Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Social networks can significantly influence individual behavior. [SEP] Text: El model considera els individus que participen en un context social com si realitzaran una caminada a l'atzar en l'espai, i es basa en el concepte de "atractivitat social": persones socialment atractives tenen més probabilitat de que la gent que els envolta interactuï amb ells. Ens hem ocupat també de l'estudi analític del model "activity driven", destinat a capturar la relació entre la dinàmica de les xarxes variables en el temps i les propietats de les seves corresponents xarxes socials agregats. A través d'un mapeig amb el formalisme de variables ocultes, hem obtingut expressions analítiques per a les propietats topològiques de les xarxes integrades en el temps i les propietats de connectivitat de la xarxa en evolució, en funció del temps d'integració i de la forma del potencial d'activitat. A la segona part de la tesi hem estudiat el comportament dels processos difusius sobre xarxes temporals constituïdes per les dades empíriques de interaccions humanes. Primer considerem el procés de "random walk", o camí aleatori, i gràcies a les diferents estratègies de randomització que hem introduït, podem destacar el paper crucial de la correlacions temporals en alentir l'exploració del camí aleatori. Després hem dirigit la nostra atenció a la difusió d'epidèmies, centrant-nos en el cas d'un simple model SI que es desenvolupa a les xarxes temporals, complementat amb l'estudi de l'impacte de diferents estratègies d'immunització sobre la difusió de la infecció. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how social networks and the concept of 'social attractiveness' influence the probability of interaction among individuals. It highlights the analytical study of temporal networks and how human interaction data plays a role in the dynamics affecting individual behavior within a social context.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change is accelerating the melting of the polar ice caps at an unprecedented rate. [SEP] Text: "Despite the uncertainty we still have about future sea level, from a risk perspective our approach provides at least plausible, and relevant, estimates. "Figure 7. Flooded dock. Sea levels around the world can be expected to rise by several metres in coming centuries, if global warming carries on. Even if global warming is limited to 2 degrees Celsius, global-mean sea level could continue to rise, reaching between 1. 5 and 4 metres above present-day levels by the year 2300, with the best estimate being at 2. 7 metres. (Credit: © knuderik Fotolia)3. 4. Hurricanes and global warmingSociety; November 2005Debate over climate change frequently conflates issues of science and politics. “There’s a push on climatologists to say something about extremes, because they are so important. But that can be very dangerous if we really don’t know the answer” (Henson 2005). In this 3. 4. 1. Event riskAt the end of the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season, many scientists, reporters, and policymakers looked for simple answers to explain the extent of the devastation, which totaled more than $40 billion according to the Center. Some prominent scientists proposed that the intense 2004 hurricane season and its considerable impacts, particularly in Florida, could be linked to global warming resulting from the emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere (e. g. , School 2004; NCAR 2004). But the current state of climate science does not support so close a linkage (Trenberth 2005). Tropical cyclones can be thought of to a first approximation as a natural heat engine or Carnot cycle (Emanuel 1987). From this perspective global warming can theoretically influence the maximum potential intensity of tropical cyclones through alterations of the surface energy flux and/or the upper-level cold exhaust (Emanuel 1987; Lighthill et al. 1994; Henderson-Sellers et al. 1998). But no theoretical basis yet exists for projecting changes in tropical cyclone frequency, though empirical studies do provide some guidance as to the necessary thermodynamical and dynamical ingredients for tropical cyclogenesis (Gray 1968, 1979). Since 1995 there has been an increase in the number of storms, and in particular the number of major hurricanes (categorys 3, 4, and 5) in the Atlantic. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing uncertainties around climate change and its complex relationship with sea levels and hurricanes. It mentions that while sea levels could rise significantly if global warming continues, the link between extreme weather events, like hurricanes, and global warming is not clearly established. This implies a nuanced understanding of climate change impacts rather than an assertion that it is accelerating ice cap melting at an unprecedented rate.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Fungal spores are among the most abundant airborne particles. [SEP] Text: , 2014; Yan & Lu, 2015; Yao et al. , 2019). Grazing exclusion can not only change ecosystem processes to promote the survival of local plants, but can also affect the activity and structure of soil microbial communities by increasing nutrient availability (Bastida et al. , 2013; Zhang et al. , 2018). The soil microbial community is a key driver of grassland ecosystems and of crucial importance for soil functioning (Bardgett, Wardle & Yeates, 1998). A major challenge is to understand how these complex communities respond to grazing exclusion. Many studies have demonstrated that grazing exclusion can have considerable effects on soil microbial communities, often with consequences for plant community dynamics (Cheng et al. , 2016; Bi et al. , 2018). It has also been shown that bacteria recover faster than fungi and with the rates being differentially governed by plant diversity (Zhang et al. , 2018). Although these past studies provide important insights into grazing exclusion and microbial communities, up to now few data have been available concerning the impacts of grazing exclusion on soil microbial interactions. Soil microbes can form a complex inter-species network that regulates the structure of ecological communities (Zhou et al. , 2011; Lupatini et al. , 2014). Evidence is mounting that the properties of these interaction networks can influence the response of soil microbial communities to environmental change (et al. , 2018; Marcos, Bertiller & Olivera, 2019). In recent years, microbial network analysis has been used as a tool to explore the interactions in a range of environments, providing important details on microbial cooperation and competition (Faust & Raes, 2012; Yu et al. , 2018). Additionally, microbial networks have been highlighted as crucial to understanding the dynamics of microbial community assembly and the responses of member interactions to a changed environment (Zhou et al. , 2011). A previous study performed in arid region of Patagonia observed an increase in positive network connections, indicating that there are more cooperative relationships within the microbial community to survive under the stressful conditions imposed by grazing (Marcos, Bertiller & Olivera, 2019). In addition, a study performed in drylands of northern china showed that microbial interaction in extremely dry ecosystems is more sensitive to changes in water availability (Wang et al. , 2018). Although the use of network analysis has increased in drylands, little has been revealed on how soil microbial interactions respond to grazing exclusion, especially in desert grassland ecosystems. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the effects of grazing exclusion on soil microbial communities and their interactions but does not mention fungal spores or airborne particles. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim about the abundance of fungal spores in the air.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Social stratification can affect access to resources and opportunities. [SEP] Text: for Higher Education: and Access 9. Student Loans: A Brief History, the Current Landscape, and Impacts on Society 10. of the 11. : Network Resources, Outcomes, and Opportunities 12. and the Capitalist Turn: Research and Reflections 13. of the University 14. to This Situation? of the in a | 1 →. . SASSO[The academy should] make for less misery among the poor, less ignorance in the schools, less suffering in the hospital, less fraud in business, [and] less folly in politics. —(1876)If the university does not take seriously and rigorously its role as a guardian of wider civic freedom, as interrogator of more and more complex ethical problems, as servant and preserver of deeper democratic practices, then some other regime or ménage of regimes will do it for us, in spite of us, and without us. —Toni MorrisonFundamentally, this book asks, and responds to, a two-pronged question: What are the influences of higher education on society—and what are the influences of society on higher education? The two sections of the text are devoted to that essential inquiry. Each of those parts is not easily disentangled, nor should it be. In fact, higher education and society are intrinsically interrelated. Post-secondary education tends to mirror society, especially its more dominant groups and institutions. But there are several sides to that issue as well. Yes, colleges and universities operate within a messy societal web that breeds cultural lag within their institutional structures. That is, they function as transmitters of culture. At the same time, however, they can bring striking—and welcome—changes as a result of their intellectual pursuits. In that case, they act as transformative agents. Even more paradoxically, sometimes the element of lag might even be seen as an enlightened struggle to sustain core academic values, while some efforts toward societal “progress” can be viewed, in some scholastic quarters, as abject surrender to external (e. g. , corporate and political) interests: ← 1 | 2 → [Colleges and universities] serve society as both a responsive servant and a thoughtful critic. … [They] must also raise questions that society does not want to ask and generate new ideas that help invent the future. (Shapiro, 2005, p. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by discussing the relationship between higher education and society, emphasizing how higher education mirrors dominant social groups and institutions. It notes that societal inequities are reflected in access to education, which is a critical resource and opportunity. Furthermore, the text highlights that colleges and universities operate within a societal context that can perpetuate cultural lag, affecting how resources are accessed and who benefits from them, which directly correlates with social stratification.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change is accelerating the melting of the polar ice caps at an unprecedented rate. [SEP] Text: But the changes of the past decade in these metrics are not so large as to clearly indicate that anything is going on other than the multidecadal variability that has been well documented since at least 1900 (Gray et al. 1997; Landsea et al. 1999; Goldenberg et al. 2001). Consequently, in the absence of large or unprecedented trends, any effect of greenhouse gases on the frequency of storms or major hurricanes is necessarily very difficult to detect in the context of this documented variability. Perspectives on hurricanes are no doubt shaped by recent history, with relatively few major hurricanes observed in the 1970s, 1980s, and early 1990s, compared with considerable activity during the 1940s, 1950s, and early 1960s. The period from 1944 to 1950 was particularly active for Florida. During that period 11 hurricanes hit the state, at least one per year, resulting in the equivalent of billions of dollars in damage in each of those years (Pielke and Landsea 1998). Globally there has been no increase in tropical cyclone frequency over at least the past several decades (Webster et al. 2005; Lander and Guard 1998; Elsner and Kocher 2000). In addition to a lack of theory for future changes in storm frequencies, the few global modeling results are contradictory (et al. 1998; Houghton et al. 2001). Because historical and observational data on hurricanes and tropical cyclones are relatively robust, it is clear that storm frequency has not tracked recent tropical climate trends. Research on possible future changes in hurricane frequency due to global warming is ambiguous, with most studies suggesting that future changes will be regionally dependent, and showing a lack of consistency in projecting an increase or decrease in the total global number of storms (Henderson-Sellers et al. 1998; Royer et al. 1998; Sugi et al. 2002). These studies give such contradictory results as to suggest that the state of understanding of tropical cyclogenesis provides too poor a foundation to base any projections about the future. While there is always some degree of uncertainty about the future and model-based results are often fickle, the state of current understanding is such that we should expect hurricane frequencies in the future to have a great deal of year-to-year and decade-to-decade variation as has been observed over the past decades and longer. