Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: Что надо указать: Что вы делали, перед тем как проблема возникла: Выполнил(а) вход в личный кабинет; Какой вы ожидали результат: Должен был открыться личный кабинет; Какой результат вы получили: Возникла такая-то ошибка, вылезло окошко с текстом и пр. В подписи укажите ФИО, название организации, город, контактный номер телефона для связи. Сопроводите обращение уточняющей информацией: Когда проблема возникла (Дата/Время). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim regarding sea turtle navigation. It discusses an issue related to logging into a personal account and troubleshooting, which does not pertain to the navigation abilities of sea turtles.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Extreme weather events, like hurricanes and heatwaves, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. [SEP] Text: September 01 2023 Connecting extreme weather events to climate change Advances in attribution science are improving understanding of human influence on our planet. Search for other works by this author on: PubMed 10. 1063/PT. 3. 5309 Open the PDF for in another window and Connecting extreme weather events to climate change. 1 September 2023; 76 (9): 40–46. Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) toolbar search Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search his house in Oxford, UK, was flooded by an exceptionally rainy storm in January 2003, proposed that the anthropogenic influence on severe weather events could be quantified. 1 Before that, most climate scientists avoided discussing how human activity affected individual extreme weather events. Rather, they would deflect, saying, for example, “While no individual event can be tied to climate change, whatever happened is consistent with expectations. ” That statement is no longer true. Using extreme-event attribution techniques, it is now possible to make quantitative statements about the human influence on many classes of individual weather and climate events. View largeDownload slide. COM/E4CView largeDownload slide. COM/E4C Close modal In 2003, shortly after Allen’s proposal, central Europe experienced a disastrous heat wave that caused more than 70 000 excess deaths. At the time, using a high-quality record of European temperatures and a single climate model, Allen and colleagues estimated that climate change at least doubled the chances of the measured high daytime temperatures. 2 Since then, the field of extreme-weather-event attribution has expanded to include not just heat waves but also floods, droughts, heavy precipitation, and certain extreme storms, such as hurricanes (reference 3, 2017. (Courtesy of US Guard/Staff Sgt. Daniel J. Martinez. )View largeDownload slidePort Arthur, Texas, was devastated by the overwhelming amount of precipitation from in 2017. (Courtesy of US Guard/Staff Sgt. Daniel J. Martinez. ) Close modal A second technique, known as Granger causality, after the econometrician Clive Granger, can be useful when direct interference in the experiment is undesirable or impossible. In epidemiology, for instance, a study of heart disease in a selected population might consider obesity, smoking habits, family history, and other relevant causal factors. A statistical model that involves those factors as variables can provide information on their possible influence. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by explaining advances in attribution science which connect human influence, including climate change, to extreme weather events. It states that it is now possible to quantify the human influence on weather events like heatwaves and hurricanes. The mention of the heatwave in central Europe and its attribution to climate change strengthens the argument that extreme weather is indeed becoming more severe due to human actions.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: These forests provide extensive shelter from predation, desiccation and wave action, as well as food, for hundreds of species with representatives from most taxonomic groups [105]. Calcified red algae provide similar protective structures, that are especially important for invertebrate species (e. g. urchins and anemones) [106]. Direct effects As with phytoplankton, many macroalgal species use carbon concentrating mechanisms (CCMs) to help transport and accumulate the CO2 required for carbon assimilation [107]. Those relatively rare species without CCMs (most of which are red algae) rely on passive diffusion of CO2 [108, 109] and so may experience enhanced photosynthesis and growth under OA, whereas those that have CCMs are likely to show no, or only small, positive effects due to reduced energy expenditure [107, 110]. Responses to elevated PCO2 (Table 1) may be more significant at depths where light levels are reduced because energy constrains photosynthesis and CCMs are energetically expensive, though these effects are likely to be species-specific [110]. In addition, UVB (Ultraviolet B, 280–315 nm) exposure near the water surface tends to be harmful to some macroalgae, reducing the positive response to elevated PCO2 [111]. The ultimate effects of OA on photosynthesis and growth of macroalgae will likely depend on interactions with light exposure, UV radiation, and other stressors. There has been less research concerning reproduction and life stages; however, it has been suggested that OA will result in reduced gametophyte growth of giant kelp [112]. For calcifying macroalgae, elevated PCO2 affects the ability to build and maintain the calcified component of their tissues [108]. For example, Hofmann et al. [113] observed reduced calcification and growth for a cosmopolitan species of red algae when exposed to elevated PCO2 over a 4-week period (S2 Table). Calcifying red algae are particularly sensitive to OA because unlike most calcifying green algae and invertebrates, red algae deposit a high-magnesium form of calcite into their cell walls, that is more soluble in acidified water than other forms of calcite [28]. However, Kroeker et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by addressing the complexities of ocean acidification (OA) effects on marine ecosystems, particularly highlighting that certain species of macroalgae may exhibit enhanced photosynthesis and growth under OA conditions. It mentions that the reactions of marine organisms, such as macroalgae, to elevated CO2 levels can vary significantly based on multiple factors including species-specific traits and interactions with other environmental stressors. Consequently, while OA poses challenges, it doesn't unequivocally indicate a total destruction of all marine ecosystems by 2050.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: Как часто появляется; Приложите скриншот (снимок экрана) с ошибкой, если это возможно. Объем отправляемого сообщения, включая все приложения к нему, не должен превышать 15 Мб. В противном случае ваши письма будут отсечены системой; Укажите адрес домена, на котором вы работаете. Как не надо писать обращения, такие обращения рассматриваются в последнюю очередь: «Ничего не работает! Срочно почините! »; «У меня тут программа раньше работала, а потом перестала. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it does not relate to sea turtles or their navigation methods. Instead, it discusses technical issues related to messages and complaints, lacking any information about sea turtles or the Earth's magnetic field.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Extreme weather events, like hurricanes and heatwaves, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. [SEP] Text: For climate, scientists have developed extreme-value statistical models using greenhouse gas concentrations, air pollution, urbanization, El Niño, and other natural modes of variability as covariates to isolate their relative influence on extreme weather. and Granger causal-inference techniques have their strengths and limitations. Granger causal inference may lead to the post hoc, ergo propter hoc fallacy—that correlation does not necessarily imply causality. Additionally, the influence of unspecified covariates must be considered. causal inference relies on models, one must first ascertain whether the model is fit for the purpose at hand. Many extreme weather events are poorly simulated when available public climate model data sets are used, and thus those data sets are unsuitable for attribution studies. Confidence in attribution statements is increased when both Granger and Pearl causal-inference techniques can be invoked and produce similar results. Confidence is further increased when multiple independent research groups use different models, observations, and methods and arrive at similar conclusions. One motivation for performing extreme-event attribution studies is to satisfy the public’s curiosity about how climate change affects them. But an equally important motivation is gaining insight into the physical mechanisms behind the changes in extreme weather events. Borrowing concepts from epidemiology, scientists hope to untangle and quantify the different causal factors. The ongoing work focuses on answering two questions: “Did climate change affect the magnitude of an event of a given estimated rarity? ” and “Did climate change cause the chances of an event of an observed high magnitude to change? ” Extreme heat Those two questions are two sides of the same coin, as illustrated by the abnormally hot temperatures in Texas during the summer of 2011. Figure 1a shows observed Texas summer temperature departures (purple) from the average of the 1961–90 temperatures. Two simulations are shown, one with realistic human changes to the atmospheric composition (orange)—mainly well-mixed greenhouse gas increases, stratospheric ozone decreases, and aerosol pollution—and the other counterfactual (green), in which temperatures are cooler because it doesn’t include the effect of human changes. Both the observations and the predicted data in the realistic model trend upward. The absence of such a trend in the counterfactual simulation reveals that there is an attributable human influence on Texas summer temperatures. Increasingly hot summers are expected. Yet the 2011 temperature, shown by the black dot, was about 2. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how extreme-value statistical models have been developed to assess the influence of greenhouse gas concentrations and other factors on extreme weather events. It specifically mentions the increase in the magnitude of events, like the higher temperatures observed in Texas due to human-induced changes. This indicates a relationship between climate change and the observed increase in extreme weather events, aligning with the claim that such events are becoming more frequent and severe.