Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: Though grain sizes at linear gully and furrow locations on Mars have not been constrained, we used the preliminary data collected by the in the Bagnold dune setting on Mars to optimise the range of grain sizes employed in our experiments. We estimated a scale factor of 0. 61 (see Supplementary Material, Experimental Scaling) by which to reduce grain size to compensate for the disparity in gravity between Mars and Earth. Grain sizes detected in the Bagnold dunes ranged from fine to coarse sand32, with many passing through a <150 μm sieve. The average grain size detected in the Bagnold dunes was between 200 and 300 μm 32. When scaled, these ranges fall between <90 μm and 122–183 μm, respectively. Therefore, of four grain diameter ranges (4–45 μm, 45–90 μm, 75–150 μm and 160–212 μm) were used for sixteen separate experimental runs. Experimental ProtocolIn the low humidity environment, pure CO2 ice blocks were slid onto beds of glass spheres of each grain size range. We define “sliding” as a gentle motion nudging the block onto the bed surface — sliding is a motion which has enough force to slightly disrupt the granular surface. Sublimation then transports the grains underneath and near the edge of the block. We used Structure from Motion33 (SfM) to build Models (DEMs) of the resultant morphologies from each experiment. We then compared these morphologies and morphometries with Martian terminal and detached pits measured using HiRISE images and DTMs. A second set of experiments was designed to study the formation of furrows. The blocks were placed as gently as possible on a flat granular bed in order to generate CO2 gas flow beneath the block. The aim was to investigate whether such a layer of gas at the interface between CO2 ice and a granular substrate could form furrow networks on an initially smooth and level bed. SfM was again employed to build high resolution DEMs of the features produced and the resulting furrow morphologies were compared with the well-characterised furrow networks on Martian dunes11,12. Each granular sample was dried and sieved to disaggregate material prior to each experiment. The sample was then poured into the inner container and levelled using a spirit level. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the experimental methods related to grain sizes and the processing of CO2 ice, without providing specific information about the composition of Mars' polar ice caps.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations. [SEP] Text: Η παρούσα μελέτη αντιπροσωπεύει την πρώτη ολοκληρωμένη ανάλυση σε επίπεδο γονιδιώματος 11 πληθυσμών αυτόχθονων βοοειδών από την ηπειρωτική Ελλάδα, τα ελληνικά νησιά και την Κύπρο, οι οποίοι συγκρίνονται με 104 φυλές, διεθνείς ή αυτόχθονες άλλων φυλών,σε περισσότερους από 46. 000 μονονουκλεοτιδικούς πολυμορφισμούς (SNPs). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing a comprehensive genomic analysis of indigenous cattle populations, which involves the comparison of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). This analysis inherently utilizes genetic markers to study inheritance patterns among various cattle breeds.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Psychopaths can never feel any emotions and are incapable of forming bonds with others. [SEP] Text: and Psychology Published: July 18, 2017 the Emotions of Others? Authors and reviewers of at the University of Parma and responsible of the CNR-URT Neuroscience of Parma. The main focus of his research concerns the motor system and its role in cognitive functions. He is the discoverer of the mirror neurons. He is a Member of Academia Europaea, of Accademia dei Lincei, of the Institute de France (Académie des Sciences), Member of the of Arts and Sciences and of of Science (USA). He is an honorary member of the for Neuroscience and Society. He has received many awards among which the most recent are: “for Medicine” of Accademia dei Lincei, prix the for and the from Lundbeck Foundation. He received from the Bernard of Lyon, the University of St. Petersburg, the University of Sassari, KU Leuven, and University of St. Martin, Buenos Aires. Trained as a philosopher and specialized in neuroscience at the University of Parma. The main focus of his research concerns the mirror system and the neural basis of social cognition, by means of a multidisciplinary approach including intracranial recording, in collaboration with the Hospital, in Milan. His major research interests lie in the relationships between the motor system and cognitive and affective functions, and in the theoretical aspects of embodied cognition. *fausto. caruana@unipr. it Champions of Science, Champions of Science, Age: 12–15 Champions of Science exclusively serves underserved middle school students from the School District. Champions of Science develops students’ knowledge and excitement about STEM and gives participants exposure to various careers. you see your friend disgusted to the point of vomiting, or laughing until it hurts, you immediately experience what your friend feels. Why do we feel the emotions of others around us? Neuroscience research (the study of the brain) has shown that the brain is equipped with special cells called mirror neurons that directly project information about others’ behavior into the regions of our own brain that process emotions. This mechanism shows that others’ emotions are not detected only by the visual part of the brain but they also activate our own emotional responses, allowing us to understand and automatically transmit the same information to others. This is an incredibly fast and efficient way to communicate! [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the role of mirror neurons in experiencing and understanding the emotions of others. It notes that the brain has mechanisms to process others' behaviors and emotions, suggesting that emotional responses can occur automatically and efficiently. This indicates that people, contrary to the claim regarding psychopaths, can indeed feel emotions and share emotional experiences with others.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: A time-lapse camera was positioned inside the chamber to record sublimation rate. A digital hygrometer placed on top of the bed indicated depression of relative humidity in real-time. Once relative humidity decreased sufficiently, the trap door was opened and a CO2 ice block of mass <1 kg (Table 1) was either placed or slid onto the bed. The chamber was immediately sealed and the block in each case was allowed to sublimate and interact with the granular substrate. This sublimation process lasted ~7–11 hours for each block depending on its mass and whether it burrowed. Videos of the initial sublimation dynamics in each case were recorded with an iPhone 6S 12 megapixel camera from outside the chamber, in order to avoid accumulation of grains on the lens which would hamper video quality. Table 1 Laboratory experiment controlled and measured parameters:Full size table Model DevelopmentAll features resulting from CO2 sublimation were modelled in three dimensions by SfM33 using Agisoft Photoscan. SfM is a technique for reconstructing three dimensional structures from two dimensional image sequences. is commercially available software which can photogrammetrically process digital images to create 3D spatial data. Each feature produced was imaged at many overlapping positions. In order to establish scale in the DEMs, coded markers were placed within the scene. finds the exact centre of coded markers enabling the production of highly accurate DEMs and the accurate measurement of features in the scene. Agisoft recommend that three or more scale bars are optimal. Therefore, a local coordinate system composed of three coded markers at known distances apart from one another, was used for scale definition34 to develop our 3D models. This local coordinate system was composed of three black and white circular 12-bit coded markers which were printed on three 6. 8 × 8 cm sheets of paper. The centres of these markers were positioned on a flat wooden triangle (of 75 cm2 area) and the markers themselves were laminated with a thin layer of plastic34. The (x, y, z) coordinates of the marker centres were carefully measured with an Engineer’s Scale prior to placement in the scene34 and these were later entered in to develop scale bars for reference within the models. These coordinates (in metres) were: (0, 0, 0), (0. 064, 0. 115, 0) and (0. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim regarding Mars having polar ice caps made of water and carbon dioxide. It discusses a laboratory experiment involving CO2 sublimation and the methods used for 3D modeling and measurement, without any mention of Mars or its polar ice caps.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations. [SEP] Text: In the middle of the 20th century, eight indigenous breeds of cattle were reported in Greece. Today, four of them are considered officially extinct (Tinos, Andros, Chios, Corfu), three as threatened (Brachykeros, Katerini, and Sykia), and one (Kea) as a rare breed. During the introduction of domesticated cattle to Europe, the east Mediterranean coast and the southern Balkans played a decisive role. Greek cattle breeds originate from a geographical area near the center of domestication with a Mediterranean climate. The breeding of these breeds is characterized by the absence of performance records and thus low use of artificial selection, also by poor feeding and housing conditions as well as by the rare veterinary service. Most of these populations come from the last remains of formerly large populations and a. . . The autochthonous cattle population of Greece is like that bred throughout the and they consist of the Brachyceros (“Shorthorn”) and the Podolian or Steppe type. In the middle of the 20th century, eight indigenous breeds of cattle were reported in Greece. Today, four of them are considered officially extinct (Tinos, Andros, Chios, Corfu), three as threatened (Brachykeros, Katerini, and Sykia), and one (Kea) as a rare breed. During the introduction of domesticated cattle to Europe, the east Mediterranean coast and the southern Balkans played a decisive role. Greek cattle breeds originate from a geographical area near the center of domestication with a Mediterranean climate. The breeding of these breeds is characterized by the absence of performance records and thus low use of artificial selection, also by poor feeding and housing conditions as well as by the rare veterinary service. Most of these populations come from the last remains of formerly large populations and are bred mainly in mountainous areas and/or islands with poor infrastructure. Finally, these populations are reproductively isolated due to geographic distances and physical barriers without the use of artificial insemination. local cattle breeds have decreased to small numbers and are currently at risk of extinction due to socio-economic reasons, geographic isolation and crossbreeding with commercial breeds. This study represents the first comprehensive genome-wide analysis of 11 indigenous cattle populations from continental Greece, Greek islands and Cyprus and compares them with 104 international breeds using more than 46,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by discussing a comprehensive genome-wide analysis of indigenous cattle populations and comparing them with international breeds using single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). SNPs serve as genetic markers, providing insights into inheritance patterns and genetic diversity within and between populations.