AR1 warns that without appropriate regulation, offsetting could lead to a 'complete license to trash' ecosystems, indicating that offsets do not guarantee the complete reversal of environmental damage.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: We have estimated an upper limit of this effect by taking 10 linear cross sections close to pit locations in both DTMs. We detrended these cross sections, averaged them and calculated the standard deviation as an estimate of noise29. Crater this value was 1. 7 m and in Proctor Crater, the value was 1. 08 m and so depths <1. 7 m were not reported in and depths less than 1. 08 m were not reported in Proctor Crater. Horizontal measurements from orthophotos at both locations may have been affected by atmospheric dust and detector noise which was at the pixel level and would affect our horizontal measurements by one pixel at most. A time-series of HiRISE images was used to determine whether there may be a link between detached pit and terminal pit formation. We propose that larger pit sizes (that indicate larger ice blocks) have a higher probability of generating detached pits. Terminal pit areas were measured as outlined above and the number of detached pits surrounding them were counted. Detached pits were identified as low albedo depressions. Negative topography was confirmed using the tool to generate topographic profile data across the feature in the corresponding DTM where possible. Smaller features that may have been artefacts of dune surroundings (e. g. shadows in ripples), were not included. HiRISE images taken at the same location (−54. 3°, 12. 9–13°) on the Russell megadune and dunes (−49. 5°, 34. 7° and −49. 5°, 34. 6°) allowed us to identify new or widened terminal pits and new detached pits. Suitable data were not available for Proctor Crater. Crater observations ranged over 4 Mars years (MY) between MY 29 and 32. The images used were ESP_012213_1255, ESP_020784_1255, ESP_029764_1255 and ESP_039153_1255 for MY 29, 30, 31 and 32 respectively. These images have emission angles of 8. 2°, 5. 1°, 3. 8° and 3. 8° respectively. Emission angle is the angle between the HiRISE camera and a normal drawn perpendicular to the surface, where 0° is known as nadir). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses methodologies and observations related to topography and geological features on Mars, without mentioning or providing any information about polar ice caps, their composition, or the presence of water and carbon dioxide.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Gene drives are genetic modifications that ensure a specific trait is passed on to nearly all offspring, increasing its spread in a population. [SEP] Text: Endonuclease gene drives Natural homing endonuclease genes exhibit drive by cutting the corresponding locus of chromosomes lacking them. This induces the cell to repair the break by copying the nuclease gene onto the damaged chromosome via homologous recombination (Figure 1A) (Burt and Koufopanou, 2004). The copying process is termed ‘homing’, while the endonuclease-containing cassette that is copied is referred to as a ‘gene drive’ or simply a ‘drive’. Because copying causes the fraction of offspring that inherit the cassette to be greater than 1/2 (Figure 1B), these genes can drive through a population even if they reduce the reproductive fitness of the individual organisms that carry them. Over many generations, this self-sustaining process can theoretically allow a gene drive to spread from a small number of individuals until it is present in all members of a population. Figure 1 Download asset Open asset The spread of endonuclease gene drives. (A) When an organism carrying an endonuclease gene drive (blue) mates with a wild-type organism (grey), the gene drive is preferentially inherited by all offspring. This can enable the drive to spread until it is present in all members of the population–even if it is mildly deleterious to the organism. (B) Endonuclease gene drives are preferentially inherited because the endonuclease cuts the homologous wild-type chromosome. When the cell repairs the break using homologous recombination, it must use the gene drive chromosome as a repair template, thereby copying the drive onto the wild-type chromosome. If the endonuclease fails to cut or the cell uses the competing non-homologous end-joining repair pathway, the drive is not copied, so efficient gene drives must reliably cut when homology-directed repair is most likely. Engineered gene drives To build an endonuclease gene drive, an endonuclease transgene must be inserted in place of a natural sequence that it can cut. If it can efficiently cut this sequence in organisms with one transgene and one natural locus, reliably induce the cell to copy the transgene, and avoid being too costly to the organism, it will spread through susceptible wild populations. Standard drives spread genomic changes and associated traits through populations. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by explaining how endonuclease gene drives work to ensure that certain traits are preferentially inherited by offspring. It states that 'the gene drive is preferentially inherited by all offspring,' which supports the assertion that gene drives facilitate the passing on of traits to almost all descendants. Furthermore, the description of the process that allows gene drives to spread through a population—'over many generations, this self-sustaining process can theoretically allow a gene drive to spread from a small number of individuals until it is present in all members of a population'—reiterates the claim by emphasizing the significant increase in likelihood of trait transmission in a population.