Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain fungi can decompose organic matter, contributing to nutrient cycling. [SEP] Text: Lower case letters in B indicate significant differences of means between seasonsFull size imageManagement and season affected some of the leaf litter nutrient concentrations, whereby no interaction of the two factors was observed. The concentrations of P and Ca were 30% and 4%, respectively, greater in leaf litter of organically managed farms than in leaf litter of conventional farms (p < 0. 05; Table 3). Contrarily, Mg concentration of leaf litter from conventional management was 10% higher than from organic management (p < 0. 01). During the rainy season, C and N concentrations of leaf litter were 2% and 15%, respectively, higher than during the dry season. In contrast, K concentration of leaf litter in the dry season was 38% greater than in the rainy season. Table 3 Nutrient concentrations of leaf litter collected in two villages each under conventional and organic management averaged per management across seasons and averaged per season across managements for cocoa agroforests in Suhum Municipality, of GhanaFull size tableNo statistical differences of annual nutrient stocks in litterfall fractions were observed between organic and conventional management, except for K stocks in leaf litter, N, Ca, and Mg stocks in reproductive parts litter, and Ca stocks in total litterfall (Table 4). The annual quantity of K in leaf litter of farms under conventional management was 21% lower than of farms under organic management (p = 0. 03). Likewise, annual N, Ca, and Mg quantity in reproductive parts litter of farms under conventional management were 36%, 43%, and 38%, respectively, lower (p < 0. 05) than for their organic counterparts. quantity in total litterfall of organically managed farms was 13% higher (p < 0. 05) than those in conventionally managed ones. Leaf litter contributed 71% of N, 65% of P, 61% of K, 82% of Ca, and 85% of Mg to annual nutrient stocks of total litterfall. and nutrient stocks in cocoa beans and cocoa pod husk were not significantly affected by management type. and P stocks in cocoa beans were 2 and 3-fold greater than in cocoa pod husks (Table 4), the annual K and Ca stocks in cocoa pod husk were four and nine-fold, respectively, greater than those in cocoa beans. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text describes a study on nutrient concentrations in leaf litter from different management practices but does not make any mention of fungi, their role in decomposition, or nutrient cycling. Thus, the text is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Language acquisition in children follows predictable stages. [SEP] Text: %A Evanson, Linnea %A Lakretz, Yair %A King, Jean Rémi %Y Rogers, Anna %Y Boyd-Graber, Jordan %Y Okazaki, Naoaki %S Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL 2023 %D 2023 %8 July %I Association for %C Toronto, Canada %F evanson-etal-2023-language %X During language acquisition, children follow a typical sequence of learning stages, whereby they first learn to categorize phonemes before they develop their lexicon and eventually master increasingly complex syntactic structures. However, the computational principles that lead to this learning trajectory remain largely unknown. To investigate this, we here compare the learning trajectories of deep language models to those of human children. Specifically, we test whether, during its training, GPT-2 exhibits stages of language acquisition comparable to those observed in children aged between 18 months and 6 years. For this, we train 48 GPT-2 models from scratch and evaluate their syntactic and semantic abilities at each training step, using 96 probes curated from the BLiMP, Zorro and BIG-Bench benchmarks. We then compare these evaluations with the behavior of 54 children during language production. Our analyses reveal three main findings. First, similarly to children, the language models tend to learn linguistic skills in a systematic order. Second, this learning scheme is parallel: the language tasks that are learned last improve from the very first training steps. Third, some – but not all – learning stages are shared between children and these language models. Overall, these results shed new light on the principles of language acquisition, and highlight important divergences in how humans and modern algorithms learn to process natural language. %R 10. 18653/v1/2023. findings-acl. 773 %U %U %P 12205-12218 Download as to ClipboardMarkdown (Informal)[Language acquisition: do children and language models follow similar learning stages? ]( (Evanson et al. , Findings 2023)Language acquisition: do children and language models follow similar learning stages? (Evanson et al. , Findings 2023)and Jean Rémi King. 2023. Language acquisition: do children and language models follow similar learning stages? . of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL 2023, pages 12205–12218, Toronto, Canada. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by stating that during language acquisition, children follow a typical sequence of learning stages. It specifically mentions that children first learn to categorize phonemes, before developing their lexicon, and then mastering complex syntactic structures, indicating a predictable progression in language acquisition.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Glaciers can grow back completely within a few years after melting. [SEP] Text: Preprints AbstractDiscussion © Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under the Attribution 4. 0 License. © Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under the Attribution 4. 0 License. Preprints AbstractDiscussionMetrics 18 Jun 2024 | 18 Jun 2024 of the Dolomites: last 40 years of melting and Renato R. Colucci Abstract. glaciers located below the regional equilibrium line altitude are experiencing considerable ice losses and are expected to fragment into smaller glacial bodies and eventually disappear. Monitoring such glaciers through remote sensing is often challenging because of the incompatibility between their size and the spatial resolution of satellites. Dolomites (S-E Alps) are a region clearly illustrating such challenges and where no long-term glacier mass balance data are available. This renowned Alpine sector hosted tens of glaciers up until a few decades ago, with now only twelve remaining. This study presents a multi-decadal (1980s–2023) estimation of surface elevation change and geodetic mass balance of the current mountain glaciers present in the area. Calculations are based on geodetic data: high resolution and accuracy is obtained with unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) Structure from Motion (SfM) and airborne and Ranging (LiDAR), from 2010 to 2023. SfM on historical aerial imagery is used for previous decades. We found an average cumulative surface elevation change of -28. 7 m from 1980s to 2023, 33 % of which between 2010–2023. The average mass balance rate for the whole period is -0. 64 ± 0. 05 m w. e. yr-1, varies significantly between sites, and is negative with a smaller amplitude than the Alpine reference glaciers mass balance. Regionally, 66 % of the entire volume loss is related to the alone. Mass losses are accompanied by areal reductions evidencing that the Dolomites are rapidly losing their glaciers. This study aims to address the existing lack of multi-decadal data for the Dolomites by providing a quantitative account of the current state of these small glacial bodies. How to cite. Securo, A. , Del Gobbo, C. , Baccolo, G. , Barbante, C. , Citterio, M. , De Blasi, F. , Marcer, M. , Valt, M. , and Colucci, R. R. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that glaciers are experiencing considerable ice losses and are expected to fragment and eventually disappear. This is supported by the statement that the average mass balance rate is negative and that the Dolomites are rapidly losing their glaciers, which implies that they are not expected to regrow completely within a few years after melting.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain fungi can decompose organic matter, contributing to nutrient cycling. [SEP] Text: 2015) and cocoa agroforest in Cote d´Ivoire (Yao et al. 2021). This subsequently leads to high accumulation of organic matter on the soil surface, which increases C sequestration in the soil of cocoa agroforests (Gama-Rodrigues et al. 2010). concentrations of leaf litter in the rainy season compared with those of the dry season confirms findings of Teklay (2004). During the rainy season thunderstorms mechanically force young N rich leaves to fall, resulting in litterfall with high N content (Paudel et al. 2015) compared with more senescent leaves shed during dry season (Teklay 2004). Additionally, higher N availability of soils during the rainy season could have increased N uptake by trees (Teklay 2004). Potassium concentrations in litterfall were lower during the rainy season compared with the dry season. On one hand, K is an important osmotic agent, accumulated by plants in reaction to drought. On the other hand, growth rates of leaves are reduced during dry periods, generally leading to an increase in mineral leaf components due to concentration effects. Moreover, because K is not bound to organic compounds, it might have (partly) leached from leaves in litter traps during rainfall events (Wood et al. 2005), leading to an underestimation of K concentration in leaf litter. Additionally, the dry season is characterised by high amounts of dust deposition on the plant leaves, which has been reported to have high K concentrations (Stoorvogel et al. 1997; Dawoe et al. 2018). Shade tree composition influences litterfall quantity and quality (Triadiati et al. 2011). But despite the diversity in the species composition of shade trees between the two managements there was no difference between annual nutrient stocks. There were no N-fixing shade tree species in the investigated farms, which is is typical for the study area (Asase and Tetteh 2010). Despite the absence of shade trees, the average annual total N stocks of 125 kg ha−1 year−1 was within the range of 84–175 kg ha−1 year−1 for cocoa agroforests with Erythrina glauca Lour. and Gliricidia sepium. And this can be explained by shade tree species recovering leached N from deeper soil depths. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim directly. It discusses various aspects of soil nutrient accumulation and the effects of seasonal changes on nutrient composition in cocoa agroforests without mentioning fungi or their role in decomposing organic matter. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: 대응표본 t검증(paired t-test)한 결과를 살펴보면, 훈련집단의 문제해결력이 실험 전에 비해 실험 후에 향상되었는데 5주 후 실시한 추수평가에서도 실험에 의해 향상된 문제해결력이 유지되었음을 알 수 있다. 훈련집단의 자기효능감을 살펴보면 실험 전에 비해 실험 후에 향상되었으며 추수평가에서도 실험 전에 비해 향상된 자기효능감이 유지되었음을 알 수 있다. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by indicating that the problem-solving abilities of a training group improved after the experiment and this enhancement was maintained during a follow-up assessment five weeks later. This suggests a link between training (possibly related to bilingualism) and improved problem-solving skills.