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Psychopaths can never feel any emotions and are incapable of forming bonds with others. [SEP] Text: and animals share the ability to communicate their emotions with others through face and body expressions. The scientific study of emotional expressions started with the work of Charles Darwin, in the late 1800s. In his bestseller “of the Emotions in Man and Animals,” Darwin stated that, regardless of our culture, all humans have the same emotional expressions. More interestingly, similar expressions are also common to different animal species. The similarity between human and animal emotions is still a matter of debate. When we try to interpret animal emotional behavior, we need to look at the behaviors that are shared by humans and animals, while also keeping in mind that many emotional behaviors are unique to humans. Researchers who study animal behavior recognize that some animals show a number of human-like emotional behaviors, including disgust and happiness. For this reason, it has been suggested that while some emotions are largely shaped by our culture and society, many other emotional behaviors are shared by humans and animals. Notably, just like Darwin wrote, such similarity between human and animal emotions makes a lot of sense, because Darwin believed that emotions trigger actions that help both humans and animals react to challenges in their environments. Expressions of disgust, for example, cause reactions that result in reduced contact between the mouth and a disgusting substance, and these expressions remind the brain of the act of vomiting (Figure 1). According to Darwin, our ancestors’ emotions were so often followed by the same movements that each time we feel an emotion we automatically produce a corresponding facial expression or bodily movement. Figure 1 - Upper panel: The left side of the human brain. The colored part of the brain shows the location of the insula. The anterior (front) part of the insula, active during both the experience of disgust experience and when disgust is observed in others, is colored in red. The posterior (back) insula, in yellow, is involved in other sensory functions. Lower panel: The insula became active when study participants observed the expressions of expressions in these short movies. In these short movies, the actors leaned forward to sniff at the content of a glass, and then they showed either a disgust, pleasure, or neutral expression (modified from [1]). One of the reasons why we inherited emotional expressions is because they play a role in communication. The expression of disgust is efficient way to indicate to our friends, without using language, that they’d better not eat the same food we ate. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the emotional expressions and behaviors observed in both humans and animals. It highlights the shared ability to communicate emotions and suggests that emotions are integral to reactions and interactions, thereby opposing the idea that psychopaths can never feel emotions or form bonds. By emphasizing the importance of emotional expressions in communication, the text implies that emotions do play a role in social bonding, which is contrary to the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: 131, 0, 0) and these have accuracy <1 mm. The scale was in a constant location relative to the experimental chamber in each case, the centre of the nearest target on the scale was 15 cm from the chamber. This was close enough so that it could be seen in multiple overlapping images. This served as a reference for scale definition and also helped the processing tool to align images accurately. Constancy was assured by the remote nature of the laboratory — external vibrations were minimised. Care was taken when moving around the region of interest not to cause vibrational disturbances. In order to ensure a vertical orientation of the z-plane, the local coordinate system was placed flat on the laboratory bench during each experiment. The planar arrangement of the coded markers was confirmed using a spirit level to ensure the bench was level and the laminate nature of the markers ensured they did not bend. The images were captured at a maximum distance of ~1 m from the bed surface and minimum distance of ~0. 05 m at a variety of angles with respect to the image subject in each case. Camera positions were not recorded, as can compute accurate estimates. The focal length on the camera and aperture were fixed at 4. 15 mm and f2. 2 respectively and otherwise, the camera was not calibrated. Between 41 and 100 images were captured for each experiment, depending on whether fine detail such as furrow patterns were to be captured, or whether primary pit dimensions alone would be measured. The images were then aligned and referenced in Agisoft Photoscan, to build a point cloud, mesh and generate a DEM and corresponding orthophoto of each feature (resolutions in Table 1). The dimensions of each pit were then measured in ArcMap 10. 4, using the DEM and orthophoto. Differencing before and after DEMs in order to estimate pit depth was not possible due to the high albedo of the initial flat bed. We approximated the initial level surface by taking an average of 5 linear cross sections of the flat bed surrounding (but farthest from) the pit in ArcMap 10. 4. In each case brighter regions where distortions were expected were avoided when taking these transects. A line was interpolated across the primary pit to these locations and the difference in height between the original bed surface and the depression formed by the CO2 ice block was determined. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provides detailed experimental methodology and imaging techniques used in a laboratory, but it does not mention or provide any information related to the presence of ice caps on Mars, whether they are composed of water and carbon dioxide or not. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations. [SEP] Text: The following local breeds from Greece and Cyprus were sampled in our analysis: (i) from mainland Greece: breed (n = 97), Katerini breed (n = 20), Prespa cattle (n = 10), Rodope cattle (n = 12), Sykia breed (n = 16), (ii) from the islands: Kea breed (n = 97), Agathonisi cattle (n = 6), Crete cattle (n = 11), Kastelorizo cattle (n = 4), Nisyros cattle (n = 7) and (iii) Cyprus cattle (n = 5). Several parameters of genetic diversity (e. g. , heterozygosity and allelic diversity) were estimated and indicated a severe loss of genetic diversity for the island populations compared to the mainland populations, which is mainly due to the declining size of their population in recent years and subsequent inbreeding. breed present high level in almost all parameters similar with Buša and Anatolian Breeds. This high inbreeding status also resulted in higher genetic differentiation between island and mainland Greek breeds compared to the breeds from the remaining geographic groups. Supervised and unsupervised cluster analyses revealed that the phylogenetic patterns in the indigenous Greek breeds were consistent with their geographical origin and historical information regarding shared ancestry with breeds of Anatolian or Balkan origin. Greek island populations are placed close to the root of the tree as defined by Gir and the outgroup Yak, whereas the mainland breeds share a common historical origin with Buša. Unsupervised clustering and D-statistics analyses provided strong support for Bos indicus introgression in almost all the investigated local cattle breeds along the route from Anatolia up to the southern foothills of the Alps, as well as in most cattle breeds along the Apennine peninsula to the southern foothills of the Alps. Cyprus, Kastelorizo, and Agathonisi cattle populations showed a higher indicine ancestry compared to other populations from Greece and the Balkans. All investigated Cyprus and Greek breeds present complex mosaic genomes, as a result of historical and recent admixture events between neighbor and well-separated breeds. While the contribution of some mainland breeds to the genetic diversity pool seems important, some island and fragmented mainland breeds suffer from a severe decline of population size and loss of alleles due to genetic drift. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the analysis of local breeds from Greece and Cyprus, which involves estimating genetic diversity parameters and revealing phylogenetic patterns consistent with geographical origins and shared ancestry. The mention of high inbreeding status and genetic differentiation between island and mainland populations supports the idea that genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns within and across different populations.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Psychopaths can never feel any emotions and are incapable of forming bonds with others. [SEP] Text: Laughing, in contrast, is a joyful emotion that comes from the sound of friendly play among friends, and it indicates positive interactions between people. Understanding these expressions and communicating them to other members of the social group is very important for social life. In the case of disgust, for example, facial expressions help us to avoid the risk of eating rotten food, and to transmit the same information to our friends. How does our brain accomplish this task? of Surprisingly, one of the most important mechanisms that we use to understand and react to others’ emotions is not really all that complicated: it depends on the activity of parts of the brain usually involved in the control of our own actions and emotions. In the 1990s, researchers discovered that when we observe another person performing an action, this event is detected by both the visual part of the brain and also the motor part, i. e. , the part of the brain that typically controls our movements [2]. The motor system is equipped with specific neurons (brain cells) that have a double function. Like other neurons in the motor part of the brain, motor neurons help us perform our own actions, such as grasping a glass of water. However, different from other neurons in the motor part of the brain, these neurons are also activated when we observe the same actions performed by others! Since these neurons mirror the observed action of another person in our own motor system, they are called “mirror neurons” (Figure 2). All we have to do is observe an action in another person in order to trigger a representation of the same action in our own brains; and what is especially interesting is that the same mechanism also applies to emotions. Figure 2 - Mirror neurons are a specific set of neurons that are active when we perform specific actions or feel certain emotions and are also active during when we observe of the same actions/emotions in others. These neurons transform visual information about others’ actions and emotions into experiences in our own brains. This was originally discovered in the motor system. However, recent research shows that this mechanism is a general principle of functioning of the social brain. The figure depicts a typical test for studying mirror neurons. Both of in My Insula! Emotions are not controlled by the motor system: disgust, for example, depends on a deep and mysterious part of the brain called the insula (Figure 1, red and yellow areas). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the role of mirror neurons in understanding and reacting to others' emotions, which suggests that humans, including psychopaths, have mechanisms related to emotion recognition and social interactions. While it does not specifically address psychopaths, the detailed exploration of emotions and social connections implies that the claim oversimplifies the emotional capabilities of individuals, including those with psychopathic traits.