Mr. Justice Stevens
delivered the opinion of the Court.
These appeals challenge the constitutionality of New York statutes that authorize police officers to enter a private residence without a warrant and with force, if necessary, to make a routine felony arrest.
The important constitutional question presented by this challenge has been expressly left open in a number of our prior opinions. In United States v. Watson, 423 U. S. 411, we upheld a warrantless “midday public arrest,” expressly noting that the case did not pose “the still unsettled question . . . 'whether and under what circumstances an officer may enter a suspect’s home to make a warrantless arrest.’ ” Id., at 418, n. 6. The question has been answered in different ways by other appellate courts. The Supreme Court of Florida rejected the constitutional attack, as did the New York Court of Appeals in this case. The courts of last resort in 10 other States, however, have held that unless special circumstances are present, warrantless arrests in the home are unconstitutional. Of the seven United States Courts of Appeals that have considered the question, five have expressed the opinion that such arrests are unconstitutional.
Last Term we noted probable jurisdiction of these appeals in order to address that question. 439 U. S. 1044. After hearing oral argument, we set the case for reargument this Term. 441 U. S. 930. We now reverse the New York Court of Appeals and hold that the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution, made applicable to the States by the Fourteenth Amendment, Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U. S. 643; Wolf v. Colorado, 338 U. S. 25, prohibits the police from making a warrantless and nonconsensua! entry into a suspect’s home in order to make a routine felony arrest.
We first state the facts of both cases in some detail and put to one side certain related questions that are not presented by these records. We then explain why the New York statutes are not consistent with the Fourth Amendment and why the reasons for upholding warrantless arrests in a public place do not apply to warrantless invasions of the privacy of the home.
I
On January 14, 1970, after two days of intensive investigation, New York detectives had assembled evidence sufficient to establish probable cause to believe that Theodore Payton had murdered the manager of a gas station two days earlier. At about 7:30 a. m. on January 15, six officers went to Pay-ton’s apartment in the Bronx, intending to arrest him. They had not obtained a warrant. Although light and music emanated from the apartment, there was no response to their knock on the metal door. They summoned emergency assistance and, about 30 minutes later, used crowbars to break open the door and enter the apartment. No one was there. In plain view, however, was a 30-caliber shell casing that was seized and later admitted into evidence at Payton’s murder trial.
In due course Payton surrendered to the police, was indicted for murder, and moved to suppress the evidence taken from his apartment. The trial judge held that the warrantless and forcible entry was authorized by the New York Code of Criminal Procedure, and that the evidence in plain view was properly seized. He found that exigent circumstances justified the officers’ failure to announce their purpose before entering the apartment as required by the statute. He had no occasion, however, to decide whether those circumstances also would have justified the failure to obtain a warrant, because he concluded that the warrantless entry was adequately supported by the statute without regard to the circumstances. The Appellate Division, First Department, summarily affirmed.
On March 14, 1974, Obie Riddick was arrested for the commission of two armed robberies that had occurred in 1971. He had been identified by the victims in June 1973, and in January 1974 the police had learned his address. They did not obtain a warrant for his arrest. At about noon on March 14, a detective, accompanied by three other officers, knocked on the door of the Queens house where Riddick was living. When his young son opened the door, they could see Riddick sitting in bed covered by a sheet. They entered the house and placed him under arrest. Before permitting him to dress, they opened a chest of drawers two feet from the bed in search of weapons and found narcotics and related paraphernalia. Riddick was subsequently indicted on narcotics charges. At a suppression hearing, the trial judge held that the warrantless entry into his home was authorized by the revised New York statute, and that the search of the immediate area was reasonable under Chimel v. California, 395 U. S. 752. The Appellate Division, Second Department, affirmed the denial of the suppression motion.
The New York Court of Appeals, in a single- opinion, affirmed the convictions of both Payton and Riddick. 45 N. Y. 2d 300, 380 N. E. 2d 224 (1978). The court recognized that the question whether and under what circumstances an officer may enter a suspect’s home to make a warrantless arrest had not been settled either by that court or by this Court. In answering that question, the majority of four judges relied primarily on its perception that there is a
“. . . substantial difference between the intrusion which attends an entry for the purpose of searching the premises and that which results from an entry for the purpose of making an arrest, and [a] significant difference in the governmental interest in achieving the objective of the intrusion in the two instances.” Id., at 310, 380 N. E. 2d, at 228-229.
The majority supported its holding by noting the “apparent historical acceptance” of warrantless entries to make felony arrests, both in the English common law and in the practice of many American States.
Three members of the New York Court of Appeals dissented on this issue because they believed that the Constitution requires the police to obtain a “warrant to enter a home in order to arrest or seize a person, unless there are exigent circumstances.” Starting from the premise that, except in carefully circumscribed instances, “the Fourth Amendment forbids police entry into a private home to search for and seize an object without a warrant,” the dissenters reasoned that an arrest of the person involves an even greater invasion of privacy and should therefore be attended with at least as great a measure of constitutional protection. The dissenters noted “the existence of statutes and the American Law Institute imprimatur codifying the common-law rule authorizing warrantless arrests in private homes” and acknowledged that “the statutory authority of a police officer to make a warrant-less arrest in this State has been in effect for almost 100 years,” but concluded that “neither antiquity nor legislative unanimity can be determinative of the grave constitutional question presented” and “can never be a substitute for reasoned analysis.”
Before addressing the narrow question presented by these appeals, we put to one side other related problems that are not presented today. Although it is arguable that the war-rantless entry to effect Payton’s arrest might have been justified by exigent circumstances, none of the New York courts relied on any such justification. The Court of Appeals majority treated both Payton’s and Riddick’s cases as involving routine arrests in which there was ample time to obtain a warrant, and we will do the same. Accordingly, we have no occasion to consider the sort of emergency or dangerous situation, described in our cases as “exigent circumstances,” that would justify a warrantless entry into a home for the purpose of either arrest or search.
Nor do these cases raise any question concerning the authority of the police, without either a search or arrest warrant, to enter a third party’s home to arrest a suspect. The police broke into Payton’s apartment intending to arrest Payton, and they arrested Riddick in his own dwelling. We also note that in neither case is it argued that the police lacked probable cause to believe that the suspect was at home when they entered. Finally, in both cases we are dealing with entries into homes made without the consent of any occupant. In Payton, the police used crowbars to break down the door and in Riddick, although his 3-year-old son answered the door,' the police entered before Riddick had an opportunity either to object or to consent.
