Sakala-desha-pratishthapanacharya

Ganapati-deva (r. c. 1199-1262) was the longest reigning monarch of the Kakatiya dynasty of southern India. He brought most of the Telugu-speaking region in present-day Andhra Pradesh and Telangana under the Kakatiya influence by war or diplomacy.

Ganapati's father Mahadeva was killed in a conflict against the Seuna (Yadava) kingdom in 1198-1199, and Ganapati remained in Yadava captivity for some time. The Kakatiya commander Recherla Rudra administered the kingdom in Ganapati's name during this period, protecting it against invaders and rebels.

After his release in 1199, Ganapati consolidated his rule over the kingdom, and conquered the Coastal Andhra region in a series of campaigns. He also fought with the Eastern Gangas for the control of the southern Kalinga and Vengi regions: these campaigns had mixed results, with Kakatiya control limited to the south of the Godavari River. Ganapati supported the Nellore Choda chiefs Tikka and his son Manuma-siddhi II against rival claimants to the throne of Nellore. Towards the end of his reign, he suffered setbacks against the Pandyas, and retired after appointing his daughter Rudrama-devi as his successor.

Early life

Ganapati was a son of his predecessor Mahadeva, who died during an invasion of the Seuna (Yadava) kingdom. The Yadavas captured Ganapati, and during his captivity, the Kakatiya kingdom suffered from revolts and invasions.

During Ganapati's captivity, Rudra of Recherla family - the commander-in-chief of the Kakatiya army - appears to have handled the administration in Ganapati's name, as suggested by his titles Kakatiya-rajya-bhara-dhaureya and Kakati-rajya-samartha. Epigraphic evidence suggests that Rudra suppressed rebellions by feudatories, and repulsed invasion by an obscure king named Nagati. According to some scholars, such as M. Somasekhara Sarma, Rudra also repulsed an invasion by the Chola king Kulottunga III. Others, such as P.V.P. Sastry dispute this in absence of concrete evidence.

Release from Yadava captivity

The 26 December 1199 Manthena inscription describes the Ganapati-deva as "the establisher of all the kingdom" (sakala-desha-pratishthapanacharya), which suggests that he had been released from the Yadava captivity by this time and had consolidated his control over his ancestral kingdom. It is not clear why the Yadavas released him. The Yadava inscriptions claim that king Jaitrapala released him out of compassion. It is possible that the Yadavas wanted to secure their eastern border by mainitaning good relations with the Kakatiyas, since they were involved in a conflict with the Hoysalas at their southern border.

The later text Pratapa-charita states that Ganapati was offered in marriage to the daughter of the Yadava king. Historian P.V.P. Sastry doubts this, because according to the contemporary Bayyaram tank inscription, Mahadeva had arranged the marriage of his children Ganapati and Mailamba, and this event have happened before the military campaign that resulted in Mahadeva's death.

Reign

After being released from the Yadava captivity, Ganapati consolidated his rule with support of loyal commanders, such as the Recherla chief Rudra and the Malyala chief Chaunda. The political chaos that followed the decline of the Kalyani Chalukya and the Chola empires worked in his favour.

Coastal Andhra campaign

The inscriptions of Ganapati's uncle Rudra-deva have been found at Draksharamam and Tripurantakam in the coastal Andhra region, but the Kakatiyas had lost control of this region by the time of Ganapati's ascension. In the early years of Ganapati's reign, the Kakatiya army invaded coastal Andhra.

The Velanati Chodas controlled the Vela-nadu area in the coastal Andhra region, although their power had declined considerably after the death of Choda II around 1181. Prithvishvara, the grandson of Choda II, moved his capital from Chandavolu to Pithapuram, and started re-asserting the Velanti Choda power in the Krishna delta region. The Kakatiyas conquered this region by 1201, as attested by the 1201 CE Kanaka-durga temple inscription issued by Ganapati's brother-in-law, the Natavadi chief Vakkadi-malla Rudra.

The Kota chiefs of Dharanikota re-affirmed their acceptance of the Kakatiya suzerainty.

The Kakatiya army led by the Malayala chief Chaunda marched to the Divi island in the Krishna River delta. Pinni Chodi (or Pina Chodi), a chief of the Ayya family, controlled this island, probably as a subordinates of Prithvishvara. The 1203 CE Kondaparti inscription and another 1241 CE inscription, issued by Chaunda and his son Kata respectively, provide some information about this campaign. According to these inscriptions, the father-son duo enriched Ganapati's treasury with diamonds plundered from the island. Ganapati conferred the title Dvipi-luntaka ("plunderer of the island") on Chaunda, and Dvipi-churakara on Kata. The Ayya chiefs accepted Ganapati's suzerainty, and Ganapati allowed them to retain control of the island. Naramba and Peramba, the two daughters of Pinni Chodi married Ganapati. Their brother Jaya (or Jayapa) entered Ganapati's service as a commander (senapati or senani), as attested by his 1231 CE Ganapeshvaram inscription.

