Both Geographic Information Systems (GIS) implementation successes and failures can be attributed to many factors, some that have little or nothing to do with the technology. While the discourse in the developed world has shifted from examining GIS implementation in isolation, developing countries appear to be still bogged down by many institutional barriers that impede implementation. In this context, an integrative implementation framework that takes into consideration politics and policy issues is developed to understand, explain, and assess GIS implementation in developing countries. The uniqueness of country-specific problems is acknowledged and juxtaposed against a body of theory in order to evaluate GIS implementation efforts. Based on reflective accounts of implementation efforts in three developing countries, four overarching characteristics of successful GIS implementation across country contexts are identified. These include clarity in problem definition, forging strategic alliances, incremental planning, and developing local knowledge. GIS implementation is likely to occur only when individuals and organisations creatively challenge existing norms, organisational defensive routines, and inefficient bureaucratic practices. Therefore, successful GIS implementation in developing countries is a likely outcome of critical reflective practice that relies on the capacity of empowered individuals and groups rather than solely on organisational structures.
['Laxmi Ramasubramanian']
GIS Implementation in Developing Countries: Learning from Organisational Theory and Reflective Practice