The term<unk>  stems from the Greek Κυβερνήτης (kybernētēs, steersman, governor, pilot, or rudder — the same root as government).<unk>  is a broad field of study, but the essential goal of<unk>  is to understand and define the functions and processes of systems that have goals, and that participate in circular, causal chains that move from action to sensing to comparison with desired goal to action. Studies of this field are all ultimately means of examining different forms of systems and applying what is known to make the design and function of any system, including artificial systems such as business management, more efficient and effective.<unk>  was defined by Norbert Wiener, in his book of that title, as the study of control and communication in the animal and the machine. Stafford Beer called it the science of effective organization and Gordon Pask extended it to include information flows "in all media" from stars to brains. It includes the study of feedback, black boxes and derived concepts such as communication and control in living organisms, machines and organizations including self-organization. Its focus is how anything (digital, mechanical or biological) processes information, reacts to information, and changes or can be changed to better accomplish the first two tasks .
A more philosophical definition, suggested in 1956 by Louis Couffignal, one of the pioneers of<unk> , characterizes<unk>  as "the art of ensuring the efficacy of action" . The most recent definition has been proposed by Louis Kauffman, President of the American Society for<unk> ,<unk>  is the study of systems and processes that interact with themselves and produce themselves from themselves" .
Concepts studied by<unk> sts (or, as some prefer,<unk> ans) include, but are not limited to: learning, cognition, adaption, social control, emergence, communication, efficiency, efficacy and interconnectivity. These concepts are studied by other subjects such as engineering and biology, but in<unk>  these are removed from the context of the individual organism or device.
Other fields of study which have influenced or been influenced by<unk>  include game theory; system theory (a mathematical counterpart to<unk> ; psychology, especially neuropsychology, behavioral psychology,cognitive psychology; philosophy; anthropology and even architecture.[citation needed]
Cybernetics
Writing
Vision science
Organic chemistry
Cognitive science
Dose Profile
Idose
Unitaid