Epigraphic evidence suggests that Prithvishvara's authority was limited to a small part of Kalinga, as suggested by his inscriptions from Draksharamam and Srikurmam. He probably fought against the Kakatiya subordinates in an attempt to re-establish his control over the Vela-nadu region, and died during this campaign. This event probably happened sometime in 1206 CE, the date of the Srikurmam inscription of his chief treasurer Ananta, which is the last surviving inscription from his reign. Some inscriptions describe Ganapati as Prithvishvara-shirah-kanduka-krida-vinoda ("the player of the ball that was the head of Prithvishvara"). Multiple chiefs, who were probably Kakatiya subordinates or allies, also claimed this title. These include the Nellore Choda chief Tikka-bhupala, the Seuna Yadava chief Vishvanatha, and the Maha-mandaleshvara Ballaya of Chola family (probably of Kamma-nadu). All these chiefs probably participated in the battle that resulted in the death of Prithvishvara.

By 1209, Ganapati had annexed the Vela-nadu and the Karmma-rashtra (Kamma-nadu) regions to his kingdom, as attested by the 1209 CE Chenna-keshava temple (Idupulapadu near Bapatla) inscription. Ganapati appointed Jaya senapati of Ayya family as the govenror of the Vela-nadu region, as attested by his 1213 CE Chebrolu inscription. The appointment possibly happened earlier, but this is not certain, as Jaya's Chandavolu inscription is partially built in a wall, rendering its date unreadable.

The chiefs of Kamma-nadu region, most probably the Telugu Chodas of Koni-dena appear to have asserted independence. Ganapati's loyal subordinate - Opili Siddhi - a member of the Potapi branch of the Telugu Chodas, subjugated the rebels. Ganapati made him the governor of the former rebel territory as a reward. Epigraphic evidence suggests that the Chakra-narayana chiefs of Addanki accepted Ganapati's suzerainty around the same time, before 1217-1218.

First southern campaign

The 1213 CE Chebrolu inscription of Jaya senapati refers to Ganapati's military campaign against the southern kings. It states that upon his return from this campaign, Ganapati conferred the lordship of the southern region to Jaya.

These southern kings were most probably the Nellore Choda chiefs, who were Chola vassals. Earlier, around 1180 CE, the Chola king Kulottunga III had defeated the Choda ruler Manuma-siddhi I (alias Vira-ganda-gopala) and installed the latter's brother Nalla-siddhi on the throne. Nalla-siddhi and his younger brother Tammu-siddhi ruled as Chola vassals till 1207-1208. Manuma-siddhi I's son Tikka (or Takka), who had earlier helped Ganapati against Prithvishvara, sought Ganapati's help to claim the throne of Nellore. Ganapati marched to Nellore, forced Tammu-siddhi to flee, and installed Tikka on the throne as Tikka-bhupala. Tikka later also appeased Kulottunga III by acknowledging his suzerainty.

Ganapati's 1228 CE Mattevada inscription states that he plundered the Chola capital (probably Kanchi, which was an alternate capital of the Nellore chief). The 1231 CE Ganapeshvaram inscription of his commander Jaya senapati states that he subdued several countries including Chola, Kalinga, Seuna, Brihat-Karnata, and Lata; he also annexed Vela-nadu and Dvipa (Divi). It appears that Tikka faced invasion from rulers or chiefs belonging to these countries, and Ganapati helped Tikka repulse their invasion.

Tikka appointed Ganapati's subordinate Gangaya-sahini as the governor of Upper Paka-nadu region within his kingdom. Tikka later repulsed Hoysala invasions: since Tikka was a minor chief, historian M. Somasekhara Sarma speculates that Ganapati assisted him in this conflict; however, there is no direct evidence of this.

Kalinga and Vengi

After the death of Prithvishvara, Ganapati sent his armies, led by Soma and Raja-nayaka, to the Kalinga region to consolidate his control over Prithvishvara's former territories. Soma (or Somaya), who held the position of pradhani or mantri (minister) belonged to the Induluri family. Raja-nayaka was a subordinate to Rudra of Recherla family.