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: [36] found no consistent change in calcification at elevated PCO2 levels for a suite of calcifying macroalgae, perhaps because many species are able to generate microenvironments suitable for calcification despite increases in ambient PCO2 [114–117]. Indeed, the observed reductions in growth with elevated PCO2 (e. g. [113]) may result from the increased dissolution of carbonate skeletons rather than reduced production [117]. These effects are likely to interact with other stressors, such as UV radiation and temperature [118]. For example, Gao and Zheng [119] suggest that the carbonate skeleton of the same red algal species serves as a protective layer against UV; thus, CO2 induced shell dissolution may increase vulnerability to detrimental effects of UV radiation [119]. Indirect effects Changes in macroalgal community composition are anticipated given the diversity of responses to OA among species. In general, non-calcifying macroalgae (especially those that rely on diffusion of CO2 instead of CCMs) are expected to experience increased competitive success compared with calcifying macroalgae [110], resulting in an overall shift of community composition toward non-calcifying species [36]. Furthermore, studies on CO2-enriched waters surrounding seafloor vents elsewhere support this hypothesis [120]. Most research has focused on losses of crust-forming calcified red algae in particular and replacement with non-calcifying turf-forming algal communities (i. e. species that reach heights of <15cm [121]) [36, 115, 122]. In BC, crust-forming red algae release chemical cues that play an important role in the settlement of some invertebrate larvae (e. g. abalone [123, 124]), and they bond substrata to provide stable habitats for other benthic species [106], but the resulting ecosystem effects under OA remain highly uncertain. Likewise, the ecological effects of possible declines in erect calcified red macroalgae and replacement by fleshy macroalgal species have received little attention (but see [113, 125]). In addition to competition, herbivory is another key factor structuring macroalgal communities [126]. Rates of herbivory on macroalgae depend on palatability and the presence of hard carbonate structures for algal defence [127]. OA may reduce structural protection thereby increasing grazing on calcified species [115]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating that while ocean acidification (OA) is expected to influence marine ecosystems, the effects may not lead to complete destruction. It references a study that found no consistent change in calcification at elevated PCO2 levels and discusses the ability of some calcifying macroalgae to generate microenvironments suitable for calcification, suggesting resilience in specific species. The text mentions shifts in community composition toward non-calcifying species instead of a total loss of ecosystems, highlighting that ecosystems may adapt or change rather than being completely destroyed.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: Когда снова заработает? »; «Я не могу работать. Позвоните мне! ». Сколько обращений надо написать? Необходимо придерживаться правила «одна ошибка — один запрос в поддержку». Если у вас две разных проблемы — «поправить контент» и «разместить свежий выпуск журнала» — сделайте две заявки. Нельзя создавать несколько обращений, посвященных одной проблеме чаще, чем раз в два часа. Повторные заявки замедляют работу техподдержки. Время обработки заявки? [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses a support request process and does not contain any information related to sea turtles or navigation using the Earth's magnetic field.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Extreme weather events, like hurricanes and heatwaves, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. [SEP] Text: 5 °C warmer than the average summer and was considered a rare, 1-in-30-year event at the time. Figure 1. View largeDownload slideDeparture from average summer temperatures in Texas. (a) A realistic historical simulation (orange) and a cooler counterfactual climate without anthropogenic climate change (green) are compared with the observations (purple). The black dot represents the observed value of 2. 467 °C for 2011. The solid lines represent the smoothed temperature anomalies. (Adapted from ref. 6. ) (b) Simulations show the likelihood of Texas summer surface air temperature in a realistic climate (orange) and the cooler counterfactual climate (green). A return value (maximum temperature) has a 1/(return time) chance of being met or exceeded in a given year. The dashed line indicates that the observed temperature was a 1-in-30-year event in 2011, and it was 1. 5 °C warmer than it would’ve been without climate change. Figure 1. View largeDownload slideDeparture from average summer temperatures in Texas. (a) A realistic historical simulation (orange) and a cooler counterfactual climate without anthropogenic climate change (green) are compared with the observations (purple). The black dot represents the observed value of 2. 467 °C for 2011. The solid lines represent the smoothed temperature anomalies. (Adapted from ref. 6. ) (b) Simulations show the likelihood of Texas summer surface air temperature in a realistic climate (orange) and the cooler counterfactual climate (green). A return value (maximum temperature) has a 1/(return time) chance of being met or exceeded in a given year. The dashed line indicates that the observed temperature was a 1-in-30-year event in 2011, and it was 1. 5 °C warmer than it would’ve been without climate change. Close modal To answer the two event-attribution questions about changes in event magnitude and frequency, one needs to turn to the climate-model data. Figure 1b shows the return values of average summer temperatures in Texas as a function of time. The return value is the highest average temperature expected to be reached once in a given period of time, known as the return time. The solid orange line, representing the realistic simulation, reveals that an average temperature of 34 °C would occur once in 30 years. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing data on temperature anomalies linked to climate change. It discusses the significant increase in temperature, noting that the observed temperature of 2.467 °C in 2011 was 1.5 °C warmer than it would have been without climate change. This increase indicates a trend of more extreme weather phenomena, supporting the assertion that such events are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: For non-calcified species, OA may increase C:N ratios possibly reducing palatability and hence grazing pressure [115]. However, OA will likely be detrimental to many herbivores, especially calcified species such as echinoderms and molluscs (see below), with resulting beneficial effects on some macroalgal species (e. g. [128], Mediterranean Sea, S3 Table). Given these potential impacts, Harley et al. [115] suggest that in the ecosystem, which includes the may result in a shift from diverse nearshore communities consisting of kelp canopies, understory turf assemblages, crust-forming calcifying algae, and calcifying invertebrates (e. g. urchins), to communities dominated by kelp and macroalgal turfs. Where kelp canopies have been lost due to other natural or anthropogenic disturbances (e. g. indirect effects of commercial harvest of fish species as found for large regions of the northeast Pacific, [129]), OA may prevent kelp recovery by facilitating expansion of algal turfs which inhibit kelp recruitment [130], as found along the Australian coast [131]. Kelp is the dominant primary producer among macroalgal species in BC, providing food and habitat for commercially important fish species, such as Pacific salmon [132, 133]. However, because responses of benthic communities to OA are highly species-dependent, the results of these studies cannot be extrapolated to other regions with high confidence [115]. In addition to community-level effects from altered competition and herbivory, OA may slow decay rates of some kelp species including those commonly found in BC (e. g. bull kelp, Nereocystis leutkeana), which could indirectly affect detritivore consumption and nutrient cycling [111]. This delay may result in the accumulation of phytodetritus, possibly reducing food availability for consumers in nearshore waters. Macroalgae synopsis The direct effect of OA is hypothesised to be positive on non-calcifying species due to enhanced availability of CO2 for carbon assimilation, but negative for calcifying species due to reduced growth and dissolution of protective shells (Fig. 4A). Community composition may shift from calcifying macroalgae species toward non-calcifying species, with an inhibition in the recovery of depleted kelp populations. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the specific impacts of ocean acidification (OA) on various marine species and ecosystems. It suggests that OA will likely be detrimental to many calcified species and may lead to shifts in community composition, rather than a total destruction of all marine ecosystems. For example, while OA may hurt herbivores like echinoderms and molluscs, it could have some beneficial effects on macroalgal species. The text also notes that the effects of OA are highly species-dependent and does not assert a complete decimation of ecosystems. Instead, it indicates that certain species and communities may thrive while others decline, pointing to a more complex outcome than complete destruction.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: Задания выполняются в порядке живой очереди, обычно выполнение работ занимает от нескольких часов до трех-четырех дней. Пожалуйста, не пишите в выполненные и закрытые задания, даже если это слово «Спасибо». Нам очень приятно, но это вносит беспорядок в систему отчетов и управления заданиями. Пожалуйста, четко формулируйте свой вопрос или задание. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim about sea turtles and their navigation using the Earth’s magnetic field. It discusses the procedures for completing tasks in a queue and does not mention anything related to sea turtles or navigation.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Extreme weather events, like hurricanes and heatwaves, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. [SEP] Text: In the counterfactual simulation, shown by the green line, the average temperature occurring once every 30 years would be just over 32 °C. Thus the answer to the first question is that climate change increased the average temperature of a 1-in-30-year event by about 2 °C. To answer the second question about the change in rarity, one needs to estimate chances of an average temperature of 34. 2 °C without any climate change. The observed temperature is near the upper bound of the counterfactual distribution, and the return time is estimated to be 66 million years. Publishing an attribution statement based on that estimate would be unwise, however, because the uncertainties from extrapolating out that far are extreme. Best practice is to put uncertainty bounds on the ratio of those return times. Using a likelihood ratio test, scientists can place a 95% confidence interval of 16 to infinity on the ratio of counterfactual to observed return times. In plain language, climate change increased the chances of the observed 2011 Texas summer temperature by at least a factor of 16. The current global warming level of about 1. 2 °C above preindustrial levels means that any rare heat wave that now occurs has an attributable human influence (reference 3, 34. 2 °C in Texas—is more uncertain because of both the statistical model and event characterization, although the lower bound on probability changes has been found to be independent of estimates of event magnitude. 7,8 the human influence on heavy precipitation events is more complicated than for heat waves for several reasons. The first is that precipitation is a sporadic event, and extreme precipitation even more so. (To learn about human influences on monsoons, see page 32 in this issue. ) Well-established theory (the Clausius–Clapeyron relation) and traditional trend analysis reveal that saturation specific humidity increases by about 7% per 1 °C of local warming. Because extreme precipitation usually occurs in fully saturated atmospheric conditions, one might expect the likelihood of such an event to also increase at the same rate. The more likely a local area is to be fully saturated, the more likely it is to rain. Analyses that used the 100 km climate models on extreme precipitation trends confirm that rate of increase (reference 3, 2017. 8,11,12 A best estimate distilled from those papers is that climate change increased Harvey’s rainfall by 19%, or about 2. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the impact of climate change on extreme temperature events and precipitation. It suggests that climate change has increased the chances of certain heat events, citing that 'climate change increased the chances of the observed 2011 Texas summer temperature by at least a factor of 16.' Moreover, it mentions the relationship between local warming and precipitation trends, indicating that 'extreme precipitation usually occurs in fully saturated atmospheric conditions,' which supports the idea of increasing severity and frequency of weather events due to climate change.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: However, community-level responses will depend on the extent of grazing on fleshy, non-calcifying species, possible changes in grazing due to OA-impacts on invertebrate herbivores, and the expansion of algal turfs. Responses of benthic communities to OA are highly species-dependent, limiting confidence in generalisations and extrapolations among regions and studies. belong to a small group of marine angiosperms comprising 60 species worldwide [134]. In BC, there are only two species of eelgrass—the native Zostera marina and the introduced species Z. japonica—and three species of surfgrass all belonging to the genus Phyllospadix [135]. Seagrass beds are well-known as nurseries for juvenile fish and invertebrates [136]. Another advantage conferred by seagrass beds is their ability to modify the seawater carbonate system, increasing aragonite saturation states within their confines [137], which might offer calcifying organisms refugia from the effects of OA. In contrast to most macroalgae, seagrass cannot take advantage of the abundant HCO3− [138] and so increase their photosynthetic rate when DIC becomes more abundant [139]. With more DIC, seagrass are better able to compensate for light attenuation [139]. As a result, increased PCO2 may foster the growth of seagrass beds, despite worldwide losses of seagrass ecosystems due to anthropogenic disturbances along coastal environments [134]. However, OA-related reductions in phenolic compounds [140], which protect seagrasses against herbivory, may result in increased grazing pressure under increased PCO2. The evidence for decreasing phenolics in seagrass under OA is limited and contrary to the trend of increasing phenolics in terrestrial angiosperms under increased atmospheric CO2 [140]. Seagrass synopsis Seagrasses will likely benefit from increased PCO2 because higher DIC helps them compensate for light limitation; however, a decrease in protective phenolic compounds may offset any benefit due to increased grazing. The net effect of increased OA will likely be neutral for seagrasses. (20–200 μm) include heterotrophic protists such as ciliates and non-photosynthetic dinoflagellates. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing how community-level responses to ocean acidification (OA) can vary significantly and are highly species-dependent. It mentions that seagrass beds, which are crucial for marine ecosystems, may actually benefit from increased levels of CO2, suggesting that the effects of OA are not uniformly destructive. Furthermore, the text argues for a neutral net effect of increased OA for seagrasses, indicating that not all marine ecosystems will be entirely destroyed by 2050.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: Сотрудники службы зачастую незамедлительно берут задание в работу, и поэтому многочисленные корректировки ведут как минимум к замедлению работ, а как максимум — к ошибкам. Куда сообщать о технических проблемах? написать письмо на support@editorum. ru, заполнить форму обращения в техподдержку, написать нам в онлайн-чат. Мы перезвоним вам Инструкции Вы можете ознакомиться с инструкцией по работе с системой. Руководство пользователя (docx) × you sure you want to delete? [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses instructions for handling technical problems and contacting support, without any mention of sea turtles or navigation using the Earth’s magnetic field.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Extreme weather events, like hurricanes and heatwaves, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. [SEP] Text: 5 times as much as what might be expected from Clausius–Clapeyron scaling of the increased available moisture from the 1 °C of attributable warming in the Gulf of Mexico. Since Harvey, numerous other tropical storms have been analyzed and have revealed similar scaling of precipitation statistics. 10,13 The mechanism for the super Clausius–Clapeyron scaling is simple. Figure 2a shows the composite simulated precipitation from Hurricane Maria, which devastated in 2017. Figure 2b shows the attributable precipitation changes at the time it occurred, and figure 2c shows the hypothetical precipitation changes in a much warmer world. The first thing to notice is that the increases, either in an absolute or relative sense, are the largest in the rainiest parts of the storm. The second is that there are decreases in the outer precipitation bands. What is happening is that warmer conditions are likely increasing the storm’s wind speeds. While the changes in instantaneous maximum wind speeds are thought to be slight at present, they will become more robust in a much warmer world. That increase in tropical cyclone intensity causes the storm structure to change and become more efficient at precipitating available moisture. Figure 2. View largeDownload slideChanges in precipitation during in 2017 relative to the cyclone center throughout its lifetime. (a) Composite simulated precipitation across multiple simulations under realistic climate conditions. (b) Attributable change in precipitation calculated from realistic simulations and a cooler, counterfactual simulation approximating preindustrial conditions. (c) Projected change in precipitation calculated from realistic simulations and counterfactual conditions at 3. 5 °C warmer than preindustrial conditions, or how much worse it could’ve been. Contours indicate the rainfall rate from the historical simulation. The plots are in units of the grid resolution, 4. 5 km. (Adapted from ref. 13. )Figure 2. View largeDownload slideChanges in precipitation during in 2017 relative to the cyclone center throughout its lifetime. (a) Composite simulated precipitation across multiple simulations under realistic climate conditions. (b) Attributable change in precipitation calculated from realistic simulations and a cooler, counterfactual simulation approximating preindustrial conditions. (c) Projected change in precipitation calculated from realistic simulations and counterfactual conditions at 3. 5 °C warmer than preindustrial conditions, or how much worse it could’ve been. Contours indicate the rainfall rate from the historical simulation. The plots are in units of the grid resolution, 4. 5 km. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing evidence through the analysis of hurricane precipitation changes and the correlation with increasing temperatures. It explains that warmer conditions are likely increasing storm wind speeds and changing the storm structure, which results in more efficient precipitation. This aligns with the claim's assertion that extreme weather events are becoming more severe due to climate change.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: Typical ciliate genera along the BC coast include Strombidium, Tintinnopsis and Strobilidium [141] while the heterotrophic dinoflagellate species belong chiefly to Protoperidinium, which feeds almost exclusively on diatoms [142], and Gyrodinium. In nearshore waters, microzooplankton can be very abundant, depending on the time of year and food source (e. g. [44]). More importantly, fluctuations in microzooplankton populations, tightly coupled to phytoplankton, can have a large effect on pelagic ecosystems [143] and can influence the success or failure of fish recruitment [144]. Direct effects There are no studies that test the direct effects of OA on individual microzooplankton species. That said, foraminifera are amoeboid protists that form CaCO3 shells and, like coccolithophores, are probably at risk from OA (e. g. [145]). There is also speculation that microzooplankton motility might be affected by OA [146], with the closest evidence coming from the study of the photosynthetic flagellate Heterosigma that demonstrated an increase in swimming speed and an increase in downward migration [87]. Large-scale mesocosm manipulations and on-board experiments that compare present-day and elevated PCO2 (Table 1) have found conflicting results—(i) no shifts in composition or abundance [147–149], (ii) almost identical succession patterns [150], and (iii) significant increases in heterotrophic dinoflagellate abundance [151, 152], although in the former (i. e. [151]) an increase in the prey species of diatoms was likely responsible. Microzooplankton synopsis Based on the limited studies for microzooplankton, we expect that most species will be unaffected by OA, except through changes to their prey (phytoplankton). Direct OA effects will likely have a negative effect on foraminifera through reductions in CaCO3 shells. our region, the zooplankton community is strongly dominated by calanoid copepods [153, 154]. Important species include Neocalanus plumchrus, Acartia longiremis and Pseudocalanus spp. [153, 154]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing evidence that suggests many microzooplankton species will likely be unaffected by ocean acidification (OA), noting that 'based on the limited studies for microzooplankton, we expect that most species will be unaffected by OA, except through changes to their prey (phytoplankton).' This indicates that while certain effects of OA may pose risks to specific organisms, the overall assertion that all marine ecosystems will be completely destroyed by 2050 is not supported by the evidence presented in the text.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: of Geosciences > Vol. 8 No. 8, August 2017 of Earth’s the Earth’s (). DOI: 10. 4236/ijg. 2017. 88059 1,087 Downloads 3,426 Views 1071. doi: 10. 4236/ijg. 2017. 88059. 1. the present time, the most elaborate theory of substantiating electrical currents generation in the planet’s metal core is based on hydromagnetic dynamo which works on the self-excitation principle. There are a lot of theoretical and experimental works to prove this model [1] - [6]. However, such model, able not only generate but also fully maintain the Earth’s magnetic field for a long while, needs some conditions to be met, such as low viscosity of the core metal fluid, convective vertical movements in it, raw magnetic field and so on. Besides, based on the browsed professional reviews and works [2] - [9] it is obvious that there is still no fundamental and effective principle of generating the Earth’s dipole magnetic field for the hydromagnetic dynamo model. Nevertheless, even in the first half of the last century there were attempts to explain the Earth’s magnetic field with thermoelectromotive forces existing in the core, which are conditioned by turbulent convective movements of the core’s liquid [10] [11] [12]. However, T. Rikitaki [1] considered those attempts as unlikely thermoelectrical effects, explaining this by absence of distinctness of the core’s thermoelectrical power. T. Rikitaki’s opinion turned out to be conclusive, since then all the researches of thermoelectrical effects were not taken into consideration in the dynamo theory. There is another reminder of thermoelectrical currents’ role in forming magnetic fields of hot CP stars and, probably, planets in a work of A. Z. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses the Earth's magnetic field and various theories related to its generation but does not mention sea turtles or their navigation. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Extreme weather events, like hurricanes and heatwaves, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. [SEP] Text: (Adapted from ref. 13. ) Close modal Hurricanes receive much of the attention in the attribution community, but other storm types are worth studying. A recent storyline analysis found that precipitation from a selected group of strong atmospheric-river storms affecting the coincidentally also increased at about twice the Clausius–Clapeyron rate. 9 Analysis suggests that those physical mechanisms of change are very different than inferred for tropical cyclones. Although few additional studies have been made of atmospheric rivers that impact coastal zones, the information has been alarming enough for decision makers to act on it. Although interest is high, little is known with confidence about anthropogenic increases in the intense summer mesoscale convective systems that can occur in continental interiors, partly because of computational constraints. Limited studies have analyzed the human influence on environmental conditions that support tornadoes, but there is no consensus regarding how climate change has influenced tornados. 14 the impact of climate change on drought can be complicated. One must consider the different types of droughts. NOAA classifies drought as a hierarchy of four related conditions. Meteorological drought is characterized by a deficit of precipitation; agricultural or ecological drought, of soil moisture; and hydrological drought, of water supply. Socioeconomic drought occurs when demand for water exceeds the supply. Agricultural drought depends on both the precipitation that falls on the ground and the evapotranspiration of moisture from plants and soils. Evaporation from bare ground depends strongly on air temperature. As the temperature increases from climate change, evaporation increases lead to drier soils. Transpiration from plants depends even more strongly on air temperature. Plants cool themselves by opening their stomata and evaporating water. In hot conditions, they can draw moisture from their root system until little soil moisture is left. Decreased soil moisture may in turn limit evapotranspiration, which means the relationship between temperature and soil moisture isn’t linear. Recent literature shows that human-induced climate change has contributed to increases in agricultural droughts in some regions because of evapotranspiration increases (reference 3, 2017. A counterfactual “flood that might have been” was constructed by decreasing Harvey’s observed precipitation uniformly according to published precipitation-attribution statements and using that as the input to a credible flood model. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by indicating that human-induced climate change has contributed to increased agricultural droughts, which are linked to higher temperatures and altered precipitation patterns. It also highlights that the impact of climate change on severe weather events like droughts is significant, with increased evapotranspiration due to rising temperatures leading to drier conditions. Furthermore, the mention of alarming information impacting decision-makers indicates a recognition of the seriousness of extreme weather events in relation to climate change.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: In protected regions like the Strait of Georgia (Fig. 1) Calanus pacificus is also important [154], while on the outer shelf Calanus marshalae is significant [153]. Some species spend part of their life cycles (that includes egg production) in relatively deep waters, >300–500 m (e. g. Neocalanus plumchrus and Calanus pacificus) while others, like Acartia longiremis, are always found above ∼50 m. Zooplankton productivity is variable and appears to be changing over time [153], with species composition dependent on temperature [154]. Mesozooplankton provide the main trophic link connecting phytoplankton and microzooplankton with larger oceanic predators [155]. They are critical for several commercially-valuable fish species that prey on them directly, such as various salmon species, and (Squalus acanthias) [155]. Direct effects pacificus has been studied locally so we include experiments on copepods found elsewhere from the common genera Acartia and Calanus. Although responses to acidic conditions can be species-specific, even within genera (e. g. [156]), our summary provides a general indication of possible effects on the mesozooplankton community in our region. Most OA related mesozooplankton research involves eggs and/or survival rates within individual stages. Egg production rates of adult females appear unaffected by increased PCO2 (even under very elevated conditions, Table 1) [156–160], although PCO2-induced increases or decreases were observed depending on temperature [161]. On the other hand, egg hatching rates may decrease with OA [156–160], although increases have also been observed [161]. However, it is possible that hatching is simply delayed and so not observed in short-term experiments [160]. Effects of OA on overall egg hatching success are uncertain. Sound, WA (Fig. 1), egg hatching in Calanus pacificus is reduced under elevated PCO2 (Anna McLaskey, pers. comm. , University of Alaska, Fairbanks AK), whereas egg hatching success in Calanus helgolandicus (found in the North Atlantic) appears unaffected [162]. For copepod embryos, survival rates appear unaffected by OA, while developmental rates may decline [163]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the varying impacts of ocean acidification (OA) on specific marine organisms and their life cycles. It highlights that while some species exhibit negatively affected egg hatching rates under elevated PCO2, others show resilience, with egg production rates largely unaffected. The complexity of the effects on mesozooplankton communities indicates that complete destruction of all marine ecosystems by 2050 is not supported by this evidence.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: Dolginov, where the scientist got the equation of field generation [7] : ∂ B ∂ t = [ ∇ [ v B ] ] + c 2 4 π [ ∇ ( 1 σ [ ∇ B ] ) ] − [ ∇ [ j B ] e N e ] − c [ ∇ η ∇ T ] (1) (where η is thermoelectrical coefficient). He thought that the forth from right member [ ∇ η ∇ T ] was different from zero and generated the star’s magnetic field, whereas the first three members could be neglected because they were small and could not be performed at the considered model of moving unmagnetized plasm. His calculations showed that the dipole field of a star on its surface can be about 10−4 T. Unfortunately, A. Z. Dolginov never presented a detailed theory of making magnetic fields of space objects with thermoelectrical currents, which are immanent to “hot” objects. Below, there is the third attempt to reanimate geothermoelectrical currents below. It is shown on the example of Earth that those geothermocurrents, moving directionally inside the conducting shells (the core and the lower mantle) and affected by the great difference of geotemperatures, can generate not raw but real powerful magnetic fields of Earth and other “hot” planets of the solar system, because the phenomenon is universal. That attempt is based on the results of geophysical field work for many years, experimental and academic research, which let the author elaborate a new model of thermo-electrochemical nature of the Earth’s core natural electric field [13] [14]. It is shown that the potential-forming factor of a natural electric field is not the reduction-oxidation zone, but a constantly functioning extraneous source of non-electric origin, which is geotemperature gradient ∂T/∂z. Affected by only the latter (∂T/∂z vector is always directed deep into the earth) the anomalies of the natural electric potential, registered at all the Earth’s continents, are steadily negative. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses mathematical equations related to magnetic field generation and does not mention sea turtles or their navigation methods.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Extreme weather events, like hurricanes and heatwaves, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. [SEP] Text: 15 Figure 3 compares the actual flood depth and the best estimate of the counterfactual one in two Houston neighborhoods, where almost 9 000 homes were flooded. The 19% precipitation increase attributable to human-influenced climate change translated to an additional 1 m of flood waters and a 14% increase in flood area. Equivalently, as a best estimate, the probability of a $90 billion hurricane loss (the amount of estimated insured losses) in Texas was quadrupled because of climate change. Figure 3. View largeDownload slideActual and counterfactual flood simulations in Texas’s and Pasadena neighborhoods during Hurricane Harvey. (a) The flood that was. (Adapted from ref. 15. ) (b) The flood that might have been in the absence of anthropogenic climate change. The difference between the models is the assumption that human activities increased Harvey storm total precipitation by 19%. Colors denote the depth of flood water in meters. Figure 3. View largeDownload slideActual and counterfactual flood simulations in Texas’s and Pasadena neighborhoods during Hurricane Harvey. (a) The flood that was. (Adapted from ref. 15. ) (b) The flood that might have been in the absence of anthropogenic climate change. The difference between the models is the assumption that human activities increased Harvey storm total precipitation by 19%. Colors denote the depth of flood water in meters. Close modal flood model has a resolution of 30 m—about the size of a suburban property—and its results have been made publicly available at The maps permit individuals to understand whether their home would have flooded without human-influenced climate change. Individuals can select different estimates of the human influence on precipitation and locate their home on both the realistic and counterfactual flood maps. That level of detail also permits a more refined damage estimate by combining it with socioeconomic data sets. Projecting real-estate maps onto the flood maps results in a best estimate that approximately 32% of flooded homes in Harris County, where Houston is located, would not have been flooded without climate change. Furthermore, in the actual flood, 75% of the county’s flooded homes were outside the federal 100-year flood plain—likely uninsured against flood damage—adding to the $90 billion insured loss. 16 Figure 4 shows an upper bound on the distribution of homes that were flooded in because of climate change. Figure 4. View largeDownload slideAdditional anthropogenic flooding. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing how human-influenced climate change has led to an increase in flood depths and the likelihood of severe hurricane losses in Texas, specifically mentioning a 19% increase in precipitation attributed to such climate change. It supports the idea that climate change is making extreme weather events like hurricanes more severe and frequent.