Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer ocean temperatures. [SEP] Text: has been labeled a ‘hot-spot’ for disease with approximately 76% of all coral diseases described worldwide being found within this relatively small basin (Weil 2004). Historically, disease has taken a toll on Caribbean coral reefs. In the late 1970s, white band disease caused the precipitous decline of two major, reef-building coral species, Acropora palmata and A. cervicornis, the first coral species listed as threatened under the Act, 71 26852 (2006). Recently, white plague and Caribbean yellow band diseases are considered the major disease threats within the Caribbean (Miller et al. 2003; Weil et al. 2006; Ballantine et al. 2008; Rogers et al. 2008). Temperature/disease connectionHigh-water temperatures can influence coral disease by either increasing pathogenic abundance or virulence (Rosenberg and Ben-Haim 2002), or by increasing coral-host susceptibility (Lesser et al. 2007; Ainsworth et al. 2008). Several coral pathogens have displayed optimal growth at relatively high ambient temperatures (30–35°C). A pathogen identified for white plague type II, Aurantimonas coralicida, and a pathogen documented to cause white pox disease, Serratia marcescens, have optimal growth ranges between 30 and 35°C (Patterson et al. 2002; Remily and Richardson 2006). Higher abundance of potential pathogens in the environment, or within the coral host, could increase the potential for disease infection. High-water temperatures may promote the growth and reproduction of microbial pathogens. One species of coral, Oculina patagonica, bleached from the temperature-sensitive bacterium Vibrio shiloii (Ben-Haim and Rosenberg 2002; the name V. shiloii is now renamed to V. shilonii (2001)). Follow-up studies, however, indicated O. patagonica no longer bleached in the presence of the V. shilonii. Therefore, the corals either developed a resistance to the bacteria (Reshef et al. 2006), bleaching was always a result of changing environmental conditions and not a result of bacterial infection (Ainsworth et al. 2008) or the virulence of the pathogen was reduced. Elevated water temperatures could physiologically stress the coral holobiont and lead to bleaching, therefore increasing the coral’s susceptibility to disease. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by explaining that increased water temperatures can lead to coral bleaching and elevate susceptibility to diseases. It states, 'Elevated water temperatures could physiologically stress the coral holobiont and lead to bleaching,' indicating a clear connection between warmer temperatures and coral bleaching.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: The literature search yielded 673 5. 2. Information extracted The following information was extracted from each of the studies included: authors and year of publication;sample characteristics (number of participants, mean age, age range, proportion of female participants, type of sample);amount of time spent using social networking sites per day;online social networking conceptualization;concepts assessed in the study;information regarding the association between online social networking and social anxiety. Figure 1. Flow diagram of study selection process. 5. 3. Characteristics of the studies included A summary of the characteristics of the studies included (number of participants, age, online social networking sites conceptualization, primary results) is described in Table 1. (% F) Mage (SD)Age range in social media per day (SD) SNSs construct Aladwani and Almarzouq [45] 407 (54%) 20. 04 (1. 16) Students 1. 86 h(0. 99) Compulsive SM use Interaction anxiousnessSelf-esteemProblematic learningMedia complementarity Significant positive associations between compulsive SM use and SAr = 0. 26, p < 0. 05 Antheunis et al. [12] 3. 068 (53. 7%) 13. 46 (0. 56)11–14 Adolescents 7. 27 h(8. 54) SNSs use intensity Social anxietyQuality of friendshipsBridging social capitalBonding social capitalOffline interaction with friends Significant negative associations between SNS and SAr = −0. 08, p < 0. 001 Bodroža and Jovanović [32] 8041st phase 445 (79. 1%)2nd phase 359 (79. 4%) 26. 95 (6. 35)15–6221. 29 (2. 96)18–44 Students and general population Combined sample:½ of the sampleuses FB1–3 h/day, 27% <1 h, 15% 3–5 h and 8% >5 hStudent sample:FB 1–3 h/day, 35% <1 h, 11% 3–5 h, 3%>5 h a day. Psycho-social aspects of Facebook use (PSAFU):CompensationSelf-presentationSocializationFB addictionVirtual self Social anxiety personalitySensation seeking Significant positive associations between FB and SAr between 0. 11 and 0. 58, p < 0. 001 and 0. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing various studies that find significant associations between social media use and social anxiety. Results indicate that social networking sites (SNSs) can correlate with increased anxiety levels, suggesting that simply taking breaks from social media may not address the underlying issues of anxiety and stress related to online activity.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: (2021) Psychometric properties of the Difficulties in Scale in students: DERS-16. Research report. Faculty of Education and Psychology. University of (2018) of and the Atmosphere in Solving: Role of Cognitive Flexibility. Stud 15(31):1–34. 10. 22111/JEPS. 2018. 4261 (2020) Comparison the Social Well-being, Spiritual Well-being and Strategies in multiple Sclerosis (MS) patients and Non-Patients. J title 14(3):38–52. 10. 1080/0312407X. 2018. 1516793[Link] (2010) Feasibility and effectiveness of psychosocial resilience training: a pilot study of the READY program. Psychol health Med 15(3):266–277. (2018) The subjective well-being of academically gifted students in the Chinese cultural context. Int 39(3):291–311. D’-(2002) Manual for the social problem solving inventory-revised(10. 1037/t05068-000 Demirtaş, Ayşe Sibel (2020) -Being in Turkish Adolescents: Role of Academic, Social and Emotional Self-Efficacy. Anales de Psicologia 36(1):111–121. 10. 6018/analesps. 36. 1. 336681 (2010) The cognitive flexibility inventory: Instrument development and estimates of reliability and validity. Cogn therapy Res 34(3):241–253. 10. 1007/s10608-009-9276-4 (2017) Self-esteem; challenges and strategies (with emphasis on religious attitudes). Journal of Ethical Reserch, 5(4), 53–82. URL: (2014) The effectiveness of cognitive behavior therapy on cognitive flexibility of depressed people. Thought and behavior in clinical psychology, 9(34), 27–36. (2019) Comparing spiritual intelligence, spiritual well-being and social support in delinquent and normal teenagers. 4(2):14–24. Gholamreza A, (2018) Survey on validity and reliability of Emotion awareness questionnaire in primary school students of Tehran. Quarterly of Psychometrics, 7(27), 85–98. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim, as it mainly presents a list of studies and reports concerning various aspects of psychology and cognitive assessments without specifically addressing bilingualism or its effects on cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer ocean temperatures. [SEP] Text: A combination of bleaching and disease in 1998 caused extensive mortality of the octocoral, Briareum asbestinum, in the (Harvell et al. 2001). This short-lived epizootic occurred within 10 weeks of the bleaching event. Additionally, a study by Jones et al. (2004) documented a coral epizootic that coincided with a bleaching event at (Reef) in which coral mortality was attributed to disease. Bruno et al. (2007) found a significant relationship between the frequencies of warm water temperature anomalies and white syndrome in the Reef but only on reefs with >50% coral cover. Furthermore, during the 2005 Caribbean coral-bleaching event, on a section of (2007) documented that mortality in Porites porites was from bleaching; however, Colpophyllia natans bleached before dying from white plague. At another US site, bleached Acropora palmata colonies lost more tissue from disease than A. palmata colonies that did not bleach (Muller et al. 2008). Greater mortality on the more compromised corals suggests disease severity was influenced by coral-host stress and susceptibility. During the summer/fall of 2005, anomalously warm water temperatures (Whelan et al. 2007) and doldrum-like conditions in the NE Caribbean coincided with massive coral bleaching (Wilkinson and Souter 2008). The 2005 Atlantic hurricane season was the most active ever recorded with 28 tropical storms including 15 hurricanes. However, the NE Caribbean was largely unaffected as no storm or hurricane passed within 400 km of this area. Coral bleaching as referred to in this paper is defined as paling or whitening of a coral from the loss of zooxanthellae or zooxanthellar pigments. While some scientists include bleaching as a disease (e. g. , Rosenberg and Ben-Haim 2002), the present study differentiated coral bleaching from coral disease. Bleached corals retained living tissue with an absence or reduction of zooxanthellae while disease was a measure of coral mortality (i. e. , loss of tissue) when signs consistent with previously described coral diseases were observed. This study documented the extent and severity of coral bleaching on five reef sites around St. John and St. Croix, US Virgin Islands, and explored the connection between coral bleaching and coral disease during massive bleaching in 2005 and subsequent disease outbreak. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing multiple studies that link coral bleaching events to warmer ocean temperatures, illustrating the impact of temperature anomalies on coral health. For instance, it mentions 'anomalously warm water temperatures... coincided with massive coral bleaching' and discusses the relationship between temperature extremes and coral mortality due to bleaching and disease. This supports the idea that warmer ocean temperatures are indeed a significant factor contributing to coral bleaching.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: 05 in both samplesSignificant positive associations between FBA and SAr = 0. 19, p < 0. 001 (FB users sample)r = 0. 17, p < 0. 001 (Student sample) Casale and Fioravanti [46] 400 (51. 8%) 22. 45 (2. 09) reported Generalized problematic Internet use Social anxietySatisfactionwith the needs through SNS:-The need to belong-Theneed for self-presentation-The need for assertiveness Significant positive associations between problematic Internet use and SAr = 0. 22, p < 0. 001 Clayton et al. [39] 229 (74. 3%) 18. 19 (0. 43)18–21 Students 30 min to 1 h Emotional connectednessto FBFacebook connection strategies Anxiousness-social anxiety subscalelonelinessAlcohol useMarijuana use Significant positive associations between emotional connectedness to Facebook and anxiousnessr = 0. 18, p < 0. 001Significant positive associations between Facebook connection strategies and anxiousnessr = 0. 23, p < 0. 001 Davidson and Farquhar [49] 336 (70%) Not reported reported Facebook intensityanxiety number ofunique groupsRole conflictSelf-monitoringReligiousactivities Non-significant positive associations between FB Intensity and SAr = 0. 05, p = nsSignificant positive associations between FB anxiety and SAr = 0. 66, p < 0. 001 Fernandez et al. [29] 62 (63%) 19 (1. 05) reported anxietySignificant negative associations between FB friends and SAr = −0. 45, p < 0. 001Significant positive associations between FB usage and SAr between 0. 27 and 0. 50, p < 0. 001 (i. e. , number of lines in about me, number of TV shows, number of music interests)Non-significant associations between SA and number of activities, self-reported time spent on FB,No. of status updates,No. of posts by friends, and no of posts by self. Green et al. [43] 306 (65. 