Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: Most of the enriched OTUs detected were linked to groups that contain known bacterial and fungal decomposers. ConclusionAfter seven weeks of incubation in soil microcosms, the biostimulant (BS) applied on the straw residues in the soil significantly improved the orgC mineralization, increased the soil microbial biomass and induced changes in both the soil bacterial and fungal communities. At the phylum level, the action of the BS was related to subtle changes in the composition of the soil indigenous bacterial and fungal communities presenting different functional strategies with regards to the use of soil carbon. However, no significant changes in the archaeal community could be identified. At the OTU level, some OTUs were enriched in the presence of the biostimulant and were identified as decomposers able to degrade both labile and more recalcitrant organic substrates suggesting that specific soil bacterial and fungal OTUs were recruited therefore leading to lowest soil microbial richness and diversity. To confirm this possible recruitment by the BS, further analyses using labelled 13C straw would be useful to identify the active microbial decomposers and to determine if the straw and BS inputs could have promoted a priming effect. These changes in the soil indigenous diversity induced by the BS might support the activator effect of the BS observed on soil OM mineralization. This cannot be attributed to either (i) the negligible orgC, total N contents of the BS, or (ii) the inoculation of specific microorganisms naturally present in the BS. Thus, the BS may act through other ways. Through its pH neutralizing effect, it may have induced changes in the bacterial and fungal communities, and/or through the supply of amino acids, micronutrients or growth factors that stimulate the microbial communities. Further dedicated analyses are needed to confirm this hypothesis. Supporting informationS1 Table. Number of remaining sequences and OTUs for bacteria, archaea and fungi after each steps of Frogs and pipelines for the 9 soil microcosms and the BS and straw samples (n = 6). S2 Table. Relative abundance and taxonomy affiliation of each enriched OTUs, in SBS compared to SS, in BS, straw and soil samples. BS: biostimulants samples, CS: control soil, SS: soil with straw, SBS: soil with straw and BS (<0. 05). S3 Table. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how certain bacterial and fungal groups, identified as decomposers, were enriched in the soil due to the application of a biostimulant. It highlights that the presence of these decomposers aids in the degradation of organic substrates, which suggests that they play a crucial role in recycling organic matter and thus enriching soil fertility.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: The remobilization steps described above may largely explain why foliage and tree-ring δ15N trends in coniferous trees are different from broad-leave trees (Pardo et al. 2006; Gerhart and McLauchlan 2014; Tomlinson et al. 2015). For further assessing the impact of N mobility in stems on growth ring δ15N values, various research groups investigated the distribution of 15N after fertilization or misting labelled-N compounds (e. g. , Elhani et al. 2005; Tomlinson et al. 2014). In such studies, labelled N detected in rings predating and postdating the marking events, clearly indicate that rings include both C-bound and mobile N (not removable by sample pretreatments). However, in most cases, the 15N maximal contents always peak in rings of the marking years (Schleppi et al. 1999; Elhani et al. 2003, 2005; Tomlinson et al. 2014). These experiments indicate that the inter-ring translocation of N does not erase the record (direction and year of changes) of environmental events, but may minimize the extent of its isotopic impact. 4 Tree-Ring δ15N Responses to Changing Conditions4. 1 Physiological ChangesSome studies suggested that physiological functions, for instance lignification, may modify the δ15N values of rings with age of radiata, and proposed further experimentation in order to assess the validity of the hypothesis (Couto-Vázquez and González-Prieto 2010). Acer saccharum and Fagus grandifolia trees investigated for assessing the importance of potentially changing root depth with age on the evolution of δ15N values in leaves (and tree rings by extension) show no significant changes with age, but significant δ15N differences between root, stems and leaves, and averages between the two species (Pardo et al. 2013). These results suggest fractionation during transport and assimilation of N, and physiological differences between species. Such a finding agrees with former studies of temperate trees reporting a general increasing δ15N trend along the height of trees (Kolb and Evans 2002; Couto-Vázquez and González-Prieto 2010), with differences existing between species. 4. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing how tree-ring δ15N trends can reflect environmental events. It mentions that inter-ring translocation of N does not erase the record of environmental events, indicating that tree rings capture isotopic impacts related to changes in environmental conditions. The mention of studies investigating nitrogen mobility suggests that tree rings can retain significant information about past conditions, which directly contradicts the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Calculation points 5—9 are taken from modeling results for homogeneous targets with dry friction and thermal softening (Ivanov and Kamyshenkov, 2012). Calculations with a friction coefficient of 0. 6 for U = 5 km/s: 5—spherical projectile; 6—elliptical projectile with a thickness of half the horizontal diameter; 7—friction 0. 6, ANEOS-quartzite target (Melosh, 2007), U = 20 km/s; 8—friction 0. 6, target—CaO (lime), U = 20 km/s; 9—the same as 8, but for U = 30 km/s; and 10—the present paper. Full size imageFig. 6. Calculation points for the depth of the transient crater in a homogeneous target with dry friction (Ivanov and Kamyshenkov, 2012) in comparison with the results of this paper. The same designations are used as in Fig. 5. 1—Generalized dependence on the depth scale of a transition crater in a homogeneous target without strength (Schmidt and Housen, 1987). 2—Calculated dependence for low-velocity impacts on a target with dry friction (Ivanov and Kamyshenkov, 2012). 3—Generalized experimental dependence of the depth of craters in dry sand (Schmidt and Housen, 1987). Full size imageIn this paper, the model considers a layered target (crust over mantle), where the presence of a denser underlying layer can increase the effective density of the target as the transition crater penetrates the denser mantle. After this warning, we present a plot of the model dimensionless diameter of the transition crater in Fig. 5. Dependences for the dimensionless depth of the transient crater are shown in Fig. 6 in comparison with data of Ivanov and Kamyshenkov (2012). Figures 5 and 6 show that for impacts with low velocity (U = 5 km/s), the dependences of transient depths and diameters of model craters to scale on graphs with a double logarithmic scale look like approximately parallel straight lines with interpolation of experimental data for dry sand (Schmidt, 1987; Schmidt and Housen, 1987). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it primarily discusses calculations related to craters, including modeling results and experimental data for specific conditions. It does not address how impact craters on the Moon relate to the history of the solar system or provide insights into that topic.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: Services on 10. 4067/S0718-95162013005000047 Plant and soil characteristics affected by biofertilizers from rocks and organic matter inoculated with diazotrophic bacteria and fungi that produce chitosan L. R. Berger1, N. P. Stamford1, C. E. R. S. Santos1, A. D. S. Freitas1, L. O. Franco1, T. C. M. Stamford1. 1Department of Agronomy, Rural of Pernambuco, 52171-900, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil. *Corresponding author: [email protected] aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a mixed biofertilizer with phosphate and potash rocks (PK biofertilizer) combined with an earthworm compound inoculated with free living diazotrophic bacteria and Cunninghamella elegans, fungi that produces chitosan, on cowpea nodulation, biomass yield and nutrient uptake. The effects of some chemical attributes from an acidic soil of the were also studied. The treatments were as follows: a) biofertilizer enriched in N by free living diazotrophic bacteria(NPKB), applying crustaceous chitosan (ChCru) at a rate 2 mg mL-1. ; b) NPKB and ChCru at a rate 4 mg mL-1. ; c) NPKB and ChCru at a rate 6 mg mL-1. ; d) NPKB and fungi chitosan (ChFu, 2 mg mL-1); e) NPKB+C. elegans (NPKP); f) NPKB without chitosan; g) mineral fertilizers (NPKF); and h) control without NPK fertilizer and chitosan. Biofertilizer treatments increased cowpea nodules biomass, shoot biomass, and total N, P, and K in the shoots. The largest increase was obtained with ChCru, and the highest rate was obtained with NPKP. Furthermore, biofertilizers reduced soil pH and increased the total N and available P and K. These results reveal the potential of rock biofertilizer mixed with earthworm compound inoculated with free living diazotrophic bacteria and C. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the use of biofertilizers that include diazotrophic bacteria and fungi, specifically mentioning Cunninghamella elegans, which produces chitosan. It details how these biofertilizers, through their interactions with soil and organic matter, enhance soil characteristics by increasing nutrients like nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) in the plants. These processes highlight the role of decomposers in recycling organic matter and enriching soil fertility.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 2 Regional and Global ClimateBased on the concepts explored in the former sections, in theory climatic conditions can imprint the δ15N values transferred to tree rings. Namely, temperature and precipitation variations may modify the soil bioavailable N pools through changes in organic matter degradation, ammonification and nitrification rates, functions of EcM communities, and depth of drawing available soil water and N species (Savard et al. 2009; Courty et al. 2010; Durán et al. 2016). Such changes modify the overall isotopic signal of bioavailable N, which will reverberate in the δ15N values of trees. Indeed, several studies have linked foliar δ15N results from various species of trees with precipitation, showing either direct or inverse correlations depending on the amounts of precipitation considered (Pardo et al. 2006; and 12. 3. 3). Such attempt for quantitative climatic –isotopic correspondence at this resolution may fail. However, tree-ring δ15N series may record low-frequency climate variability. This proposition is supported by a recent investigation of δ15N series in six and ten Picea glauca trees from two Canadian sites (Savard et al. 2020). The results indicate that short-term variations (<7 years) show no inter-tree coherence, whereas middle- (7–15 years) to long-term (>15 years) isotopic changes show strong coherence, encouraging their use as an environmental indicator. One option that may deserve further testing is to pass running averages through long tree-ring δ15N series, and evaluate their correlations with similarly treated climatic series (Savard et al. 2009; similarly treated for global climatic changes, see Sect. 12. 