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Glaciers can grow back completely within a few years after melting. [SEP] Text: : of the Dolomites: last 40 years of melting, EGUsphere [preprint], 2024. Received: 07 May 2024 – Discussion started: 18 Jun 2024 Publisher's note: remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims made in the text, published maps, institutional affiliations, or any other geographical representation in this preprint. The responsibility to include appropriate place names lies with the authors. Download & links Preprint (PDF, 19434 KB) Supplement (1348 KB) Download & links Preprint (19434 KB) Metadata XML Supplement (1348 KB) and Renato R. Colucci Status: final response (author comments only) Comment types: AC – author | RC – referee | CC – community | EC – editor | CEC – chief editor | : Report abuse Login for authors/editors Subscribe to comment alert RC1: 'Comment on egusphere-2024-1357', #1, 19 Jul 2024 The comment was uploaded in the form of a supplement: Citation: AC1: 'Reply on RC1', Andrea Securo, 27 Aug 2024 The comment was uploaded in the form of a supplement: Citation: RC2: 'Comment on egusphere-2024-1357', #2, 31 Jul 2024 Review of ‘of the Dolomites: last 40 years of melting’By Securo, Andrea and others. Securo and authors present a multi-decadal estimation of surface elevation change for small glaciers in the Dolomites, Italian Alps. Their geodetic data used in this study consists of aerial photographs, uncrewed aerial vehicles (uavs) and LiDAR data. This data and their analysis indicate high rates of glacier mass loss with the accounting for about ⅔ of the region’s volume loss. Overall, I found this manuscript to be generally well written with methods partially described. The presented data generally supports the conclusions made by the authors. However, like many papers, some clarification of the methods is needed, the English can be substantially improved and manuscript could be shortened. Below, I outline my major points about the paper and follow these with technical comments. :1. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by presenting evidence from a study that indicates high rates of glacier mass loss over the last 40 years in the Dolomites, suggesting that glaciers are not recovering completely after melting. It mentions that the provided geodetic data shows that about two-thirds of the region's volume loss is accounted for, implying that rather than growing back, the glaciers are losing mass significantly.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain fungi can decompose organic matter, contributing to nutrient cycling. [SEP] Text: On the other hand, increasing mesh size leads to high loss of fragmented litter and removal of litter from litterbag by macro fauna (Bradford et al. 2002; Smith and Bradford 2003). The tethered-leaf technique, where leaves are tied together with a nylon string and placed on the ground has the advantage of direct contact of the material with soil micro and macro fauna without altering the microclimate (Vitousek et al. 1994). However, this method is only suitable for initial decomposition studies, as it becomes difficult to distinguish between decomposition and comminution, when fragmentation of the material occurs. These drawbacks made us use a mesh size of 2 mm which is considered to allow for most soil faunal species activities in the bag (Li et al. 2015). Although not significant, our results of higher litter decomposition rate under organic management confirm the observation of higher decomposition of untreated cocoa leaves compared with those treated with pesticides (Afolabi and Muoghalu 2018; Asigbaase et al. 2020). The higher decomposition rate of cocoa leaves under organic management compared to conventional management may thus be due to the restriction of herbicides and pesticides in certified organic agriculture. Agrochemicals are well known to have adverse effects on the growth and population density of macro decomposers such as ants and earthworms (García-Pérez et al. 2016; Masoni et al. 2017) as well as on bacteria, and fungal populations (Afolabi and Muoghalu 2018). An indirect effect of agrochemicals on litter decomposition is their ability to alter the chemical composition of the litter or microclimate of the decomposition subsystem. The slower weight loss under conventional management coupled with faster P, Ca, and Mg release was similar to findings of Hendrix and Parmelee (1985) on John grass leaves (Sorghum halepense L. ) treated with paraquat and glyphosate. Similarly, da Costa et al. (2019) reported on average 34% higher Mg and Ca release rates from Crotalaria spectabilis sprayed with glyphosate. According to Mertens et al. (2018) these pesticides contain chelating agents with the ability to bind P, Ca, and Mg from litter. Thus it is likely that high P, Ca, and Mg release rates under conventional management were triggered by the use of pesticides such as glyphosate and roundup. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the effects of agrochemicals on decomposition rates and the methodology of studying decomposition, but does not mention fungi or their role in decomposing organic matter or nutrient cycling.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: 대응표본 t검증(paired t-test)한 결과를 살펴보면, 훈련집단의 문제해결력이 실험 전에 비해 실험 후에 향상되었는데 5주 후 실시한 추수평가에서도 실험에 의해 향상된 문제해결력이 유지되었음을 알 수 있다. 훈련집단의 자기효능감을 살펴보면 실험 전에 비해 실험 후에 향상되었으며 추수평가에서도 실험 전에 비해 향상된 자기효능감이 유지되었음을 알 수 있다. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by showing that a training group's problem-solving abilities improved after an experiment, and this enhanced ability was maintained in follow-up assessments. This aligns with the assertion that bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Every fungus releases hallucinogenic compounds. [SEP] Text: subcinerea produces sclerotioramine, a compound that shows antioxidant activity. Materials and methods Fungal isolation and liquid culture One initial endolichenic fungus was induced from the thallus of P. subcinerea (sampled from Hiraoka Park, Osaka, Japan) applying the lichen tissue culture method (Yamamoto et al. 1985). Its crashed lichen thalli were incubated on solid malt-yeast (MY) medium containing 1. 5% agar at 20 °C under light (1042. 8 lux), followed by subculture under the same culture conditions. To obtain a larger amount of cultured Penicillium sp. , 2 g of this fungus was inoculated to 200 mL of liquid MY medium in a 500-mL Erlenmeyer flask and incubated for 3 weeks at 20 °C under light (Fig. 1). This strain was deposited at University, Akita, Japan (Registration No. 1322P). The voucher strain of this endolichenic fungus was identified as Penicillium sp. based on its sequence of the ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region, and the DNA of Japan (DDBJ) accession number for the ITS sequence of strain 1322P is LC775762. Extraction and isolation of antioxidant compounds from cultured fungi To extract antioxidant compounds, the dried fungus (7. 6 g dry weight) of 1322P strain was submerged in methanol and incubated overnight at room temperature, followed by filtration. The filtrate was evaporated in vacuo and eluted with water, and then sequentially extracted with solvents that yielded the following fractions: n-hexane (170 mg), ethyl acetate (62 mg), n-butanol (135 mg), and water (118 mg). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the antioxidant compound sclerotioramine produced by subcinerea without any reference to hallucinogenic compounds. The focus on antioxidant activity indicates that not all fungi, specifically the one mentioned, produce hallucinogenic substances.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain fungi can decompose organic matter, contributing to nutrient cycling. [SEP] Text: Recycling cocoa pod husk is important for C and nutrient retentionThe recorded cocoa yields of 559 kg ha−1 yr−1 were higher than the 477 kg ha−1yr−1 reported for the mid zone of Ghana (Abdulai et al. 2020), which has similar climatic conditions as Suhum. The average annual nutrient stocks of 19 kg N ha−1, 3 kg P ha−1, 30 kg K ha−1, 4 kg Ca ha−1 and 4 kg Mg ha−1 in the cocoa fruit (beans and pods) falls within the range of 19–29 kg N ha−1, 4–5 kg P ha−1, 15–51 kg K ha−1 (Hartemink 2005), 3–6 kg Ca ha−1, and 6–10 kg Mg ha−1 (Fontes et al. 2014) for other cocoa agroforests across the world. Farmers could reduce C export by 43% and nutrient export from harvest by 33% for N and 25% for P, if they spread the cocoa pod husks in their farms after harvest. This is even more important for nutrients such as K and Ca, where 81% and 90%, respectively, can be retained after harvest if cocoa pod husk were returned. However, the spreading cocoa pod husk is often avoided to prevent the spread of diseases from disease infested pods (Opoku-Ameyaw et al. 2010). Composting of cocoa pod husk could be an option to control disease pathogens (Opoku-Ameyaw et al. 2010) and return nutrients to the cocoa trees. Cocoa farmers in the study area may therefore benefit from training on composting to be able to use cocoa pod husk for improvement of their internal nutrient cycling. ConclusionsOur findings show that litterfall follows a seasonal pattern with peaks at the onset of the dry season. Seasonality affected litterfall K and N concentrations, but organic versus conventional management had no effect on annual litterfall. We found that management had no significant effect on decomposition and nutrient release rates of N, P, K, and Ca. Only the Mg release rate under conventional management was 51% greater than under organic management, which may be attributed to the chelating capacity of herbicides used. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the recycling of cocoa pod husk and its importance for nutrient retention but does not mention fungi or their role in decomposing organic matter. Thus, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Weather patterns can be influenced by ocean currents and atmospheric conditions. [SEP] Text: These models are sophisticated mathematical representations of the ocean environment, encompassing physical, chemical, geological and biological processes. Ocean modelling plays a pivotal role in increasing our understanding of ocean systems. “Ocean modellers develop computer models that can simulate ocean conditions with a high degree of realism and that can be used to generate forecasts,” explains Katja. “You can think of these as the ocean analogues to weather forecast models, like the animations of expected temperatures, winds and rain you see on TV. ” For example, Katja’s at produces forecasts of water temperature and salinity in Halifax Harbour: memg. ocean. dal. ca/memg/forecasts Katja’s team’s biogeochemical models are crucial for evaluating OAE methods. By accurately simulating the movement of water and the behaviour of its various constituents, such as nutrients, plankton and dissolved CO2, these models provide valuable insights into the potential impacts of adding brucite to seawater. Ocean models are rigorously tested through an iterative process of prediction and evaluation, ensuring their accuracy and reliability. To improve a model, ocean modellers evaluate their predictions against observed data and quantify how accurate the predicted outputs were. This allows them to identify and pinpoint shortcomings in the model that need to be improved. If the values of a newly generated prediction match the observations better, it suggests that the model does a better job of modelling the ocean system being investigated. This iterative refinement process allows researchers to continually enhance the model’s performance and predictive capabilities. What inspired you to become an oceanographer? Growing up by the Baltic Sea, I swam in the ocean every summer and tasted its salty water. Some of my earliest memories are of my curiosity about the sea. At university, I obtained equivalents of bachelor’s and master’s degrees in mathematics and a PhD in marine biology. For my PhD, I developed biogeochemical models of nutrients and plankton in the Baltic Sea. Becoming an oceanographer and combining my interests in biology, chemistry and physics with my skills in mathematics and computer programming has been a dream come true. What is your favourite fact about the ocean? The ocean holds 50 times more CO2 than the atmosphere. This means that a relatively small shift in the ocean’s inventory of dissolved CO2 can mean a big change for the atmosphere. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim as it discusses the impact of ocean modeling on understanding ocean systems, including how these models simulate ocean conditions that can influence weather patterns. It mentions that ocean models help in predicting various conditions, which aligns with the idea that ocean currents and atmospheric conditions can affect weather patterns.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Every fungus releases hallucinogenic compounds. [SEP] Text: Sclerotiorin has been shown to exhibit pharmacological activity, including antioxidant and antibacterial activities against Bacillus subtilis, Candida albicans, Escherichia coli, Micrococcus luteus, Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus, and Streptomyces pyogenes (Lucas et al. 2007; Santos et al. 2019). In contrast, there have been few reports on the pharmacologic activity of sclerotioramine, although derivatives of this compound have been reported to present potent antifouling activity (Wei et al. 2017). In this study, we describe the potential utility of sclerotioramine as a pharmacologic compound. ConclusionThis work represents the first report that the antioxidant activity of sclerotioramine exceeds that of sclerotiorin. The cultured Penicillium sp. (strain 1322P) isolated from Pyxine subcinerea is a valuable endolichenic fungus that produces an antioxidant compound. Our study represents the usefulness of endolichenic fungi as new bioresources for pharmacological compounds. Declarations3668. The authors report no potential conflicts of interest. Author contributions H. K. cultured fungi, determined the chemical structure of active compounds, and descripted this report. N. W. and Y. M. isolated fungi and purified the active compounds. K. H. identified cultured fungi. M. K. provided financial support. Availability of data and materials All data generated or analyzed during this study have been included in this published 1. jpgTable 1 1H- (400 MHz) and 13C- (100 MHz) NMR spectral data for Compound 1 in methanol-d4. :Published21 Mar, 2024Read the published version in Archives of Microbiology →Version 1posted Editorial decision: Revision requested18 Jan, 2024Reviews received at journal15 Jan, 2024Reviewers agreed at journal15 Jan, 2024Reviewers invited by journal15 Jan, 2024Editor assigned by journal11 Jan, 2024Submission checks completed at journal11 Jan, 2024First submitted to journal10 Jan, 2024You are reading this latest preprint versionlets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the pharmacological activities of specific compounds produced by fungi, such as sclerotiorin and sclerotioramine, without mentioning any hallucinogenic properties. It focuses on antioxidant and antibacterial activities and the potential utility of these compounds, indicating that not all fungi produce hallucinogenic compounds.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain fungi can decompose organic matter, contributing to nutrient cycling. [SEP] Text: We also conclude that spreading of cocoa pods husks in farms after harvest, particularly if composted or charred, can improve the internal carbon and nutrient cycle of cocoa agroforestry systems. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the spreading of cocoa pod husks for improving carbon and nutrient cycling but does not mention fungi or their role in decomposing organic matter. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Weather patterns can be influenced by ocean currents and atmospheric conditions. [SEP] Text: “For example, on a warm sunny day, the surface of the ocean warms up,” explains Ruth. “That heat will slowly penetrate deeper into the ocean at a rate that is determined by the mixing of warm surface waters with cooler subsurface waters. As a result, the vertical distribution of heat within the ocean is largely determined by mixing. ” The rate at which CO2 fluxes into or out of the ocean depends on ocean mixing and the amount of CO2 in the water and air. “On still days, little gas is exchanged between the ocean and atmosphere, while on windy days, there is a lot of turbulence in the upper ocean which enhances air-sea gas exchange. ” Ocean mixing can also disrupt the effectiveness of OAE, for example if brucite is mixed into deeper waters where it can no longer interact with the atmosphere. Understanding the complex role of ocean mixing is crucial for accurately assessing the potential of OAE for reducing atmospheric CO2 levels. However, ocean mixing is primarily driven by turbulence which occurs at small scales, making it extremely challenging to observe and quantify. But its profound impact on the ocean’s physical and chemical properties means it is important for scientists to understand it. What inspired you to become an oceanographer? In high school, I wanted to be an astrophysicist, so I went to university to study a bachelor’s degree in physics. However, as I became increasingly aware of climate change, I wanted to direct my career towards a field where I could help understand and tackle this problem. I did an honours year in mathematics and atmospheric science, where my interest in fluid dynamics increased. Oceanography seemed like a field where I could apply my physics knowledge to a tangible and important problem, and I liked the sound of going to sea on a research boat. So, I did a PhD in physical oceanography where I discovered that the blend of theoretical and practical work is very rewarding and that research expeditions are great adventures! What do you most enjoy about your work? Nothing beats the thrill of looking at a new dataset fresh off an instrument recovered from the ocean. Trying to decrypt the measurements and infer something about what is happening in the ocean is like a puzzle. What is your favourite fact about the ocean? [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by discussing how ocean mixing is determined by various factors, including turbulence and atmospheric conditions, which directly relates to the influence of ocean currents on weather patterns. The mention of heat being distributed in the ocean and the interaction between the ocean and atmosphere reinforces the idea that oceanic conditions can affect weather.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Yeti fur can regenerate itself if cut. [SEP] Text: And, while some view his work as science fiction, Chris has proven that the concepts behind his ideas are theoretically and practically possible. As technology and biological understanding advance, great progress can be expected in all fields of biomedical engineering. “In the field of endosymbiont engineering, I think we will develop bacteria that only contain the minimal number of genes needed for their growth, and we will generate libraries of genes that drive the development of different cells and tissues,” predicts Chris. “With this, we could customise the minimal genome bacteria by inserting other genes, so the bacteria perform different functions. For example, after a heart attack, a patient could be prescribed a minimal genome bacterium with heart generating genes that would guide the patient’s heart cells to regenerate. ” Progress in biomedical engineering relies on the next generation of scientists having a futuristic mindset and a willingness to pursue the unknown. As the chemist, Frank Westheimer, once said, “Progress is made by young scientists who carry out experiments that old scientists said wouldn’t work. ” Chris acknowledges that some scientists call his work ‘science fiction’, in part due to a fear of the unknown. “Science fiction writers ask, ‘What if? ’,” he says. “As scientists, we think of what might be possible and ask, ‘What’s the next step? ’ We begin with the end in mind and direct our experiments toward this goal. However, innovations lie in the unexpected results, and therefore we must go into every design and experiment with our eyes wide open to appreciate the unexpected and then explain it. ” Pathway from school to biomedical engineering “All engineering fields require math,” says Chris. “So, get a solid education in math and quantitative sciences. ” Study mathematics, biology, chemistry and physics and, if your school offers classes in engineering and computing, take them as well, since these subjects will also be useful. Some universities offer degrees in biomedical engineering, bioengineering or biological engineering. Related degrees in biochemistry, biology or other engineering fields (e. g. , mechanical or electrical) could also lead to a career in biomedical engineering. Explore careers in biomedical engineering • “(BMES; www. bmes. org) and the Engineering in Medicine and (EMBS; www. embs. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses advancements in biomedical engineering and the theoretical possibilities of gene manipulation and cellular regeneration. It does not mention Yeti fur or any evidence related to its regenerative properties, thus failing to corroborate or contrast with the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain fungi can decompose organic matter, contributing to nutrient cycling. [SEP] Text: and edited by Çagan H. Sekercioglu, Daniel G. Wenny and Christopher J. of Chicago Press, 2016Cloth: 978-0-226-38246-3 | Paper: 978-0-226-38263-0 | Electronic: 978-0-226-38277-7DOI: 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 001. 0001 of (paper, ebook) DeGruyter Multi-eBooks (formerly NetLibrary) over one hundred years, ornithologists and amateur birders have jointly campaigned for the conservation of bird species, documenting not only birds’ beauty and extraordinary diversity, but also their importance to ecosystems worldwide. But while these avian enthusiasts have noted that birds eat fruit, carrion, and pests; spread seed and fertilizer; and pollinate plants, among other services, they have rarely asked what birds are worth in economic terms. Birds Matter, an international collection of ornithologists, botanists, ecologists, conservation biologists, and environmental economists seeks to quantify avian ecosystem services—the myriad benefits that birds provide to humans. The first book to approach ecosystem services from an ornithological perspective, Matter asks what economic value we can ascribe to those services, if any, and how this value should inform conservation. 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0001[avian ecosystem function;economic ornithology;ecosystem services;cultural services;provisioning services;regulating services;supporting services]Ecosystem services are those aspects of the earth that benefit humans. of the identified four classes of ecosystem services: provisioning services such as food, water, timber, and fiber; regulating services that affect climate, floods, disease, wastes, and water quality; cultural services that provide recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual benefits; and supporting services such as soil formation, photosynthesis, and nutrient cycling. Interest in both the positive and negative roles of birds spurred development of Economic Ornithology, which investigated the food, habits, and migrations of birds in relation to both insects and plants. Although the discipline was initially greeted enthusiastically, criticism of methods and skepticism regarding conclusions grew in the early 20th century. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address fungi or their role in decomposing organic matter, and instead focuses on birds and their ecosystem services, such as aiding in seed dispersal and other benefits. Therefore, the text is irrelevant to the claim about fungi.