Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: Figure 2—source code 1 The sequence data and source code used to generate the evolutionary trajectory and phylogenetic tree. This code is in the form of a ZIP file with BEAST input files and Python code. file explains the contents. Download elife-00631-fig2-code1-v1. zip We created plasmids encoding each of the high-confidence protein intermediates along the trajectory, using the same codons found in the natural sequences but not introducing any of the synonymous mutations that occurred during this timeframe. We used a mini-replicon system to assess the transcriptional activity of each NP in combination with polymerase proteins (PB2, PB1, PA) from the human H3N2 strain A/Nanchang/933/1995 (Figure 3—figure supplement 1). All evolutionary intermediates exhibited high activity (Figure 3A), supporting Maynard Smith’s notion that evolution proceeds through functional sequences. Figure 3 with 3 supplements see all Download asset Open asset Three mutations are strongly deleterious when introduced individually into the parent Aichi/1968 NP, despite eventually becoming fixed along the evolutionary trajectory without apparent negative effect. (A) The transcriptional activity for the high-confidence evolutionary intermediates, quantified using a GFP reporter (Figure 3—figure supplement 1). Activity is scaled so that the parent Aichi/1968 NP has an activity of one. The numeric labels of the evolutionary intermediates match those used in Figure 2A. (B) The change in activity caused by introducing each mutation individually into the parent Aichi/1968 NP. The deleterious effects on activity caused by L259S, R348G, and V280A are not caused by the genetic background of influenza polymerase proteins, as these three mutants are impaired regardless of whether the polymerase proteins are derived from Nanchang/1995, Aichi/1968, or Brisbane/2007 (Figure 3—figure supplement 3). (C) All three of the individual mutations that reduce activity also impair growth, yet there is no defect in the growth of viruses carrying the NPs of the first high-confidence evolutionary intermediates in which these individually deleterious mutations were actually fixed. Viral growth is quantified as described in Figure 3—figure supplement 2. Numerical data are in Figure 3—source data 1–3. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by showing that some mutations can be strongly deleterious when introduced individually into a viral context, highlighting the harmful effects of specific mutations like L259S, R348G, and V280A. Interestingly, it also notes that these mutations can become fixed in the evolutionary trajectory without apparent negative effect, which suggests that the overall impact of a mutation can vary significantly depending on the context (e.g., whether it's analyzed individually or as part of a functional evolutionary sequence). This exemplifies how genetic mutations can indeed be harmful in certain contexts while potentially being neutral or beneficial in others.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: The majority of space debris poses no threat to human space travel or satellite operations. [SEP] Text: Table 1List of anti-satellite tests conducted by different nationsCountryMission nameYearTarget satellite1963-1971Soviet satellites[37]1985American satellite[38,39]ChinaSC-19 ASAT2007FY-1C Chinese weather satellite[38]2008USA-193[40]2019Microsat-R, Indian satellite[35,36,41]RussiaKosmos 14082021Kosmos 1408[42]The effects of these anti-satellite tests limit orbital capacity because debris has become a permanent threat to active satellites, and the operational satellites in outer space face significant risks due to the high velocity and momentum of these debris pieces[43]. These objects may collide with each other and with active satellites, potentially causing an exponential increase in space debris[44]. Impact of Space debrisWhen debris collides with an active satellite, the active satellite may cease to function and turn into debris, but this is a rare occurrence that depends on the size, velocity, and condition of the colliding object (debris) and the size of the active satellite. After each impact, a debris cloud (sometimes a small one) is spread and distributed to different orbits, which may be close to or further away from the object impacted, depending on the impact energy. and JAXA data on previous launches and space debris statistics provide insight into the current issue. The debris in orbit (1/10 mm) is capable of causing optical surface erosion, permanently damaging telescope mirrors, and reducing the efficiency of solar cells[43]. The 1 mm size of debris can cause craters, dents, and pits on the surface of satellites and make them non-operational. An example showing the impact of debris on active satellite can be seen in Figure 2. If the debris is large enough, it can alter the satellite’s orientation in space[45]. NASA proposed that satellites’ outer surfaces be shielded. To reduce debris impact, the ISS has been shielded with two hard metal sheets separated by 10 cm. If the debris is not removed and preventive measures are not taken, the comforts offered by satellites may not be available due to the shortage of satellites and services[46]. Humanity will be drawn back to the situation that existed 50 years ago. Figure 2. A debris impact chip in a window (Source[12]). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by outlining the significant risks posed by space debris to operational satellites and the potential for collisions to occur. It emphasizes that the effects of anti-satellite tests have resulted in space debris becoming a permanent threat, with the capacity to cause substantial damage to active satellites and create further debris clouds. Also, it discusses the operational hazards faced by satellites due to debris, indicating that the presence of space debris does indeed threaten human space travel and satellite operations.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: The pathway starting from NA carries the intensity information and ILD is processed in LLDp (Sullivan and Konishi, 1984; Takahashi et al. , 1984). These two interaural differences inherent in auditory signals are used as cues for sound source localization (Moiseff, 1989). ITDs are generally used for processing low frequency sounds, while ILD is a cue used for high frequencies (Rayleigh, 1907). 1 Figure 1. Schema of avian auditory brainstem nuclei. Symbols indicate as follows: large open circles (excitatory neurons), large gray circles (inhibitory neurons), small open circles and solid lines (excitatory inputs) small filled circles and dashed lines (inhibitory inputs), and circle filled with dots (local inhibitory neurons). The local inhibitory neurons receive monosynaptic excitatory input from the ipsilateral NM. ANF, auditory nerve fiber; NM, nucleus magnocellularis; NA, nucleus angularis; NL, nucleus laminaris; SON, superior olivary nucleus; LLDp, posterior part of dorsal lateral lemniscus nucleus. Sharpening of ITD selectivity by GABAergic inputs has been demonstrated in higher auditory nuclei such as the inferior colliculus of the barn owl (Fujita and Konishi, 1991). In mammals, neurons in medial superior olive receive glycinergic inhibitory innervation from the medial and the lateral nucleus of the trapezoid body (Kuwabara and Zook, 1992; Grothe and Sanes, 1994). We are therefore interested in the presence and the roles of such inhibitory innervations in the ITD processing of NL. GABAergic innervations in NL are mostly from neurons in SON and some from the GABA positive interneurons located near NM and NL (Code et al. , 1989; von Bartheld et al. , 1989; Yamada et al. , 2013). SON receives excitatory inputs from ipsilateral NA and NL, and inhibitory inputs from the contralateral SON, and makes projections to the ipsilateral and to the contralateral SON (Figure 1; Lachica et al. , 1994; Yang et al. , 1999; Monsivais et al. , 2000; Burger et al. , 2005). In this review 2. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it focuses on auditory processing pathways and circuits related to sound localization rather than on social cue processing. There is no mention or indication of neural circuits dedicated to social cues within the provided information.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: However, we observed good growth of the first high-confidence evolutionary intermediates in which these mutations were actually fixed (Figure 3C). Effects of the epistatically constrained mutations in the evolutionary intermediates in which they occurred To understand how the three individually deleterious mutations fixed along the line of descent without a substantial fitness cost, we examined the evolutionary trajectory. L259S fixed in an unknown order with another mutation (N334H) in an evolutionary intermediate that we have labeled Step 10 (Figure 4A). L259S is deleterious to activity and growth in both Aichi/1968 and Step 10, while N334H has no major effect in either background (Figure 4A). But N334H rescues the deleterious effect of L259S in both Aichi/1968 and Step 10, indicating that fixation of L259S was enabled by N334H. We cannot determine the order of these two mutations during the evolution of the virus: they could have occurred simultaneously, or one could have preceded the other by a sufficiently small amount of time that no influenza isolates were sequenced in the intervening time period. Figure 4 Download asset Open asset Effects of the individually deleterious mutations in the evolutionary intermediates in which they occurred. (A) L259S impairs the transcriptional activity and viral growth of both the parent Aichi/1968 and the evolutionary intermediate Step 10, but is rescued by N334H in both backgrounds. N334H alone has little effect on activity or growth in either background. The actual evolutionary trajectory involved the fixation of L259S and N334H in an unknown order. (B) R384G impairs activity and ablates growth of Aichi/1968, but has no effect on activity and a reduced adverse effect on growth in the high-confidence evolutionary intermediate (Step 21) in which it and several other mutations occurred in an unknown order. Addition of E375G to Step 21 with R384G fully rescues viral growth, but E375G alone worsens the impact of R384G. The reversion of L259S that preceded Step 21 plays an important role in enabling R384G, as the evolutionary intermediate without this reversion (Step 20) is more negatively affected by R384G. (C) V280A is deleterious in Aichi/1968 but not in the Step 35 evolutionary intermediate in which it actually occurred. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing examples of genetic mutations that have varying effects based on their context. For instance, the mutation L259S is described as deleterious to activity and growth in certain contexts but is rescued by the mutation N334H. This suggests that the effects of genetic mutations (in this case, harmful and neutral) depend on the presence of other mutations and the evolutionary background, demonstrating that mutations can have beneficial, neutral, or harmful impacts depending on the context.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: The majority of space debris poses no threat to human space travel or satellite operations. [SEP] Text: Using historical space debris data, Liou and Johnson[47] developed a three-dimensional physical model for the evolution of space debris populations [Figure 3], assuming no rocket launches after December 2004 and no future disposal manoeuvres for existing spacecraft. In the next 200 years, an average of 18. 2 collisions (10. 8 catastrophic, 7. 