[
    {
        "text": "[MUSIC PLAYING]",
        "start": 0.0,
        "duration": 2.952
    },
    {
        "text": "DAVID MALAN: This is CS50's\nintroduction to cybersecurity.",
        "start": 18.21,
        "duration": 3.18
    },
    {
        "text": "My name is David Malan.",
        "start": 21.39,
        "duration": 1.08
    },
    {
        "text": "And this week, let's focus\non securing accounts.",
        "start": 22.47,
        "duration": 2.67
    },
    {
        "text": "You and I have so many\naccounts nowadays,",
        "start": 25.14,
        "duration": 2.04
    },
    {
        "text": "be it for websites or apps or the like.",
        "start": 27.18,
        "duration": 2.25
    },
    {
        "text": "And we'll focus today on\nexactly what the threats are",
        "start": 29.43,
        "duration": 2.7
    },
    {
        "text": "to all of those accounts but more\nimportantly, what some of the defenses",
        "start": 32.13,
        "duration": 3.21
    },
    {
        "text": "are so that you can keep\nthose accounts secure.",
        "start": 35.34,
        "duration": 2.25
    },
    {
        "text": "But let's first consider what we mean\nby security in the physical world,",
        "start": 37.59,
        "duration": 3.22
    },
    {
        "text": "for instance.",
        "start": 40.81,
        "duration": 0.66
    },
    {
        "text": "Whether you live in a home, an\napartment, a dormitory or the like,",
        "start": 41.47,
        "duration": 3.29
    },
    {
        "text": "odds are you have a key that\nlets you into that building.",
        "start": 44.76,
        "duration": 3.18
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, that key, of course, lets\nyou in through that locked door,",
        "start": 47.94,
        "duration": 3.48
    },
    {
        "text": "and then you have access\nto the entire habitat.",
        "start": 51.42,
        "duration": 3.51
    },
    {
        "text": "But the catch is that if someone\nelse gets that key, of course,",
        "start": 54.93,
        "duration": 3.0
    },
    {
        "text": "they, too, can let themselves into\nthat system or into that same building.",
        "start": 57.93,
        "duration": 5.077
    },
    {
        "text": "So let's consider now in the\ndigital world, though, what",
        "start": 63.007,
        "duration": 2.333
    },
    {
        "text": "some of the building\nblocks are of security so",
        "start": 65.34,
        "duration": 2.508
    },
    {
        "text": "that we can focus exactly what those\nthreats and what those defenses are.",
        "start": 67.848,
        "duration": 3.042
    },
    {
        "text": "So first, allow me to\npropose that we think",
        "start": 70.89,
        "duration": 2.34
    },
    {
        "text": "about the security of our accounts\nin terms of authentication.",
        "start": 73.23,
        "duration": 3.24
    },
    {
        "text": "So authentication\nrefers to this process,",
        "start": 76.47,
        "duration": 2.8
    },
    {
        "text": "digitally, of proving who you are,\nthat I, for instance, am David.",
        "start": 79.27,
        "duration": 4.89
    },
    {
        "text": "But that alone isn't\nnecessarily enough to keep",
        "start": 84.16,
        "duration": 2.94
    },
    {
        "text": "a system secure because just because\nI'm David doesn't necessarily mean",
        "start": 87.1,
        "duration": 3.66
    },
    {
        "text": "I should have access\nto your entire home.",
        "start": 90.76,
        "duration": 2.61
    },
    {
        "text": "Perhaps I should not have access at all.",
        "start": 93.37,
        "duration": 2.038
    },
    {
        "text": "Perhaps I should just have\naccess to the entryway",
        "start": 95.408,
        "duration": 2.042
    },
    {
        "text": "or some narrower form of access.",
        "start": 97.45,
        "duration": 2.62
    },
    {
        "text": "And so there's this\nrelated topic when it",
        "start": 100.07,
        "duration": 1.76
    },
    {
        "text": "comes to the security of locations\nor systems known as authorization.",
        "start": 101.83,
        "duration": 4.29
    },
    {
        "text": "So authorization speaks\nto whether or not",
        "start": 106.12,
        "duration": 3.18
    },
    {
        "text": "you should have access to something,\nonce you have proven that you are,",
        "start": 109.3,
        "duration": 4.96
    },
    {
        "text": "that I am David and that I should,\nin fact, have access to the door",
        "start": 114.26,
        "duration": 3.8
    },
    {
        "text": "that I just walked through.",
        "start": 118.06,
        "duration": 1.47
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, when it comes to our\naccounts in the digital world,",
        "start": 119.53,
        "duration": 3.81
    },
    {
        "text": "we, of course, don't use physical\nkeys, but very frequently nowadays we",
        "start": 123.34,
        "duration": 3.63
    },
    {
        "text": "use usernames, which, of\ncourse, can be public.",
        "start": 126.97,
        "duration": 2.37
    },
    {
        "text": "It might be a username like David.",
        "start": 129.34,
        "duration": 2.22
    },
    {
        "text": "It might be a username like Malan.",
        "start": 131.56,
        "duration": 1.53