Historian M. Somasekhara Sarma speculates that Bhima - the Telugu Choda chief of Eruva, also participated in Ganapati's campaign. The later 1322-1333 CE Talla-Prodduturu inscription credits Bhima with victories in several places in and around Kalinga, and it is likely that a minor chief like him achieved these victories as a subordinate or an ally or a stronger ruler. According to historian P.V.P. Sastry, Bhima achieved these victories before Ganapati's time, as a Kalyani Chalukya subordinate.

Raja-nayaka appears to have achieved successes in the area to the north-east of the core Kakatiya territory, sometime before 1212 CE. His 1236 CE Upparapalli inscription credits him with the following victories:

After his successes in Kalinga, Raja-nayaka marched to Draksharamam, and made a gift for maintaining the perpetual lamps to the god Bhimeshvara in 1212 CE. The rulers subjugated by Raja-nayaka were probably subordinates of the Eastern Ganga king Rajaraja III. The Kakatiya control over their territories did not last long, and they soon declared independence or accepted the Ganga suzerainty.

Conflict with the Eastern Gangas

Ganapati conducted his military campaigns in the Kalinga and the Vengi regions over several years. His Ganapeshvaram, Upparapalli, and Moupalli inscriptions suggest that he made several attemtps to subjugate Kalinga and Vengi from 1212 CE onwards.

Sometime before 1217 CE, Ananga Bhima III, the successor of the Eastern Ganga king Rajaraja III, expelled Kakatiya forces from Kalinga. Ananga Bhima III established his control over the Trikalinga or Trayi-vasundhara region, as attested by his 1217-1218 Bhimeshvara temple inscription. By 1230 CE, the Eastern Ganga forces had arrived at Draksharamam, where their commander Jesrajaka commissioned repairs to the Bhimeshvara temple.

Ananga Bhima III also invaded Vengi, where petty chiefs, such as the Chalukyas of Pithapuram and the Haihayas of Konamandala accepted his suzerainty. Ganapati sent an army led by Soma to the Godavari delta region. Shiva-yoga-sara, a 15th century text written by a descendant of Soma, states that Soma:

Kolanu or Sarasi-puri, likely present-day Saripalle in West Godavari district, was under the control of Maha-mandaleshvara Kolani Keshava-deva during 1192-1128 CE. Epigraphic evidence attests to Eastern Ganga presence in this region: Keshava-deva may have received military assistance from Ananga Bhima III or may have accepted his suzerainty. The Kakatiya general Soma probably conquered this region after the death of Keshava-deva and the retreat of the Ganga forces: Ganapati made him the governor of the conquered territory, and he came to be known as Kolani Soma. A 1231 CE Paleshvara temple (Iragavaram) inscription confirms the Kakatiya conquest of Kolanu in Vengi region in that year.

The Kakatiyas seem to have regained control of Draksharamam, as attested by a 1237 CE inscription of the Kakatiya general Mallala Hemadri-reddi at the local temple. However, there is no evidence that the Kakatiyas controlled any part of Kalinga beyond Draksharamam.

Ganapati probably tried to secure the political allegiance of the Chalukyas of Nidadavolu by marrying his daughter Rudrama to the Chalukya prince Virabhadra.

Ananga Bhima III's son and successor Narasimha I invaded the Godavari region, but the Kakatiyas continued to control this region until the end of the dynasty. The 1257 CE Nandaluru inscription of the Telugu Choda king Manuma-siddhi II refers to the Kalinga expedition of the Kakatiyas, which was probably aimed at repulsing Narasimha's invasion. The inscription states that Manuma-siddhi II crossed the Godavari River while chasing the Kalinga king: this must have happened some time after Manuma-siddhi's ascension in 1248. The Kakatiya control was likely limited to the south of the Godavari River.

Second southern expedition

In 1248, Ganapati's Nellore Choda vassal Tikka died. His son and successor Manuma-siddhi II faced multiple challenges to his authority:

After losing control of his kingdom, Manuma-siddhi II sent the poet Tikkana as an emissary to Ganapati's court. Ganapati sent an army led by Samanta Bhoja in Manuma-siddhi II's support.

The undated Nayanpalli (Guntur district) inscription states that the Kakatiya army burnt Nellore, and played a game of ball with the heads of the rebels Bayyana and Tikkana. The inscription also states that the army entered the Dravida-mandala, and captured the capital of Kulottunga Rajendra Choda. The captured city was probably Kanchi, the capital of the Chola king Rajendra III. In 1250 CE, Bhoja's army achieved a decisive victory at Palaiyaru, defeating the combined army of Dravida, Karnataka, and Vijaya-Ganda-Gopala. Manuma-siddhi regained control of Nellore, but Vijaya-Ganda-Gopala continued to rule Kanchi, as attested by his inscriptions there until 1282.