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Biodiversity offsetting can completely reverse all environmental damage from development. [SEP] Text: EC3 went so far as to condemn the overall role of as a tool for conservation, suggesting it offers developers “entitlements” to destroy nature, whereby the availability to purchase biodiversity credits assigns newfound rights to do so. Here, metrics of ecological value support the delineation of nature by usable and unusable space (Dempsey 2013). Meanwhile, LPA respondents and AR1 raised concerns said that in their experience landowners show little interest in or demand for becoming “offset providers”—actors who earmark their land for wildlife conservation to provide offset credits to nearby developments (Ltd 2014). AR1 and LPA2 suggested landowners worked in short-term economic cycles of 3–5 years, so were reluctant to commit to permanent land use stipulated by 50–100-year agreements. They also suggested farmers a major focus group of may be averse to allocating land for non-agricultural use for cultural reasons (e. g. having a productivist mindset). This view is substantiated by the England’s National Farmers’ Union (2013) consultation response to Biodiversity Offsetting. 4. 1. 2. 2 Calculating biodiversity offsetsWe detected divergence in respondents’ attitudes towards the measurement of biodiversity credits. OB1 believed the use of the current planning system provided local authorities and businesses with “no way of really quantifying and knowing how good their work is”. OB1 also suggested the Defra metric for measuring biodiversity units would address inconsistencies within the compensation process by tightening up the mitigation hierarchy and “casting a spotlight on it”. This standpoint was shared by LPA2, whose practical experience managing pilot schemes was mostly positive. OB2 expressed similar confidence in the proposed framework, acknowledging that is “not a perfect system” but “it is certainly better than what is being delivered at the moment”. OB2 went on to rationalise the use of on the grounds that the urgency of biodiversity loss requires immediate remedy: We need to do something and we need to do it now and strive for perfection in the future. The remaining stakeholders—the environmental campaigners, academic researchers and LPA1—were more critical of the measurement procedures involved in calculating biodiversity units, viewing them as shortsighted and highlighting systemic flaws in the design and implementation of the proposed (Defra 2013b) metric for in England. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting significant concerns regarding biodiversity offsetting as a tool for conservation. It points out that stakeholders believe this system offers developers entitlements to destroy nature rather than effectively reversing environmental damage. For instance, quote 'EC3 went so far as to condemn the overall role of [biodiversity offsetting] as a tool for conservation' suggests skepticism toward the efficacy of offsets. Additionally, respondents expressed that landowners show little interest in becoming 'offset providers,' which further implies that the system does not provide reliable solutions to environmental damage.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: Orthorectification corrects for distortions that may occur in off-nadir images where the spacecraft roll angle causes pixel foreshortening in the cross-track direction30. The images we used were not orthorectified, and so disparities may occur when comparing images with different observation geometry. To minimise this effect, images close to nadir were chosen and care was taken to select images with less than a 5° difference in emission angle. Because such differences are small, we can neglect parallax distortions31. A correction was made for any minor deviations however by dividing x-direction measurements by the cosine of the emission angle30. In each case the distortions are within tens of centimetres and thus fall within errorbars for our measurements. Experimental SetupIn order to investigate the CO2 block hypothesis for pit formation21 and the cryoventing hypothesis for furrow formation11 we performed laboratory experiments. Initial pilot work, under ambient terrestrial conditions, revealed that water in the atmosphere had a significant effect as it formed frost on the surface of the block and on the bed. This affects the heat budget, the permeability of the bed and the mobility of the grains and must be avoided. Additionally, this frost would later melt and erase the surface microtopography. Therefore, we performed our experiments in a low humidity chamber. The chamber was erected on a level surface in a constant temperature (ΔT ≈ 3 K) laboratory. A plastic container (460 × 675 × 400 mm) was filled with dehumidifying silica gel beads. A smaller plastic container (300 × 520 × 370 mm) was placed inside, forming a silica gel bead moat which surrounded the interior container. A perspex lid was fitted on top of the chamber and vacuum bagging gum sealant tape was added at the interface between the container and lid to ensure the chamber was air-tight. A sealed trap door was constructed within the perspex lid in order to minimise exposure to atmospheric water vapour when placing blocks inside. Prior to each experimental run, three CO2 ice blocks were placed upon the silica bead moat and were given time to sublimate. These generated dense CO2 gas which flushed out the original gaseous content, thus removing any water vapour. This reduced the relative humidity sufficiently so that there was no noticeable frost formation during the experiments on the ~−80 °C CO2 ice blocks. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses technical details related to laboratory experiments and the setup for CO2 ice blocks, without mentioning Mars, its polar ice caps, or their composition of water and carbon dioxide.