II
It is familiar history that indiscriminate searches and seizures conducted under the authority of “general warrants” were the immediate evils that motivated the framing and adoption of the Fourth Amendment. Indeed, as originally proposed in the House of Representatives, the draft contained only one clause, which directly imposed limitations on the issuance of warrants, but imposed no express restrictions on warrantless searches or seizures. As it was ultimately adopted, however, the Amendment contained two separate clauses, the first protecting the basic right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures and the second requiring that warrants be particular and supported by probable cause. The Amendment provides:
“The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.’’
It is thus perfectly clear that the evil the Amendment was designed to prevent was broader than the abuse of a general warrant. Unreasonable searches or seizures conducted without any warrant at all are condemned by the plain language of the first clause of the Amendment. Almost a century ago the Court stated in resounding terms that the principles reflected in the Amendment “reached farther than the concrete form” of the specific cases that gave it birth, and “apply to all invasions on the part of the government and its employes of the sanctity of a man’s home and the privacies of life.” Boyd v. United States, 116 U. S. 616, 630. Without pausing to consider whether that broad language may require some qualification, it is sufficient to note that the warrantless arrest of a person is a species of seizure required by the Amendment to be reasonable. Beck v. Ohio, 379 U. S. 89. Cf. Delaware v. Prouse, 440 U. S. 648. Indeed, as Me. Justice Powell noted in his concurrence in United States v. Watson, the arrest of a person is “quintessential a seizure.” 423 U. S., at 428.
The simple language of the Amendment applies equally to seizures of persons and to seizures of property. Our analysis in this case may therefore properly commence with rules that have been well established in Fourth Amendment litigation involving tangible items. As the Court reiterated just a few years ago, the “physical entry of the home is the chief evil against which the wording of the Fourth Amendment is directed.” United States v. United States District Court, 407 U. S. 297, 313. And we have long adhered to the view that the warrant procedure minimizes the danger of needless intrusions of that sort.
It is a “basic principle of Fourth Amendment law” that searches and seizures inside a home without a warrant are presumptively unreasonable. Yet it is also well settled that objects such as weapons or contraband found in a public place may be seized by the police without a warrant; The seizure of property in plain view involves no invasion of privacy and is presumptively reasonable, assuming that there is probable cause to associate the property with criminal activity. The distinction between a warrantless seizure in an open area and such a seizure on private premises was plainly stated in G. M. Leasing Corp. v. United States, 429 U. S. 338, 354:
“It is one thing to seize without a warrant property resting in an open area or seizable by levy without an intrusion into privacy, and it is quite another thing to effect a warrantless seizure of property, even that owned by a corporation, situated on private premises to which access is not otherwise available for the seizing officer.”
As the late Judge Leventhai recognized, this distinction has equal force when the seizure of a person is involved. Writing on the constitutional issue now before us for the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit sitting en banc, Dorman v. United States, 140 U. S. App. D. C. 313, 435 F. 2d 385 (1970), Judge Leventhai first noted the settled rule that warrantless arrests in public places are valid. He immediately recognized, however, that
“[a] greater burden is placed ... on officials who enter a home or dwelling without consent. Freedom from intrusion into the home or dwelling is the archetype of the privacy protection secured by the Fourth Amendment.” Id., at 317, 435 F. 2d, at 389. (Footnote omitted.)
His analysis of this question then focused on the long-settled premise that, absent exigent circumstances, a warrant-less entry to search for weapons or contraband is unconstitutional even when a felony has been committed and there is probable cause to believe that incriminating evidence will be found within. He reasoned that the constitutional protection afforded to the individual’s interest in the privacy of his own home is equally applicable to a warrantless entry for the purpose of arresting a resident of the house; for it is inherent in such an entry that a search for the suspect may be required before he can be apprehended. Judge Leventhal concluded that an entry to arrest and an entry to search for and to seize property implicate the same interest in preserving the privacy and the sanctity of the home, and justify the same level of constitutional protection.
This reasoning has been followed in other Circuits. Thus, the Second Circuit recently summarized its position:
“To be arrested in the home involves not only the invasion attendant to all arrests but also an invasion of the sanctity of the home. This is simply too substantial an invasion to allow without a warrant, at least in the absence of exigent circumstances, even when it is accomplished under statutory authority and when probable cause is clearly present.” United States v. Reed, 572 F. 2d 412, 423 (1978), cert. denied sub nom. Goldsmith v. United States, 439 U. S. 913.
We find this reasoning to be persuasive and in accord with this Court’s Fourth Amendment decisions.
The majority of the New York Court of Appeals, however, suggested that there is a substantial difference in the relative intrusiveness of an entry to search for property and an entry to search for a person. See n. 13, supra. It is true that the area that may legally be searched is broader when executing a search warrant than when executing an arrest warrant in the home. See Chimel v. California, 395 U. S. 752. This difference may be more theoretical than real, however, because the police may need to check the entire premises for safety reasons, and sometimes they ignore the restrictions on searches incident to arrest.
But the critical point is that any differences in the intrusiveness of entries to search and entries to arrest are merely ones of degree rather than kind. The two intrusions share this fundamental characteristic: the breach of the entrance to an individual’s home. The Fourth Amendment protects the individual’s privacy in a variety of settings. In none is the zone of privacy more clearly defined than when bounded by the unambiguous physical dimensions of an individual’s home — a zone that finds its roots in clear and specific constitutional terms: “The right of the people to be secure in their . . . houses . . . shall not be violated.” That language unequivocally establishes the proposition that “[a]t the very core [of the Fourth Amendment] stands the right of a man to retreat into his own home and there be free from unreasonable governmental intrusion.” Silverman v. United States, 365 U. S. 505, 511. In terms that apply equally to seizures of property and to seizures of persons, the Fourth Amendment has drawn a firm line at the entrance to the house. Absent exigent circumstances, that threshold may not reasonably be crossed without a warrant.
Ill
Without contending that United States v. Watson, 423 U. S. 411, decided the question presented by these appeals, New York argues that the reasons that support the Watson holding require a similar result here. In Watson the Court relied on (a) the well-settled commonlaw rule that, a warrantless arrest in a public place is valid if the arresting officer had probable cause to believe the suspect is a felon; (b) the clear consensus among the States adhering to that well-settled common-law rule; and (c) the expression of the judgment of Congress that such an arrest is “reasonable.” We consider each of these reasons as it applies to a warrantless entry into a home for the purpose of making a routine felony arrest.
