Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Excessive social media use has been linked to increased anxiety and depression. [SEP] Text: In the current relevant studies, significant findings have been made on the relationship between social media overload and anxiety, but the relationship between the two sides is not clear from the perspective of natural disasters (rainstorm, typhoon, etc. ). The existing research conclusions are mainly based on public health emergencies such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, it is difficult to explain why there is a significant tie between social media overload and anxiety in rainstorm disasters. The lack of research in this aspect is also not conducive to the disaster management departments using social media effectively for risk communication or disaster relief activities in sudden rainstorm disasters. Therefore, this study is based on the rainstorm scenario to research the following two issues: (1) ' Disaster Anxiety? (2) the of Overload on Users’ Disaster Anxiety? The achievements of this research can be obtained from three aspects. First, it solidifies the impact of social media overload on viewers' anxiety in heavy rainstorms. Second, the research on the adverse effects of social media is further explored and extended the application of the SSO theoretical framework. Lastly, the research provides a clear reference for disaster response departments to improve public-targeted risk communication strategies during sudden rainstorm disasters. 2. 2. 1. Koeske and Koeske proposed a theoretical framework in 1993, namely, Stressor-Strain-Outcome (SSO), which consists of three parts: stressor, the environmental factors that cause stress and affect individual psychological state; strain, an individual’s subjective psychological experience caused by the stressor including perceptions, feelings and thoughts; outcome, the individual's response to stress, including psychological or behavioral responses (30). According to the SSO theoretical framework, stressor induces leading to specific outcomes. Furthermore, strain is the mediating factor between stressor and outcome. Stressor does not directly lead to a specific outcome, but indirectly through the mediation of strain (30). The SSO theoretical framework is widely used to study the pressures associated with technology use and their consequences (31). In this study, social media overload can be seen as a stressor. Social media fatigue can be regarded as an individual's strain caused by a stressor and disaster anxiety is the outcome. 2. 2. ——experiencing sudden disasters use social media significantly longer and more often (32), which can easily lead to social media overload (16). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by stating that while there are significant findings regarding the relationship between social media overload and anxiety, the evidence is not clear, especially in the context of natural disasters like rainstorms. It mentions that existing research is primarily based on public health emergencies like the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, the lack of clarity and existing gaps in research indicate that excessive social media use in certain contexts, such as disasters, does not straightforwardly link to increased anxiety, which challenges the absolute nature of the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite affecting honeybee health and productivity. [SEP] Text: 14), evidence of a purifying selection (that is, most non-synonymous mutations are deleterious and disappear). Similar results were obtained for nine other coding sequences in N. ceranae [23]. By contrast, all the polymorphisms detected in the other two markers, X580 and X802, led to changes in the corresponding polypeptide, strongly suggestive of directional selection and a possible adaptive role for these polymorphisms. Genotyping of the different N. ceranae isolates systematically produced ambiguous results as two alternative nucleotides exist at a number of points, which is not a technical artefact. First, indeterminate forms exist for very specific nucleotides. For a given point where a genotype shows a double peak – say, A and G – some other genotypes exhibit a clean A, and other a clean G. Secondly, the cloning and subsequent analysis of different clones demonstrated that the double peaks actually corresponded to alternative DNA templates in a given isolate. Thus, the genotyping of N. ceranae has to be directed so as not to obtain a single haplotype corresponding to a specific pure strain but rather, to a whole-isolate genotype that may be of mixed heterozygosity. This heterogeneity can be explained by two different but not exclusive phenomena: (1) a given honey bee is infected by two or more strains of N. ceranae and therefore, the isolate includes genetically different clones; and (2) a given strain of the microsporidian has more than one different genome and thus, it might be heterozygous for a number of markers. Evidence for recombinationRecombination per se is not absolute proof of sex, because clonality does not mean the total absence of it. As recombination is too rare to break the prevalent clonal population pattern [39], a good signal of an asexual reproduction model is a strong linkage disequilibrium (LD) together with a clear phylogenetic signal. By contrast, recombination, high levels of heterozygosis and sustained diversity provide strong evidence of sexual reproduction. Despite the extensive heterozygosity in the genotypes in the isolates, our results provide consistent evidence that different haplotypes can be formed after recombination between two other haplotypes. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses genetic analyses and polymorphisms related to N. ceranae but does not mention its impact on honeybee health or productivity.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: VR is used in medical training to simulate real-life procedures. [SEP] Text: Table 11 Participants intrinsic motivation level comparison (prior and post-VR training)–paired sample t testFull size tableTable 12 Participants self-efficacy level comparison (prior and post-VR training) paired sample t testFull size table5. 2. 4 Theoretical knowledge score (pre- and post-VR training comparison)As the result summarized in Table 13, students’ post-VR theoretical knowledge score (M = 3. 60, σ = 1. 339) is higher in comparison with their pre-VR theoretical knowledge score (M = 2. 84, σ = 1. 545) and the growth reached statistical significant level (t(25) = − 2. 55, p = 0. 009). Table 13 Paired sample t test for pre- and post-VR knowledge scoreFull size tableTo confirm that the growth we are observing is due to VR training and not other factors, students’ performance scores were also compared based on if students: (i) have seen ABG collection before or (ii) had read lecturer notes prior to attending the VR training. The result of our analysis revealed no significant difference (p > 0. 05) between students’ score when they have been grouped based on the aforementioned conditions. This is an important finding indicating that prior procedural experience will not necessarily have an impact on the learning outcome of VR-based training. 5. 3 Practical trainingThe observations data enabled comparisons to be made between the VR training and the practical groups (the study group who had VR training and the control group who had no VR training). The observers were asked to provide ratings against the following four questions: Performance (How well did the student reach the goal? ) Confidence (How confidently did the student approach the task) Safety and Hygiene (How well did the student follow safety and hygiene procedures? ) (How much support did the student require from the trainer? ) The observers were also asked to timestamp when the different tasks in the procedure were completed, whether the student met the goal of each task adequately, and whether the students had made any errors (an error analysis is not included within the scope of this paper and is published by Kennedy et al. (2023)), what they had done wrong. Table 14 shows a summary of the average observer ratings. Table 14 Observer ratings (mean value)Full size table5. 3. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the effectiveness of VR training in enhancing students' theoretical knowledge and performance scores compared to traditional methods. It implies that VR training is beneficial for learning, which supports its use in simulating real-life medical procedures.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Excessive social media use has been linked to increased anxiety and depression. [SEP] Text: All respondents read the informed consent form about the purpose and content of the study and voluntary participation in the study before filling out the questionnaire. Informed consent was obtained from all the study participants. Consent for publication Not applicable The questionnaire and data are available upon special request from the corresponding author. Conflicts of authors declare no conflict of interest. research received no external funding. Conceptualization, Kai Li; Data curation, Dingxi Li; Formal analysis, Dingxi Li; Investigation, Dingxi Li; Methodology, Kai Li; Resources, Kai Li; Supervision, Kai Li; Validation, Kai Li; Visualization, Dingxi Li; Writing – original draft, Dingxi Li; Writing – review & editing, Kai Li. 42. Centers for and Prevention. and Response. Preparedness and Response for site 2018 [Available from:. Definitions and concepts in disaster research. Methods for disaster mental health research. 2006;2006:3–19. . : A Test of Tillich's Theory of Existential Anxiety. J Humanist Psychol. 2013;53(1):114–28. -Howes G, Bell CJ. Psychological distress and psychiatric disorder after natural disasters: systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychiatry. 2018;213(6):716–22. Anxiety, Depression and Post-Disorder after Earthquake. J Res Counc. 2018;16(1):53–7. Cherry KE. Lifespan perspectives on natural disasters: Coping with Katrina, Rita, and other storms. & Business Media; 2009. A, Simpson-Housley P, Curtis F. Assignment of responsibility and flood hazard in Catahoula County. Behav. 1985;17(3):371–86. . Anxiety effects on disaster precautionary behaviors: a multi-path cognitive model. J Health Psychol. 2019;24(10):1401–11. Mishra S, Suar D. Effects of Anxiety, Disaster Education, and Resources on Behavior. J Psychol. 2012;42(5):1069–87. Muniz- Use in to Natural Disasters: A With a Perspective. Prep. 2020;14(1):139–49. Public health implications of social media use during natural disasters, environmental disasters, and other environmental concerns. Nat Hazards. 2016;83(1):729–60. . [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is largely irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the study's informed consent process, authorship, and citations related to mental health research without addressing any specific findings about social media use and its connection to anxiety and depression. Therefore, it does not provide any evidence to corroborate or contrast the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite affecting honeybee health and productivity. [SEP] Text: Skip to main content Explore journals Get published About BMC My account Search all BMC 3285. 1) was lower in the siRNA-Dicer group compared with the infection and siRNA-scramble groups at 3 dpi (Fig. 1). In total, 15 bacterial species/strains were found during the experimental period, including three core bacteria, Snodgrassella alvi, Gilliamella apicola and Frischella perrara. Two co-regulating bacterial groups were negatively correlated with N. ceranae over the entire experimental period. The marker genes of Erwinia rhapontici, Enterobacteriaceae bacterium, Enterobacter sp. JN969314. 1, Citrobacter freundii, Enterobacter aerogenes, Klebsiella pneumonia and Frischella perrara were co-expressed (co-regulation group 1 of 7 bacteria) and significantly negatively correlated with N. ceranae RPB1 (corresponding correlation − 0. 36, P = 0. 