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: An average and standard deviation of these values were taken in each case and standard deviations fall within the uncertainty margins outlined in. Levées were measured in a similar manner by taking average values of the difference between the average flat surface and levée height. Maximum and minimum levée height were recorded in each case. The area of furrows produced on each bed surface was recorded using polygonal mapping in ArcMap 10. 4. The area of the flat pit floor in each case was determined by zooming in to optimal pixel resolution on the orthophoto overlain above the DEM and using the free-hand tool to mark the line where the inner slope of levées ended and the flat pit floor began. The pit floor is defined as the reasonably flat area directly below where the incident block was for which the perimeter is identified as the line between where the inner levée slope ended at 1 pixel resolution. The area of the space between furrow networks was determined by zooming in to optimal pixel resolution and mapping the outer edge of each furrow. This total area was differenced from the total pit floor area to get the area covered by furrow networks. The area covered by furrows was then expressed as a percentage of the total pit floor area. A complete discussion of the DEM uncertainties presented in this paper is available in Supplementary Material. Data AvailabilityThe datasets generated and analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on request. Results and Discussionand Levée Formation via CO2 SublimationPits, which are visually comparable to Martian linear gully primary terminal pits, were observed to form via both the (i) stationary and (ii) sliding interaction between sublimating CO2 ice and substrate of all grain sizes. The primary terminal pits which punctuate linear gully channels on Mars are characterised by depressions in the substrate encircled by positive relief levées. The pits observed in our laboratory experiments were negative relief features surrounded by positive relief levées which formed primarily by excavation of material via sublimation. Pits were deepest for finer grain sizes (Table 1). In the cases where material was not transported on top of the block, the resulting pits adopted the shape of the block that formed them (Fig. 3a,d). In our experiments, blocks were rectangular. In other cases, the block burrowed into the bed and superposed material sunk as the block moved downward. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding Mars having polar ice caps made of water and carbon dioxide. Instead, it discusses laboratory experiments related to CO2 sublimation and features like pits and levées on Mars. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim about the composition of polar ice caps.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Ecosystem services provide benefits to humanity, such as clean water and pollination. [SEP] Text: and edited by Çagan H. Sekercioglu, Daniel G. Wenny and Christopher J. of Chicago Press, 2016Cloth: 978-0-226-38246-3 | Paper: 978-0-226-38263-0 | Electronic: 978-0-226-38277-7DOI: 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 001. 0001 of (paper, ebook) DeGruyter Multi-eBooks (formerly NetLibrary) over one hundred years, ornithologists and amateur birders have jointly campaigned for the conservation of bird species, documenting not only birds’ beauty and extraordinary diversity, but also their importance to ecosystems worldwide. But while these avian enthusiasts have noted that birds eat fruit, carrion, and pests; spread seed and fertilizer; and pollinate plants, among other services, they have rarely asked what birds are worth in economic terms. Birds Matter, an international collection of ornithologists, botanists, ecologists, conservation biologists, and environmental economists seeks to quantify avian ecosystem services—the myriad benefits that birds provide to humans. The first book to approach ecosystem services from an ornithological perspective, Matter asks what economic value we can ascribe to those services, if any, and how this value should inform conservation. 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0001[avian ecosystem function;economic ornithology;ecosystem services;cultural services;provisioning services;regulating services;supporting services]Ecosystem services are those aspects of the earth that benefit humans. of the identified four classes of ecosystem services: provisioning services such as food, water, timber, and fiber; regulating services that affect climate, floods, disease, wastes, and water quality; cultural services that provide recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual benefits; and supporting services such as soil formation, photosynthesis, and nutrient cycling. Interest in both the positive and negative roles of birds spurred development of Economic Ornithology, which investigated the food, habits, and migrations of birds in relation to both insects and plants. Although the discipline was initially greeted enthusiastically, criticism of methods and skepticism regarding conclusions grew in the early 20th century. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by explicitly discussing ecosystem services and their benefits to humans, including provisioning services like food and water, and mentioning birds' roles in pollination. It defines ecosystem services and describes categories such as provisioning and regulating services, which align with the claim's assertion regarding the benefits these services provide.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Psychopaths can never feel any emotions and are incapable of forming bonds with others. [SEP] Text: For many years, the insula remained a mysterious island, buried deep in the folds of the brain. Thanks to recent advances in technology, scientists have started to investigate its role in our emotional life. Electrical stimulation of this area in the brains of monkeys showed that part of the insula regulates behaviors related to eating food: when this part of the brain is stimulated, the animal performs mouth movements like chewing and swallowing. If the stimulation is applied to another area of the insula nearby, however, the animal’s face will express a variety of disgust expressions: grimaces characterized by the curling of the upper lip and the wrinkling of the nose, vomiting, nausea, and even more complex disgust behaviors such as throwing its favorite food away, or spitting it out [3]. Similar results have also been reported in humans whose brains are stimulated during brain surgery. Further studies [1] in healthy humans showed that the same part of the insula involved in the experience of disgust is also active when we observe another person smelling a disgusting odor, or tasting a disgusting flavor (Figure 1, lower panel). In a classic brain scanning study, participants were exposed to disgusting smells, which resulted in an increase of activity in the insula. The same participants were presented with movies showing actors expressing disgust or pleasant expressions. When watching actors express disgust, the same part of the insula was active. Your disgust is directly mapped in my insula! Additional evidence comes from studies on brain-damaged patients: when the insula is removed, people have trouble both with experiencing disgust and with recognizing disgust expressions in other individuals. Especially interesting is the case of a patient who, after removal of the insula, was no longer able to recognize disgust in others’ faces or from emotional sounds. The difficulty recognizing others’ disgust was mirrored by a similar change in the patient’s own experience: he was unable to experience disgust. Even more interesting is another case of a patient who had serious damage to the insula. When the patient saw a set of pictures of emotional expressions, he was able to name all of them, except he could not name the picture of disgust. When the same patient saw some disgusting food, he did not feel disgust either, and even pointed to the food saying: “delicious”! [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by providing evidence that humans, even those with brain damages affecting the insula, can experience and recognize emotions such as disgust. The mention of a patient who could not recognize or feel disgust after insula removal suggests that emotional experiences can be impaired but not entirely absent, contradicting the absolute nature of the claim regarding psychopaths. Additionally, it implies that forming emotional connections, measured through emotional recognition, is possible even if it is impeded in some individuals.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: In all cases, the primary pit which formed was wider than the block forming it. Figure 3Primary pits and detached impact pits formed during our experiments by the interaction between sublimating CO2 ice and granular substrate. (a) Primary pit formed by block placement on a bed of 45–90 μm grains. Levées are denoted by blue arrows. Yellow arrow points to a preserved vent aperture. Purple arrow indicates a zone of slumping. (b,c) Detached impact pits (black arrows) formed by return of granular clusters to a 4–45 μm bed surface as a sliding block burrowed beneath the bed and exhibited jet activity from the subsurface. Red arrow indicates a linear string of impact pits. These impact pits were ubiquitous over the primary pit surface (seen in e). (d) Primary pit formed in another instance of block placement on a bed of 45-90 µm grains. Blue arrows point to levées. (e) Wider view of the system formed when a block was slid onto a bed of 4–45 μm grains. Orange arrows identify collapsed pit morphologies which signify locations where jets emanated from the subsurface. White boxes show locations of (b) and (c). Full size image Upon initial contact with the substrate which was roughly at room temperature, the block in each case underwent rapid sublimation, thus levitating it and mobilising material within its surroundings. This interaction was interpreted by observation to be brought about by the Leidenfrost Effect, as considered in the CO2 block hypothesis. The force of the escaping gas on the grains, transported grains within the sublimating gas from beneath the block to the side, forming levées. During this initial stage of sublimation, vent apertures developed at gaps between the block and the inner slope of levées, from which jets of gas were observed to expel granular material to the main granular sheet (Supplementary movie 1). Some of these vent apertures were preserved after the sublimation process, while others were destroyed by gravitational collapse. After the initial rapid sublimation stage, sediment transport ceased and the block sublimated slowly for ~7–11 hours. It is thought that at this stage, the temperature difference between the block and the granular substrate decreased below the Leidenfrost point, thus ending the levitation and sediment transport phase. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address or relate to the claim about Mars having polar ice caps made of water and carbon dioxide. Instead, it discusses experimental observations related to sublimation and granular substrate interactions, which are unrelated to the composition of Mars' ice caps.