A
An examination of the common-law understanding of an officer’s authority to arrest sheds light on the obviously relevant, if not entirely dispositive, consideration of what the Framers of the Amendment might have thought to be reasonable. Initially, it should be noted that the common-law rules of arrest developed in legal contexts that substantially differ from the cases now before us. In these cases, which involve application of the exclusionary rule, the issue is whether certain evidence is admissible at trial. See Weeks v. United States, 232 U. S. 383. At common law, the question whether an arrest was authorized typically arose in civil damages actions for trespass or false arrest, in which a constable's authority to make the arrest was a defense. See, e. g., Leach v. Money, 19 How. St. Tr. 1001, 97 Eng. Rep. 1075 (K. B. 1765). Additionally, if an officer was killed while attempting to effect an arrest, the question whether the person resisting the arrest was guilty of murder or manslaughter turned on whether the officer was acting within the bounds of his authority. See M. Foster, Crown Law 308, 312 (1762). See also West v. Cabell, 153 U. S. 78, 85.
A study of the common law on the question whether a constable had the authority to make warrantless arrests in the home on mere suspicion of a felony — as distinguished from an officer’s right to arrest for a crime committed in his presence— reveals a surprising lack of judicial decisions and a deep divergence among scholars.
The most cited evidence of the common-law rule consists of an equivocal dictum in a case actually involving the sheriff’s authority to enter a home to effect service of civil process. In Semayne’s Case, 5 Co. Rep. 91a, 91b, 77 Eng. Rep. 194, 195-196 (K. B. 1603), the Court stated:
“In all cases when the King is party, the Sheriff (if the doors be not open) may break the party’s house, • either to arrest him, or to do other execution of the K.’s process, if otherwise he cannot enter. But before he breaks it, he ought to signify the cause of his coming, and to make request to open doors; and that appears well by the stat. of Westm. 1. c. 17. (which is but an affirmance of the common law) as hereafter appears, for the law without a default in the owner abhors the destruction or breaking of any house (which is for the habitation and safety of man) by which great damage and inconvenience might ensue to the party, when no default is in him; for perhaps he did not know of the process, of which, if he had notice, it is to be presumed that he would obey it, and that appears by the book in 18 E. 2. Execut. 252. where it is said, that the K.’s officer who comes to do execution, &c. may open the doors which are shut, and break them, if he cannot have the keys; which proves, that he ought first to demand them, 7 E. 3. 16.” (Footnotes omitted.)
This passage has been read by some as describing an entry without a warrant. The context strongly implies, however, that the court was describing the extent of authority in executing the King’s writ. This reading is confirmed by the phrase “either to arrest him, or to do other execution of the K.’s process” and by the further point that notice was necessary because the owner may “not know of the process.” In any event, the passage surely cannot be said unambiguously to endorse warrantless entries.
The cómmon-law commentators disagreed sharply on the subject. Three distinct views were expressed. Lord Coke, widely recognized by the American colonists “as the greatest authority of his time on the laws of England,” clearly viewed a warrantless entry for the purpose of arrest to be illegal. Bum, Foster, and Hawkins agreed, as did East and Russell, though the latter two qualified their opinions by stating that if an entry to arrest was made without a warrant, the officer was perhaps immune from liability for the trespass if the suspect was actually guilty. Blackstone, Chitty, and Stephen took the opposite view, that entry to arrest without a warrant was legal, though Stephen relied on Blackstone who, along with Chitty, in turn relied exclusively on Hale. But Hale’s view was not quite so unequivocally expressed. Further, Hale appears to rely solely on a statement in an early Yearbook, quoted in Burdett v. Abbot, 14 East 1, 155, 104 Eng. Rep. 501, 560 (K. B. 1811):
“ 'that for felony, or suspicion of felony, a man may break open the house to take the felon; for it is for the commonweal to take them.’ ”
Considering the diversity of views just described, however, it is clear that the statement was never deemed authoritative. Indeed, in Burdett, the statement was described as an “extrajudicial opinion.” Ibid
It is obvious that the common-law rule on warrantless home arrests was not as clear as the rule on arrests in public places. Indeed, particularly considering the prominence of Lord Coke, the weight of authority as it appeared to the Framers was to the effect that a warrant was required, or at the minimum that there were substantial risks in proceeding without one. The common-law sources display a sensitivity to privacy interests that could not have been lost on the Framers. The zealous and frequent repetition of the adage that a “man’s house is his castle,” made it abundantly clear that both in England and in the Colonies “the freedom of one’s house” was one of the most vital elements of English liberty.
Thus, our study of the relevant common law does not provide the same guidance that was present in Watson. Whereas the rule concerning the validity of an arrest in a public place was supported by cases erectly in point and by the unanimous views of the commentators, we have found no direct authority supporting forcible entries into a home to make a routine arrest and the weight of the scholarly opinion is somewhat to the contrary. Indeed, the absence of any 17th- or 18th-century English cases directly in point, together with the unequivocal endorsement of the tenet that “a man’s house is his castle,” strongly suggests that the prevailing practice was not to make such arrests except in hot pursuit or when authorized by a warrant. Cf. Agnello v. United States, 269 U. S. 20, 33. In all events, the issue is not one that can be said to have been definitively settled by the common law at the time the Fourth Amendment was adopted.
B
A majority of the States that have taken a position on the question permit warrantless entry into the home to arrest even in the absence of exigent circumstances. At this time, 24 States permit such warrantless entries; 15 States clearly prohibit them, though 3 States do so on federal constitutional grounds alone; and 11 States have apparently taken no position on the question
But these current figures reflect a significant decline during the last decade in the number of States permitting warrantless entries for arrest. Becent dicta in this Court raising questions about the practice, see n. 1, supra, and Federal Courts of Appeals’ decisions on point, see n. 4, supra, have led state courts to focus on the issue. Virtually all of the state courts that have had to confront the constitutional issue directly have held warrantless entries into the home to arrest to be invalid in the absence of exigent circumstances. See nn. 2, 3, supra. Three state courts have relied on Fourth Amendment grounds alone, while seven have squarely placed their decisions on both federal and state constitutional grounds. A number of other state courts, though not having had to confront the issue directly, have recognized the serious nature of the constitutional question. Apparently, only the Supreme Court of Florida and the New York Court of Appeals in this case have expressly upheld warrantless entries to arrest in the face of a constitutional challenge.