03). Additionally, marker genes for Serratia sp. G5_1_1BCO2, Serratia marcescens, Serratia nematodiphila and Snodgrassella alvi were co-expressed (co-regulation group 2 of 4 bacteria), which was also negatively correlated with N. ceranae levels, even though this correlation was not statistically significant (corresponding correlation − 0. 29, P = 0. 08). Bartonella apis, Propionibacterium sp. B4, Lactobacillus apis and Gilliamella apicola did not cluster into any co-regulation group. None of these studied 15 microbes were statistically significantly differentially expressed at each day post-infection (T-test, P > 0. 05). However, the co-regulated groups (P < 0. 0001) and siRNA treatment (P < 0. 0001) showed significant effects on specific microbe counts during the entire experimental period within the generalized linear model. Additionally, 6 bacteria in co-regulation group 1 (E. rhapontici, E. bacterium, E. sp. JN969314. 1, C. freundii, E. aerogenes, K. pneumonia), 3 bacteria in co-regulation group 2 (S. sp. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the correlation of various bacterial species with N. ceranae, but does not mention Nosema ceranae as a microsporidian parasite or its impact on honeybee health and productivity.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: VR is used in medical training to simulate real-life procedures. [SEP] Text: 1 Comparison VR training to practical study groupThe average ratings from the VR study group showed a marginal increase in performance (MVR = 5. 20, Mstudy = 5. 23) and confidence in approach (MVR = 4. 68, Mstudy = 4. 91) between the VR training and the practical training. The students’ ratings showed an apparent decrease in ratings for safety and hygiene (MVR = 4. 72, Mstudy = 4. 26); however, it was difficult to compare these ratings for different types of training because there were limitations over what the participants were physically able to do within the virtual task. For example, the safety and hygiene tasks had to be completed in a specific manner in the VR before the procedure could continue, whereas the practical tasks may have been judged on poor aseptic techniques or omission of the task altogether. These ratings did not meet the threshold for significant difference. The final rating, on trainer support, showed a decreased need for support in the practical after VR training (MVR = 4. 64, Mstudy = 6. 14), with significant difference, p < 0. 001 (Table 15). Again, this rating is difficult to make a direct comparison because the nature of the support needed tended to be different between the two types of training. Anecdotally, although students in both the VR training and practical training might have sought help for the puncture location and drawing of blood, the VR training group was also requesting support to use the controls (for example, two areas of difficulty were getting the pulse task to complete due to insufficient virtual downward pressure and working out how to put on the gloves within the simulation, which were naturally not seen in the practical). Table 15 Did the student require ongoing support from the trainer? Full size tableThe procedure duration, completion rate and error rate cannot be compared for the VR training and practical training. The average procedure duration was longer for the VR training because the students were learning skills to use the VR controls and the criteria for passing a stage was very specific, meaning that a student needed to do the action in a specific location, at angle and for period of time for the task to complete. The procedure would not continue if the task was not completed, so the VR training was far more stringent than the practical training where students could even bypass entire tasks if they decided to. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how VR training is compared to practical training in medical contexts. It highlights the performance ratings, confidence levels, and specific training elements related to VR. It details how students engage in simulations that help them learn procedures, thereby validating the use of VR in medical training as a way to simulate real-life scenarios, even though it notes certain limitations in comparisons.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Excessive social media use has been linked to increased anxiety and depression. [SEP] Text: Despite the availability of valid and reliable screening tools for depression and anxiety, some studies have not employed such tools and have selected instead ad hoc measurement tools, making the results of these studies difficult to interpret (Twenge & Campbell, and Campbell2019). A second challenge when studying depression and social media is determining a measurement approach for social media use. Most commonly, studies focus on quantity of social media use in terms of hours or minutes. Screen time is typically measured using self-reported estimates, which are often inaccurate (Ellis, Reference Ellis2019; Moreno, Jelenchick, et al. , Reference Moreno, Christakis and Egan2012). Other studies have employed passive observation to understand screen time, which involves asking a participant to download an application on their phone to track their social media use (Messner et al. , Reference Messner, Sariyska and Mayer2019). However, these studies tend to capture time on a specific device, and adolescent technology use is known to incorporate multiple devices. It is recommended that future studies focus on other aspects of adolescents’ technology experiences, such as quality or importance placed on use. These measurement approaches are less common, and present new ways to examine media’s relationship to adolescent health. Third, many studies examining social media use, depression, and anxiety do not focus on normative social media use. There is a wealth of studies measuring problematic social media use or social media “addiction,” specifically, as opposed to various qualities of normative use (Duradoni et al. , Reference Duradoni, Innocenti and Guazzini2020; Hussain et al. , Reference Hussain, Wegmann, Yang and Montag2020). While these constructs are relevant to adolescent mental health, positive associations between problematic social media use and mental illness may not apply to normative social media use (Przepiorka & Blachnio, and Blachnio2020). Thus, much of the research on social media use and depression or anxiety among adolescents actually comments on nonnormative use, and the implications for the general population of adolescents cannot be inferred. on the Relationship between Social Media, Depression, and we consider several key hypotheses in the literature on the relationship between social media screen time, depression, and anxiety, we ask you to keep in mind the measurement and study design issues that may influence these study findings. The first hypothesis posits that there is a positive linear relationship between social media, depression, and anxiety. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing challenges in measuring the relationship between social media use and mental health. It indicates that many studies do not use reliable screening tools for measuring depression and anxiety, and it suggests that findings often pertain to problematic or nonnormative social media use, rather than normative use. This implies that the established link between excessive social media use and increased anxiety and depression may not be as straightforward as the claim suggests.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite affecting honeybee health and productivity. [SEP] Text: Microbe indicates each of 15 microbe species. The code is provided in supplementary file S2. Availability of data and materials The raw sequencing reads are deposited in NCBI bio-project PRJNA399493. AbbreviationssiRNA: small interfering 1: RNA polymerase II small subunit WGCNA: 7. -Mead K, Moran NA. Routes of Acquisition of the gut Microbiota of the honey bee Apis mellifera. Microbiol. 2014;80:7378–87. 50. 50. 0003. 80. 104. 7505. 13. 54. 1. M, Martín-Hernández R, Botías C, Bailón EG, González-Porto AV, Barrios L, et al. How natural infection by Nosema ceranae causes honeybee colony collapse. Environ Microbiol. 2008;10:2659–69. 4. 87. 3. J Exp Biol. 2018;221:jeb184606. NA. Genomics of the honey bee microbiome. Insect Sci. 2015;10:22–8. 84. 33. 5. Genome sequencing and comparative genomics of honey bee microsporidia, Nosema apis reveal novel insights into host-parasite interactions. BMC Genomics. 2013;14:451. 89. 41. 4. 85. 141. 98. 14. 4596. 15. X, Gómez-Moracho T, Jara L, Martín-Hernández R, De la Rúa P, Higes M, et al. Population genetics of Nosema apis and Nosema ceranae: one host (Apis mellifera) and two different histories. PLoS One. 2016;e0145609:10. 1861. 90. 5715. 1802. 3816. 4. 51. 406. 2013. p. 52. 357. 40. 559. 0722. The funding body had no role in the design of the study, collection, analysis, data interpretation and writing the manuscript. Author informationAuthors and 1101, Nanchang, 330045, --306, Beltsville, MD, 20705, USAJay D. EvansAuthorsQiang HuangView author publicationsYou can also search for this author in PubMed 4. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim regarding Nosema ceranae and its effects on honeybee health. Instead, it primarily contains references to various studies related to microbiota and observations of honeybee species, with no explicit confirmation or rebuttal about Nosema ceranae as a parasite affecting honeybee health and productivity.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: VR is used in medical training to simulate real-life procedures. [SEP] Text: In terms of error, the VR rate is much lower as the students had less freedom to make errors (constrained by what had been programmed within the simulation). 5. 3. 2 Comparison practical study group to practical control groupWe then compared the two groups (study and control group) based on their practical knowledge on measures of “performing the ABG collection,” “confidence,” “safety and hygiene” and “requiring assistant to perform the task. ” The result revealed that even though from theoretical knowledge point of view (knowledge test) there was no statistically significant difference between the two groups, the practical observations showed significant improvement. The study group demonstrated significantly higher completion rates than the control group (t(41) = 7. 679, p = 0. 008) (Table 16). In terms of performance rating the study group outperformed the control group (32. 4% growth in performance). In regard to safety and hygiene measures (t(41) = 4. 259, p = 0. 045) the study group adhered significantly better than the control group (representing and improvement of 39. 7% in adherence to safety and hygiene measures) (Table 17). On the measures of confidence and requiring ongoing support to perform the task study group performs better than control group, but it did not reach the statistical significance. The study group’s error rate was 40% lower than the control group’s error rate. Table 16 How well did the student reach the goal? Full size tableTable 17 Did the student follow safety and hygiene procedures? Full size tableThe study and control groups were compared on measures of “Enjoyment,” “Engagement,” “Stress,” “Self-efficacy” and “Intrinsic motivation. ” These data were collected four days after VR training and immediately prior to attending the practical session. As part of the participants’ course requirements, both study and control groups were expected to have worked through the pre-reading and attended the theoretical session prior to the practical session. Students were asked if they found pre-reading material and preparation “engaging” (Mstudy = 4. 27 and Mcontrol = 3. 96) and “enjoyable” (Mstudy = 3. 72 and Mcontrol = 3. 96). The difference on these measures did not reach statistical significance level. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the results of a study comparing a VR training group to a control group in the context of medical training. It highlights improvements in practical knowledge and performance, specifically mentioning significant gains in completion rates, adherence to safety and hygiene measures, and a lower error rate in the study group trained using VR. This indicates that VR is effectively utilized in simulating real-life medical procedures.