69%) 20. 52 (1. 45) Online participants from all around the world 2. 44 h (2. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by indicating significant positive associations between Facebook usage and anxiety levels, suggesting that online activity can contribute to anxiety rather than alleviate it. For instance, it notes significant positive correlations between emotional connectedness to Facebook and anxiousness, as well as login frequencies leading to higher rates of social anxiety (SAr). These findings imply that simply taking breaks from social media may not sufficiently address the underlying anxiety linked to online interactions.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: (2008) Integrative Self-Knowledge Scale: Correlations and incremental validity of a cross-cultural measure developed in Iran and the United States. J Psychol 142(4):395–412. González (2021) Social and Wellbeing and Capabilities in Chile. 11:628785. (2022) Model of Relationships between Adolescents 'Emotional Self-Awareness and Parenting Stress, and Parents' Self-Criticism. Res 17(67):269–276. 10. 22034/JMPR. 2022. 15305 (2020) 14 (55):83–98. URL: Karademas EC (2007) Positive and negative aspects of well-being: Common and specific predictors. Differ 43(2):277–287. 10. 1016/j. paid. 2006. 11. 031 (1998) Social well-being. Q 61(3):121–140. Keyes CLM, Magyar-Moe JL (2003) and Utility of Well-Being. Psychology 9(5):411–425. Khanh NC (2021) Development of the Scale of Solving in adolescents. Current Psychology: A Journal for on Issues. 40(10):5175–5184. 10. 1007/s12144-019-00427-2 (2020) The role of self-compassion and psychological flexibility in predicting the burnout of nurses. Rooyesh, 9 (1), 73–80. URL: (2022) Perceived parenting styles, cognitive flexibility, and prosocial behavior in with an immigrant background: A three-group comparison. Curr Psychol. (2017) The relationship between cognitive flexibility and job burnout and occupational injuries in female emergency department nurses. on Psychology and Social Sciences, Tehran, Iran. (2017) A review of social problem-solving interventions: Past findings, current status, and future directions. Res 87(1):71–102. (2011) Questionnaire, psychometrics, and standardization of indicators of social problem solving ability. Q 1(4):1–21. M, (2014) M. R. March 5–6). of of Iran, Tehran. Iran. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim regarding bilingualism and its effects on cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. Instead, it mainly lists various academic articles and studies without providing any relevant information or findings related to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer ocean temperatures. [SEP] Text: Three sites (Haulover, Newfound, and Reef) were surveyed in 2005 before bleaching was observed (January–March 2005 and referred to as ‘initial’ surveys) and are referred to as ‘reference sites’ hereafter. Sampling frequency increased after bleaching was observed in 2005, although the frequency varied among sites. was sampled bi-monthly from September 2005 to September 2006, Haulover and were sampled approximately quarterly from October 2005 to July 2006, was sampled November 2005, March 2006 and July 2006, and the Reef was sampled November 2005 and March 2006. All sites were sampled once in 2007. Seawater temperatures at reef depth were recorded at 2 h intervals using data loggers (HOBO or Temp-Mentors) positioned within two study reefs (Newfound and Haulover) and a third logger near (at Yawzi Reef, 500 m west of Tektite). However, data are not available for every site each month. The median number of active sites in any given month from 1988 to 2007 was two and data gaps occurred from May 1988 to February 1990 and from March 1999 to August 2000. Ryan-brand loggers were sent for calibration annually, and all sensors were calibrated in-factory (documentation provided). A monthly mean was calculated per site and averaged to create a monthly mean. StatisticsTo determine if temperatures in 2005 were higher than ‘normal’ water temperatures, the average monthly water temperatures in 2005 were compared with historical average water temperatures from St. John (data collected from 1988 to 2004 from Newfound Reef, Haulover Reef, and Yawzi Reef) using a one-tailed t-test. Benthic cover data were evaluated for normality and homogeneity of variance by visual inspection of residuals and by conducting a regression analysis on the absolute value of the residuals with predicted values. If a positive trend in the residuals were detected, a square root (x + 1) transformation was performed, and the residuals were then tested for normality using an Anderson-Darling test (SAS ver. 9. 1). Changes in percent coral cover were analyzed separately for each site using a repeated measures analysis in which transect was treated as a subject factor and sampling date was treated as the repeated measure. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provides relevant details about the observation and sampling of coral reefs in relation to seawater temperatures. It mentions that seawater temperatures at reef depths were recorded and that 2005 was analyzed for temperature extremes compared to historical averages from 1988 to 2004. This supports the claim by indicating a scientific approach to assessing the heat conditions affecting coral reefs, which correlates with the context of coral bleaching due to increased temperatures.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: 82)/day FB self-disclosure (public and private) Social anxietyControllabilityReduced cuesDisinhibitionOffline self-disclosure Non-significant associations between FB self-disclosure public and SAr = 0. 05, p = nsNon-significant associations between FB self-disclosure private and SAr = 0. 00, p = nsNon-significant associations between time spent on FB and SAb = 0. 11, p = ns große Deters et al. [33] 1st study 153 (60. 78%)2nd study209 (88. 52%) 1st study 20. 18 (3. 24)2nd study23. 50 (3. 24) 1st study Students2nd studyGeneral population Not reported Status updates,No. of likes received per status update No. ofindividual commentersper status update Social anxiety personality(extraversion) SA did not predict no. status updates,No. of likes received per status update,No. of individual commenters per status updatep = ns Hong et al. [40] 230 (31. 7%) Not reported Students 34. 3%spent < 1h; 30. 9%spent 1–2h; 17. 4%2–4 h; 17. 4%>4 h Continuance intention to interact with others on FBOnline social anxiety General social anxietyBelief in dangerousvirtualcommunities Significant negative associations between FB continuance intention and SAr = −0. 48, p < 0. 001Significant positive associations between OSA and SAr = 0. 38, p < 0. 001 Indian and Grieve [41] 299 (85. 95%) 28. 35 (10. 88) RecruitedfromFacebook 30–60 min, 14% with daily usage >3 h Facebook social support items Social anxietyOffline social supportSubjective well-being No difference in perceptions of Facebook social support in high and low socially anxious, t(297) = 0. 14, p = 0. 89FB social support explained a significant amount of additional variance in subjective well-being over and above offline social support for the high social anxiety group Landoll et al. [34] 1st study: 216 (63%)2nd study: 214 (54%) 19. 06 (1. 28)15. 72 (1. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by presenting data that suggests complex relationships between Facebook usage and social anxiety. For instance, it notes non-significant associations between Facebook self-disclosure and social anxiety, indicating that merely taking social media breaks may not directly impact anxiety and stress levels related to online activity. Additionally, the significant associations mentioned suggest that ongoing engagement with social media may actually contribute to feelings of anxiety rather than alleviating them, opposing the claim that breaks alone can cure these stresses.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: 소개 학술지 논문 통계 한국어 English toggle menu KCI 등재 인지적 대인관계 문제해결 훈련이 결손가정 초등학생의 문제해결력, 자기효능감 및 자아탄력성에 미치는 효과 of the Training of for on Skills, Self-Efficacy, Ego-Resiliency of Children from 상담학연구 약어 : - 2009 vol. 10, no. 4, 10. 15703/kjc. 10. 4. 200912. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not provide any information related to the claim about bilingualism enhancing cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. Instead, it appears to reference a study related to skills, self-efficacy, and resilience among children, which does not connect to the idea of bilingualism.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer ocean temperatures. [SEP] Text: increased from 17. 2% (±1. 9) in 2002 to 19. 6% (±1. 6) in February 2005 (values are mean ± standard error unless otherwise stated). Coral cover at decreased significantly (P = 0. 0002) from 18. 0% (±1. 9) in 1999 to 13. 3% (±1. 6) in March 2005 with the drop primarily occurring between 1999 and 2000 and showed no change thereafter. showed no change in coral cover [mean=22. 5% (±2. 6)] from 2003 through January 2005. Table 1 Results from individual t-tests comparing water temperatures in 2005–2007 to historical water temperatures of St. John, US (NS: P > 0. 05)Full size table BleachingReef-depth water temperatures were higher than the historical average (1988–2004 monthly average) for St. John from April to September 2005, and the difference was statistically significant (P < 0. 05) in April, June, August, and September 2005 (Fig. 2; Table 1). Bleaching of isolated scleractinian corals was first observed in July, when water temperatures averaged 29. 2°C. Coral bleaching became more severe as temperatures continued to be 0. 7–0. 9°C higher than historical averages until September. The maximum average monthly temperature, 30. 2°C, occurred in September 2005 which was 1. 2°C warmer than the historical average. The ‘peak’ in coral bleaching (defined as the highest percent coral cover pale or white) occurred between September and November 2005 with >90% of the coral cover at each study site displaying some sign of thermal stress, and the lowest maximum bleaching detected for any individual transect was 74%. During this period, >40% of the coral cover at each site was completely white. Water temperatures returned to near-normal in October 2005; however, bleaching continued at all sites, and 56% of the coral cover remained bleached or pale during the coldest period (January–April) in 2006. The four reefs sampled in July 2006 had an average of 34. 6% coral cover still discolored; however, no coral cover was completely white at that time. Complete re-coloration (i. e. , bleaching recovery) had still not occurred by the last sampling survey (Mennebeck Reef, October 2007). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing evidence of higher water temperatures being statistically significant and leading to coral bleaching. It states that bleaching was first observed when water temperatures reached 29.2°C, and bleaching became more severe as temperatures were 0.7–0.9°C higher than historical averages until September 2005, further confirming the link between warmer ocean temperatures and coral bleaching.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: 22) Adolescents and young adults Not reported Aversive social networking peer experiences Social anxietyInternet useSocialPeer victimizationpositive associations between negative SNSs experiences and SAr = 0. 37, p < 0. 001 Lee [47] 304 (56%) 22. 45 (6. 10)17–55 College students Not reported Facebook addiction Social anxietySmartphone addictionPersonality traitspositive associations between FBA and SAr = 0. 25, p < 0. 01 Lee-Won [35] 243 (71. 6%) 19. 69 (1. 