4 non-catastrophic) is expected[40]. In this orbital region, objects of 10 cm and larger triple in size every 200 years, resulting in a 10% increase in collision probabilities. We have collected space debris data from various sources, including the ESA[12] and NASA’s website[48], to plot the trend of space debris from 1957 to 2019. The trend line in Figure 4 shows a clear exponential growth of debris in recent years, so there is an urgent need to tackle the space debris issue. Figure 3. Simulation of space debris growth rate (Adapted from source[47]). Figure 4. Analysis of Space debris (1957-2019). thinking concepts are rarely applied in understanding the holistic view of the space debris problem. El-Rashid et al. used the closed-loop systems thinking concept to propose a conceptual model called “space vulture”, which aims to capture space debris and re-use the materials to manufacture different objects[49]. They have mentioned that engineering-based approaches always think linearly, whereas systems thinking also considers social and cultural implications. Estable et al. have implemented systems thinking tools such as loops, federated networks, and operability models to optimise the communication process in developing a complex system for space debris removal[50]. Allworth[13] has mentioned some key techniques for calculating space debris, highlighting the importance of observational curve data. In recent studies, Mark and Kamath[51] and Lewis and Marsh[52] used the deep time analysis thinking concept to determine the long-term consequences of space debris. They predicted that the space debris would continue to grow using natural simulation models and that it has nearly reached its orbit-carrying capacity. There is an immediate need to address this issue by removing the existing debris using sustainable measures and taking a systems approach. Many space debris removal projects remain in the conceptual and experimental phases due to the high cost of production and operations that slow down the feasible and sustainable removal of debris[49]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the expected trajectory of space debris over the next 200 years, predicting an average of 18.2 collisions annually with significant implications for space operations. It notes that the growth of debris results in increased collision probabilities and emphasizes the urgent need to address the space debris issue. The mention of predictions that space debris will continue to grow and near orbit-carrying capacity further underscores the potential threat to human space travel and satellite operations, directly contradicting the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: Responses of NA unit and LLDp units to binaural stimuli. (A) Response of NA units to contralateral tone of 200 Hz. Binaural stimulus was applied in-phase (solid black line) or 180° out of phase (dotted line) with a constant ipsilateral tone of 53 dB; 20 dB above the threshold. Responses induced by contralateral monaural stimulus are included (solid gray line). (B) Rate-ILD relationship of LLDp units. ILD was defined as ipsi-contra SPL [dB]. Different symbols indicate different cells. Solid lines are for in-phase and broken lines are for 180° out-of-phase relationships. (C,D) IPD modulation of rate-ILD relationship of LLDp units with strong ipsilateral inhibition (C) with weak ipsilateral inhibition (D). The inset indicates IPDs applied to both (C,D). The slope of rate-ILD relationship across zero ILD is affected by IPD in (C) but not in (D). Reproduced with permission from Sato et al. (2010). The firing rate of LLDp units increases with increasing contralateral sound level, and decreases with increasing ipsilateral sound level. Moreover, the strength of inhibition by ipsilateral sound level varied among LLDp units, and a group of LLDp neurons was inhibited strongly by the ipsilateral sound (Figures 2B,C). IPD affected the rate-ILD function of LLDp neurons, and LLDp neurons that were inhibited strongly enhanced the selectivity toward the contralateral ear through the modulation of rate-ILD function (Figures 2C,D). The ratio of slopes of rate-ILD relationship between the contralateral dominant sound and the ipsilateral dominant sound across 0 ILD indicates the direction selectivity of LLDp units. This IPD effect on ILD processing in LLDp neurons may compensate for the small ILD cue available to the animal (Sato et al. , 2010). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim directly as it focuses on the responses of specific neural units to binaural stimuli, such as rate-ILD relationships and IPD modulation. There is no mention of social cues or neural circuits specifically dedicated to processing them.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: M136I, which precedes V280A, largely rescues its effect. The next individually deleterious mutation, R384G, fixed in Step 21 in an unknown order with several other mutations (Figure 4B). Immediately prior to this, the individually deleterious mutation L259S reverted in the transition from Step 20 to Step 21. R384G is deleterious to activity and growth in both Aichi/1968 and Step 20 (Figure 4B). However in Step 21, the deleterious effect on activity disappears while that on growth diminishes, indicating that reversion of L259S alleviates the impact of R384G. The further addition of E375G to Step 21 containing R384G eliminates the remaining growth impairment—but E375G alone fails to rescue R384G in the background of Aichi/1968 (Figure 4B). Note that E375G has also been previously reported to partially compensate for R384G in slightly different genetic backgrounds (Rimmelzwaan et al. , 2004a). Fixation of R384G was therefore partially enabled by the preceding reversion of L259S, with further assistance from E375G. S259L clearly preceded R384G, but we are unable to resolve whether the second enabling mutation (E375G) occurred before, after, or simultaneously with R384G. The final individually deleterious mutation, V280A, fixed in Step 35. Although V280A is deleterious in Aichi/1968, it has no negative impact in Step 35 (Figure 4C). M136I, which immediately preceded V280A in the natural evolution, mostly rescues its deleterious effect in the background of Aichi/1968 (Figure 4C). Therefore, V280A was enabled by mutations (including M136I) that occurred prior to its own fixation. Most of the mutational effects are mediated by protein stability What is the mechanistic explanation for these mutational effects? None of the identified epistatically interacting residues are in contact in the monomeric or known oligomeric NP crystal structures (Ye et al. , 2006, 2012; Ng et al. , 2008), nor are any of them in the protein’s RNA-binding groove (Figure 5 and Figure 5—figure supplement 1). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by illustrating that genetic mutations can have varying effects depending on the context. For instance, the mutation R384G is described as 'deleterious' under certain conditions but its negative effects diminish in the context of Step 21 due to the influence of preceding mutations like L259S and E375G. The text emphasizes that the impact of these mutations is context-dependent, confirming that mutations may be beneficial, neutral, or harmful according to different genetic backgrounds and evolutionary steps.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: The majority of space debris poses no threat to human space travel or satellite operations. [SEP] Text: Madi and Sokolova[53] mentioned in the Peril book that space debris removal has many technical challenges and that it is almost impossible to remove tumbling objects and small pieces. Keeping this critical issue in mind, we attempted to provide insight into the current state of the problem and suggest some solutions for space debris control in this study. Chen[44] investigated the quantity, size, spatial distribution, source, and threat of space debris to satellites. It also discusses how debris formation control is critical for the long-term use of space, including developing debris mitigation measurements, active debris removal, and space traffic control, as well as how debris formation control is critical for the long-term use of space[54-56]. Some studies looked into the current state of the space debris problem and solutions, as well as the technical challenges and scientific difficulty of removing space debris with a pulsed laser system, and recommended that a space-based laser be developed in the future[57,58]. Haroun et al. examined policy gaps related to the problem of space debris, such as the lack of an international legal framework, responsibility and penalty for debris formation, and the distinction of debris from space objects, and proposed remedies to close the policy gap, including the application of environmental law concepts to space debris[59]. To emphasise the problem’s criticality and urgency, Murtaza et al. reviewed the space debris issue, including the causes, quantity, potential threats, and sizes of orbital debris, counter-strategies with their current status, and legal issues[60]. All of th0 concerns and threats were also reviewed, and efforts to meet this challenge have been inadequate until now. Mironov and Murtazov[61] studied the difficulties of monitoring space debris, particularly hazardous meteoroids, clogging near-Earth space using optical meteor astronomy methods. They mentioned that in the next 50 years, space junk will worsen and no further launches into the orbits will be possible. A careful examination of published literature reveals that many authors have suggested conceptual, empirical models for removing the debris, but none of them tried to approach the root cause of the space debris problem using systems thinking concepts. As mentioned in many previous studies[49,52,58], the system approach will provide a holistic view of understanding the problem. We explore the advantages of the systems thinking concept to find out the root cause of this emerging space debris problem. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting multiple studies that investigate the threats posed by space debris to satellites and human space travel. It discusses the critical challenges of space debris management and indicates that without significant intervention, the situation is expected to worsen, contradicting the notion that the majority of debris is not a threat.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: The balance of excitation and inhibition changes with sound location, and in the barn owl LLDp, it is reported that the reliability of the response to spectrotemporal feature of LLDp neuron is enhanced by temporally delayed inhibition of LLDp neurons through gain modulation of the input-output function of the neuron (Steinberg et al. , 2013). in NM Neurons in NM do not have appreciable dendrites, and ANFs make synapses on the cell soma. ANFs form enfolding end-bulbs of Held around the cell body in the high and middle characteristic frequency (CF) neuron but not in low CF neurons. Accordingly the EPSCs recorded in the high-middle CF NM neurons are large and generated in all-or-none manner with a small number of amplitude steps when the intensity of electrical stimulation applied to the ANFs bundle is changed, while the EPSCs recorded in the low CF neurons are small and the size gradually increases depended on the intensity of electrical stimulus (Fukui and Ohmori, 2004). NM neurons express low-voltage-activated Kv1. 1 channels with a gradient along the tonotopic axis. High CF neurons have stronger Kv1. 1 channel expression and conductance, resulting in more negative resting membrane potential and higher spike threshold. Blocking these channels by dendrotoxin depolarizes the resting membrane potential and reduces the spike threshold (Fukui and Ohmori, 2004). Dendrotoxin is known to block low-voltage-activated K+ channels of Kv1. 1, Kv1. 2, and Kv1. 6 subtypes (Hopkins et al. , 1994; Harvey, 2001). Synaptic transmission during on-going stimuli is robust in the high-middle CF synapse but is depressed quickly in low CF synapses (Oline and Burger, 2014). A large readily releasable pool size in the high-middle CF terminals could maintain the reliable transmission. This may function to maintain the suprathreshold EPSCs in high CF neurons while enabling summation to enhance phase-locking in low CF neurons as it is discussed below. NM neurons are specialized to encode temporal information of sound from ANFs activity. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the neurophysiology of sound processing in barn owls, focusing on the properties of NM neurons and their synaptic transmission related to auditory information. It does not mention or support the concept of neural circuits being dedicated to processing social cues.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: We therefore hypothesized that the individually deleterious mutations might destabilize NP, and that the epistasis might be mediated by counterbalancing stabilizing mutations. This hypothesis is consistent with the fact that N334H rescues L259S, and reversion of L259S in turn partially rescues R384G, despite the lack of physical contact among these residues. Figure 5 with 1 supplement see all Download asset Open asset There is no obvious structural basis for the observed epistasis, as none of the epistatically interacting mutations are in contact in the solved crystal structures of NP. Shown above is one monomer from PDB structure 2IQH; the mutations are also not in contact in any of the known oligomeric structures (Figure 5—figure supplement 1). The sites of the three individually deleterious mutations are in orange, those of the rescuing mutations are in green, and the site of E375G (which can rescue R384G depending on genetic background) is in yellow. We began by pairing N334H with each of the individually deleterious mutations in the background of the parent Aichi/1968 NP. N334H rescues activity for each of these mutations (Figure 6A). N334H also rescues growth for L259S and V280A, and largely rescues growth for R384G (Figure 6B). To test if this rescue was related to in vivo protein levels, we quantified NP in transfected human cells (Figure 6C,D). The parent Aichi/1968 NP and its N334H mutant were present at comparably high levels, but levels were markedly reduced for variants carrying each of the three individually deleterious mutations. Addition of N334H to these mutants restored wild-type protein levels, indicating that N334H can counteract the decrease in protein levels associated with the individually deleterious mutations. Figure 6 with 8 supplements see all Download asset Open asset The epistasis correlates with mutational effects on NP stability. (A) and (B) N334H rescues activity and mostly rescues viral growth of all three individually deleterious mutations. (C) Western blot showing that the three individually deleterious mutations all reduce NP levels in transfected cells relative to an mCherry control expressed from an IRES in the same plasmid; this effect is counteracted by N334H. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by providing evidence of how certain genetic mutations can have diverse effects based on context. Specifically, it discusses how the N334H mutation can 'rescue' the function and growth of independently deleterious mutations, suggesting that while some mutations are harmful in isolation (the deleterious mutations), their impact can be mitigated by other mutations (like N334H). This illustrates that some mutations can be beneficial depending on the genetic context, aligning with the claim that genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: The majority of space debris poses no threat to human space travel or satellite operations. [SEP] Text: Initially, humankind hoped to improve our quality of life with the help of satellites by bringing socio-economic developments such as communication, imaging, weather alerts, networking, geographic information systems (GIS), and navigation systems including GPS. Since the first satellite launches brought significant benefits to humanity, such as radio communication, navigation, investigation of the Earth's magnetic field, and weather monitoring, all nations have begun to invest in satellite activities to reap the benefits of these satellites. Countries competed to launch the most satellites, which started the space race. It was necessary to launch more satellites into orbit to receive greater and greater benefits and gain a dominant position in the space race. However, increasing the number of launches is reducing orbital capacity. To avoid collision damage from other satellites orbiting in space, each orbit has a set number of satellites. These satellites become debris when they reach the end of their life cycle, posing a threat to active satellites. Both the self-removal and external removal methods are expensive because we need to keep enough fuel in the rocket body to move inactive satellites into the LEO region after the completion of their life cycle. For the external removal method, a new spacecraft needs to be launched to remove the current space debris. Since these debris fragments are no longer functional, it is challenging to manoeuvre them into low orbits where atmospheric drag can gradually reduce the orbital energy until they finally reach LEO. These dead parts, spent rocket stages, etc. , continue to orbit and have the potential to increase the number of smaller, harder-to-observe debris fragments through collisions. The following section explains the archetypes found in the above CLD, which aid in understanding the root cause and severity of the space debris problem. Understanding the reduction in orbit capacity using Limits to growthThe limits to the growth archetype consist of a reinforcing loop whose growth is offset by the action of a balancing loop after some success. This means that being successful is never good enough to play. Any organisation that enjoys consistent success is overworking its current system. Any system that experiences slowing action as a result of a limiting factor is experiencing growth limits. Figure 5 shows two growth archetypes with their respective limits (1, 3). There is a reinforcing loop between variables “collision probability” and “collisions” in the one (1) numbered archetype. As the collision probability rises, so does the number of collisions. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by detailing how space debris poses a significant risk to satellites and space operations. It explains that debris fragments can lead to collision damage, with phrases such as 'these satellites become debris when they reach the end of their life cycle, posing a threat to active satellites' and 'the number of collisions' will increase as 'collision probability rises.' This indicates that space debris does indeed pose a threat to both human space travel and satellite operations.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: The low frequency sound information is strongly phase-locked, however it is actually encoded with a large timing jitter in ANFs. This timing fluctuation is reduced during transmission from ANFs to NM neurons (Fukui and Ohmori, 2004; Fukui et al. , 2006; see Joris et al. , 1994). Here, the mechanism is explained by the temporal integration of small EPSPs. Because the low frequency NM neuron is innervated by a large number of small bouton shaped synapses, single EPSPs are so small that multiple EPSPs are required to summate in order to reach spike threshold (Fukui and Ohmori, 2004; Kuba and Ohmori, 2009). Therefore, only those synaptic inputs arriving within a limited time window could contribute to NM spike; NM activity becomes more precisely phase-locked than ANF activity. However, the integration makes the depolarization of the NM neuron slow, which increases the level of inactivation of Na+ channels. Axon initial segment (AIS), the site of action potential initiation, is extended longer in the axon of low CF NM neurons than the high-middle CF NM neurons. Clustering of a large number of Na+ channels at the AIS would allow sufficient current to generate action potentials even under a certain level of inactivation (Kuba and Ohmori, 2009). On the other hand, high frequency neurons are innervated by a small number of end-bulb shaped large terminal of ANF. Large EPSCs are generated and timing information is transmitted more precisely to high frequency NM neurons (Fukui and Ohmori, 2004; Fukui et al. , 2006; Oline and Burger, 2014). Specializations of ITD Encoding in the NL Somas of NL neurons have bipolar tufted dendrites and an axon emerges from the cell body. Dentrite morphology changes systematically along the tonotopic axis. Dendrites are short, relatively unbranched, occur in large numbers in high CF NL cells. The number of dendrites decreases in the middle-CF neurons but they become thicker and longer. Only a few primary dendrites extend away from the soma in the low-CF neurons, and they have extensive branching (Smith and Rubel, 1979; Kuba et al. , 2005; Sanchez et al. , 2010). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text primarily discusses the physiological and anatomical aspects of auditory nerve fibers and their connections in the context of low and high frequency neuronal responses. It does not address neural circuits dedicated to processing social cues, making it irrelevant to the given claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: (D) Quantification of NP levels from triplicate Western blots (Figure 6—figure supplement 1). (E) The deleterious mutations decrease and N334H increases the stability of NP, as measured by thermal denaturation of purified protein monitored by circular dichroism (Figure 6—figure supplements 2–6 and Figure 6—source data 1). Figure 6—figure supplement 7 shows that M136I, which precedes V280A in the natural evolution, and is modestly stabilizing (Figure 6—figure supplements 4–7), also partially rescues the levels of V280A NP in transfected cells and the activity of all three individually deleterious mutations. Together, the two stabilizing mutations N334H and M136I can rescue the activity of combinations of the individually deleterious mutations (Figure 6—figure supplement 8). Figure 6—source data 1 A table of all of the melting temperatures and the changes in stability relative to Aichi/1968, in CSV format. Download elife-00631-fig6-data1-v1. csv To see if these changes in in vivo protein levels correlated with global protein stability, we purified the NP variants with an additional mutation in the tail loop (Ye et al. , 2006) that enabled us to obtain monomeric RNA-free protein that exhibited the expected alpha-helical circular-dichroism spectrum (Figure 6—figure supplement 2). All NP variants exhibited similar circular-dichroism spectra (Figure 6—figure supplement 3) and unfolded with a single cooperative transition (Figure 6—figure supplements 4–6), allowing us to determine melting temperatures (Tm) for irreversible thermal denaturation. The three individually deleterious mutations were all destabilizing, with changes in melting temperatures (ΔTm) relative to the parent Aichi/1968 NP that ranged from −3. 6°C to −4. 9°C. N334H was stabilizing (ΔTm of 4. 4°C), and adding N334H to each of the individual destabilized mutants restored their stability to roughly wild-type values (Figure 6E). M136I is also modestly stabilizing, and partially rescues all three individually deleterious mutations (Figure 6—figure supplements 4–7). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how certain genetic mutations can have varying effects on stability and activity. Specifically, it mentions that while mutations like N334H can stabilize protein activity, other mutations are identified as deleterious. The ability of stabilizing mutations to rescue the functionality of harmful mutations illustrates that the effect of genetic mutations can indeed vary based on context, supporting the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: The majority of space debris poses no threat to human space travel or satellite operations. [SEP] Text: As the number of collisions increases, the collision fragments will collide with already accumulated debris and active satellites, and the size of the debris will decrease to subcritical sizes that would be difficult to label or catalogue[12]. The relative velocity of debris depends on its population[66], its distribution or spread in orbit, as well as the orbital mechanics[67]. This is a balancing loop. As the size of the debris decreases, the number of p6. Systemigram of space debris problem (see online version for colours). Figure 6 shows a systemigram with nodes representing key concepts and links between them representing relationships. The bottle on the left in the figure shows six different types of legends, each of which represents a sub-family of concepts used to explain the space debris problem. Figure 6 depicts and summarises how the space debris problem exhibits the characteristics of emergence, connectivity between variables, autonomy, belonging, and diversity. Human life has greatly benefited from space exploration, which has improved our communication systems and quality of life. We start with the top left corner of the systemigram; more satellites must be launched to gain more benefits from space. At the end of the 1990s, satellites had an average lifespan of about 8. 6 years[74], but due to recent technological advancements, this is now gradually rising to an average of 15 years[75]. It is challenging to generalise the average lifespan of an active satellite because it depends on factors such as orbital position, atmospheric drag, radiation exposure, design, and build quality. New satellites must be launched to maintain existing systems and ensure that the benefits of space technology continue to be available. New satellites require orbital space to launch, so if an orbit has slots for positioning the satellite, it can be launched without difficulty. However, the dead satellites, spent rocket stages, mission-related debris, and fragmentation debris orbiting in space pose a threat to new and active satellites. More countries have recently developed satellite launch technologies, and private companies have begun to send people into space via space tourism. The demand for a wide range of applications, such as communication, remote sensing, defence services, weather monitoring, television, and internet access, drove up the number of launches. Uncontrollable satellite launches, contrary to popular belief, have a negative side. The launch of a large number of satellites has resulted in space debris or space junk. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing information about how space debris, including dead satellites and fragmentation debris, poses a significant threat to new and active satellites. It discusses the increasing number of collisions and how the accumulation of such debris can affect the safety of human space travel and satellite operations, thereby challenging the assertion that the majority of space debris poses no threat.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: ITD depends on head size, and in most birds, the physiological maximum ITD is smaller than 100 μs. Considering the maximum firing rate of most neurons is less than or equal to 1 kHz, this maximum available ITD cue is extremely small; thus the auditory system needs specialization to process ITDs accurately. During embryonic development, NMDA receptor currents increase in the NM-NL synapse, however it decreases dramatically before hatching. AMPA receptor currents increase during the embryonic development, particularly in the high CF NL cells. The EPSC kinetics becomes faster with development and rectifies in all CF regions, suggesting the exclusion of GluR2 receptor subunits from the synapse (Sanchez et al. , 2010). Kinetics and amplitude of EPSCs are symmetrical in single NL neurons between inputs of two sides (Lu, 2009). Moreover, tonotopic gradients are matched between the EPSC time course and the feature of postsynaptic band-pass filtering in single NL neurons (Slee et al. , 2010). These are consistent with the faster EPSC and mEPSC kinetics in NL neurons after hatching (Kuba et al. , 2005). Low-Voltage-Activated K+ Coincidence Detection, and Make ITD detection for Mid-The best sensitivity to ITD or the smallest error of sound source localization was observed in the mid-audible frequency range in the avian species (Klump, 2000). Consistent with this observation, we found that the coincidence detection of bilateral NM spikes was most accurate in the middle-CF NL neurons. In brainstem slice experiments of the post-hatch chicks conducted at body temperature, 40°C, the time window of coincidence detection was 1700, 300, and 600 μs, for the low, middle and high CF neurons, respectively; the time window is defined as the time separation of bilateral stimuli applied to projection fibers from NM, which generates spikes in more than 50% trials (Kuba et al. , 2003). Moreover, we found that the time course of EPSP measured as the half amplitude width have a significant positive correlation with the time window of coincidence detection (Figure 3); therefore, NL neuron with fast EPSPs has temporally sharp coincidence detection. The time course of EPSC is progressively faster toward high CF neurons. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding neural circuits processing social cues. Instead, it discusses the auditory processing systems in birds, focusing on interaural time difference (ITD) and neuronal dynamics without any mention of social cues or corresponding neural circuits.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: The final Brisbane/2007 NP contains two of the three identified destabilizing mutations (L259S reverts) and both of the identified stabilizing mutations—combining all four mutations in the parental Aichi/1968 background gives wild-type levels of activity (Figure 6—figure supplement 8). These results suggest that most of the epistasis that we identified during NP’s evolution is due to counterbalancing stabilizing and destabilizing mutations. To obtain a more complete portrait, we measured the stabilities of all of the resolved evolutionary intermediates (Figure 6—figure supplements 4–6). Figure 7A shows the correlation between activity and stability for all NP variants for which both properties were measured. For variants with melting temperatures exceeding 43°C, activity is independent of stability—changes in stability above this threshold are neutral with respect to activity. But once stability begins to fall below 43°C, there is a rapid decline in activity. A similar pattern is observed in the correlation between stability and viral growth, with growth declining precipitously once stability drops below 43°C (Figure 7B). The exception to this relationship is that variants containing R384G without E375G exhibit reduced growth even when they possess adequate stability and activity (Figures 4B, 7A,B). E375G is modestly destabilizing (ΔTm = −1. 0°C), and so epistatically interacts with R384G by a mechanism other than protein stability. E375G and R384G induce opposite charge changes and occur on the same surface of NP (Figure 5 and Figure 7—supplement figure 1)—we hypothesize that maintenance of the electrostatic charge on this surface might be important for NP’s interaction with some partner late in the viral life cycle after RNA transcription is complete. Figure 7 with 1 supplement see all Download asset Open asset Most of the epistasis that we identified in NP’s evolution can be explained by counterbalancing stabilizing and destabilizing mutations. (A) The relationship between NP stability and transcriptional activity for all variants for which both properties were measured. As long as the stability is greater than a threshold around 42°C, changes in stability are neutral with respect to activity. Below this threshold, activity declines sharply with decreasing stability. (B) The relationship between viral growth and NP stability exhibits a similar behavior. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by stating that changes in stability above a threshold (43°C) are neutral with respect to activity, which indicates that some mutations do not negatively impact function and can thus be considered neutral. Furthermore, the text discusses the interaction between stabilizing and destabilizing mutations, suggesting that the effects of mutations can vary based on environmental conditions, thereby supporting the idea that genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: The majority of space debris poses no threat to human space travel or satellite operations. [SEP] Text: Because there is no system in place to remove space junk, all satellites launched to date will become junk in the coming years. The debris collides with active satellites and other debris fragments regularly. These collisions regularly produce tiny debris p2023. 1. Schubert M, Böttcher. Detectability of space debris objects in the infrared spectrum. 2022;195:41-51. DOI 2. Steering reflective space debris using polarised lasers. Res 2021;67:1721-32. DOI 3. . Optimal configuration of distributed HTS coils for the non-contact de-tumbling of space debris. 2022;191:491-501. DOI 4. Maclay T, Mcknight D. Space environment management: framing the objective and setting priorities for controlling orbital debris risk. J Eng 2021;8:93-7. DOI 5. Lewis HG. Understanding long-term orbital debris population dynamics. J Eng 2020;7:164-70. DOI 6. Union of Concerned Scientists. UCS satellite database. Available from: [Last accessed on 2 Feb 2023]. 7. Identifying the 50 statistically-most-concerning derelict objects in LEO. 2021;181:282-91. DOI 8. David, W. (2010), The current space debris situation. Available from: [Last accessed on 2 Feb 2023]. 9. Dynamical models and the onset of chaos in space debris. Mech 2017;90:147-163. DOI 10. Aslanov V, Ledkov A. Detumbling of axisymmetric space debris during transportation by ion beam shepherd in 3D case. Res 2022;69:570-80. DOI 11. Opinion contributor. More space launches than any year in history since Sputnik. Available from: [Last accessed on 2 Feb 2023]. 12. Agency. About space debris. Available from: [Last accessed on 2 Feb 2023]. 13. . A transfer learning approach to space debris classification using observational light curve data. 2021;181:301-15. DOI 14. Pardini C, Anselmo L. Evaluating the impact of space activities in low earth orbit. 2021;184:11-22. DOI 15. Miraux L. Environmental limits to the space sector’s growth. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting that there is currently no system to remove space debris, stating that all satellites will become junk in the coming years, and that debris collides with active satellites regularly. This indicates that space debris does pose a threat, directly opposing the claim that the majority of it does not.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: However, the time course of EPSP is fastest in mid-CF neurons, which is almost the same or sometimes faster than the time course of EPSC recorded in the same neuron (Kuba et al. , 2005). The falling phase of the EPSP was accelerated due to strong activation of low-voltage-activated K+ channels caused by EPSPs. Application of dendrotoxin prolonged the falling phase of EPSP. The expression of Kv1. 2 channels is confirmed immuno-histochemically in the NL, and the density of immuno-reactivity is the highest in the mid-CF region, where the time window for the coincidence detection is most precise (Kuba et al. , 2005). These findings are consistent with the idea that Kv1. 2 channels accelerate EPSP time course in the middle-CF NL neurons. 