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by stating that recent changes in metrics are not significant enough to suggest anything beyond historical variability. It emphasizes that there are no clear trends indicating the impact of greenhouse gases on storm frequency or major hurricanes, implying that observed phenomena can be explained by historical variances rather than climate change. The mention of a lack of large or unprecedented trends discredits the assertion that climate change is accelerating ice melting.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Fungal spores are among the most abundant airborne particles. [SEP] Text: The desert steppe of cover about 20% of China’s desertification land area, which is characterized by harsh physical environments, infertile soil, and simple plant community composition (Wang et al. , 2020). These natural ecosystems support the life of about 95% of the human population (Li et al. , 2008). However, drought and dust storms have become the largest meteorological disasters in this area causing sparse vegetation and land desertification, which are exacerbated by overgrazing (Wang et al. , 2020). In this study, we designed to assess the effects of eight-years of grazing exclusion on soil bacterial and fungal networks. We also aimed to test the changes in plant and soil properties and investigated how these changes affected the response of bacterial and fungal networks to grazing exclusion. Materials and site The study site was located in Erlianhot (43°38′34. 44″−43°38′54. 29″N, 112°07′58″E, 952–955 m elevation) of Inner Mongolia, northern China. The area has an arid and semiarid climate and is highly prone to drought, receives little precipitation, and frequently has strong winds. The annual mean temperature is 3. 4 °C, annual mean precipitation is 142. 2 mm, and approximately 70% of the annual rainfall occurs from July to August. The main soil types in this area are Aeolian sandy soils, with low fertility and loose structure. The representative vegetation includes S. glareosa, Cleistogenes songorica (Roshev. ) Ohwi, and Asparagus cochinchinensis (Lour. ) Merr communities, but the vegetation has been greatly altered by long-term overgrazing. Experimental design and sampling The experiment was conducted in late August 2017, when grassland biomass was at its peak. We selected one site with two treatments: grazing excluded (GE) and grazed (G). Inside the grazing excluded area (comprising an area of 200 m × 200 m paddock), livestock has been excluded from this region since 2009 and the remaining site in the area was subjected to free grazing by sheep continuously all the year. Within the grazed and grazing exclude area, we established three 50 × 50 m (50 m apart) plots, respectively (Fig. S1). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the characteristics of the desert steppe in China, including details about climate, vegetation, and an experimental design related to grazing exclusion. It does not provide any information or evidence regarding the abundance of fungal spores as airborne particles.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Social stratification can affect access to resources and opportunities. [SEP] Text: 4) Because the university has come to serve so many constituencies, its goals have become a part of the marketplace mosaic. In colonial times, those pathways were guided by largely theological priorities. In the modern age, moneyed captains of industry have become more prominent in shaping collegiate aims: What [emphasis] is new, and troubling, is the raw power that money directly exerts over so many aspects of higher education. … Entrepreneurial ambition, which used to be regarded in academe as a necessary evil, has become a virtue. (Kirp, 2004, p. 3) Originally, higher education served to transmit past knowledge to the next generation of elite, landed gentry of solely privileged male students. The relatively few who attended college were preparing for the ministry and/or leadership roles in society. America’s colonial colleges offered little else than a small faculty in residence and a prescribed curriculum in classical studies, astronomy, and metaphysics. They did serve to underscore higher education as a particular private privilege. By the mid-19th century, new and more varied educational demands helped to create the first federal (1862), which established 101 land-grant institutions in light of the growing technical and agricultural needs of an ever-increasing population. That legislation gave birth to an unwritten “social contract” between the public and its various state colleges. Thus, this social contract implied that the citizenry would invest in the advancement of post-secondary education via large-scale learning communities (Kerr, 1963/2001). In the 20th century, state colleges and their supporting governmental agencies continued that tradition as enrollment swelled during the and students sought to weather the severe economic downturn. War II, the G. I. Bill further invigorated the social contract when it sent thousands of veterans to college. Soon after, higher education became a more viable pathway to the middle class and a vehicle for social mobility. Was equal access for all students, at least in theory, on the horizon? In the 1960s, B. Johnson’s “Great Society” program passed legislation and the Act of 1965. The latter created federal grants and so-called equal opportunity. These grants, or tuition waivers, offered low-income families and underrepresented minority students the chance to attend college. Yet they did not confirm equal access as a complete reality. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how social stratification has historically shaped access to higher education. It indicates that higher education originally catered to an exclusive group of elite males and emphasizes how changes in policy, such as the G.I. Bill and federal grants, aimed to provide educational opportunities to low-income families and underrepresented minorities. This historical context supports the idea that social stratification impacts access to educational resources and, subsequently, opportunities for social mobility.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change is accelerating the melting of the polar ice caps at an unprecedented rate. [SEP] Text: Tropical cyclones will also result in death and suffering, in less developed countries in particular, as seen in Haiti during (cf. Pielke et al. 2003). Over the long term the effects of changes in society dwarf the effects of any projected changes in tropical cyclones according to research based on assumptions of the on (IPCC), the scientific organization convened to report on the science of climate change. By 2050, for every additional dollar in damage that the IPCC expects to result from the effects of global warming on tropical cyclones, we should expect between $22 and $60 of increase in damage due to population growth and wealth (Pielke et al. 2000). The primary factors that govern the magnitude and patterns of future damages and causalities are how society develops and prepares for storms rather than any presently conceivable future changes in the frequency and intensity of the storms (see Fig. 8). Figure 8. Flooding at costal areaConsider that if per capita wealth and population grow at a combined 5% per year, this implies a doubling in the real costs of hurricanes about every 15 years. In such a context, any climate trend would have to be quite large to be discernible in the impacts record. With no trend identified in various metrics of hurricane damage over the twentieth century (Pielke and Landsea 1998), it is exceedingly unlikely that scientists will identify large changes in historical storm behavior that have significant societal implications. In addition, looking to the future, until scientists conclude:that there will be changes to storms that are significantly larger than observed in the past, that such changes are correlated to measures of societal impact, and that the effects of such changes are significant in the context of inexorable growth in population and property at risk, then it is reasonable to conclude that the significance of any connection of human-caused climate change to hurricane impacts necessarily has been and will continue to be exceedingly small. Thus a great irony here is that invoking the modulation of future hurricanes to justify energy policies to mitigate climate change may prove counterproductive. Not only does this provide a great opening for criticism of the underlying scientific reasoning, it leads to advocacy of policies that simply will not be effective with respect to addressing future hurricane impacts. There are much, much better ways; to deal with the threat of hurricanes than with energy policies (e. g. , Pielke and Pielke 1997). There are also much, much better ways to justify climate mitigation policies than with hurricanes (e. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by arguing that the effects of climate change, particularly in relation to tropical cyclones, are minimized by societal factors like wealth and population growth. It states that societal impacts of storms may overshadow any climate trend that could emerge, and it suggests that we have yet to identify significant changes in storm behavior that correlate with climate change. The phrase 'it is exceedingly unlikely that scientists will identify large changes in historical storm behavior that have significant societal implications' suggests skepticism about the severity of climate change effects, thereby countering the assertion that climate change is accelerating ice cap melting significantly.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Fungal spores are among the most abundant airborne particles. [SEP] Text: At each of the three plots, three 1 m × 1 m quadrats were randomly selected to investigate vegetation height, species number, and aboveground biomass. The number of species was used to estimate the richness of the plant communities, and the diversity of the vegetation was calculated using the Shannon–Wiener index (H′ = − ∑Pi lnPi, where Pi is the ratio of the number of each species to the total number of all species). Plant aboveground biomass was harvested by clipping standing plant species to 1 cm above the ground. Plant material was then oven-dried at 65 °C for 48 h. To assess the effect of grazing exclusion on plant community structure, all plant species were classified into six functional groups: annuals and biennials (AB), perennial rhizome grasses (RG), tall perennial bunchgrasses (TG), short perennial bunchgrasses (SG), shrubs and semishrubs (SS), and forbs (FB). Soil samples were collected from the top 20 cm of the soil profile using an auger after the vegetation was sampled. Nine soil cores were collected from each plot (three core points for each quadrat) and then mixed into a single soil sample. A total of six soil samples were collected from two study areas and sieved immediately and air-dried for physicochemical analyses. Next, ten plants of S. glareosa per plot were excavated carefully with adhering rhizosphere and bulk soil. The soil that could be shaken off easily from the roots was defined as bulk soil, and the soil that remained firmly adhered to the root was defined as the rhizosphere. At each of the three plots, the rhizosphere and the bulk soil samples of the ten plants were mixed into a single soil sample separately. The soils were sealed in 15 ml sterile plastic tubes, immediately frozen on dry ice, and stored at −80 °C until DNA extraction. Soil physicochemical analyses The soil samples were sieved through a 2-mm mesh to remove roots and then ground and homogenized with a mill (MM400, Retsch, Germany). 