The Kakatiya army then defeated the Vaidumba chief Rakkasa Ganga, and Manuma-siddhi II regained control of Pottapi-nadu, the territory he had earlier lost to Rakkasa Ganga. Gangaya-sahini, who had earlier lost to Rakkasa Ganga, entered Ganapati's service. Ganapati granted the Marjavadi region captured from Rakkasa Ganga to Gangaya-sahini as a family estate. Although the Kakatiya army played an important role in this victory, Manuma-siddhi II's court poet Tikkana gives the entire credit to his master.

Relation with the Yadavas

Ganapati generally maintained friendly relations with the Seunas (Yadavas). The Yadava chief Vishvanatha appears to have participated in the Kakatiya campaign against Prithvishvara, as attested by his title Prithvishvara-shirah-kanduka-krida-vinoda. The Yadava prince Permadi-deva, a son of Simhana, was a subordinate of Ganapati, as attested by the 1159 CE Peruru inscription which records his gifts of lands to brahmanas. Some Yadava (or Arya) chiefs also assisted Ganapati in his southern campaign against the Pandyas.

Some Kakatiya inscriptions claim that Ganapati defeated the Yadavas. One inscription states that Ganapati conquered Sevana, identified with the Yadava king Simhana. Another inscription describes Ganapati as a terror to Simhana, and states that he defeated Simhana at a battle near Kurumalur, supported by the Telugu Choda chief. Both Kakatiya and Seuna inscriptions dated 1250 CE have been found at Eleshvaram (near Devarakonda), suggesting that the kingdoms fought indecisive battles over this area.

Third southern campaign

Around 1257 CE, the Pandya king Jata-varman Sundara I subjugated the Chola king Rajendra III, Vijaya-Ganda-Gopala of Kanchi, and the Kadava chief Kopperunijinga. With the help of these new vassals, he then attacked the kingdom of the Nellore Choda ruler Manuma-siddhi II of Nellore. Manuma-siddhi II sought help from the Kakatiya, the Seuna (Yadava), and the Bana rulers.

The Pandya allies appear to have invaded the Kakatiya territory, as suggested by Tripurantakam inscriptions of Rajendra III and Kopperunijinga. Apparently in an attempt to form alliance with the king of Kalinga, Kopperunijinga advanced as far as Draksharamam in the north, but Ganapati defeated him. Ganapati later honoured Kopperunijinga with vira-pada-mudra ("presentation of the anklet of the heroes"), possibly to cause a split in the Pandya camp.

The Pandya records suggest that Ganapati suffered setbacks against them towards the end of his reign. The Pandya army captured Nellore, and killed Manuma-siddhi II (alias Vira-ganda Gopala) in the Battle of Muttukuru in 1263 CE. The Pandya army also forced his allies - the Kakatiyas, the Seunas, and the Banas - to flee. The Pandya king Jata-varman Sundara celebrated virabhisheka (anointment) of his conquest over Nellore and Kanchi. He also issued coins bearing the Kakatiya emblem of varaha (boar) on the obverse, and the Pandya emblem of fish on the reverse.

Administration

During his reign of 63 years, Ganapati brought under his influence almost the entire Telugu-speaking territory by war or diplomacy. Continuing his predecessor Rudra-deva's project of moving the capital from Anumakonda to Orugallu, he built a new fortification with 75 bastions, each protected by a nayaka (chief). The fortification comrpised a stone and a mud fort, one within the other.

Ganapati's loyal subordinates included:

Ganapati's subordinate allies and vassals included:

Ganapati's ministers included:

Succession

Ganapati apparently retired after suffering defeats against the Pandyas in the late 1250s. He did not have a son by his chief queen, and nominated his elder daughter Rudrama-devi as his successor. She began to rule as a co-regent from 1259-1260 under the regnal name Rudra-deva Maharaja.

Ganapati was still alive in 1269 CE, as suggested by the Duggi (in Palnad) inscription of his subordinate Janniga-deva. This inscription calls Rudrama the "chosen royalty" (pattoddhati, a mistake for pattodhrti), which suggests she was still a queen-designate and not a queen.

Some members of the royal family appear to have contested Rudrama's ascension. For example, according to Pratapa-charita, Harihara and Murari-deva, who were Ganapati's sons by other queens, revolted against Rudrama and seized the capital. However, the loyal Kakatiya feudatories helped suppress these rebellions.