A longstanding, widespread practice is not immune from constitutional scrutiny. But neither is it to be lightly brushed aside. This is particularly so when the constitutional standard is as amorphous as the word “reasonable,” and when custom and contemporary norms necessarily. play such a large role in the constitutional analysis. In this case, although the weight of state-law authority is clear, there is by no means the kind of virtual unanimity on this question that was present in United States v. Watson, with regard to warrantless arrests in public places. See 423 U. S., at 422-423. Only 24 of the 50 States currently sanction warrant-less entries into the home to arrest, see nn. 46-48, supra, and there is an obvious declining trend. Further, the strength of the trend is greater than the numbers alone indicate. Seven state courts have recently held that warrantless home arrests violate their respective State Constitutions. See n. 3, supra. That is significant because by invoking a state constitutional provision, a state court immunizes its decision from review by this Court. This heightened degree of immutability underscores the depth of the principle underlying the result.
c
No congressional determination that warrantless entries into the home áre “reasonable” has been called to our attention. None of the federal statutes cited in the Watson opinion reflects any such legislative judgment. Thus, that support for the Watson holding finds no counterpart in this case.
See also United States v. Watson, 423 U. S., at 433 (Stewart, J., concurring); id., at 432-433 (Powell, J., concurring); Gerstein v. Pugh, 420 U. S. 103, 113, n. 13; Coolidge v. New Hampshire, 403 U. S. 443, 474481; Jones v. United States, 357 U. S. 493, 499-500. Cf. United States v. Santana, 427 U. S. 38.
See State v. Perez, 277 So. 2d 778 (1973), cert. denied, 414 U. S. 1064.
See State v. Cook, 115 Ariz. 188, 564 P. 2d 877 (1977) (resting on both state and federal constitutional provisions); People v. Ramey, 16 Cal. 3d 263, 545 P. 2d 1333 (1976), cert. denied, 429 U. S. 929 (state and federal); People v. Moreno, 176 Colo. 488, 491 P. 2d 575 (1971) (federal only); State v. Jones, 274 N. W. 2d 273 (Iowa 1979) (state and federal); State v. Platten, 225 Kan. 764, 594 P. 2d 201 (1979) (state and federal); Commonwealth v. Forde, 367 Mass. 798, 329 N. E. 2d 717 (1975) (federal only); State v. Olson, 287 Ore. 157, 598 P. 2d 670 (1979) (state and federal); Commonwealth v. Williams, 483 Pa. 293, 396 A. 2d 1177 (1978) (federal only); State v. McNeal, 251 S. E. 2d 484 (W. Va. 1978) (state and federal); Laasch v. State, 84 Wis. 2d 587, 267 N. W. 2d 278 (1978) (state and federal).
Compare United States v. Reed, 572 F. 2d 412 (CA2 1978), cert. denied sub nom. Goldsmith v. United States, 439 U. S. 913; United States v. Killebrew, 560 F. 2d 729 (CA6 1977); United States v. Shye, 492 F. 2d 886 (CA6 1974); United States v. Houle, 603 F. 2d 1297 (CA8 1979); United States v. Prescott, 581 F. 2d 1343 (CA9 1978); Dorman v. United States, 140 U. S. App. D. C. 313, 435 F. 2d 385 (1970), with United States v. Williams, 573 F. 2d 348 (CA5 1978); United States ex rel. Wright v. Woods, 432 F. 2d 1143 (CA7 1970), cert. denied, 401 U. S. 966. Three other Circuits have assumed without deciding that warrant-less home arrests are unconstitutional. United States v. Bradley, 455 F. 2d 1181 (CA1 1972); United States v. Davis, 461 E. 2d 1026 (CA3 1972); Vance v. North Carolina, 432 F. 2d 984 (CA4 1970). And one Circuit has upheld such an arrest without discussing the constitutional issue. Michael v. United States, 393 F. 2d 22 (CA10 1968).
A thorough search of the apartment resulted in the seizure of additional evidence tending to prove Payton’s guilt, but the prosecutor stipulated that the officers’ warrantless search of the apartment was illegal and that all the seized evidence ^except the shell casing should be suppressed.
“MR. JACOBS: There’s no question that the evidence that was found in bureau drawers and in the closet was illegally obtained. I’m perfectly willing to concede that, and I do so in my memorandum of law. There's no question about that.” App. 4.
“At the time in question, January 15, 1970, the law applicable to the police conduct related above was governed by the Code of Criminal Procedure. Section 177 of the Code of Criminal Procedure as applicable to this case recited: ‘A peace officer may, without a warrant, arrest a person ... 3. When a felony has in fact been committed, and he has reasonable cause for believing the person to be arrested to have committed it.’ Section 178 of the Code of Criminal Procedure provided: ‘To make an arrest, as provided in the last section [177], the officer may break open an outer or inner door or window of a building, if, after notice of his office and purpose, he be refused admittance.’ ” 84 Misc. 2d 973, 974-975, 376 N. Y. S. 2d 779, 780 (Sup. Ct., Trial Term, N. Y. County, 1974).
“Although Detective Malfer knocked on the defendant’s door, it is not established that at this time he announced that his purpose was to arrest the defendant. Such a declaration of purpose is unnecessary when exigent circumstances are present (People v. Wojciechowski, 31 AD 2d 658; People v. Mcllwain, 28 AD 2d 711).
“ ‘Case law has made exceptions from the statute or common-law rules for exigent circumstances which may allow dispensation with the notice ... It has also been held or suggested that notice is not required if there is reason to believe that it will allow an escape or increase unreasonably the physieal risk to the police or to innocent persons.’ (People v. Floyd, 26 NY 2d 558, 562.)
“The facts of this matter indicate that a grave offense had been committed; that the suspect was reasonably believed to be armed and could be a danger to the community; that a clear showing of probable cause existed and that there was strong reason to believe that the suspect was in the premises being entered and that he would escape if not swiftly apprehended. From this fact the court finds that exigent circumstances existed to justify noncompliance with section 178. The court holds, therefore, that the entry into defendant’s apartment was valid.” Id., at 975, 376 N. Y. S. 2d, at 780-781.
55 App. Div. 2d 859 (1976).
New York Crim. Proc. Law § 140.15 (4) (McKinney 1971) provides, with respect to arrest without a warrant:
“In order to effect such an arrest, a police officer may enter premises in which he reasonably believes such person to be present, under the same circumstances and in the same manner as would be authorized, by the provisions of subdivisions four and five of section 120.80, if he were attempting to make such arrest pursuant to a warrant of arrest.”
Section 120.80, governing execution of arrest warrants, provides in relevant part:
“4. In order to effect the arrest, the police officer may, under circumstances and in a manner prescribed in this subdivision, enter any premises in which he reasonably believes the defendant to be present. Before such entry, he must give, or make reasonable effort to give, notice of his authority and purpose to an occupant thereof, unless there,is reasonable cause to believe that the giving of such notice will:
“(a) Result in the defendant-escaping or attempting to escape; or
“(b) Endanger the life or safety of the officer, or another person; or
“(c) Result in the destruction, damaging or secretion of material evidence.