15 g of fresh soil was weighed before and after dried at 105 °C for 24 h to calculate the soil water content (SWC). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provided discusses methods for investigating plant community structure and soil samples, but it does not mention fungal spores or their abundance as airborne particles. Thus, it is irrelevant to the claim about fungal spores.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Social stratification can affect access to resources and opportunities. [SEP] Text: Individuals, not the state, still carried a heavy burden in terms of ← 2 | 3 → college attendance and persistence. Since the more liberal 1960s, there have been a series of tensions and setbacks to equal access. It began with Ronald Reagan, as governor of California, when he questioned the value of public education and quipped, “Why should we subsidize intellectual curiosity? ” (Clabaugh, 2011). That query transitioned to additional trends: Reaganomics and the end of free tuition, even in certain locales (e. g. , California and City); political and legal barriers to affirmative action; downward trends in federal student aid; less commitment from state governments; and the growth of for-profit colleges, which often thrive on “buyers” from lower-income classes who are often less versed on college choice. If the arc of American higher education has begun to bend toward college attendance as a “right” (Kerr, 1963/2001), it has still not fully progressed from the earlier notion of social contract. Indeed, some critics argue that the social contract itself needs to be protected in the present age: “The tragedy is that while public policies in the past helped mitigate inequality and open the doors to college to more Americans, today they themselves play a crucial role in segmenting our society” (Mettler, 2014, p. 5). In the tantalizing image of higher education as a “right,” today’s undergraduates have become mass consumers. Colleges and universities have sold their services (and some would say their souls) as part of that expectation under the pressure of meeting the bottom line. In the process, they have become more like corporate entities that exist to sell a product. They are building more enticing residence halls with single rooms and private commodes, student unions (some with adjacent swimming pools), and state-of-the-art laboratories to attract students. Academic capitalism has become increasingly entrepreneurial as a way of coping with decreased state allocations and the highly competitive race for private funding drawn from alumni, foundations, and corporations. Once insular pockets of knowledge and learning, colleges and universities have been transformed into vehicles of economic trends and the vagaries of supply and demand. Within the academy, corporate “branding,” rankings, and the quest for “prestige” often replace the search for purpose and truth. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how social stratification impacts access to college education and resources. It notes the burdens individuals face regarding college attendance, particularly as public policies have evolved. The mention of barriers to affirmative action, decreased federal student aid, and tendencies towards for-profit colleges indicates that social stratification plays a significant role in segmenting society and affecting opportunities for higher education. The phrase 'public policies in the past helped mitigate inequality' contrasts with contemporary policies that 'play a crucial role in segmenting our society,' thereby supporting the idea that social stratification directly influences access to educational resources.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change is accelerating the melting of the polar ice caps at an unprecedented rate. [SEP] Text: g. , Rayner 2004), with energy policies (e. g. , Pielke and Pielke 1997) and to justify climate mitigation policies than with hurricanes (e. g. , Rayner 2004). 3. 4. 3. Worrying beyond hurricane SandyWith the last hurricane to directly hit City dating back to the 1800’s, residents have so far lacked the impetus to demand concrete strategies for dealing with the potential devastation to housing, the subway system and the electrical infrastructure from a major modern-day storm. Sandy threatens major flooding from a storm surge that could reach up to 14 feet above the average sea level here. Some scientists suggested on Monday 29th October’ 2012 that once have moved to higher ground and weathered the hurricane, they should begin to take more decisive steps to adapt to more of the same. As it was reported last month, pressure has been growing for aggressive action as shown in Fig. 9. Figure 9. Awaiting an onslaught: wave activity at on Monday morning, when was 425 miles southeast of City (Oct 29’ 2012). It is small comfort to sodden and stranded that Hurricane Sandy’s flooding of the city’s infrastructure, from power lines to subways to low-lying communities, was predicted in grimly precise detail by scientists in the latest state and city climate studies. Deeper and more frequent flooding from Rockaway to and the city’s transit tunnels has been a repeated warning that largely went unnoticed by the public and most politicians. But now, with the floods from Sandy and Irene last year on his watch, Gov. is pointedly stressing what he considers the inevitability of more such disasters. “Climate change is reality,” the governor said on Wednesday, 31st Oct’ 2012, estimating Sandy’s economic damage up to $6 billion. “Given the frequency of these extreme weather situations that we’ve had-and I believe that it’s an increasing frequency - for us to sit here today and say this is a once-in-a-generation and it’s not going to happen again, I think would be shortsighted. ” Mr. Cuomo admits that he does not have all the answers nor enough government money for all the proposed solutions. And we can all hope that he is wrong in his forecast. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the impact of climate change on infrastructure and extreme weather events, specifically Hurricane Sandy. It mentions the growing pressure for climate action and the acknowledgment from officials of increased frequency of disasters, but it does not directly address the specific issue of polar ice cap melting. Instead, it emphasizes the indirect effects of climate change as evidenced by flooding, thereby suggesting that while climate change is real, its effects manifest in extreme weather rather than a direct acceleration of ice melting.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Fungal spores are among the most abundant airborne particles. [SEP] Text: The soils were subjected to Kjeldahl digestion, and the soil total nitrogen (TN) concentration was determined using a semi-autoanalyzer (Kjeltec 2300 Analyzer Unit, Foss Tecator, Sweden). Soil total phosphorus (TP) concentration was measured by persulfate oxidation followed by colorimetric analysis (Schade et al. , 2003). Soil total organic carbon (TOC) was determined with a TOC-5000A analyzer (Shimadzu Corp. , Kyoto, Japan). Soil pH was measured using a ratio of soil:water = 1g:2. 5 ml with a Delta pH-meter (Mettler-). DNA extraction and high-throughput sequencing Three replicate rhizosphere and bulk soil samples were used for DNA extraction. DNA was extracted from 0. 5 g of soil with a FastDNA® SPIN Kit for soil () according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The final DNA concentrations and their purity levels were determined using a NanoDrop® ND-1000 (Nanodrop, USA), with DNA quality checked by 1% agarose gel electrophoresis. The DNA was then stored at −80 °C until use. The V3–V4 hypervariable region of the bacterial 16S rRNA gene was amplified using the specific primers 341F (5′--3′) and 806R (5′--3′) (Mori et al. , 2014), and the fungal internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1)-ITS2 region was amplified using the primers ITS1F (5′--3′) and ITS2R (5′--3′) (Bokulich & Mills, 2013; Hugerth et al. , 2014). All PCR reactions were conducted with Phusion® High-(Biolabs). The amplifications were conducted in a 30 µl mixture including 15 µl of Phusion High-(2 ×), 0. 2 µM forward and reverse primers, 10 ng of template DNA, and PCR-grade water up to 30 µl. The amplification program was 98 °C for 1 min and 30 cycles of 98 °C for 10 s, 50 °C for 30 s, 72 °C for 30 s, and 72 °C for 5 min. After PCR amplification, the obtained products were purified using the (Inc. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text details methods of soil sample analysis and DNA extraction, but it does not provide any information regarding airborne fungal spores or their abundance in the air. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Social stratification can affect access to resources and opportunities. [SEP] Text: More and more, higher education institutions are investing in “reputation” over substance and affordability. In a word, economics has become the one-way street on to the campus green. Newfield (2011) says it best: [T]he university needs to be understood as engaged in forms of individual and collective development that cannot be captured in economic terms. Education cannot pay in this way. It must not be expected to. If we are forced to use an economic term, the term for education would be “investment. ” But the realm of profits and returns simply does not fit with the forms of growth, evolution, advancement, expansion, elaboration, discovery, and invention that education delivers to individuals and societies alike. (p. 272) ← 3 | 4 → Thus, the contemporary college and university have also adopted the role of “certifier” of middle-class America in search of success, privilege, and prestige. The trend toward consumerism seems antithetical to the life of the mind and a development of well-rounded character so vital in more traditional forms of liberal education. That evolution of the core purposes of the college into a university industry has underlined the importance that society now places on “credentialing”—a process and practice that has widely co-opted more humane, moral, and kindred academic values. Yet, at the same time, the U. S. can no longer claim to lead the world in even the credentialing function of college graduation; it now ranks 12th among industrialized nations on that score. (Lewin, 2010)of on Society/of Society on Higher EducationAs mentioned above, there is really no bright line separating higher education and society. The latter’s overarching effects obviously produce wider and deeper repercussions for colleges and universities. In a large sense, higher education can be seen to reproduce what major societal forces desire, assuming those forces supply the requisite purposes and resources (a very open question). Conversely, higher education may also be viewed, at times, as a more ideal laboratory for society’s higher hopes and aspirations, for example, impactful research, a more informed and critical citizenry, and moral development. These interlocking tensions can thus be a cardinal cause for the better, for ill, or for simply sustaining the status quo. The contents of this text seek to shed light on how and why those consequences can occur. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how higher education institutions engage with societal forces such as economic pressures and consumerism, which are indicative of social stratification. It states that the evolution of colleges into 'university industries' reflects societal values placed on 'credentialing,' which relates to access to resources and opportunities. The text also highlights how higher education can either reproduce societal desires or serve as a laboratory for societal aspirations, reinforcing the proposition that social stratification influences access and opportunities in education.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Global sea levels have risen about 8 inches since 1880, with most of the rise occurring in recent decades. [SEP] Text: 95 7. 4 Glaciers and ice caps 0. 64 0. 1 ± 0. 02 0. 3 ± 0. 05 Table 2: Projected global sea level rise due to melting of ice caps and ice sheets. (IPCC 1995). However, recent studies revealed that Antarctic ice sheet is projected to grow slightly in the future due to increased precipitation along with extremely cold climate. Therefore it is assumed that Antarctic ice sheet will not contribute towards global sea level rise [1]. ice sheet, it has also been projected that it will increase in volume slightly but there will be significant melting along the margin [1]. IPCC has created different projection models for different on (SRES) in terms of Sea-level rise and carbon dioxide concentrations. But all the projection models involve several uncertainties to be encountered. Therefore none of them can be considered as accurate estimate. remote sensing data it has unequivocally been proved that global ice caps and sheets are melting. For example, Arctic sea ice is melting rapidly due to increasing global ocean temperature. Figure 3 illustrates the change in sea ice concentration of Arctic for September 2012 and March 2013 (A) and Antarctic for September 2012 and February 2013 (B). Continental glaciers are also melting. If we take into account a very simple analogy of melting ice will directly contribute to global sea level rise it is not happening in terms of rate of melting of ice and rate of rise of global sea level. From sequence stratigraphy point of view change in global sea level means change in eustatic sea level. For eustatic sea level change in accommodation space needs to be modified or volume of ocean water needs to be increased. As discussed earlier accommodation space can be modified either by tectonic activity like rapid growth of mid oceanic ridge and high spreading rate or very high rate of accumulation of sediments in ocean basin. Figure 3: Change in sea ice concentration of Arctic, September 2012 and March 2013 (A) and Antarctic of September 2012 and February 2013 (B). (From If we consider (10,000 years) global mid oceanic ridge system has been stabilized and continents got there recent position. Though tectonic activity is still going on in dynamic earth but not intense enough to change accommodation space like that happened in Mesozoic. Exogenic forces like erosion, deposition is going on in nearly constant intensity. Therefore we can consider sediment accumulation rate in ocean basin has almost stabilized in terms of isostatic adjustment for vertical accommodation of pile of sediments. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by stating that while global ice caps and sheets are melting, the projected contribution to global sea level rise from Antarctic ice sheets is minimal due to increased precipitation and cold climate. It further explains that the melting of ice is not translating into a corresponding rise in sea levels at a rate that supports the claim. The reference to uncertainties in projection models also adds to the contrast by suggesting the assertion of a specific sea level rise may not be well-supported.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Fungal spores are among the most abundant airborne particles. [SEP] Text: , USA) and subjected to quantification using a Qubit® 2. 0 Fluorometer (Inc. , USA) and an 2100 (Agilent Technologies, USA) system. Last, the library was sequenced on an Ion S5™ XL (Scientific Inc. , USA) platform and 600 bp single-end reads were generated at the Technology Co. , Ltd. , Beijing, China. The bacterial and fungal raw sequence data from this study were deposited in the (accession number PRJNA627740). Bioinformatics and diversity analyses Single-end reads were assigned to samples using Cutadapt version 1. 9. 1 (Martin, 2011). The reads were compared with the reference database (Gold database) using the algorithm to detect chimera sequences (Edgar et al. , 2011), and then, the chimera sequences were removed (Haas et al. , 2011). Effective tags were ultimately obtained. The sequence analysis was performed using Uparse software (version 7. 0. 1001) (Edgar, 2013), and the sequences with ≥97% similarity were assigned to the same operational taxonomic unit (OTU). The most abundant sequence in each OTU was chosen as the representative sequence. The bacteria were identified using the ( (Quast et al. , 2013) based on the RDP classifier (version 2. 2) (Wang et al. , 2007). The fungi were identified using the ( based on the Blast algorithm in QIIME software (version 1. 9. 1) (Koljalg et al. , 2013). The phylogenetic relationships of the OTUs and the differences among dominant species in samples (groups) were analyzed using multiple sequence alignments in software (version 3. 8. 31) (Edgar, 2004). The bacterial and fungal communities were characterized in terms of diversity by calculating Shannon-Wiener index and number of OTUs (richness) using QIIME software (version 1. 9. 1) (Caporaso et al. , 2010). Network analysis To make the bacteria and fungi networks comparable, the relative abundance of OTUs was log10-transformed and analyzed using the molecular ecological network analyses (MENA) pipeline ( implemented with random matrix theory (RMT)-based algorithms (Deng et al. , 2012) and then visualized with Cytoscape 3. 7. 1 (Shannon et al. , 2003). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding the abundance of fungal spores as airborne particles. Instead, it provides detailed information about methods for analyzing bacterial and fungal communities and does not mention the relative abundance of fungal spores in the air.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Group dynamics can lead to conformity and peer pressure. [SEP] Text: 19 male and female school leaders participated in the study. They were generally satisfied with the programme, but their perceptions could be divided into three main elements: the preconditions considered important for group reflective learning, the provision of support, and observations about learning. One important prerequisite identified for the training method was psychological safety. Multiple participants stated they needed to feel safe before disclosing sensitive professional experiences. Meanwhile, nine participants mentioned the importance of having a quality trainer to structure and manage discussions. Additionally, group diversity was said to be important, as this would widen the views to which school leaders were exposed. Participants also reported feeling reassured about their own professional capacities after hearing others faced similar problems to them. Within group reflective learning, school leaders interact with each other in small discussion groups. School leaders recognised the value of supportive peers in facilitating deep listening, analysing example cases, sharing concrete advice on solving problems, and comforting participants when discussions became stressful. The method of using case studies on daily work experiences was also raised as a key benefit. Some emphasised the value of trainers explaining theoretical lenses to guide case discussion while others stressed the impact of hearing directly from colleagues. However, criticisms were also expressed. Three school leaders indicated a desire for more practice in conversational techniques, including the use of role plays. Another negative perception was that the programme took up too much of leaders’ schedules, creating issues in their professional time management. Group reflective learning can serve as an effective tool for school leaders, so they can handle a more complex and stressful task in the contemporary educational climate. Outcomes of group reflection The second study, again with 19 participants, scrutinised the gains in learning and behavioural changes of school leader participants of group reflection. The learning dimension consists of knowledge, skills and attitudes. Regarding the first component, 15 school leaders reported that they acquired useful knowledge from trainer feedback, where trainers responded to practice cases presented by school leaders. Many participants praised the theoretical frameworks provided by trainers and elaborated by peers, which helped them grapple with cases and question their own roles and behaviours. Echoing the split found in the previous study, two participants stated they gained insights from the programme but did not link this with theoretical knowledge, a sentiment shared by four others who emphasised the general technique of peer group reflection. Many school leaders said the training enhanced their skills in providing feedback to their teachers, allowing them to be more explicit and clearer while doing so. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by illustrating how group reflective learning creates opportunities for school leaders to interact and share experiences. It highlights the importance of 'supportive peers' in facilitating deep listening and sharing concrete advice, which can lead to conformity in their thinking. Furthermore, the mention of school leaders feeling reassured about their professional capacities after hearing others' similar problems demonstrates how peer influence can shape their perspectives, a key aspect of peer pressure.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Global sea levels have risen about 8 inches since 1880, with most of the rise occurring in recent decades. [SEP] Text: Above mentioned governing factors for alteration of accommodation space is almost stabilized and in equilibrium for Holocene Period. Considering melting of sea ice; it has nothing to do with eustatic sea level change. The principal is very simple. is a single water body. Sea ice that is floating on global ocean is in equilibrium with modern day cost line by means of Archimedes principle. Therefore melting of sea ice will not contribute towards global or eustatic sea level rise. The phenomenon can be understood by means of very simple real life analogy. Considering a glass of water with floating ice cube, water in the glass is in equilibrium with ice cube floating on it in terms of Archimedes principle. Therefore complete melting of floating ice cube will not change the water level in the glass. Very same principal is applicable for global ocean and sea ice floating on it. Therefore complete melting of sea ice will not make any change in global ocean level. But melting of continental ice sheets has different impact on global or eustatic sea level rise. Continental ice sheets contain approximately 32. 05 ± 0. 02×106 km3 of ice by volume. The equivalent amount of water that are locked as continental ice sheets is kind of reserve volume of hydrologic cycle which is not part of global ocean water. Due to global warming if these ice sheets start melting then the water locked in them will release. Melt water will contribute towards regional ground water recharge and evapotranspiration. Some part will be locked as inland surface water body. Excess will be drained to ocean water. Excluding the melt water part that will contribute towards ground water recharge and locked as surface water rest of it will contribute towards global hydrologic cycle in terms of liquid water which will ultimately end up in global ocean. Therefore melting of continental ice sheets will contribute towards global or eustatic sea level rise by means of increasing volume of global ocean water. As discussed earlier Antarctic and Greenland continental ice sheets are projected to increase in future therefore recent 3. 