Civilian-based defense
Civilian-based defense or social defence describes non-military action by a society or social group, particularly in a context of a sustained campaign against outside attack or dictatorial rule – or preparations for such a campaign in the event of external attack or usurpation. There are various near-synonyms, including "non-violent defence", "civilian defence" and "defence by civil resistance". Whatever term is used, this approach involves preparations for and use of a range of actions – which can be variously called nonviolent resistance and civil resistance – for national defence against invasion, coup d'état and other threats. Writings about this concept include works by Brigadier General Edward B. Atkeson, Erica Chenoweth (U.S.) and Maria Stephan (U.S.), Theodor Ebert (Germany), Brian Martin (Australia), Adam Roberts (UK), Gene Sharp (U.S.), Heinz Vetschera (Austria), and others. The failed Kapp Putsch in the Weimar Republic was foiled in part by civilian-based defense. Civilian-based defense was unsuccessfully used against the Soviet Union's Invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968. Other usages of term "Social defence" as defined and summarized here is distinct from certain other usages of this term. For example, within the framework of its system of Total Defence, the Singapore government's civil defence/national security policy uses the term "social defence" as a synonym for social inclusion policies. Gene Sharp's views Civilian-based defense, according to Professor Gene Sharp, a scholar of non-violent struggle, is a "policy [in which] the whole population and the society's institutions become the fighting forces. Their weaponry consists of a vast variety of forms of psychological, economic, social, and political resistance and counter-attack. This policy aims to deter attacks and to defend against them by preparations to make a society unrulable by would-be-tyrants and aggressors. The trained population and the society's institutions would be prepared to deny the attackers their objectives and to make consolidation of political control impossible. These aims would be achieved by applying massive and selective noncooperation and defiance. In addition, where possible, the defending country would aim to create maximum international problems for the attackers and to subvert the reliability of their troops and functionaries." In 1994, Michael Randle wrote,"Some of the chief exponents of the concept--including Roberts and Sharp...would exclude instances of civil resistance against invasions, occupations or coups which occurred without a pre-arranged national plan...indeed on these grounds, Sharp concludes that there has never been an historical instance of civilian-based defense but only improvised prototypes of it." In Europe the policy is usually called civilian defense or social defense. Sharp also wrote that the term civilian-based defense "indicates defense by civilians (as distinct from military personnel) using civilian means of struggle (as distinct from military and paramilitary means). This is a policy intended to deter and defeat foreign military invasions, occupations, and internal usurpations." This defense "is meant to be waged by the population and its institutions on the basis of advance preparation, planning, and training." However, the potential for civilian-based-defense as a complement to military defense has also been raised. The Civilian-based Defense Association and its magazine