4. 3—cause number 4). As can be seen, climatic tree-ring δ15N studies require further exploration considering that climatic effects may interplay with anthropogenic impacts, and that improved knowledge on that front may help deciphering intricate δ15N responses of trees to intrinsic and extrinsic triggers. 4. 3 Anthropogenic ImpactsThere are four main reasons why anthropogenic N emissions are expected to affect the δ15N values in rings of specific species of trees. (1) Shifts in signals in N forms assimilated by trees through addition of large anthropogenic N loads with isotopic ratios markedly different from natural N isotopic abundance. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing how tree-ring δ15N values can serve as indicators of climatic conditions, which include environmental factors and disturbances. It mentions that tree rings can reflect low-frequency climate variability, implying their role in studying environmental changes, thus contesting the assertion that tree rings cannot be used for such studies. Moreover, the text references various studies linking tree rings to understanding environmental impacts, which supports the idea that tree rings are useful in this context.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: In this version, a three-layer target model is used—the upper crust (dark gray tone), the lower crust (lighter tone), and the mantle (darker tone deeper than 50 km). Fig. 7. Deformation and movement of material in the central part of a model crater on the scale of the crater Vrederfort. The distances along the axes are given in km. The time after impact is indicated above each figure. Full size imageFigure 7 illustrates that the transient crater for an impact of this size (depth and diameter of about 30–40 km) is large enough for the crustal rocks to move back to the center during gravitational collapse and push up most of the impact melt that was initially “smeared” across the bottom of the transition crater. During collapse, the future horizon after impact erosion reaches its final position approximately 180 s after impact, and subsequent motion is concentrated in the collapsing central uplift (see studies of central uplift collapse in Morgan et al. , 2016; Baker et al. , 2016). Using the same set of model parameters as in the crater Vredefort formation model described above, we increased the size of the projectile by a factor of 2 and 4 (the corresponding models are named 2 × V and 4 × V), correspondingly increasing the size of the computational cell at a constant resolution of 20 CPPR (20 cells per projectile diameter). Here a new problem for modeling arises—can we assume that the model of temporary reduction of dry friction due to acoustic fluidization (AF model, Melosh and Ivanov, 1999) works for deep mantle rocks in the same way as for crystalline crustal rocks? More generally, is our modeling experience applicable to reproducing the temporary reduction in dry friction around a nascent impact crater for deep mantle rocks at higher pressures and temperatures? Without a clear answer to this question, we started with two versions of the models—with and without the use of the AF model for mantle rocks. The model results for options 2 × V and 4 × V are presented in Figs. 8–10. Modelling with a projectile doubled in diameter (2 × V, Fig. 8) show the absence of impact melt in the mantle. The use of the AF model for the mantle affects the geometry of the mantle uplift, but does not affect the main result of doubling the size of the projectile—the appearance of a deep, melt-filled neck in the center of the crater. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses a modeling approach for impact craters and the mechanics involved in crater formation, including parameters like the size of the projectile and the differences in model behavior regarding the mantle and crust. However, it does not explicitly address the claim concerning how impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. Thus, it is considered irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: elegans (fungi chitosan) for plant production and nutrient uptake. The biofertilizer may be an alternative for NPK fertilization that slows the release of nutrients, favoring longterm soil fertility. Keywords: Biopolymer, free living diazotrophic bacteria, Cunninghamella elegans, nitrogen fixation, Vigna unguiculata 1. growing world population and demand for fertilizers have led to changes in agricultural cropping systems and intensified the use of new techniques to produce maximum yields from field crops. The use of legume species is of great importance because they may provide nitrogen to the system through N2 fixation and supply nitrogen without the application of mineral fertilizers (Kuhn, 2007). Soil acidity is one of the most important factors that requires consideration, especially because of the effects of increased exchangeable aluminum on the nutrient uptake reduces the soil's pH, which negatively affects nutrient availability (Stamford et al. , 2008). Several studies conducted on acidic soil from rainforest regions have shown that plant yield is reduced as a function of acidity. These studies indicated that it is controlling this specific problem will improve the productivity and quality of crops (Stamford et al. , 2007, 2008). Biofertilizers produced with P and K rocks that are sulfur inoculated with oxidizing bacteria that produces sulfuric acid (et al. , 2006) contributes to reduced soil pH. Therefore, it is necessary to use organic matter with high pH to control the acidic effects of rock biofertilizers (Lima et al. , 2010). Studies carried out in tableland soil from the reported that sulfur inoculated with Acidithiobacillus is a promising material for soil fertilization because it releases P and K from rock minerals, which reduces the nutrient deficiency of acidic soils used to grow different crops (Stamford et al. , 2008, Lima et al. , 2007, Moura et al. , 2007). The incorporation of organic matter increases the microbiological activity and enhances the physical and chemical conditions of soil. However, in many cases, these materials contain low concentrations of N. Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) is one of the most fundamental processes used to supply N to the soil, especially in combination with organic matter (Lima et al. , 2010). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the role of organic matter and its incorporation into the soil, which increases microbiological activity and enhances soil conditions. This process aligns with the function of decomposers like fungi and bacteria in recycling organic matter and promoting soil fertility. Additionally, it mentions biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) in conjunction with organic matter, further supporting the claim that decomposers contribute to enriching soil fertility.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: (2) Change in N availability of the forest ecosystem due to high anthropogenic N supply relative to demands, modifying the overall soil N isotopic contents. (3) Modifications of the overall soil microbial structure and related N dynamics having an impact on the signal of N assimilated by stems under moderate anthropogenic N deposition. (4) Global change (climate and pCO2) interplaying with one or a combination of the former causes. In the first case, much of the N in trees derives from the inorganic soil N pool (NH4+ and NO3−), which forms only a small portion of the total soil N, but that has δ15N signals that may vary with changes in environmental conditions, particularly with enhanced N deposition from anthropogenic emissions. After transition of N contaminants in the soil compartments, trees assimilate anthropogenic N through roots, or root N possibly combines in stems with anthropogenic N transiting through leaves. Key studies have invoked changes in the isotopic signals of assimilated N to account for shifts in tree-ring δ15N values (Saurer et al. 2004; Savard et al. 2009). However, determining the cause of changes in tree-ring δ15N series is possible only when N deposits chronically and in abundance, from a dominant source with δ15N values deviate significantly from soil N, and if the other potential causes for change do not blur this effect. In the second case, increased N deposition in temperate and boreal forest ecosystems may cause acidification of soils, and nutrient nitrogen imbalances in trees (Aber et al. 1998; Högberg et al. 2007). The soil N status may pass from semi-closed to open, if a high N supply exceeds demands. Such a forest soil would see a high rate of 15N-poor nitrate loss through leaching, increasing the overall δ15N values of the residual pool (Fig. 12. 2). The chronic exposure of a forest to such a rate of N input would generate a long-term δ15N increase in tree rings. In contrast, a decrease of anthropogenic N supply would generate a decrease in long-term tree-ring δ15N series in the recovering forests. This interpretation explains the declining δ15N series over 75 years in Picea rubens trees of the central Appalachians (Mathias and Thomas 2018). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing how tree rings can be influenced by environmental factors, particularly with reference to nitrogen (N) deposition. It explains that changes in nitrogen availability affect the δ15N signals of tree rings, suggesting that tree rings can reflect changes in environmental conditions, such as those caused by anthropogenic nitrogen inputs. This indicates that tree rings can indeed be useful in studying past environmental disturbances, contradicting the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Fig. 8. The final (~18 min after impact) cross-section of the model crater for an projectile with twice the diameter (relative to the Vredefort crater projectile) (model V × 2, Dpr = 28 km, and U = 15 km/s), calculated without using the AF model (acoustic fluidization model) in the mantle (a) and using this model (b). The position of the impact melt is indicated in pink. Other color variations reflect different levels of rock damage (Collins et al. , 2004). Horizontal and vertical distances are in km. Full size imageFig. 9. Final (~18 min after impact) cross-section of a model crater for quadruple (relative to the Vredefort crater projectile) projectile diameter (denoted 4 × V, Dpr = 57 km, and U = 15 km/s) calculated without using the acoustic fluidization model for mantle material (a) and using this model (b). Other color variations reflect different levels of rock damage (Collins et al. , 2004). Horizontal and vertical distances are in km. Full size imageFig. 10. Profiles of model craters for options 2 × V (a) and 4 × V (b) with high vertical magnification to show the relatively shallow depth (~1. 5 and ~3 km, respectively) of the final craters with apparent diameters of ~300 and ~500 km. Small graduations on the vertical axis correspond to the sizes of the calculation cells Δx = 0. 7 km (2 × V option) and Δx = 1. 4 km (4 × V option). The profiles in panels (a) and (b) correspond to calculations using the model of acoustic fluidization in the mantle (1) and without using it (2). Full size imageThe next doubling of the projectile size to 56 km (4 × V) at the same impact velocity and the same target structure leads to impact melting of the mantle and an increase in the volume of the melt “lake” in the center of the crater (Fig. 9). Here, the influence of turning on/off AF effects in the mantle material is even less noticeable than in the 2 × V variant as increased lithostatic pressure and temperature lead to plastic behavior of the mantle material even without an additional decrease in dry friction associated with acoustic fluidization. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the modeling of impact craters and specific details about techniques used to calculate crater characteristics. However, it does not provide information relevant to the claim regarding how these craters contribute to understanding the solar system's history. Therefore, the text is considered irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: The natural rock P and K biofertilizer was analyzed using the (A) Mehlich 1 and (B) an extraction using citric acid (2 g kg-1) methods, according to Embrapa, (2009), yielding the following results: (P biofertilizer)-pH = 3. 8, available P (A) = 60 (g kg-1) and (B) = 48 (g kg-1); (K biofertilizer-BK)- pH = 3. 3, available K (A) = 10 (g kg-1) and (B) = 5 (g kg-1). 2. 2. Production of biofertilizer with free living diazotrophic bacteria and C. elegans The organic biofertilizer was produced by applying the selected free living bacteria to the earthworm compound. The isolate (NFB 1001) was cultured in LG liquid media (50 mL) in 125 mL Erlenmeyer flasks, shaken (180 rpm) for 96 h at ±28 °C and applied at 100 mL per tray, according to Lima et al. (2010). After inoculation, the trays were incubated for 30 days at 28 ±5 °C. The humidity was maintained near the water holding capacity using distilled water, according to Stamford et al. (2008). Samples were collected, and the total N content was determined by the Kjeldhal method, using the Kjeltec auto analyzer (1030 Model). Chemical analysis of the earthworm compound revealed the following: pH 7. 15, organic carbon 100. 7 g kg-1, total N 8. 6 g kg-1, total sulfur 2. 98 g kg-1 and total P 11. 2 g kg-1. The earthworm compound (3 dm3) and the PK biofertilizers (1 dm3) were mixed to produce the biofertilizer (NPKB). After the production of the biofertilizer (NPKB), we added a micelial biomass of the Mucorales fungi, Cunninghamella elegans (UCP 542), which produce sufficient chitin (140 mg g-1) and chitosan (80 mg g-1) in the cellular wall, as reported by Franco et al. (2004). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing the production of biofertilizer which involves free living diazotrophic bacteria and the introduction of the Mucorales fungi, Cunninghamella elegans. The application of these decomposers contributes to enriching the soil fertility through organic matter recycling, as indicated by the chemical analysis of the earthworm compound mixed with the biofertilizers.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: In the third case, a combination of modified biogeochemical processes under low to moderate long-term exposure to anthropogenic N inputs alters the overall signal of soil N species prior to their assimilation by trees. On a theoretical basis, one can conceive that microbial communities in forest soils with very low N availability (<1 kg/ha/y) will quickly adapt to enhanced input and chronic exposure to anthropogenic N. As mentioned in Sect. 12. 3. 2, in such conditions, existing EcM communities may thrive or shift in terms of diversity, and rates of bacterial N transformation may change. A study of four different deciduous species of trees in Indiana (USA), found long-term increasing and decreasing δ15N trends explained by species-specific p2. Further along this line, at the global scale, rising atmospheric CO2 may have generated decreasing foliage and tree-ring δ15N trends through the last 150 years due to prolonged growing seasons, increased photosynthesis and overall enhanced plant-N demands, ultimately lowering the terrestrial N availability (Craine et al. 2019). To summarize, tree-ring series may record changes in the forest N cycle or reflect successive N-cycling patterns, but the potential causes for these changes are complex and rigorous interpretations require excellent knowledge of the setting in which trees are growing. Given the attenuated nature of the isotopic changes due to intra-tree N remobilization and intricate enzymatic fractionations along the assimilation path within trees, attempts to quantify anthropogenic impacts on the forest N cycle using tree rings or leaves could be scant. On a more positive note, recognizing and dating perturbations of the forest N cycle using tree-ring δ15N series appears achievable. 4. 4 Other ApplicationsThe literature also documents several applications other than the ones presented in Sects. 12. 4. 1, 12. 4. 2 and 12. 4. 3. For tropical and N2-fixing trees, the reader can consult Craine et al. (2015). Boreal wetland and tropical trees emit N2O (Rusch and Rennenberg 1998; Welch et al. 2019), a process significant for understanding the global N cycling, for which δ15N results in stems and emitted gasses may turn useful. Moreover, tree-ring δ15N applications exist on effects of wild fires (Cook 2002; Beghin et al. 2011; Hyodo et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts with the claim by discussing the various complex processes that tree rings can record, specifically mentioning that tree-ring δ15N series can be used to recognize and date perturbations in the forest nitrogen cycle. This indicates that tree rings have applications in studying environmental changes, thus contradicting the claim that they cannot be used for such studies.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Note that during the estimated ~1000 s, the motion of matter in the molten zone still does not stop. And we can observe the slow gravitational separation of the molten crustal material of lower density and the denser melt of the mantle matter. For this scale of impact event, the final geometry of the melt zone will be established after prolonged thermal cooling, with possible differentiation of new rocks crystallizing from the impact melt. In Fig. 10 we compare the profiles of model craters for the model variants shown in Figs. 8 and 9. In Fig. 10, the interval of graduating marks on the vertical axis is equal to the size of the calculation cell to emphasize the approximate nature of the obtained profiles. The final crater profile is covered by only 5–8 vertical computational cells, which leads to low spatial resolution regarding the “accurate” shape of the crater. Within the current spatial resolution limitations, we can only state that the simulated craters have a flat bottom (±1 cell undulations), a depth of 2 to 3 km, and a crater rim raised 2. 5 to 3 km above the level of the original target surface. In general, the crater geometry obtained in the model does not contradict the available information on large impact structures on the Moon, Venus, Mars, and Mercury (Figs. 1–3). (and possibly other planetary bodies), the observed modern topography may differ from the model geometry immediately after the impact due to slow processes such as viscous relaxation (Karimi and Dombard, 2017). is believed that large eroded structures would be found on a geologically active Earth (Plado et al. , 1999). Therefore, the main interest is to identify initially deep impact structures that can be exposed by erosion. The rate of erosion for the two largest impact structures (Vredefort and Sudbury) is estimated to be 6–8 km within ~2 Ga after their formation (Ivanov, 2005). On the modern erosional cross-section we see mainly impact-altered rocks raised from initial depths of the order of 1/10 D and the remains of the original impact melt basin (severely deformed by post-impact tectonics). For the 2 × V and 4 × V scale impacts studied, we gain some insight into the possible position of the impact melt, since in these cases the modeled position of the impact melt indicates a larger melt pool depth. Volume of melt. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the modeling and analysis of impact craters, focusing on their geometry and the processes occurring during and after impacts. However, it does not provide any direct insights into the history of the solar system or link the studied craters to historical planetary events. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: -19 PreprintsProtocolsVideosJournalsTools & a 10. 21203/rs. 3. rs-2321445/v1This work is licensed under a CC BY 4. 0 LicenseStatus:Published05 Apr, 2023Read the published version in Plant and Soil →Version 1posted 5You are reading this latest preprint versionAbstractPurpose: In the scenario of an increased atmospheric CO2 concentration, nutrients are reduced in all vegetables. In this context, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) could enhance nutrient concentration in edible portions of plants, including tomato. However, field studies on tomato AMF inoculation are scarse. AMF species belonging to Gigasporaceae and Glomeraceae families known to vary in life-history strategies may determine differential effects on plant nutrient benefits and residue decomposition. Despite this, the effect of different life-history strategies on nutrient acquisition of tomato fruits has not yet been investigated. Methods: We studied the effect of inoculation of two tomato varieties with AMF belonging to Glomeraceae and Gigasporaceae. Fungal establishment, yield, fruit nutrient concentration, litter decomposition, and bacterial and fungal abundances in soil were assessed in a two-year field trial under organic agriculture. Results: promoted the concentration of nutrients in tomato fruits compared to Glomeraceae. A variability in AM fungal colonization and fruit nutrient concentration occurred within Glomeraceae. Scutellospora pellucida increased the yield (+27%) of var. respect to Gigaspora gigantea. In var. Rio Grande, Funneliformis mosseae determined a litter degradation similar to controls and lower than Sclerocystis sinuosa and Gigasporaceae species, which showed the highest decomposition rates. AMF inoculation promoted soil total bacterial and fungal abundance and fungal:bacterial (F:B) ratio compared to controls, and members of Gigasporaceae had the highest F:B ratio. Conclusion: These findings strongly support that AM fungal life-history strategy should be considered in biofertilizer development to enhance the nutritional value of vegetables under organic farming systems. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in potentially enhancing nutrient concentration in plants, particularly tomatoes, in nutrient-reduced conditions. It emphasizes that AMF can improve yield and nutrient concentration, demonstrating their positive impact on nutrient acquisition in plants, thus supporting the assertion that mycorrhizal fungi benefit plant uptake in nutrient-poor environments.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 2012), clear cutting (Pardo et al. 2002; Bukata and Kyser 2005), and bird nesting (Mizota 2009; Holdaway et al. 2010; Larry et al. 2010). Understandably, researchers should select sites devoid of these perturbations in order to achieve meaningful results and refine our understanding of climatic and anthropogenic influences on tree-ring δ15N series. 