1 mm/year of global sea level rise can be assumed to be contribution of melting of alpine glaciers of equatorial or near equatorial region contributing 75%-85% of this trend [20]. has unequivocally been proved that ice sheets, ice caps and sea ice are melting due to increasing temperature of earth. The process of increasing temperature of earth has been exclusively attributed to the greenhouse effect. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by explaining that while melting of continental ice sheets contributes to global sea level rise, melting of sea ice does not affect eustatic sea level changes. It emphasizes that the current rise in global sea levels, estimated at 3.1 mm/year, can be attributed to the melting of alpine glaciers, which is part of the broader hydrological changes due to climate change. The claim inaccurately suggests that the primary contributor to sea level rise is melting sea ice rather than the melting of continental ice sheets.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Fungal spores are among the most abundant airborne particles. [SEP] Text: The thresholds in the network construction were automatically chosen, and module separation was based on the fast greedy modularity optimization (Zhou et al. , 2010; Deng et al. , 2012). Modularity (M) is an index measuring the extent to which a network is divided into modules, and M > 0. 4 was used as the threshold to define modular structures (Newman, 2006). Keystone species (module hubs and connectors) were identified by values of within-module connectivity (Zi) and among-module connectivity (Pi), where module hubs (highly connected to many nodes within modules) have Zi > 2. 5 and Pi ≤ 0. 62 and connectors (highly linked to several modules) have Zi ≤ 2. 5 and Pi > 0. 62) (Zhou et al. , 2011). Statistical analysis One-way ANOVA was used to evaluate the effects of the grazing exclusion on plants (richness, diversity, aboveground biomass), soil properties (and pH), and soil microbes (observed OTU richness and Shannon-Wiener index), followed by Tukey’s HSD test. These statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS 21. 0 (). The changes in each variable induced by grazing exclusion were indicated as the natural log-transformed response ratio, lnR = ln( X ¯ E ) −ln( X ¯ C ), where X ¯ E and X ¯ C are the mean values of the variables that were observed in experimental group and control group, respectively (Hedges, Gurevitch & Curtis, 1999). The variance of lnR was calculated using the following equation: ν = SD E 2 n E X ¯ E 2 + SD C 2 n C X ¯ C 2 where SDE and SDC are the standard deviation for the experimental group and control group, respectively; nE and nC are the sample size (number of replicates) for the experimental group and control group, respectively. Principal component analysis (PCA) at OTU level was used to visualize patterns in bacterial and fungal community structures. Differences in bacterial or fungal community composition between grazed and grazing-excluded grasslands were tested using analysis of similarity () tests with Bray–Curtis in the ‘vegan’ package, in R software (v2. 15. 3). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it does not mention fungal spores or airborne particles. Instead, it discusses network construction thresholds, modularity in networks, statistical analysis methods, and differences in bacterial and fungal community structures, none of which support or contradict the idea of fungal spores being abundant airborne particles.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Group dynamics can lead to conformity and peer pressure. [SEP] Text: Previously, they avoided giving feedback for fear of offending teachers and causing conflict, but they came to understand that offering immediate feedback was appreciated and that making both positive and negative comments is important. Meanwhile, school leaders indicated that they developed better coaching skills and leadership styles due to the training. This included handing over power to teachers in daily management and self-leadership, asking questions to promote better teacher introspection, as well as challenging teachers’ assumptions and urging them to take action. In both studies, school leaders said the training increased their professional self-confidence. Some associated this improvement with the discovery that the problems they face were not unique to themselves and their school, meaning they didn’t have to blame themselves for encountering widespread issues. Others pointed to the empowerment they felt from learning about alternative viewpoints, and the compliments and recognition provided by peers. Reflecting on reflection Until recently, the method of training school leaders through group reflective learning received very limited attention within the academic literature. Dr Daniëls has filled this gap with two in-depth studies of the model. The first study focused on participant reaction, showing that school leaders found preconditions for successful group reflection in psychological safety, a quality trainer to steer discussion, and group diversity to broaden the perspectives shared. The latter complicates earlier findings that peer similarity was favoured by educators in group work. This data can help ensure group reflective training programmes generally fulfil the prerequisites of effectiveness. The second study found that school leader participants found learning gains and behavioural changes in better theoretical understandings and feedback-giving skills, improved questioning and challenging of teachers, more delegation of responsibility to teachers, and greater professional self-confidence. All these factors indicate that group reflective learning can serve as an effective tool for enhancing learning, behaviours and resilience of school leaders, so they can handle a more complex and stressful task in the contemporary educational climate. What inspired you to conduct this research? <> A large body of research in education focuses on pupils and teachers. School leaders are less researched, especially when it comes to their professional development. Besides, school leaders are often not well prepared for their job but are still the second-most important factor in influencing pupil achievement and have to deal with an uncertain and complex world. These underlying aspects inspired me to further explore school leaders’ professional development resulting in the two studies on school leaders group reflective learning. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by illustrating how group dynamics play a crucial role in the professional development of school leaders. It mentions that school leaders experienced empowerment from learning about alternative viewpoints, and this process involved sharing recognition and feedback among peers. Furthermore, the text discusses how group reflective learning provides psychological safety, which allows for open discussions and can lead to conformity in the sharing of ideas and feedback. These elements all indicate that group dynamics contribute to the dynamics of conformity and peer pressure within educational settings.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The Arctic is warming about twice as fast as the global average due to climate change. [SEP] Text: В Климатической доктрине Российской Федерации отмечается, что предметом особого внимания при разработке и реализации заблаговременных мер по предотвращению и нейтрализации неблагоприятных последствий изменения климата либо их сведению к минимально возможному уровню должен являться факт того, что различные объекты (природные, антропогенные и т. п. ) по-разному реагируют на изменение климата и обладают различной степенью уязвимости перед ними (п. 15). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the varying responses of natural and anthropogenic objects to climate change but does not specifically address whether the Arctic is warming at a rate faster than the global average. Therefore, it does not support or contrast the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Fungal spores are among the most abundant airborne particles. [SEP] Text: Pearson correlation was used to analyze the effect of grazing exclusion on the relationship between the plant characteristics, soil properties, and soil microbial diversity. Random networks with the same number of nodes and links were constructed to compare with the original network to determine general network characteristics (Zhou et al. , 2011). For each identified network, 100 randomly rewired networks were generated, and all network indexes were calculated individually (Maslov & Sneppen, 2002). The Z-test was used to test index differences between the molecular ecological networks and random networks, and the Student t-test was used to test for differences in network indexes under different conditions using standard deviations derived from the corresponding random networks. The relationships between molecular ecological networks and environmental factors (plant characteristics and soil properties) were analyzed with Module-EigenGene analyses (Zhou et al. , 2011; Deng et al. , 2012). Spearman correlations coefficients were calculated to depict the relationship between the abundance of microbes and environmental factors. Results with a P < 0. 05 were considered statistically significant. Figure 1: Response of variables of plants, soil, and soil microbial communities to grazing exclusion on the Stipa glareosa desert steppe of Inner Mongolia. An effect size >0 indicates a positive response to grazing exclusion, and an effect size >0 indicates a negative response to grazing exclusion. Data means ± SE (n = 3). The level of significance is as follows: ∗∗∗P < 0. 0001, ∗P < 0. 05. PB, plant aboveground biomass; PR: plant species richness; PD: plant diversity; SWC, soil water content; TOC: soil total organic carbon; TN, soil total nitrogen; TP: soil total phosphorus; pH, soil pH value; BRR: bacterial richness in rhizosphere; BDR, bacterial diversity in rhizosphere; BRB, bacterial richness in bulk soil; BDB, bacterial diversity in bulk soil; FRR, fungal richness in rhizosphere; FDR, fungal diversity in rhizosphere; FRB, fungal richness in bulk soil; FDB, fungal diversity in bulk soil. Download full-size image DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 9986/fig-1 of plant characteristics and soil physicochemical properties The plant aboveground biomass had significant positive responses to eight years of grazing exclusion (P < 0. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provided does not address or relate to the claim about fungal spores being abundant airborne particles. Instead, it discusses a study involving grazing exclusion and its effects on plant characteristics and soil microbial diversity, with no mention of airborne particles or fungal spores.