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Ecosystem services provide benefits to humanity, such as clean water and pollination. [SEP] Text: Keeping in mind the eventual demise of in the early 20th century, efforts to revitalize the field today must be rigorous, repeatable, with a focus on tangible measures of plant yield in managed systems and plant fitness in natural systems. Cost-benefit analysis may permit evaluation of bird contributions to ecosystem service and disservice with respect to alternative mechanisms that are available (e. g. , bird predation versus pesticides for pest control). Efforts that permit scaling up from experimental plots to entire ecosystems are critical. (pages 1 - 26)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0002[ecosystem services;commodification;ethics;values;monetization;valuation]Birds are valuable intrinsically and instrumentally. Their instrumental values include use values, such as for hunting purposes, and non-use-values, such as for recreation, aesthetic value, and for delivering ecosystem services that help sustain and fulfill human life. If ornithologists, conservations, and economists can help individuals and institutions recognize the value of birds, this will increase investments in bird conservation while fostering human well-being. A surge in interest in environmental and ecological economics has thrust ecosystem services to the forefront of conservation science and policy, and ornithologists must engage in this work to advance bird conservation effectively. Documenting the values and services of birds is necessary for deliberative decision-making processes that collectively weigh economic, cultural, and intrinsic values. Here, we describe methods to quantify the economic value of biodiversity drawn from the field of environmental economics, and we briefly review several examples involving birds. Policies for markets and/or payments for bird services are still in their infancy, but we review how policies of other public ecosystem services have progressed and we discuss their relevance to bird conservation. Lastly, we identify directions for future ecological and economic research that may lead to advances in bird conservation policy. (pages 27 - 48)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0003[agroecosystems;bottom-up interactions;foundation species;pest control;top-down interaction;trophic cascade;trophic interaction networks]Birds function within their ecosystems in ways that include many direct and indirect chains of trophic interaction. In some interaction chains, birds exert top-down effects in “trophic cascades. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by emphasizing that birds provide ecosystem services that help sustain and fulfill human life. It highlights that these includes instrumental values such as aesthetic value and recreational uses. Moreover, the mention of policies for markets related to bird services being in development aligns with the idea that ecosystem services, including those provided by birds, offer significant benefits to humanity, thereby supporting the claim.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Psychopaths can never feel any emotions and are incapable of forming bonds with others. [SEP] Text: This is particularly interesting because this brain region is commonly active during our experience of positive events, such as humor, positive emotional expressions, or pleasant touch. Interestingly, seeing someone else laugh or display happiness also activates the ACC, the same area where the electrical stimulation causes laughter. It is important to note that the ACC is not part of the visual system in the brain, which means that, when we begin to laugh after experiencing others laughing, our laughter is not only caused by seeing the other person laughing, an experience of another person laughing also directly activates our brain region for laughter. This is the mirror neurons at work! Figure 3 - Upper panel: The figure shows the right side of the human brain from what is called a medial perspective—imagine the left side of the brain was removed, allowing us to see the inside of the right side of the brain. Electrical stimulation of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) caused a burst of laughter, often accompanied by happiness. The yellow dots indicate the areas of the brain from which laughter was caused when the electrical stimulation was applied (modified from Ref. [5]). The stimulation of brain areas represented by the black dots caused different reactions that are not related to emotions. Lower panel: Four different time points of the effect caused by the electrical stimulation of the ACC, from the starting point of the stimulation (1) to the induced laughter (4). There are many consequences of this mirroring process. Laughing in the company of others increases chemicals in our brains that make us feel happy. These chemicals are known to create a positive mood. When we lack these chemicals, it can increase stress, loneliness and, in the worst cases, depression. Therefore, contagious laughter through the mirroring process is a natural cure for a bad mood, and this is the reason why it is a good thing not to let people suffer alone, but rather to give a laugh in their company. Glossary Neurons: ↑ Nerve cells in the brain that encode information and transmit electrical signals to other neurons. Insula: ↑ A region buried deep in the folds of the brain that is involved in a variety of functions, including emotions such as disgust. Electrical Stimulation: ↑ Applying very small quantities of electricity in the brain to trigger the main function of the stimulated brain region. For example, stimulating the motor system makes the subject move, whereas stimulating emotional regions triggers specific feelings and emotions. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by demonstrating that the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is involved in experiencing emotions, specifically laughing and feeling happiness when interacting with others. The discussion of the ACC indicates that even if individuals may have varying capacities for emotional connection, the brain regions activated during social interactions suggest that some emotional experiences are possible, contradicting the idea that psychopaths cannot feel any emotions or form connections.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: When a block was slid onto the bed surface, a greater range of dynamic responses was observed (Supplementary movie 3). In these cases, particularly in the 4–45 μm and 45–90 μm grain cases, sublimation dynamics mobilised grains on top of the block. This increased thermal contact between the substrate and the surface area of the block and subjected more grains to the and the force of rapid sublimation. Pits were generally deeper in these instances, compared to when a block was placed on a bed of the same grain size range (Table 1). Levées that formed during each experiment increased in maximum height with decreasing grain size (Table 1). This is expected, since decreasing grain size increases grain mobility as the Shields parameter (a non-dimensional number used to calculate the initiation of motion of sediment in a fluid flow35), increases. Levée morphologies were comparable to those encircling the terminal pits of linear gullies on Mars. These were raised, positive relief features which surrounded the pit in each case. The relationship between levées and terrestrial debris flows combined with sinuosity has previously been invoked to support a debris flow genesis for gullies (including linear gullies) on Mars36. Our experiments highlight the equifinality of the granular response to the movement of dry and wet fluids. Levées formed without the need for downslope block movement and granular material was transported to the side under the influence of pressurised gas alone. This is consistent with the sliding CO2 hypothesis which suggests that stationary blocks at linear gully termini are capable of excavating and transporting sediment to form pits and surrounding levées. via CO2 SublimationOur laboratory experiments are the first to show that features similar to the sand furrows on Mars can form by sublimating CO2. Furrows formed under the CO2 blocks and closely resembled Martian furrows — they were negative relief features similar in pattern and planform though on a smaller scale. The furrows observed displayed a range of patterns (linear, sinuous, dendritic and curvilinear). Martian furrows have been spatially correlated with dark fans, where vents in the ice are posited to form. These fans are thought to be composed of sand transported from beneath the ice by the cryoventing mechanism12. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim regarding Mars' polar ice caps. Instead, it details experimental observations related to the dynamics of granular materials and sublimation processes that may resemble certain features on Mars. It does not specifically address or provide evidence about the composition of polar ice caps on Mars.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Ecosystem services provide benefits to humanity, such as clean water and pollination. [SEP] Text: ” These occur when a predatory species directly reduces its prey abundance and consequently indirectly releases suppression of species at lower trophic levels. Many bird species initiate trophic cascades in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and in natural and agro-ecosystems. Services provided by birds through trophic cascades benefit humans primarily through pest control in natural forests, forestry plantations, fruit orchards, and a variety of crop-based agro-ecosystems. Cascade strength may be affected by predator prey specificity, redundancy, species diversity, and productivity. Some birds influence ecosystem function both through either bottom up interactions or through intermediate trophic positions within interaction networks. These effects can also reverberate through trophic webs. Global change, including anthropogenic perturbation, may lead to a loss of ecosystem services, including seed dispersal and pollination services by birds. These losses may cause declines keystone or foundation plant species, resulting in losses in biodiversity and ecosystem integrity. We conclude with suggestions for future research needs on bird ecosystem services, particularly in light of global change. (pages 49 - 72)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0004[avian pollination;gene flow;inbreeding depression;pollen limitation;pollination;seed limitation]Avian pollination is thought to be less prevalent and less at risk than avian seed-dispersal. The extent of recently revealed bird pollination that does not conform to the classic ornithophily-nectarivore template suggests this mutualism may be cryptic and more prevalent than considered to date. Widespread anthropogenic disturbance has disproportionately impacted the connections between birds and flowers, so that bird pollination may be systematically under-reported. Evidence suggests that where plants are visited by more than one pollinator guild, the relative effectiveness of birds is high compared to invertebrates. In the absence of replacement, the loss of bird pollinators has resulted in pollination failure, increased inbreeding depression, and decreased plant density. Confirmation of seed limitation in pollen-limited plants serviced by birds provides a precautionary sign of the possible long term effects of bird pollinator loss. The quality of pollination service provided by birds has important consequences for gene flow and offspring survival. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing how birds contribute to ecosystem services that directly benefit humans, particularly through pollination and pest control in various agricultural systems. It emphasizes the importance of avian pollination and notes the detrimental impacts of global changes on these services, linking them to biodiversity and ecosystem health which are essential for providing benefits such as pollination to humans.