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Excessive social media use has been linked to increased anxiety and depression. [SEP] Text: , Reference Belanger, Akre, Berchtold and Michaud2011; Liu et al. , Reference Liu, Wu and Yao2016; Moreno, Jelenchick, et al. , Reference Moreno, Christakis and Egan2012). From a multicultural perspective on anxiety or depression, adolescents with nonnormative (very high or very low) use may be in other ways alienated from the dominant culture. High social media use might indicate a lack of participation in other areas of life, while very low social media involvement might signify estrangement from what now constitutes a developmentally appropriate activity: social media. Further, youth at the very high and very low ends of social media may be socioeconomically disadvantaged; they may live in low-resource settings, without consistent access to the Internet, or in contexts where social media use is the only activity available. Financial hardship, or disempowerment, is associated with depression and anxiety (Selfhout et al. , Reference Selfhout, Branje, Delsing, ter Bogt and Meeus2009). Further, the U-shaped curve may also result from the stimuli encountered on social media. Frequent social media use puts minority youth at risk of daily, and sometimes hourly, evidence of minority oppression in the form of news media. Similarly, those who choose to stay off of social media may be trying to avoid these stimuli. Importantly, detecting the U-shaped curve requires the use of analytic approaches beyond traditional linear regression. Therefore, it is possible that studies presumed to support a linear positive relationship actually support the U-shaped curve hypothesis. A third hypothesis is that there is no relationship between social media and depression, or social media and anxiety. More specifically, this hypothesis suggests that there is no population-level clinically significant relationship between these illnesses and social media use. Rather, certain subgroups may be at elevated risk for depression and anxiety due to social media use (Radovic et al. , Reference Radovic, Gmelin, Stein and Miller2017) while for others there is no relationship, and for still others social media use actually promotes mental health. At a population level, this variability cannot be detected. From a multicultural perspective, this makes sense; one would never expect to find a “population level” effect of social media on depression or anxiety, in a world where oppression (and consequential mental illness) is not equally distributed. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by presenting various hypotheses about the relationship between social media use and mental health. It suggests that there may not be a clinically significant relationship at the population level between social media use and anxiety or depression. The text notes that 'a third hypothesis is that there is no relationship between social media and depression, or social media and anxiety,' and emphasizes that this variability in effect may not be detected across the whole population, which fundamentally challenges the claim that excessive social media use is definitively linked to increased anxiety and depression.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite affecting honeybee health and productivity. [SEP] Text: RNA midguts were dissected on ice, pooled and immediately homogenized in 400 μL TR(Life Technologies) using first a microtube pestel and then a BioSpec Mini-BeadBeater (3 pulses for 2 min at 30 Hz) after addition of 150 mg of 0. 5 mm glass beads. Following phase separation according to the manufacturer, the aqueous phase was supplemented with 0. 015 volume of β-mercaptoethanol and 1 volume of 70% ethanol and transferred to an RNeasy spin column (RKit, Qiagen). Total RNA was isolated according to the kit instructions. Genomic DNA was removed using the RNA-free DNase set (Qiagen) twice during the RNA extraction. RNA was quantified by spectrophotometry using the ND-1000 (Nanodrop). RNA-of samples were extracted for each experimental group from pools of 3 midguts. RNA quality and concentration were checked using a RNA 6000 on the 2100 Bioanalyzer (Agilent Technologies). Six micrograms of each RNA sample were provided to Montpellier GenomiX (MGX, Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, Montpellier, France) for an additional RNA quality control and for library preparation and sequencing (50 bp single-end reads) on an HiSeq 2000 (Illumina) following the manufacturer’s protocol. Image analyses and base-calling were conducting using the HiSoftware 1. 4. 5. 0 and RTA component 1. 12. 4. 0 (Illumina). Sequences were mapped on the Apis mellifera genome (version Amel_4. 5 downloaded from NCBI), allowing up to two mismatches in alignments, and tags that matched predicted transcripts were counted using 1. 8. 2 (Illumina). package DESeq was used to normalize data and determine which genes were differentially expressed among treatments [44]. Genes were considered to be differentially expressed between two treatments at an adjusted p-value <0. 1. The p-values were adjusted for multiple testing with the Benjamini-Hochberg procedure which controls for false discovery rate. A principal component analysis (PCA) was performed under PAST [45] to evaluate the samples distribution according to their expression profiles. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address or provide any information regarding Nosema ceranae or its effects on honeybee health and productivity. It focuses on RNA extraction and sequencing methodologies without mentioning any parasitic concerns, therefore it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: VR is used in medical training to simulate real-life procedures. [SEP] Text: Low levels of simulation sickness, physical strain and stress, coupled with high levels of enjoyability, engagement, presence and fidelity were identified as factors affecting the overall training experience. Students felt significantly greater levels of intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy after VR training. Students perceived global workload levels to be below 75% of benchmarked workload studies involving medical and video game type tasks. However, students reported they would prefer to have a trainer present (either physically co-located or available within the virtual environment). In terms of learning outcomes, high scores were recorded for active learning, cognitive benefit and reflective thinking. Students performed significantly better in the knowledge test after they had undertaken the VR training. Interestingly, prior experience (undertaken or observed ABG collection) did not have an impact on the student’s knowledge test score. Moreover, the result also revealed that the training improved the skill acquisition of the candidates and VR trained students had improved self-efficacy after VR training which carried over into their practical training. The observer ratings showed that students with VR training significantly decreased their need for support in the practical session. The observers’ ratings showed that students with VR training significantly outperformed the control group (32. 4% improvement) and students with VR training followed safety and hygiene procedures significantly better than the control group (39. 7% improvement). Students in the study group had a significantly higher completion rate than the control group; however, the procedure duration time was not statistically different between the study and control group. Lastly, the VR-HMD training system was validated against 11 key areas and these requirements were grouped into 3 super-categories of: (1) Design Considerations, (2) and (3) Implementation Considerations. The result of validation demonstrated validity against 90% of the requirements (at weakly met or higher level), with 73% strongly or fully met. 7. 1 Design considerationsSome of the design considerations of an ideal VR system are identified below, based on literature and studies conducted previously. Firstly, the simulation needs to use scenarios from real case studies (i. e. , what you wish to train for) (Vaughan et al. 2016), and secondly, the simulation should provide a controlled environment that is low risk and safe for both the trainee and others present (Bielsa 2021; Bernardo 2017). Consideration should also be given to unintended consequences of low-risk training (e. g. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by outlining various positive outcomes from VR training within medical education. It highlights that VR training led to improved knowledge tests, skill acquisition, and self-efficacy among students, all of which are indicators of using VR to simulate real-life medical procedures. Furthermore, it mentions the necessity for scenarios based on real case studies, thus directly linking VR to the practical training of medical procedures.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Excessive social media use has been linked to increased anxiety and depression. [SEP] Text: A white, cisgender child from a middle-class household is likely to see aspects of their own life reflected online; in contrast, those with any number of minority identities may feel “othered” by going online. The “no relationship” hypothesis is supported by several studies that have identified no population-level statistically significant association between social media use and depression or emotional problems (Anjum et al. , Reference Anjum, Hossain, Sikder, Uddin and Rahim2019; Fardouly et al. , Reference Fardouly, Magson, Johnco, Oar and Rapee2018; Ferguson, Reference Ferguson2021; Jelenchick et al. , Reference Jelenchick, Eickhoff and Moreno2013). Given the additional difficulty of publishing statistically insignificant findings, it may be that more studies have detected the “null” relationship than have been published. The fourth and final hypothesis is “it’s complicated,” which mirrors a common relationship status adolescents themselves like to use. The majority of studies focus on screen time as a measure of social media use, and it may be that other aspects of social media use relate more to depression and anxiety than does screen time. This hypothesis finds theoretical support from a cognitive perspective of anxiety and depression. Different online behaviors generate different thoughts, thoughts that may either reinforce or challenge beliefs about the self. Cognitive theory further states that avoidance is a key behavior maintaining illnesses like anxiety and depression. If an adolescent scrolls through social media primarily as a means of avoiding – rather than confronting – dreaded stimuli, social media use would likely contribute to the maintenance of anxiety. In contrast, a youth who uses their Finsta (Fake Instagram) to air the “less acceptable” sides of themselves may learn over time, through this online “validity testing,” that what they thought were unacceptable features are warmly received by peers. Last, children who already have depression or anxiety might assign social media different worth; they may compulsively check social media for evidence in support of their own worth, while a child who affords social media no such power would not feel this attachment toward use. Few studies have been designed to test Hypothesis 4; that is, few assess the specific features or intentions underlying adolescents’ social media use. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by presenting findings that suggest there is 'no population-level statistically significant association between social media use and depression or emotional problems.' It also mentions the 'no relationship' hypothesis which supports the idea that excessive social media use may not necessarily lead to increased anxiety and depression. The discussion around different online behaviors and their varying impacts on adolescents further complicates the relationship and suggests that it is not universally linked as the claim suggests.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite affecting honeybee health and productivity. [SEP] Text: This analysis was performed using the log of normalized data corresponding to the 3001 genes showing an adjusted p-value <0. 