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Dialects can reflect social and geographic backgrounds. [SEP] Text: language is composed of many linguistic varieties, such as Black English, [*] standard English, Appalachian English, southern English, dialect, and Spanish influenced English. The features of social dialects are systematic and highly regular and cross all linguistic parameters, i. e. , phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, lexicon, pragmatics, suprasegmental features, and kinesics. Although each dialect of English has distinguishing characteristics, the majority of linguistic features of the English language are common to each of the varieties of English. The existence of these varieties is the result of historical and social factors. For example, due to historical factors, the majority of speakers are Black. However, due to social factors, not all Black individuals are speakers. The issue of social dialects for the field of speech-language pathology is extremely complex, as indicated by the continuous controversy across the nation over the past two decades. There has been confusion among professionals regarding the role of the speech-language pathologist with reference to speakers of social dialects. There has been no consistent philosophy regarding the approach of service delivery to speakers of social dialects. As a result, some speech-language pathologists have denied clinical services to speakers of social dialects who have requested services. Other speech-language pathologists have treated social dialects as though they were communicative disorders. It is the position of the American Speech-Language-(ASHA) that no dialectal variety of English is a disorder or a pathological form of speech or language. Each social dialect is adequate as a functional and effective variety of English. Each serves a communication function as well as a social solidarity function. It maintains the communication network and the social construct of the community of speakers who use it. Furthermore, each is a symbolic representation of the historical, social, and cultural background of the speakers. For example, there is strong evidence that many of the features of represent linguistic Africanisms. However, society has adopted the linguistic idealization model that standard English is the linguistic archetype. is the linguistic variety used by government, the mass media, business, education, science, and the arts. Therefore, there may be nonstandard English speakers who find it advantageous to have access to the use of standard English. The traditional role of the speech-language pathologist has been to provide clinical services to the communicatively handicapped. It is indeed possible for dialect speakers to have linguistic disorders within the dialect. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how linguistic varieties, including social dialects, are influenced by historical and social factors. It emphasizes that each social dialect reflects the cultural and social contexts of its speakers. The text specifically states, 'Each is a symbolic representation of the historical, social, and cultural background of the speakers,' which directly supports the claim that dialects reveal social and geographic backgrounds.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain animals, such as the monarch butterfly, use circadian rhythms to navigate during migration. [SEP] Text: 28NsNs3. 0. 341. 50 (1. 14-2. 27)0. 0084 Ns = non significant (P > 0. 1). Odds ratio (OR): the ratio specific haplotype versus all other haplotypes among the cases, relative to the ratio specific haplotype versus all other haplotypes among the controls. Gender was used as covariate. The rs2306074 in ARNTL2 showed a border-line nominal Cochran-Armitage trend in Sample set 1 (P = 0. 043), and no indication for association in Sample sets 2 and 3. the A allele of rs1799958 showed a border-line nominal allelic association of increased risk for comorbidity (OR = 1. 47, P = 0. 045) and a trend test supported the finding (P = 0. 045). Likewise, in Sample set 3 a very modest nominal allelic association was found for rs1799958 (P = 0. 046). No haplotype could be constructed for ARNTL2 or ACADS that included the SNPs nominally associated with comorbidity. To test for a quantitative effect of the CLOCK rs11240, ACADS rs1799958 and ARNTL2 rs2306074 on AUD depression comorbidity, these variations were tested for association to and MBI among the comorbid cases only. allele of rs1799958 in ACADS was nominally associated with higher GHQ score among cases (P = 0. 031). results herein suggest that the circadian gene CLOCK is associated with comorbid depression and AUD, but not with AUD only. The haplotype TTGC formed by SNPs rs3805151, rs2412648, rs11240, rs2412646 was suggestively associated with increased risk for the comorbidity, with the odds ratio of 1. 65. The SNPs of importance for this suggestive association were rs11240 and rs2412646, indicating location of the functional variation downstream of rs2412648. No indication of association with CLOCK was found when comparing AUD with healthy controls. Accordingly, the suggestive association to CLOCK was seen when comparing comorbid cases with combined group of healthy controls and persons diagnosed with AUD. variation may be a vulnerability factor for depression given the alcohol exposure in AUD but not considerably increasing the risk for depression without AUD. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim regarding monarch butterflies and circadian rhythms in navigation during migration. It discusses genetic associations with comorbidity in depression and alcohol use disorder, but does not mention migration, navigation, or any specific animal behavior. Therefore, it does not provide any supporting or contrasting information regarding the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Fungal spores are among the most abundant airborne particles. [SEP] Text: 001), but the response of plant species richness was instead negative (P < 0. 05; Fig. 1). For soil properties, SWC responded in a positive and significant way to eight years of grazing exclusion (P < 0. 001), whereas TOC and soil pH had negative, significant responses to eight years of grazing exclusion (P < 0. 05). The relative aboveground biomass of AB (dominant species Salsola collina Pall. ) dominated in the grazing excluded grassland (Fig. 2). By contrast, the TG (dominant species S. glareosa), RG (dominant species Leymus chinensis (Trin. ) Tzvel), SG (dominant species C. songorica), SS (dominant species Caragana stenophylla Pojark), and FB (dominant species A. cochinchinensis) decreased after eight years of grazing exclusion. Figure 2: Effects of the grazing exclusion on relative aboveground biomass of plant functional groups (A) and dominant plant species (B) in Stipa glareosa desert steppe of Inner Mongolia. AB, annuals or biennials; FB, forbs; RG, perennial rhizome grasses; SG, perennial short bunchgrasses; SS, shrubs or semi-shrubs; TG, perennial tall bunchgrasses. G, Grazed area; GE, Grazing-excluded area. Download full-size image DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 9986/fig-2 Responses of soil bacterial and fungal communities After quality filtering, a total of 953,050 bacterial sequences and 966,095 fungal sequences were obtained in this study, and clustered into 2,270 and 1,232 OTUs for bacterial and fungal communities, respectively. Eight years of grazing exclusion did not affect the richness and diversity of bacteria and fungi in the rhizosphere, but significantly increased (P < 0. 05) them in the bulk soil (Fig. 1). The communities of bacteria and fungi were clearly separated between the grazed and grazing-excluded grassland soils (Fig. 3). However, no significant (P > 0. 05) differences were detected in bacterial and fungal community composition between grazed and grazing excluded grassland soils (Table S1). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim about the abundance of fungal spores as airborne particles. Instead, it discusses various aspects of plant species responses and soil microbial communities after grazing exclusion. Thus, it is irrelevant to determining the abundance of fungal spores in the air.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Dialects can reflect social and geographic backgrounds. [SEP] Text: An essential step toward making accurate assessments of communicative disorders is to distinguish between those aspects of linguistic variation that represent the diversity of the English language from those that represent speech, language, and hearing disorders. The speech-language pathologist must have certain competencies to distinguish between dialectal differences and communicative disorders. These competencies include knowledge of the particular dialect as a rule-governed linguistic system, knowledge of the phonological and grammatical features of the dialect, and knowledge of nondiscriminatory testing procedures. Once the difference/disorder distinctions have been made, it is the role of the speech-language pathologist to treat only those features or characteristics that are true errors and not attributable to the dialect. Aside from the traditionally recognized role, the speech-language pathologist may also be available to provide elective clinical services to nonstandard English speakers who do not present a disorder. The role of the speech-language pathologist for these individuals is to provide the desired competency in standard English without jeopardizing the integrity of the individual's first dialect. The approach must be functional and based on context-specific appropriateness of the given dialect. Provision of elective services to nonstandard English speakers requires sensitivity and competency in at least three areas: linguistic features of the dialect, linguistic contrastive analysis procedures, and the effects of attitudes toward dialects. It is prerequisite for the speech-language pathologist to have a thorough understanding and appreciation for the community and culture of the nonstandard English speaker. Further, it is a requirement that the speech-language pathologist have thorough knowledge of the linguistic rules of the particular dialect. It remains the priority of the speech-language pathologist to continue to serve the truly communicatively handicapped. However, for nonstandard English speakers who seek elective clinical services, the speech-language pathologist may be available to provide such services. The speech-language pathologist may also serve in a consultative role to assist educators in utilizing the features of the nonstandard dialect to facilitate the learning of reading and writing in standard English. Just as competencies are assumed and necessary in the treatment of communicative disorders, competencies are also necessary in the provision of elective clinical services to nonstandard English speakers. Return to of the Position on receives numerous inquiries each year on topics pertaining to service to minority populations. One of the functions of the Office of is to provide technical assistance to members with such inquiries. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the importance of understanding dialectal differences as a rule-governed linguistic system that reflects the diversity of the English language. The text explains that speech-language pathologists need to distinguish between dialectal features and communicative disorders, which implies that dialects embody specific linguistic characteristics influenced by social and geographic factors. Additionally, it highlights the necessity for the speech-language pathologist to have a thorough understanding of the community and culture of nonstandard English speakers, further indicating the connection between dialects and social backgrounds.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain animals, such as the monarch butterfly, use circadian rhythms to navigate during migration. [SEP] Text: AbstractConvincing evidence that migrant monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) use a magnetic compass to aid their fall migration has been lacking from the spectacular navigational capabilities of this species. Here we use flight simulator studies to show that migrants indeed possess an inclination magnetic compass to help direct their flight equatorward in the fall. The use of this inclination compass is light-dependent utilizing ultraviolet-A/blue light between 380 and 420 nm. Notably, the significance of light <420 nm for inclination compass function was not considered in previous monarch studies. The antennae are important for the inclination compass because they appear to contain light-sensitive magnetosensors. For migratory monarchs, the inclination compass may serve as an important orientation mechanism when directional daylight cues are unavailable and may also augment time-compensated sun compass orientation for appropriate directionality throughout the migration. Similar content being viewed by others Predicting performance of naïve migratory animals, from many wrongs to self-correction 3. Monarchs use an antenna-based time-compensated sun compass to navigate during this long journey4,5,6, in which eye-sensed directional daylight cues (for example, sun azimuthal position) are integrated in the sun compass found in the midbrain central complex area7,8 and time compensated by antennal circadian clocks9,10. Curiously, during the absence of directional daylight cues that precludes the use of the time-compensated sun compass (for example, overcast sky conditions), migrants have been observed flying in the expected southern migratory direction during the fall migration11, suggesting that migrants might also use a magnetic compass to help guide directionality. We now show that migratory monarch butterflies have an inclination magnetic compass that allows them to orient in the proper southern direction during the fall migration. The inclination compass is light dependent, using light in the ultraviolet-A/blue spectral range. Relevant light-sensitive magnetosensors appear to reside in the antennae, and the inclination compass functions at Earth-strength magnetic fields. The inclination compass is an essential orientation mechanism that migrants can use when directional skylight cues are unavailable, and it may also augment time-compensated sun compass orientation. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by focusing on the use of a magnetic compass in monarch butterflies for navigation rather than circadian rhythms. It highlights the findings that monarchs use an inclination magnetic compass, which is light-dependent and operates using ultraviolet-A/blue light, and suggests that the inclination compass may serve as an important navigation mechanism, especially when daylight cues are not available. This indicates that while circadian clocks may play a role, the primary navigational method discussed is the magnetic compass, which counteracts the assertion that circadian rhythms are utilized primarily for this purpose.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Fungal spores are among the most abundant airborne particles. [SEP] Text: Figure 3: Principal component analysis (PCA) of bacterial (A) and fungal (B) community structures found at the grazed and grazing excluded grassland soils. GEr, rhizosphere soil of grazing-excluded plot; GEb, bulk soil of grazing-excluded plot; Gr, rhizosphere soil of grazed plot; and, Gd, bulk soil of grazed plots. Download full-size image DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 9986/fig-3 Among the highly abundant phyla, Proteobacteria had the highest abundance in the rhizosphere (38. 96%) and bulk soil (34. 94%) of grazing excluded grassland soils, followed by the Actinobacteria (29. 38% and 31. 02%, respectively), but their abundance were significantly decreased in bulk soil of grazed grassland (Fig. S2A). Firmucutes were the most abundant in the bulk soil (58. 32%) of grazed grassland, but significantly decreased in grazing excluded grassland soils. We also observed two fungal phyla dominated the soil microbes: Ascomycota and Basidiomycota (Fig. S2B). In grazing excluded grassland soils, the Ascomycota had the highest abundance in the rhizosphere (58. 03%) and bulk soil (83. 08%), followed by the Basidiomycota (41. 34% and 9. 98%, respectively) and significantly higher in the rhizosphere. In grazed grassland soils, Ascomycota had the highest relative abundance in the rhizosphere (84. 25%) and bulk soil (79. 32%), followed by the Basidiomycota (9. 98% and 1. 37%, respectively). Response of soil microbial networks Network analysis for bacteria and fungi in the grazed and grazing-excluded grassland soils, including data of both rhizosphere and bulk soil (since a significant rhizosphere effect was not detected), revealed that the networks of bacteria and fungi in the grazing-excluded grassland soil were larger than those in grazed grassland soils (Fig. 4, Table S2). However, grazing exclusion slightly decreased the proportion of positive links in bacterial networks from 76. 58 to 68. 32% and substantially decreased them in fungal networks from 69. 33 to 57. 50% (Table S2). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding the abundance of fungal spores as airborne particles. It discusses the community structures of bacteria and fungi in grassland soils and their relative abundances but does not provide evidence or context related to airborne fungal spores. Therefore, it is considered irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Dialects can reflect social and geographic backgrounds. [SEP] Text: To clarify the implications of the newly adopted position paper on social dialects, Cole responds to the most frequently asked questions. Q: Does the position paper imply that speech-language pathologists should now actively seek and enroll speakers of nonstandard dialects into their caseloads or practices? A: Absolutely not. In no way is the Association encouraging mass screening, identification, and enrollment of social dialect speakers for speech or language intervention, “speech improvement,” or any other similar training. On the contrary, the position paper clearly states that the priority of the speech-language pathologist continues to be service to the truly communicatively handicapped. Speakers of social dialects are not in that category. However, it has been the practice of some service programs and service providers routinely to deny service to individuals who have no disorder but who want to acquire competence in standard English. The position of the Association is that an individual who seeks such elective clinical service may indeed be served by the speech-language pathologist. Of course, for the social dialect speaker who exhibits a true speech or language disorder (i. e. , features that cannot be attributed to either the nonstandard dialect or standard English), speech or language treatment probably will be indicated. Q: Social dialects were not included as part of my academic or practicum training in speech-language pathology. How can I prepare myself to serve nonstandard English speakers? A: You are not alone. The traditional training in speech-language pathology is based on standard American English. Although coursework in sociolinguistics can apply toward certification, such courses are neither required nor widely offered. In an informal review of recent applications for the Certificate of in Speech-Language Pathology, it was found that only about 2 in 20 applicants had taken a course in sociolinguistics. There are no specific course requirements established by ASHA for service to social dialect or minority language populations. However, the position statement does specify recommended areas of competence for assessment, intervention, and the provision of elective services to nonstandard English speakers. To reiterate, they include: knowledge of the particular dialect as a rule-governed linguistic system, knowledge of nondiscriminatory testing procedures, knowledge of the phonological and grammatical features of the dialect, knowledge of contrastive analysis procedures, knowledge of the effects of attitudes toward dialects, thorough understanding and appreciation for the community and culture of the nonstandard speaker. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the role of social dialects as rule-governed linguistic systems that reflect specific communities and cultures. It emphasizes that speech-language pathologists should understand and appreciate the particular dialects and the social backgrounds of speakers, indicating that dialects indeed carry social and geographic significance.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain animals, such as the monarch butterfly, use circadian rhythms to navigate during migration. [SEP] Text: ResultsMigrant monarchs can use a magnetic field for orientationWe performed indoor magnetic compass trials during the 2012 and 2013 fall migration seasons, in which individual monarchs collected from at least three different locations (see Methods) were tested in a flight simulator that was surrounded by a magnetic coil system used to vary the three different magnetic field parameters (horizontal, vertical, and intensity) (Fig. 1a). To facilitate flight in trials, they were conducted under diffuse white light conditions (spectrum: peak at 600 nm, range: 350–800 nm; total irradiance: 7. 45 × 1015 photons s−1 cm−2; Fig. 1b), which also provided migrants with wavelengths of light that are crucial for a functioning magnetic sense in other insects12,13. Figure 1: Fall migrant monarch butterflies can use a magnetic field to orient in the proper southerly fall migratory direction. (a) Flight simulator and coil system used in magnetic compass trials. (b) Irradiance curve of lighting conditions during flight simulator trials. Light measurement was taken inside the flight simulator, with the flight encoder and diffuser in position, at the position of the head of the tethered monarch butterfly during trials. (c) Orientation of individual directional fall monarchs during the fall 2012 (n=18) and 2013 (n=27) migration seasons (red dots; both years pooled: n=45) in a generated field with a 45° inclination angle, at a 141 μT field intensity. For the circle diagram, arrow indicates mean group orientation, shaded area is 95% confidence interval, mN is magnetic north. Full size imageMigrants from the 2012 and 2013 migratory seasons that were flown under artificial magnetic field conditions (inclination angle=45°; total magnetic field strength=141 μT) and that flew continuously for 5 min were significantly directional with a mean equatorward orientation (2012: α=162°, r=0. 707, P=0. 0001, n=18; 2013: α=179°, r=0. 668, P=0. 0001, n=27). There was no difference in orientation direction between years (Watson’s U218, 27=0. 028, P>0. 5), and the pooled orientation bearing was 172° (r=0. 676, P=0. 0001, n=45) (Fig. 1c). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing evidence that monarch butterflies can use a magnetic field for orientation during migration, rather than circadian rhythms. It specifically details trials conducted to test the monarchs' ability to navigate under controlled magnetic field conditions, emphasizing their ability to orient themselves directionally with reference to magnetic cues.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Fungal spores are among the most abundant airborne particles. [SEP] Text: The fungal network in the grazing-excluded grassland soils was more densely connected than those in grazed grassland soils, with more links, higher average degree and shorter path distance (Fig. 4, Table S2). Opposite trends were observed for the bacterial network in the grazing-excluded grassland soils. The value of R 2 of the power law ranged from 0. 71 to 0. 85. The values of the average clustering coefficient (avgCC), path distance (GD), and harmonic geodesic distance (HD) of all networks were larger than those for randomized networks (Table S2). Figure 4: Highly connected modules of bacteria and fungi in grazed and grazing-excluded grassland soils. A red link indicates a positive correlation between two individual nodes, whereas a blue link indicates a negative correlation. Nodes at module centers are module hubs, and nodes in black boxes are connectors. (A) Bacterial network of grazing-excluded grassland soil; (B) bacterial network of grazed grassland soil; (C) fungal network of grazing-excluded grassland soil; (D) fungal network of grazed grassland soil. Download full-size image DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 9986/fig-4 Figure 5: Proportion of bacterial and fungal nodes in global networks based on the eight most abundant bacterial phyla (A) and five most abundant fungal phyla (B). G, Grazed area; GE, Grazing-excluded area. Download full-size image DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 9986/fig-5 A total of six module hubs and six connectors were identified in the bacterial networks of grazed grassland soils, whereas 12 module hubs and three connectors were found in the bacterial networks of grazing-excluded grassland soils (Table S3). For fungi, we recorded three module hubs and two connectors in the grazed grassland soils, whereas, four module hubs were recorded in grazing excluded grassland soils (Table S4). In addition, approximately 80% of the bacterial nodes of global networks belonged to the phyla Proteobacteria (23. 82∼26. 