“5. If the officer is authorized to enter premises without giving notice of his authority and purpose, or if after giving such notice he is not admitted, he may enter such premises, and by a breaking if necessary.”
App. 63-66.
56 App. Div. 2d 937, 392 N. Y. S. 2d 848 (1977). One justice dissented on the ground that the officers’ failure to announce their authority and purpose before entering the house made the arrest illegal as a matter of state law.
45 N. Y. 2d, at 309-310, 380 N. E. 2d, at 228.
The majority continued:
“In the case of the search, unless appropriately limited by the terms of a warrant, the incursion on the householder’s domain normally will be both more extensive and more intensive and the resulting invasion of his privacy of greater magnitude than what might be expected to occur on an entry made for the purpose of effecting his arrest. A search by its nature contemplates a possibly thorough rummaging through possessions, with concurrent upheaval of the owner’s chosen or random placement of goods and articles and disclosure to the searchers of a myriad of personal items and details which he would expect to be free from scrutiny by uninvited eyes. The householder by the entry and search of his residence is stripped bare, in greater or lesser degree, of the privacy which normally surrounds him in his daily living, and, if he should be absent, to an extent of which he will be unaware.
“Entry for the purpose of arrest may be expected to be quite different. While the taking into custody of the person of the householder is unquestionably of grave import, there is no accompanying prying into the area of expected privacy attending his possessions and affairs. That personal seizure alone does not require a warrant was established by United States v. Watson (423 US 411, supra), which upheld a warrantless arrest made in a public place. In view of the minimal intrusion on the elements of privacy of the home which results from entry on the premises for making an arrest (as compared with the gross intrusion which attends the arrest itself), we perceive no sufficient reason for distinguishing between an arrest in a public place and an arrest in a residence. To the extent that an arrest will always be distasteful or offensive, there is little reason to assume that arrest within the home is any more so than arrest in a public place; on the contrary, it may well be that because of the added exposure the latter may be more objectionable.
“At least as important, and perhaps even more so, in concluding that entries to make arrests are not 'unreasonable’ — the substantive test under the constitutional proscriptions — is the objective for which they are made, viz., the arrest of one reasonably believed to have committed a felony, with resultant protection to the community. The 'reasonableness’ of any governmental intrusion is to be judged from two perspectives — that of the defendant, considering the degree and scope of the invasion of his person or property; that of the People, weighing the objective and imperative of governmental action. The community’s interest in the apprehension of criminal suspects is of a higher order than is its concern for the recovery of contraband or evidence; normally the hazards created by the failure to apprehend far exceed the risks which may follow nonre-covery.” Id., at 310-311, 380 N. E. 2d, at 229.
“The apparent historical acceptance in the English common law of warrantless entries to make felony arrests (2 Hale, Historia Placitorum Coronae, History of Pleas of Crown [1st Amer ed, 1847], p. 92; Chitty, Criminal Law [3d Amer, from 2d London, ed, 1836]. 22-23), and the existence of statutory authority for such entries in this State since the enactment of the Code of Criminal Procedure in 1881 argue against a holding of unconstitutionality and substantiate the reasonableness of such procedure. . . .
“Nor do we ignore the fact that a number of jurisdictions other than our own have also enacted statutes authorizing warrantless entries of buildings (without exception for homes) for purposes of arrest. The American Law Institute’s Model Code of Pre-Arraignment Procedure makes similar provision in section 120.6, with suggested special restrictions only as to nighttime entries.” Id., at 311-312, 380 N. E. 2d, at 229-230 (footnote omitted).
Id., at 315, 380 N. E. 2d, at 232 (Wachtler, J., dissenting).
Id., at 319-320, 380 N. E. 2d, at 235 (Cooke, J., dissenting).
“Although the point has not been squarely adjudicated since Coolidge [v. New Hampshire, 403 U. S. 443,] (see United States v. Watson, 423 US 411, 418, n. 6), its proper resolution, it is submitted, is manifest. At the core of the Fourth Amendment, whether in the context of a search or an arrest, is the fundamental concept that any governmental intrusion into an individual’s home or expectation of privacy must be strictly circumscribed (see, e. g., Boyd v. United States, 116 US 616, 630; Camara v. Municipal Ct., 387 US 523, 528). To achieve that end, the framers of the amendment interposed the warrant requirement between the public and the police, reflecting their conviction that the decision to enter a dwelling should not rest with the officer in the field, but rather with a detached and disinterested Magistrate (McDonald v. United States, 335 US 451, 455-456; Johnson v. United States, 333 US 10, 13-14). Inasmuch as the purpose of the Fourth Amendment is to guard against arbitrary governmental invasions of the home, the necessity of prior judicial approval should control any contemplated entry, regardless of the purpose for which that entry is sought. By definition, arrest entries must be included within the scope of the amendment, for while such entries are for persons, not things, they are, nonetheless, violations of privacy, the chief evil that the Fourth Amendment was designed to deter (Silverman v. United States, 365 US 505, 511).” Id., at 320-321, 380 N. E. 2d, at 235-236 (Cooke, J., dissenting).
Id., at 324, 380 N. E. 2d, at 238 (Cooke, J., dissenting).
Although it is not clear from the record that appellants raised this constitutional issue in the trial courts, since the highest court of the State passed on it, there is no doubt that it is properly presented for review by this Court. See Raley v. Ohio, 360 U. S. 423, 436.
45 N. Y. 2d, at 308, 380 N. E. 2d, at 228. Judge Wachtler in dissent, however, would have upheld the warrantless entry in Payton’s case on exigency grounds, and therefore agreed with the majority’s refusal to suppress the shell casing. See id., at 315, 380 N. E. 2d, at 232.
“Vivid in the memory of the newly independent Americans were those general warrants known as writs of assistance under which officers of the Crown had so bedeviled the colonists. The hated writs of assistance had given customs officials blanket authority to search where they pleased for goods imported in violation of British tax laws. They were denounced by James Otis as ‘the worst instrument of arbitrary power, the most destructive of English liberty, and the fundamental principles of law, that ever was found in an English law book,’ because they placed ‘the liberty of every man in the hands of every petty officer.’ The historic occasion of that denunciation, in 1761 at Boston, has been characterized as ‘perhaps the most prominent event which inaugurated the resistance of the colonies to the oppressions of the mother country. “Then and there,” said John Adams, “then and there was the first scene of the first act of opposition to the arbitrary claims of Great Britain. Then and there the child Independence was born.” ’ Boyd v. United States, 116 U. S. 616, 625.” Stanford v. Texas, 379 U. S. 476, 481-482.