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Severe weather events are becoming more frequent due to climate change. [SEP] Text: AbstractThe weather conditions of the summer of 2022 were very unusual, particularly in Eastern Asia, Europe, and North America. The devasting impact of climate change has come to our attention, with much hotter and drier conditions, and with more frequent and intense flooding events. Some extreme events have reached a dangerous level, increasingly threatening human lives. The interconnected risks caused by these extreme disaster events are triggering a chain effect, forcing us to respond to these crises through changes in our living environment, which affect the atmosphere, the biosphere, the economy including the availability of energy, our cities, and our global society. Moreover, we have to confront the abnormal consequences of untypical, rapid changes of extreme events and fast switches between extreme states, such as from severe drought to devastating flooding. Recognizing this new situation, it is crucial to improve the adaptation capacity of our societies in order to reduce the risks associated with climate change, and to develop smarter strategies for climate governance. High-quality development must be science-based, balanced, safe, sustainable, and climate-resilient, supported by the collaborative governance of climate mitigation and adaptation. This 2020. Service/ECMWF at and size imageThe hottest summer on record for Europe paired with unusually dry conditions reduced some of Europe’s main rivers to extremely low water levels, for example, threatening vital economic thoroughfares and exacerbating the continent’s energy shortages. The heat also led to record-breaking fire activities in many European countries. More than 2500 fires were recorded, and more than 772,000 ha were burned in European countries in 2022, compared to an average of 900 fires and 318,000 ha burned between 2016 and 2021 (EFFIS 2022). Most parts of China experienced the longest and most intense heatwave on record (CMA 2022) that lasted for 72 days—10 days longer (16% more) than the previous record of 62 days in 2013. More than 1 billion people suffered temperatures higher than 35 °C, and at least 360 million people faced exceptional temperatures higher than 40 °C, making medical attention to heat strokes a new normal in these regions. The accompanying long-lasting drought led to the drying up of rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, affecting the water and electrical power supplies. While heatwaves gripped parts of Europe and Asia, some other places experienced extreme rainfall and flooding. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by describing the unusual weather conditions of the summer of 2022, emphasizing the increase in extreme events like heatwaves, droughts, and flooding. It mentions that 'the devasting impact of climate change has come to our attention, with much hotter and drier conditions, and with more frequent and intense flooding events,' directly supporting the assertion that severe weather events are becoming more frequent due to climate change.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings grow faster in cities because of air pollution. [SEP] Text: Of the species studied, only NO2 was found to be above legal limits. Airpollution maps reveal that the concentrations of PM10, NO2, CO, CO2 and C6H6 arehigher in areas that are adjacent to high-traffic roads running through and around thecity. Because ozone is a secondary pollutant, its highest concentrations are notfound near emission sources. Horizontal maps of O3 show that the maximum ozoneconcentrations do not exceed the legal limit. However, in outlying areas, ozoneconcentrations reach the threshold for vegetation protection (65 μg/m3). The distribution of the calculated cityAIR index over Viana do Castelorevealed that air quality is globally acceptable in this city (Figure 8). Nonetheless, thedearth of small zones on this map may be problematic. Small zones, including Av. 25de Abril (the ramp to the bridge), the roundabouts of the hospital and football fieldand the access to the main road (IC1), have high levels of NO2 over the legal limit. Based on an analysis of the Table 6, we can conclude that only 0. 2% of thepopulation (69 pop. ) in summer is exposed to a cityAIR index of zero, during whichtime 71. 7% and 28. 0% of the population benefit a cityAIR index of the populationbenefit a cityAIR index ranging between [0. 65 0. 85[ and above 0. 85, respectively. Advertisement 5. urban air index used in Viana do Castelo, cityAIR,aggregates data for the air quality of a city and presents results in thecontext of standardised legal limits for air pollution. Based on cityAIR, several priority areas for future mitigation andmonitoring are proposed: Avenida 25 de Abril, de Castro, access to west IC1 and access to north and south EN13. When the results of this analysis were presented to the Municipality of Vianado CastelocityAIR index proved to be easily understood and quite intuitive. For the problematic areas, a Monitoring & is being prepared. In order to estimate pollutant emissions to the atmosphere from vehiculartraffic, which is essential for evaluating both local and global air quality, emissionfactors were obtained for vehicles in Viana do Castelo and combined with thecalculated vehicle circulation in that city. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing air quality and pollution levels in a specific city, indicating that while certain pollutants like NO2 are above legal limits, ozone, which is a secondary pollutant, does not exceed legal limits near emission sources. These findings suggest that the air pollution dynamics in urban areas may not necessarily lead to faster tree ring growth. The mention of specific areas with significant NO2 levels does not support the notion that overall air pollution leads to healthier or faster tree growth.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain fungi can decompose organic matter, contributing to nutrient cycling. [SEP] Text: Keeping in mind the eventual demise of in the early 20th century, efforts to revitalize the field today must be rigorous, repeatable, with a focus on tangible measures of plant yield in managed systems and plant fitness in natural systems. Cost-benefit analysis may permit evaluation of bird contributions to ecosystem service and disservice with respect to alternative mechanisms that are available (e. g. , bird predation versus pesticides for pest control). Efforts that permit scaling up from experimental plots to entire ecosystems are critical. (pages 1 - 26)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0002[ecosystem services;commodification;ethics;values;monetization;valuation]Birds are valuable intrinsically and instrumentally. Their instrumental values include use values, such as for hunting purposes, and non-use-values, such as for recreation, aesthetic value, and for delivering ecosystem services that help sustain and fulfill human life. If ornithologists, conservations, and economists can help individuals and institutions recognize the value of birds, this will increase investments in bird conservation while fostering human well-being. A surge in interest in environmental and ecological economics has thrust ecosystem services to the forefront of conservation science and policy, and ornithologists must engage in this work to advance bird conservation effectively. Documenting the values and services of birds is necessary for deliberative decision-making processes that collectively weigh economic, cultural, and intrinsic values. Here, we describe methods to quantify the economic value of biodiversity drawn from the field of environmental economics, and we briefly review several examples involving birds. Policies for markets and/or payments for bird services are still in their infancy, but we review how policies of other public ecosystem services have progressed and we discuss their relevance to bird conservation. Lastly, we identify directions for future ecological and economic research that may lead to advances in bird conservation policy. (pages 27 - 48)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0003[agroecosystems;bottom-up interactions;foundation species;pest control;top-down interaction;trophic cascade;trophic interaction networks]Birds function within their ecosystems in ways that include many direct and indirect chains of trophic interaction. In some interaction chains, birds exert top-down effects in “trophic cascades. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses birds and their values within ecosystems, without mentioning fungi or their role in decomposing organic matter. Therefore, it does not provide support or contradiction to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Severe weather events are becoming more frequent due to climate change. [SEP] Text: In the southwest of the United States, for example, California’s hot and dry experienced a “once-in-a-thousand-year” extreme rainfall, with nearly a year’s total worth of rain in 3 hours (37. 1 mm). In Pakistan, one-third of the country was completely submerged by a devastating historic flood, causing more than 1100 deaths and billions of dollars in losses. Although devastating, the extreme weather events that occurred in the summer of 2022 were not altogether unexpected. Observations have shown that extreme events including heatwaves, heavy precipitation, droughts, and tropical cyclones have been increasing in recent years and their attribution to human activities has strengthened since last assessment in 2014 (IPCC 2021). Scientists have warned that exceeding 1. 5 °C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points, with irreversible and catastrophic consequences (et al. 2022). Although climate tipping points for the Earth system have not been activated yet at the current global warming level of 1. 1 °C, some extreme events intensified by climate change have reached the tipping point of human survival. Heatwaves are a good example of how extreme weather events threaten human health. The maximum temperature a human can withstand is generally within the range of 40–42 °C. In the summer of 2022, the highest temperature in many areas exceeded this limit (Fig. 2a). But human temperature tolerance depends not only on the temperature but also on the humidity—represented by the wet-bulb temperature in meteorology—as well as on concomitant atmospheric pollutants, such as ozone. Studies have shown that even healthy people with strong climate adaptability cannot withstand a wet-bulb temperature higher than 32 °C. Once the wet-bulb temperature reaches 35 °C, we are no longer able to cool ourselves through sweating, leading to heat stroke, which means shocks to multiple organs and even permanent damage (Raymond et al. 2020). Extreme heatwaves over central Europe and especially the Paris region in the summer of 2003 demonstrated that the main health impacts and mortality cases were due to a combination of high temperature, humidity, and episodes of very high levels of ozone (Kovats et al. 2004; Schär et al. 2004). Continued exposure above this threshold can quickly lead to death by overheating. Some areas have already experienced wet-bulb temperatures close to humans’ survival threshold (Fig. 2b). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing evidence that extreme weather events such as heatwaves, heavy precipitation, and droughts have been increasing in recent years. It cites the IPCC's findings indicating that the attribution of these extreme events to human activities has strengthened. Furthermore, the text discusses specific examples of severe weather, such as the record rainfall in California and the historic flood in Pakistan, which illustrate the increasing frequency of such events linked to climate change.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings grow faster in cities because of air pollution. [SEP] Text: , Danek T. , Wistuba M. , Krąpiec M. , Woskowicz-Ślęzak B. , 2012b, Czasowe relacje pomiędzy redukcjami przyrostów rocznych sosny zwyczajnej (Pinus sylvestris L. ) oraz śmiertelnością niemowląt pod wpływem zanieczyszczeń atmosferycznych – przykład z województwa śląskiego, Ochrona Środowiska i Zasobów Naturalnych, 54, s. 248-260. 35. Malik I. , Wistuba M. , Danek M. , Danek T. , Krąpiec M. , 2011, Wpływ emisji zanieczyszczeń atmosferycznych przez zakłady chemiczne w Tarnowskich Górach (północna część Wyżyny Śląskiej) na szerokość przyrostów rocznych sosny zwyczajnej (Pinus sylvestris L. ), Ochrona Środowiska i Zasobów Naturalnych, 47, s. 9-21. 