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Gene drives are genetic modifications that ensure a specific trait is passed on to nearly all offspring, increasing its spread in a population. [SEP] Text: Burt‘s original study proposed using them to drive the spread of other transgenes or to disrupt existing genes (Figure 2A,B) (Burt, 2003). The gene drive copying step can take place immediately upon fertilization (Figure 2C) or occur only in germline cells that are immediate precursors to sperm or eggs, leaving most of the organism‘s somatic cells with only one copy of the drive (Figure 2D). Figure 2 Download asset Open asset Consequences and timing of gene drive replication. (A) Gene drives can carry other genes with them as cargo. For example, a transgene that blocks malaria transmission could be driven through wild mosquito populations. There is no selection to maintain the function of a cargo gene. (B) Gene drives can disrupt or replace other genes. For example, a drive might replace a mosquito gene important for malaria transmission. Because it cannot spread without disrupting the target gene, this strategy is evolutionarily stable. (C) If homing occurs in the zygote or early embryo, all organisms that carry the drive will be homozygous in all of their tissues. (D) If homing occurs in the late germline cells that contribute to sperm or eggs, the offspring will remain heterozygous in most tissues and avoid the consequences of drive-induced disruptions. Suppression drives reduce the size of the targeted population. outlined an elegant strategy involving the use of gene drives to disrupt genes that cause infertility or lethality only when both copies are lost (Burt, 2003). These ‘genetic load’ drives would spread rapidly through minimally impaired heterozygotes when rare, and eventually cause the population to crash or even become extinct due to the accumulated load of recessive mutations. A second approach would mimic naturally occurring ‘meiotic’ or ‘gametic’ drives that bias the sex ratio (Craig et al. , 1960; Hickey and Craig, 1966; Hamilton, 1967; Newton et al. , 1976; Wood and Newton, 1991). In this model, the Y chromosome (or its equivalent in other sex-determination systems) would encode an endonuclease that cuts and destroys the X chromosome during male meiosis, thereby ensuring that most viable sperm contain a Y chromosome (Newton et al. , 1976; Wood and Newton, 1991; Windbichler et al. , 2007, 2008; Galizi et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by explaining the mechanism and implications of gene drives in genetic modification. It discusses how gene drives are designed to ensure that traits, such as those that block malaria transmission, are spread through a population, highlighting their ability to increase the prevalence of specific traits among offspring and the population. The description of gene drive dynamics, including the potential to disrupt or introduce new genes, aligns with the idea of ensuring that a genetic modification is inherited by most or all descendants, thus supporting the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Biodiversity offsetting can completely reverse all environmental damage from development. [SEP] Text: AR2 distinguished between as “a generic process” and as proposed by the government green paper (Defra 2013b). They were confident that “as a generic process” could certainly afford species greater protection, but despaired of the method proposed in the green paper: à la green paper is probably fundamentally flawed in any respect and may only help the planners. [It is] a dog’s breakfast of ill-defined stuff… a bit woolly and not very well put together and really talks about individual species and not ecological processes. Similarly, LPA1 regarded the proposed habitat metric as “too simplistic and inadequate for what it should do”. AR3 made several observations on the weaknesses of the Defra metric. First they proposed a shift away from an “all-singing, all-dancing metric that can do all different types of habitats” and restricting it to certain habitat types where it has been shown to work. Second, they highlighted “baselines and counterfactuals” as a blind-spot within the existing metric and recommended greater recognition of “background trends, a baseline, and counterfactuals”, to demonstrate “proactive habitat creation”. Lastly, they criticised the lack of empirical evidence used to determine multipliers for compensating ecological value between a development site and offset site which they perceived to be “plucked out of the air”. Referring to the calculation of biodiversity units attained under the Defra metric, AR1 noted: … if people start thinking that this is a highly developed science then there is a risk… these numbers are broad representatives to try to do better than we do at the moment, but compared to some other schemes they are quite laughable in their simplicity. Overall, local planning authorities, academic researchers and environmental campaigners felt that according to the green paper would fail to achieve either social or ecological compensation, by overlooking issues of proximity, the irreplaceability of nature, ecosystem services, longevity and discounting in ecological compensation. 4. 2 Social compensationAnalysis of stakeholder responses highlighted social compensation as an equally significant component of to ecological compensation, denoted by the strong recurrence of two main themes in the responses: stakeholder inclusion (X = 278) and social justice and equity (X = 315). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing significant critiques of the biodiversity offsetting methods proposed in the government green paper. It notes flaws in the approach, such as being overly simplistic and inadequate, highlighting that these measures fail to achieve proper ecological compensation. For instance, it mentions that stakeholders feel the proposed method overlooks important ecological concepts like proximity, irreplaceability of nature, and the complexities of ecosystem services, thus undermining the idea that biodiversity offsetting can completely reverse environmental damage.