12) College students Assessed but not reported Amount of FB useuse Social anxietyPersonalityNeed for social assurance Non-significant negative associations between FB use and SAr = −0. 03, p = nsSignificant positive associations between FBA and SAr = 0. 45, p < 0. 001 Liu et al. [44] 780 (50. 9%) 13. 94 (0. 90)13–18 reported Personally identifiable information (PII) disclosure Social anxietyPrivacy concernParentalmediationNarcissism Non-significant negative associations between PII and SAr = −0. 07, p = nsSA indirectly decreases PII disclosure by increasing privacy concern. McCord et al. [38] 216 (85. 64 %) 32. 2 (12. 43)18–69 31. 5% undergraduate students, 12. 0% graduate students, and 55. 6% were not students Not reported FB useFB social interaction anxiety Social anxiety Non-significant associations between FB use and SAr = 0. 01, p = nsSignificant positive associations between FB SA and SAr = 0. 64, p < 0. 001 Ramirez et al. [42] 244 (51%) 34. 59 (11. 19) Facebook users Not reported FB reconnection Social anxietyInformation seekingUncertainty predictedoutcome valuesignificant negative associations between SA and FB reconnectb = 0. 14, p = 0. 05 Rizvi [48] 150 (75%) 18–27 Different educational institution 46% <30 min32. 7% 30 min to 1 h11. 3% 1–2 h10% > 2 h Excessive FBuse (log in) Social anxietyPersonality Non-significant negative associations between excessive FB use and SAr = −0. 02, p = ns Shaw et al. [36] 75 (55. 2%) 19. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text provides various studies indicating that there are positive associations between social media use and social anxiety, as well as non-significant or only weakly negative associations between social media usage and anxiety reduction. For example, it mentions significant positive associations between Facebook addiction (FBA) and social anxiety (SAr = 0.25, p < 0.01, and SAr = 0.45, p < 0.001). This suggests that rather than 'curing' anxiety, social media usage is correlated with increased anxiety levels, thereby contrasting the claim that breaks will cure anxiety and stress related to online activity.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: 2303 발행기관 : 한국상담학회 연구분야 : 교육학 Copyright © 한국상담학회 이유미 1 김정희 2 김동원 3 1장수군청소년지원센터 2전북대학교 3조우심리상담센터 인용한 논문 수 : 7 260 회 열람 현재 페이지 인쇄 PDF 다운로드 인용보기 공유 초록 본 연구는 결손가정 초등학생을 대상으로 인지적 대인관계 문제해결 훈련이 문제해결력, 자기효능감 및 자아탄력성에 어떠한 효과를 미치는지 알아보고자 하였다. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses research on cognitive interpersonal problem-solving training aimed at elementary students from single-parent families, without mentioning bilingualism or its effects on cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer ocean temperatures. [SEP] Text: Overall, the onset of recovery from bleaching occurred soon after temperatures dropped (October 2005); however, complete colony re-coloration was slow and incomplete. The five reefs sampled in 2007 were still not homogenous in color when compared with the reefs in years before the 2005 Caribbean coral-bleaching event. Fig. 2St. John seawater temperatures at reef depth in 2005–2007 compared with 1988–2004 data. Black line and error bars represent, respectively, the average, minimum, maximum of monthly average temperatures recorded at 3 reefs at St. John from 2005 to 2007 (Haulover, Newfound, Yawzi). Gray area shows range (minimum–maximum) of monthly average temperatures recorded at the same 3 reefs from 1988 to 2004. Number of sites with data loggers varied by month and year. Data loggers recorded temperature every 2 hFull size image Twenty-one scleractinian species were quantified from the surveys at the onset of coral bleaching; with 16 species bleached including the 12 most-abundant (>0. 5% cover). Within those species, maximum bleached cover by Montastraea annularis (complex) ranged from 98–99. 5% among study sites; Colpophyllia natans and Agaricia agaricites each ranged from 80 to 100%; Porites porites, 75–100%; and D. labyrinthiformis, 67–100%. Three species however showed wider ranges of bleached cover: M. cavernosa (0–86%), P. astreoides (62–84%), and Siderastrea siderea (46–100%). Interestingly, Madracis spp. were never observed as bleached (quantified under a random point) within the monitored transects during the study, but both Madracis decactis and M. mirabilis/auretenra (Locke et al. 2007) were rare and found at only two sites. Bleaching was found throughout all depths (depth range = 3. 7–18. 9 m), and depth was not a factor in the amount of coral cover bleached during maximum bleaching (P = 0. 94). DiseaseFive known diseases/syndromes were observed throughout the study including black band disease, dark spot disease, white band disease (on Acroporid colonies), Caribbean yellow band disease, and white plague disease. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by providing evidence of coral bleaching across various species and noting that the onset of recovery from bleaching began soon after temperatures dropped. It specifically states that '16 species bleached including the 12 most-abundant', indicating a direct relationship between higher temperatures and the observed bleaching in these coral species.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: 2 (1. 27) Students 2. 04 (1. 13)Range 1–5 FB time passive FB useFB content productionInteractive FB communication RuminationDepressive symptomsMood andanxietysymptomsContent productionInteractive communicationSocial anxiety Significant positive associations between time spent on FB and SAr = 0. 33, p < 0. 01Significant positive associations between passive FB use and SAr = 0. 32, p < 0. 01Non-significant associations between content production on FBr = 0. 23, p = nsNon-significant associations between interactive FB communication and SAr = 0. 21, p = ns Weidman and Levinson [37] 77 (77%) 18. 91 (1. 05) reported Facebook profile (no. friends, no. photographs, no. videos, photo albums, relationship status, people in profile picture, status update, quote)Social activitySocial inactivityClose relationship qualitySelf-disclosure Social interaction anxiety Significant negative associations between no. friends and SAr = −0. 21, p < 0. 05Significant negative associations between FB quote length and SAr = −0. 38, p < 0. 05 Table 1. Characteristics of the included studies. Note: N = number of participants; %F = percentage of female participants; Mage = mean age; SD = standard deviation; SNSs = social networking site; SM = social media; SA= Social anxiety; FB= Facebook; FBA= Facebook addiction; OSA = online social anxiety; ns= non-significant; no. = number; h = hours; min = minutes. We included 20 papers in the systematic review, of which three papers [32–34] consisted of two studies/phases each. Most of the studies included were conducted with adults (n = 14), recruited either from university (students), or from the general populations, while several papers were conducted with adolescents (n = 3), and some studies did not report the age of the participants (n = 2). Nine of the papers included reported the time spent on Facebook; one study also assessed this indicator but did not report it, and the rest of the studies did not include reports on the time spent on Facebook. Social media was operationalized differently in the papers included and while few studies reported social media variables, most of the papers included referred specifically to Facebook. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by presenting research findings that indicate significant positive associations between Facebook use and anxiety symptoms, rather than suggesting that social media breaks are a cure for these symptoms. For example, it notes 'significant positive associations between time spent on FB and social anxiety' and 'significant positive associations between passive FB use and social anxiety,' indicating that increased engagement with social media may actually correlate with higher anxiety levels.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: 이를 위해 지역아동센터에서 도움을 받는 초등학교 5, 6학년 24명을 대상으로 인지적 대인관계 문제해결 훈련프로그램을 실시하였다. 훈련프로그램 실시 전, 후, 추수에 문제해결 척도, 자기효능감 척도 및 자아탄력성 척도를 실시하였다. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not address the claim about bilingualism; instead, it discusses cognitive and interpersonal problem-solving training programs without any mention of bilingualism or its effects on cognitive flexibility.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer ocean temperatures. [SEP] Text: Species effects Montastraea annularis (complex), Colpophyllia natans, and Agaricia agaricites showed significant decreases in coral cover across the five sites (Table 3). Diploria labyrinthiformis, M. cavernosa, P. astreoides, and Siderastrea siderea did not show statistically significant decreases in cover across the five sites (statistical power to detect changes of <50% relative cover for low-cover species was low). Table 3 Results of t-test comparing pre- versus post-bleaching absolute percent cover of selected scleractinian species (NS: P > 0. 05)Full size table Species-specific changes in coral cover affected the relative abundance of coral species on the reef. M. annularis (complex) remains the dominant coral species within these reefs; however, the relative abundance of this species group declined from an initial average of 79. 2 to 58. 6% of live coral cover (Fig. 5). C. natans also decreased in relative abundance from 1. 3% prior to the onset of bleaching to 0. 9% in 2006 (Fig. 5) likely from high levels of disease-induced mortality. On the other hand, A. agaricites declined primarily from bleaching mortality, as 93% of A. agaricites (cover) bleached but were rarely seen with disease. M. cavernosa, S. siderea, and Porites spp. bleached less than M. annularis (complex), C. natans, and Agariciids. They were less affected by disease than M. annularis (complex) and increased in relative abundance. Fig. 5Relative abundance of major coral taxa from five monitored sites in the US prior to 2005 coral-bleaching through 2007. Por spp = Porites porites and Porites astreoides, MC = Montastraea cavernosa, CN = Colpophyllia natans, Ag spp = Agaricia spp. are displayed on left Y-axis. MACX = M. annularis, M. faveolata, M. franksi and undetermined Montastraea spp. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing the effects of coral bleaching and the decline in coral cover of certain species, such as Agaricia agaricites, which declined due to 'bleaching mortality.' Furthermore, it states that a significant percentage (93%) of A. agaricites bleached, supporting the assertion that coral reefs are experiencing bleaching possibly related to warmer ocean temperatures.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: With respect to the manner in which online social networking sites or Facebook were conceptualized in these studies, we have encountered several approaches: Facebook use (n = 7), which in turn can be conceptualized as the amount of time spent on online social networking sites, passive use of Facebook or using interactive Facebook features (updates, comments, likes);Psychosocial aspects of Facebook use (n = 6), which can also mean Facebook connection strategies, Facebook continuance intention, Facebook reconnection decision, Facebook social support, aversive Facebook experiences or cybervictimization;Personal disclosure on Facebook (n = 3), which can also mean private or public disclosure, personal identifiable information (profile information and privacy settings) and status/quote update/length;Problematic use of online social networking sites (n = 6), which can be found as Internet addiction, compulsive social media use, Facebook addiction or Facebook intrusiveness;Facebook anxiety (n = 3), with different terms such as Facebook-specific anxiety, Facebook interaction anxiety or online anxiety. Most of the papers included found a significant association between social networking (Facebook) and social anxiety (n = 16), while the rest of the studies included found no significant relationship between social media and social anxiety. 