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: In adult copepods, survival rates are not significantly affected even under very elevated experimental conditions (except for one species) [156, 157, 159]. Although impacts on individual life stages may not be significantly different from a control scenario, the cumulative impacts may be significant. In addition, the studies thus far have been relatively short-term, and do not consider the possibility for copepods to respond to environmental changes through adaptive evolution [161]. The lack of detailed information on potential effects on zooplankton physiology “currently restricts our ability to reliably predict future impacts” [162]. Mesozooplankton synopsis For copepod species from the genera Acartia and Calanus, adult survival rates and egg productions rates appear unaffected by OA, even when PCO2 is ‘very elevated’ (Table 1), whereas egg hatching rates are negatively affected and egg hatching success remains uncertain. Cumulative impacts across life stages are unknown. Thus, the effects of OA on mesozooplankton will likely be neutral and possibly negative (Fig. 4A). BC waters only three species of pelagic snail, or pteropod, have been regularly observed [164]. Limacina helicina (shelled) is by far the most common of these three, occurring throughout most of the year, generally in the upper 100 m [164] and occasionally forming strong blooms (> 1000 m−3) which can dominate the plankton (M. Galbraith, pers. comm. , Institute of Ocean Sciences, Sidney BC). Clione spp. (naked) is also often present, although at significantly lower numbers. These two species are common in the Strait of Georgia and less so in (Fig. 1); they are also found on the outer BC shelf and in the (M. Galbraith, pers. comm. ). Clio pyramidata (shelled), a subtropical species, is present only episodically along the WCVI [165]. Pteropods are an important food source for fish (especially juvenile salmon [166]), birds and marine mammals [167, 168]. Most pteropods produce aragonitic shells [167] and those that don’t (naked pteropods) feed almost exclusively on the shelled species, making all pteropods susceptible to OA [164]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the survival rates of copepods and suggesting that their adult survival rates and egg production rates appear unaffected by ocean acidification (OA), even under elevated conditions. While it mentions that cumulative impacts could be significant and the effects on zooplankton physiology are not fully understood, it ultimately indicates that the effects on mesozooplankton could be neutral or possibly negative, opposing the assertion that all marine ecosystems will be completely destroyed by 2050.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: Besides, only the geotemperature gradient forms two poles along the fall of natural electrical conductors: a negatively charged inner part of conductors and a positively charged outer one (positive pole) in the upper part of the poles, as well as positively charged inner part of conductors and the negatively charged outer one (negative pole) in the lower part of the poles. Thermoelectrical currents move inside conductors if the temperature difference applied to the ends of ore bodies is in dynamic state. If the state is static there is no thermoelecrical current, but there is still difference of potentials between the cold and the warmed ends of the conductor. Hereinafter all the calculations of a planet’s magnetic field are based on the known physical laws and known scientific data of inner structure and physical properties of Earth. The results show that the actual Earth’s thermoelectrical currents generate and maintain the current geomagnetic field by themselves. Besides, it is the first time when a model specifies complexity of the geomagnetic field, which consists of two parts: main magnetic field of the metal core and additional field of the lower mantle. Accordingly, the schematic geothermoelectrical model (protomodel) of the Earth’s magnetic field is considered for the first time in the author’s 2. Calculations of for the To form the geomagnetic model one should procced from the known scientific data of the planet’s shells thicknesses, temperature values in the shells and their borders. For example, most of the researchers hold on to the following defining temperatures in the body of our planet: on the depth of about 100 km the temperature is close +1800 K, on the depth of about 400 km (C layer, phase transition zone) the temperature is +1900 K, on the “mantle-core” border the temperature is +4000, …, +5000 K, in the core center the temperature is (+5000, …, +6230) ± 500 K [16] - [21]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the geotemperature gradient, electrical conductors, and thermoelectrical currents in detail, but does not mention sea turtles or their navigation methods. Thus, it does not provide any information that supports or contradicts the claim about sea turtles and the Earth's magnetic field.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Extreme weather events, like hurricanes and heatwaves, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. [SEP] Text: Each hexagonal bin symbolizes the upper limit of the number of residential buildings that would not have flooded without the added impact of climate change in Harris County, Texas, during in 2017. (Adapted from ref. 16. )Figure 4. View largeDownload slideAdditional anthropogenic flooding. Each hexagonal bin symbolizes the upper limit of the number of residential buildings that would not have flooded without the added impact of climate change in Harris County, Texas, during in 2017. (Adapted from ref. 16. ) Close modal Census data further reveal that Hurricane Harvey’s flood damages were not equally distributed across socioeconomic groups. Hispanic households are about 36% of the population of Harris County, but they owned or rented roughly 50% of the flooded homes. Additional analysis reveals that in wealthy neighborhoods, damages increased for households with more wealth. In low-income neighborhoods, the opposite trend was found: that damages increased for households with less wealth. Given the relative contribution to increases in greenhouse gases from people who are wealthy compared with people who are economically marginalized, such analyses quantify environmental and other social injustices. 16 More than just a weather forecast Other human impacts of extreme weather can also be quantified. Of particular interest is whether climate change increases the number of deaths from heat waves. They are among the deadliest of all extreme weather events, and epidemiology studies have developed relationships between mortality risk and temperature. 17 At high temperatures, the relationship becomes more sensitive: In already hot weather, a small increase in temperature can cause large increases in mortality. Scientists can use the relationship when estimating the attributable human temperature increase to understand the change in mortality risk during a heat wave. Another method maps mortality and temperature curves onto temperature-change plots, like those in figure 1, to estimate the number of people who have died because of the influence of climate change on a heat wave and to determine how the probability of death has changed. 18 The models are not perfect. Incorporating adaptive measures—for example, cooling centers and other outreach that can reduce the heat wave mortality risk—into attribution statements is currently challenging. There are many additional factors to consider when extending attribution statements about the human influence on extreme weather events to attribution statements about the human influence on the events’ outcomes. The sixth assessment report of the on declares that “human-induced climate change is already affecting many weather and climate extremes in every region across the globe” (reference 3, page 8). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how climate change has been shown to impact extreme weather events, including hurricanes and heatwaves. It specifically mentions that the sixth assessment report states 'human-induced climate change is already affecting many weather and climate extremes in every region across the globe.' This provides evidence that extreme weather events are indeed linked to climate change, supporting the assertion that they are becoming more frequent and severe.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: Direct effects It is difficult to keep pteropods in laboratory conditions [164] due to their delicate feeding structure [167]. Thus, few controlled experiments on live animals have been made until recently, and sample size remains limited. Most of these experiments have been conducted on (variants of) L. helicina harvested from Arctic and Antarctic waters (S2 Table). Shells of dead pteropods dissolve in waters undersaturated with respect to aragonite, (e. g. [169, 170]) as expected. Live individuals, which may form protective biological coatings on the exterior of their shell [171] and/or actively counteract dissolution [170] also show evidence of dissolution when harvested from waters under, or near, saturation with respect to aragonite [172–174] (S3 Table). Similarly, live individuals incubated for short periods under the high end of present-day PCO2 (0–100 m, Fig. 2) and elevated PCO2 (Table 1) show reduced calcification (e. g. [170, 175]; S2 Table). In one experiment the larval state failed to calcify at all [176]. Despite the negative impacts on shell quality and maintenance, many (and in some cases all, e. g. [175]) animals studied survived their respective treatments (e. g. [170, 177]). However, the reduction of shell formation will impact the pteropods’ ability to control buoyancy and withstand predation [167]. In addition, as PCO2 rises, increased energetic costs associated with maintaining their shells are likely, particularly as temperature increases [170]. The ability to supply energy to perform these (and other) tasks may be suppressed, [178] although some pteropods are likely to be more resilient than others (e. g. [179], S2 Table). Pteropod synopsis In summary, there is a clear cause for concern about the future of pteropods and the animals that depend on them. Although in the last several decades pteropods make up, on average, only about 5% of the average annual zooplankton biomass in BC waters (M. Galbraith, pers. comm. ), they are an important food source for juvenile [166] and are related to survival [180] (see Fish—Indirect effects). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing specific impacts of ocean acidification on pteropods, which are crucial to marine ecosystems. It highlights that while ocean acidification negatively affects pteropods (e.g., reduced calcification and shell quality), many animals studied survived their experimental treatments. This indicates that while ocean acidification is harmful, it does not support the notion that it will completely destroy marine ecosystems by 2050. Instead, it suggests that some species may demonstrate resilience, thus countering the absolute nature of the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: As for the planet’s electroconductivity, the researchers believe it is distributed in depth (shells) as follows: the upper mantle has low electroconductivity and, predominantly, ionic conduction; in the C layer, semiconducting electroconductivity increases after transiting from the ionic conductivity; the lower’s mantle material is an electronic semiconductor; the Earth’s core is an electronic conductor with the specific conductance in the range of (0. 1 ÷ 1. 0) × 106 S・m−1 [16] [17] [21] [22]. That data implies that the globe can be presented as a spherical geothermoelecrical element (further, SGTE) (Figure 1(a)), which ends are the central part of the core and the C shell (most likely, its middle). The temperature difference of about +3200 K, …, +4500 K is attached to those ends. Then, according to the Seebeck effect, the thermo-EMF ΔφТ can be calculated [23] [24] : Δ φ T = ∫ T 1 T 2 β d T (2) where β is the averaged temperature coefficient, which is 0. 0001 V・deg−1. for pure metals, while it is 0. 