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: Though grain sizes at linear gully and furrow locations on Mars have not been constrained, we used the preliminary data collected by the in the Bagnold dune setting on Mars to optimise the range of grain sizes employed in our experiments. We estimated a scale factor of 0. 61 (see Supplementary Material, Experimental Scaling) by which to reduce grain size to compensate for the disparity in gravity between Mars and Earth. Grain sizes detected in the Bagnold dunes ranged from fine to coarse sand32, with many passing through a <150 μm sieve. The average grain size detected in the Bagnold dunes was between 200 and 300 μm 32. When scaled, these ranges fall between <90 μm and 122–183 μm, respectively. Therefore, of four grain diameter ranges (4–45 μm, 45–90 μm, 75–150 μm and 160–212 μm) were used for sixteen separate experimental runs. Experimental ProtocolIn the low humidity environment, pure CO2 ice blocks were slid onto beds of glass spheres of each grain size range. We define “sliding” as a gentle motion nudging the block onto the bed surface — sliding is a motion which has enough force to slightly disrupt the granular surface. Sublimation then transports the grains underneath and near the edge of the block. We used Structure from Motion33 (SfM) to build Models (DEMs) of the resultant morphologies from each experiment. We then compared these morphologies and morphometries with Martian terminal and detached pits measured using HiRISE images and DTMs. A second set of experiments was designed to study the formation of furrows. The blocks were placed as gently as possible on a flat granular bed in order to generate CO2 gas flow beneath the block. The aim was to investigate whether such a layer of gas at the interface between CO2 ice and a granular substrate could form furrow networks on an initially smooth and level bed. SfM was again employed to build high resolution DEMs of the features produced and the resulting furrow morphologies were compared with the well-characterised furrow networks on Martian dunes11,12. Each granular sample was dried and sieved to disaggregate material prior to each experiment. The sample was then poured into the inner container and levelled using a spirit level. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim about Mars' polar ice caps. Instead, it discusses grain sizes and experimental setups related to CO2 ice and its interaction with granular materials on Mars. Thus, it is irrelevant to the claim regarding the composition of Mars' polar ice caps.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Gene drives are genetic modifications that ensure a specific trait is passed on to nearly all offspring, increasing its spread in a population. [SEP] Text: The most commonly used Cas9 ortholog has a PAM with only two required bases (NGG) and therefore can cut protospacers found approximately every 8 base pairs (Jinek et al. , 2012). Remarkably, it is possible to direct Cas9 to cut a specific protospacer in the genome using only a single guide RNA (sgRNA) less than 100 base pairs in length (Jinek et al. , 2012). This guide RNA must begin with a 17-20 base pair ‘spacer’ sequence identical to the targeted protospacer sequence in the genome (Fu et al. , 2014). The process of editing a target gene involves choosing protospacers within the gene, building one or more guide RNAs with matching spacers, and delivering Cas9, guide RNAs, and an edited repair template lacking those protospacers into the cell (Figure 3). Figure 3 Download asset Open asset RNA-guided genome editing via Cas9. The Cas9 nuclease protein and guide RNA must first be delivered into the target cell. This is often accomplished by transfecting DNA expression plasmids, but delivering RNA is also effective. The guide RNA directs Cas9 to bind target DNA ‘protospacer’ sequences that match the ‘spacer’ sequence within the guide RNA. Protospacers must be flanked by an appropriate protospacer-adjacent motif (PAM), which is NGG for the most commonly used Cas9 protein (Jinek et al. , 2012). If the spacer and protospacer are identical or have only a few mismatches at the 5′ end of the spacer, Cas9 will cut both strands of DNA, creating a blunt-ended double-strand break. If supplied with a repair template containing the desired changes and homology to the sequences on either side of the break, the cell may use homologous recombination to repair the break by incorporating the repair template into the chromosome. Otherwise, the break will be repaired by non-homologous end-joining, resulting in gene disruption. Cas9 cutting is efficient enough to alter both chromosomes at the same time and/or to edit multiple genes at once (Li et al. , 2013; Wang et al. , 2013a). If the cell being edited is a germline cell that gives rise to eggs or sperm, the changes can be inherited by future generations. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by explaining that if the cell being edited is a germline cell, which can produce eggs or sperm, the changes made to the genome can be inherited by future generations. This directly supports the idea of gene drives increasing the spread of a specific genetic modification in a population.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Biodiversity offsetting can completely reverse all environmental damage from development. [SEP] Text: Stakeholder inclusion concerned the level of involvement of different conservation stakeholders in the design, development and delivery of Biodiversity Offsetting, how this was shaped by the prevailing expert/non-expert conservation paradigm, and the role of affected communities in defining the conditions of an offset and involvement in its implementation. Social justice and equity represented issues of community-related compensation associated with Biodiversity Offsetting: procedural and consequential justice (X = 137); access to nature (X = 35); inter-generational equity (X = 18); intra-generational equity (X = 17); and property rights (X = 14), and how these were treated within the proposed Defra metric. 