3 Figure 3. Correlation between the time window for coincidence detection and the width of EPSP measured in the NL neurons. Time windows were plotted against the half amplitude width of EPSP recorded at −62 mV. Different symbols indicate different experimental conditions: ▪, embryo recorded at 20–25°C (n = 6); □, embryo 40°C (n = 1); ▴, chick 20–25°C (n = 15); ●, chick 30°C (n = 7); ○, chick 40°C (n = 8); ◊, chick 40°C without bicuculline using low-Cl internal solution (n = 5). Reproduced with permission from Kuba et al. (2003). Na+ in AIS Makes Spike-in have been puzzled for a long time by the observation that the spikes and Na+ currents were small in the high and middle CF NL neurons than those of low CF NL neurons (Kuba et al. , 2003, 2005, 2006). By immuno-histochemical observations we found that the AIS is extended in length and located close to the cell soma in low CF NL neurons while short and located distant in the high CF NL neurons. The significance of this Na+ channel distribution is interpreted by a computer simulation using a model under an assumption that NL neurons receive excitatory synaptic inputs at the frequency that closely matches with their CF; namely the frequency of synaptic inputs is high in the high CF NL neurons and low in the low CF NL neurons. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim about certain neural circuits dedicated to processing social cues. Instead, it discusses the properties of EPSP and Na+ channel distribution in neurons, which lacks a direct connection to social cue processing. Therefore, it is deemed irrelevant.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: The exception is that growth of variants with R384G is fully rescued only by combining a stabilizing mutation with E375G (Figure 4B), an effect that we hypothesize is related to the electrostatic charge on one of NP’s surfaces (Figure 7—figure supplement 1). (C) The dynamics of protein stability during NP evolution. Shown are the measured stabilities for evolutionary intermediates from the trajectory in Figure 2A. The lines along the y-axis at the far left show the stabilities of the five indicated individual point-mutants of the Aichi/1968 NP. Although the destabilizing mutations L259S, R384G, and V280A are deleterious to the Aichi/1968 parent, during evolution they are counterbalanced by stabilizing mutations. In the top panels, selected points are labeled with the NP variant name; the full data plotted in this figure are in Figure 7—source data 1. Figure 7—source data 1 The activity, viral growth, and stability data shown in Figure 7. The data are provided in CSV format. Download elife-00631-fig7-data1-v1. csv This caveat about R384G and E375G notwithstanding, it is striking that we can explain all of the other observed mutational effects simply in terms of protein stability. Figure 7C shows the trajectory of stability during NP’s evolution. The parent Aichi/1968 is only marginally more stable than the minimal threshold where activity and viral growth begin to suffer. For this reason, the three destabilizing mutations L259S, R384G, and V280A are highly deleterious to Aichi/1968. During NP’s evolution, stability fluctuates as the protein fixes stabilizing and destabilizing mutations. Each of the three destabilizing mutations that we identified as being under epistatic constraint is closely associated with a stabilizing mutation. The stabilizing M136I preceded the destabilizing V280A, and provided a stability cushion to eliminate V280A’s otherwise deleterious effect (Figures 4C, 7C). The stabilizing S259L preceded the destabilizing R384G, and was necessary (in conjunction with E375G) to alleviate R384G’s otherwise deleterious effect (Figures 4B, 7C). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by illustrating how genetic mutations can have varying effects depending on the context of their interaction with stabilizing mutations. It mentions that although certain mutations (L259S, R384G, and V280A) are deleterious to the parent strain, they can be counterbalanced and their harmful effects mitigated by stabilizing mutations (such as M136I and S259L). This suggests that the impact of genetic mutations is not absolute but context-dependent, aligning with the claim that genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the circumstances.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: The majority of space debris poses no threat to human space travel or satellite operations. [SEP] Text: Anél Ferreira-: orcid. org/0000-0002-5460-051725 Part of the book series: Studies (()) 38 Accesses AbstractSince the early years of filmmaking, space movies have steadily evolved from pure fantasy to realistic portrayals of outer space travel and exploration. As time progressed, filmmakers started to use cinema to communicate the realities of outer space travel to their audiences. One of the realities of contemporary space travel is the pressing space debris problem. The 2013 film Gravity, directed by Alfonso Cuarón, provides a dramatic portrayal of the significant threat that space debris poses to spacecraft, space stations, and astronauts. This 34. 9910 units per month Download 29. 95 Price excludes VAT (USA) Available as PDF Read on any device Instant download Own it forever Buy 119. 00 Price excludes VAT (USA) Available as EPUB and PDF Read on any device Instant download Own it forever Buy e159. 99 Price excludes VAT (USA) Durable hardcover edition Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days Free shipping worldwide - see info calculation will be finalised at checkout Purchases are for personal use only Institutional subscriptions Notes1. Sandra Bullock’s character, Stone, in the 2013 film Gravity, directed by Alfonso Cuarón and produced by Warner Bros. Pictures, see: “Quotes”, www. quotes. net/mquote/114938 (all websites cited in this publication were last accessed and verified on 31 August 2023). 2. Looking to the Stars—of Space Films, to the on Apple TV, produced by Troy Bejamin, released in the on 31 March 2015, see: Gravity: Looking to the Stars—of Space Films, www. imdb. com/title/tt4733342/? ref_=ttfc_ql. 3. Ibid. 4. “Science fiction meets science fact: how film inspired the Moon landing. Films and literature gave us a dream of the future. Apollo 11 made it a reality”, Greenwich, to the Stars: of (Footnote 2). 6. “Science fiction meets science fact: how film inspired the Moon landing. Films and literature gave us a dream of the future. Apollo 11 made it a reality” (Footnote 4). 7. Ibid. 8. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by illustrating the significant threat that space debris poses to spacecraft, space stations, and astronauts, as depicted in the film Gravity. The mention of this pressing space debris problem serves to rebut the claim's assertion that the majority of space debris does not present a threat.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: Simulations demonstrated that the depolarization of the cell soma is greater in high CF NL neurons than the low CF NL neurons during sound inputs. This depolarization would inactivate Na+ channels and prevent spike generation if the AIS, thus Na+ channel, is located close to the cell soma. By displacing the AIS to a distance where the level of steady depolarization is small because of the electro-tonic property of the axon, the level of Na+ channel inactivation should be reduced; however the reduced level of membrane depolarization may also reduce the activation level of Na+ channels at a distance. Consequently, the balance of activation and inactivation of Na+ channels is achieved, and the spike generation is optimized by controlling the spatial distribution of Na+ channels for each NL neuron depending on its CF. This is likely the underlying mechanism for the stable processing of ITD in each NL neuron (Kuba et al. , 2006; see also Ashida et al. , 2007). HCN the Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels have a reversal potential around −30 mV, are activated by membrane hyperpolarization, and the voltage-sensitivity is modulated by cyclic nucleotides. Channel gating is shifted in the positive direction when the cytosolic concentration of cyclic nucleotides is high, and the sensitivity to cyclic nucleotide is greater in HCN2 than in HCN1 channel subtype (Pape, 1996; Santoro and Tibbs, 1999; Biel et al. , 2009). In the chicken NL, both HCN1 and HCN2 channels are expressed along the tonotopic axis with a gradient (Yamada et al. , 2005). Expression of HCN1 is graded extensively toward the low CF region of the nucleus, while the expression of HCN2 is less graded across the nucleus. The membrane depolarization of NL neurons was confirmed when the level of cyclic AMP was raised either by incubation of slices with 8-Br-cAMP or by photo-illumination of the cell that was loaded with a caged compound of cyclic AMP through the patch electrode, which likely reflected an increased level of activation of HCN channels (Yamada et al. , 2005). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the mechanisms of neuronal behavior and channel activity in neurons, specifically focusing on sound inputs and Na+ channel dynamics. There is no mention of neural circuits related to processing social cues or any aspects related to social cognition.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: The stabilizing N334H occurred in close temporal proximity to the destabilizing L259S and fully counteracts L259S’s otherwise deleterious effect (Figures 4B, 7C)—although in this case there is insufficient natural sequence data to determine which of these mutations occurred first (it is also possible that they occurred simultaneously). The epistatically constrained mutations contribute to viral immune escape The aforementioned results illuminate the evolutionary steps that gave rise to the fixation of the individually deleterious destabilizing mutations, but they do not provide any indication of what forces may have driven this fixation. The destabilizing mutations could have been fixed stochastically by genetic drift or hitchhiking, or they could have been directly favored by selection for viral immune escape. As discussed in the Introduction, NP is a target of CTLs, and mutations in CTL epitopes benefit influenza by helping it evade immune memory that accumulates in the human population (Berkhoff et al. , 2007; Valkenburg et al. , 2011). We began by searching the literature for experimentally validated human CTL epitopes in NP. All three destabilizing mutations occur in characterized epitopes (DiBrino et al. , 1995; Voeten et al. , 2000; Rimmelzwaan et al. , 2004b; Berkhoff et al. , 2007; Assarsson et al. , 2008; Alexander et al. , 2010; Cheung et al. , 2012), and mutations at two of these sites have been shown to reduce CTL recognition (Voeten et al. , 2000; Berkhoff et al. , 2004; Rimmelzwaan et al. , 2004b; Berkhoff et al. , 2007; Figure 8—source data 1). To test if the epistatically constrained mutations are in more epitopes than expected by chance, we considered two approaches to comprehensively identify epitopes in NP: mining of a database of literature-characterized epitopes (Vita et al. , 2010), and computational prediction of epitopes from protein sequence (Stranzl et al. , 2010). The first approach has the advantage of only identifying experimentally validated epitopes, but the disadvantage that this set of epitopes is subject to unknown biases due to experimental choices about HLA types and viral strains. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how genetic mutations can have varied effects based on their context. It describes destabilizing mutations that, while typically harmful ('deleterious'), contribute to viral immune escape, thus providing an instance where these mutations can be beneficial. This illustrates that the impact of genetic mutations can depend on the surrounding circumstances, thereby supporting the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: The majority of space debris poses no threat to human space travel or satellite operations. [SEP] Text: The following guidelines should be considered during the mission planning, design, manufacture and operational phases of spacecraft and launch vehicle orbital stages: Guideline 1: Limit debris released through normal operations; Guideline 2: Minimise the potential risk for break-ups during operational stages; Guideline 3: Limit the probability of accidental collision in orbit; Guideline 4: Avoid intentional destruction and other harmful activities; Guideline 5: Minimise potential for post-mission break-ups resulting from stored energy; Guideline 6: Limit the long-term presence of spacecraft and launch vehicle orbital stages in the Orbit (LEO) region after the end of their mission; and Guideline 7: Limit the long-term interference of spacecraft and launch vehicle orbital stages with the geosynchronous earth orbit (GEO) region after the end of their mission. See further: the Mitigation Guidelines, 50. See preface to the “Mitigation Guidelines” (Footnote 46), p. iv. 51. and Larson (Footnote 32), p. 275; Mukherjee and Mokkapati (Footnote 27), p. 287. 