1 in at least one pairwise comparison. Quantitative Real-time PCR cDNA synthesis was performed in a 20 μL reaction containing 0. 5 μg of total RNA, 0. 5 μg of oligo(dT)12–18 primers (Life Technologies), 0. 5 mM of each dNTP and 200 U of (Life Technologies). All real-time quantitative PCR analyses were performed in 96-well plates on a Mastercycler ep Realplex2 thermocycler (Eppendorf) monitored by the Realplex software (version 1. 5) using the primers and conditions listed in Table S1. All primer sets, whether they were already published or newly designed, have been validated according to their specificity, linearity, efficiency and amplification reproductibility (Table S1). qPCR reaction mixtures consisted in 5 μL of 1∶16 diluted cDNA, the appropriate concentration of each primer and 10 μL of 2(Thermo Scientific) in a final volume of 20 μL. Negative controls (without cDNA) were included in each reaction set. The PCR program consisted in an initial step at 95°C for 15 min, and 40 cycles of 95°C for 15 s, specific annealing temperature for 30 s and 72°C for 30 s. Fluorescence was measured in each cycle after the elongation step. The specificity of the reaction was checked by analysing the melting curve of the final amplified product. The amplification results were expressed as the threshold cycle number (CT), which represents the number of cycles needed to generate a fluorescent signal greater than a predefined threshold. CT values were normalized by subtracting the CT value of the RpS5a reference gene from the corresponding cDNA sample. For every gene, data were analysed under PAST to determine if they fitted a normal distribution. The variation in gene transcript levels between different groups was evaluated by two-way ANOVA followed by a Student’s t-test. When data did not fit a normal distribution, the non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test was applied. p-values below 0. 05 were considered significant. Response to N. ceranae and/or Fipronil using RNA-Sequencing (Exp. 1) Survival analysis. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it describes the methodology of a study involving quantitative PCR and RNA-Sequencing without mentioning Nosema ceranae or its effects on honeybee health and productivity. It focuses on experimental procedures rather than addressing the specific claim about the microsporidian parasite.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: VR is used in medical training to simulate real-life procedures. [SEP] Text: , trainee’s translation of the training experience may result in perception of real-life risks becoming artificially low, particularly if the simulation was a no-fail scenario). It is important to not reduce risk perception for students, particularly in no-fail simulations by displaying the consequences of their actions/errors such as blood spurt if no gauze or wrist flinch if in wrong place). In terms of skills acquisition, the VR system should also have appropriate levels of procedural realism so that skills learnt undertaking simulated tasks can be translated into real-life skills. For example, many surgical procedures involve fine movements and positioning; the VR control elements positional granularity must be at least equal to that required of the task (Lopes et al. 2017). It was observed that learners interaction and control over virtual training environment is crucial for training. For VR systems, the position of the user and dynamic changes in position are required to be tracked and translated into both the control and corresponding field of view such that the user feels immersed, but also to avoid mismatch between the real and perceived interactions. Kinesthetic manipulation and having control over virtual elements will allow trainees to have a realistic learning experience which is more consistent with real-life training. It is crucial for the VR scenario to be perceived as a credible scenario. Mäkinen et al. (2022) also discussed the use of manipulation of VR content via hand controllers as being beneficial to learning. Meeting this requirement will have impact on the perceived procedural realism. The level of physical fidelity should also be matched to the skill being acquired and is closely linked to the sense of immersion (Pedram et. al. , 2020). The simulations should provide capability to display realistic cause and effects and feedback based on the actions of the user (Barteit et al. 2021). To create this, the hardware needs to support and provide optimal refresh rates, frame rates, display sizes and display resolutions and support interaction. 7. 2 Learning mechanismsIn general for VR to enhance the quality of the training, the platform must match the capabilities of a technology to the demands of a task (Rahman et al. 2020). Capability matching means where the physical environment should match the requirement of the given task. For example, if the procedure takes place in an operating theater, the simulated environment should be similar in terms of physical appearance and soundscape (Bernardo 2017). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the importance of procedural realism in virtual reality (VR) systems used in medical training. It emphasizes that the VR system must possess appropriate levels of procedural realism to ensure that skills learned in simulations can be translated into real-life capabilities. Furthermore, it highlights that immersive experiences are crucial for realistic learning, thus directly supporting the use of VR in medical training to simulate procedures effectively.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Excessive social media use has been linked to increased anxiety and depression. [SEP] Text: As such, it remains to be seen how the specific uses of social media differentially relate to depression and anxiety. A recently developed tool to measure the quality of use, the Adolescents’ Interactions and Importance scale, is a promising means of evaluating the importance that adolescents assign to different affordances of technology, including technology to bridge online/offline experiences and p2019. This included cohort, longitudinal, and ecological momentary assessment studies (Odgers & Jensen, and Jensen2020). They authors concluded that most research has been correlational, focused on adults, and has led to a mix of conflicting results. They also observed that most studies report “small associations … that do not offer a way of distinguishing cause from effect and, as estimated, are unlikely to be of clinical or practical significance” (p. 336). It has become increasingly evident that the current literature may not support Hypothesis 1, but that Hypotheses 2–4 above remain available for more nuanced and high-quality studies to address. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing findings that indicate most existing research is correlational and provides a mix of conflicting results regarding social media use and its relationship with depression and anxiety. It mentions that studies report 'small associations' that are unlikely to have clinical significance, suggesting a lack of strong evidence linking excessive social media use directly to increased anxiety and depression.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite affecting honeybee health and productivity. [SEP] Text: It is noteworthy that the provided fipronil and imidacloprid concentrations in our study lie within the range detected in contaminated pollen and nectar stored inside hives [18], [20], [21], [48], [49]. Different impacts of fipronil and N. ceranae treatments on honeybee survival were observed in this study compared to previous surveys. Parasite infection had a more severe impact on honeybee survival compared to our previous study where the infection of newly emerged honeybees resulted in a mortality of 39% of individuals 22 days post infection (dpi) [39]. This higher impact was particularly evident in Exp. 2, where the mortality reached a maximum of 51% of honeybees at only 12 dpi (Fig. S2). Moreover, we observed a significant impact on honeybee survival in groups exposed to fipronil concentrations of 1. 3 μg/L (Exp. 1) or 2 μg/L (Exp. 2) (Fig. 1 and S2). Therefore the insecticide doses received by honeybees were not sublethal, in contrast to previous studies performed with a comparable chronic exposure to fipronil (1 μg/L) [38], [39]. No synergy between N. ceranae and fipronil treatments has been observed in the present work while they led to a synergistic effect on honeybee mortality in previous studies [38], [39]. The absence of synergy could be linked to the already high impact of individual treatments, that could have prevented further potentialization, and all these effects could be due to life-history traits of the sampled honeybee colonies such as resources, other contaminants and pathogens that might have an impact on the honeybee lifespan. Indeed, a contamination by Varroa destructor virus sequences was detected in RNA-Seq data and two others viruses, the black queen cell virus and the deformed-wing virus, were also detected by RT-PCR in RNA samples extracted from Exp. 2 (data not shown). The presence of viruses in honeybees during experiments might be more common than thought as another study has also reported a RNA sample contamination by viruses [50]. Compared to fipronil, exposure to imidaloprid (2 μg/L) did not lead to a significant increase in individual mortality implying that doses absorbed by honeybees could be considered as sublethal (Fig. S2). The N. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not specifically address the role of Nosema ceranae as a parasite affecting honeybee health and productivity. Instead, it discusses the effects of fipronil and imidacloprid insecticides on honeybee survival, mentions the impact of parasite infection compared to others without detailing how Nosema ceranae specifically affects honeybees. Therefore, the text is irrelevant to the claim as it does not provide direct evidence or information about Nosema ceranae itself.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: VR is used in medical training to simulate real-life procedures. [SEP] Text: VR creates an opportunity to enhance the quality of training by recreating experience and training conditions similar to the physical world (Rahman et al. 2020). The technology must facilitate the training in a way to enhance users’ learning behavior, and when technology is appropriately employed to solve learning tasks, it can improve learning experience through reflective thinking and influence learning outcomes. The other important factor is social presence. Social presence refers to the user perception of the quality of the tool to foster the social aspect of the experience (Pedram et al. 2020). This includes for instance, having the trainer present in the form of a virtual tutor who can assist them through the training task. Trainers by providing feedback can support learners throughout training process. Fairén et al. (2020) reported students generally preferred to receive the feedback, while they are in the training environment. It was also observed that 68% of the students in this study preferred the trainer to be involved in the training process and to provide feedback. One of the greatest affordances of VR is to create the opportunity for repetitive training where trainees’ errors can be identified and refined by feedback from the trainer or system (Bielsa 2021) and this will in turn create an opportunity for reflective thinking and learning. It is reported that consistent feedback during the training can reduce the cognitive load for the learner and will allow learners to focus on the task (Breitkreuz et al. 2021). As it has been reported by Bernardo (2017), ideal learning can occur under the following conditions: “feedback during training, repetitive practice, curriculum integration, range of difficulty level, multiple learning strategies, capturing of clinical variation, a controlled environment, individualized learning, defined outcomes, and validity. ” p. 1026. As it was reported by the lecturer and also previously indicated by Bielsa (2021) mixed-modal training is proven to be essential and superior to the traditional Halsted approach regarding the acquisition of surgical skills. Simulation-based training can help trainees acquire the necessary skills and knowledge in a more effective manner. Virtual environments give trainees the opportunity to visualize 3D relations and gain an experience in mixed reality, something that would never be possible in the real world (Mehrotra and Markus 2021). That said, the simulation should become a component of a structured curriculum in which the trainee can benefit from a sequential and constructive (or incremental? ) learning process (Bernardo 2017). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how VR enhances training quality by recreating experiences and conditions similar to the physical world, which supports the idea that VR is utilized in medical training to simulate real-life procedures. It also emphasizes that simulation-based training is essential for acquiring necessary skills and knowledge effectively, further supporting the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Excessive social media use has been linked to increased anxiety and depression. [SEP] Text: The introvert theory of 'Human Psychology' from 1924 also explains that persons do not want to share everything, every time and with every person [7]. As social media rose in the 2000s and was distributed globally, governments, businesses, high-profile persons, and the most affluent started communication. While social media became a powerful tool for increasing humanitarian support, providing warnings and education, social media also has been linked to increasing cybercrime, diminishing personal privacy, and increasing risks for mental disorders and various types of conflict in society [8, 9]. Accordingly, there has been a simultaneous increase in social media usage and mental disorder frequency over time. Given the simultaneous rise and population size impacted, there has been considerable research regarding social media usage on mental health. Positive and negative impacts of social media have been described. Fundamentally, social media links people, providing a platform for personal bonding, sharing new information and personal entertainment materials, which has enabled improvements in aspects of mental health [10]. Additionally, while general anxiety and depression are linked to loneliness and/or lack of communication, hope and entertainment, these conditions can manifest into severe mental disorder(s) [11]. Recent research carried out during the COVID-19 pandemic confirms that many turned to social media to seek both emotional and practical social support [12], and the use of social media was positively associated with subjective wellbeing [13]. Social media use during COVID-19 improved subjective happiness and self-rated mental health [14, 15] and reduced stress[16] for many individuals. Conversely, there are also social media use-related risk factors that have been identified for developing a mental health disease, specifically, the duration, frequency, and number of social media platforms being used [17]. Adverse effects linked to increased social media usage include college students reporting declines in their academic performance, [18] which could increase the likelihood of downstream mental health effects and/or be indicative of an upstream mental health impact from social media usage. Beyond the use of social media, there are several known risk factors associated with anxiety and depression. Firstly, the prevalence of anxiety depression is higher among older aged persons, [19] influenced by older persons having increased vulnerability to diseases and disability, isolation from family, insufficient wealth to maintain a standard of living, or a combination of these factors, among others. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing both positive and negative effects of social media on mental health. While it acknowledges that there are risk factors associated with excessive social media use, including a linkage to mental disorders, it also mentions instances where social media use was positively associated with subjective wellbeing and reduced stress during the COVID-19 pandemic. The contrasting points indicate that social media can both alleviate and exacerbate mental health issues, thereby complicating the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite affecting honeybee health and productivity. [SEP] Text: In insect midgut, a localized immune response can be implemented by the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which are toxic to pathogens [59], [60]. As ROS can also have cytotoxic effects on host tissues, a balance between the generation and elimination of ROS must be maintained [60]. Antioxidant reactions involve enzymes such as glutathione peroxidases, catalases and glutathione-S-transferases, which are also involved in xenobiotic detoxification and particularly in pesticide metabolism. In our study, the expression of one of the honeybee catalase encoding genes (Gene ID 443552) was significantly reduced in the midgut 11 days following N. ceranae infection (Table 2). In contrast, in N. ceranae-infected honeybees at 7 dpi, Dussaubat et al. , (2012) [10] observed the overexpression of the same catalase encoding gene, as well as other genes encoding a glutathione peroxidase-like 2 and two cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (CYP/P450s). As the honeybee genome carries several homologs of these genes, the impact of N. ceranae infection on antioxidant and detoxification processes appears unclear although there seems to be a reorganization between transcripts. The measure of enzyme activities in N. ceranae-infected midguts suggested that such gene expression rearrangement would lead to a decrease in glutathione peroxidase and an increase in glutathione-S-transferase activities [10], [38]. In our study, neither insecticide nor parasite-insecticide treatments led to significant changes in the expression of genes related to detoxification. On the contrary, a significant overexpression of 9 genes encoding CYP/P450s was detected in honeybee larvae orally exposed to imidacloprid (2 μg/L) for 15 days [61]. In insects, CYP/P450s are involved in the resistance to insecticides [62]–[66]. Modifications of detoxifying activities were also observed in honeybees after an acute and topical exposure to sublethal doses of the neonicotinoid thiamethoxam [67]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses various aspects of antioxidant responses and enzyme expression in honeybees following N. ceranae infection, but it does not directly confirm or refute the claim about the health and productivity effects of Nosema ceranae. Instead, it describes the unclear effects of the infection on detoxification processes and enzyme activities without explicitly linking these responses to the broader impacts on honeybee health or productivity.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: VR is used in medical training to simulate real-life procedures. [SEP] Text: 7. 3 Implementation considerationsIn general, the system must be both fit-for-purpose but provide improvement over or alongside existing training mechanisms if it is to be a suitable candidate for adoption. Although certain skills acquisitions are advantageous in immersive VR, some applications had no advantage over less immersive training solutions (McKnight et al. 2020; Jensen and Konradsen 2018). For successful implementation of a VR-HMD training system the medical trainers or lecturers should be involved in the development of the system providing the knowledge around the medical scenarios, anatomy/physiological landscape, technical skills and techniques in addition to driving the learning outcome requirements and integration into the curriculum. Moreover, any new system being adopted for use in the medical education field must adhere to the relevant regulations; e. g. , medical image privacy, patient data (Masuoka et al. 2019), ethical implications for both users and patients and HIPAA compliance (McKnight et al. 2020). 7. 4 LimitationsA number of limitations of this study: Our evidence-based findings rely on 44 medical students; it will be beneficial to extend this study to include more participants and add diversity to investigate to what extent the findings will differ. In our study, we focused on a single training scenario involving ABG (Gas) collection. We acknowledge that the alignment of the technology with the task requirements, also known as technology-task fitness, is a critical factor in effective learning. Therefore, further investigation using different scenarios on the training platform would be beneficial in order to draw more conclusive findings. The assessment of training transfer quality, which reflects effective learning, was evaluated through multiple methods: (1) trainee self-reported perceptions of learning, (2) pre–post-differences in trainee competency test scores (taken before training and prior to practical training), (3) error reduction rate and (4) performance observation by assessors. While an ideal approach would involve workplace evaluation of skills and competences, measuring training transfer in the actual clinical setting was not feasible in this study. Nonetheless, future research should aim to investigate the transfer of training from VR-based training to real-world medical practice, where feasible, to accurately assess the learning benefits of immersive VR training in the context of medical education. Due to the time constraints, the study was constrained to the outcome of a single VR-based training session; a longitudinal study is required to understand the learning curve for VR clinical skills training. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the implementation of VR in medical training, highlighting that a VR-HMD training system requires development with medical trainers to effectively simulate medical scenarios. It further underscores the necessity of aligning technology with task requirements to facilitate effective learning in medical education, thereby supporting the use of VR for simulating real-life medical procedures.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Excessive social media use has been linked to increased anxiety and depression. [SEP] Text: Interestingly, persons who used social media once a day had a significantly lower prevalence of Anxiety/Depression relative to more than once a day (p < 0. 001) Table 1 Situation of demographic, trust and practice with anxiety and depression Independent Variables//Outcome ~ Depression) P value No (%) Yes (%) Age 15–29 39,188 (33. 6) 8,889 (22. 7) < 0. 001 30–49 44,380 (38. 0) 9,471 (21. 3) 50–64 19,954 (17. 1) 3,705 (15. 4) 65+ 12,673 (10. 9) 1,803 (14. 2) DK/Refused 615 (0. 5) 103 (16. 8) 59,478. (50. 9) 11,312 (19. 0) < 0. 001 Female 57,332 (49. 1) 12,659 (22. 1) or less (8 years or less) 15,361 (13. 1) 3,464 (22. 6) < 0. 001 Secondary (8–15 years) 64,042 (54. 8) 13,846 (21. 6) Tertiary (16 + years) 36,736 (31. 4) 6,469 (17. 6) DK/Refused 671 (0. 6) 192 (28. 6) Poorest 20% 17,371 (15. 0) 4307 (18. 5) < 0. 001 Second 20% 19,359 (16. 7) 4251 (18. 3) Middle 20% 22,141 (19. 1) 4388 (18. 9) Fourth 20% 25,320 (21. 9) 4710 (20. 2) Richest 20% 31,622 (27. 3) 5554 (23. 9) 74,268 (63. 6) 15,213 (20. 5) 0. 675 Unemployed 42,532 (36. 4) 8,756 (20. 6) Trust in 95,198 (81. 5) 19,056 (20. 0) < 0. 001 No 14,833 (12. 7) 3,476 (23. 4) DK/Refused 6,819 (5. 8) 1,439 (21. 1) Trust in traditional healer Yes 49,523 (42. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by suggesting that using social media once a day is associated with a significantly lower prevalence of anxiety and depression compared to using it more than once a day, indicated by a statistical significance (p < 0.001). This suggests a potential negative correlation between excessive social media use and mental health outcomes, which directly rebutts the claim of a link between excessive use and increased anxiety and depression.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite affecting honeybee health and productivity. [SEP] Text: (2013) Comparative study of Nosema ceranae (Microsporidia) isolates from two different geographic origins. 162: 670–678. View 17. (2010) Pesticides and honey bee toxicity – USA. Apidologie 41: 312–331. View 18. (2010) High levels of miticides and agrochemicals in apiaries: implications for honey bee health. 