4. 2. 1 Stakeholder inclusionRespondents identified stakeholder participation as an integral component to the successful design and implementation of any conservation intervention. 1 emphasised the propensity of to build cohesive relationships between companies and wildlife organisations, by involving conservation groups in implementing biodiversity strategies. Yet environmental campaigners felt the alliance of businesses and wildlife organisations within the design and implementation of was being achieved at the expense of marginalising those local people most affected by development and biodiversity loss: my biggest concern throughout this whole process is people haven’t been consulted, civil society, has knew nothing about it… communities went to those NGOs expecting them to fight to protect local green space, only to then find out they were part of it and they are on their own. (EC2) Environmental campaigner 1 argued “communities are often the experts of the landscape” and hold rich information regarding the management needs of their local environment, though felt this was being ignored by large wildlife organisations: I’m always told by charities “oh people don’t care”. I think that’s rubbish, people do care and that’s why there is always a campaign kicking off when somebody wants to cut down a tree. It’s just they are not given a chance to express that other than when their landscape is threatened. So get them involved at the decision-making stage. Get them involved way before the decision making stage. Although academic researchers acknowledged the importance of wider stakeholder participation, they highlighted significant barriers to social inclusion within the design and implementation of Biodiversity Offsetting. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting that stakeholder inclusion and local community involvement are crucial for the effectiveness of Biodiversity Offsetting. It suggests that communities, who are often the most affected by environmental changes, feel marginalized and excluded from decision-making processes. For instance, an environmental campaigner stated that local people were not consulted and expected NGOs to protect their green spaces, only to find out these organizations were aligned with businesses instead. This indicates that Biodiversity Offsetting may not fully address environmental damage if local expertise and community concerns are overlooked, thus undermining the claim that it can completely reverse environmental damage.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: A time-lapse camera was positioned inside the chamber to record sublimation rate. A digital hygrometer placed on top of the bed indicated depression of relative humidity in real-time. Once relative humidity decreased sufficiently, the trap door was opened and a CO2 ice block of mass <1 kg (Table 1) was either placed or slid onto the bed. The chamber was immediately sealed and the block in each case was allowed to sublimate and interact with the granular substrate. This sublimation process lasted ~7–11 hours for each block depending on its mass and whether it burrowed. Videos of the initial sublimation dynamics in each case were recorded with an iPhone 6S 12 megapixel camera from outside the chamber, in order to avoid accumulation of grains on the lens which would hamper video quality. Table 1 Laboratory experiment controlled and measured parameters:Full size table Model DevelopmentAll features resulting from CO2 sublimation were modelled in three dimensions by SfM33 using Agisoft Photoscan. SfM is a technique for reconstructing three dimensional structures from two dimensional image sequences. is commercially available software which can photogrammetrically process digital images to create 3D spatial data. Each feature produced was imaged at many overlapping positions. In order to establish scale in the DEMs, coded markers were placed within the scene. finds the exact centre of coded markers enabling the production of highly accurate DEMs and the accurate measurement of features in the scene. Agisoft recommend that three or more scale bars are optimal. Therefore, a local coordinate system composed of three coded markers at known distances apart from one another, was used for scale definition34 to develop our 3D models. This local coordinate system was composed of three black and white circular 12-bit coded markers which were printed on three 6. 8 × 8 cm sheets of paper. The centres of these markers were positioned on a flat wooden triangle (of 75 cm2 area) and the markers themselves were laminated with a thin layer of plastic34. The (x, y, z) coordinates of the marker centres were carefully measured with an Engineer’s Scale prior to placement in the scene34 and these were later entered in to develop scale bars for reference within the models. These coordinates (in metres) were: (0, 0, 0), (0. 064, 0. 115, 0) and (0. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provided does not address the claim about Mars having polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. Instead, it details an experimental setup involving CO2 sublimation and the method of capturing data, which is irrelevant to the polar ice caps on Mars.