See also J. Landynski, Search and Seizure and the Supreme Court 19-48 (1966); N. Lasson, The History and Development of the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution 13-78 (1937); T. Taylor, Two Studies in Constitutional Interpretation 19-44 (1969).
“ ‘The rights of the people to be secured in their persons, their houses, their papers, and their other property, from all unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated by warrants issued without probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, or not particularly describing the places to be searched, or the persons or things to be seized.’ Annals of Cong., 1st Cong., 1st sess., p. 452.” Lasson, supra, at 100, n. 77.
“The general right of security from unreasonable search and seizure was given a sanction of its own and the amendment thus intentionally given a broader scope. That the prohibition against ‘unreasonable searches’ was intended, accordingly, to cover something other than the form of the warrant is a question no longer left to implication to be derived from the phraseology of the Amendment.” Lasson, supra, at 103. (Footnote omitted.)
As Mr. Justice Jackson so cogently observed in Johnson v. United States, 333 U. S. 10, 13-14:
“The point of the Fourth Amendment, which often is not grasped by zealous officers, is not that it denies law enforcement the support of the usual inferences which reasonable men draw from evidence. Its protection consists in requiring that those inferences be drawn by a neutral and detached magistrate instead of being judged by the officer engaged in the often competitive enterprise of ferreting out crime. Any assumption that evidence sufficient to support a magistrate’s disinterested determination to issue a search warrant will justify the officers in making a search without a warrant would reduce the Amendment to a nullity and leave the people’s homes secure only in the discretion of police officers. Crime, even in the privacy of one’s own quarters, is, of course, of grave concern to society, and the law allows such crime to be reached on proper showing. The right of officers to thrust themselves into a home is also a grave concern, not only to the individual but to a society which chooses to dwell in reasonable security and freedom from surveillance. When the right of privacy must reasonably yield to the right of search is, as a rule, to be decided by a judicial officer, not by a policeman or government enforcement agent.” (Footnotes omitted.)
As the Court stated in Coolidge v. New Hampshire:
“Both sides to the controversy appear to recognize a distinction between searches and seizures that take place on a man’s property — his home or office — and those carried out elsewhere. It is accepted, at least as a matter of principle, that a search or seizure carried out on a suspect’s premises without a warrant is per se unreasonable, unless the police can show that it falls within one of a carefully defined set of exceptions based on the presence of 'exigent circumstances.’
“It is clear, then, that the notion that the warrantless entry of a man’s house in order to arrest him on probable cause is per se legitimate is in fundamental conflict with the basic principle of Fourth Amendment law that searches and seizures inside a man’s house without warrant are per se unreasonable in the absence of some one of a number of well defined ‘exigent circumstances.’ ” 403 U. S., at 474-475, 477-478.
Although Mr. Justice Harlan joined this portion of the Court’s opinion, he expressly disclaimed any position on the issue now before us. Id., at 492 (concurring opinion).
As Mr. Justice Harlan wrote for the Court:
“It is settled doctrine that probable cause for belief that certain articles subject to seizure are in a dwelling cannot of itself justify a search without a warrant. Agnello v. United States, 269 U. S. 20, 33; Taylor v. United States, 286 U. S. 1, 6. The decisions of this Court have time and again underscored the essential purpose of the Fourth Amendment to shield the citizen from unwarranted intrusions into his privacy. See, e. g., Johnson v. United States, 333 U. S. 10, 14; McDonald v. United States, 335 U. S. 451, 455; cf. Giordenello v. United States, [357 U. S. 480]. This purpose is realized by Rule 41 of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, which implements the Fourth Amendment by requiring that an impartial magistrate determine from an affidavit showing probable cause whether information possessed by law-enforcement officers justifies the issuance of a search warrant. Were federal officers free to search without a warrant merely upon probable cause to believe that certain articles were within a home, the provisions of the Fourth Amendment would become empty phrases, and the protection it affords largely nullified.” Jones v. United States, 357 U. S., at 497-498 (footnote omitted).
See generally Rotenberg & Tanzer, Searching for the Person to be Seized, 35 Ohio St. L. J. 56 (1974).
See n. 4, supra.
See, e. g., the facts in Payton’s case, n. 5, supra.
“The cases construing the Fourth Amendment thus reflect the ancient common-law rule that a peace officer was permitted to arrest without a warrant for a misdemeanor or felony committed in his presence as well as for a felony not committed in his presence if there was reasonable ground for making the arrest. 10 Halsbury’s Laws of England 344-345 (3d ed. 1955); 4 W. Blackstone, Commentaries *292; 1 J. Stephen, A History of the Criminal Law of England 193 (1883); 2 M. Hale, Pleas of the Crown *72-74; Wilgus, Arrests Without a Warrant, 22 Mich. L. Rev. 541, 547-550, 686-688 (1924); Samuel v. Payne, 1 Doug. 359, 99 Eng. Rep. 230 (K. B. 1780); Beckwith v. Philby, 6 Barn. & Cress. 635, 108 Eng. Rep. 585 (K. B. 1827).” 423 U. S., at 418-419.
“The balance struck by the common law in generally authorizing felony arrests on probable cause, but without a warrant, has survived substantially intact. It appears in almost all of the States in the form of express statutory authorization.” Id., at 421-422.
“This is the rule Congress has long directed its principal law enforcement officers to follow. Congress has plainly decided against conditioning warrantless arrest power on proof of exigent circumstances.” Id., at 423.
The Court added in a footnote:
“Until 1951, 18 U. S. C. § 3052 conditioned the warrantless arrest powers of the agents of the Federal Bureau Of Investigation on there being reasonable grounds to believe that the person would escape before a warrant could be obtained. The Act of Jan. 10, 1951, c. 1221, § 1, 64 Stat. 1239, eliminated this condition.” Id., at 423, n. 13.
There are important differences between the common-law ing to searches and seizures and those that have evolved through the process of interpreting the Fourth Amendment in light of contemporary norms and conditions. For example, whereas the kinds of property subject to seizure under warrants had been limited to contraband and the fruits or instrumentalities of crime, see Govled v. United States, 255 U. S. 298, 309, the category of property that may be seized, consistent with the Fourth Amendment, has been expanded to include mere evidence. Warden v. Hayden, 387 U. S. 294. Also, the prohibitions of the Amendment have been extended to protect against invasion by electronic eavesdropping of an individual’s privacy in a phone booth not owned by him, Katz v. United States, 389 U. S. 347, even though the earlier law had focused on the physical invasion of the individual’s person or property interests in the course of a seizure of tangible objects. See Olmstead v. United States, 277 U. S. 438, 466. Thus, this Court has not simply frozen into constitutional law those law enforcement practices that existed at the time of the Fourth Amendment’s passage.