    },
    {
        "text": "Or it might be more commonly, even an\nentire email address that presumably",
        "start": 133.09,
        "duration": 4.59
    },
    {
        "text": "uniquely identifies you in the world.",
        "start": 137.68,
        "duration": 2.23
    },
    {
        "text": "But even though that's public, the thing\nthat you and I ideally keep private",
        "start": 139.91,
        "duration": 4.01
    },
    {
        "text": "is, of course, our password.",
        "start": 143.92,
        "duration": 1.53
    },
    {
        "text": "And nowadays, you and I\nmust have dozens, maybe even",
        "start": 145.45,
        "duration": 3.27
    },
    {
        "text": "hundreds of passwords that\nare hopefully distinct",
        "start": 148.72,
        "duration": 3.81
    },
    {
        "text": "and not reused across all\nof those different websites,",
        "start": 152.53,
        "duration": 2.25
    },
    {
        "text": "but more on that in a moment.",
        "start": 154.78,
        "duration": 1.3
    },
    {
        "text": "And so it's really this\npassword that ultimately",
        "start": 156.08,
        "duration": 2.75
    },
    {
        "text": "allows you to authenticate\nyourself, demonstrate",
        "start": 158.83,
        "duration": 3.09
    },
    {
        "text": "who you are because presumably I am\nthe only one in the world that knows,",
        "start": 161.92,
        "duration": 4.21
    },
    {
        "text": "not only my username or email\naddress, which all of us can know,",
        "start": 166.13,
        "duration": 3.338
    },
    {
        "text": "but presumably I'm the only\none in the world that knows",
        "start": 169.468,
        "duration": 2.292
    },
    {
        "text": "my username and this here password.",
        "start": 171.76,
        "duration": 2.91
    },
    {
        "text": "And so the presumption is if\nI type in both of those values",
        "start": 174.67,
        "duration": 2.73
    },
    {
        "text": "to some app or some website that I must,\nin fact, be David Malan, in that case.",
        "start": 177.4,
        "duration": 5.4
    },
    {
        "text": "Of course, it's not good\nenough to just have a password.",
        "start": 182.8,
        "duration": 3.78
    },
    {
        "text": "You need to have a good password.",
        "start": 186.58,
        "duration": 1.447
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, what do we mean by good password?",
        "start": 188.027,
        "duration": 1.583
    },
    {
        "text": "Well, ideally, this password is\nnot going to be in a dictionary,",
        "start": 189.61,
        "duration": 3.24
    },
    {
        "text": "like, literally a\ndictionary of English words",
        "start": 192.85,
        "duration": 2.46
    },
    {
        "text": "or whatever your human\nlanguage might be.",
        "start": 195.31,
        "duration": 2.14
    },
    {
        "text": "Why?",
        "start": 197.45,
        "duration": 0.5
    },
    {
        "text": "Well, there's this threat\nknown as a dictionary attack.",
        "start": 197.95,
        "duration": 2.86
    },
    {
        "text": "And by this I mean an\nadversary, a hacker that",
        "start": 200.81,
        "duration": 2.78
    },
    {
        "text": "wants to get into your\naccount, they could just",
        "start": 203.59,
        "duration": 2.25
    },
    {
        "text": "start typing randomly to try to\nfigure out what your password is.",
        "start": 205.84,
        "duration": 2.73
    },
    {
        "text": "But they're a little smarter.",
        "start": 208.57,
        "duration": 1.29
    },
    {
        "text": "They'll actually use\na dictionary attack.",
        "start": 209.86,
        "duration": 2.31
    },
    {
        "text": "That is they'll open a\nphysical book of words,",
        "start": 212.17,
        "duration": 2.55
    },
    {
        "text": "or more likely they'll open a\nfile on their computer containing",
        "start": 214.72,
        "duration": 3.57
    },
    {
        "text": "a whole lot of actual English words or\nin some other human language, and then",
        "start": 218.29,
        "duration": 4.29
    },
    {
        "text": "just one at a time, try\nthis word as your password,",
        "start": 222.58,
        "duration": 2.52
    },
    {
        "text": "this word as your password, this\nword as your password and so forth.",
        "start": 225.1,
        "duration": 3.06
    },
    {
        "text": "Because if you and I have chosen\na pretty guessable password, one",
        "start": 228.16,
        "duration": 3.87
    },
    {
        "text": "that is an actual word in a dictionary,\nthey're going to get into your account",
        "start": 232.03,
        "duration": 3.3
    },
    {
        "text": "much faster.",
        "start": 235.33,
        "duration": 1.38
    },
    {
        "text": "But even if you and I are clever--",
        "start": 236.71,
        "duration": 1.8
    },
    {
        "text": "and odds are by this point in life\nyou know that you shouldn't just",
        "start": 238.51,
        "duration": 3.24
    },
    {
        "text": "choose a simple English or\nsome other language word,",
        "start": 241.75,
        "duration": 2.76
    },
    {
        "text": "but rather you should probably\nhave some numbers, some letters,",