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Gene drives are genetic modifications that ensure a specific trait is passed on to nearly all offspring, increasing its spread in a population. [SEP] Text: Cas9 is efficient enough to cut and edit multiple genes in a single experiment (Li et al. , 2013c; Wang et al. , 2013a). The enzyme is active in a wide variety of organisms and is also quite specific, cutting only protospacers that are nearly identical to the spacer sequence of the guide RNA (Hsu et al. , 2013; Mali et al. , 2013a; Pattanayak et al. , 2013). Moreover, methods that allow Cas9 to bind but not cut enable the expression of target genes to be regulated by selectively recruiting regulatory proteins attached to Cas9 or the guide RNA (Gilbert et al. , 2013; Mali et al. , 2013a). All of these applications were developed within the last two years. Because RNA-guided genome editing relies on exactly the same copying mechanism as endonuclease gene drives, it is reasonable to ask whether it might be possible to build gene drives based on Cas9. In principle, RNA-guided gene drives might be capable of spreading almost any genomic alteration that can be generated using Cas9 through sexually reproducing populations. Will RNA-guided gene drives enable us to edit the genomes of wild populations? Although we cannot be certain until we try, current evidence suggests that RNA-guided gene drives will function in some and possibly most sexually reproducing species. Learning how to insert a drive into the germline and optimize its function in each new species will likely require months to years depending on generation length, with subsequent drives in the same species taking less time. Because inserting the drive into the germline with Cas9 involves the same molecular copying process as the drive itself will utilize, successful insertion may produce a working if not particularly efficient RNA-guided gene drive. But if population-level engineering is to become a reality, all molecular factors relevant to homing – cutting, specificity, copying, and evolutionary robustness – must be considered. Below, we provide a detailed technical analysis of the extent to which Cas9 can address each of these challenges. Capabilities, limitations, control strategies, and possible applications are discussed in subsequent sections. first requirement for every endonuclease gene drive is to cut the target sequence. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing RNA-guided gene drives based on Cas9, which are capable of spreading genomic alterations through sexually reproducing populations. It indicates that successful insertion of a drive into the germline can lead to a working gene drive, which aligns with the claim that gene drives ensure the passage of a specific trait in offspring.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Biodiversity offsetting can completely reverse all environmental damage from development. [SEP] Text: They asserted that councils lacked the financial resources to facilitate costly consultation processes (stakeholder forums and referendums) and were instead forced to operate within a consequentialist mindset: preoccupied by policy outcomes, not processes. Academic researchers emphasised a commensurate dearth of experience and knowledge within local planning to meaningfully include civil society within the formal apparatus of government policy-making. Instead, AR2 noted, power dynamics within government policy-making resulted in powerful individuals monopolising the issue-attention cycle of local authorities, eclipsing the needs of other stakeholders. However, LPA1 disputed the importance of wider stakeholder participation, on the grounds that affected communities “don’t have any ecological expertise”. The limited extent to which affected stakeholders within projects inform their design, implementation, and evaluation is likely to have a major implications for social compensation. Indeed, meaningful stakeholder engagement in conservation interventions can help to identify and address conflicts between different interest groups by finding overlap between outcomes (Redpath et al. 2013; Reed 2008). 4. 2. 2 Social equity and justiceSeveral respondents raised concerns around the treatment of social equity and justice within the current apparatus of Biodiversity Offsetting. The majority of stakeholders agreed there was a poor articulation of equity issues within the existing guidelines in England. AR2 emphasised that achieving no net loss in ecological value did not necessarily infer no net loss in distributive justice: So you’ve got the habitat and, there is no net loss [in ecological value], but the benefits are lost to those individual people, that’s an equity issue, a social-justice issue the green paper fails to deal with. LPA2 felt the omission of equity concerns from the formal process would impose “cultural debts” on current and future generations, in the form of a loss in access to environmental amenities which possess significant cultural, educational and historical value to local people. Within the context of social compensation, EC1 emphasised the importance of establishing free prior informed consent with communities in which development was occurring, suggesting that if this criterion is not satisfied: We need to be humble enough to admit that that is not an offset; it’s not even a compensation. EC2 agreed that failure to consult those affected by undermined the agency of affected communities: It’s the responsibility of the democratic structure that we are living in. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the limitations of biodiversity offsetting in fully addressing environmental damage and equity issues. It highlights that achieving no net loss in ecological value does not equate to no net loss in social or distributive justice, indicating that while ecological benefits may be maintained, the losses to individuals and communities are not addressed, hence biodiversity offsetting cannot completely reverse all environmental damage.