The issue is not whether a defendant must stand trial, because he must do so even if the arrest is illegal. See United States v. Crews, ante, at 474.
Those modem commentators who have carefully studied the early works agree with that assessment. See ALI, A Model Code of Pre-Arraignment Procedure 308 (Prop. Off. Draft 1975) (hereinafter ALI Code); Blakey, The Rule of Announcement and Unlawful Entry; Miller v. United States and Ker v. California, 112 U. Pa. L. Rev. 499, 502 (1964); Comment, Forcible Entry to Effect a Warrantless Arrest — The Eroding Protection of the Castle, 82 Dick. L. Rev. 167, 168, n. 5 (1977); Note, The Constitutionality of Warrantless Home Arrests, 78 Colum. L. Rev. 1550, 1553 (1978) (“the major common-law commentators appear to be equally divided on the requirement of a warrant for a home arrest”) (hereinafter Columbia Note); Recent Development, Warrantless Arrests by Police Survive a Constitutional Challenge — United States v. Watson, 14 Am. Crim. L. Rev. 193, 210-211 (1976). Accord, Miller v. United States, 357 U. S. 301, 307-308; Accarino v. United States, 85 U. S. App. D. C. 394, 402, 179 F. 2d 456, 464 (1949).
“Foremost- among the titles to be found in private libraries of the time were the works of Coke, the great expounder of Magna Carta, and similar books on English liberties. The inventory of the library" of Arthur Spicer, who died in Richmond County, Virginia, in 1699, included Coke’s Institutes, another work on Magna Carta, and a 'Table to Cooks Reports.’ The library of Colonel Daniel McCarty, a wealthy planter and member of the Virginia House of Burgesses who died in Westmoreland County in 1724, included Coke’s Reports, an abridgment of Coke’s Reports, Coke on Littleton, and ‘Rights of the Comons of England.’ Captain Charles Colston, who died in Richmond County, Virginia, in 1724, and Captain Christopher Cocke, who died in Princess Anne County, Virginia, in 1716, each had copies of Coke’s Institutes. That these libraries were typical is suggested by a study of the contents of approximately one hundred private libraries in colonial Virginia, which revealed that the most common law title found in these libraries was Coke’s Reports. They were typical of other colonies, too. Another study, of the inventories of forty-seven libraries throughout the colonies between 1652 and 1791, found that of all the books on either law or politics in these libraries the most common was Coke’s Institutes (found in 27 of the 47 libraries). The second most common title, was a poor second; it was Grotius’ War and Peace, found in 16 of the libraries (even Locke’s Two .Treatises on Government appeared in only 13 of the libraries).
“The popularity of Coke in the colonies is of no small significance. Coke himself had been at the eye of the storm in the clashes between King and Parliament in the early seventeenth century which did so much to shape the English Constitution. He rose to high office at the instance of the Crown — he was Speaker of the House of Commons and Attorney General under Queen Elizabeth, and James I made Coke first his Chief Justice of Common Pleas and then his Chief Justice of King’s Bench. During this time Coke gained an unchallenged position as the greatest authority of his time on the laws of England, frequently burying an opponent with learned citations from early Year Books. Having been a champion of the Crown’s interests, Coke (in a change of role that recalls the metamorphosis of Thomas á Becket) became instead the defender of the common law.” A. Howard, The Road From Runnymede 118-119 (1968). (Footnotes omitted.)
“[N] either the Constable, nor any other can break open any house for the apprehension of the party suspected or charged with the felony. ...” 4 E. Coke, Institutes *177. Coke also was of the opinion that only a King’s indictment could justify the breaking of doors to effect an arrest founded on suspicion, and that not even a warrant issued by a justice of the peace was sufficient authority. Ibid. He was apparently alone in that view, however.
1 R. Bum, The Justice of the Peace and Parish Officer 87 (6th ed. 1758) (“where one lies under a probable suspicion only, and is not indicted, it seems the better opinion at this day (Mr. Hawkins says) that no one can justify the breaking open doors in order to apprehend him . . .”); M. Foster, Crown Law 321 (1762); 2 W. Hawkins, Pleas of the Crown 139 (6th ed. 1787): “But where one lies under a probable suspicion only, and is not indicted, it seems the better (d) opinion at this day, That no one can justify the breaking open doors in order to apprehend him.” The contrary opinion of Hale, see n. 41, infra, is acknowledged among the authorities cited in the footnote (d).
1 E. East, Pleas of the Crown 322 (1806) (“[Y]et a bare suspicion of guilt against the party will not warrant a proceeding to this extremity [the breaking of doors], unless the officer be armed with a magistrate’s warrant grounded on such suspicion. It will at least be at the peril of proving that the party so taken on suspicion was guilty.”); 1 W. Russell, A Treatise on Crimes and Misdemeanors 745 (1819) (similar rule).
4 W. Blackstone, Commentaries *292; 1 J. Chitty, A Practical Treatise on the Criminal Law 23 (1816); 4 H. Stephen, New Commentaries on the Laws of England 359 (1845).
1 M. Hale, Pleas of the Crown 583 (1736); 2 id., at 90-95. At page 92 of the latter volume, Hale writes that in the case where the constable suspects a person of a felony, “if the supposed offender fly and take house, and the door will not be opened upon demand of the constable and notification of his business, the constable may break the door, tho he have no warrant. 13 E. 4. 9. a.” Although it would appear that Hale might have meant to limit warrantless home arrests to cases of hot pursuit, the quoted passage has not typically been read that way.
Apparently, the Yearbook in which the statement appears has never been fully translated into English.
That assessment is consistent with the description by this Court of the holding of that Yearbook ease in Miller v. United States, 357 U. S., at 307:
“As early as the 13th Yearbook of Edward IV (1461-1483), at folio 9, there is a recorded holding that it was unlawful for the sheriff to break the doors of a man’s house to arrest him in a civil suit in debt or trespass, for the arrest was then only for the private interest of a party.”
Thus, in Semayne’s Case, 5 Co. Rep. 91a, 91b, 77 Eng. Rep. 194, 195 (K. B. 1603), the court stated: “That the house of every one is to him as his castle and fortress, as well for his defence against injury and violence, as for Jiis repose; and although the life of man is a thing precious and fa-voured in law; so that although a man kills another in his defence, or kills one per injortun’, without any intent, yet it is felony, and in such case he shall forfeit his goods and chattels, for the great regard which the law has to a man’s life; but if thieves come to a man’s house to rob him, or murder, and the owner of his servants kill any of the thieves in defence of himself and his house, it is not felony, and he shall lose nothing, and therewith agree 3 E. 3. Coron. 303, & 305. & 26 Ass. pi. 23. So it is held in 21 H. 7. 39. every one may assemble his friends and neighbours to defend his house against violence: but he cannot assemble them to go with him to the market, or elsewhere for his safeguard against violence: and the reason of all this is, because domus sua cuique est tutissimum refugium.” (Footnotes omitted.)