5: e9754. View 19. Chauzat M-P, Carpentier P, Martel A-C, Bougeard S, Cougoule N, et al. (2009) Influence of pesticide residues on honey bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) colony health in France. 38: 514–523. View 20. Chauzat M-P, Faucon J-P, Martel A-C, Lachaize J, Cougoule N, et al. (2006) A survey of pesticides residues in pollen loads collected by honey bees in France. J 99: 253–262. View 21. ’hostis M, et al. (2013) Widespread occurrence of chemical residues in beehive matrices from apiaries located in different landscapes of Western france. 8: e67007. View 22. -M (2007) The sublethal effects of pesticides on beneficial arthropods. Entomol 52: 81–106. View 23. -L (2012) Neural effects of insecticides in the honey bee. Apidologie 43: 348–370. View 24. (2004) Imidacloprid impairs memory and brain metabolism in the honeybee (Apis mellifera L. ). Physiol 78: 83–92. View 25. (2005) Effects of sublethal doses of fipronil on the behavior of the honeybee (Apis mellifera). Behav 82: 30–39. View 26. Bernadou A, Démares F, Couret-(2009) Effect of fipronil on side-specific antennal tactile learning in the honeybee. J 55: 1099–1106. View 27. (2004) A method to quantify and analyze the foraging activity of honey bees: relevance to the sublethal effects induced by systemic insecticides. 47: 387–395. View 28. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim directly regarding Nosema ceranae as it primarily lists citations related to pesticides and other chemicals affecting honeybee health rather than specifically discussing the microsporidian parasite. Therefore, it is considered irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: VR is used in medical training to simulate real-life procedures. [SEP] Text: It would also be advantageous to compare the effect of repeated exposure/training/practice over time with VR-based training and other modes of training. 8 overall aim of the research was to provide a validation of the VR-based training system for medical training. This was performed utilizing a systematic approach by validating the system against the predefined requirements. The study found a user acceptance level of 75%. This enabled the identification of weaknesses of the current system and possible future directions. In this paper, within- and between-subject design approaches were used to firstly assess the validity against requirements, then to determine whether VR training improves the skill acquisition of the candidates and to determine the factors affecting the magnitude of the skill acquisition. Therefore, students were divided into study and control groups and were compared based on their level of skills acquisition. Results revealed that students exposed to VR training (the study group) outperformed the control group in practical clinical skills training tasks and also adhered to better safety and hygiene practices. The study group also had a greater procedural completion rate over the control group. Students showed increased self-efficacy and knowledge scores immediately post-VR training. Prior ABG training did not impact on VR training outcomes. Low levels of simulation sickness, physical strain and stress, coupled with high levels of enjoyability, engagement, presence and fidelity were identified as factors affecting the overall training experience. In terms of learning, high scores were recorded for active learning, cognitive benefit and reflective thinking. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing how VR training has been validated as an effective mode of medical training. It states that students exposed to VR training outperformed those in a control group in practical clinical skills tasks, which supports the idea that VR is effectively used to simulate real-life medical procedures. Additionally, the research highlights improvements in self-efficacy and knowledge scores, further underscoring the claim of VR's utility in medical training.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Excessive social media use has been linked to increased anxiety and depression. [SEP] Text: Our study shows, respondents who trust in Science and were less likely to be GAD reference with those not trust. We could not find relative comparison with previous research. At the peak time of COVID pandemic, a study showed that there was a significant role of belief process in pandemic depression and anxiety [33]. A pathway analysis showed that belief process including emotional belief was associated with anxiety disorder [34]. A traditional healing process is fundamentally the belief system and those respondents are more likely to anxiety disorder than those do not. Likewise, people with GAD were equally consulted with psychiatric doctors and traditional healers [35] and who did spiritual practice and alternative medicine had better self-perceived health than those did not [36]. There are not consistent findings regarding the association between use of social media and mental illness like Anxiety and Depression. Social media has been widely used as an important source of health information, particularly during public health crises. So, a study by Brailovskaia et al. (2022) found that COVID-19-related social media use is positively related to the psychological burden of the pandemic [37]. John A. Naslund et. al 2020 concluded that the role of social media as a potentially viable intervention platform for offering support to persons with mental disorders, promoting engagement and retention in care, and enhancing existing mental health services, however the caution should be warranted [38]. A systematic review by Khalaf 2020, revels that ethical social media use can expand opportunities for connection and conversation, as well as boost self-esteem, promote health, and gain access to critical medical information and mitigate the anxiety and depression in starting phase but excessive use increase the risk of information misleading, confusion and enhance the severity of GAD [39]. Study by et. al concluded that use of social media among teenagers and young people appears to be predictive of depressive symptoms and low offline social support from both family and peers [40]. A study by Michelle O’Reilly − 2020 concluded that social media used by adolescent increase the mood and anxiety disorders, as a platform for cyberbullying and the use of social media itself was often framed as a kind of ‘addiction’[41] which finding is perfectly matching with our findings. ConclusionThis study explored the different factors associated with Depression globally. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by acknowledging that while some studies have found social media use to be linked with mental health issues, it also mentions research indicating that ethical social media use can have positive effects such as boosting self-esteem and promoting health. Additionally, the text specifically states that there are 'not consistent findings regarding the association between use of social media and mental illness like Anxiety and Depression,' which undermines the clarity of the claim that excessive use is directly linked to increased anxiety and depression.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite affecting honeybee health and productivity. [SEP] Text: Lemaitre B, (2007) The host defense of Drosophila melanogaster. Immunol 25: 697–743. View 41. (2003) Proventriculus (cardia) plays a crucial role in immunity in tsetse fly (Diptera: Glossinidiae). 33: 1155–1164. View 42. Pauchet Y, Freitak D, Heidel-(2009) Immunity or digestion: glucanase activity in a glucan-binding protein family from Lepidoptera. J 284: 2214–2224. View 43. Martín-Hernández -Bailón E, et al. (2007) Outcome of colonization of Apis mellifera by Nosema ceranae. Microbiol 73: 6331–6338. View 44. Anders S, (2010) Differential expression analysis for sequence count data. 11: R106. View 45. Hammer Ø, (2001) PAST: Paleontological statistics software package for education and data analysis. 4: 1–9. View 46. Kievits J, (2007) Neurotoxiques systémiques, un risque pour les abeilles? 118: 12–17. View 47. Min- (2010) Cysteamine, the natural metabolite of pantetheinase, shows specific activity against Plasmodium. 125: 315–324. View 48. Bernal J, Garrido-Bailón ález-Porto AV, Martín-Hernández R, et al. (2010) Overview of pesticide residues in stored pollen and their potential effect on bee colony (Apis mellifera) losses in Spain. J 103: 1964–1971. View 49. Pareja L, Colazzo M, Pérez-Parada A, Niell S, Carrasco-Letelier L, et al. (2011) Detection of pesticides in active and depopulated beehives in Uruguay. 8: 3844–3858. View 50. -P, Crauser D, et al. (2013) Ecto- and endoparasite induce similar chemical and brain neurogenomic responses in the honey bee (Apis mellifera). BMC Ecol 13: 25. View 51. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim regarding Nosema ceranae or its impact on honeybee health and productivity. Instead, it lists various scientific articles and authors, some of which might touch on related topics but do not provide substantial evidence or discussion about Nosema ceranae itself.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: VR field trips allow students to explore locations without leaving the classroom. [SEP] Text: 10. 5194/gh-76-369-2021 © Author(s) 2021. This work is distributed under the Attribution 4. 0 License. Special issue: Special edition Social Geography: “Geographies of the future”. . . © Author(s) 2021. This work is distributed under the Attribution 4. 0 License. 10. 5194/gh-76-369-2021, 2021. Received: 23 Apr 2020 – Revised: 16 Feb 2021 – Accepted: 08 Jun 2021 – Published: 12 Aug 2021 1 recent years, virtual reality (VR) as a new technology has become easily accessible to everyone. It is already used in multiple contexts, for instance in gaming, job training, and increasingly also education. To experience VR, users put on VR glasses and immerse themselves in an alternate reality like a flight through the universe or a walk over an active volcano. It appears as if they are present in a different world and they react similarly to in everyday life – with fear, joy, astonishment, etc. (Slater and Sanchez-Vives, 2016). This is the effect of an atmospheric feeling: users perceive VR as situations and react affectively and emotionally. This effect is powerful. Users hardly question VR environments. The experienced situations trigger learning effects and possibly change behaviour. For geographic education this must be reflected on critically. If people acquire space and content holistically at first, they need a mindset to understand how their body and emotions are part of understanding the virtual world. This is similar to a critical reflection on visual and image-related communication of space (Schlottmann and Miggelbrink, 2015b) but with the difference of a sense-based (more-than-visual but body-related) view VR acquires. But the principle is the same: VR should be treated like images as a practice of acquiring, mediating, and producing space (Schlottmann and Miggelbrink, 2015a:24 f. ). In this paper we discuss how virtual reality can be conceptually integrated into geographical education. Therefore, we suggest using a mindful teaching concept. According to Manemann (2014:77), we refer to, on the one hand, strengthening self-efficacy and, on the other hand, generating attention for things that one does not usually consider. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the use of virtual reality (VR) in educational contexts. It highlights how users can immerse themselves in alternate realities, such as exploring the universe or experiencing an active volcano, which aligns with the notion of VR field trips allowing students to explore locations without physically being there. The description indicates that VR can trigger learning effects and emotional responses, further supporting the idea that it can be an effective educational tool for exploration.