40%), Actinobacteria (20. 94∼25. 39%), Bacteroidetes (13. 69∼15. 35%), Acidobacteria (7. 60∼11. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not relate to the claim about fungal spores being abundant airborne particles. Instead, it discusses the connectivity of bacterial and fungal networks in grazed and grazing-excluded grassland soils, which has no direct mention of airborne spores or their abundance.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Dialects can reflect social and geographic backgrounds. [SEP] Text: They include: (a) developing tests based on local dialect norms, (b) testing only those features that are common to both dialects, (c) conducting item analysis of tests to identify items that present potential bias against dialect speakers and indicating alternatively acceptable responses, (d) utilizing alternative scoring procedures for dialect speakers, (e) reporting behavioral responses to test content without reporting scores, and (f) relying only on informal judgments of the communication behaviors of the individual. A detailed description of these alternative approaches is beyond the limitations of the short answer format here. on and Behaviors in has been studying the issue of nondiscriminatory testing in preparation for a forthcoming position paper on the subject. Q: PL 94-142 clearly indicates that elective services cannot be supported by PL 94-142 funds. Therefore, because speech-language pathology and audiology services in the schools are supported by PL 94-142 funds in my state, public school speech-language pathologists cannot provide elective services to normal social dialect speakers. A: It is true that the regulations do not permit federal funds designated by PL94-142 to be used for services that are elective or for children who are not handicapped. However, this does not preclude local school districts or state education agencies from allocating funds from other sources to support elective services provided by the speech-language pathologist. In Alaska, for instance, after lobbying efforts by local Association members, dialect usage was given a special designation by the state for service delivery. Q: Should a speech-language pathologist who uses a nonstandard dialect provide articulation or language therapy to a standard English speaker? A: There are numerous speech-language pathologists and audiologists who use speech and language characteristics that are indicative of regional and social dialects. At any ASHA Convention, for instance, a rich diversity of dialects is readily heard in the hotel lobbies, in committee meetings, from the podia and in the meeting. With the increasing success of minority student recruitment efforts, linguistic diversity within the profession is likely to become even richer. Perhaps more important than questioning the dialect used by the speech-language pathologist or audiologist are the following questions: Does the individual have the expected level of knowledge in normal and disordered communication? Does the individual have the expected level of diagnostic and therapeutic case management skill? [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by acknowledging that speech-language pathologists and audiologists exhibit speech and language characteristics indicative of regional and social dialects. It emphasizes the diversity of dialects present in professional settings like ASHA conventions, highlighting that dialect usage is influenced by both social and geographic backgrounds. This directly corroborates the assertion that dialects reflect such backgrounds.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain animals, such as the monarch butterfly, use circadian rhythms to navigate during migration. [SEP] Text: The 5-min flight duration was previously found to be the minimal time required to evaluate directional orientation behaviour in individual butterflies in the flight simulator6. For assessing directionality in individual monarchs, we used a Z-value of ⩾500, as in previous publications9,10,14,15 (see Methods). Z, which is the critical value of the Rayleigh test, is calculated by the equation: Z=nr2, in which n is the number of observations and r is the magnitude of the mean vector. Previous studies have shown, using reconstructed flight paths, that directional flight was apparent at Z⩾500 and ambiguous at Z<500 (ref. 14); this Z-value parameter helped define the non-directionality of non-migrant, summer butterflies tested in the flight simulator outdoors under sunny skies. 14 Using the Z-value as a measure of directionality, we found that 87% of the 45 monarchs that flew continuously for 5 min exhibited a Z-value of >500. Accordingly, these 39 migrants provide a valid representation of the population of butterflies that flew. They were thus re-flown following the various trial perturbations outlined below with their first flight orientation values used as a control for comparison with subsequent experimental flight studies. Migrants have an inclination magnetic compassMost long-distance migratory animals studied to date use the inclination angle component of the Earth’s magnetic field to guide their latitudinal movement in either a poleward or equatorward direction16,17,18. We examined whether or not monarchs also have an inclination magnetic compass by testing the orientation behaviour of individuals when the vertical component of the field was inverted (−45°). This field manipulation alters the directional information provided by the inclination angle such that individuals would perceive it as a 180° shift16,19 and is the acid test for the existence of an inclination compass16,19,20. Eight migrants (initial Z-values: 1,151. 0±134. 3, mean±s. e. m. ; Fig. 2a, left) re-flew for 5 min a second time under the same magnetic field conditions but with the inverted vertical component. The eight migrants re-flown continued to exhibit Z-values >500 (980. 7±150. 1) but displayed a grouped orientation towards magnetic North (α=1°, r=0. 817, P=0. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts with the claim by discussing the directional orientation behavior of monarch butterflies using a Z-value parameter but does not mention circadian rhythms. Instead, it focuses on the use of an inclination magnetic compass for navigation. It describes how monarchs were tested under varying magnetic conditions to assess their orientation, thereby providing evidence of a magnetic navigation system rather than a circadian rhythm-based navigation.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Fungal spores are among the most abundant airborne particles. [SEP] Text: 85%), and Chloroflexi (8. 46∼11. 39%) (Fig. 5A). The grazing exclusion network had higher proportions of Acidobacteria, Chloroflexi, Gemmatimonadetes, and Saccharibacteria compared with the grazing network. For fungi, the majority of the fungal nodes belonged to Ascomycota (64. 23∼64. 50%) and Basidiomycota (16. 41∼16. 90%) (Fig. 5B). The proportion of major fungal nodes in the global networks did not differ between grazed and grazing-excluded grassland soils at the phylum level. The correlations between plants, soil variables, and soil microbial community Most variables examined in this study were correlated with one another (Table S5). Richness and diversity of bulk soil bacteria were positively correlated with (P < 0. 05) plant diversity, TOC, and soil pH (Table S5), while that of bulk soil fungi were positively correlated (P < 0. 05) with plant aboveground biomass and SWC, but negatively correlated (P < 0. 01) with soil pH. The richness and diversity of the rhizosphere fungi was positively correlated (P < 0. 05) with TN and soil pH (Table S5). Eigengen analysis was used to reveal the relationships between network structure and environmental factors based on Spearman’s correlation analysis (Fig. S3). The bacterial network grouped to 17 and 11 submodules in the grazing-excluded grassland soil and grazed grassland soil, respectively, whereas the fungal network grouped to 9 submodules in both grazing-excluded and grazed grassland soils. The bacterial network of the grazing-excluded grassland soil was strongly correlated with plant diversity (Fig. S3A), whereas the fungal network was strongly correlated with soil and pH (Fig. S3C). In the bacterial network, the module 10 of grazing-excluded grassland soil was positively correlated with plant diversity and aboveground biomass (P < 0. 05; Fig. S3A), whereas the module 9 of grazed grassland soil was positively correlated with plant aboveground biomass (P < 0. 01; Fig. S3B). In the fungal network of grazing-excluded grassland soil, module 6 was positively correlated with soil TP content (P < 0. 05; Fig. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not provide any information about the abundance of fungal spores as airborne particles. Instead, it focuses on the composition and relationships of various microbial communities in grassland soils, making it irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Dialects can reflect social and geographic backgrounds. [SEP] Text: In the clinical setting, is the individual able to model the target phoneme (or allophone), grammatical feature, or other aspect of language that characterizes the client's particular problem? If these questions can be answered affirmatively, then the use of a nonstandard dialect should not be an issue. In asking the originally posed question, one must be careful that the underlying question is not, “Should a Black, Hispanic, Asian or Indian speech-language pathologist provide speech or language therapy to Whites? ” Employment practices that discriminate on the basis of race or national origin could result in serious legal consequences and may be open to questions of ethics. Q: Does the position paper have implications for our professional role with bilingual populations? A: Yes, to a limited extent. A bilingual speaker may present a situation that is analogous to a speaker who uses a social dialect. The bilingual speaker may mix the phonological and grammatical rules of the minority language with those of standard English (and/or nonstandard English). Similar to social dialect speakers, bilingual individuals speak English, but may do so with linguistic rules that are different or nonstandard. The rules used by the bilingual speaker can be attributed to the rules of the minority language spoken and to the community in which he/she lives. The position statement has similar implications for bilingual individuals as it does for other nonstandard English speakers. If the bilingual individual seeks to acquire a more standard production of English, the speech-language pathologist may provide elective clinical services. However, as stressed in the position statement, a particular knowledge base is required including a thorough understanding of the linguistic rules of both languages. For the bilingual speaker who exhibits a speech or language disorder within his or her dominant language, speech or language intervention would be indicated. It should be stressed, however, that a comprehensive evaluation by a knowledgeable speech-language pathologist is required prior to initiating treatment. Considerations for providing assessment and treatment to the bilingual communicatively handicapped are currently under study by the ASHA Committee on the Status of Racial Minorities. Q: What is the best age to introduce a second dialect? A: There are two schools of thought on this. From the critical period hypothesis, we know that children learn language most easily before the age of 12. This is true for second as well as first language. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by articulating that bilingual individuals may exhibit linguistic rules that are influenced by their minority language and the community in which they live. This indicates that dialects, including those informed by social backgrounds, can indeed reflect an individual's social and geographic context. Moreover, it suggests that nonstandard dialects can arise from the intersection of different linguistic backgrounds, highlighting the connection between dialects and social factors.