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: 131, 0, 0) and these have accuracy <1 mm. The scale was in a constant location relative to the experimental chamber in each case, the centre of the nearest target on the scale was 15 cm from the chamber. This was close enough so that it could be seen in multiple overlapping images. This served as a reference for scale definition and also helped the processing tool to align images accurately. Constancy was assured by the remote nature of the laboratory — external vibrations were minimised. Care was taken when moving around the region of interest not to cause vibrational disturbances. In order to ensure a vertical orientation of the z-plane, the local coordinate system was placed flat on the laboratory bench during each experiment. The planar arrangement of the coded markers was confirmed using a spirit level to ensure the bench was level and the laminate nature of the markers ensured they did not bend. The images were captured at a maximum distance of ~1 m from the bed surface and minimum distance of ~0. 05 m at a variety of angles with respect to the image subject in each case. Camera positions were not recorded, as can compute accurate estimates. The focal length on the camera and aperture were fixed at 4. 15 mm and f2. 2 respectively and otherwise, the camera was not calibrated. Between 41 and 100 images were captured for each experiment, depending on whether fine detail such as furrow patterns were to be captured, or whether primary pit dimensions alone would be measured. The images were then aligned and referenced in Agisoft Photoscan, to build a point cloud, mesh and generate a DEM and corresponding orthophoto of each feature (resolutions in Table 1). The dimensions of each pit were then measured in ArcMap 10. 4, using the DEM and orthophoto. Differencing before and after DEMs in order to estimate pit depth was not possible due to the high albedo of the initial flat bed. We approximated the initial level surface by taking an average of 5 linear cross sections of the flat bed surrounding (but farthest from) the pit in ArcMap 10. 4. In each case brighter regions where distortions were expected were avoided when taking these transects. A line was interpolated across the primary pit to these locations and the difference in height between the original bed surface and the depression formed by the CO2 ice block was determined. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it does not provide any information regarding Mars or its polar ice caps. Instead, it focuses on experimental procedures and imaging techniques without mentioning Mars, ice caps, or the composition of ice caps on planetary bodies.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Gene drives are genetic modifications that ensure a specific trait is passed on to nearly all offspring, increasing its spread in a population. [SEP] Text: But if half a dozen or even a dozen design-build-test cycles are sufficient to produce moderately efficient gene drives, many molecular biology laboratories around the world will soon be capable of engineering wild populations. Box 1 Could gene drives alter human populations? Not unless we wait for many centuries. Even in a hypothetical future in which human germline editing was considered safe and ethical, a driven alteration would be only four times as abundant as a non-driven alteration a full century after the birth of an edited human. This assumes future generations would not elect to remove the drive. Whole-genome sequencing - a technology that is available in many modern hospitals and is widely expected to be ubiquitous in the near future - is quite capable of detecting the presence of any gene drive if we decide to look. Gene drive limitations Given their potentially widespread availability, it will be essential to develop a comprehensive understanding of the fundamental limitations of genetic drive systems. First and most important, gene drives require many generations to spread through populations. Once transgenic organisms bearing the gene drive are constructed in the laboratory, they must be released into the wild to mate with wild-type individuals in order to begin the process of spreading the drive through the wild population. The total time required to spread to all members depends on the number of drive-carrying individuals that are released, the generation time of the organism, the efficiency of homing, the impact of the drive on individual fitness, and the dynamics of mating and gene flow in the population, but in general it will take several dozen generations (Burt, 2003; Huang et al. , 2007; Deredec et al. , 2008; Marshall, 2009; Yahara et al. , 2009; Deredec et al. , 2011). Thus, drives will spread very quickly in fast-reproducing species but only slowly in long-lived organisms. Second, gene drives cannot affect species that exclusively practice asexual reproduction through clonal division or self-fertilization. This category includes all viruses and bacteria as well as most unicellular organisms. Highly efficient standard drives might be able to slowly spread through populations that employ a mix of sexual and asexual reproduction, such as certain plants, but drives intended to suppress the population would presumably force target organisms to reproduce asexually in order to avoid suppression. Third, drive-mediated genome alterations are not permanent on an evolutionary timescale. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by explaining that gene drives, once released, have to spread through a population over several generations, indicating that they ensure a specific trait is passed on. It states, 'gene drives require many generations to spread through populations' and mentions that 'drives will spread very quickly in fast-reproducing species,' which aligns with the claim that gene drives facilitate the increase of a specific trait in a population.