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: It’s possible to erase painful memories through advanced neurological therapies. [SEP] Text: 0 bibliothekartag Bibliothekartag 2011 Bibliotheken Bibliotheks- und bibliothekspop bibliothekswesen bibliothekswissenschaft Call for Papers CfP Debatte digitale bibliothek ät Frankreich frei frei-tag 2011 frei-tag 2012 frei13 geisteswissenschaften Gesellschaft google iwp Kritik libreas libreas audio for methodologie open access Open Access-Zeitschriften podcast potsdam soziale software Unkonferenz urheberrecht usa visualisierung web 2. 0 wissenschaft wissenschaftliches publizieren wissenschaftskommunikation Wissenschaftssoziologie zitation Zukunft Öffentliche Bibliothekender Einträge Kommentare-Feed WordPress. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses topics related to libraries, digital communication, and scientific publishing, without any mention of neurological therapies or memory erasure. Therefore, it does not corroborate or contrast with the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: Furrow networks observed in the laboratory terminated at vents that developed at the boundary between the ice block and the pit walls (Fig. 4a). When a block was placed on the bed surface and carefully lifted as observed in 2, it was discovered that furrow mouths were located at regions where vents formed. Jets at vent locations were observed to transport grains from beneath the block. From these observations, we deduce that it is possible for furrows to be formed by pressurised gas that escapes through vents. Figure 4Furrow patterns and networks observed in the laboratory. (a) Before (left panel) and after (right panel) sublimation for an experiment on a bed of 45–90 μm grains. Left panel: sublimating block. Arrows point to vents where gas escapes from beneath the block. Right panel: primary pit formed on the same bed by the block shown in the left panel, containing linear and sinuous furrows. The direction of gas flow is marked by the convergence of furrows towards vent locations (blue). (b) Dendritic network of furrows (white arrows), formed in <1 minute when a block was placed on a bed of 75–150 μm grains. This block was lifted and then removed to demonstrate that dendritic patterns can rapidly form. (c) Primary pit containing linear and sinuous furrows extending across a pit floor on a bed of 4–45 μm grains. Vent apertures were not preserved, however by observation it was noted that vents operated on each side of the block. (d) Close-up of dendritic furrow network (white arrows) on a bed of 45–90 μm grains. Full size image Furrow abundance increased with decreasing grain size (Fig. 5c). Considering also the general increase in pit depth (Fig. 5b) and maximum levée height with decreasing grain size (Table 1), we report a feedback between grain size and feature formation via CO2 sublimation. When grain size distributions on Martian dunes are better constrained, this observation might shed light on why furrows are restricted to certain locations in the southern hemisphere13. However, we report that furrow pattern and network type are independent from grain size. Using the furrow pattern and furrow network classification derived from a survey of Martian dunes12, we classified the different network types formed by CO2 sublimation according to planform. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the composition of Mars' polar ice caps and instead focuses on lab observations related to furrow networks and sublimation processes. There is no mention of ice caps or their composition, making the text irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Ecosystem services provide benefits to humanity, such as clean water and pollination. [SEP] Text: Pollen limitation experiments suggest that bird-pollinated plants in New Zealand, the Americas, Southeast Asia, and Africa suffer similar levels of pollen limitation, and are typically more strongly pollen-limited than insect-pollinated plants. Thus, bird-pollination appears to be under-reported, hard to replace and at greater risk of failure than currently assumed. (pages 73 - 106)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0005[frugivores;seed dispersal;ecosystem services]Seed dispersal by frugivorous birds is a globally important ecosystem service. Nearly 4000 bird species have been observed eating fruit and collectively these species likely disperse seeds of at least 68,000 plants. The types of fruits eaten by birds are structurally diverse but fall into three functional groups, multi-seeded berries, few-seeded drupes, and single-seeded arils in dehiscent structures. Birds disperse primarily tree and shrub seeds, but also disperse the seeds of lianas, herbaceous plants, epiphytes, and hemiparasites. Through seed dispersal, birds are important drivers of plant community dynamics and therefore are essential in supporting many of the ecosystem services that those habitats and their constituent species provide. While much research on seed dispersal by birds has focused on the more frugivorous species, most of the bird species that eat fruit do so seasonally or only occasionally and the seed dispersal roles of most of these species are not well understood. Through their sheer numbers, opportunistic, generalist and/or occasional frugivores may be ecologically important in some ecosystems, but their influence has been little studied. Current trends in habitat loss and other human impacts, especially in the tropics, are threatening larger species of frugivores and the large-seeded plants only these birds disperse. (pages 107 - 146)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the role of frugivorous birds in seed dispersal, which is identified as a globally important ecosystem service. The importance of such services is emphasized as they support plant community dynamics and, in turn, contribute to the benefits that ecosystems provide to humanity, thereby linking the concept of ecosystem services directly to human welfare.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Dreams can predict future events with high accuracy, particularly if they are vivid.Wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems on Earth, providing habitats for a wide variety of species and helping regulate water flow. [SEP] Text: The cross section for each stream cell (subscript “sc”) that produces the shortest top width TWsc (m) is expected to be the most representative cross section for that stream cell. The TWsc and the flow depth Dsc (m) of the representative cross section are recorded for each stream cell. AutoRoute originally created flood inundation and flood depth rasters by mapping all of the cross-section depths and extents onto a raster (Follum, 2012). Later, an iterative combination of the functions within ArcGIS (ESRI, 2011) was then used to fill-in holes, omit outlier flood cells, and smooth boundaries along the flood polygon (Follum et al. , 2017). None of the previous postprocessing considered topography in the creation of the flood polygon. In this paper the use of functions within ArcGIS (ESRI, 2011) is considered the baseline method for postprocessing AutoRoute results and is referred to as GIS postprocessing (GISPP). 2. 2 Development of the AutoRoute postprocessing script (ARPP) The AutoRoute postprocessing script (ARPP) has been developed to better account for topography when creating the flood inundation map. The water surface elevation of each stream cell (WSEsc, m) is calculated as (5) WSE sc = E c + D sc where Ec (m) is the elevation of the cell. The water surface elevation for each cell in the model domain (WSEc, m) is interpolated from the WSEsc values using inverse-distance weighting: (6) WSE c = ∑ WSE sc w ∑ w where w is the weight, calculated as (7) w = d c → sc - 2 if d c → sc ≤ α TW sc w = 0 if d c → sc > α TW sc where dc→sc (m) is the distance between the model domain cell and the stream cell, and α is a user-defined parameter. Higher values of α increase the influence that each stream cell has on flooding the surrounding cells. The flood depth for each cell in the domain Dc (m) is then calculated as (8) D c = WSE c - E c where Dc values less than zero are set to zero and cells with Dc values greater than zero are considered flooded. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim. It discusses the methodology for flood inundation mapping and postprocessing using GIS software, without any mention of dreams, predictions, future events, or wetlands. Therefore, it does not support, contrast, or relate in any way to the claim presented.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: The following classes were delineated: linear (straight negative relief lines in the substrate), curvilinear (curved negative relief lines in the substrate showing one inflection point), sinuous (highly curved negative relief lines in the substrate displaying more than one inflection point) and dendritic (branching negative relief features in the substrate)12. Figure 5(a) pit abundance versus area of terminal pits in Russell and Matara Crater. Plot indicates an increase in the number of new detached pits each spring with increasing linear gully terminal pit area in Russell and Matara Crater. Error bars were calculated by taking 2 × the pixel width for each site and propagating the error on πr 2 for each main (terminal) pit area). 2 value for the linear fit is 0. 72 and the p value is <0. 01. (b) Laboratory primary pit depth eroded per block thickness. Plot indicating that pits observed in the laboratory were generally deeper on beds of the finest grain sizes. The CO2 block placed on a bed of 45-90 grains in experiment 2 partially burrowed and therefore is not included here. Error bars denote vertical error (z error) on each DEM. This was calculated by taking 10 vertical sections of a ruler where available, or known measurement in the scene of the DEM, averaging them and differencing this value from the actual measurement. (c) Furrow abundance observed in the laboratory versus grain size plot. Plot shows furrow abundance observed in the laboratory decreased with increasing grain size. Error bars were calculated by defining horizontal uncertainty as better than 1 mm, defining furrows as negative relief erosional lines in the substrate, defining the pit floor as the section at 1 pixel resolution where the inner slope of the surrounding levée ended and relatively flat surface beneath where the block was began, and allowing for error in digitisation decisions when marking the pit floor and furrow outlines in ArcGIS. Considering these factors, uncertainty on measurements was estimated to be 10 orthophoto pixels in each case and their volumes were propagated within the furrow percentage expression to obtain an estimate of uncertainty on furrow abundance. Full size image On Mars, the specific location and patterns of furrows on dunes changed between Mars years following emplacement and sublimation of the seasonal CO2 ice deposit. We can report a similar outcome for our experiments where furrow location and pattern changes for similar grain sizes between experiments. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses various geological and experimental findings on Mars, focusing on furrows and pits without mentioning the presence or composition of polar ice caps.