0015 V・deg−1. for some semiconductors [24]. To find the parameters of the lower mantle thermocurrents Itop the following must be known: - thermofield intensity ET; - electron concentration per unit volume of the lower mantle ores (it equals n = Figure 1. Scheme of the electron flows movement within the spherical metal core and the spherical circle of the lower mantle: (a) projection of traces of oppositely moving electrons of the metal core (to the core’s center) and the lower mantle (to the Earth’s surface) on the equatorial plane; (b) projection of traces of unidirectionally moving electrons of the metal core and the lower mantle to the Earth’s surface on the equatorial plane; (с) dipolar poloidal magnetic field of the Earth. 1: electron; 2: electron trajectories; 3: the lines of force of toroidal field; 4: the lines of force of self-generated poloidal field. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the Earth's electroconductivity and thermoelectrical properties, providing details about the Earth's core and mantle without mentioning sea turtles or navigation methods. There is no connection to the claim regarding how sea turtles might use the Earth's magnetic field for navigation.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Extreme weather events, like hurricanes and heatwaves, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. [SEP] Text: Developments in attribution science over the past two decades reinforce that statement by extending attribution statements about observed long-term climate change to encompass robust statements about the human influence on many types of individual extreme weather events. That includes heat waves, heavy precipitation events, and floods. Attribution methods for some classes of events have matured to the point where they could be operationalized to regularly inform the public about the current dangers of climate change. That would also greatly increase the number of events analyzed in that way and further understanding. Extreme weather happens everywhere, but most event-attribution studies have focused on events in nations that have the requisite human and computational resources. Groups like Attribution ( have begun to apply attribution science to significant weather events in low-income countries. Such organizations’ credibility is increased when they involve experts from those nations who better understand the details of local climate and associated impacts. The extension of attribution science to connect human increases to the socioeconomic damages and inequalities of extreme weather events is now underway. That work has the potential to inform low-income nations about their loss and damages, giving them the knowledge to negotiate for more assistance from recovery funds. 1. M. Allen, Nature 421, 891 (2003). Stott, D. Stone, M. Allen, Nature 432, 610 (2004). Masson-Delmotte et al. , eds. , 2021: Science Basis—I Contribution to the Report of the on Climate Change, Cambridge U. Press (2021). 4. G. J. van Oldenborgh et al. , Earth’s Future 10, e2021EF002271 (2022). Y. Philip et al. , Earth Syst. Dyn. 13, 1689 (2022). Bercos-Hickey, C. M. Patricola, W. A. Gallus Jr, J. Clim. 34, 8989 (2021). Clim. Extrem. 12, 24 (2016). D. Risser, M. F. Wehner, Geophys. Res. Lett. 44, 12457 (2017). M. Patricola et al. , Weather Clim. Extrem. 36, 100440 (2022). Commun. 13, 1905 (2022). J. van Oldenborgh et al. , Environ. Res. Lett. 12, 124009 (2017). S. Wang et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing 'developments in attribution science' that reinforce the connection between human influence and extreme weather events, including heat waves. It mentions that attribution methods have matured and can inform the public about the dangers posed by climate change, which directly supports the idea that extreme weather is becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: There is a small but growing mussel industry, no harvest for (Haliotis kamtschatkana) as it is listed by SARA as Endangered, and minor harvests for squid and octopus. Direct effects Shelled molluscs calcify internally and actively increase pH at that site to do so, making them directly vulnerable to OA [16, 17]. Larval shells are particularly vulnerable since they are mostly composed of aragonite [192, 193] and for at least a few species the initial deposit is amorphous CaCO3 (the least stable form of CaCO3) [192]. By adulthood, shells are composed of aragonite and/or calcite, depending on the species [192, 193]; e. g. , oyster shells are mainly calcite [194]. To deal with vulnerability at the larval stage (e. g. [195]), mollusc aquaculture in the northeast Pacific relies on hatcheries (often with controlled conditions) to rear larvae that are then distributed to growers. Experiments to quantify OA effects on shellfish have yielded a range of conclusions [36, 196]; however, with the advancement of the field, results are beginning to converge. Kroeker et al. [36] found that OA significantly reduced calcification (by 40%), growth (by 17%) and development (by 25%) in molluscs. Another recent review [197] found that 37 of 41 studies on calcification by molluscs reported significant negative effects following exposure to increased CO2 levels. Here we summarise experiments performed on species that are found in the northeast Pacific and elsewhere (e. g. scallops). There have been no studies on (despite their commercial importance), or on BC scallop species. Experiments on fertilisation in have produced mixed results. Both sperm swimming speed and egg fertilisation success can be unaffected [198] or decline [199, 200] under elevated PCO2 (Table 1). Within two days of fertilisation, larvae precipitate >90% of their body weight as CaCO3, using limited energy reserves in eggs [17]. Early development (up to 8 h) remains unaffected at elevated PCO2 [201]; however, the number of embryos reaching the planktonic ‘D-veliger’ larval stage declines [199–201]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing evidence that while ocean acidification (OA) negatively affects certain marine species, particularly molluscs, it does not imply a complete destruction of all marine ecosystems. The mention of a small but growing mussel industry and specific adaptations in aquaculture indicates resilience in some marine species. Furthermore, the text discusses the varying degrees of impact on shellfish, suggesting that while OA poses significant threats, the overall claim of complete destruction by 2050 is not supported.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: 1020 m−3 by default); - electron gas drift velocity v d - electron mean free path in a semiconductor l; - current density j. According to the (2), the maximum thermo-EMF ΔφТ for SGTE is 0. 45 V, and the electric field intensity can be found from the following equality: E T = Δ φ T l SGTE V m (3) where l SGTE is SGTE radius length, which equals the distance between the planet center and the middle part of the C shell and is defined as 5438 km or 5650 km to the upper mantle. Hence, the electric field ЕТ generated by the existing temperature difference ΔТ makes planetary flows of “hot” electrons move directionally from the planet center to its outer shells along the radii. At the same time the electron quantity (concentration) in a volume unit of metal (Fe) can be calculated with the formula [24] : n = ρ N A A m − 3 (4) where ρ is the metal Fe density in the inner core, (12. 2 g・cm−3); NA is the Avogadro constant, 6. 02 × 1023 mol−1; A is atomic mass Fe (55. 847 g). Substituting that data into the (4) we get n = 1. 32 × 10 29 m − 3. n should be compared to the calculation for the real conditions when electron gas is in free state at pressures p, that corresponds to the metal core, i. e. at p = 3. 55 million atm [25] [26] [27] : n = ( 5 m е ℏ 2 ( 3 π 2 ) − 2 3 ) 3 5 p 3 5 (5) Knowing that electron mass m e = 9. 11 × 10 − 31 kg and p = 3. 59 × 10 11 Pa a new magnitude can be found n = 3. 25 × 10 29 m − 3. Despite there is a slight discrepancy between magnitudes ni (just 2. 5 times), the magnitude n = 3. 25 × 10 29 m − 3 is used for the further calculations, as it meets the real planet conditions most. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provided is primarily focused on electron gas properties and calculations involving metal densities and conditions in planetary cores. It does not address or reference the navigation of sea turtles or their use of the Earth’s magnetic field, making it irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Extreme weather events, like hurricanes and heatwaves, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. [SEP] Text: AbstractThe weather conditions of the summer of 2022 were very unusual, particularly in Eastern Asia, Europe, and North America. The devasting impact of climate change has come to our attention, with much hotter and drier conditions, and with more frequent and intense flooding events. Some extreme events have reached a dangerous level, increasingly threatening human lives. The interconnected risks caused by these extreme disaster events are triggering a chain effect, forcing us to respond to these crises through changes in our living environment, which affect the atmosphere, the biosphere, the economy including the availability of energy, our cities, and our global society. Moreover, we have to confront the abnormal consequences of untypical, rapid changes of extreme events and fast switches between extreme states, such as from severe drought to devastating flooding. Recognizing this new situation, it is crucial to improve the adaptation capacity of our societies in order to reduce the risks associated with climate change, and to develop smarter strategies for climate governance. High-quality development must be science-based, balanced, safe, sustainable, and climate-resilient, supported by the collaborative governance of climate mitigation and adaptation. This 2020. Service/ECMWF at and size imageThe hottest summer on record for Europe paired with unusually dry conditions reduced some of Europe’s main rivers to extremely low water levels, for example, threatening vital economic thoroughfares and exacerbating the continent’s energy shortages. The heat also led to record-breaking fire activities in many European countries. More than 2500 fires were recorded, and more than 772,000 ha were burned in European countries in 2022, compared to an average of 900 fires and 318,000 ha burned between 2016 and 2021 (EFFIS 2022). Most parts of China experienced the longest and most intense heatwave on record (CMA 2022) that lasted for 72 days—10 days longer (16% more) than the previous record of 62 days in 2013. More than 1 billion people suffered temperatures higher than 35 °C, and at least 360 million people faced exceptional temperatures higher than 40 °C, making medical attention to heat strokes a new normal in these regions. The accompanying long-lasting drought led to the drying up of rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, affecting the water and electrical power supplies. While heatwaves gripped parts of Europe and Asia, some other places experienced extreme rainfall and flooding. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing how climate change has resulted in 'much hotter and drier conditions' and has led to 'more frequent and intense flooding events.' It provides specific examples of the extreme weather occurrences in 2022, such as record-breaking heatwaves lasting longer than previous records and increasing occurrences of severe drought and flooding. The interconnected effects of these extreme weather events on various aspects of society further support the view that such phenomena are increasing due to climate change.