36. Mansfield T. A. , 2004, Tlenki azotu: stare problemy i nowe wyzwania, [w:] J. N. B. Bell, M. Treshow (red. ), Zanieczyszczenie powietrza a życie roślin, Wydawnictwa Naukowo-Techniczne, Warszawa, s. 133-149. 37. Mazurski K. R. , 2008, Destruction of forests in the Sudetes – thirty years later, [w:] Výroční konference ČGS, Liberec 25-29. 08. 2008, s. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not provide information that clearly supports or contrasts with the claim. Instead, it lists various studies and publications related to the topic of air pollution and tree growth. However, it does not directly address the relationship between tree ring growth rates in cities and air pollution, nor does it validate the claim presented.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain fungi can decompose organic matter, contributing to nutrient cycling. [SEP] Text: ” These occur when a predatory species directly reduces its prey abundance and consequently indirectly releases suppression of species at lower trophic levels. Many bird species initiate trophic cascades in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and in natural and agro-ecosystems. Services provided by birds through trophic cascades benefit humans primarily through pest control in natural forests, forestry plantations, fruit orchards, and a variety of crop-based agro-ecosystems. Cascade strength may be affected by predator prey specificity, redundancy, species diversity, and productivity. Some birds influence ecosystem function both through either bottom up interactions or through intermediate trophic positions within interaction networks. These effects can also reverberate through trophic webs. Global change, including anthropogenic perturbation, may lead to a loss of ecosystem services, including seed dispersal and pollination services by birds. These losses may cause declines keystone or foundation plant species, resulting in losses in biodiversity and ecosystem integrity. We conclude with suggestions for future research needs on bird ecosystem services, particularly in light of global change. (pages 49 - 72)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0004[avian pollination;gene flow;inbreeding depression;pollen limitation;pollination;seed limitation]Avian pollination is thought to be less prevalent and less at risk than avian seed-dispersal. The extent of recently revealed bird pollination that does not conform to the classic ornithophily-nectarivore template suggests this mutualism may be cryptic and more prevalent than considered to date. Widespread anthropogenic disturbance has disproportionately impacted the connections between birds and flowers, so that bird pollination may be systematically under-reported. Evidence suggests that where plants are visited by more than one pollinator guild, the relative effectiveness of birds is high compared to invertebrates. In the absence of replacement, the loss of bird pollinators has resulted in pollination failure, increased inbreeding depression, and decreased plant density. Confirmation of seed limitation in pollen-limited plants serviced by birds provides a precautionary sign of the possible long term effects of bird pollinator loss. The quality of pollination service provided by birds has important consequences for gene flow and offspring survival. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim, as it discusses the role of birds in ecosystem processes and their impact on pollination and plant density, without mentioning fungi or their role in decomposing organic matter.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Severe weather events are becoming more frequent due to climate change. [SEP] Text: As global warming continues, strengthened evaporation is anticipated to increase the proportion of water in the atmosphere, and high-temperature days will become more intolerable (Raymond et al. 2020). Fig. 2Source NOAA website at Image provided by the NOAA/OAR/from their Web site at with default setting except that “Date” was changed to “2022 Aug 1,” “Contour Lines” changed to “No,” “Plot Units” changed to “Celsius,” and “Projection” changed to “Robinson. ” b Top 0. 1% of wet-bulb temperatures at different locations between 1979 and 2017. Full size imageAs global warming has progressed, hotter and drier conditions and more extreme flooding events have become the new state and the new normal. On the one hand, we need to adapt to this new state and deal with the negative consequences on energy, ecosystems, economies, societies, and public health. On the other hand, we need to be prepared for the untypical and rapid reversal of extreme events, such as the shift from extreme drought to extreme flooding, and from heatwaves to cold spells. As highlighted in the recently published report United in Science (WMO 2022a), adaptation is crucial to lowering the risks of climate impacts. Therefore, it is important, urgent, and crucial to act now to improve our adaptation capacity to reduce the risks of climate change, especially of extreme events. 2 Understanding the Emergence of Learned in the Process of NeutralityIn response to climate change, the whole world is working towards carbon neutrality to limit global warming. Cutting down the carbon emissions in the energy sector is essential, which requires remarkable transition from fossil fuel energies to clean and renewable energies. Recently, the energy crisis accompanying extreme weather events has brought our attentions to the emergence of new risks during the energy transition process. 2. 1 from the 2021 to WeatherThe electricity resources of the state of Texas, United States, are dominated by natural gas (52%), followed by coal (20%), wind (17%), nuclear (9%), and other sources (2%) (Statista 2022a). 2021, the impact of extreme cold weather on the energy supply of the state caused significant blackouts and left more than 10 million people without electricity. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by stating that as global warming continues, 'hotter and drier conditions and more extreme flooding events have become the new state and the new normal.' This directly supports the notion that severe weather events are linked to climate change.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: All earthquakes occur at exactly the same depth beneath the Earth’s surface. [SEP] Text: Importantly, depletion of WIPI2 in neurons from young adult mice was sufficient to decrease the rate of autophagosome biogenesis to that of aged mice, while overexpression of WIPI2B in neurons from aged mice was sufficient to return the rate of autophagosome biogenesis to that found in neurons from young adult mice. Further, we find that the rescue of autophagosome biogenesis depends on the phosphorylation state of WIPI2B at the isolation membrane, suggesting that dynamic phosphorylation of WIPI2B regulates autophagosome biogenesis. Thus, while the rate of autophagosome biogenesis decreases in aged neurons, this decrease can be rescued by the restoration of a single autophagy component, suggesting a novel therapeutic target for future studies. biogenesis at the axon terminal decreases with age Since impaired autophagy has been implicated in the pathogenesis of neurodegeneration and age is the most relevant risk factor for neurodegenerative disease, we used the GFP-LC3B probe to assess how biogenesis rates change with age in primary DRG neurons dissected from mice of four different ages: 1-month-old young mice, 3-month-old young adult mice, 16–17 month-old aged mice, and 24-month-old advanced aged mice. We produced robust cultures of DRG neurons harvested from mice aged from 1 to 24 months; neurons harvested from all ages extended long neurites, and we did not detect significant loss of viability with age (data not shown). We used live-cell spinning disk fluorescence microscopy to examine autophagosome biogenesis at the axon tips of DRG neurons in culture with high spatial and temporal specificity. We identified autophagosome biogenesis events as the formation of discrete GFP-LC3B puncta visible above the background cytoplasmic GFP-LC3B signal (Figure 1A). These puncta enlarged over approximately three minutes to form a 1 μm autophagosome. Strikingly, we found that the rate of autophagosome biogenesis significantly decreased with age, corresponding to a 53% decrease in autophagosome biogenesis in aged neurons compared to neurons from young adult mice. Furthermore, the decrease was even more pronounced in neurons from advanced aged mice (Figure 1B). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the mechanisms of autophagosome biogenesis in neurons concerning age, without any mention of earthquakes or their depths beneath the Earth’s surface. Therefore, it does not provide any supporting or contrasting information related to the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain fungi can decompose organic matter, contributing to nutrient cycling. [SEP] Text: Pollen limitation experiments suggest that bird-pollinated plants in New Zealand, the Americas, Southeast Asia, and Africa suffer similar levels of pollen limitation, and are typically more strongly pollen-limited than insect-pollinated plants. Thus, bird-pollination appears to be under-reported, hard to replace and at greater risk of failure than currently assumed. (pages 73 - 106)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0005[frugivores;seed dispersal;ecosystem services]Seed dispersal by frugivorous birds is a globally important ecosystem service. Nearly 4000 bird species have been observed eating fruit and collectively these species likely disperse seeds of at least 68,000 plants. The types of fruits eaten by birds are structurally diverse but fall into three functional groups, multi-seeded berries, few-seeded drupes, and single-seeded arils in dehiscent structures. Birds disperse primarily tree and shrub seeds, but also disperse the seeds of lianas, herbaceous plants, epiphytes, and hemiparasites. Through seed dispersal, birds are important drivers of plant community dynamics and therefore are essential in supporting many of the ecosystem services that those habitats and their constituent species provide. While much research on seed dispersal by birds has focused on the more frugivorous species, most of the bird species that eat fruit do so seasonally or only occasionally and the seed dispersal roles of most of these species are not well understood. Through their sheer numbers, opportunistic, generalist and/or occasional frugivores may be ecologically important in some ecosystems, but their influence has been little studied. Current trends in habitat loss and other human impacts, especially in the tropics, are threatening larger species of frugivores and the large-seeded plants only these birds disperse. (pages 107 - 146)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding fungi and their role in decomposing organic matter or nutrient cycling. Instead, it focuses on pollen limitation and seed dispersal by birds, which is unrelated to the claim about fungi.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Severe weather events are becoming more frequent due to climate change. [SEP] Text: There is a need for long-term and proactive arrangements in many aspects of risk responses, particularly in terms of extreme weather events, infrastructure resilience, and preparedness for people’s needs, in order to minimize losses from various risks. 