52. Schrogl (Footnote 39), p. 605. 53. Joyeeta Chatterjee, “Relating to Debris Remediation”, Proceedings of the of Space Law, 57, (2014), p. 15 identifies the following types of remediation activities: “retrieval of a space object from the outer space environment or from a particular orbit, repairing/servicing a space object, refuelling missions to extend the life of the space object or salvaging a space object for recycling or other purposes. On-orbit servicing and salvaging operations remediate space debris by repairing and restoring maneuverability in an object or removing it to avoid collision with a functional satellite. ”. 54. Newman and Williamson (Footnote 45), p. 32. 55. “Active debris removal”, Space Agency, www. esa. int/Space_Safety/Space_Debris/Active_debris_removal#:~:text=Active%20Debris%20Removal%20(ADR)%20is,in%20less%20than%2025%20years. 56. Ibid. 57. For example, in 2020 the Agency concluded a service contract with ClearSpace SA worth € 86. 2 million to remove orbital space debris. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by outlining various guidelines aimed at minimizing the risks associated with space debris, suggesting that there are indeed concerns about the threat that space debris poses to operational spacecraft and satellites. The guidelines emphasize limiting debris release and minimizing collision risk, indicating an acknowledgment of the potential threat space debris presents, which contradicts the claim that the majority poses no threat.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: The membrane depolarization improved the coincidence detection by accelerating the time course of EPSPs, presumably because of the activation of low-voltage-activated K+ channels. The relatively high density of HCN2 channels over HCN1 channels in the high CF NL neurons made the high CF neurons more sensitive to the level of cyclic AMP (Yamada et al. , 2005). Accordingly, by incubation of slices prepared from the high CF NL region with nor-adrenaline for a few minutes, the coincidence detection became more precise. Nor-adrenaline is a neurotransmitter released from sympathetic nerve terminals and is expected to activate G-protein-coupled receptors and increase cyclic AMP concentration in the target neurons (Gilman, 1987). These results raise the possibility that coincidence detection is under sympathetic control. HCN channel activity could be coupled with the improved sound source localization capability of the barn owl observed when owls were exposed to a sound stimulus of long duration (Knudsen and Konishi, 1979). Listening to a sound of long duration may increase the tension that likely mobilizes the sympathetic activity. Expression pattern of HCN channel subunits in the owl has not yet been examined. Receptors (mGluRs) Enhance the The fast time course of EPSPs is critical to enhance the coincidence detection; however the sharpness of coincidence detection depends also on the size of EPSPs (Kuba et al. , 2002). The size was not only affected by the short term synaptic plasticity, but was affected through the presynaptic mGluR activity as well (Okuda et al. , 2013). A non-specific agonist of mGluRs (t-ACPD) reduced the amplitude of EPSCs, which reduced the depression of EPSCs during a stimulus train, while the paired pulse ratio and the coefficient of variation of EPSC amplitude were increased. In contrast, the amplitude of spontaneous EPSCs was not affected, but the frequency was reduced. Thus, the effects of t-ACPD were presynaptic and t-ACPD likely reduced the release of neurotransmitter from the NM terminal. Both group-II (DCG-IV) and group-III (L-AP4) specific agonists reduced EPSC amplitude by presynaptic mechanisms, and the effects were greater in low CF NL neurons. The reduced EPSP amplitude in DCG-IV improved the coincidence detection. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses various mechanisms of coincidence detection in neurons and the role of neurotransmitters, but it does not mention social cues or circuits dedicated to processing them. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: But doubtless some of these other mechanisms of epistasis would become apparent if we examined even longer evolutionary trajectories. However, the overriding message from our experiments is that stability-mediated epistasis is the dominant constraint on NP evolution. Epistatically interacting mutations can be fixed in several ways. The mutations can accumulate sequentially without ever passing through a low-fitness intermediate (as in Maynard Smith’s analogy), an initial deleterious mutation can be compensated by a subsequent mutation, or multiple mutations can occur simultaneously. We have identified two instances that clearly conform to Maynard Smith’s paradigm: the stabilizing M136I preceded V280A, and the stabilizing S259L preceded R384G (Figure 4B,C). We also identified two instances where the actual evolutionary path is unclear due to a lack of natural sequence data from the relevant timeframe: N334H/L259S, and E375G/R384G (Figure 4A,B). However, in both cases it is at least possible that evolution conformed to Maynard Smith’s paradigm: no simultaneous mutations or deleterious intermediates need have occurred if N334H preceded L259S, and if E375G preceded R384G (Figure 4A,B). Previous experimental studies have identified stabilizing mutations as contributing to the evolution of enzyme specificities (Bloom et al. , 2006), bacterial (Wang et al. , 2002; Bershtein et al. , 2006; Weinreich et al. , 2006) and viral (Chang and Torbett, 2011) drug resistance, and H5N1 transmissibility (Imai et al. , 2012). At a broader level, analyses of large datasets have shown that it is common for mutations to be deleterious to one protein homolog but benign to another (Kondrashov et al. , 2002; Baresic et al. , 2010). Our work illustrates how the dynamics of stability during evolution might explain these findings. As shown in Figure 7C, most of the intermediates during NP’s evolution are only marginally more stable than the minimal threshold where function begins to suffer. This marginal stability of natural proteins has been noted previously, and been given two distinct explanations. The first explanation holds that evolution actively selects for marginal stability because both insufficient and excess stability are deleterious (DePristo et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how the effects of mutations can vary based on the context in which they occur. It mentions that 'it is common for mutations to be deleterious to one protein homolog but benign to another,' which directly supports the assertion that mutations can manifest different consequences depending on the specific circumstances. Furthermore, the reference to stabilizing mutations contributing to evolutionary processes and their varying impacts further aligns with the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: The majority of space debris poses no threat to human space travel or satellite operations. [SEP] Text: ClearSpace will develop a robot-like spacecraft with four articulated arms to remove space debris safely. It’s first mission is planned for 2025 to remove Vespa, a second payload adapter left behind by the Vega rocket that was placed in orbit in 2013. The robotic arms will remove Vespa and move it closer to the Earth’s atmosphere to burn up and disintegrate. See “ClearSpace signs service contract with ESA to carry out the first mission to remove space debris in orbit in 2025”, ClearSpace today, 1 October 2020, For further examples of such technologies, including an electrodynamic tether, a harpoon and a giant net, see: Katharine Rooney, “The big space clean-up—and why it matters”, Forum, 20 May 2021, www. weforum. org/agenda/2021/05/space-junk-clean-satellite/. 58. 59. Newman and Williamson (Footnote 45), p. 32; Chatterjee (Footnote 53), p. 26. 60. 27. 61. Chatterjee (Footnote 53), p. 25; on the issue of responsibility and liability of states see: Ferreira-Snyman (Footnote 30), 419. 62. Newman and Williamson (Footnote 45), p. 32. 63. and Igbozurike, “Toward the Sustainability of Outer Space: Addressing the Issue of Space Debris”, 9, (2021), p. 65. In this regard, the Vice-Commander of the Space Force’s expressed the view that orbital removal should be undertaken by the private sector, because Government-led efforts could create concerns that the technology would also be used as weapons to disable active satellites. According to her, “[w]hen you say the military is going to develop a capability to pick up trash or pick up debris, it’s automatically seen as dual use. ”; see: Jeff Foust, “backs development of commercial orbital debris removal systems”, SpaceNews, 15 September 2021, For a comprehensive discussion on the interrelatedness of active space removal and space weaponisation, see Matteo Frigoli, “Removal and Space-Based Weapons: A Approach”, in of Removal, Studies in Space Policy, vol 16, ed. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the development of technologies to actively remove space debris, indicating that there are significant concerns surrounding space debris. The planned missions and technologies suggest that some space debris, like Vespa from the Vega rocket, are deemed problematic enough that efforts are required to mitigate their potential risks to human space travel and satellite operations.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: A specific antagonist of group-II mGluRs (LY341495) increased the amplitude of both EPSCs and EPSPs, and enhanced depression during the stimulus train, which indicated a constitutive activation of mGluRs in the NL even though experiments were conducted in slice preparations. We have detected expression of group-II mGluRs immuno-histochemically, and the expression level was increased after hatching. The expression was greater toward the low CF NL region. These observations indicate that the presynaptic mGluRs may operate as a self-regulatory mechanism to optimize the size of EPSP and have roles in sharpening the coincidence detection, particularly during the on-going sound stimulus. in the NL Because of the relatively high intracellular concentration of Cl−, GABA was depolarizing in brainstem auditory neurons (Hyson et al. , 1995). GABA-induced depolarization could exceed the spike threshold and could be excitatory; however GABA application reduced input impedance and was primarily inhibitory. Therefore, sustained GABA effects are critical in improving the temporal processing of sounds (Funabiki et al. , 1998; Tang et al. , 2011). Moreover, GABAergic inhibitory synapse was affected by GABAB receptors and mGluRs in NL of embryonic age (E19-E21, Tang et al. , 2009). and mGluRs are cooperative and may improve the coincidence detection in NL neurons. rates of ITD processing neurons alternates periodically as ITD changes during a tonal stimulation, and the period of the ITD tuning curve was determined by the CF of the neuron (Goldberg and Brown, 1969; Carr and Konishi, 1990; Yin and Chan, 1990). The sound pressure level affected the contrast between the peak and trough firing rates (Pena et al. , 1996). Loud sound was expected to increase the firing rate both at the peak and the trough of ITD tuning curve, and to reduce the peak-trough contrast (or ITD sensitivity, Dasika et al. , 2005). However, the peak-trough contrast was actually maintained rather than reduced at high sound pressure level in in vivo recordings from the barn owl (Pena et al. , 1996). Pena and colleagues proposed that inhibition from SON controls the ITD tuning in NL, making it tolerant to sound pressure level. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the effects of mGluRs and GABA in auditory processing, specifically related to sound stimuli and ITD tuning in neural circuits, without any mention of social cues or the neural circuits associated with social processing.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: , 2005; Tokuriki and Tawfik, 2009). The second explanation holds that evolution only selects against insufficient stability, but that proteins typically are marginally stable because most mutations are destabilizing and so extra stability is rapidly eroded by functionally neutral but destabilizing mutations (Taverna and Goldstein, 2002; Bloom et al. , 2007). Our results decisively favor the second explanation for NP, since the evolving protein is usually marginally stable despite the fact that higher stability has no deleterious effect (Figure 7A,B). We therefore suggest the following: functionally neutral but stabilizing mutations occasionally fix by stochastic forces such as genetic drift, population bottlenecks, or hitchhiking. These stabilizing mutations enable NP to tolerate otherwise deleterious destabilizing mutations. Although these destabilizing mutations could in principle also fix by stochastic forces, the three that we have identified are actually adaptive since they contribute to viral immune escape. Stability-mediated epistasis therefore constrains NP’s adaptation as well as its sequence evolution, since the accessibility of immune-escape mutations is dependent on the acquisition of enabling mutations. It is intriguing to speculate whether similar forms of epistasis might constrain the evolution of other proteins. For example, the antigenic evolution of influenza hemagglutinin is punctuated, with a fairly constant rate of sequence change nonetheless leading to periodic jumps in antigenicity that require reformulation of the annual influenza vaccine (Smith et al. , 2004). One explanation that has been posited for this punctuated pattern is that adaptive antigenic change is limited not by the overall rate of substitution, but rather by the waiting time for the protein to accumulate antigenically neutral mutations that can be productively combined with mutations causing large antigenic changes (Koelle et al. , 2006; van Nimwegen, 2006). Stability-mediated epistasis of the type that we have observed for NP provides at least one plausible mechanistic explanation for this and other cases of constrained molecular evolution. Materials and methods Evolutionary trajectory Request a detailed protocol chain implemented in BEAST (Drummond et al. , 2012), we estimated the joint posterior distribution of phylogenetic trees and mutations along the branches of these trees given 431 date-stamped human H3N2 NP protein sequences from the Resource. We assumed a Jones—Taylor—Thornton model (Jones et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how mutations can be functionally neutral, stabilizing, or destabilizing, and how their effects can vary based on the context in which they occur. For example, it mentions that some mutations are destabilizing yet can still confer adaptive advantages, illustrating the complex interaction between different types of mutations and their evolutionary implications.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Law enforcement agencies use cyber surveillance and infiltration techniques to track illegal activities on the dark web. [SEP] Text: К основным видам преступлений относятся: доставка запрещенных препаратов и средств связи в исправительные учреждения, контрабанда наркотиков, слежка за объектами для совершения преступлений и действиями полиции, съемка чужой частной жизни днем и ночью, в том числе в инфракрасном диапазоне. Совсем недавно стало известно об использовании БВС для решения хакерских задач. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by mentioning specific crimes such as drug trafficking and illegal delivery of prohibited goods, but it primarily focuses on general surveillance techniques and the use of aerial surveillance for hacking tasks, rather than directly addressing the involvement of law enforcement in tracking illegal activities specifically on the dark web.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: By recording single unit activity in NL in vivo, ITD tuning was found dependent both on the sound frequency and the sound pressure level (Nishino et al. , 2008). The peak-trough contrast in mid-to-high CF NL units (higher than 1 kHz) was maximal at intermediate sound pressure levels. The peak-trough contrast was practically lost when a very loud sound was applied because of the increased firing rate both at the peak and the trough of ITD tuning curve (90 dB or louder sound). In low CF NL units (lower than 1 kHz), neural activity was temporally suppressed after a loud sound. The peak-trough contrast became larger as the sound became louder. This is because the trough-firing rate decreased with the sound pressure level, even to the level lower than the spontaneous firing rate. These observations are consistent with the sustained SON inhibition of low CF NL neurons. Consistently after electrical lesioning of the ipsilateral SON the contrast of ITD tuning in the low CF NL neuron collapsed at loud sound (Nishino et al. , 2008), and the tolerance of ITD tuning to the sound pressure level became similar to that of the mid-to-high CF NL units. The sound pressure level dependence of ITD processing of the mid-to-high CF NL neurons was not virtually affected by lesioning of the SON. SON receives sound pressure level information through NA (Figure 1), and GABAergic projection from SON to NL is robust in the low CF region of NL but becomes less prominent toward the high CF region. The density of the SON projection along the tonotopy is correlated with the magnitude of the response to SON lesions across the tonotopic axis in NL (Nishino et al. , 2008). We conclude, accordingly, that the dense inhibitory projection from SON to NL makes the ITD tuning tolerant to the sound pressure level in NL (Nishino et al. , 2008). by when the Level is further found a phasic IPSC in the low CF NL neurons in slice preparations, which followed the ipsilateral NM inputs with a short time delay and small timing jitter; thus the phasic IPSC likely follows monosynaptically the ipsilateral NM activity (Yamada et al. , 2013). GABA-positive small neurons are distributed in and near the NL (Carr et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses auditory processing related to sound pressure levels and ITD (interaural time difference) tuning in the NL (Nucleus Laminaris) without mentioning social cues or any related neural circuits. It focuses on how different sound frequencies and pressure levels affect the neural activity, which does not correlate to social cue processing.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: Figures AbstractParallel and convergent evolution have been remarkably common observations in molecular adaptation but primarily in the context of the same genotype adapting to the same conditions. These phenomena therefore tell us about the stochasticity and limitations of adaptation. The limited data on convergence and parallelism in the adaptation of different genotypes conflict as to the importance of such events. If the effects of beneficial mutations are highly context dependent (i. e. , if they are epistatic), different genotypes should adapt through different mutations. Epistasis for beneficial mutations has been investigated but mainly through measurement of interactions between individually beneficial mutations for the same genotype. We examine epistasis for beneficial mutations at a broader genetic scale by measuring the fitness effects of two mutations beneficial for the ssDNA bacteriophage ID11 in eight different, related genotypes showing 0. 3–3. 7% nucleotide divergence from ID11. We found no evidence for sign epistasis, but the mutations tended to have much smaller or no effects on fitness in the new genotypes. We found evidence for diminishing-returns epistasis; the effects were more beneficial for lower-fitness genotypes. The patterns of epistasis were not determined by phylogenetic relationships to the original genotype. To improve our understanding of the patterns of epistasis, we fit the data to a model in which each mutation had a constant, nonepistatic phenotypic effect across genotypes and the phenotype-fitness map had a single optimum. This model fit the data well, suggesting that epistasis for these mutations was due to nonlinearity in the phenotype-fitness mapping and that the likelihood of parallel evolution depends more on phenotype than on genotype. Citation: (2012) of Effects of Mutations across Backgrounds. 7(8): e43864. Rees Kassen, University of Ottawa, Canada Received: January 11, 2012; Accepted: July 30, 2012; Published: August 24, 2012Copyright: © Pearson et al. This is an open-access 0. 3–3. 7% of their nucleotide sites throughout the whole genome. With genome sizes of 5529–5577 nucleotides, these divergences correspond to genomes with 15–200 nucleotide differences from ID11. Results and Effects of in mean effects and standard errors of the B and F mutations in the new genotypes were and population doublings per hour, respectively. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by discussing the context-dependency of genetic mutations. It explains that beneficial mutations may have different effects depending on the genotype, noting that the effects of mutations were more beneficial in lower-fitness genotypes and that different genotypes adapt through different mutations. This aligns with the claim that mutations can have varying impacts based on their context, indicating their potential to be beneficial, neutral, or harmful.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Law enforcement agencies use cyber surveillance and infiltration techniques to track illegal activities on the dark web. [SEP] Text: К основным видам преступлений относятся: доставка запрещенных препаратов и средств связи в исправительные учреждения, контрабанда наркотиков, слежка за объектами для совершения преступлений и действиями полиции, съемка чужой частной жизни днем и ночью, в том числе в инфракрасном диапазоне. Кроме того, БВС используются для решения хакерских задач. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing various types of crimes, including drug trafficking and surveillance, but it does not specifically mention law enforcement agencies using cyber surveillance and infiltration techniques on the dark web.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: , 1989; von Bartheld et al. , 1989). When photoactivated by a caged glutamate compound these neurons generated IPSC in NL neurons suggesting that these GABAergic neurons are interneurons that mediate the phasic inhibition. These IPSCs in the low CF NL region have fast decay kinetics that is attributable to α1 subunit of the GABAA receptor (Goldstein et al. , 2002; Eyre et al. , 2012), the expression of which is dominated in the low-CF region of the NL. The fast decay kinetics is consistent with the faster kinetics of in the low CF NL neuron observed by Tang and Lu (2012). Simulations using a model demonstrated that phasic IPSCs increase the contrast of ITD-tuning when the sound pressure level is low. Furthermore, the simulation demonstrated that the cooperation of phasic and sustained inhibitions effectively increases the contrast of ITD-tuning over a wide range of excitatory input levels (Figure 4; Yamada et al. , 2013). 