In the report of that case it is noted that although the sheriff may break open the door of a bam without warning to effect service of a writ, a demand and refusal must precede entry into a dwelling house. Id., at 91b, n. (c), 77 Eng. Rep., at 196, n. (c):
“And this privilege is confined to a man’s dwelling-house, or out-house adjoining thereto, for the sheriff on a fieri facias may break open the door of a bam standing at a distance from the dwelling-house, without requesting the owner to open the door, in the same manner as he may enter a close. Penton v. Brown, 2 Keb. 698, S. C. 1 Sid. 186."
“Now one of the most essential branches of English liberty is the freedom of one’s house. A man’s house is his castle; and while he is quiet, he is as well guarded as a prince in his castle. This writ, if it should be declared legal, would totally annihilate this privilege.” 2 Legal Papers of John Adams 142 (L. Wroth & H. Zobel eds. 1965).
We have long recognized the relevance of the common law’s special regard for the home to. the development of Fourth Amendment jurisprudence. See, e. g., Weeks v. United States, 232 U. S. 383, 390:
“Judge Cooley, in his Constitutional Limitations, pp. 425, 426, in treating of this feature of our Constitution, said: ‘The maxim that “every man’s house is his castle,” is made a part of our constitutional law in the clauses prohibiting unreasonable searches and seizures, and has always been looked upon as of high value to the citizen.’ ‘Accordingly/ says Lieber in his work on Civil Liberty and Self-Government, 62, in speaking of the English law in this respect, ‘no man’s house can be forcibly opened, or he or his goods be carried away after it has thus been forced, except in cases of felony, and then the sheriff must be furnished with a warrant, and take great care lest he commit.a trespass. This principle is jealously insisted upon.”
Although the quote from Lieber concerning warrantless arrests in the home is on point for today’s cases, it was dictum in Weeks. For that case involved a warrantless arrest in a public place, and a warrantless search of Week’s home in his absence.
Twenty-three States authorize such entries by statute. See Ala. Code § 15-10-4 (1975); Alaska Stat. Ann. § 12.25.100 (1972); Ark. Stat. Ann. § 43-414 (1977); Fla. Stat. § 901.19 (1979); Haw. Rev. Stat. § 803-11 (1977); Idaho Code § 19-611 (1979); IE. Rev. Stat., ch. 38, § 107 — 5 (d) (1971); La. Code Crina. Proc. Ann., Art. 224 (West 1967); Mich. Comp. Laws § 764.21 (1970); Minn. Stat. § 629.34 (1978); Miss. Code Ann. § 99— 3-11 (1973); Mo. Rev. Stat. § 544.200 (1978); Neb. Rev. Stat. § 29-411 (1975); Nev. Rev. Stat. § 171.138 (1977); N. Y. Crim. Proc. Law §§ 140.15 (4), 120.80 (4), (5) (McKinney 1971); N. C. Gen. Stat. § 15A-401 (e) (1978); N. D. Cent. Code § 29-06-14 (1974); Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 2935.12 (1975); Okla. Stat., Tit. 22, § 197 (1971); S. D. Comp. Laws Ann. § 23A-3-5 (1979); Tenn. Code Ann. § 40-807 (1975); Utah Code Ann. § 77-13-12 (Repl. 1978); Wash. Rev. Code § 10.31.040 (1976). One State has authorized warrantless arrest entries by judicial decision. See Shanks v. Commonwealth, 463 S. W. 2d 312, 315 (Ky. App. 1971).
A number of courts in these States, though not directly deciding the issue, have recognized that the constitutionality of such entries is open to question. See People v. Wolgemuth, 69 Ill. 2d 154, 370 N. E. 2d 1067 (1977), cert. denied, 436 U. S. 908; State v. Ranker, 343 So. 2d 189 (La. 1977) (citing both State and Federal Constitutions); State v. Lasley, 306 Minn. 224, 236 N. W. 2d 604 (1975), cert. denied, 429 U. S. 1077; State v. Novak, 428 S. W. 2d 585 (Mo. 1968); State v. Page, 277 N. W. 2d 112 (N. D. 1979); State v. Max, 263 N. W. 2d 685 (S. D. 1978).
Four States prohibit warrantless arrests in the home by statute, see Ga. Code §§ 27-205, 27-207 (1978) (also prohibits warrantless arrests outside the home absent exigency); Ind. Code §§ 35-1-19-4, 35-1-19-6 (1976); Mont. Code Ann. § 46-6-401 (1979) (same as Georgia); S. C. Code § 23-15-60 (1976); 1 by state common law, see United States v. Hall, 468 F. Supp. 123, 131, n. 16 (ED Tex. 1979); Moore v. State, 149 Tex. Crim. 229, 235-236, 193 S. W. 2d 204, 207 (1946); and 10 on constitutional grounds, see n. 3, supra.
Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Maryland, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, Rhode Island, Vermont, Virginia and Wyoming. The courts of three of the above-listed States have recognized that the constitutionality of warrantless home arrest is subject to question. See State v. Anonymous, 34 Conn. Supp. 531, 375 A. 2d 417 (Super. Ct., App. Sess. 1977); Nilson v. State, 272 Md. 179, 321 A. 2d 301 (1974); Palmigiano v. Mullen, 119 R. I. 363, 377 A. 2d 242 (1977).
See cases cited in n. 3, supra.
See cases cited in nn. 46, 48, supra.
See n. 2, supra.
See, e. g., Herb v. Pitcairn, 324 U. S. 117, 125-126. See generally Brennan, State Constitutions and tbe Protection of Individual Rights, 90 Harv. L. Rev. 489 (1977).
The statute referred to in n. 32, supra, provides:
“The Director, Associate Director, Assistant to the Director, Assistant Directors, inspectors, and agents of the Federal Bureau of Investigation of the Department of Justice may carry firearms, serve warrants and subpoenas issued under the authority of the United States and make arrests without warrant for any offense against the United States committed in their presence, or for any felony cognizable under the laws of the United States if they have reasonable grounds to believe that the person to be arrested has committed or is committing such felony.” 18 U. S. C. § 3052. It says nothing either way about executing warrantless arrests in the home. See also ALI Code, at 308; Columbia Note 1554-1555, n. 26.