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Taking breaks from social media can have positive effects on mental health. [SEP] Text: He brings an accessible sociological approach to develop a broad and human(e) understanding of the formal and informal “social support that arises out of the network of friends, family and acquaintances such as neighbours and work colleagues, surrounding an individual”. The book provides a comprehensive analysis of the interactions between mental health problems and social relationships. It articulates the cyclical effect of self-stigmatisation combined with the cognitive and emotional effects of mental health problems on the individuals’ behaviour in relation to others who are also influenced by their pre-conceptions of mental illness and their experiences of relationships with others who have mental health problems. These dynamics can both impair the reciprocal nature of relationships and it can erode the pattern of friendships so that they are displaced or neglected and all too quickly fade away. Leach draws on the personal accounts of people with mental health problems to illustrate the meaning, nature and value of friendships, the need for altruism at times and the two way benefits of relationships even when one party is at their most distressed and might appear to give no return. (initially baulked at the notion of “one way” friendships, I can see that there may be times when it feels this way – to both people involved. ) He demonstrates the importance of social support in every domain of our lives – family, work, education and in communities and goes on to define ways in which social support can be offered and accepted in these domains. This is a helpful, informative and timely book. However, there are some aspects of social support that are glossed over. acknowledges the shortcomings of relationships that are over prescriptive or offer unwelcome or inaccurate advice, I wonder whether evidence of unhelpful social support, damaging relationships and the value of isolation needs to be included. I also feel that the barriers facing professionals in promoting, facilitating and supporting social relationships need to be explored and debated further. Hitherto, professionals have been wary of connecting people with shared interests, common goals and ambitions in case they bring additional burden and stress for each other (implicitly by virtue of having mental health problems). Fear of breaching confidentiality lies at the core of this. If we introduce two people who appear to have similar wishes and could potentially benefit from company in, for example joining a club, going to the cinema or doing an activity together then where do we stand if the relationships turns out to be exploitative or damaging? [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the complexities of social support and relationships, noting that the erosion of social connections can impair mental health. The reference to isolation as potentially valuable implies that social interactions, such as those on social media, can sometimes be detrimental rather than beneficial. The text raises concerns about the negative aspects of relationships and suggests that unhelpful social support can lead to damaging relationships, which goes against the claim that taking breaks from social media is inherently positive for mental health.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite affecting honeybee health and productivity. [SEP] Text: (2005) Proteases. Insect Science. Amsterdam: Elsevier, Vol. 4: 247–265. View 52. -L, (1999) Antimicrobial peptides in insects: structure and function. Immunol 23: 329–344. View 53. Lovallo N, Cox-Foster DL (1999) Alteration in FAD–glucose dehydrogenase activity and hemocyte behavior contribute to initial disruption of Manduca sexta immune response to Cotesia congregata parasitoids. J 45: 1037–1048. View 54. Sun W, Shen Y-H, Yang W-J, Cao Y-F, Xiang Z-H, et al. (2012) Expansion of the silkworm GMC oxidoreductase genes is associated with immunity. 42: 935–945. View 55. Garrido PM, Antúnez K, Martín (2013) Immune-related gene expression in nurse honey bees (Apis mellifera) exposed to synthetic acaricides. J 59: 113–119. View 56. (2012) Gene expression in honey bee (Apis mellifera) larvae exposed to pesticides and Varroa mites (Varroa destructor). J 58: 1042–1049. View 57. (2012) Direct effect of acaricides on pathogen loads and gene expression levels in honey bees Apis mellifera. J 58: 613–620. View 58. Terra WR (2001) The origin and functions of the insect peritrophic membrane and peritrophic gel. 47: 47–61. View 59. (2009) Recognition and response to microbial infection in Drosophila. Insect infection and immunity. New York: Press. p. 272. 60. Nathan C, Cunningham-(2013) Beyond oxidative stress: an immunologist’s guide to reactive oxygen species. Immunol 13: 349–361. View 61. (2013) Transient exposure to low levels of insecticide affects metabolic networks of honeybee larvae. 8: e68191. View 62. (2011) CYP9Q-mediated detoxification of acaricides in the honey bee (Apis mellifera). 108: 12657–12662. View 63. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not provide any information regarding Nosema ceranae or its impact on honeybee health and productivity. It primarily references various studies on insect immune responses and impacts of pesticides, which are unrelated to the claim about Nosema ceranae.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: VR field trips allow students to explore locations without leaving the classroom. [SEP] Text: Via a head-mounted display (HMD) or phone-based cardboard headset (housing with two lenses in which a smartphone can be placed; see Fig. 1) users can experience a virtual 360∘ environment. The head movement is registered via head tracking. Thus, it is possible to see something different in every possible viewing direction. Therefore, the visual representation creates an “illusion of surrounding” (Slater, 2009:3550). Users are brought “into the picture” (see Slater and Wilbur, 1997; Slater, 2009). Within this picture users are able to perform “a walkthrough”, i. e. they can apparently cover distances and change directions and perspectives (Chen, 1995:29). By this, the impression of an experienceable space is further strengthened because places can be changed. Figure 2 shows an image sequence in a computer-generated VR (the social VR AltspaceVR): the user moves as an avatar towards a group of other avatars to meet and talk. Figure 3 shows yet another form of presentation. In image-based VR systems, photo-quality panoramic views are used. For this purpose, 360∘ or VR cameras are applied to convert natural scenes into digital data. Moving is then achieved by stitching together panoramic images taken from different positions. Figure 1Pupil uses a VR cardboard with an inserted smartphone (photo by Chris Dormann). 2. 2 The feeling of presence This immersive technology immensely increases the possibility of users having an alternate reality experience (Slater and Sanchez-Vives, 2016:2). The reality addressed here refers to the experienced and perceived everyday reality of an individual human being. In VR, users can enter other worlds where they can move and act. It seems as if, in addition to the perceived reality of everyday life, a further, equally plausible reality is available to them. The experience is therefore different in VR than in the usual “view of a surface” (when the virtual world is presented on a screen). Slater (2009:3549) points out that VR is “a medium in which people respond with their whole bodies”. They feel atmospheres and show attention and emotional involvement. and Sanchez-Vives (2016:2) describe it, “VR best operates in the space that is just below what might be called the `reality horizon. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by describing the capabilities of virtual reality (VR) to immerse users in a realistic 360° environment where they can engage in experiences that resemble being in another location. It explains how users can move and act within this virtual space, reinforcing the idea that VR can provide students with an exploratory experience that mirrors real-world locations, thus allowing exploration without the need to physically leave the classroom.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Taking breaks from social media can have positive effects on mental health. [SEP] Text: Even where researchers documented a decrease in mental health emergency department visits and crisis calls throughout the first wave of the pandemic, they acknowledge that data may present differently if collected over a longer period as an accumulation of stress, loneliness, isolation, and other factors may have taken longer to develop (Dainton et al. , 2021). With respect to Canadian data, Statistics Canada’s Survey on COVID-19 and (SCMH) showed that the proportion of Canadian adults screening positive for major depressive disorder (MDD) increased from 15% in fall 2020 to 19% in spring 2022 (Statistics Canada, 2021). The proportion of Canadian adults screening positive for general anxiety disorder (GAD) also increased from 13% in fall 2020 to 15% in spring 2022 (Statistics Canada, 2021); younger Canadians aged 18 to 24 were vulnerable to adverse mental health outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic as a higher proportion reported experiencing feelings of loneliness. Mental illness has been, and continues to be, prevalent in adolescents, which represent a significant proportion of university students. According to the of (2023), those in the 18- to 25-year age group reported the highest prevalence of any mental illness compared to adults in the 26- to 49- year age group and the 50 and older age group. Approximately one in five adolescents suffer from a diagnosable mental disorder demonstrating a heightened risk for young adults (Nesi, 2020). In addition, the incidence rates of depression and suicide have increased significantly within the past decade (Nesi, 2020). Data on suicide in the reveal a 56% increase in suicide rate among individuals aged 10 to 24 from 2007 to 2017 (Curtin & Heron, 2019). The consequences of the pandemic present new mechanisms by which the mental health of university students is impacted. Visser and Law-van Wyk (2021) reported that university students in experienced challenges related to mental and emotional health during the pandemic as a third of the respondents had difficulty coping with psychological challenges presented in the lockdown. Furthermore, emotional difficulties during the lockdown especially impacted students early in their university education compared to more experienced students (Visser & Law-van Wyk, 2021). A study conducted in Georgia found reported serious mental health impacts from the pandemic as 79% of respondents reported experiencing anxiety and 46. 7% reported experiencing depression (Nadareishvili et al. , 2022). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses various mental health issues during the COVID-19 pandemic, including increases in major depressive disorder and anxiety, particularly among younger Canadians. However, it does not address the specific claim about the effects of taking breaks from social media on mental health. Instead, it focuses on general trends in mental health challenges and does not provide information supporting or contrasting the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite affecting honeybee health and productivity. [SEP] Text: Chandor-Proust A, Bibby J, Régent-Kloeckner M, Roux J, Guittard-Crilat E, et al. (2013) The central role of mosquito cytochrome P450 CYP6Zs in insecticide detoxification revealed by functional expression and structural modelling. 455: 75–85. View 64. (2013) Biochemical mechanisms of imidacloprid resistance in Nilaparvata lugens: over-expression of cytochrome P450 CYP6AY1. 43: 1021–1027. View 65. Scott JG (1999) Cytochromes P450 and insecticide resistance. 29: 757–777. View 66. David J-P, Ismail HM, Chandor-(2013) Role of cytochrome P450s in insecticide resistance: impact on the control of mosquito-borne diseases and use of insecticides on Earth. 368: 20120429. View 67. Badiou-Bénéteau -L, Carvalho GA, Buleté A, et al. (2012) Development of biomarkers of exposure to xenobiotics in the honey bee Apis mellifera: application to the systemic insecticide thiamethoxam. Saf 82: 22–31. View 68. Becker A, Schlöder (1996) The regulation of trehalose metabolism in insects. Experientia 52: 433–439. View 69. (2010) Different functions of the insect soluble and membrane-bound trehalase genes in chitin biosynthesis revealed by RNA interference. 