5 Studies dealing with the assimilation of N through either leaves or roots have mostly operated independently, with root assimilation experiments disregarding the potential foliar assimilation, and vice versa. As a consequence, the proportions of N in stems contributed from the foliar and rooting systems still need resolving even if these proportions are highly pertinent for relating tree-ring δ15N values to mechanistic processes and environmental changes. As with ice cores, lakes sediments and skeletal corals reflecting complex and irrefutable anthropogenic impacts on the atmospheric, aquatic, and marine N cycling, tree-ring series likely represent another natural archive offering potential for unravelling impacts on forest N cycling. Although each archival system potentially offers many applications, in all cases the interplaying mechanisms responsible for changes through time need to be further constrained. With trees, difficulties arise from the requirement to have an excellent understanding of soil conditions to interpret tree-ring trends adequately. Further research should address the knowledge gaps on the steps of fractionation of individual bioavailable N forms in the soil compartments. Similarly, the role of EcM should be explored as it might be effective or non-effective during the transfer of N forms to roots under the broad ranges of existing soil conditions. Tree-ring studies seldom involve the investigation of the full spectrum of N transformations in the air–soil-tree continuum. However, such an interdisciplinary approach may solve several questions regarding the extrinsic controls on tree-ring δ15N changes, perhaps with the combination of running well-adapted models of soil N budgets. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing how tree-ring series can represent a natural archive that offers potential for unravelling impacts on forest nitrogen cycling, indicating their applicability in studying environmental changes. The mention of tree-ring studies alongside other natural archives suggests that tree rings can indeed provide meaningful insights into past environmental disturbances, which directly contradicts the assertion that they cannot be used for such studies.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: In the presented simulation, we estimated the volume of the impact melt as the total volume of computational cells with a final temperature above the solidus of the target material. Some of the molten p0. 0007–0. 0014) × D3. 3 (volume is in km3 and diameter is in km), where the uncertainty in the numerical coefficient reflects the possibility of ejection of part of the melt outside the central region (Werner and Ivanov, 2015). Fig. 11. Estimation of the volumes of impact melt in known terrestrial meteorite craters from the work (Cintala and Grieve, 1998): 1—observations, 2—maximum estimates, and 3—model results of this paper. Solid and dotted trend lines are described in the text. Full size image“Hot rod. ” Comparing model impacts with a basic scale of 1 × V (1 × Vredefort, Fig. 7) and impacts with a twofold and fourfold increased diameter of possible projectiles (2 × V, Fig. 8; and 4 × V, Fig. 9), we note the main observable effect: in larger craters, the uplift collapse of the transition crater floor does not push the impact melt upward, creating a shallow melt pool surrounding the central ridge in well-preserved craters such as the Boltyshsky crater, Ukraine (Valter et al. , 1982; Grieve et al. , 1987). Instead, the impact melt is “squeezed” by the rocks of the collapsing transition crater, forming a relatively narrow vertical region of molten material—a “hot stock. ”The idea of a “hot rod,” or a vertical throat filled with melt, at the center of a collapsed transition crater, was proposed by Senft and Stewart (2011) for craters on icy bodies. Our model reproduces a similar mechanism for stone bodies. When the volume of impact-molten rocks becomes comparable to the volume of the transition crater, the movement of rocks during crater collapse “captures” the impact melt near the vertical central axis and the rise of the crater bottom does not have time to push all the melt onto the surface of the central mountain, which occurs in models of the formation of craters with a diameter of <200 km. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it focuses on a simulation estimating the volume of impact melt in terrestrial meteorite craters and discusses specific modeling results, without providing insights or conclusions about the Moon's impact craters or their significance to the solar system's history.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: biofertilizationarbuscular mycorrhizal fungisingle isolate inoculumcrop yieldnutrient uptakeslitter bagsbiofertilizationarbuscular mycorrhizal fungisingle isolate inoculumcrop yieldnutrient uptakeslitter bagsFiguresFigure 1Figure 2Figure 3Figure 4Figure 5Figure 6Figure 7IntroductionTomato (Solanum lycopersicum L. ) is the second most important vegetable in the world, after potato (database, average period 2011–2020; and one of the most studied fleshy fruits (Singh et al. 2021). Tomato fruits are nutrient dense and represent an important source of health-promoting compounds (Chaudhary et al. 2018; Dorais et al. 2008). Due to their importance in human health, the study of sustainable approaches, such as plant microbial biostimulants (González-González et al. 2020; Sharma et al. 2017) to improve the production and nutritional value of tomato is of great relevance to producers as well as consumers (Baulcombe et al. 2009). This is especially true in the recent scenario of “hidden hunger” due to shortage of micronutrients in crops that has been determined by several factors, among which plant breeding, agronomic management and the increase of atmospheric CO2 (Gruda 2005; Myers et al. 2014; Scharff et al. 2022). Indeed, elevated atmospheric CO2 concentrations have been shown to strongly reduce nutrient concentrations (e. g. , and Zn) in almost all staple crops (Gojon et al. 2022) and vegetables (Dong et al. 2018), including tomato (Tripp et al. 1991; Pimenta et al. 2022). Beneficial microorganisms, such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) could represent an important tool for enhancing tomato yield and mineral nutrient concentration (e. g. , Coccina et al. 2019; Hart et al. 2015; Lehmann et al. 2014; Lehmann and Rillig 2015; Pellegrino et al. 2020), since they promote plant nutrient acquisition also under elevated atmospheric CO2 concentrations (Baslam et al. 2012; Terrer et al. 2021). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by stating that arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) could enhance tomato yield and mineral nutrient concentration, which implies that these fungi promote plant nutrient acquisition. This is particularly relevant in the context of nutrient-poor soils and under conditions of elevated CO2, which typically lead to nutrient deficiencies.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: AbstractTree-ring studies in the and in regions characterized by Mediterranean climates are scarce because of a lack of old trees and difficulties related to the clear identification of individual rings. You have full access to this open access 21. 1), which help to reconstruct past climate and retrospectively assess tree responses to the environment (McCarrol and Loader 2004). The values of the isotopic ratios reflect the extent to which the heavier isotope is discriminated compared to the lighter one during the physical and chemical processes involved in the synthesis of plant organic matter (Farquhar et al. 1989). Table 21. 1 Summary of the main aim and outcomes of studies measuring stable isotopes in Mediterranean tree rings. 21. 1). The main factors leading to the formation of Mediterranean-type climates are air circulation, latitude, topography, and the surface temperature of the surrounding water. Fig. 21. 1a Map of the showing locations of stable isotope tree-ring studies. The main findings of these studies are summarized in Table 21. 1. Background map showing Mediterranean climates according to Köppen classification. b and Lieth climate diagrams depicting the climate of two typical Mediterranean areas. Lower diagram: Capri (an island in the Tirrenic sea); upper diagram: Tramonti, at a higher altitude (period 1960–2010). c A few examples of Mediterranean species. Clockwise from top left: Pinus halepensis Mill of southern Spain; Quercus ilex L from southern Italy; Euphorbia dendroides L. : winter habitus and summer habitusFull size image2. 1 and VegetationMediterranean plants are adapted to this climate and cope with summer drought through several changes at the phenological, morphological, physiological,or biochemical levels (Pignatti 2008). These adaptations influence all relevant ecophysiological processes, i. e. , transpiration and carbon assimilation, as well as the isotopic signal imprinted in plant organic matter. Hence, the isotopic composition of the wood material of Mediterranean trees reflects their functionality and adaptation strategies. To cope with drought stress, two main strategies are observed in Mediterranean plants: avoidance and tolerance (Pignatti 2008). Many species survive summer drought by avoiding it through summer dormancy. This strategy is adopted by annual and perennial herbs and by woody species. Annual herbs have a very short life cycle that starts in late winter so that fruits are mature at the beginning of summer. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that tree-ring studies help reconstruct past climate and assess tree responses to the environment. This implies that tree rings are indeed valuable for studying past environmental disturbances, which directly rebuts the claim that they cannot be used for such purposes.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: : Planets, 2023, vol. 128, no. 8, p. e2023JE007823. Artemieva, I. M. and Shulgin, A. , Making and altering the crust: A global perspective on crustal structure and evolution, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. , 2019, vol. 512, 16. 163. 131. 244. 647. 2036. Cammarano, F. and Guerri, M. , Global thermal models of the lithosphere, Geophys. J. Int. , 2017, vol. 210, no. 1, 72. 912. 8441. 2619. 2664. Collins, G. S. , Melosh, H. J. , and Ivanov, B. A. , Modeling damage and deformation in impact simulations, Meteorit. Planet. Sci. , 2004, vol. 39, no. 2, 231. 515. 731. 410. 5249. ADS 210. 23. 1230. 338. 62. 5375. 683. 2777. Huber, M. S. , Kovaleva, E. , Rae, A. S. P. , Tisato, N. , and Gulick, S. P. S. , impact structures be discovered? A case study from Earth’s largest, most deeply eroded impact structure, J. Geophys. Res. : Planets, 2023, vol. 128, no. 8, p. e2022JE007721. Ivanov, B. A. , Numerical modeling of the largest terrestrial meteorite craters, Sol. Syst. Res. , 2005, vol. 39, 409. 630. 430. 690. Ivanov, B. A. and Kamyshenkov, D. , Impact cratering: Scaling law and thermal softening, Lunar and Planet. Sci. Conf. 43, 2012, p. 1407. Ivanov, B. A. and Melosh, H. J. , Impacts do not initiate volcanic eruptions: Eruptions close to the crater, Geology, 2003, vol. 31, no. 10, 872. 49. 1284. Jennings, E. S. and Holland, T. J. B. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text primarily consists of citations of various scientific papers and does not present any information that specifically supports, contradicts, or addresses the claim about impact craters on the Moon providing insights into the history of the solar system. Therefore, it is considered irrelevant.