5. 4. Online social networking and social anxiety 5. 4. 1. Usage of online social networking sites and social anxiety There are mixed findings regarding the relationship between online social networking and social anxiety. On the one hand, there are studies reporting significant associations between the two variables. For example, Antheunis et al. [12] showed that Facebook use was negatively associated with social anxiety in a large sample of adolescents. Lee-Won [35] found evidence that Facebook use, defined as the amount of time participants spend on Facebook on an average day, was associated with social anxiety. Shaw et al. [36] found a significant relationship between the time spent on Facebook and social anxiety in a sample of undergraduate students. The same study found a significant association between passive Facebook use, defined as passive content consumption (e. g. passively viewing one’s Facebook profile) and social anxiety. The relationship between passive Facebook use and social anxiety was significant even after checking for depressive and anxiety symptoms. Weidman and Levinson [37] considered both offline (self-reported indicators) and online indicators (using the profiles of coders for Facebook) of social anxiety. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the complex relationship between social media use and social anxiety. It states that while some studies found a significant association between social networking (like Facebook) and social anxiety, others found no significant relationship. This indicates that simply taking breaks from social media may not universally cure all anxiety or stress related to online activity. Instead, the findings are mixed and do not support the idea that breaks from social media will lead to a full cure for anxiety and stress.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: 자기효능감의 하위요인 중 자신감 영역에서의 향상이 실험 전과 후, 추수검사에서 향상․유지되었음을 알 수 있다. 훈련집단의 자아탄력성을 살펴보면 실험 전에 비해 실험 후에 향상되었으며 5주 후의 추후검사에서도 향상된 효과가 유지되었음을 알 수 있다. 자아탄력성의 하위요인 중 대인관계 영역과 낙관성 영역에서의 향상이 실험 전과 후, 추수검사에서도 향상․유지되었음을 알 수 있다. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim, as it discusses improvements in self-efficacy and resilience without addressing the effects of bilingualism on cognitive flexibility or problem-solving skills.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer ocean temperatures. [SEP] Text: , are displayed on right Y-axisFull size image DiscussionWhile coral bleaching and coral disease are individually considerable threats to coral reefs, this study demonstrated the combination of the two can have catastrophic effects on living coral over a large spatial scale. The severity of disease in combination with region-wide bleaching resulted in the greatest total coral loss, affecting several species, ever documented within the Caribbean basin. These study sites represent 25 acres (10 hectares) of some of the most complex, diverse, and species-rich coral reefs in the USVI. Four of the reefs are located in long-established (multiple-decades) marine protected areas (MPAs). The ecological importance of these reefs as sources of coral larvae, and as structure and habitat for fish communities and infaunal invertebrates, extend well beyond the reef boundaries. Furthermore, tremendous losses in coral cover from 2005 to 2006 were not limited to these study sites. Annual monitoring (using the same techniques, although not at the peak of bleaching or episodically thereafter) from two other USVI sites with lower initial coral cover (with 8. 5% in St. John and and Groove with 5. 1% at Buck Island; Rogers et al. 2008) also showed dramatic coral cover losses of 48. 1 and 41. 5%, respectively. Other surveys within territorial waters of the USVI also showed a decline of 40% coral cover likely from a white-plague-like syndrome (Woody et al. 2008). Similarly, Puerto Rico, approximately 100 km west of the USVI experienced record-breaking seawater temperatures that produced historically severe bleaching eventually followed by massive outbreaks of white plague and Caribbean yellow band disease. Losses in coral cover ranged from 20 to 97% (Ballantine et al. 2008). Reserve of Culebra (50 km west of USVI) reported an epizootic of white plague post-bleaching with a resulting 67% decline in coral cover (Ballantine et al. 2008). (BVI), approximately 35 km east of the US Virgin Islands, experienced similar conditions of elevated water temperatures with extensive coral bleaching followed by coral mortality from white plague (Bouchon et al. 2008). While coral bleaching was ubiquitous throughout the Caribbean in 2005, coral mortality was the highest from the and the BVI where coral disease epizootics followed the bleaching. This emphasizes the importance of frequency of monitoring (e. g. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text supports the claim by describing significant coral bleaching events in the Caribbean that are linked to elevated seawater temperatures. It highlights that Puerto Rico experienced 'record-breaking seawater temperatures that produced historically severe bleaching,' and mentions extensive coral mortality associated with these bleaching events. This evidence corroborates the assertion that warmer ocean temperatures are causing coral bleaching.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: Results on self-reported social anxiety and objective Facebook use indicated significant negative relationships between the two variables, with number of friends, number of photographs and quotes length being negatively related to social anxiety. Regarding the rated social anxiety symptoms observed and objective Facebook signs, there were significant negative associations between social activity composite (number of friends, photographs, videos, photo albums), the number of people in profile pictures and social anxiety. On the other hand, there are several research papers that show no association between Facebook use and social anxiety. große Deters et al. [33] found no significant relationship between social anxiety and different parameters of Facebook use (status updates, number of likes or individual commenters per like), and none of the prediction models investigated, in which social anxiety was used as a predictor and Facebook as a criterion, were significant. McCord et al. [38] found no significant relationship between general Facebook use, defined as the frequency of using the socially interactive features of Facebook (sending messages, using chat, writing on events/friends walls, sending friend requests, posting comments, updating status) and social anxiety. Fernandez et al. [29] did not find a positive association between the frequency of Facebook usage, operationalized as time spent on Facebook, status updates, number of posts by friends/self and social anxiety, in a sample of students. In this study, several independent coders rated each participant’s level of social anxiety based on viewing their Facebook profiles and associated it with participants’ self-rated social anxiety symptoms. Social anxiety was not associated with an increased frequency of Facebook use, either based on self-report data or based on coders’ reports. However, there were positive associations between profile information sections and social anxiety. The number of activities was not associated with social anxiety. Using multiple regression, the results indicated that social anxiety had a unique contribution, apart from depression and neuroticism, to profile information (excepting the number of movies and activities). 5. 4. 2. Psychosocial aspects of Facebook use and social anxiety Bodroža and Jovanović [32] constructed a scale in order to measure several psychosocial aspects of Facebook use. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by presenting research that indicates mixed results regarding the relationship between Facebook use and social anxiety. While some studies showed negative associations between social anxiety and Facebook use, other research documented no significant relationship between the frequency of Facebook use and social anxiety symptoms. This suggests that simply taking breaks from social media may not effectively cure anxiety related to it, as indicated by the lack of a consistent positive effect from social media breaks on reducing social anxiety.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: 무처치 통제집단에 비해 훈련집단의 경우 문제해결력과 자기효능감 및 자아탄력성은 실험 전에 비해 실험 후에 향상되었으며 추수검사에서도 실험 전에 비해 향상된 효과가 유지되고 있음을 알 수 있었다. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses improvements in problem-solving abilities and self-efficacy in an experimental group compared to a control group. However, it does not specifically reference bilingualism or its effects, making it irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer ocean temperatures. [SEP] Text: Re(de)fining degree-heating week: coral bleaching variability necessitates regional and temporal optimization of global forecast model stress metrics : orcid. org/0009-0000-9827-29251 & Thomas DeCarlo1,2 1619 Accesses 1 Citation 3 all metrics AbstractTropical coral reefs are a critical ecosystem in global peril as a result of anthropogenic climate change, and effective conservation efforts require reliable methods for identifying and predicting coral bleaching events. To this end, temperature threshold-based models such as the ’s (NOAA) degree-heating week (DHW) metric are useful for forecasting coral bleaching as a function of heat stress accumulation. DHW does not adequately account for regional variation in coral stress responses, however, and the current definition consistently underpredicts coral bleaching occurrence. Using a weather forecasting skill-based framework, our analysis cross-tested 1080 variations of the DHW-based bleaching occurrence (presence/absence) model against 22 years of contemporary coral bleaching observations (1998–2019) in order to optimize bleaching forecast skill at different levels of geographic specificity. On a global basis and relative to the current definition, reducing the current 1 °C warming cutoff to 0. 4 °C, adjusting the accumulation window to 11 weeks, and defining a bleaching threshold of 3 DHW improved forecast skill by 70%. Allowing our new DHW definitions to vary across regions and ocean basins further doubled model skill. Our results also suggest that the most effective bleaching forecast models change over time as coral reef systems respond to a shifting climate. Since 1998, the coral bleaching threshold for the globally optimized forecast model has risen at a significant rate of 0. 19 DHW/year, matching the pace of ocean warming. The bleaching threshold trajectory for each ocean basin varies. Though further work is necessary to parse the mechanism behind this trend, the dynamic nature of coral stress responses demands that our forecasting tools be continuously refined if they are to adequately inform marine conservation efforts. Similar content being viewed by others Coral bleaching pathways under the control of regional temperature variability 2015. The maximum monthly mean (MMM; the long-term average temperature for an area’s warmest month; solid line) is the climatological average from 1985 to 2012 and represents the area’s typical summertime high. MMM serves as the baseline for defining temperature anomalies. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the relationship between temperature thresholds and coral bleaching events. It states that 'tropical coral reefs are a critical ecosystem in global peril as a result of anthropogenic climate change,' indicating that warmer ocean temperatures are a significant factor leading to coral bleaching. Additionally, it mentions that the 'bleaching threshold for the globally optimized forecast model has risen at a significant rate of 0.19 DHW/year, matching the pace of ocean warming,' which provides further evidence of coral bleaching being impacted by rising temperatures.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: Five factors emerged for the structure of the scale, namely: compensation (use Facebook in order to compensate for personal insecurity/inadequacy), self-presentation (concern related to impression on others), socialization (striving to acquaint new friends/intimate partners), Facebook addiction and virtual self (Facebook adequately represents one’s personality). Social anxiety had positive associations with each of these factors. Clayton et al. [39] found a positive relationship between anxiousness (public and private self-consciousness, social anxiety), emotional connectedness to Facebook (integration of Facebook in one’s daily life) and Facebook connection strategies (reasons to use Facebook, use Facebook to learn more information about people, to maintain current relationships). Anxiousness was a significant predictor of both emotional connectedness to Facebook and Facebook connection strategies. Hong et al. [40] investigated the relationship between the continuance intention to interact with other people on Facebook and social anxiety and found a significant negative relationship between them. Social anxiety predicted the continuance intention to interact with other people on Facebook and, together with online social anxiety, accounted for 44% of the continuance intention. Indian and Grieve [41] found no differences between low and high socially anxious individuals in Facebook social support. There were significant association in both groups between Facebook social support and subjective well-being, as well as between Facebook social support and offline social support. Finally, Facebook social support was a significant individual predictor of subjective well-being for highly social anxious individuals. Landoll et al. [34] developed an instrument that assesses negative peer experiences on social networking sites. There were significant associations between negative online peer experiences and social anxiety and depression. Ramirez et al. [42] investigated factors related to the decision to reconnect on Facebook with a past contact in a sample group of adult participants. Using hierarchical logistic regression, they found several predictors that accounted for almost 40% of the variance of the decision to reconnect on Facebook, in which social anxiety was also included and has a marginally negative contribution to it. There were other factors (e. g. relational factors and information seeking factors) that have a greater contribution to the decision to reconnect than social anxiety. 5. 4. 3. Personal disclosure on Facebook and social anxiety There was no significant evidence stemming from the papers included of an association between Facebook disclosure and social anxiety. Green et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the relationship between social anxiety and various factors related to Facebook usage, suggesting that social media may actually exacerbate anxiety rather than alleviate it. It highlights studies that show positive associations between anxiousness and emotional connectedness to Facebook and indicates that social anxiety is a predictor of interaction on social media. Furthermore, it mentions negative online peer experiences correlating with social anxiety and depression, contradicting the idea that taking breaks from social media would cure anxiety and stress associated with online activity.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: 본 연구는 가족해체로 인해 심리․사회적 부적응을 경험하고 있는 결손가정 자녀들에게 대인관계에서 발생하는 문제를 다루는 인지적 능력을 향상시키는 훈련을 실시하여 적응력을 향상시키고 문제행동을 예방하는 실질적 도움을 주었다는 데 의의가 있다. 분석결과에 대해 선행연구와 관련하여 논의하고 상담에서의 시사점과 제한점 및 후속연구를 위한 제언을 제시하였다. This study aims to examine the effects of the training of cognitive interpersonal relationship problem solving skills for elementary school children from broken families on problem-solving skills, self-efficacy, and ego-resiliency. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses a study focused on improving problem-solving skills and resilience among children from broken families through cognitive training. However, it does not address bilingualism or its potential effects on cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills, rendering it irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer ocean temperatures. [SEP] Text: Only anomalies above a certain threshold (dotted line) are accumulated as heat stress (shaded red) within the rolling accumulation window (gray box). In this example, the accumulation window is 12 weeks long, and the illustrated DHW value represents heat stress accumulation as of September 23, 2015 (the rightmost edge of the window)Full size imageThough numerous studies validate the relationship between DHW and coral reef stress events (Eakin et al. 2010; Heron et al. 2016a; Kayanne 2017), many others find the accepted metric limited (McClanahan et al. 2007; van Hooidonk & Huber 2009; DeCarlo 2020; Mason et al. 2020; Ainsworth et al. 2021) or inaccurate (McClanahan et al. 2019; Eladawy et al. 2022) as a bleaching predictor. Coral bleaching dynamics vary widely on both spatial (Guest et al. 2012; Ainsworth et al. 2021; Bowdler 2021; Raj et al. 2021) and temporal (Thompson & van Woesik 2009; Palumbi et al. 2014; Ainsworth et al. 2016; DeCarlo et al. 2019) scales, yet the current DHW definition is rarely modified to account for regional variability or new data. Proposed modifications generally stop at adjusting the bleaching threshold (van Hooidonk & Huber 2009) or, in some cases, the baseline for tolerable SST (Burt et al. 2019). Analyses also seldom address how these stress-defining parameters may be changing over time—a key element in adaptive management. The grimmest long-term projections suggest reef-building corals are teetering on the edge of an extinction point, with annual bleaching expected within several decades if we assume a constant bleaching threshold over time (e. g. , Sheppard 2003; van Hooidonk et al. 2016; Donner et al. 2018). Yet several lines of research suggest that under the right circumstances, coral reefs may develop some degree of resistance to warming-induced bleaching (Thompson & van Woesik 2009; Guest et al. 2012; Cantin & Lough 2014; Palumbi et al. 2014; Ainsworth et al. 2016; DeCarlo & Harrison 2019). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the accumulation of heat stress (DHW values) and its relationship to coral reef stress events. It notes that numerous studies validate this relationship, indicating that warmer ocean temperatures are indeed linked to coral bleaching. Furthermore, the text provides projections suggesting that if the constant bleaching threshold remains, coral reefs may face annual bleaching within several decades, which directly supports the claim regarding the impacts of warmer temperatures on coral reefs.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: [43] found no relationship between Facebook self-disclosure (public and private) and social anxiety. Two hypothesized pathways from social anxiety to Facebook self-disclosure considered online attributes (reduced cues, controllability) and feelings of disinhibition. Results showed that the model accounted for 23% of the variance in Facebook private self-disclosure and 7% of the variance in Facebook public self-disclosure. Liu et al. [44] did not find any relationship between Facebook disclosure and social anxiety in a sample group of adolescents aged between 13 and 18. Disclosure in this study referred to personally identifiable information, a composite score computed by adding a measure for attitudinal information disclosure (profile information on Facebook page and personal photographs) and a scale assessing behavioural information disclosure (items actually posted on Facebook and privacy regarding photographs). There was only an indirect relationship between social anxiety and Facebook disclosure through the role of privacy concern, defined as concern related to the security of the personal information presented online. Namely, by increasing privacy concern, social anxiety indirectly decreases disclosure. Using a path analysis approach, parental mediation had only an indirect effect on disclosure through privacy concern, and no direct effect. Self-disclosure, defined as the presence or absence of status update/quote and length of status update/quote, was also considered in Weidman and Levinson [37] as a measure of social inactivity. Status update was unrelated to social anxiety in both self-reported and observer-rated social anxiety and objective Facebook signs, while the length of the quote was related to social anxiety only in self-reported and not in observer-rated social anxiety. 5. 4. 4. Problematic social media use/Facebook addiction and social anxiety Most of the papers included sustained the relationship between problematic use of online social networking sites or online social networking sites addiction and social anxiety. For instance, Aladwani and Almarzouq [45] found a significant positive association between interaction anxiousness and compulsive social media used, which finally has a significant effect on learning outcomes. Bodroža and Jovanović [32] found a significant relationship between social addiction and social anxiety both in a sample of Facebook users recruited online and in a sample of students. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing the relationship between social anxiety and Facebook self-disclosure. It reveals that no direct relationship was found between Facebook use and social anxiety, suggesting that merely taking breaks from social media might not effectively cure anxiety. Instead, the text notes that social anxiety has indirect interactions with social media behaviors, such as concerns about privacy. This highlights that the simple act of taking breaks from social media may not adequately address the complexities of anxiety and stress related to online activity.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: And the training of cognitive interpersonal relationship problem solving skills applied to 24 students of 5th and 6th grade in the community child center. Participants were asked to problem solving skills, self-efficacy, ego-resiliency questionnaire before, after, and 5 weeks after the program. The results of the paired sample t-test conducted for this purpose have shown that problem-solving skills of the treatment group were improved after the training this improvement was maintained in the follow-up test conducted after five weeks. Self-efficacy of the treatment group was found to be improved after the training, with the improvement being maintained in the follow-up test. The improvement in self-confidence among other sub-categories of self-efficacy was found to be maintained as shown in the results of the pre- and post-test and follow-up test. Ego-resiliency of the treatment group was found to be improved after the training, and the follow-up test conducted showed that the improvement was maintained. The improvement in interpersonal relationship and optimism among other sub-categories of ego-resiliency was found to be maintained as shown in the results of the pre- and post-test and follow-up test. Compared to the non-treatment group, the treatment group was found to make a progress in problem-solving skills, self-efficacy, and ego-resiliency, and ego-resiliency in post and follow-up test. This study showed that group counseling service can improve the cognitive problem solving skills of children from broken families who are suffering from psychological and social mal-adjustment due to dissolution of family, and thereby helped enhance their adjustment abilities and prevent problematic behaviors in a practical manner. The authors discussed results based on previous study, and mentioned the implications of counseling, limitations of study and suggestions for further studies. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses a study focused on the improvement of problem-solving skills, self-efficacy, and ego-resiliency in children through cognitive training. However, it does not address bilingualism specifically nor does it provide any direct evidence linking bilingualism to cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. Therefore, the relationship to the claim is irrelevant.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer ocean temperatures. [SEP] Text: These findings would imply that under a warming climate, we will observe an increase in the bleaching threshold (Donner 2009) as corals acclimate to rising water temperatures, or as community composition shifts toward more robust individuals and species when the reef’s more sensitive constituents die off (Hughes et al. 2018b). Overall, there exists a great deal of uncertainty in our understanding of coral bleaching trajectories, and assessing potential trends in bleaching thresholds relative to the rate of climate change will ensure predictive models are evolving appropriately. Optimizing the DHW model: meteorological skill scoresThere are four parameters we can modify in the DHW-based bleaching forecast model to better account for spatiotemporal variation in coral stress responses (Table 1, Fig. 1). Different combinations of (1) thermal baseline, (2) anomaly cutoff, and (3) accumulation window size will yield different heat stress accumulation (DHW) values, and we can adjust (4) the bleaching threshold defining how much heat stress must accumulate before corals are expected to bleach. DeCarlo (2020) applied a skill-based approach to refine the DHW calculation, altering anomaly inclusion criteria and accumulation window size to improve bleaching forecast performance using tools from another predictive analog: meteorology. Here, we build upon these analyses using higher-resolution SST measurements and a larger bleaching dataset for forecast validation. Table 1 Elements of the degree-heating week (DHW) definition and the DHW bleaching forecast modelFull size tableModels used to forecast binary (i. e. , presence/absence) weather occurrences, such as rain or tornado formation, undergo continuous refinement via a suite of skill tests that assess the correspondence between predicted and observed outcomes (Table 2). Together, six skills describe all relevant facets of presence/absence forecast performance (Table 3). Models that maximize hits (H) and correct negatives (CN) while minimizing misses (M) and false alarms (FA) generally demonstrate greater skill, as reflected in larger accuracy scores, high probability of detection (PoD), small false alarm ratios (FAR), and a low probability of false detection (PoFD). For forecasts where only event occurrences are important, accuracy (which rewards hits and correct negatives equally) is less useful than threat (which emphasizes events over non-events). [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the relationship between a warming climate and coral bleaching. It mentions that there will be an increase in the bleaching threshold as corals acclimate to rising water temperatures, highlighting the impact of temperature on coral health. The notion of 'heat stress accumulation' and the adjustments to the bleaching threshold within the context of rising ocean temperatures further support the idea that warmer temperatures contribute to coral bleaching.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: Casale and Fioravanti [46] considered the Self-in the context of Facebook use and proposed that the satisfaction for unmet needs through social networking sites should be a viable candidate in the development of problematic use of Internet communicative services. Results showed that social anxiety had a significant effect on generally problematic Internet use for both women and men, in a sample group of undergraduate students. They also considered several needs for using social networking sites, such as the need to belong, self-presentation and assertiveness. Problematic use of Internet communicative services was significantly associated with all the three needs considered. However, only the need for self-presentation was a significant mediator in the relationship between social anxiety and problematic Internet use only in the case of males. Lee [47] investigated the relationship between Facebook addiction and social anxiety in a sample group of students and found a significant positive relationship between the two variables. Using hierarchical multiple regression, the results showed that approximately 19% of the variance of Facebook addiction was explained by eight predictors, of which age, social interaction anxiety and multitasking were the most related to Facebook addiction. Finally, Facebook addiction was significantly associated with smartphone addiction. Lee-Won [35] found a significant association between problematic Facebook use and social anxiety, with the latter being a noteworthy predictor for problematic Facebook use. Furthermore, the results indicated that a significant moderator in the relationship between problematic Facebook use and social anxiety was the need for social assurance. Rizi [48] found no relationship between social anxiety and excessive Facebook use in a sample of 150 young adults; there were no differences in Facebook use according to high vs. low social anxiety levels. However, the majority of the participants from this study logged on to their Facebook accounts few times a day (47%) and spent less than 30 min on Facebook (46%). The only parameter regarding Facebook usage that was considered in this study for the association with social anxiety was the frequency with which participants log onto Facebook, with no other variables considered. 5. 4. 5. Facebook anxiety and social anxiety Three of the studies included that assessed online social networking sites anxiety indicated significant positive relationships with social anxiety. Davidson and Farquhar [49] investigated the relationship between social anxiety, religion and Facebook. They developed a Facebook-specific anxiety scale, an adaptation of a social anxiety scale related to Facebook and found a strong association with social anxiety. Online social anxiety and social anxiety were positively associated in Hong et al. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by discussing multiple studies that analyze the relationship between social anxiety and problematic use of social media, specifically highlighting that social media use can actually correlate with increased anxiety. For example, the results showed that social anxiety had a significant effect on generally problematic Internet use, as stated by Casale and Fioravanti, suggesting that instead of curing anxiety, increased use of social media might contribute to it. Furthermore, Lee's investigation points to a significant positive relationship between Facebook addiction and social anxiety, reinforcing the idea that social media engagement does not alleviate anxiety but may exacerbate it.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: 키워드 결손가정, 인지적 대인관계 문제해결 훈련, 문제해결력, 자기효능감, 자아탄력성 broken family, training of cognitive problem-solving skills for interpersonal relationship, problem-solving skills, self-efficacy, ego-resiliency 참고문헌(55) 1. [학위논문] 강윤정 1999 결손가정 아동의 대인관계 증진을 위한 자기표출 훈련 프로그램의 효과 연구 2. [학술지] 고성혜 1995 편모가정 청소년의 가정환경에 대한 지각 한국청소년연구 20 3. [학위논문] 권지은 2003 부모 및 또래애착,문제해결방식과 자아탄력성의 관계 4. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim as it discusses various educational and psychological concepts related to broken families and cognitive problem-solving training without any mention of bilingualism or its effects on cognitive flexibility or problem-solving skills.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer ocean temperatures. [SEP] Text: We use 5% for our results reported in the main text, but see Supplement 6 for additional details. Collectively, these ~ 35,000 observations span over 10,000 reef sites globally and constitute two decades of reef monitoring (Fig. 2). We assigned each bleaching observation to the nearest 5 km \(\times\) 5 km cell in a global mesh grid to match SST values to every reef in the dataset. Bleaching observations assigned to the same grid cell experience the same calculated heat stress but were assessed as separate data points; thus, if a grid cell included neighboring reefs, one of which bleached on a given year where the other did not, they were counted individually as a presence and an absence. This approach retained any bleaching response variability that may exist in the dataset at smaller-than-5 km scales or on an intra-annual basis. Fig. 2Annual distribution of bleaching occurrence (5% bleaching or greater) data used to validate bleaching forecast models in this study. ~ 20,000 observations from 1998 to 2019 were compiled by van Woesik & Kratochwill (2022a, b) and the remaining ~ 15,000, spanning 2014–2017 only, were compiled by NOAA (Virgen-Urcelay & Donner 2023)Full size imageWe omitted redundant reports between the two databases and “colony-level” bleaching reports, but otherwise used all observations recorded. Some areas are more densely represented than others throughout the time series. Variables assessedTemperature anomalies are defined relative to a historical baseline, usually a climatological (interannual) average like the maximum monthly mean (MMM): the temperature of the site’s warmest summer month every year averaged from 1985 to 2012. We calculated DHW according to four different thermal baselines: MMM over the standard three-decade period (1985–2012), two shorter MMM climatologies (15 years from 1997 to 2012 and 10 years from 2002 to 2012), and a “maxima” climatology that included only the 10 warmest years from 1985 to 2012. The latter was included to test the assumption that in areas with high interannual SST variability (such as those affected by El Niño ), multiannual rather than annual temperature maxima determine the upper limit of coral heat tolerance. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the methodology for observing coral bleaching in relation to calculated heat stress and temperature anomalies. It highlights the correlation between bleaching occurrences and temperature data, indicating that temperature variability, which includes warmer ocean temperatures, directly impacts coral health and can lead to bleaching. Specifically, the calculations of Degree Heating Weeks (DHW) and temperature anomalies are directly related to potential coral bleaching events, supporting the assertion that warmer ocean temperatures contribute to coral bleaching.