3 Governance for AdaptationWhen advancing the process of achieving carbon neutrality in response to climate change, the impacts of more frequent and intense extreme weather events have forced us to think soberly about developing smarter climate governance strategies for sustainable development. While climate mitigation actions contribute to the slowdown of climate warming, climate adaptation is of great importance and is a more direct approach to reducing disaster risk and protecting people (Robbert and Lesnikowski 2018). The key to climate change adaptation (CCA) is the reduction of climate risks. This needs to include reducing the impacts of rapidly changing or slow-onset extreme events, to lower the vulnerabilities of infrastructures that already exist or are under construction, and to limit the combination effects on the population and society due to extra health burdens originating from other sources (for example, air pollution). The goal of CCA is to achieve climate-resilient development in the near future. Although more than 170 countries have already taken adaptation into account in their climate policies and planning, which has generated benefits in areas such as health, food security, and biodiversity conservation, there are still large gaps between actions already taken and the needs of society in response to the climate change impacts (IPCC 2022). Moreover, progress towards adaptation is unevenly distributed across regions, and most implemented adaptation measures have been small-scale, fragmented, incremental, or sector-specific. Despite the general advocation of CCA in the 2015 and the earlier on (), there is a lack of a comprehensive and systematic guiding framework for countries’ CCA actions, as well as a unified and coordinated operational framework for collaborative deployment within the UN system. Here, we present several suggestions and recommendations for resilience building through collaborative governance for CCA (Fig. 3). Fig. 3Recommendations for climate resilient development (CRD) through collaborative governance for climate change adaptation (CCA), with the support of multi-stakeholder partnershipsFull size imageNations (UN) should take the lead in promoting CCA at the global level. Although the importance of CCA was highlighted in the (2022. Exceeding 1. 5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points. Science 377(6611): 7950. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by emphasizing the impacts of more frequent and intense extreme weather events as a consequence of climate change. It highlights the need for proactive arrangements for risk responses and emphasizes that advancing carbon neutrality directly relates to addressing these extreme weather challenges. Moreover, the text mentions that climate change adaptation is vital to reducing disaster risks, further supporting the idea that the frequency of severe weather events is linked to climate change.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: All earthquakes occur at exactly the same depth beneath the Earth’s surface. [SEP] Text: The autophagosome then undergoes retrograde transport along microtubules and subsequent fusion with lysosomes to degrade engulfed contents (Figure 2A) (Xie and Klionsky, 2007). Figure 2 Download asset Open asset Early autophagosome biogenesis components do not change with age. (A) Schematic of autophagy pathway, focusing on the protein complexes involved in autophagosome biogenesis: induction (red), nucleation (blue), elongation (green), and ATG2/WIPI4 (yellow). ATG9, a multi-pass transmembrane protein is in purple. The product of the nucleation complex, PI3P, is depicted as a blue dot, while LC3-II, the product of the elongation complex, is depicted as a green dot. WIPI1 and WIPI2, which bind to PI3P, are displayed in orange. (B) Quantification of the rate of mCh-ATG13 puncta formation in live-cell imaging of DRG neurons from young, young adult, aged, and advanced aged mice (mean ± SEM; n ≥ 28 neurons from three biological replicates). ns, not significant by Kruskal-test with Dunn’s multiple comparisons test. (C–F) Representative micrographs of mCh-ATG13 in the distal tip of DRG neurons from young (C), young adult (D), aged (E), and advanced aged (F) mice. (G) Quantification of the rate of Halo-DFCP1 puncta in DRG neurons from young, young adult, aged, and advanced aged mice (mean ± SEM; n ≥ 18 neurons from three biological replicates). ns, not significant by Kruskal-test with Dunn’s multiple comparisons test. (H–K) Representative micrographs of Halo-DFCP1 in the distal tip of DRG neurons from young (H), young adult (I), aged (J), and advanced aged (K) mice. (L) Quantification of the rate of mCh-ATG5 puncta in DRG neurons from young, young adult, aged, and advanced aged mice (mean ± SEM; n ≥ 34 neurons from three biological replicates). ns, not significant; **p<0. 001 by Kruskal-test with Dunn’s multiple comparisons test. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the biogenesis of autophagosomes and various experimental findings related to neuronal studies, without mentioning earthquakes or their depths. Therefore, it does not support or contrast the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain fungi can decompose organic matter, contributing to nutrient cycling. [SEP] Text: 0006[diaspore;endozoochory;epizoochory;external transport;gut passage;internal transport;passive seed dispersal;seed traits;shorebirds;waterfowl]Ducks, shorebirds, rails, gulls and other waterbirds act as vectors of seeds, spores and other plant diaspores carried internally in their guts, externally on their feathers, feet or bills, or used as nesting material. Darwin was the first to understand the significance of dispersal by migratory waterbirds in plant evolution, biogeography and ecology. Countless aquatic and terrestrial plants are dependent on dispersal by waterbirds for long-distance dispersal, and this has probably been the case since the Cretaceous. However, plant ecologists and waterfowl biologists alike have been slow to recognize the importance of this dispersal mode as an ecosystem service. Seed dispersal by waterbirds plays a vital role in plant population dynamics, population genetics and changes in species distributions in response to habitat change and climate warming. On the other hand, waterbirds also spread alien species, and their role as vectors should be taken into account when considering how to prevent and manage biological invasions. (pages 147 - 195)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0007[corvidae;coevolution;human commensal;regeneration;scatter hoarding;seed storage]Birds of the family Corvidae, which comprise the familiar jays, magpies, crows, ravens, and their allies, occur nearly worldwide. They include species that are common human commensals in urban and rural landscapes, as well as species that occupy more remote wildlands. Many corvids store excess food for later use, preventing access by conspecifics or other competitors and concealing it in hiding places such as crevices and under objects, but also by burying food under soil, litter, or other substrate. For seed-eaters, which are predominantly granivorous corvids, seeds are moved away from parent trees, and prolonged storage may frequently lead to seed germination and plant regeneration. These granivorous corvids are often scatter-hoarders, placing one or more seeds in many different locations. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses seed dispersal by birds and their ecological roles rather than fungi and their ability to decompose organic matter. There is no mention of fungi or their contributions to nutrient cycling in the provided text, making it unrelated to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Meteorologists use satellite data to track storms and predict weather. [SEP] Text: Skip to content Menu AGU. org to by AGU for dropdown menu Space & & & & dropdown menu ’ Highlights Editors’ Eos en Español Eos 简体中文版 to for: into the 's decision support system give forecasters new capabilities for tracking smoke from fires using satellite data. by A. K. Huff and S. Kondragunta 4 April 20173 November 2022 Share this:Click to print (Opens in new window)Click to email a link to a friend (Opens in new window)Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)Click to share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) Evacuees flee a wildfire that threatened Fort McMurray, Alberta, Canada, in May 2016. Forecasters used this fire to test the capabilities of a new fire and smoke data resource from NOAA. Credit: Jonathan Hayward/Press via AP Wildfires and controlled burns place special demands on the people who decide where and when to deploy firefighters, how to keep controlled burns contained, and how best to protect life and property. Meteorologists from the Service weather offices, fire incident meteorologists, and state and local air quality forecasters provide information that is vital to assisting these decision makers. These meteorologists must determine the effects of smoke and quickly incorporate them into their forecasts related to visibility and air quality. Fortunately, a new fire and smoke data resource from the (NOAA) makes a new generation of high-accuracy, high-resolution aerosol data products readily available to these forecasters. The new website, called enhanced Infusing satellite Data into (eIDEA), gives meteorologists and other interested parties access to the latest generation of satellite aerosol products. These new capabilities were put to the test last May, when a monthlong fire broke out in Fort McMurray in northeastern Alberta, Canada. The fire forced almost 88,000 people to evacuate their homes (Figure 1). Fig. 1. True-color VIIRS satellite imagery (RGB) for 6 May 2016, displayed on the eIDEA website, shows gray plumes of thick smoke streaming southeastward from the Fort McMurray fire in Alberta, Canada. Red dots are fire radiative power (FRP) fire hot spot detections, and clouds appear as bright white features. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing how meteorologists utilize enhanced satellite data to track smoke from wildfires and improve their forecasts. The mention of NOAA and the new fire and smoke data resource that provides high-accuracy satellite aerosol products supports the idea that meteorologists apply satellite data in their work.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: All earthquakes occur at exactly the same depth beneath the Earth’s surface. [SEP] Text: We propose that upon perturbation of dynamic WIPI2 phosphorylation, membrane extension may proceed in an unrestricted manner, generating the multilamellar structures observed by TEM in neurons from aged mice (Figure 1) (Majeed, 1993) and in aged human AD brain (Nixon et al. , 2005). Here, we chose to focus on WIPI2 as a master regulator of autophagosome biogenesis. However, it will be interesting to determine in the future how LC3B incorporation into the isolation membrane relates to lipid incorporation and autophagosome membrane extension and expansion. The autophagy pathway has been extensively studied in non-neuronal cells, where autophagy can be induced by starvation or other cellular stressors (Abada and Elazar, 2014; Hale et al. , 2013; Mariño et al. , 2011; Reggiori and Klionsky, 2013; Son et al. , 2012; Wu et al. , 2013; Zhang and Baehrecke, 2015). Conversely, in vivo and in vitro studies in neurons indicate that neuronal autophagy is not significantly induced by starvation (Fox et al. , 2010; Maday and Holzbaur, 2016; Mizushima et al. , 2004; Tsvetkov et al. , 2010) or by proteotoxic stress (Maday et al. , 2012; Wong and Holzbaur, 2014). These studies suggest that autophagosome biogenesis is regulated differentially in neuronal and non-neuronal cells. Our results indicate that induction of autophagosome biogenesis is constitutive and remains robust during aging in neurons (Figure 2). Further, our data identify a novel age-related regulation of neuronal autophagosome biogenesis, suggesting that autophagy can be regulated at distinct steps apart from the autophagy initiation complex. Consistent with our finding that WIPI2 regulates basal autophagy, WIPI1 and WIPI2 recruitment to AVs is independent of glucose starvation (McAlpine et al. , 2013; Pfisterer et al. , 2011). Our data ultimately suggest that neuronal autophagy may be more easily modulated ectopically via WIPI2B than the better-studied, starvation-sensitive ULK1-ATG13 initiation complex. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the regulation of autophagosome biogenesis in neurons and does not address earthquakes or their depths in any context. Therefore, it does not provide any corroborating or contrasting information regarding the claim about earthquakes.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain fungi can decompose organic matter, contributing to nutrient cycling. [SEP] Text: Several corvid species are dependable seed dispersers for various woody plant taxa, and particularly pines, oaks, beeches and chestnuts, resulting in coevolution and coadaptation. Seed-storing corvid species help shape forest composition and distribution across landscapes, facilitate response to changing climate, and regenerate communities after disturbance. Examples illustrate economic valuation of corvid seed dispersal services and demonstrate how declining seed dispersal services of an obligate corvid mutualist for a widespread forest tree already have apparent consequences. (pages 196 - 234)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0008[carrion;diclofenic;facultative scavenging;obligate scavenging;vultures]Carrion is a unique food resource compared to live prey, and animal species are adapted to using carrion to varying degrees. Across all climates, ecosystems, and habitats, most carcasses are used at least in part by vertebrates—relatively few are completely decomposed by insects and microbes. Birds are particularly well adapted to scavenging, especially the Old- and New-World vultures, the only known obligate vertebrate scavengers. Numerous studies, many conducted over the past decade, have demonstrated the importance of scavengers in maintaining ecosystem stability, providing public health benefits to humans, and many other important industry and cultural services. Avian scavengers face many challenges in the modern world, such as poisoning, climate change, habitat destruction, and man-made obstructions such as power lines and wind farms. As a response, scientists, conservation groups, governments, and other advocates for healthy scavenger populations have made strides recently in conserving these animals. However, much work is still needed to globally preserve the important services provided by avian scavengers for future generations. (pages 235 - 270)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0009[seabirds;nutrient dynamics;nutrient cycle;ecosystem services;nutrient transport;phosphorus;nitrogen;ecosystem;human-dominated ecosystem]In this 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding fungi and their role in decomposing organic matter. Instead, it discusses corvid species as seed dispersers and the ecology of scavenging birds, which are unrelated topics. Therefore, the text is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Meteorologists use satellite data to track storms and predict weather. [SEP] Text: Credit: eIDEA eIDEA: Interface for Data in made by the Suite (VIIRS) aboard NOAA and NASA’s Polar-orbiting Partnership (NPP) Earth-observing satellite are used to generate eIDEA’s products and images. aerosol data products and images feature high accuracy and high spatial resolution, making them particularly useful for monitoring the effects of smoke from wildfires and controlled burns. During the 2016 fire season, fire incident meteorologists and air quality forecasters used a new decision support tool to track the effects of wildfire emissions. The eIDEA website was designed to specifically address the needs of forecasters, who require timely data and imagery in a simple, easy to use interface. instrument provides forecasters with a variety of aerosol products that feature multiple layers of information, all of which are available on eIDEA in near real time: less than 2 hours from when the data were collected. This newsletter rocks. Get the most fascinating science news stories of the week in your inbox every Friday. Sign up now The area covered by eIDEA spans the continental (CONUS), Alaska, and Canada; the domain will be expanded to include Mexico, Central America, and the in the near future. During the 2016 fire season, fire incident meteorologists and air quality forecasters used this new decision support tool to track the effects of wildfire emissions. Following the Because smoke has a very high concentration of aerosol p4. This data product is often represented by color codes in imagery, with cool colors (blues and greens) corresponding to lower AOT and warm colors (yellows, oranges, and reds) corresponding to higher AOT. This measurement has certain limitations. Clouds block the measurement of AOT, so there are no measurements in cloudy regions, and data are not retrieved over areas covered by snow. AOT measures the total light absorption and scattering for a given air column, so it does not provide any information about the height of the aerosols within this column. Nor does it tell us how likely the p0. 4), and they run 48 hours into the future in 3-hour time steps. The trajectory product on eIDEA maps the forward movement of the smoke plumes using a color-coded scale. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how fire incident meteorologists and air quality forecasters used data from NOAA and NASA’s satellites to track wildfire emissions and monitor air quality. It highlights that the eIDEA system was designed specifically to meet the needs of forecasters by providing timely and accurate data, thus supporting the claim about the use of satellite data in meteorological practices.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All earthquakes occur at exactly the same depth beneath the Earth’s surface. [SEP] Text: Skip to main content Get published My account Search all SpringerOpen 64. 4 km; magnitude: 2. 6) and black (29 November 11:22:37 depth 70. 8 km; magnitude: 2. 6) lines. The rms envelopes are smoothed by averaging data in 1 s time windows. Pink arrows show travel times from the origin time, and ts is the travel time of direct S waves of two events. Dark and light blue lines denote the original 4 s time window and one shifted 2 s later, whose spectra were stacked to obtain S coda spectra for all the eventsFull size imageDifferences in seismic properties of the Pacific plate between the Tohoku and Hokkaido regions have been suggested by several seismological studies. In the northeastern Japan subduction zone, Fujie et al. (2018) reported a difference in low-velocity anomalies beneath Tohoku-oki and Hokkaido-oki regions from ocean bottom seismometers; the degree of the low-velocity anomalies within the oceanic crust and mantle in off Tohoku-oki is larger than that in off Hokkaido-oki. The difference in the anomalies may be due to a more hydrated oceanic plate beneath Tohoku-oki than Hokkaido-oki based on knowledge of the abyssal hill fault re-activation system. Shiina et al. (2017) examined seismic velocities of oceanic crust beneath Hokkaido, finding higher seismic velocity of oceanic crust at depths of 70 to 100 km beneath Hokkaido compared to that beneath Tohoku. Kita and Ferrand (2018) found that b-values in the OM beneath Tohoku are smaller than in Hokkaido. They also indicated that the OM at intermediate depth beneath Tohoku is more hydrated than beneath Hokkaido based on results of acoustic emission experimental earthquakes (AEs); in serpentinized peridotite samples, b-values of the AEs increase with the increase of hydration. The stress regime within the slab beneath Tohoku is similar to Hokkaido (e. g. , Hasegawa et al. 1978; Suzuki and Motoya 1981; Suzuki et al. 1983), but there is a difference in the portion of interplane events (events between the double seismic planes) between Tohoku and Hokkaido (e. g. , Kosuga et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing variations in seismic properties and depths of different seismic events, particularly noting that the depths of seismic events can vary significantly, as indicated by 'the depth 70.8 km' and 'higher seismic velocity of oceanic crust at depths of 70 to 100 km beneath Hokkaido'. This suggests that earthquakes do not occur at a uniform depth, challenging the claim that all earthquakes occur at exactly the same depth.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain fungi can decompose organic matter, contributing to nutrient cycling. [SEP] Text: However, changes in guild species numbers do not necessarily translate to changes in relative abundance, biomass or function, and more studies are needed to quantify these important measures. These findings indicate that the replacement of forests and agroforests with simplified agricultural systems can result in shifts towards less specialized bird communities with altered proportions of functional groups. These shifts can reduce avian ecosystem function and affect the ecosystem services provided by birds in agroforests and other agricultural landscapes. (pages 321 - 340)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0012[conservation;direct ecosystem services;excise tax;indirect ecosystem services;Pittman-Robertson act]Birds are important components of the world’s many ecosystems, and they contribute cultural, provisioning, supporting, and regulating ecosystem services. The lives of birds and humans have been intertwined for many thousands of years. Birds inspire, entertain, feed, and clothe humans. Throughout the evolution of modern humans and the cultural development of our societies, birds clearly matter. Cultural and provisioning services accrue directly – these services are themselves products. Bird art and bird eggs, for instance, are commodities --they may be bought and sold (or bartered). Regulating and supporting services, in contrast, accrue indirectly – not themselves commodities, they instead they help maintain other components of the world’s ecosystems upon which humans depend for both goods (food, shelter) and services (disease management; pest control). These indirect services facilitate other ecosystem services, and therefore promote biodiversity. To maintain the many ecosystem services provided by birds, we need to conserve them. The financial costs of conservation appear great, perhaps even insurmountable. Nonetheless, the capital to fund conservation exists. It is up to those of us who value birds, and the rest of nature, to urge governments and citizens of the world to find the will. (pages 341 - 364)This 2016. Page maintained by BiblioVault. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim about fungi decomposing organic matter. Instead, it discusses the roles of birds in ecosystems, their services, and the importance of conservation, which is unrelated to the claim regarding fungi.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Meteorologists use satellite data to track storms and predict weather. [SEP] Text: VIIRS aerosol optical thickness (AOT) measurements are overlaid with VIIRS true-color imagery (RGB) from eIDEA for 7 May 2016. The red, orange, and yellow areas indicate high AOT associated with smoke plumes from the Fort McMurray fire that were transported into the northern plains of the United States. Clouds (white areas) block the measurement of AOT, so there are no AOT measurements in these areas. Credit: e2. 5 concentration measurements from the AirNow network are represented as colored dots. The colors of the dots match the colors of EPA’s Index (AQI). values represent particulate concentrations in excess of the daily NAAQS. The 24-hour average PM2. 5 concentrations on 7 May in the northern plains (Figure 4) ranged from in northwestern Iowa and metropolitan Minneapolis–Saint Paul, Minn. , to in metropolitan Omaha and Lincoln, Neb. , and Bismarck, N. D. This event lasted only 1 day, with PM2. 5 concentrations dropping down into the safer range across the northern plains on 8 May. Fig. 4. An eIDEA image for 7 May 2016 showing VIIRS true-color imagery (RGB) overlaid with colored dots representing daily PM2. 