5: e10133. View 70. Barraza A, Sánchez F (2013) Trehalases: A neglected carbon metabolism regulator? Behav 8. 71. Pick L, (2012) Hox gene evolution: multiple mechanisms contributing to evolutionary novelties. Y 1256: 15–32. View 72. (2007) Interleukin-10 expression in macrophages during phagocytosis of apoptotic cells is mediated by homeodomain proteins Pbx1 and Prep-1. Immunity 27: 952–964. View 73. (2008) Role for beta-catenin and HOX transcription factors in Caenorhabditis elegans and mammalian host epithelial-pathogen interactions. 105: 17469–17474. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim about Nosema ceranae as it primarily discusses various biochemical mechanisms and insecticide resistance without mentioning Nosema ceranae or its impact on honeybee health.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: VR field trips allow students to explore locations without leaving the classroom. [SEP] Text: (2018), for example, placed men who were violent towards women in female avatars and exposed them to situations of verbal and physical violence by men. The study showed a significant increase in the empathic ability of the men after the experiment. Another study placed people with racist attitudes in avatars with a different skin colour. In this case a reduction in racist attitudes could still be demonstrated after a longer period of time after the experiment (Banakou et al. , 2016). If people think that events in VR are happening (plausibility illusion), they even show authentic behaviour in VR (Slater, 2009:3553). Sanchez-Vives and Slater (2005:334) refer to several behavioural or physiological reactions to presence in VR, such as swaying or an increasing heart rate. (2018) explains in this context the following: “There is no medium that magically produces empathy. ” But in “VR, content that moves the body will also move the mind. ” Equally, such studies demonstrate the potential power and danger of this medium. Due to their proximity to human perception, media such as VR create a simulated world that is difficult to question (like such media of perception in general; see Spangeberg, 1996:268). First, users immerse themselves in the scene. It is not until later that they realize the artificiality of the situation. This has far-reaching consequences. As Schöne et al. (2019) showed, actions in VR can be processed like real memories: participants experiencing a motorcycle ride in a 360∘ VR environment performed significantly better in memory tasks than participants watching a 2D video of the ride. The authors argue that immersive experiences can be included in an extensive autobiographical memory network. Basically, there is a growing interest in using VR in wider educational areas, e. g. to illustrate problems or to foster the ability to cope with unknown situations (Bailenson et al. , 2008:108). There are already various educational offers – commercial or non-commercial – that work with VR technology, even for schools (e. g. Google expeditions). Therefore, it is necessary to reflect on the use of VR in educational contexts, with reference to specific educational requirements. Especially as events in VR are perceived (and remembered) as real, it must be ensured that VR experiences are neither overwhelming nor manipulative. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the growing interest in using VR in educational contexts, which can illustrate problems and foster the ability to cope with unknown situations. Additionally, it mentions existing educational offers that utilize VR technology for schools, such as Google Expeditions, indicating that VR can indeed facilitate exploration and learning without the physical need to travel.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Taking breaks from social media can have positive effects on mental health. [SEP] Text: With respect to university students, social media use has increased substantially as the use of the internet for education has become essential (Haddad et al. , 2021). Elementary and high school students who experience cyberbullying, a common and concerning aspect of online behavior and social media, are more likely to have suicidal ideation, plans, and attempts compared to those who do not experience cyberbullying (Sampasa-Kanyinga et al. , 2014). Tsitsika et al. (2014) found that heavier social media use was associated with diminished academic performance. Sleep disruption and deprivation are linked with excessive social media use and negative mental health outcomes (Abi-Jaoude et al. , 2020; Alonzo et al. , 2021; Schimmele et al. , 2021) including anxiety, depression, and psychological distress, and was especially prominent in those aged 16 to 25 (Alonzo et al. , 2021). Another potential negative outcome associated with social media use is an increased sense of loneliness which has been demonstrated through multiple studies (Barry et al. , 2017; Hunt et al. , 2018; Thomas et al. , 2020). Hunt et al. (2018) found that a significant decrease in loneliness and depression was observed in undergraduate students that limited their social media use to 30 min per day compared to the control group who did not. Studies completed in found that online social comparison can lead to the development of depressive symptoms through various mechanisms (Boers et al. , 2019; Feinstein et al. , 2013; Nesi et al. , 2017). Despite the negative associations described in the literature, social media’s role in the development of negative mental health outcomes remains a subject of debate and contention. The literature conveys mixed results with respect to mental health outcomes. A recent study of 467 undergraduate students in the found that mental health problems including social anxiety, suicidal thoughts, loneliness, and others, could not be predicted by social media use (Berryman et al. , 2018). Furthermore, Nesi (2020) posits that social media conjures an environment capable of providing benefits to the user including entertainment, creative expression, and social connection. Social media also offers a unique environment for mental health awareness, promotion, and treatment (Nesi, 2020; O’Reilly et al. , 2019). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting various negative mental health outcomes associated with social media use, such as suicidal ideation (Sampasa-Kanyinga et al., 2014), anxiety, depression, and loneliness (Abi-Jaoude et al., 2020; Alonzo et al., 2021). While it mentions that limiting social media use can lead to a decrease in loneliness and depression (Hunt et al., 2018), the overall focus on the detrimental effects of social media use suggests taking breaks is necessary, yet it does not directly support the claim that breaks specifically have positive effects.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite affecting honeybee health and productivity. [SEP] Text: 39, df between groups = 2, df within groups = 11, P = 0. 69, Older bees- ANOVA; F = 0. 15, df between groups = 1, df within groups = 8, P = 0. 71). Dead bees were not included in the data set. Each young bee that survived for 14 days was euthanized in a −80°C freezer, before dissecting its midgut to determine if it was positive or negative for N. ceranae spores. Bees not dissected immediately were stored in a −20°C freezer. In both the 2-and 1-Screen Test, older bees were installed in the adjacent cage from day 1 to 4 at an approximate 2∶1 ratio (older bees: young bees; mortality altered the final ratios, as shown in Table 1). The older bees were fed ad libitum with a 50% sucrose solution (w/w) feeder. Only older bees that survived the full 4 days were included in the data set. Midgut dissection occurred post −80°C euthanasia. After the older bees were removed, the cage that held them was left attached to the cage holding the young bees, to minimize handling time and control for airborne exposure between the two cages. Download: PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageTable 1. Summary of results from the cage trials. the 1-treatment, the food was removed from the young bees from day 2–4 (three days total). This forced them to receive food from the older bees. The young bees were observed to receive food via trophallaxis from the older bees, and in both the 1-Screen and 2-Screen treatments, both the older bees and the young bees were often found congregating on the screen. Mortality in the young bees while they did not have access to food was no different than during the rest of the treatment period (data not shown). bees (Apis mellifera L. ) were taken from four colonies in the Wageningen research apiary. In the 2-and 1-treatments, the older infected bees and the young bees in adjacent cages came from the same colony. Young bees. Recently emerged bees (easily recognized by their ‘fuzzy’ and ‘wet’ appearance) were taken directly from combs using a plastic tube aspirator. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not provide any direct evidence or information regarding Nosema ceranae or its effect on honeybee health and productivity. Instead, it focuses on an experiment involving older and younger bees, their feeding, and the conditions under which the study was conducted. Thus, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: VR field trips allow students to explore locations without leaving the classroom. [SEP] Text: 2 At the same time, this means that digitality has to be dealt with conceptually. (2018:15) points out, whoever controls the infrastructure by determining the parameters controls what can happen. Universities should have an influence on which content-related and didactic priorities are set in the use of digital media in general and VR in particular. 3 Acquirement and mediation In summary of the previous section, VR can be conceptualized as an augmented image: a designed virtual world in which things are seen, emotions felt, atmospheres perceived, and situations experienced. In the following, we will focus on VR in the context of geographical education. As we will discuss in more detail in Sect. 4, students developed VR field trips (VREXs) based on their own research results on current urban development processes. 3 The VR field trips are designed as 360∘ walk-throughs. For this, 360∘ recordings were made at various locations in the city. The challenge in this context was suitable places in the cities of Vienna and Berlin that “work” in VR. For this, the students had to combine felt urban atmospheres and observed urban practices – related to their research fields. In order to construct VR field trips a particular practice of sense-based acquirement and a particular (visual) practice of mediation is needed (Schlottmann and Miggelbrink, 2015a). 3. 1 Sense-based and content-based acquirement VR refers to the reality of a perceived world and works on “our physical sense of being in spaces” (Machin, 2014:8). According to Dodge et al. (2008:4), spatial perception is the most powerful information-processing ability of humans. VR is a surrounding space that can be perceived atmospherically, and it creates spatial knowledge in a powerful way. Surely the experience is highly influenced by the design of the VR. But according to atmospheric research, every situation (physical or virtual) could only hold the potential for atmospheric feelings (Kazig, 2007:179). It is a challenge to identify the underlying mechanism. Kerz (2017:358 ff. ) identifies different phases of immersion in places that enable both atmospheric perception and authentic experience. Various factors such as a good balance between familiarity and strangeness as well as personal expectations of the place and intrinsic motivations can have an influence here. Kazig (2007:179 ff. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how VR field trips, referred to as VREXs, enable students to engage with urban environments through 360-degree recordings, essentially allowing them to explore these locations while remaining in the classroom. It illustrates that students develop their VR field trips based on research and experience urban atmospheres in a virtual format, which aligns directly with the idea of exploring locations without physical travel.