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: [40], with general social anxiety being a significant predictor of online social anxiety. McCord et al. [38] used a Facebook social interaction scale and found a significant association with social anxiety in an adult sample group. Using multiple regression results indicated that social anxiety and anxiety on Facebook predicted Facebook social use. There was a significant interaction between social anxiety and Facebook social anxiety, which is in line with the social compensation theory. According to this theory, highly socially anxious individuals tend to use Facebook in order to compensate for the discomfort associated with face-to-face communication. A second regression model was also significant, with anxiety on Facebook and social Facebook use predicting social anxiety; again, there was a significant interaction between the two predictors. Advertisement 6. social networking sites are widespread means through which people can interact with others. There are many advantages of online social networking sites; however, recent research focuses mainly on the negative impact they have on mental health. Terms like “iDisorders”, “Facebook depression” and “Facebook addiction” abound in the literature on online social networking sites and mental health, proposing new disorders that are determined by the use of online social networking sites/Facebook. Moreover, their particularities in terms of manifestations make some advocate their inclusion in current diagnostic nosologies. The present review aims to synthetically present the existing literature on the relationship between social anxiety and social networking. Twenty studies met our inclusion criteria. Most of these studies referred to a particular online social networking site, Facebook, and assessed different related parameters. Overall, most of the papers reported significant associations between online social networking and social anxiety, with four papers reporting no relationship between the two variables. There were mixed results on the relationship between Facebook use and social anxiety, as there were both studies sustaining a significant positive association between the two variables and those that found no association. Several psychosocial aspects of Facebook use were significantly related, both positively and negatively, to social anxiety. There was no relationship between Facebook disclosure and social anxiety in any of the papers included that assessed this construct. With one exception, there was a significant positive relationship between online social networking sites addiction/problematic use and social anxiety. There was evidence of a significant association between Facebook anxiety and social anxiety. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by presenting research that indicates a significant relationship between social anxiety and online social networking, particularly Facebook. It suggests that social media use can be associated with increased anxiety rather than alleviating it. Additionally, the term 'iDisorders' and findings of mixed results on the relationship between Facebook use and social anxiety indicate that social media may not serve as a cure for anxiety and stress related to online activity.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: [학위논문] 김경희 1999 비행청소년의 사회적 문제해결 능력과 사회적 지지와의 관계:서울보호관찰소를 중심으로 5. [학위논문] 김남희 2007 보호관찰 청소년의 사회적 기술 향상 프로그램 개발과 적용 6. [학위논문] 김달호 2001 신문제작이 청소년의 자기효능감에 미치는 영향 7. [학위논문] 김미영 2001 아동의 인지적 대인관계 문제해결기술 훈련 프로그램의 효과연구:사회적 기술,주장성행동,자아존중감을 중심으로 8. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text lists various theses related to social problem-solving abilities and social support among youth, but does not address bilingualism or its effects on cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. Thus, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer ocean temperatures. [SEP] Text: 2001; Schoepf et al. 2015). Unless coral populations have visibly recovered to below the 5% bleaching threshold between a thermal stress event and the subsequent bleaching survey, the event is still flagged as a bleaching occurrence. Though some misalignment of observations and peak DHW is possible, we validate the current DHW definition and all of our variations against the same bleaching dataset, so all analyses will be subject to the same misalignment errors, most of which will result in frequency biases closer to 0. As a result, we may still be confident in any identified skill improvement between models—particularly when these improvements ameliorate a tendency to underpredict bleaching. We performed a train–test split analysis to evaluate the robustness of derived DHW parameters post hoc. To do this, in each of 100 iterations, the best-performing (highest ETS) model according to a random partition of 80% of the validation data (training set) was applied to the remaining 20% of the observations (test set). These train–test splits (repeated 100 times per optimization) inform how robust our results are to variations in the underlying data (see Supplement 7). Global, ocean-specific, and regional forecast optimizationAfter optimizing the DHW bleaching forecast model on a global basis (all events), we also calculated forecast skill for specific subsets of the dataset by only including outcomes (hits, misses, false alarms, and correct negatives) that fall within certain bounds, such as the coordinates for an ocean basin or a specific calendar year range. We divided the dataset by ocean basin (Atlantic, Pacific, Indian) and region (Supplement 2, Fig. 3) and selected the best-performing DHW definition for each geographic subset based on ETS. With the exception of the Coral Triangle, regions were defined by clustering nearby reef sites rather than adhering to an established convention, but our definitions do align with prior work (Maragos & Williams 2011). After optimization, we determined the forecast skill for each level of specificity (globe, basin, region) by validating every bleaching event according to the DHW definition optimized for its geographic location. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by detailing the process of monitoring coral bleaching events and the implications of thermal stress on coral populations, specifically mentioning how 'unless coral populations have visibly recovered to below the 5% bleaching threshold between a thermal stress event and the subsequent bleaching survey, the event is still flagged as a bleaching occurrence.' This indicates a strong link between thermal stress and bleaching, supporting the idea that warmer ocean temperatures are causing coral bleaching.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: This results should be interpreted in the light of the fact that there was a high heterogeneity of Facebook conceptualizations, as in several studies, the amount of time spent on Facebook was assessed, while other studies assessed Facebook/ Internet/ social networking problematic use/intrusiveness/addiction, or psychosocial aspects related to Facebook use, or Facebook disclosure, and in fewer studies, Facebook anxiety was considered. Therefore, one cannot conclude that online social networking sites have a negative or a positive effect on social anxiety without carefully taking into consideration what they mean. An important limitation of the current review was the fact that although we aimed to investigate the relationship between social media and social anxiety, most of the papers included referred only to social networking sites such as Facebook and we cannot generate findings pertaining to other social networking sites, such as Instagram, Tweeter, Youtube, LinkedIn or Myspace. Future studies should also investigate the role of these other social networking sites in mental health problems and in social anxiety per se. Another limitation of this paper refers to the sample groups. As most of the participants included were students, this does not enable us to extend our to other populations. Involving more heterogeneous samples of participants, adolescents, young and older adults can help us to find significant moderators in the relationship between social networking and social anxiety. As all the studies included were cross-sectional, we cannot conclude that there is causality between social networking media, namely Facebook, and social anxiety. Does social media (time spent, pathological use, number of friends, activities) contribute to social anxiety symptomatology or do socially anxious individuals tend to use more social media? According to what we currently know, no directionality can be assumed. However, much like in the meta-analysis on Facebook and loneliness [21], in this case, social anxiety can predict social media use rather than the other way around. Future experimental studies manipulating independent variables would be useful in order to draw more conclusions on the relationship between social networking and social anxiety. Longitudinal studies would allow us to test bidirectional relationships between the two variables and investigate time-related patterns in social networking use and social anxiety. Up to this moment, it remains unclear whether social anxiety leads to more online social networking use, or whether the relationship is opposite, with more use of online social networking predicting social anxiety. Bidirectionality between the variables could also be an important aspect to investigate, as there is preliminary evidence for both directions. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by emphasizing that the relationship between social media use and social anxiety is complex and not straightforward. It highlights the variability in how different studies conceptualize social media use and its impact, stating that one cannot conclude whether online social networking sites have negative or positive effects on social anxiety without careful examination. Furthermore, it discusses the need for future research to explore directionality between social media use and social anxiety, indicating that while social anxiety might influence social media usage, the reverse could also be true. Thus, the text implies that simply taking breaks from social media is unlikely to be a blanket solution for all anxiety and stress associated with online activities.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: [학위논문] 김미향 2006 자아탄력성 증진 훈련이 중학생 자아탄력성에 미치는 효과 9. [학위논문] 김순복 2007 낙관성 향상 프로그램이 초등학교 아동의 자아탄력성과 학교생활만족도에 미치는 영향 10. [학위논문] 김성연 2004 저소득 한부모 가족 아동의 성역할 정체감과 자기효능감에 관한 연구:양부모 가족 아동과의 비교를 중심으로 11. [학술지] 김중술 1992 우울증 환자들의 사회적 문제해결 능력 정신의학 17 (2) 12. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text is irrelevant to the claim, as it discusses various academic theses and their focuses, such as resilience training effects on middle school students and social problem-solving abilities in patients with depression. There is no mention or discussion of bilingualism or its effects on cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer ocean temperatures. [SEP] Text: To compare the rate of change observed in the optimal bleaching threshold through time against the rate of ocean warming, we also averaged the DHW maxima (using the same constant values for anomaly cutoff and window size) for each grid cell in the analysis on an annual basis and performed a time series regression. Results and discussionRefining the DHW definitionIn this study, we performed a series of coral bleaching hindcasts using 1,080 variations of the DHW definition characterized by different combinations of underlying climatology, anomaly cutoff temperature, accumulation window size, and bleaching threshold. Our assessment determined which combination of variables produced forecast models with the highest skill, optimizing the DHW definition first for the globe, then for each ocean basin, and finally for sixteen regions of the tropical ocean (Fig. 3). Global optimization validated the use of the 1985–2012 maximum monthly mean (MMM) as the best-performing baseline for reef thermal tolerance (Supplement 1), so all further skill testing applied this climatology. Our spotlight analysis on regions affected by El Niño (ENSO) also found that the 1985–2012 climatology outperformed the maxima climatology (10 warmest years). Global optimizationOverall, the current DHW definition (1 °C cutoff, 12-week window, 4 DHW bleaching threshold) achieved an equitable threat score (ETS) of 0. 