<unk>  is the study of how drugs interact with living organisms to produce a change in function. If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered<unk> aceuticals. The field encompasses drug composition and properties, interactions, toxicology, therapy, and medical applications and antipathogenic capabilities.<unk>  is not synonymous with<unk> acy, though in common usage the two are at times confused.<unk>  deals with how drugs interact within biological systems to affect function, while<unk> acy is a medical science concerned with the safe and effective use of medicines.
The origins of clinical<unk>  date back to the Middle Ages in Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine, Peter of Spain's Commentary on Isaac, and John of St Amand's Commentary on the Antedotary of Nicholas.<unk>  as a scientific discipline did not further advance until the mid-19th century amid the great biomedical resurgence of that period.  Before the second half of the nineteenth century, the remarkable potency and specificity of the actions of drugs such as morphine, quinine and digitalis were explained vaguely and with reference to extraordinary chemical powers and affinities to certain organs or tissues. The first<unk>  department was set up by Buchheim in 1847, in recognition of the need to understand how therapeutic drugs and poisons produced their effects.
The word<unk>  comes from Greek:<unk> akon (φάρμακον) meaning drug, and λόγος, logos, "knowledge". Early<unk> sts focused on natural substances, mainly plant extracts.<unk>  developed in the 19th century as a new biomedical science that applied the principles of scientific experimentation to therapeutic contexts.
Pharmacology
Neurochemistry
Organic chemistry
Biomarker
Virology
Medicine
Oxygenation
Neuroscience