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF, phylum Glomeromycota, Tedersoo et al. 2018) are beneficial microbial symbionts, ubiquitous in natural and agricultural ecosystems (Brundrett and Tedersoo 2018). They establish a symbiosis with the majority of plant species in terrestrial environments (ca. 67% of plant species) (Bueno et al. 2019; Maherali et al. 2016), supplying mineral nutrients to the plants (mainly P) in exchange for photosynthetically fixed carbon (C) (from 4–20% of the photosynthates) in the form of lipids as well as sugar (Bago et al. 2000; Jiang et al. 2017; Luginbuehl et al. 2017). Carbon-mineral exchanges between host and fungus occur through arbuscules, namely highly branched fungal structures present in cortical root cells (Parniske 2008). These fungi represent fundamental factors of plant productivity (Pellegrino et al. 2015; Zhang et al. 2019) since they are capable, through their extraradical mycelium, to promote plant uptake and translocation of nutrients (e. g. , P, Fe, Zn, Cu and Mn) (Lehmann et al. 2014; Lehmann and Rillig 2015) and to mediate their transfer among plants linked by a common mycorrhizal network (Cardini et al. 2021; Javot et al. 2007; Jin et al. 2005; van der Heijden and Horton 2009). The effect of AM fungal inoculation on AM fungal root colonization, plant growth, and nutrient acquisition (P, Fe, Cu and Zn in shoot and roots; Ca, K, P, and Zn in fruits) in different varieties of tomato has been well documented in microcosm, also under low and moderate salinity stress (e. g. , Al-Karaki et al. 2000, 2001; Giovannetti et al. 2012; Hart et al. 2015). In pot conditions, tomato yield was unaffected or positively or negatively affected by AM fungal inoculation, applying distinct AM fungal species (Giovannetti et al. 2012; Hart et al. 2015). Similarly, fruit N concentration was unaffected or positively affected, according to the identity of the inoculated AM fungus (Hart et al. 2015). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by detailing the role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in enhancing nutrient uptake for plants. It mentions that these fungi promote plant uptake and translocation of essential nutrients, such as phosphorus (P), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu), and highlights that they play a fundamental role in plant productivity. Additionally, the text discusses the documented effects of AM fungal inoculation on nutrient acquisition in various tomato varieties, particularly under stress conditions, which reinforces the idea that mycorrhizal fungi are beneficial for plants, especially in nutrient-poor settings.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 2016), stable isotopes within tree rings (on tree-ring sub-sections, Klein et al. 2005; in continuum by laser ablation, Battipaglia et al. 2010a, b; 2014a) and a combination of methodologies (Zalloni et al. 2018, 2019; Balzano et al. 2018; Castagneri et al. 2018). 4 Carbon and Isotopes in of Mediterranean Species4. 1 Mediterranean species, which grow in climates characterized by summer drought and wet periods during the growing season, show wood structure adjustments that are mostly related to the need to maintain high conductivity when water is available, and to prevent xylem embolism when dry conditions occur (Cherubini et al. 2003; and Aronne 2012; Meinzer et al. 2010; Sperry et al. 2008). Tree-ring formation is therefore directly influenced by these adjustment processes and carbon stable isotopes can investigate the link between xylem hydraulic properties and the related physiological mechanisms. Water shortage negatively influences carboxylation rates by reducing the CO2 concentration in the gaseous spaces within the plant (Ci) due to stomata closure, causing a decrease in carbon isotope discrimination (Farquhar et al. 1989; Scheidegger et al. 2000). Many studies conducted in Mediterranean climates have shown that plants growing under water stress (stress induced by low soil water content and high evaporative atmospheric demand) produce tree-rings with higher δ13C (Ferrio et al. 2003; Battipaglia et al. 2010a; Maseyk et al. 2011). However, leaf water availability ultimately influences tree-ring δ13C. This availability is a consequence not only of soil water content, but also of the physical structure and hydraulic resistance along the plant xylem and the way the plant transports and uses water (e. g. leaf phenology) (Masle and Farquhar 1988; Warren and Adams 2000). Further, tree δ13C is influenced by the leaf-to-air vapour pressure deficit (VPD), which is the driving force for transpiration. Studies on isotope-climate relationships have shown that mean annual precipitation controls carbon discrimination (Δ13C) in several forest ecosystem types (Schulze et al. 1998; Diefendorf et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing how tree rings can provide insights into environmental factors, such as carbon stable isotopes that reflect hydraulic properties and physiological mechanisms driven by environmental conditions. Though the text focuses on the effects of water availability and carbon isotope ratios, it implicitly suggests that tree-rings can indeed reflect past climatic conditions and influences, which may include those from volcanic activity or other environmental disturbances.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: , A simple thermodynamic model for melting of peridotite in the system. Petrol. , 2015, vol. 56, no. 5, 892. 359. 77. 39. 19. 136. 420. 19. 144. 1107. 61. 386. 1014. 2098. 415. 2599. 532. 882. 87. M. , A shear failure strength law of rock in the brittle-plastic transition regime, Geophys. Res. Lett. , 1995, vol. 22, no. 1, 28. 239. 550. 457. Pierazzo, E. , Vickery, A. M. , and Melosh, H. J. , A reevaluation of impact melt production, Icarus, 1997, vol. 127, 423. 22. Romushkevich, R. A. , New geothermal data from the Kola superdeep well SG-3, Tectonophysics, 1999, vol. 306, no. 3, 366. 417. 743. 9. 7 to 16. 5 Gpa, J. Geophys. Res. : Solid Earth, 1993, vol. 98, no. B11, 9783. 1726. 692. 162. 518. 5715. 3301. 879. R. M. and Housen, K. R. , Some recent advances in the scaling of impact and explosion cratering, Int. J. Impact Eng. , 1987, vol. 5, nos. 1–4, 560. 340. 222. 81. 361. 220. 1213. 0926. 1972. 2305. Tarasyuk, V. K. , Shock metamorphism of quartz and estimation of masses motion in the bases of Boltysh and Ilyinets astroblemes of the Ukrainian Shield, Lunar and Planet. Sci. Conf. 13, Houston, TX, 1982, 820. S. C. and Ivanov, B. A. , Exogenic dynamics, cratering, and surface ages, in Treatise on Geophysics, Schubert, G. , Ed. , Oxford: Elsevier, 2015, 2nd ed. , ch. 10. 10, 365. 527. 6730. 4. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text appears to be a list of references and does not address the claim about impact craters on the Moon or their insights into the solar system's history. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: By contrast, fewer studies of AM fungal inoculation were carried out in open-field conditions (Bona et al. 2017; Bowles et al. 2016; Conversa et al. 2013; Subramanian et al. 2006), where agricultural practices might have negatively impacted native AMF-crop interactions (e. g. , Gosling et al. 2010; Hamel et al. 1997; Pellegrino et al. 2022b; Piazza et al. 2019). Indeed, agricultural practices can determine an impoverishment of the AM fungal biomass and community diversity (Gosling et al. 2006) and the selection of low efficient AM fungal species providing less benefits to crops (Egerton-Warburton et al. 2007; Johnson 1993; Sainz and Arines 1988). In such low fertile conditions, AM fungal inocula can successfully adapt and develop with native AMF (Pellegrino et al. 2012, 2022b; Ryan and Graham 2018) and they can early colonize the crops, a crucial trait for host benefit (Smith et al. 1992). Bowles et al. (2016), in a field experiment comparing MYC + and the mutant nonmycorrhizal tomato genotype rmc under organic regime, demonstrated the beneficial effect of AMF on tomato yield (+ 25%) and leaf and fruit N and P uptakes (+ 22% and + 26%, respectively). Similarly, plants of tomato (var. PKM-1 and var. TC 2000) inoculated in the nursery with Rhizophagus intraradices or a mix of AM fungal species (i. e. , R. intraradices, Glomus aggregatum, Glomus viscosum, Claroideoglomus etunicatum and Claroideoglomus claroideum) and later transplanted in field showed a higher AM fungal colonization and arbuscule frequency in roots at harvest, as well as enhanced plant growth and yield attributes (i. e. , collar diameter, inflorescence per branch and fruit fresh weight), and N and P uptakes in shoot and roots (Bona et al. 2017, Subramanian et al. 2006). By contrast, tomato var. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing evidence of the beneficial effects of mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) on plant nutrient uptake in nutrient-poor conditions. It highlights that AM fungal inoculation can successfully adapt and develop in low fertile soils, which helps enhance nutrient (N and P) uptakes in plants such as tomatoes. Specifically, experiments have shown that AMF can lead to significant improvements in crop yield and nutrient uptake, thus supporting the assertion that mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 2018; Shestakova et al. 2019). All studies agree that the increase in iWUE does not translate into growth enhancement in response to increasing atmospheric CO2. However, it is not yet clear why this occurs because it is extremely difficult to disentangle the influence of single factors on iWUE variation and to quantify the extent to which drought overrides a positive CO2 fertilization effect (see Peñuelas et al. 2011). Moreover, iWUE can vary due to both photosynthetic and stomatal conductance rates, since both affect the ratio between CO2 partial pressure in leaf intercellular space and in the atmosphere. To better understand the role of assimilation on iWUE, several authors have coupled tree-ring δ13C values with wood δ18O values (the dual isotope approach; Chap. 16, paragraph 5). 4. 3 as a Proxy for Source WaterOxygen isotopes can provide valuable information about changes in source water, which is typically either precipitation or groundwater (Dansgaard, 1964). No fractionation occurs when water is taken up by the roots (Wershaw et al. 1966), so the δ18O of xylem water can be used to investigate plant water source use in a range of environmental conditions (Sternberg and Swart 1987; Ehleringer and Dawson 1992; Dawson et al. 1998a, b). Very few studies, however, have focused on Mediterranean environments (Sargeant and Singer 2016; Singer et al. 2013), where water sources are quite complex and subject to strong seasonal fluctuations. The interface between the influx of marine water and the freshwater table depends strongly on climatic factors and on the exploitation of groundwater for urban or rural purposes, both of which influence the quality of water available for plant communities. The isotopic composition of rainfall is typically subject to seasonal patterns that are influenced by geographic and climatic factors. Generally, autumn–winter precipitation has a more negative isotopic signature (ranging between ∼−7. 8 and −6. 0 ‰) than spring–summer precipitation (ranging between ∼−4. 0 and +0. 8 ‰) (Alessio et al. 2004). Consequently, the freshwater table is labelled by meteoric water, and primarily by the abundant autumn–winter and spring precipitation events (Wu et al. 1996). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the use of tree-ring isotopes, specifically δ13C and δ18O values, as proxies for understanding environmental conditions, including water source variations influenced by climatic factors. This indicates that tree rings can be effectively utilized to study environmental conditions, which indirectly supports the notion that they may provide insights into past disturbances, such as volcanic activity, contrasting with the claim that tree rings cannot be used for such studies.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Sect. 3 derives the distribution of primary craters inside a larger crater, while Sect. 4 derives its distribution of secondary craters. The final section briefly discusses the implications of these results. 2 ModelFig. 