4 Figure 4. Modulation of peak-trough contrast of ITD tuning curve of low-CF NL neurons by inhibition. Peak-trough contrasts of ITD tuning curve are calculated by including the sustained inhibition of weak (gray line), strong (black line), and phasic inhibition (dotted gray line) separately, and by including both the strong sustained and the phasic inhibition (dotted black line). Modified from Yamada et al. (2013). difference cues are small, particularly for animals endowed with small heads. This review has focused on works conducted on the chick, which provide profound insights into the mechanisms that contribute to the accuracy of ITD processing. Further, these studies reveal how ITD tuning is maintained over a wide range of sound pressure level in birds. The morphological specializations complement the roles of ionic channels in the ITD tuning. The distribution of ionic channels and receptors including the inhibitory synapses in the NL is critically arranged to optimize the ITD processing, and in turn, sound source localization. Moreover, timing and level cues of sounds are used cooperatively in both mammals and birds to improve the processing of small interaural difference cues. Conflict of The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. 2282. doi: 10. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses neural processing, specifically regarding interaural time differences (ITD) in sound localization, but does not mention social cues or suggest that any specific neural circuits are related to processing social cues. Thus, it is not relevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: In both cases, we could not reject a mean effect of zero (B: and F: ). Despite the large, beneficial effects for ID11 (4. 48 and 4. 11 doublings per hour for B and F, corresponding to selection coefficients of 0. 32 and 0. 29, respectively), these two mutations tended, on average, to have little or no effect on fitness in new genotypes (Figure 1 and Table 1), but exceptions should be noted. two-sample -tests and a Bonferroni correction for 16 tests, we found that none of the mutations was significantly deleterious at the 5% significance level, but four were significantly beneficial: B in WA6 and F in NC2, NC10, and WA6. These results are consistent with the presence of magnitude epistasis but fail to provide evidence for sign epistasis [18] for beneficial mutations. Download: PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageFigure 1. Fitness effects across genotypes of the ssDNA bacteriophage growing on Escherichia coli. Error bars give standard errors. We cannot reject a mean effect of zero for addition of either mutation to each of the eight new genetic backgrounds. Bars with “*” above them indicate effects that are significantly different from zero after a Bonferroni correction. The deviations from the dashed lines correspond to the values of which measure the deviations from additivity. Download: PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageTable 1. Effects of beneficial mutations in new genotypes. contrast to our results, Sanjuán et al. [7] and Rokyta et al. [9] measured the effects of pairs of beneficial mutations and found sign epistasis to be common. In fact, in both studies, some pairs of mutations showed decompensatory epistasis such that double mutants were less fit than either of their constituent single mutants. Sign epistasis is also common in studies decomposing adaptive walks by constructing all of the possible intermediate genotypes between the ancestor and evolved strains [10]–[14]. In contrast, parallel substitutions in different genotypes adapting to the same selective conditions can be common [2], [4] (although exceptions exist [6]), a situation that explicitly requires a lack of sign epistasis in agreement with our results. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the effects of genetic mutations on fitness. It mentions that while some mutations showed beneficial effects (e.g., four mutations were significantly beneficial), others tended to have little or no effect on fitness in new genotypes, suggesting a context-dependent impact. This aligns with the idea that mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful based on the specific genetic background and environmental conditions.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: The majority of transactions on the dark web involve cryptocurrencies due to their relative anonymity. [SEP] Text: Such a case is the movements of dissidents in Iran and Egypt [2]. ・ Sensitive communications. If the individuals want to access in chat rooms or forums and they like to do the sensitive communications for personal or business purposes, this is enabled by TOR. It is used to protect children online (the Internet browsing) to avoid them from abuse activities (by hidden IP addresses of their devices). This tool can be used by businesses to protect their projects and to fence spies from their competitors [2] [17] [18]. ・ Leaked information. TOR can be used from journalists to communicate securely with informers and dissidents [2] [18]. Individuals have the possibility to communicate and share documents anonymity with publishers thought TOR, e. g. , the New Yorker’s Strongbox. has used Tail (an operating system for anonymity) that runs in TOR. He has reported and communicated to journalists for disclosing the classified documents about defense programs of the USA. Snowden disclosed a top secret document which described how the Agency (NSA) tried to use the TOR browser to de-anonymized users [2]. 5. in the Government, Military and of the anonymity provided by Tor and other software such as I2P, the can be a playground for nefarious actors online. As noted, however, there are a number of areas in which the study and use of the may provide benefits. This is true not only for citizens and businesses seeking online privacy, but also for certain government sectors―namely the law enforcement, military, and intelligence communities. Anonymity on the can be used to shield military command and control systems in the field for identification and hacking by adversaries. The military may use the to study the environment in which it is operating as well as to discover activities that present an operational risk to troops. For instance, evidence suggests that the (IS) and supporting groups seek to use the Dark Web’s anonymity for activities beyond information sharing, recruitment, and propaganda dissemination, using Bitcoin to raise money for their operations. In its battle against IS, the Department of Defense (DOD) can monitor these activities and employ a variety of tactics to foil terrorist plots [19]. TOR software can be used by the military to conduct a clandestine or covert computer network operation such as taking down a website or a denial of service attack, or to intercept and inhibit enemy communications. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by mentioning that while there are instances where Bitcoin is used by groups like ISIS for fundraising on the dark web, it does not support the assertion that the majority of transactions on the dark web involve cryptocurrencies. Instead, the text highlights various uses of TOR for anonymity, legal and illegal, suggesting that cryptocurrency transactions are just one aspect among many activities facilitated by the dark web.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: 1152/jn. 00399. 2006 | Text |. , Wahl-Schott, C. , Michalakis, S. , and Zong, X. (2009). Hyperpolarization-activated cation channels: from genes to function. Physiol. Rev. 89, 847–885. doi: 10. 1152/physrev. 00029. 2008 | Text |. M. , Cramer, K. S. , Pfeiffer, J. D. , and Rubel, E. W. (2005). Avian superior olivary nucleus provides divergent inhibitory input to parallel auditory pathways. J. Comp. Neurol. 481, 6–18. doi: 10. 1002/cne. 20334. E. , and Code, R. A. (2000). “The central auditory system of reptiles and birds,” in Comparative Hearing: Birds and Reptiles, eds R. J. Dooling, R. R. Fay, and A. N. Popper (New York, NY: Springer), 197–248. doi: 10. 1007/978-1-4612-1182-2_5. E. , Fujita, I. , and Konishi, M. (1989). Distribution of GABAergic neurons and terminals in the auditory system of the barn Owl. J. Comp. Neurol. 286, 190–207. doi: 10. 1002/cne. 902860205 | Text |. E. , and Konishi, M. (1990). A circuit for detection of interaural time differences in the brain stem of the barn owl. J. Neurosci. 10, 3227–3246. | Text Code, R. A. , Burd, G. D. , and Rubel, E. W. (1989). Development of GABA immunoreactivity in brainstem auditory nuclei of the chick ontogeny of gradients in terminal staining. J. Comp. Neurol. 284, 504–518. doi: 10. 1002/cne. 902840403 | Text |. K. , White, J. A. , Carney, L. H. , and Colburn, H. S. (2005). Effects of inhibitory feedback in a network model of avian brain stem. J. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding neural circuits dedicated to processing social cues, as it primarily discusses various studies related to auditory systems and GABAergic neurons in birds and reptiles. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: Sign epistasis may be most prominent in adapting populations in which the mutations involved have large beneficial effects potentially affecting the same or similar phenotypes or are compensatory for antagonistic pleiotropic effects of beneficial mutations. Genotypes that have diverged more extensively through drift or adaptation to different environments may be less likely to harbor strongly epistatic mutations for beneficial mutations under new selective conditions that potentially affect previously less-significant phenotypes. Epistasis for Even in the absence of sign epistasis, the nature of epistatic interactions can be further characterized by measurement of deviations from additivity for mutational effects. Because our fitness measure is a growth rate, if epistasis is not present, the two mutations should have the same additive effects across the eight new genotypes as for ID11. We can measure a deviation from additivity in a method similar to that of Rokyta et al. [9] by where and represents the eight new genotypes (Table 1). The wild-type (ID11) genotype is represented by subscript 1. Note that we deviate from the typical definition of in that refers to a genetic background rather than an individual mutation. We are therefore measuring epistasis between one mutation (B or F) and all of the mutations in the new genotype relative to the original ancestor. Although any of our genotypes could conceivably serve as the reference genotype in the calculations of our a priori knowledge that the mutations have large benefits for ID11 makes this genotype the only meaningful choice. We want to know whether or to what extent the benefits conferred on the ID11 genotype by these mutations are transferred to new genotypes. Because we are dealing with beneficial mutations, would indicate negative or antagonistic epistasis. Synergistic epistasis would give Figure 1 clearly shows a predominance of antagonistic epistasis because only a single mutant (WA6 with F) has a mean effect larger than the corresponding effect in the wild type, and all remaining cases have mean effects lower than that for the wild type. For the B mutation, For the F mutation, In both cases, the average deviation differs by more than three standard errors from zero. Epistasis is therefore antagonistic, a pattern that appears to be consistent for beneficial mutations [9], [13], [14]. Our results suggest more generality for this pattern than previous studies which only considered interactions between a small number of beneficial mutations. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the concept of epistasis and how genetic mutations can have beneficial effects depending on their interactions and the context in which they occur. It mentions that sign epistasis is significant in adapting populations where mutations can provide large beneficial effects or can be compensatory for antagonistic pleiotropic effects of beneficial mutations. This aligns with the claim that genetic mutations can vary in their impact depending on the context.