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Ecosystem services provide benefits to humanity, such as clean water and pollination. [SEP] Text: 0006[diaspore;endozoochory;epizoochory;external transport;gut passage;internal transport;passive seed dispersal;seed traits;shorebirds;waterfowl]Ducks, shorebirds, rails, gulls and other waterbirds act as vectors of seeds, spores and other plant diaspores carried internally in their guts, externally on their feathers, feet or bills, or used as nesting material. Darwin was the first to understand the significance of dispersal by migratory waterbirds in plant evolution, biogeography and ecology. Countless aquatic and terrestrial plants are dependent on dispersal by waterbirds for long-distance dispersal, and this has probably been the case since the Cretaceous. However, plant ecologists and waterfowl biologists alike have been slow to recognize the importance of this dispersal mode as an ecosystem service. Seed dispersal by waterbirds plays a vital role in plant population dynamics, population genetics and changes in species distributions in response to habitat change and climate warming. On the other hand, waterbirds also spread alien species, and their role as vectors should be taken into account when considering how to prevent and manage biological invasions. (pages 147 - 195)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0007[corvidae;coevolution;human commensal;regeneration;scatter hoarding;seed storage]Birds of the family Corvidae, which comprise the familiar jays, magpies, crows, ravens, and their allies, occur nearly worldwide. They include species that are common human commensals in urban and rural landscapes, as well as species that occupy more remote wildlands. Many corvids store excess food for later use, preventing access by conspecifics or other competitors and concealing it in hiding places such as crevices and under objects, but also by burying food under soil, litter, or other substrate. For seed-eaters, which are predominantly granivorous corvids, seeds are moved away from parent trees, and prolonged storage may frequently lead to seed germination and plant regeneration. These granivorous corvids are often scatter-hoarders, placing one or more seeds in many different locations. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the role of waterbirds in seed dispersal, which is an important ecosystem service that supports plant population dynamics and biodiversity. Although it does not specifically mention 'clean water' or 'pollination,' the underlying theme of ecosystem services and their benefits to the environment aligns with the claim regarding benefits to humanity, as these services play a crucial role in the health of ecosystems and can contribute indirectly to human benefits.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Biodiversity tends to increase ecosystem resilience, with diverse ecosystems being better able to recover from disturbances. [SEP] Text: Figure 1A map of the 15 study estuaries across New Zealand, with the number of sites within brackets if more than one per estuary: WGR (2), Whangarei Harbour; WTA, Whangateau Harbour; MAH (3), Mahurangi Harbour; WHI (2), Whitianga Harbour; MNK (2), Manukau Harbour; RAG, Raglan Harbour; TAU (2), Tauranga Harbour; DEL, Delaware Inlet; WMA, Waimea Inlet; AVO, Avon-Heathcote Estuary; AKA, Akaroa Harbour; BLU, Blueskin Bay; WKW (2), Waikawa Estuary; JAC (2), Estuary. The coloured circles indicate the turbidity group sites belongs to; clear (white), moderately turbid (grey), turbid (black). Estuaries with multiple sites belonging to different light groups are indicated with different colours within the circle. Full size imageAt each site, porewater nitrogen concentration was manipulated in nine 9-m2 plots. Three plots were allocated to each treatment: medium nutrient addition 150 g N/m2, high nutrient addition 600 g N/m2, and procedural controls (no nutrient addition). In the nutrient addition plots, nitrogen (urea) was added uniformly into the sediment through injection of a slow-release fertiliser (40–0-0 N:P:K, Nutricote Chisso-Co. , Ltd, Tokyo, Japan). The injection of the fertiliser at the depth of 15 cm elevates the porewater ammonium concentrations for extended periods, thus simulating the effects of porewater enrichment due to long-term eutrophication but not necessarily the processes of increased organic matter decomposition (Douglas and others 2016; Douglas and others 2018). The nutrient enrichment treatments modified benthic macrofauna communities without driving them to extinction (see Results and Douglas and others 2018). All sites and experimental plots were established in March–April 2017 and left undisturbed for seven months before sampling sediment properties, macrofaunal diversity metrics and ecosystem functions in October–November 2017, which is springtime in New Zealand. The experimental plots were left for seven months to provide time for recovery from the initial set up, for the added nitrogen to diffuse through the sediment and for the ecosystem to respond. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not directly address the claim about biodiversity and ecosystem resilience. Instead, it describes an experimental setup examining nutrient addition in estuarine environments and its effects on benthic macrofauna communities. While the study may relate to ecosystem functions, it does not explicitly support or contrast the claim concerning the relationship between biodiversity and resilience.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: In some cases, a variety of networks and patterns developed on beds of the same grain size range. We identified dendritic and curvilinear furrow networks on the 4–45 μm bed pit floor (Fig. 4d) while only linear and sinuous patterns resulted from a second experiment of block placement on a 4–45 μm bed (Fig. 4c). Dendritic networks were observed in certain experiments across all grain sizes and these developed almost instantaneously as observed in 2, rather than via a network growth over time. However, furrows detected in our experiments formed via the contact between a ~−80 °C CO2 ice block and substrate which was roughly at room temperature and our incident ice was on a much smaller scale to that which seasonally covers Martian dunes. Our initial conditions were very different to the gradual basal heating of the CO2 ice sheet and consequent ice rupture proposed in the cryoventing model. However, we have demonstrated that dendritic patterns can form in a single cryoventing event, as was proposed for Mars12. Dendritic patterns tended to form when there were few vents, and when vents were furthest apart. We note also that when vents were located directly across from one another at each side of the block, linear and sinuous furrows formed instead. This is consistent with the observation that cryoventing efficacy on Mars is constrained by vent spacing12. We interpret this laboratory observation as an indication that cryoventing is likely to be limited by a pressure gradient. High pressure gas at the centre of the ice/substrate interface will be attracted towards an area of low pressure — such as that provided by a vent. If there is a roughly equal pressure gradient between the block centre and two lateral vents opposite one another, gas will escape at a similar rate towards either side and this will be reflected in the presence of linear or sinuous patterns that extend and connect across the base of the pit floor. We propose that Martian furrow formation and network type may be influenced by a pressure gradient, supplied either by inhomogeneous ice thickness on dune slopes and/or stress locations such as dune brinks. Further work may clarify the extent to which ice thickness and surface topography influence pressure gradients at furrow and dendritic trough locations on Mars. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim about Mars having polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. Instead, it focuses on experimental observations related to cryoventing patterns, pressure gradients, and network formations on Martian surfaces. Therefore, it is considered irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Ecosystem services provide benefits to humanity, such as clean water and pollination. [SEP] Text: Several corvid species are dependable seed dispersers for various woody plant taxa, and particularly pines, oaks, beeches and chestnuts, resulting in coevolution and coadaptation. Seed-storing corvid species help shape forest composition and distribution across landscapes, facilitate response to changing climate, and regenerate communities after disturbance. Examples illustrate economic valuation of corvid seed dispersal services and demonstrate how declining seed dispersal services of an obligate corvid mutualist for a widespread forest tree already have apparent consequences. (pages 196 - 234)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0008[carrion;diclofenic;facultative scavenging;obligate scavenging;vultures]Carrion is a unique food resource compared to live prey, and animal species are adapted to using carrion to varying degrees. Across all climates, ecosystems, and habitats, most carcasses are used at least in part by vertebrates—relatively few are completely decomposed by insects and microbes. Birds are particularly well adapted to scavenging, especially the Old- and New-World vultures, the only known obligate vertebrate scavengers. Numerous studies, many conducted over the past decade, have demonstrated the importance of scavengers in maintaining ecosystem stability, providing public health benefits to humans, and many other important industry and cultural services. Avian scavengers face many challenges in the modern world, such as poisoning, climate change, habitat destruction, and man-made obstructions such as power lines and wind farms. As a response, scientists, conservation groups, governments, and other advocates for healthy scavenger populations have made strides recently in conserving these animals. However, much work is still needed to globally preserve the important services provided by avian scavengers for future generations. (pages 235 - 270)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0009[seabirds;nutrient dynamics;nutrient cycle;ecosystem services;nutrient transport;phosphorus;nitrogen;ecosystem;human-dominated ecosystem]In this 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing various ecosystem services provided by corvid species, such as seed dispersal, which have important ecological and economic implications. It explains how these services shape forest composition, respond to climate changes, and regenerate communities, indicating their significant benefits to ecosystems, which indirectly support human needs like clean water and biodiversity.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Biodiversity tends to increase ecosystem resilience, with diverse ecosystems being better able to recover from disturbances. [SEP] Text: Further details of this study’s design and sampling can be found in Thrush and others (2021). Sampling and Data CollectionEnvironmental VariablesPhotosynthetically active radiation (PAR) was logged at each site for the duration of the experiment to quantify seafloor light intensity. The attenuation of light through the water column to the seafloor is affected by water column turbidity, and seabed PAR levels affect rates of photosynthesis by benthic primary producers. Odyssey® Light loggers measured PAR every 10 min at 10 cm above the sediment surface for 8 months. After the experiment, PAR data during daylight periods of tidal immersion (± 2 h of high tide) were summarised into daily averages, and then, these daily averages averaged for each site (hereafter called mPAR); data presented in Mangan and others 2020). The nights were excluded through removal of times when PAR was 0 µmol photons m−2 s−1. Sediment characteristics were sampled in each plot by pooling five sediment cores (2. 6 cm diameter, 2 cm deep) for analysis of sediment chlorophyll a, grain size, and organic content. An additional four sediment cores (2. 