1Sketch of a crater shaped like a spherical bowl. Solid arc: interior of crater. Dashed arc: spherical bubble. Plus sign (+): center of bubble. Horizontal solid lines: plane of crater’s rim. Horizontal dotted line: lid of craterFull size imageConsider a crater shaped like a spherical bowl, with rim radius r and depth h below the rim plane, as sketched in Fig. 1. Symbols are defined in Table 1. The surface area of the bowl’s “lid” is then just \(\pi r^2\), while the area of its interior is \(\pi r^2 +\pi h^2\) (Ingersoll et al. (1992); see also 1. Also assume that the incoming flux of primary (and sesquinary) impactors from space is isotropic (independent of direction). Note that this assumption is fair for sesquinary impactors, but poor for primary impacts on tidally locked satellites, which often show leading/trailing cratering asymmetries (e. g. , Horedt and Neukum (1984)). When upward impactors (those originating below the horizon) are ignored, every area element \(\partial B\) of the bubble is exposed to the same impact flux; i. e. , the sky has a uniform radiance of primary impactors. Then by analogy with radiative transfer, each element \(\partial B\) of the bubble acts like a pinhole camera, and may be regarded as radiating downward impactors isotropically, and with equal impact luminance \(L_P\) (primary impactors per unit solid angle per unit area per unit time). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is largely technical and focuses on mathematical aspects and models related to crater shapes and impact flux without directly linking these findings to insights on the history of the solar system. Therefore, it does not address or support the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: Moreover, Glomeraceae have very delicate hyphae characterized by a short longevity, creating a smaller but more diffuse extraradical mycelium, whereas Gigasporaceae have robust and densely aggregated hyphae characterized by a slower rate of turn-over, creating a larger extraradical mycelium, but closely concentrated to the root system (Jakobsen et al. 1992; Smith et al. 2000). These differences among AMF families may have important implications for the mutualist role of AMF (Dodd et al. 2000), especially if we mean to manage them for agroecological benefits. Indeed, a high ratio of soil to root colonization may provide the crop with the greatest benefit (increased nutrient transfer from soil to root) (Hart and Reader 2002). Conversely, a little net nutritional benefit may occur when the ratio of soil to root colonization is low, since a small extension of the extraradical mycelium would limit the nutrient transfer to the crop (Hart and Reader 2002). Meanwhile, a larger AM fungal root colonization can be positively correlated with plant biomass (Lekberg and Koide 2005), potentially due to a higher frequency of arbuscules (Hart and Reader 2002). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, although known to have no saprophytic capacity, represent an important group of microorganisms involved also in litter decomposition (Cheng et al. 2012; Gui et al. 2017; Hodge et al. 2015), a crucial process for terrestrial ecosystems, since it affects the stabilization of soil organic carbon (SOC) that it is expected to decline under the projected elevated atmospheric CO2 (Terrer et al. 2021). Herman et al. (2012) and Hodge et al. (2001) proved that AMF enhance litter decomposition, increase N capture from organic patches and alter the C flow through changes in soil microbial communities. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi might impact litter decomposition through effects on soil saprophytic microorganisms (Nuccio et al. 2013) and/or on soil structure (Pellegrino et al. 2021, 2022b; Rillig and Mummey 2006). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by indicating that Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) enhance nutrient transfer from soil to roots, which aligns with the claim that mycorrhizal fungi improve nutrient uptake for plants, especially in nutrient-poor conditions. The description of how a high ratio of soil to root colonization correlates with increased nutrient transfer and plant biomass supports the assertion of mycorrhizal fungi's beneficial role in aiding plants' nutrient uptake.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: In contrast, soil water in the shallow layers depends on spring–summer precipitation. Further, water occurring 10–50 cm below the dry soil surface is subject to evaporative enrichment and therefore attains less negative or even positive δ18O values (Craig and Gordon 1965; Allison and Leaney 1982; Yakir et al. 2000). A further source of water is the marine water table, which is typically characterized by enriched values of δ18O (∼0 ‰). Thus, the δ18O composition of tree rings will reflect the isotopic signature of the tree’s water source: rings will have a depleted δ18O signature if trees take up water from the groundwater table (Dawson and Ehleringer 1998), and an enriched δ18O signature if trees take up water from the vadose zone. Indeed, water in the vadose zone is generally linked to recent precipitation and is subject to high evaporative enrichment of δ18O (Dawson and Ehleringer 1998). These source-water signatures will be different for individual rings within a given species depending on the annual position of the water table and the degree of mixing between precipitation, surface flow, and groundwater during periods of xylem uptake (McCarroll and Loader 2004). It should also be noted that considerable fractionation occurs at the leaf/needle level, where lighter isotopes are preferentially lost via transpiration, leading to an enrichment in plant tissue δ18O of up to 20‰ compared to soil water (Craig and Gordon 1965; Saurer et al. 1998; McCarroll and Loader 2004; Barbour 2007; Cernusak et al. 2016). Indeed, it has been demonstrated that the source water signal can be modified by large changes in evaporative enrichment in drought-adapted Mediterranean species. These species tightly regulate transpiration through their stomata (Ferrio and Voltas, 2005), an ability that is thought to be a functional adaptation to drought (Pallary et al. 1995; Battipaglia et al. 2009). Singer et al. (2013) and Sargeant and Singer (2016) used annual tree-ring δ18O analyses to interpret plant water use at various temporal and spatial scales as a function of regional hydrology and climate. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by explaining how tree-ring δ18O analyses can provide insights into plant water use and how these analyses reflect changes in regional hydrology and climate. It discusses the importance of source water signatures and their variations in different conditions, indicating that tree rings can indeed be used to study environmental influences.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Each area element \(\partial C\) of the crater’s interior receives an infinitesimal flux \(\partial P = L_P\cos (\beta ) \cos (\gamma ) \partial B/q^2\) from every area element \(\partial B\) of the bubble, where \(\beta \) is the angle of emission from the normal to \(\partial B\), \(\gamma \) is the angle of impact from the normal to \(\partial C\), and q is the distance between \(\partial B\) and \(\partial C\), as sketched in Fig. 1. By geometry, \(\cos \beta = \cos \gamma = q/(2R)\) (Ingersoll et al. (1992)); so \(\partial P\) becomes just \(L_P\partial B/(2R)^2\). Note that Fig. 1 is drawn for a vertical cross-section, but the above result applies for any area elements \(\partial B\) and \(\partial C\). It is possible to integrate \(\partial P\) over the surface area of the bubble; but it is simpler to notice that the above formula for \(\partial P\) is independent of the location of \(\partial C\), so that every element of the crater’s interior is exposed to the same flux from \(\partial B\). Then the flux of primary impactors inside the bowl still must remain uniform when integrated over the bubble. If we assume that the efficiency of cratering is independent both of the impact angle \(\gamma \)Footnote 1, and also of the surface slope (perhaps plausible for small strength-dominated craters), then the density of primary craters inside the bowl must be uniform as well. For example, consider a hemispheric crater of radius \(r = h = R\), subject to a primary impact luminance \(L_P\). Then each unit of area of the crater’s lid is subject to a primary impact flux of \(P_0 = \pi L_P\). This lid has an area of \(\pi r^2\), so it intercepts \(\pi r^2 P_0\) impactors per unit time; but these are spread out uniformly over an interior area of \(2\pi r^2\), for an effective flux P of just \(P_0/2\). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the mathematical modeling of impact craters and the flux of primary impactors without addressing the broader implications of impact craters in understanding the history of the solar system. Thus, it is irrelevant to the claim made.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: In such a contest, recently, under long-term unfertilized condition, multipartite synergies between AMF and soil microbial communities were demonstrated to be responsible of the substantial enhancement of plant and fungal N acquisition from organic matter (Hestrin et al. 2019). These synergies resulted in a greater relative acquisition from organic versus mineral nutrient stocks, but without loss of SOM due to the stimulation of the primary productivity and the SOM formation by root and mycorrhizal C inputs. However, we are still far from fully understand the mechanisms by which AMF are able to influence litter decomposition in field conditions, where inoculated members of the families Glomeraceae and Gigasporaceae may act differently due to their peculiar colonization strategies (Gui et al. 2017; Jiang et al. 2021; Mei et al. 2022). Indeed, Gigasporaceae, allocating higher fungal biomass in extraradical hyphae, promote a larger abundance of fungi in soil together with a shift toward a community less dominated by saprotrophic fungi (i. e. , decomposers), thereby potentially lowering the decomposition of fresh litters. Therefore, the aim of this work was to evaluate in field conditions under organic agriculture the effect of nursery inoculation of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L. ) with four single AM fungal isolates belonging to Glomeraceae and Gigasporaceae on fungal establishment, yield, litter decomposition, and bacterial and fungal abundance in soil, as proxy of nutrient cycling and C storage. Therefore, we selected two varieties of tomato, characterized by different growth habits: var. Pisanello [an old Tuscany variety, described and conserved in the regional genetic bank for the conservation of endangered (or threatened) varieties; Berni et al. 2018] with an indeterminate growth habit and var. (a widely used modern variety) with a determinate growth habit (Fig. S1a). We hypothesized consistent differences in AM fungal root colonization, yield and nutrient concentration in fruits due to inoculation with isolates belonging to Gigasporaceae and Glomeraceae. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the positive effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) on nutrient acquisition in plants, particularly under nutrient-poor conditions. It mentions that synergies between AMF and soil microbial communities enhance both plant and fungal nitrogen acquisition from organic matter, which supports the statement that mycorrhizal fungi improve nutrient uptake for plants in such environments.