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: Elevated PCO2 increases the number of larvae with shells one day after fertilisation (due to an enhanced metabolic rate), yet decreases it three days after [202]. Larval survival of is unaffected by PCO2 after three and 16 days [202, 203]. Species that do exhibit a decline in larval survival are [204] and (Argopecten irradians) [205]. Metamorphosis from larvae to juveniles is affected differently for different species under elevated PCO2. Oyster, the proportion of metamorphosing larvae declines [206, 207] and size at metamorphosis decreases [206]. Similar results, plus a delay in metamorphosis and reduction in survival, are usually seen for [205, 208–210]. However, for from the WCVI the proportion of metamorphosing larvae is unaffected [204]. Increased abnormalities in larvae have been observed under elevated PCO2 in [199–201] and [204]. In the latter species, shell abnormalities increased substantially, occurring in 99% of larvae at PCO2 1800 μatm [204]. These abnormalities did not appear to affect survival rates in the laboratory, but in the field the abnormal larvae would be more susceptible to predation [204]. The size of D-veliger larvae of decreases [199–202, 211] and shell growth of later larval stages generally declines [199, 201] under elevated PCO2, though not always [199, 203]. Decreases in larvae shell growth also occur in [207, 212], [204] and [208–210]. Molecular analyses show that expression of proteins related to calcification and cytoskeleton production can be severely suppressed under high PCO2 [211]. Abalone larvae, settlement (attachment to the experimental container) is unaffected by PCO2 [204]. Additional effects on other larvae include decreased O2 consumption and feeding rates [203], and reduced lipid content [209, 210]. Shell growth and calcification of juvenile and adult molluscs under OA remains uncertain due to limited studies with contrasting results. juveniles exhibit increased expansion of shell area (but not thickness) under reduced pH, despite declines in O2 consumption and feeding rates of larvae [203]. In juvenile Bay Scallops, elevated PCO2 (Table 1) does not affect shell and tissue growth but does reduce survival [209]. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing detailed observations of how elevated PCO2 affects larval survival and metamorphosis in various species, without suggesting that these changes will lead to the complete destruction of marine ecosystems. For example, it notes that while larval survival can be affected by elevated PCO2, there are also species that exhibit no significant changes in metamorphosis or larval survival. This indicates a complex ecological response rather than a total destruction as stated in the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: In its turn, the total sum of electron gas in the metal core is defined as m Σ = 4 3 π R c 3 m е n = 5. 09 × 10 19 kg. The same must be performed for the lower mantle, spherical shell circle thickness is Δ R l m = 2. 22 × 10 6 m n = 1 × 10 20 m − 3 (average value for semiconductors from 5 × 1019 m−3 to 5 × 1020 m−3 [28] ), the electron mass m e is the same. Then m Σ l m = 4. 35 × 10 9 kg. To calculate the electron gas drift velocity v d according to the quantum theory of the electrical conductivity of metals, the following formula should be used [24] [26] [27] [29] [30] : v d = e E T l 2 m v m ⋅ s − 1 (6) where e is the effective electron charge, C (1. 6 × 10−19); m is the effective electron mass, kg (0. 91 × 10−30); l is the electron mean free path, it equals l = σ ℏ ( 3 π 2 ) 1 3 e 2 n 2 3 m (7) where σ is the planet’s core electroconductivity, S/m; ħ is the Plank’s constant, 1. 05 × 10−34, J・s; v is the average velocity of electrons thermal movement, it can be derived from the formula: v = 8 k T π m m ⋅ s − 1 (8) where k is the Boltzmann constant, 1. 38 × 10−23 J/K; As seen, it is necessary to calculate the velocity of the electron thermal movement at T = 6000 K preliminary, according to (8), to calculate ЕТ and the electron mean free path l between their concussions with the crystal cell to find v d. l directly depends on the metal core’s electroconductivity which can be taken as 105 S/m as the smallest magnitude from the above interval (0. 1 ÷ 1. 0) × 106 S・m−1. Substituting the corresponding values into (8), (7) and (6) one will get v = 4. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the physical properties and calculations related to electron gas and metallic conductivity, without any reference to sea turtles or their navigation methods. There's no connection made to the Earth's magnetic field or any biological implications that relate to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Extreme weather events, like hurricanes and heatwaves, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. [SEP] Text: In the southwest of the United States, for example, California’s hot and dry experienced a “once-in-a-thousand-year” extreme rainfall, with nearly a year’s total worth of rain in 3 hours (37. 1 mm). In Pakistan, one-third of the country was completely submerged by a devastating historic flood, causing more than 1100 deaths and billions of dollars in losses. Although devastating, the extreme weather events that occurred in the summer of 2022 were not altogether unexpected. Observations have shown that extreme events including heatwaves, heavy precipitation, droughts, and tropical cyclones have been increasing in recent years and their attribution to human activities has strengthened since last assessment in 2014 (IPCC 2021). Scientists have warned that exceeding 1. 5 °C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points, with irreversible and catastrophic consequences (et al. 2022). Although climate tipping points for the Earth system have not been activated yet at the current global warming level of 1. 1 °C, some extreme events intensified by climate change have reached the tipping point of human survival. Heatwaves are a good example of how extreme weather events threaten human health. The maximum temperature a human can withstand is generally within the range of 40–42 °C. In the summer of 2022, the highest temperature in many areas exceeded this limit (Fig. 2a). But human temperature tolerance depends not only on the temperature but also on the humidity—represented by the wet-bulb temperature in meteorology—as well as on concomitant atmospheric pollutants, such as ozone. Studies have shown that even healthy people with strong climate adaptability cannot withstand a wet-bulb temperature higher than 32 °C. Once the wet-bulb temperature reaches 35 °C, we are no longer able to cool ourselves through sweating, leading to heat stroke, which means shocks to multiple organs and even permanent damage (Raymond et al. 2020). Extreme heatwaves over central Europe and especially the Paris region in the summer of 2003 demonstrated that the main health impacts and mortality cases were due to a combination of high temperature, humidity, and episodes of very high levels of ozone (Kovats et al. 2004; Schär et al. 2004). Continued exposure above this threshold can quickly lead to death by overheating. Some areas have already experienced wet-bulb temperatures close to humans’ survival threshold (Fig. 2b). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing evidence that extreme weather events, including heatwaves and heavy precipitation, have been increasing in recent years and are attributed to human activities. It specifically mentions the devastating effects of extreme weather in places like California and Pakistan, and highlights observations from IPCC reports which support the increasing frequency and severity of such events due to climate change. Additionally, it elaborates on the health threats posed by extreme heat and wet-bulb temperature, linking them to climate impacts.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: Declines in calcification rates have been observed for juveniles and adults under elevated PCO2 [213] and for adult (Chlamys farreri) under reduced pH [214]. The byssal threads that mussels use to attach themselves to rocks or vertical lines in aquaculture must be robust so that they do not drop off or get ripped off. The threads of the common mussel (Mytilus trossulus) have been shown to weaken under elevated PCO2 [215], although they may be more sensitive to temperature during during short-term fluctuations typical of local inlets (L. Newcomb, University of Washington, Seattle pers. comm. ). Metabolic rates of juveniles and adults appear to be generally unaffected by OA alone [216–218]. Also unaffected, at least in juvenile King Scallops, are clearance rates, growth rates, the ratio RNA:DNA (suggesting no effect on growth potential) [217], and various measures related to ‘clapping’ (rapid closing used for locomotion) by adults—frequency, recovery time between claps and clapping fatigue [218]. The latter study, however, did find a reduction in the force exerted by the clapping under elevated PCO2, which could reduce the scallops’ ability to escape predators. As above, the larval stage is vulnerable to OA. South of BC, at a hatchery for in Oregon (USA), carbonate levels experience large fluctuations due to strong coastal upwelling [195]. Negative correlations were found between the aragonite saturation state (Ωarag of water in which larvae were spawned and reared, and the resulting larval production and mid-stage growth [195]. In the laboratory, the shell growth rate of juvenile depends on pH exposure at the larval stage but not at the juvenile stage [212]. To test such carry-over effects in a natural system, larvae were reared under different PCO2 levels, then transferred to field sites after metamorphosis [206]. Juvenile survival was not significantly different between the two larval treatments, but the elevated-PCO2 larvae yielded smaller juveniles, suggesting that they suffer irreversible damage (e. g. energy deficit, abnormality, inability for compensatory growth) [206]. Indirect effects Changes in species composition can be expected under OA. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing evidence that while ocean acidification (OA) affects certain marine species, it does not imply a complete destruction of all marine ecosystems. For instance, it mentions specific species' responses, such as the weakening of mussel byssal threads and reduced force exerted by scallops under elevated PCO2, but also states that other parameters like metabolic rates and clearance rates of juveniles appear unaffected by OA. The mention of indirect effects on species composition suggests that ecosystems may adapt rather than be completely destroyed, as indicated in phrases like 'changes in species composition can be expected under OA.' Therefore, it suggests a more nuanced impact of ocean acidification rather than a total destruction of marine ecosystems.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: Then the total value of the lower mantle thermocurrents Itop, coming through its outer spherical surface SD with the radius RD can be derived from the following formula: I t o p = j S D (11) And, finally, according to the Biot-Savart-Laplace law, the Earth’s magnetic induction B Т Т t o p on the bottom surface equator can be calculated: d B Т Т t o p = μ 0 I t o p d R D sin 90 ∘ 4 π R Earth 2 (12) However, the magnetic moment of the current element I t o p d R D is considered here only in a one-dimensional space towards the current movement along the radius R D. Integration over d R D allows to find the total of the current elements I t o p R D just along the way R D. This won’t go for our case, when the radial currents, like Ilow, move from the source (sphere’s center) to the interface with the lower mantle spherical surface, directed azimuthally from 0 to 4π in a spherical conductor. There is no decision on valuation magnetic induction when currents move radially in a spherical conductor in technical literature. That’s why it is better to consider the following model. A small spherical conductor with the radius d R i is put into the spherical conductor with the radius R Σ. The currents, moving from the spheres center make a magnetic field in the volume of the initial small sphere. That field is always directed to its volumetric surface tangentially. Then, according to the circulation theorem, d B ⋅ 4 3 πd R i 3 = μ 0 μ r I i ⋅ 4 πd R i 2 where the currents I i coming through the small sphere surface 4 πd R i 2. When the current is distributed evenly over the sphere’s section I i = I l o w ( d R i R Σ ) 2. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the mathematical modeling of magnetic induction and currents in spherical conductors, without any mention of sea turtles or their navigation methods. Hence, it neither supports nor contradicts the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Extreme weather events, like hurricanes and heatwaves, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. [SEP] Text: As global warming continues, strengthened evaporation is anticipated to increase the proportion of water in the atmosphere, and high-temperature days will become more intolerable (Raymond et al. 2020). Fig. 2Source NOAA website at Image provided by the NOAA/OAR/from their Web site at with default setting except that “Date” was changed to “2022 Aug 1,” “Contour Lines” changed to “No,” “Plot Units” changed to “Celsius,” and “Projection” changed to “Robinson. ” b Top 0. 1% of wet-bulb temperatures at different locations between 1979 and 2017. Full size imageAs global warming has progressed, hotter and drier conditions and more extreme flooding events have become the new state and the new normal. On the one hand, we need to adapt to this new state and deal with the negative consequences on energy, ecosystems, economies, societies, and public health. On the other hand, we need to be prepared for the untypical and rapid reversal of extreme events, such as the shift from extreme drought to extreme flooding, and from heatwaves to cold spells. As highlighted in the recently published report United in Science (WMO 2022a), adaptation is crucial to lowering the risks of climate impacts. Therefore, it is important, urgent, and crucial to act now to improve our adaptation capacity to reduce the risks of climate change, especially of extreme events. 2 Understanding the Emergence of Learned in the Process of NeutralityIn response to climate change, the whole world is working towards carbon neutrality to limit global warming. Cutting down the carbon emissions in the energy sector is essential, which requires remarkable transition from fossil fuel energies to clean and renewable energies. Recently, the energy crisis accompanying extreme weather events has brought our attentions to the emergence of new risks during the energy transition process. 2. 1 from the 2021 to WeatherThe electricity resources of the state of Texas, United States, are dominated by natural gas (52%), followed by coal (20%), wind (17%), nuclear (9%), and other sources (2%) (Statista 2022a). 2021, the impact of extreme cold weather on the energy supply of the state caused significant blackouts and left more than 10 million people without electricity. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how global warming leads to 'hotter and drier conditions and more extreme flooding events,' indicating a direct relationship between climate change and the increase in extreme weather events. Additionally, it emphasizes the urgency of adapting to these changes, which directly supports the assertion that such events are becoming more frequent and severe as a result of climate change.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: Few studies explore these changes for molluscs, however it has been shown that larvae (Crassostrea virginica) have higher survival rates than under elevated PCO2, which is the opposite of the present-day PCO2 result (and in the absence of brown tides—in this study caused by a temperate phytoplankton species not found in the northeast Pacific) [210]. Thus, scallops may be affected by OA more than oysters. Scallops are also sensitive to other anthropogenic stressors, such as eutrophication [219], while the impact of these conditions on oysters and other shellfish was not investigated. OA may increase the vulnerability of shelled molluscs to predation by thinning their protective shells and may also cause food web shifts. For example, (Cliona celata) can bore twice the number of holes in shells, and remove twice the weight of shell, at pH 7. 8 compared to pH 8. 1, despite taking longer to attach themselves to the shells [220]. Negative impacts on molluscs could also have large unintended consequences for other species [221]. Shell production and aggregation provide refuge for other organisms such as sponges and crabs, and introduce complexity and heterogeneity into benthic environments, with heterogeneity being important for maintaining species richness [221]. Thus, the direct effects of OA on molluscs may have detrimental effects at the ecosystem level. Squid and octopus In BC, there are at least 30 species of squid and eight species of octopus [222], none of which have been studied for OA effects. Common species in BC waters are (Loligo opalescens) and (Enteroctopus dofleini). Similar to the otoliths of fish (see below), squids have internal calcified structures called statoliths used for sensing gravity and movement [223]. Under elevated PCO2 statoliths in embryos of the European Squid, Loligo vulgaris, are significantly larger than those formed under present-day PCO2 [224]. At higher PCO2 (still in the elevated range—Table 1), Kaplan et al. [225] observed reduced surface area, malformation, and abnormal crystalline structure in statoliths of Squid, Doryteuthis pealeii. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing evidence that while ocean acidification (OA) may negatively affect certain marine species, such as molluscs, it does not support the assertion that all marine ecosystems will be completely destroyed by 2050. It discusses specific impacts on species like scallops and oysters, mentions how certain indicators can show resilience (like higher survival rates of Crassostrea virginica larvae), and notes the complex interactions within marine ecosystems that may mitigate complete destruction. Thus, the overall message of the text challenges the absolute nature of the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: Hence, after substituting and shortening, here is the Biot-Savart formula for calculating the magnetic field induction inside the sphere (metal core) as the following rationalized form: d B Т Т l o w = 3 μ 0 μ r I l o w d R i 4 π R Σ 2 or B Т Т l o w = 3 μ 0 μ r I l o w R Σ 4 π R Earth 2 sin α (13) where R Earth is the Earth’s radius, R Σ is the metal core radius. In its turn, the magnetic field on the Earth’s surface for the lower mantle spherical layer can be calculated with considering the thickness of that layer ΔRD, which is denoted as d R D in (12). B Т Т t o p = 3 μ 0 μ r I t o p Δ R D 4 π R l m 2 sin α (14) The heat Q, which is produced in the lower mantle Vlm because thermocurrents interact with active resistance of this mantle’s ores. It can be found from the following formula [23] : Q l m = 1 σ j 2 V l m Δ t (15) where j is the current density in the lower mantle, A・m−2; σ is the lower mantle’s electroconductivity Sm−1; Δ t is the time of producing heat for 31,536,000 c (year); V l m is the volume of the lower mantle’s spherical circle. All the calculations for the lower mantle, including the used constants, are tabulated to Table 1. As seen from the table, the value of the magnetic induction B T T t o p on the Earth’s surface is ~4. 62 × 10−6 T, which is much lower than the really measured for the same terrestrial conditions В 0 = 3. 4 × 10 − 5 T. The heat Q, which is produced in the lower mantle volume and determined by thermocurrents Itop, is 2. 84 × 1014 J per year (2. 84 × 1021 erg per year), and this is much lower than the thermal heat loss of the planet per year, which is determined by the value of 3 × 1021 J per year (3 × 1028 erg per year). 3. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses various aspects of the Earth's magnetic field and calculations related to it, but it does not mention sea turtles or their navigation methods. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim being analyzed.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Extreme weather events, like hurricanes and heatwaves, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. [SEP] Text: All types of electricity generation technologies were impaired by the heavy winter storm, especially the natural gas and wind energy supplies due to damaged pipes that limited the natural gas supply and frozen wind turbines that shut down the wind energy supply. Other power plants also failed to operate at their best generation output levels. Moreover, the dramatically increased demand for heating during this extreme cold weather period caused a further collapse of the power supply (Busby et al. 2021). Under extreme conditions, the reduced reliability of the power generating infrastructure has become an emerging risk that threatens the stability of the energy supply. The winterization of the reliability standards for the infrastructure should be developed and implemented to ensure that generators are prepared for extreme events in the future. Moreover, in the process of achieving carbon neutrality, clean and renewable energy sources, especially solar and wind energy will make great progress in large-scale and commercial uses. But their energy networks and supplies are more sensitive to weather conditions. Therefore, a portfolio of multiple energy sources and special fusion techniques are required to overcome the fragmentation and instability of renewable energy sources, and to establish resilience capabilities such as improving energy source reliability and safety to ensure energy supply in extreme situations. In addition, the development of powerful freezing-resistant turbines for wind energy, and the preparation of redundant reserves of fossil fuel energy should be fully considered. 2. 2 from the Response to the 2021 to a Record HeatwaveThe electricity resources of the state of California, United States, are dominated by natural gas (47. 3%), followed by solar (15. 7%), hydropower (11%), nuclear (8. 4%), wind (7%), and other sources (10%) (Statista 2022b). 2021, a record-breaking heatwave swept the state and lasted for days with a maximum extreme temperature of 50. 5 °C, causing record-breaking power shortages, and some households experienced rolling blackouts. In contrast to the power shortages at peak times, there was a relatively abundant amount of grid electricity during effective solar radiation periods owing to the significant development of solar power. In response to the high fluctuations in power demand during the day, customers were urged to curtail electricity use as much as possible between 3 and 10 p. m. and shift energy use such as charging electric vehicles and using large appliances to the morning or early afternoon hours (CAISO 2021). Power shortages during heatwaves have become a new normal in recent years. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how extreme weather events, particularly the record-breaking heatwave in California in 2021, caused power shortages and challenges in energy supply. It highlights the impact of such extreme events on the reliability of electricity generation technologies and emphasizes the need for robust infrastructure to prepare for future extreme conditions. Additionally, the mention of power shortages becoming a 'new normal' in recent years aligns with the claim that climate change is leading to more frequent and severe extreme weather events.