5 (fine particulates) Index values from U. S. EPA’s AirNow network. Red and orange dots in Iowa, Minnesota, Nebraska, and indicate exceedances of the PM2. 5 Standard (NAAQS). Smoke plumes from the Fort McMurray wildfire are visible as gray wispy features, and clouds are bright white. Credit: ein eIDEA’s launched NOAA’s Environmental Satellite–R Series (GOES-R) geostationary weather satellite, now known as GOES-16. The eIDEA website will be updated to include new aerosol products derived from GOES-16 data as soon as they become available sometime in late summer or early autumn of 2017. GOES-16 is the first in the next generation of geostationary Earth-observing satellites. It has a sensor similar to VIIRS, called the Imager (ABI), that will routinely provide aerosol observations every 15 minutes over the full disk of the Earth, covering North and South America, and every 5 minutes over the CONUS. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the use of satellite data, specifically mentioning the GOES-16 geostationary weather satellite, which provides aerosol observations and imagery that are valuable for tracking meteorological events and predicting weather.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All earthquakes occur at exactly the same depth beneath the Earth’s surface. [SEP] Text: 1996; Kita et al. 2010b). Source parameters including stress drops of events at intermediate depth also may differ between Tohoku and Hokkaido due to the difference of the degree of hydration. In the present study, we estimate the stress drops for intermediate-depth intraslab events (2. 0 < Mj < 5. 0 where Mj is the JMA magnitude) (Fig. 1), and examine the spatial variations of stress drop, including dependence on focal-depth and on the distance normal to the plate interface for precisely-located earthquakes beneath Tohoku. By comparing results of this study and a previous study in Hokkaido (Kita and Katsumata 2015), we also infer causes of the difference in stress drop behaviors between the two regions. Data and methodWe relocated hypocenters using the double-difference location method (Waldhauser and Ellsworth 2000) and estimated the stress drops for events using a procedure nearly identical to that of Kita and Katsumata (2015). Relocated hypocenters are shown as colored crosses in Fig. 1. The relocation process is described as below. To relocate earthquakes, hypocenter parameters and phase data for 16,348 events at depths of more than 55 km from the JMA catalog were used as initial parameters. The 1D velocity structure model of the routine procedure for hypocenter location at (Hasegawa et al. 1978) was employed. Event pairs were selected that had hypocentral separations of < 20 km and at least eight arrival time differences with respect to their neighbors. In total, 1,927,185 arrival time differences were obtained from catalog data for P-waves, and 1,658,479 for S-waves. The number of stations is 251. The final results of the inversion were obtained after 12 iterations, which reduced the average root mean square value of the double-difference misfit from 0. 126 to 0. 0473 s. Estimated relative relocation errors using the singular value decomposition method are ~ 1 km in both the vertical and horizontal directions. After the relocation, we only retain events whose corner frequencies can be successfully estimated by our analysis. We relocated 16,348 events and extracted 4912 events (at depths of 55 to 200 km) after matching our event catalog of corner frequencies. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing depth variations in earthquakes. It specifically mentions different depths for relocated earthquakes beneath regions such as Tohoku and Hokkaido and states that events were relocated at depths ranging from 55 km to 200 km. This directly contradicts the assertion that all earthquakes occur at the same depth.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain fungi can decompose organic matter, contributing to nutrient cycling. [SEP] Text: Create a new account user Can't sign in? Forgot your username? Enter your email address below and we will send you your username Email* the address matches an existing account you will receive an email with instructions to retrieve your username close | or * Password* Forgot password? Reset it here Keep me logged in All fields with * are mandatory Email* All fields with * are mandatory Already have an account? Login here password must have 8 characters or more and contain 3 of the following: a lower case character, an upper case character, a special character or a digit password has been changed Can't sign in? Forgot your password? Enter your email address below and we will send you the reset instructions Email* the address matches an existing account you will receive an email with instructions to reset your password the verification code Cancel Congrats! has been verified close 10. 1139/x83-031 Get AccessContentsof Forest Research, Number 2April 19831983. Contribution of mycorrhizae and soil fungi to nutrient cycling in a Douglas-fir ecosystem. of Forest Research. 13(2): 219-232. Export 1. Species-specific reliance of trees on ectomycorrhizal fungi for nitrogen supply at an alpine treeline Go to 2. Fungi rather than bacteria drive early mass loss from fungal necromass regardless of p3. Thinning effects on biomass and element concentrations of roots in adjacent hornbeam and oak stands in Istanbul, to 4. Evidence for a fungal loop in shrublands Go to 5. The Rhizosphere/to 6. Accounting for to Discrepancies in to 7. Rapid changes in the chemical composition of degrading ectomycorrhizal fungal necromass Go to 8. to for Global Change: and the to 9. Effects of bedrock type and soil chemistry on the fine roots of European beech – A study on the belowground plasticity of trees Go to 10. () Go to 11. Harvesting Douglas-fir Activity and Go to 12. The effect of environmental contamination on the community structure and fructification of ectomycorrhizal fungi Go to 13. Go to 14. Contribution of understorey vegetation and soil processes to boreal forest isoprenoid exchange Go to 15. Second‐generation molecular understanding of mycorrhizas in soil ecosystems Go to 16. Available for Go to 17. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not provide any relevant information about fungi decomposing organic matter or their role in nutrient cycling. Instead, it appears to focus on user account management instructions and does not relate to the claim made.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Microclimates can create variations in weather over short distances. [SEP] Text: (a) Study domain map and terrain distribution (shaded every 200 m) over northern China with the focus area highlighted in box ABCD, which includes the cities of Beijing (denoted as BJ) and Tianjin (TJ) and the provinces of Shanxi (SX), Inner-Mongolia (NM), Hebei (HB), Shandong (SD), Henan (HN), Anhui (AH), and Jiangsu (JS). (b) Distribution of mean warm-season hourly rainfall rate (mm h−1) averaged over all hours from May to August during 2003–09 estimated with the dataset. (c) Averaged terrain elevation and hourly precipitation rate along the northwest–southeast direction averaged over the boxed area in (a). The starting point of the cross section is an average over line AB, and the ending point is an average over line CD; the same averaging method will be used for Figs. 4 and 6 along the same cross section. View in gallery Fig. 2. (a) Percentage of the diurnal contributions of the total precipitation (calculated as the sum of the absolute differences between the mean precipitation rate at each hour and the mean hourly precipitation rate divided by the mean hourly precipitation rate). The 800-m terrain elevation is plotted in thick gray curves denoting the approximate location of the steepest terrain slope. (b) Isochrones (phase fronts) of the local diurnal precipitation peaks at different times of Fig. 3 with terrain elevations shaded every 200 m. The time label of the isochrones in (b) is in UTC [i. e. , 8 h behind the local standard time (Beijing time)]. View in gallery Fig. 3. Map distribution of normalized diurnal precipitation deviations at (a) 0600, (b) 0900, (c) 1200, (d) 1500, (e) 1800, and (f) 0000 UTC estimated as the mean precipitation rate at this hour minus the mean precipitation rate throughout the date, normalized by the standard deviation of hourly precipitation at each location. Scales smaller than 200 km are truncated by a 2D spectral decomposition. The 800-m terrain elevation is plotted in thick gray curves denoting the approximate location of the steepest terrain slope. The purple solid (dashed) line denotes the location of the phase fronts of the local diurnal precipitation peaks (minima). View in gallery Fig. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses terrain distributions, diurnal precipitation peaks, and average hourly rainfall rates in northern China. It indicates that variations in terrain elevation and local diurnal precipitation peaks contribute to differences in precipitation rates over short distances, supporting the idea that microclimates can create weather variations. By examining the 'normalized diurnal precipitation deviations' at specific hours and correlating them with terrain features, the text demonstrates how local conditions influence weather variability, thus corroborating the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: All earthquakes occur at exactly the same depth beneath the Earth’s surface. [SEP] Text: (2013) estimated corner frequencies of earthquakes using that method and discussed the relationship of earthquake corner frequencies to the distance between two events. For intermediate-depth events, they required inter-event distance less than the event focal depths. They showed that the estimated corner frequency of an event at 118 km depth is stable for inter-event distances of 20 to 100 km. In our analysis, the distance between the two events must be less than 60 km, but also less than the focal depth of the shallower event of the pair when the focal depth of the shallower event is less than 60 km. Each event pair in our analysis had a magnitude difference at least 0. 8. The duration of the time window is 4 s starting from 1. 5 times the direct S wave travel time, which is considered to be the S-coda wave (Sato et al. 2012). That time window is sufficient to constrain corner frequencies in our magnitude range of 2. 0 to 5. 0. To improve stability, we used stacked waveforms from the original time window and a time window shifted 2 s later than the initial one. Examples of envelope waveforms of S-coda waves analyzed in this study are shown in Fig. 1b. One of the merits of the use of coda waves is greater stability of amplitude ratios compared to direct waves (e. g. , Mayeda et al. 2007). Figure 1b shows that amplitudes for S-coda wave of two M2. 6 events are almost the same, whereas amplitudes during their direct S-waves differ. We estimated the S-wave arrival time by using manual picking times of P arrival times by NIED operators, and by calculating the theoretical S-wave travel time for the one-dimensional seismic velocity model (Hasegawa et al. 1978) in order to determine the onset of the S-coda wave. We analyzed spectral ratios using a frequency range of 1–30 Hz with a one-third-octave bandwidth. If the fc2 becomes 30 Hz, we discard fc2 and fc1 of that pair. Only data with signal-to-noise (S/N) ratios greater than 2 in average absolute amplitude in the 4 s time window were included. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing various depths of earthquake events, noting that intermediate-depth events can occur at different depths, as evidenced by the mention of an estimated corner frequency for an event at 118 km depth. It implies variability in earthquake depths instead of supporting the idea that all earthquakes occur at the same depth.