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: In the Mediterranean, trends of increasing temperature and altered precipitation patterns lead to higher probabilities of extreme events, such as heat waves and fires (IPPC 2014). Species-, age- and microsite-specific plant responses to changing climatic conditions are responsible for the degree of adaptation and survival under limiting conditions. These factors also determine interspecific competition, and thus vegetation dynamics. The main mechanisms triggering tree decline and mortality have been identified as carbon starvation and hydraulic failure, but the relative importance of the two processes and their link are not clear yet (McDowell et al. 2008, Sala 2009, Sala et al. 2010, Gruber et al. 2010, Sevanto et al. 2014, Gaylord et al. 2015, Hartmann 2015, Rowland et al. 2015, Salmon et al. 2015; Adams et al. 2017). Plants experience hydraulic failure when more water is lost by transpiration than a plant can take up through its root. This creates high xylem water tension and results in progressive cavitation and conductivity loss of the xylem (Sperry et al. 1998; McDowell et al. 2008; Sevanto et al. 2014; Salmon et al. 2015). This process may be most relevant during very severe, short-term droughts (McDowell et al. 2008). On the other hand, carbon starvation occurs when plants close their stomata to prevent desiccation under drought conditions (McDowell et al. 2008). Low water supply leads to a reduction of photosynthetic activity, which, when coupled with the depletion of non-structural carbohydrates (NSC), can induce a negative carbon balance, leading to so-called starvation (McDowell et al. 2008; McDowell and Sevanto 2010; Hartmann 2015; Salmon et al. 2015). Gessler et al. (2018) developed a conceptual model, based on the Scheidegger model (Scheidegger et al. 2000, see Chap. 16), to assess the mechanisms of drought-induced tree mortality. Using a synchronic approach, they investigated the tree-ring δ13C and δ18O data for different species and found that an increase in δ13C and δ18O in dying trees as compared to surviving ones indicates low photosynthetic activity and stomatal conductance. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by demonstrating that tree-ring data, specifically δ13C and δ18O, is utilized to investigate tree responses to environmental stressors such as drought, which implies that tree rings can indeed reflect past environmental conditions. Furthermore, the study mentioned investigates the relationship between tree-ring isotopes and tree health under limiting conditions, implying that tree rings can provide useful information in understanding environmental disturbances.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Thus Ceres’ secondary ejecta may be somewhat influenced by Coriolis effects, as indeed found by (Schulzeck et al. (2017, 2018)). All of the other tabulated moons and planets have \(V_C > V_E\) and \(\Delta _C > R_T\), so their secondary ejecta should not be significantly influenced by Coriolis effects. Table 2 Parameters for selected bodiesFull size table4. 2 Crater classesshall neglect Coriolis effects, and assume that every surface element of the target body is exposed to an intermittent hail of non-local primary ejecta incoming at an angle of \(\zeta \) with respect to the vertical. To illustrate, Fig. 2 again shows a crater shaped like a spherical bowl, but now the area element \(\partial C\) of its interior receives a flux of secondary impacts along a cone of opening angle \(\zeta \) (drawn as \(45^\circ \) here) with respect to the vertical. Figure 2 is drawn for the special case when the impact cone is just tangent to the rim of the crater. In this case, the level of the area element \(\partial C\) defines the “floor line” of the crater. I call the portion of the crater below this floor line the “floor”, and the portion of the crater above the floor line the “wall”. Then surface elements of the floor are fully exposed to the flux of primary ejecta; but to belabor the radiative analogy, surface elements of the wall are partially “shaded” from the primary ejecta by the crater wall itself. Figure 3 shows the same bowl-shaped crater again, where now \(\delta \) is defined as the angular distance of the area element \(\partial C\) from the bottom of the crater, as measured from the center of the bubble; note that \(\delta \) is also the slope of \(\partial C\) with respect to the horizontal. Likewise, \(\rho \) is the angular radius of the crater’s rim as well as the slope there, while |f| is both the angular radius and the slope of its floor line. Fig. 2Sketch of a Deep crater shaped like a spherical bowl. Solid arc: interior of crater. Horizontal solid lines: plane of crater’s rim. Horizontal dotted line: lid of crater. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses secondary ejecta influenced by Coriolis effects, crater shapes, and parameters of craters but does not address Moon impact craters or their insights into the solar system's history. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: Altough in field conditions competion with other microorganisms occurs, members of Gigasporaceae, better exploring the soil by hyphae and less colonizing the roots, would have a stronger effect on nutrient uptake by fruits, whereas members of Glomeraceae, extensively colonizing the root system, would increase plant growth and fruit yield (Fig. S1b). We also hypothesized differences at family level in the effect of AM fungal inoculation on both litter decomposition and soil fungal and bacterial abundance. Glomeraceae having a low soil fungal:bacterial ratio would determine a higher litter degradation, whereas Gigasporaceae having a high soil fungal:bacterial ratio would determine a lower litter degradation. MethodsFungal material Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) used were: Gigaspora gigantea PA125 and Scutellospora pellucida MN408A belonging to Gigasporaceae, and Funneliformis mosseae MD118 and Sclerocystis sinuosa MD126 belonging to Glomeraceae. Inocula were obtained from pot cultures maintained in the collection of the of the Sant’Anna, Italy. The inocula of the single AM fungal isolates were produced in 15 L pots (four pots for each isolate). Pots were filled with sandy soil and Terragreen (calcinated clay, ) (1:1 by volume) and with 1. 5 L per pot of starting crude inoculum (10% by volume). The substrate was previously steam-sterilized (121°C for 25 min, on two consecutive days) to kill native AMF. All the pots received 3 L of a filtrate, obtained by sieving a mixture of the four AM fungal inocula through a sieve with pore diameter of 50 µm, to ensure a common prokaryotic community for all treatments. The host plant was Sorghum vulgare L. , following Morton et al. (1993). Plants were grown in a glasshouse, supplied with tap water as needed and with a weekly fertilization of half-strength Hoagland’s solution (250 ml per pot). Three months after inoculation, plant shoots were harvested and soil and roots used as inocula (i. e. , crude inoculum: mycorrhizal roots and soil containing spores and extraradical mycelium). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the role of different mycorrhizal fungi families, specifically mentioning that members of Gigasporaceae and Glomeraceae can enhance nutrient uptake in plants. It indicates that Gigasporaceae are effective at exploring soil for nutrients while Glomeraceae extensively colonize the roots, which suggests a beneficial relationship that aligns with the assertion that mycorrhizal fungi improve nutrient uptake, especially noted in the context of plant growth and fruit yield.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: These conditions can lead to a slow or continuous decline in growth, possibly followed by carbon starvation-induced death. On the other hand, the long-term reduction of iWUE in dying trees seems to be associated with increased growth and higher stomatal conductance, inducing possible hydraulic failure in dying trees. However, those findings show a huge variability among species and sites. This variability is linked to the complex processes regulating growth and, in particular, the fractionation processes that take place during the mobilization of photosynthetic assimilates from the leaf to the wood (Gessler et al. 2014). Indeed, it has been demonstrated that trees may use remobilized carbohydrates (primarily starch) for the formation of tree rings. These stored carbohydrates may have been produced months or even years earlier (Gessler et al. 2014). This is especially possible in Mediterranean biomes, where the growing season is very long (Castagneri et al. 2018) and where xylogenesis can be interrupted more than once during the year (Balzano et al. 2019, 2018). In this case, a multidisciplinary approach is required to disentangle the different processes underpinning changes in growth and iWUE, and to better understand the causes of tree diebacks (Cailleret et al. 2017; Colangelo et al. 2017; Camarero et al. 2015, 2019). 5. 2 Carbon and and IADFIntra-annual density fluctuations (IADFs) are abrupt changes in density within a tree ring, and are frequently found in Mediterranean species as a response to seasonal climate fluctuations between dry and wet periods (Bräuning 1999; Campelo et al. 2007; Cherubini et al. 2003; Rigling et al. 2001; Schulman 1938; Tingley 1937; et al. 2016). Although IADF frequency is related to tree age, size, and tree-ring width, as well as to genetic and site conditions, it mainly depends on drought. IADF frequency is the result of wood functional trait adjustments to preserve hydraulic conductivity under Mediterranean “double stress” conditions (et al. 2016). The ability to adapt to highly seasonal Mediterranean conditions may depend on a species´ capacity to adjust cambial activity in order to cope with the prevailing environmental conditions. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contradicts the claim by discussing how tree rings and intra-annual density fluctuations (IADFs) can respond to environmental conditions, particularly drought and seasonal climate fluctuations. It highlights that variations in tree ring formation can be linked to environmental stresses, indicating that tree rings can indeed provide insights into past environmental disturbances.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: The curves for \(\rho = 150^\circ \) and \(165^\circ \) correspond to Cavernous craters, with a ceiling as well as a floor, both fully shielded from secondary impacts. In both Profound and Cavernous craters, note how S reaches a single peak partway up the crater wall. In the limiting case \(\rho = 180^\circ \) of a spherical cavity with a pinhole opening at the very top, the floor and ceiling meet at \(\delta = 2\zeta \approx 90^\circ \), so the entire cavity is shielded from primary ejecta, and S vanishes everywhere. The left-hand axis of Fig. 7 (\(\delta \) = 0) represents the very bottom of the crater. and Deep craters (\(\rho < 90^\circ \)), this point is fully exposed to primary ejecta, so \(S = S_0\) there; but in Profound and Cavernous craters (\(\rho > 90^\circ \)), this point is fully shielded from primary ejecta, so S vanishes there. The right-hand edge of Fig. 7 (\(\delta = \rho \)) represents points just below the rim of the crater. vanishes for all Cavernous craters, but reduces to \(S_0 \cos \rho \) for Shallow craters. and Profound craters, Formula (8) for S is not simple, but Formula (9) approaches the limit \(\cos \phi _0 = -\cos (\rho )\cos (\zeta )/[\sin (\rho )\sin \zeta ]\) \(\approx -\cos (\rho )/\sin \rho \) for a plane with slope \(\rho \). 4. 6 RectificationThe angular radius \(\rho \) of a crater and the angular distance \(\delta \) from its bottom are unfamiliar constructs, and may be inconvenient for many purposes. For most work on craters, more convenient parameters include a crater’s radius r or diameter 2r, its depth h, and the horizontal distance x from its center. Note that \(x = r\sin \delta \), and \(\delta \) = Arcsin(x/r). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it focuses on mathematical descriptions and characteristics of different types of craters, such as Cavernous and Shallow craters, without addressing the insights or historical context that impact craters on the Moon may provide regarding the solar system.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: Plantlets were grown in the greenhouse from the start of April to the end of May on both years of cultivation (2019 and 2020) for about 40 days. Plantlets were supplied with tap water as needed and with a weekly fertilization of half-strength Hoagland’s solution (70 mL per plateau). Tomatoes were transplanted in field in May (var. Pisanello: 16th May 2019; var. Rio Grande: 23rd May 2020). For both tomato varieties, the experiment layout was a completely randomized design with four fungal treatments (G. gigantea, G. giga; S. pellucida, S. pellu; F. mosseae, F. mos; S. sinuosa, S. sin) and the mock-inoculated control (-M), and three replicate plots. Each replicate plot of the experiment with var. Pisanello had a size of 9. 6 m length x 1. 6 m width (15. 4 m2) and was composed by two rows with 30 plants for each row (30 cm within the rows and 1 m between rows). Each replicate plot of the experiment with var. had a size of 2. 5 m length x 1. 25 m width (3 m2) and was composed by four rows with eight plants for each row (25 cm within and between the rows). The tomato plants were daily watered through drip irrigation. No mineral fertilization neither chemical or mechanical weed control were applied. Mycorrhizal infection potential of the AM fungal inocula and of the experimental soil Infectivity of the experimental field soil and of the AM fungal inocula was evaluated using a modified mycorrhizal infection potential (MIP) test (Pellegrino et al. 2011). Three S. vulgare seeds were sown in 50 mL sterile plastic tubes filled with 25 mL of the four AM fungal inocula and of the experimental field soil, and 25 mL of sterile quartz grit. The experimental field soil was obtained by taking five soil samples in 2019 and 2020 before tomato transplanting. Soil samples were collected by using a soil corer (8 cm diameter) at a depth of 30 cm and then they were air dried. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by describing an experiment involving various arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal treatments and their application to tomato plants. While it does not explicitly state the improvement of water and nutrient uptake, the context of mycorrhizal fungi and the mention of evaluating 'mycorrhizal infection potential' suggest that this research is investigating the benefits of these fungi on plants, particularly in potentially nutrient-poor experimental field soil.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: For all the different sites and species, the types of IADF and their positions had the same isotopic signals in terms of carbon and oxygen. E-IADFs presented δ13C and δ18O in the range of −23 ± 0. 6‰ and 32 ± 1‰, respectively; L-IADFs had δ13C and δ18O values of −27 ± 0. 7‰ and 29 ± 0. 5‰, respectively (Battipaglia et al. 2016a). These results should be extended to a larger database in order to assess how the isotopic composition of IADFs could help with dating problematic samples and support the interpretation of phenomena that trigger the formation of IADFs in the Mediterranean environment. 5. 3 Carbon and and FireFire has been a frequent and important disturbance in Mediterranean forest ecosystems throughout the Holocene (Heinselman 1981; FAO, State of 2018), shaping landscapes and determining vegetation distribution and dynamics. Tree rings have been used to reconstruct fire history and to determine the effects of fire on forest productivity. In recent years, carbon and oxygen isotopes measured in tree rings have proved to be a useful tool for understanding the complex ecophysiological processes that occur in Mediterranean tree species following a wildfire or prescribed burning (Beghin et al. 2011; Battipaglia et al. 2014b, c, 2016b, 2019; et al. 2014; Valor et al. 2018; Niccoli et al. 2019). Because conifers are widespread in the and highly prone to fire damage, many studies have focused on conifer species, including Pinus sylvestris (Beghin et al. , 2011), Pinus halepensis (Battipaglia et al. 2014b; c; Valor et al. 2018), Pinus pinea (Battipaglia et al. 2016b), and Pinus pinaster (Niccoli et al. 2019). Stable isotopes studies indicate that tree response and their potential to recover over the short- and long-term depends on fire severity. Strong wildfires produce a simultaneous increase in tree-ring δ13C and δ18O, suggesting a strong reduction in stomatal conductance and assimilation rate, which are often linked to crown damage (Battipaglia et al. 2014b; Niccoli et al. 2019). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the use of tree rings in reconstructing fire history and assessing the effects of fire on forest productivity. It indicates that tree rings are a useful tool for understanding ecophysiological processes following wildfires and that isotopic signals in tree rings can provide insights into environmental disturbances, thereby suggesting that tree rings can indeed be used to study past environmental events.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Leading/trailing asymmetries contribute to this effect on tidally locked moons (e. g. , Horedt and Neukum (1984)), but gravitational focussing does not. Conversely, another dubious assumption is that all ejecta from primary craters are launched at a unique zenith angle \(\zeta \). In fact, their launch angles span range of zenith angles; this could smear the distribution of secondary craters inside craters, and reduce its statistical contrast with the distribution of primaries. A subtler difficulty concerns the level of crater saturation. When the density of craters is so great that they begin to obliterate one another (usually at the smallest sizes), crater counts underestimate the impact flux. This may obscure the true distribution of impacts, and might also complicate its interpretation. Most of the above diffuculties may be treatable, with the possible exception of slumping at higher slope angles. If so, this approach may provide a new tool for interpreting crater counts. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses various aspects of crater formation and the influences affecting crater counts, but it does not address the claim regarding the insights provided by impact craters into the history of the solar system. Therefore, it is considered irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: The MIP was similar among the AM fungal inocula (G. gigantea MGFS05, S. pellucida MGFS12, F. mosseae MD118 and S. sinuosa MFGS06; Table S1), with percentages of root length containing arbuscules and vesicles and AMF root colonization of 8. 6% ± 1. 4, 0. 2% ± 0. 09 and 23. 8% ± 2. 1, respectively (mean ± SE of five replicate plots per each treatment; data not shown). Effect of AM fungal inoculation on tomato root colonization In 2019, at stage BBCH 62, the presence of arbuscules, vesicles and AMF root colonization in roots of inoculated plants of tomato (S. lycopersicum L. ) var. Pisanello (+ M: all AM fungal isolates) was significantly higher than in the mock-inoculated treatment (-M) (Fig. 1; Table S2). Percentage of root length containing arbuscules varied from 15. 0–29. 7% in -M and + M, respectively, while the percentage of root length containing vesicles and AM fungal root colonization varied from 0. 8–4. 5% and from 28. 4–47. 7% in -M and + M, respectively. Moreover, there was a significant intra-family variability (Glomeraceae): S. sinuosa showed a higher AM fungal root colonization than F. mosseae (53. 8% vs 38. 2%). In Fig. 2a-d images of AM fungal structures within the roots of tomato var. Pisanello sampled at BBCH 62. In 2020, at BBCH 22, AM fungal inoculation significantly improved the occurrence of arbuscules and AM fungal colonization in roots of tomato var. (-M vs + M: 1% vs 7. 5%; 6. 8% vs 19. 8% respectively), whereas did not affect the presence of vesicles (Fig. 3a; Table S3). Moreover, the inoculation with isolates belonging to Gigasporaceae significantly increased the occurrence of arbuscules in the roots of tomato compared with the isolates belonging to the family Glomeraceae (9. 5% vs 4. 1%, respectively). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing evidence of significant improvements in arbuscule and AM fungal colonization percentages in the roots of tomato plants (S. lycopersicum) when inoculated with AM fungal isolates. Specifically, it notes that AM fungal inoculation led to greater root colonization, with significant increases in arbuscule presence (15.0–29.7% in +M vs -M) and overall AM fungal root colonization (28.4–47.7% in +M vs -M). This indicates that mycorrhizal fungi enhance nutrient uptake in the plants, supporting the claim regarding their beneficial effect in nutrient-poor soils.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 1996; Alfaro-Sanchez et al. 2016). Tree-ring δ15N has also been used to assess changes in nitrogen availability due to (i) variations in atmospheric nitrogen deposition and (ii) their influence on ecosystem nitrogen dynamics, since the nitrogen isotope ratio in compounds produced as a result of anthropogenic activities may be significantly different from the natural background δ15N in the soil (Freyer 1991). Guerrieri et al. (2009, 2011) and Battipaglia et al. (2010b) showed that increases in nitrogen deposition from the atmosphere or from fertilization are reflected in tree-ring δ15N signals as a result of source δ15 N (e. g. , NOx, NHx forms, or NH4+ vs NO3−) and the processes occurring during different phases of soil biogeochemical processes (i. e. , losses caused by NO3− leaching, denitrification, and NH3 volatilization; see also Chap. 12). Changes in δ15N in annual tree-rings reflect the causes of variation in the tree’s iWUE due to climatic or anthropogenic impacts, suggesting that an increase in nitrogen input from the atmosphere (Guerrieri et al. 2011) or from consociation from nitrogen-fixing species could led to an increase of trees iWUE under a scenario of reduction in precipitation, such as in Mediterranean area (Guerrieri et al. 2011; Battipaglia et al. 2017). Measurement of δ15N of the different possible sources, and a better understanding of the fractionation processes in the different species, is needed for a proper interpretation of tree-ring δ15N data. 7 Conclusions and OutlookTree-ring isotope studies in the have increased in the last years for two main reasons. First, there is general agreement regarding the importance of reliable information about how Mediterranean trees are responding to a changing climate. Such information informs assessments of the future state of such vulnerable forests, as well as their role in carbon sequestration and ecosystem services. Second, stable isotopes help to identify the ecological behavior and vulnerability of Mediterranean tree and shrub species, information that can improve management options. Further research is needed to improve our knowledge about the xylem plasticity of the different Mediterranean species. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing how tree-ring δ15N has been used to assess changes in nitrogen availability, influenced by environmental factors such as atmospheric deposition and ecosystem dynamics. This indicates that tree rings can provide critical insights into ecological changes and environmental disturbances, thus supporting their utility in studying past volcanic activity or environmental impacts.