098. Optimizing the accumulation window duration, anomaly cutoff, and bleaching threshold on a global basis increased the ETS to 0. 167, a skill improvement of 70% (Table 4, Fig. 4). The adjusted definition also raised forecast bias from ~ 0. 27 (current) to ~ 1. 27 (global optimization), indicating that the current definition consistently underpredicted bleaching occurrences from 1998 to 2019 (Table 4). The updated model therefore made positive predictions more likely by using a smaller cutoff of 0. 4 °C and a lower bleaching threshold of 3 DHW with an 11-week accumulation window (Table 4, Fig. 4, Supplement 4). The current definition and the globally optimized definition achieved similar accuracies of 65% and 64%, respectively, but most of the current model’s accuracy score was due to correct negatives rather than hits—the forecast using the current definition detected only 20% of bleaching occurrences (Table 4). Although the globally optimized model produces about twice as many false alarms (FAR = 0. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the optimization of the Degree Heating Weeks (DHW) definition and its effectiveness in forecasting coral bleaching occurrences. It indicates that the adjusted model improves predictions of bleaching, which suggests that bleaching is connected to variations in thermal conditions such as elevated ocean temperatures. The mention of underprediction of bleaching occurrences from 1998 to 2019 supports the notion that warmer ocean temperatures are a significant factor contributing to coral bleaching.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: The findings of the current review have important clinical implications regarding social networking use for individuals with social anxiety. The benefits/advantages of online social networking sites should be used and investigated in order to overcome existing barriers in clinical practice. Testing interventions delivered over social networking sites in randomized controlled trials would have great implications on the development of evidence-based remote interventions. Advertisement 3. 1-1500, 81/2012) awarded to Dr. Anca Dobrean. 1. Second Quarter. 2016. Available from: [Accessed 4 August 2016]. 2. Facebook as a research tool for the social sciences: opportunities, challenges, ethical considerations, and practical guidelines. 2015; 70: 543–556. 3. Ryan GS. Online social networks for patient involvement and recruitment in clinical research. 2013; 21: 35–39. 4. Click ‘like’ to change your behavior: a mixed methods study of college students’ exposure to and engagement with Facebook content designed for weight loss. J Res 2014; 16: e158. 5. Ruotsalainen H, Kyngäs H, Tammelin T, et al. Effectiveness of Facebook-delivered lifestyle counselling and physical activity self-monitoring on physical activity and body mass index in overweight and obese adolescents: a randomized controlled trial. Pract 2015; 2015: 159205. 6. Torous J, Keshavan M. The role of social media in schizophrenia: evaluating risks, benefits, and potential. Psychiatry 2016; 29: 190–195. 7. The future of mental health care: peer-to-peer support and social media. Sci 2016; 25: 113–122. 8. Hui A, Wong PW-C, Fu K-W. Evaluation of an online campaign for promoting help-seeking attitudes for depression using a Facebook advertisement: an online randomized controlled experiment. 2015; 2: e5. 9. . The benefits of Facebook ‘Friends:’ social capital and college students’ use of online social network sites. J Comput-2007; 12: 1143–1168. 10. Social media: a review and tutorial of applications in medicine and health care. J Res 2014; 16: e13. 11. The influence of social networking sites on health behavior change: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J 2015; 22: 243–25612. . [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contrasts the claim by highlighting that there are potential benefits of social networking for individuals with social anxiety, suggesting that rather than simply taking breaks from social media, utilizing social networks could help overcome barriers and develop evidence-based interventions. This indicates that social media's engagement can play a positive role in mental health, rather than just asserting that taking breaks will resolve anxiety and stress.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: [학위논문] 김현숙 2006 아동이 지각한 가족기능과 자아탄력성과의 관계 연구 13. [학위논문] 문정덕 2006 성장기의 부모화 경험과 자기효능감이 청소년의 대인관계문제에 미치는 영향 14. [학위논문] 문진명 2000 시설 청소년과 일반 청소년의 또래피해 지각에 따른 또래 따돌림 귀인 및 소외감 15. [학위논문] 박경선 2003 MMTIC을 활용한 자기성장 프로그램이 초등학생의 자기효능감과 학교생활 적응에 미치는 효과 16. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text contains references to various academic theses related to family function, self-efficacy, and social issues among adolescents, but it does not mention bilingualism or its effects on cognitive flexibility or problem-solving skills. Therefore, it is irrelevant to the claim.


Input: Task: corroborate the claim using the given text. Claim: Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching due to warmer ocean temperatures. [SEP] Text: Ocean basin and regional optimizationTesting forecast skill using geographic subsets of the bleaching data allowed us to further optimize the DHW definition on an ocean and regional basis by accounting for the ways in which coral stress responses vary broadly across space. Table 4 reports the improvements in ETS and the other skill scores for all models and the associated optimized parameters. A global analysis in which each grid cell uses the bleaching forecast model optimized for its ocean basin (Atlantic, Pacific, or Indian) demonstrated an overall ETS of 0. 287, nearly double the performance of the globally optimized model (ETS = 0. 167) and nearly three times the performance of the current model (ETS = 0. 098). Further subdividing each ocean basin into 16 smaller geographic regions continued to improve skill (ETS = 0. 337). These augmented scores reflect increased accuracy—from 64% (globally optimized) to 74% (ocean-specific) and 76% (regionally optimized)—and although the ocean-specific model slightly underpredicts bleaching (bias = 0. 854), the region-specific model achieves a near-perfect frequency bias score of 0. 960. Interestingly, the regionally optimized model more closely matches the globally optimized model for probability of detection (70%) than the basin-optimized model (61%). For both the regional and basin-optimized models, the smaller false alarm ratios (0. 275 and 0. 287; Table 4) suggest that their positive predictions were more likely to correspond with observed bleaching occurrences than the global model. As with the global optimization, the train–test split analysis validated our regional definitions; in many cases, the results were unanimous across all 100 splits, and for all regions, the values reported in Table 4 fall within 1 SD of the corresponding test mean (Supplement 7). All models significantly outperform the current definition at the 95% confidence interval. Reef stress is governed by a complex constellation of interactive factors that (1) determine the environmental conditions a reef experiences and (2) define the circumstances under which such conditions would be stressful, but (3) are challenging to observe, predict, and model (Mason et al. 2020). Fortunately, factors that drive coral bleaching response variability often share a critical commonality: a strong spatial component. Consequently, incorporating location into even a simple threshold-based bleaching model accounts for a substantial portion of variability, vastly improving forecast skill. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text corroborates the claim by discussing the optimization of bleaching forecasts based on regional variations, suggesting that coral bleaching is a response to environmental conditions that include temperature. It highlights the intricate relationship between environmental factors and coral stress responses, indicating that conditions leading to bleaching are being modeled and predicted based on different ocean regions, implying a correlation with temperature changes.


Input: Task: contrast the claim using the given text. Claim: Social media breaks will cure all anxiety and stress related to online activity. [SEP] Text: The role of social networking sites in early adolescents’ social lives. J 2016; 36: 348–371. 13. . Cognitive benefits of online social networking for healthy older adults. . Epub ahead of print 16 March 2016. DOI: 10. 1093/geronb/gbw025. 14. Lenhart A. Teens, social media & technology overview 2015. Center: Internet, Science & Tech. 2015. Available from: [Accessed 4 August 2016]. 15. Sampasa-Kanyinga H, Lewis RF. Frequent use of social networking sites is associated with poor psychological functioning among children and adolescents. 2015; 18: 380–385. 16. Sampasa-Kanyinga H, Hamilton HA. Social networking sites and mental health problems in adolescents: the mediating role of cyberbullying victimization. 2015; 30: 1021–1027. 17. . ‘Facebook depression? ’ Social networking site use and depression in older adolescents. J 2013; 52: 128–130. 18. O’Keeffe GS, Clarke-Pearson K, Mulligan DA, et al. Clinical report – The impact of social media on children, adolescents, and families. Pediatrics 2011; 127: 800–804. 19. Frison E, Eggermont S. ‘Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger’: negative comparison on Facebook and adolescents’ life satisfaction are reciprocally related. 2016; 19: 158–164. 20. Modeling the contribution of personality, social identity and social norms to problematic Facebook use in adolescents. 2016; 63: 51–56. 21. Song H, Zmyslinski-Seelig A, Kim J, et al. make you lonely? A meta analysis. Behav 2014; 36: 446–452. 22. creating ‘iDisorders’? The link between clinical symptoms of psychiatric disorders and technology use, attitudes and anxiety. Behav 2013; 29: 1243–1254. 23. Association between social media use and depression among U. S. young adults. 2016; 33: 323–331. 24. Soon-Li Lee, Miriam Sang-Ah Park, Cai-Lian Tam. The relationship between Facebook attachment and obsessive-compulsive disorder severity. Cyberpsychology 2015; 9: 39–47. 25. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text discusses various studies highlighting the negative psychological effects of social networking sites, particularly on children and adolescents, indicating that frequent use is associated with poor psychological functioning. This suggests that merely taking breaks from social media may not address the root issues of anxiety and stress related to online activity. For instance, it mentions that social networking may contribute to mental health problems, emphasizing that there may be more complex factors at play rather than a simple solution like a break. Therefore, the text contrasts the claim by implying that social media breaks alone are insufficient to cure anxiety and stress.


Input: Task: pass the claim using the given text. Claim: Bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. [SEP] Text: [학위논문] 박선연 2002 자기성장 프로그램을 통한 집단상담이 결손가정 중학생의 인지변화에 미치는 영향 17. [학술지] 박영신 1999 초등학생의 생활 만족도 형성요인에 대한 구조적 관계 분석: 사회적 지원과 자기효능감을 중심으로 한국심리학회지: 사회문제 5 (1) : 57 ~ 1 18. [학술지] 박영아 2005 집단미술치료가 저소득층 청소년의 자기효능감에 미치는 효과 미술치료연구 12 (3) : 635 ~ 3 19. [SEP] Justify:

Output: The text does not provide any information related to bilingualism or its effects on cognitive flexibility or problem-solving skills. Instead, it lists academic papers and their authors without connecting them to the claim.