6 cm diameter) were taken from each plot for analysis of porewater ammonium concentration at two depths (0–2 cm and 5–7 cm). These depths were selected to quantify the nutrient concentrations above and below the redox potential discontinuity layer, and to ensure that the added nutrients had diffused upwards through the sediment. Sediment was frozen and later analysed for sediment chlorophyll a, grain size, organic content and porewater ammonium concentrations using standard techniques for sediment analysis in intertidal soft-sediments (see Thrush and others 2021 for details). We focused on measuring the porewater concentration of ammonium to quantify the treatment effect (that is, urea hydrolyses to ammonium), nitrate, nitrite, and phosphorous concentrations were however also measured in the porewater but not reported here due to being very low and mostly under the detection limits. Biodiversity MeasuresFrom each plot, two macrofauna cores (13 cm diameter, 15 cm deep, total area 0. 026 m2) were pooled, sieved on a 500-µm mesh and preserved in 70% isopropyl alcohol. The fauna were stained with Rose Bengal, sorted and identified. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provides detailed methodological aspects of a study regarding sediment and light logging but does not reference biodiversity or ecosystem resilience in a way that would support, contrast, or directly relate to the claim. Therefore, it is deemed irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: Impact and FormationIn addition to primary pit formation, the cases where a block was slid onto grains of 4–45 μm and 45–90 μm revealed two additional pit types (Fig. 3b,c,e). These instances involved very different fluid dynamics to those observed in all other cases. Grain mobilisation induced by increased thermal contact between ice surface area and the warmer granular material, enabled the block to move downward, and the bed appeared fluidised (Supplementary movie 3). This process lasted ~1 minute in each case before the block was observed to submerge fully within the granular bed. CO2 gas jets escaped from the subsurface (Supplementary movie 3), excavating the material in the space surrounding their path and providing room for adjacent material to sink, forming collapsed pits (Fig. 3e). These endogenic pits were characterised by concentric tensional fissures and did not have raised rims. Finally, a third pit type was observed to form via the return of jetted sediment to the steady bed surface. These impact pits (Fig. 3b,c) were smaller in diameter than the primary pit and varied little in size (up to 6 mm in diameter, to below our measurement accuracy). Some occurred in strings and all possessed raised rims, suggesting surface material was ejected in their formation. Following the cessation of sublimation, impact pits were ubiquitous across the primary pit, levées and surrounding bed surface (Fig. 6). Figure 6Conceptual model of 3 pit formation modes. (a) Block is slid onto grains (beige), increasing thermal contact. (b) Grains are mobilised on top of the block via escaping pressurised gas, increasing CO2 ice exposure to the Leidenfrost Effect. (c) Block submerges; gas jets escape and surface material sinks forming collapsed pits. (d) Impact pits form by substrate return via fluid instability such as inelastic collapse of gas jets or granular clustering within jets; returned grains impact the surface forming shallow, rimmed impact pits. (e) 3 resultant pit morphologies; primary pit, collapsed pits, impact pits (within main pit and surrounding bed surface) and cracks. (f) Legend. Full size image in Proctor, Russell and Matara CratersFor morphometric measurements, we surveyed 60 primary terminal pits on megadune and 135 primary terminal pits at 13 sites in Proctor Crater. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it focuses on the formation of pits on the surface of Mars and describes different pit types and their dynamics without mentioning polar ice caps or their composition.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Ecosystem services provide benefits to humanity, such as clean water and pollination. [SEP] Text: 0010[beetle regulation;biodiversity;deadwood;ecosystem services;engineers;heartwood fungus;keystone species;saproxylic;secondary cavity nesters;woodpeckers]Woodpeckers are prominent examples of ecosystem engineers because they excavate cavities in woody plant tissue, transforming habitat in ways that create shelter for other cavity-dwelling organisms. While the potential keystone role of woodpeckers in cavity-nesting bird communities is well documented, less is known about the importance of their feeding activity. Many woodpecker species drill holes in wood and consume numerous saproxylic insects; and some create sap wells that provide a rich food source for other sap-feeding organisms. Through their cavity-excavating and feeding activity, woodpeckers likely contribute significantly to decomposition cycles, food webs, and biodiversity in forest ecosystems. As with most birds, however, the ecological impacts of woodpeckers have rarely been quantified in terms of the ecosystem services they provide. We discuss the ecosystem services provided by woodpeckers and point out knowledge gaps and research needs that must be addressed before full valuation of these services can be carried out. (pages 298 - 320)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0011[agricultural areas;agroforests;ecosystem services;frugivores;granivores;insectivores;nectarivores;omnivores;primary forests;species richness]Although most bird species avoid agricultural areas, nearly a third of all birds regularly to occasionally use such habitats, often providing important ecosystem services like pest control, pollination, and seed dispersal. Combining literature review with large-scale analyses of the ecological characteristics of the world’s birds, I compared tropical bird species that prefer forests, agricultural areas or both, with respect to body mass, diet, range and population size, frequency, conservation status, habitat and resource specialization. Compared to primary forests, species richness of large frugivorous and insectivorous birds (especially terrestrial and understorey species) often decline in agroforests. In contrast, nectarivores, small-to medium insectivores (especially migrants and canopy species), omnivores, and sometimes granivores and small frugivores do better, frequently by tracking seasonal resources. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing the ecosystem services provided by woodpeckers, such as their role in promoting biodiversity and contributing to food webs. Additionally, it mentions that various bird species, which inhabit agricultural areas, provide important ecosystem services like pest control, pollination, and seed dispersal. These examples link directly to the claim that ecosystem services benefit humanity.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Planting a single species of tree in large areas, like monoculture forestry, is more beneficial to the ecosystem than maintaining biodiversity. [SEP] Text: This experiment is part of the e. Browse more projects conserving species biodiversity across the tree of life? Rabearisoa, Rachel Meyer, and Camille GaynusBacked by and : 10. 18258/69033Grant: eDNA Innovation$10,005Raised of $10,000 Goal100%Funded on 6/11/24Successfully Funded$10,005pledged100%fundedFundedon 6/11/24? How does this work? assessments are a common tool for evaluating biodiversity richness, but they are costly and time-consuming. Their pertinence can also be limited by several factors, such as the accessibility of sampling areas or the quality of photographs and specimens. This project aims to use digital and molecular tools to 1) catalyze the development of next-generation biodiversity monitoring strategies for a comprehensive inventory and 2) expand environmental awareness in Black communities. Ask the ScientistsDiscussionWhat is the context of this research? In 2017, the of Sciences (CAS) team intensively surveyed the biotic communities on the headland California beach. The study surveyed the unprotected tidepool as well as the (SMCA) created in 2009 to assess how biologically different these areas are. The study found little overlap between eDNA and photographs, with eDNA covering lower trophic, but also that the unprotected tidepool and the SMCA looked identical based on eDNA. This project aims to update the data collected in 2017 and test if the SMCA is now different from the unprotected tidepool in terms of biodiversity richness after 7 years of protection, using the same method of comparing eDNA results to human observation records. What is the significance of this project? The results of this project could demonstrate that eDNA may be useful for finding proxies for diversity in sites that are difficult to monitor with photographs and better inform ecosystem management. Effectively, systematic collection of eDNA can describe differences in spatial and temporal biodiversity variation of the beach, and provides a rich view of the community ecological network, including holobiomes. The two-period data comparison can demonstrate the effectiveness of the SCMA in conserving biodiversity after 7 years of protection. The project will share the experiments and data with the public through interactive web pages of and Black in TV so that it can expand the number of eDNA adopters in California and beyond. What are the goals of the project? [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim as it discusses a project focused on evaluating and conserving biodiversity rather than promoting monoculture practices. It highlights efforts to monitor and assess biodiversity through methods like eDNA collection, which aim to demonstrate biodiversity richness and inform ecosystem management. This indicates the importance of maintaining biodiversity, thereby contradicting the assertion that monoculture forestry is more beneficial.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: This preliminary study was carried out purely to demonstrate an initial trend that may help us to assess our laboratory data in the context of Martian dunes and is not intended as an exhaustive survey of Martian linear gully pits. All terminal pits were characterised by a roughly circular depression surrounded by circular levées, were shallow (<1 m–2. 5 m) and varied greatly in diameter, from <1 m to as much as 19 m. Pits were generally wider than their accompanying channels. This is consistent with our laboratory observations that pits were wider in diameter than the sublimating blocks which formed them. We propose that blocks translating down-slope do so quite rapidly and so the width of the channel carved corresponds with block width, while the stationary block may sublimate at the terminus, eroding and transporting material for longer at the site. Crater, the average primary terminal pit width was 3. 2 ± 0. 5 m and the majority of pits (83. 7% of those sampled) were less than 4 m in diameter, with the minimum pit diameter being 1. 4 m. The remaining 16. 3% of pits were between 4 m and 8 m in diameter (maximum 7. 4 m in diameter). Only 16 terminal pits were deeper than the vertical uncertainty of 1. 08 m on the DTM used. The aspect ratios of terminal pits ranged between 0. 8 and 1. 7. Crater terminal pits are larger. Only 11. 7% of terminal pits sampled were 4 m or less in diameter, while 46. 7% of terminal pits were between 4 and 8 m in diameter and 41. 6% were between 8 m and 19 m in diameter. The minimum primary terminal pit width on megadune was 2. 7 m and the maximum primary terminal pit width was 18. 6 m. Only 3 primary terminal pits were deeper than the upper limit vertical uncertainty of 1. 7 m on the DTM, and for these we determined an aspect ratio range between 3. 6 and 8. 3. Detached pits on megadune of average diameter 2. 5 m were found predominantly in the vicinity of the largest primary terminal pits. Other large primary terminal pits were not accompanied by detached pits. However, these particular linear gullies indicated higher probability of block energy loss such as high sinuosity and lateral small channels. These activities may have slowed blocks down or broken them up before reaching the termini. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses the characteristics of terminal pits on Mars without mentioning polar ice caps or their composition. It focuses on the dimensions and properties of Martian dunes and gullies, which does not provide any information regarding the presence or composition of ice caps.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Ecosystem services provide benefits to humanity, such as clean water and pollination. [SEP] Text: However, changes in guild species numbers do not necessarily translate to changes in relative abundance, biomass or function, and more studies are needed to quantify these important measures. These findings indicate that the replacement of forests and agroforests with simplified agricultural systems can result in shifts towards less specialized bird communities with altered proportions of functional groups. These shifts can reduce avian ecosystem function and affect the ecosystem services provided by birds in agroforests and other agricultural landscapes. (pages 321 - 340)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0012[conservation;direct ecosystem services;excise tax;indirect ecosystem services;Pittman-Robertson act]Birds are important components of the world’s many ecosystems, and they contribute cultural, provisioning, supporting, and regulating ecosystem services. The lives of birds and humans have been intertwined for many thousands of years. Birds inspire, entertain, feed, and clothe humans. Throughout the evolution of modern humans and the cultural development of our societies, birds clearly matter. Cultural and provisioning services accrue directly – these services are themselves products. Bird art and bird eggs, for instance, are commodities --they may be bought and sold (or bartered). Regulating and supporting services, in contrast, accrue indirectly – not themselves commodities, they instead they help maintain other components of the world’s ecosystems upon which humans depend for both goods (food, shelter) and services (disease management; pest control). These indirect services facilitate other ecosystem services, and therefore promote biodiversity. To maintain the many ecosystem services provided by birds, we need to conserve them. The financial costs of conservation appear great, perhaps even insurmountable. Nonetheless, the capital to fund conservation exists. It is up to those of us who value birds, and the rest of nature, to urge governments and citizens of the world to find the will. (pages 341 - 364)This 2016. Page maintained by BiblioVault. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by highlighting the various ecosystem services provided by birds, which include cultural, provisioning, supporting, and regulating services. It emphasizes that birds are important for maintaining ecosystem functions that facilitate other ecosystem services essential for human survival, such as food and shelter. The passage explains that these ecosystem services directly and indirectly contribute to human well-being, thereby supporting the idea that ecosystem services benefit humanity.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Planting a single species of tree in large areas, like monoculture forestry, is more beneficial to the ecosystem than maintaining biodiversity. [SEP] Text: This project aims to 1) empower community science efforts of the program and the nonprofit Black in and 2) inform ecosystem management about species biodiversity richness in the through an innovative biodiversity monitoring practice. Through the analysis of eDNA metabarcoding, we will inform the overlap with human observation and fill the information gaps on biodiversity richness resulting from taxon and visitation bias. With community empowerment as the goal, the project will be paired with interactive web pages and for the public, who are potential eDNA adopters, to explore. wait. . . This budget will help us conduct the surveys and give travel support to the participants. We plan to have 05 scientists who are members of the BIMS on the West Coast, as well as several students from who will collect the samples in Pillar Point. To generate the data with lab, we will buy the materials needed for the sample collections ($125 each for 4 markers, 56 samples). We will extract 56 triplicate sediment samples with the for triplicate library PCRs for each of four metabarcoding markers: MiFish 12S U, CO1, 18S, and 16S, normalize and index libraries and submit for sequencing to 75000 reads per marker per sample on a NextSeq 2000 2x300bp run. Finally, we plan to purchase a digital waterproof camera and its housing to take pictures during the experiment and produce the bioblitz videos for and the interactive web pages. Endorsed byThis is a critical question in is the perfect person to answer it endorse the application of Rabearisoa to lead this project. Ando is an extraordinary graduate student, who our Center is very happy to support in many aspects of her work. This new project will provide insights about the importance of citizen science in documenting the value of eDNA particularly in the context of marine protected areas. We are happy that she will be sharing the results of this work publicly and through the Black in (BIMS) network. Michael BeckProfessor & DirectorUniversity of Cruz, Center for will host bioblitzes over the course of seven days in June 2024. We will make libraries for four metabarcodes from the samples and they will get sequenced at the end of July 2024. Then, we will analyze sequences and upload them to the publicly-available websites. We envision generating science communication material by October 2024 and having a draft manuscript by December 2024. This timeline and the combined team effort will ensure deliverables are met in a timely manner. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting the importance of biodiversity monitoring and the role of community science in understanding and managing species diversity. It underscores initiatives aimed at documenting biodiversity, which implicitly argues against the notion that monoculture forestry has superior benefits to ecosystem management compared to maintaining biodiversity.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: We observed a trend in detached pit data (Fig. 5a), which suggests that the abundance of these multiple detached pits at linear gully termini increases with the surface area of the newest/widened terminal pit. Should terminal pits be formed via the sublimation of CO2 ice blocks, the data suggest that a greater block size (and hence greater surface area exposed to sublimation) produces more detached pits. This is in agreement with our laboratory observations that “detached” impact pits formed on finer grain sizes when a greater amount of CO2 ice surface area was undergoing the initial rapid sublimation dynamics of the Leidenfrost Effect, allowing it to burrow. We hypothesise that the impact pits observed in the laboratory were formed through a clustering27 instability in the granular jets (Fig. 6). This lends credence to our hypothesis that the multiple detached pits surrounding many Martian linear gully terminal pits (Fig. 2a–d) may be formed by a similar mechanism involving granular jets. We reason that at linear gully termini, the sublimating CO2 may become unstable as blocks reach a terminal velocity (and greater drag force) at the lower dune slipface, which is reflected in the confinement of these detached pits to the lower ~200 m of the channel vicinity (Fig. 2a–d). Granular clusters may become entrained within sublimating CO2 gas jets as the block sublimates. We propose that these are splayed out radially from the terminal pit to form smaller, shallower detached pits upon return impact to the sandy surface, in a similar manner to the mechanism by which impact pits were observed to form in our laboratory experiments (Supplementary movie 4). However, our laboratory experiments required jetting of an endogenic origin which resulted in terraced collapsed pits seen in Fig. 3e. Similar morphologies have yet to be identified on Mars, but it is possible that inset pits seen inside terminal pits may denote locations where blocks have burrowed beneath the surface. Alternatively, inset pits could indicate new, inner paths of blocks within pre-existing channels. However, the ratio of collapsed to impact pits in our laboratory experiments ranged from 5. 3–10 and the ratios of inset pits to smallest detached pits in ranged from 4. 3–8. 1 and so certainly for the smaller detached pits in this setting, our proposed process is plausible. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the composition of Mars' polar ice caps directly. Instead, it discusses the formation of detached pits, sublimation of CO2 ice blocks, and mechanisms related to granular jets on Mars. As such, it does not support, contradict, nor provide relevance to the claim related to the polar ice caps on Mars.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Climate change is causing shifts in species distributions and ecosystem dynamics. [SEP] Text: 10. 5194/esd-13-711-2022 © Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under the Attribution 4. 0 License. Special issue: Reports (BEAR) © Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under the Attribution 4. 0 License. 2010. For phytoplankton, clear symptoms of climate change, such as prolongation of the growing season, are evident and can be explained by the warming, but otherwise climate effects vary from species to species and area to area. Several modelling studies project a decrease of phytoplankton bloom in spring and an increase in cyanobacteria blooms in summer. The associated increase in N:P ratio may contribute to maintaining the “vicious circle of eutrophication”. However, uncertainties remain because some field studies claim that cyanobacteria have not increased and some experimental studies show that responses of cyanobacteria to temperature, salinity and pH vary from species to species. An increase of riverine dissolved organic matter (DOM) may also decrease primary production, but the relative importance of this process in different sea areas is not well known. Bacteria growth is favoured by increasing temperature and DOM, but complex effects in the microbial food web are probable. Warming of seawater in spring also speeds up zooplankton growth and shortens the time lag between phytoplankton and zooplankton peaks, which may lead to decreasing of phytoplankton in spring. In summer, a shift towards smaller-sized zooplankton and a decline of marine copepod species has been projected. In deep benthic communities, continued eutrophication promotes high sedimentation and maintains good food conditions for zoobenthos. If nutrient abatement proceeds, improving oxygen conditions will first increase zoobenthos biomass, but the subsequent decrease of sedimenting matter will disrupt the pelagic–benthic coupling and lead to a decreased zoobenthos biomass. In the shallower photic systems, heatwaves may produce eutrophication-like effects, e. g. overgrowth of bladderwrack by epiphytes, due to a trophic cascade. If salinity also declines, marine species such as bladderwrack, eelgrass and blue mussel may decline. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing how climate change is impacting various species and ecosystems. It discusses the 'prolongation of the growing season' for phytoplankton due to warming, which suggests shifts in their distribution. Additionally, it describes how changes in water temperature affect zooplankton growth and causes a shift towards smaller-sized zooplankton, indicating changes in ecosystem dynamics. The mention of potential declines in species such as bladderwrack and eelgrass illustrates the effect of climate change on species distributions within marine environments.