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Biodiversity offsetting can completely reverse all environmental damage from development. [SEP] Text: If things are going to be changed in order to disable the rights of people in the community to have a say over what happens with their landscape, then that’s a cut in democracy as far as I’m concerned. Notably, EC1 suggested that power dynamics would govern the degree of social compensation resulting from and concluded that a large landowner would invariably have more influence over the planning process than the “people that have the council housing on the outskirts”. AR2 also suggested that poorer communities were more likely to accept remuneration or buy-offs than perhaps richer communities which would have the luxury of saying no. Similarly, AR3 expressed strong support for social compensation of affected communities within the framework of and the mitigation hierarchy, highlighting the importance of access to nature in England compared with other nations, commenting: We are a small island which is heavily developed with lots and lots of people living very close to each other. I think access to nature is a huge part of the value of the remaining biodiversity. So, I would say, actually yes, it is crucial that incorporates considerations of affected communities and access to nature for those affected communities. AR3 also noted the omission of social compensation within the Defra metric and suggested its introduction via measurement of ecosystem service provision in the delivery of an offset, concluding that “utility value and access to nature or something like that could be made part of the Defra process without too much difficulty”. AR3 went on to outline how a more holistic approach to compensation might deliver co-benefits for local communities as well as safeguarding natural habitats from development. The social-ecological compensation attached would make it prohibitively expensive to offset biodiversity impact retrospectively, driving “… the developers to look at more minimisation or avoidance measures—which is kind of the point”. EC3 cited the case of Germany’s infrastructure planning law whereby if you “destroy rights of way, you have to re-establish them”, suggesting this as a useful requirement for ensuring commensurate access to nature between a development site and offset site. Despite recognising the distinct importance of public access to nature within the UK, academic researchers and offset brokers highlighted a potential conflict between, on the one hand providing a prosperous environment for biodiversity and ecosystems to thrive, and on the other providing a suitable environment for access to green space. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the complexities involved in biodiversity offsetting and social compensation. It suggests that simply offsetting does not account for the 'utility value and access to nature' for affected communities, emphasizing that a more holistic approach is necessary for true environmental benefits. The mention that biodiversity impacts cannot be easily offset and that social and ecological considerations often conflict implies that biodiversity offsetting is insufficient to reverse all environmental damage.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: An average and standard deviation of these values were taken in each case and standard deviations fall within the uncertainty margins outlined in. Levées were measured in a similar manner by taking average values of the difference between the average flat surface and levée height. Maximum and minimum levée height were recorded in each case. The area of furrows produced on each bed surface was recorded using polygonal mapping in ArcMap 10. 4. The area of the flat pit floor in each case was determined by zooming in to optimal pixel resolution on the orthophoto overlain above the DEM and using the free-hand tool to mark the line where the inner slope of levées ended and the flat pit floor began. The pit floor is defined as the reasonably flat area directly below where the incident block was for which the perimeter is identified as the line between where the inner levée slope ended at 1 pixel resolution. The area of the space between furrow networks was determined by zooming in to optimal pixel resolution and mapping the outer edge of each furrow. This total area was differenced from the total pit floor area to get the area covered by furrow networks. The area covered by furrows was then expressed as a percentage of the total pit floor area. A complete discussion of the DEM uncertainties presented in this paper is available in Supplementary Material. Data AvailabilityThe datasets generated and analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on request. Results and Discussionand Levée Formation via CO2 SublimationPits, which are visually comparable to Martian linear gully primary terminal pits, were observed to form via both the (i) stationary and (ii) sliding interaction between sublimating CO2 ice and substrate of all grain sizes. The primary terminal pits which punctuate linear gully channels on Mars are characterised by depressions in the substrate encircled by positive relief levées. The pits observed in our laboratory experiments were negative relief features surrounded by positive relief levées which formed primarily by excavation of material via sublimation. Pits were deepest for finer grain sizes (Table 1). In the cases where material was not transported on top of the block, the resulting pits adopted the shape of the block that formed them (Fig. 3a,d). In our experiments, blocks were rectangular. In other cases, the block burrowed into the bed and superposed material sunk as the block moved downward. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim about Mars having polar ice caps made of water and carbon dioxide. Instead, it focuses on the formation mechanisms of pits in a laboratory context, including details about CO2 sublimation and measurements in experiments. There is no mention of polar ice caps or their compositions.