        "start": 244.51,
        "duration": 3.12
    },
    {
        "text": "some punctuation, or the\nlike-- you're still vulnerable,",
        "start": 247.63,
        "duration": 2.61
    },
    {
        "text": "as am I, to what we would\ncall a brute force attack.",
        "start": 250.24,
        "duration": 4.02
    },
    {
        "text": "Brute force sort of evokes\nthe memories of yesteryear",
        "start": 254.26,
        "duration": 5.4
    },
    {
        "text": "where someone might have had\na big branch of a tree using",
        "start": 259.66,
        "duration": 2.94
    },
    {
        "text": "as a battering ram trying to get\ninto the castles from past times.",
        "start": 262.6,
        "duration": 3.33
    },
    {
        "text": "But brute force attacks\nin the digital world",
        "start": 265.93,
        "duration": 2.07
    },
    {
        "text": "mean something analogously, whereby\nyou're using software to digitally try",
        "start": 268.0,
        "duration": 4.83
    },
    {
        "text": "all possible passwords.",
        "start": 272.83,
        "duration": 2.01
    },
    {
        "text": "And so here, too, are you vulnerable\nbecause if your password is too short,",
        "start": 274.84,
        "duration": 3.87
    },
    {
        "text": "even if it's random with\nletters, numbers, and symbols,",
        "start": 278.71,
        "duration": 3.03
    },
    {
        "text": "odds are an adversary or a\nhacker that has enough time",
        "start": 281.74,
        "duration": 2.79
    },
    {
        "text": "and enough technical\nsavvy, they can just try",
        "start": 284.53,
        "duration": 2.19
    },
    {
        "text": "every possible password in the world.",
        "start": 286.72,
        "duration": 2.67
    },
    {
        "text": "And eventually, they might\nvery well get into your system.",
        "start": 289.39,
        "duration": 3.01
    },
    {
        "text": "So how do we go about defending\nagainst these kinds of attacks?",
        "start": 292.4,
        "duration": 4.222
    },
    {
        "text": "Well, we use these passwords,\nbut these passwords of course",
        "start": 296.622,
        "duration": 2.458
    },
    {
        "text": "come in different forms.",
        "start": 299.08,
        "duration": 1.0
    },
    {
        "text": "And it's kind of a low bar that is\nset by default on a lot of devices",
        "start": 300.08,
        "duration": 4.7
    },
    {
        "text": "still nowadays.",
        "start": 304.78,
        "duration": 0.75
    },
    {
        "text": "For instance, on your\nphone if you'd like",
        "start": 305.53,
        "duration": 2.04
    },
    {
        "text": "to chime in here in the chat, how many\ncharacters or digits, in particular,",
        "start": 307.57,
        "duration": 5.49
    },
    {
        "text": "are typically required of systems?",
        "start": 313.06,
        "duration": 1.815
    },
    {
        "text": "Well, I would conjecture that\nvery often when I set up a phone,",
        "start": 314.875,
        "duration": 2.625
    },
    {
        "text": "I'm only asked for a passcode, a\nnumeric password, of four digits alone.",
        "start": 317.5,
        "duration": 5.4
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, if you have a four-digit passcode\nor password more generally, how secure",
        "start": 322.9,
        "duration": 6.99
    },
    {
        "text": "is that?",
        "start": 329.89,
        "duration": 0.66
    },
    {
        "text": "And how do we even go about thinking\nabout how secure that password is?",
        "start": 330.55,
        "duration": 4.23
    },
    {
        "text": "Well, I would propose that we could\nstart to measure not even using",
        "start": 334.78,
        "duration": 3.45
    },
    {
        "text": "fancy math, but just some basic\nheuristics, we could measure",
        "start": 338.23,
        "duration": 2.76
    },
    {
        "text": "the security of a password that has\njust four digits by considering well,",
        "start": 340.99,
        "duration": 4.38
    },
    {
        "text": "how many possible four-digit\npasscodes are there?",
        "start": 345.37,
        "duration": 3.06
    },
    {
        "text": "So perhaps if you'd like to\nchime in here in the chat,",
        "start": 348.43,
        "duration": 2.25
    },
    {
        "text": "how many possible passwords\nare there if they're",
        "start": 350.68,
        "duration": 3.36
    },
    {
        "text": "all digits 0 through 9, decimal digits,\nand if you only have four of them?",
        "start": 354.04,
        "duration": 4.95
    },
    {
        "text": "How many possibilities are there?",
        "start": 358.99,
        "duration": 1.87
    },
    {
        "text": "I'm seeing 1,000.",
        "start": 360.86,
        "duration": 0.92
    },
    {
        "text": "I'm seeing 10,000.",
        "start": 361.78,
        "duration": 1.02
    },
    {
        "text": "I'm seeing 9,999.",
        "start": 362.8,
        "duration": 2.55
    },
    {
        "text": "And I'm seeing a whole range.",
        "start": 365.35,
        "duration": 1.283
    },
    {
        "text": "And I think a lot of you\nhave the answer is spot on.",
        "start": 366.633,
        "duration": 2.167
    },
    {
        "text": "It's 10,000.",
        "start": 368.8,
        "duration": 1.71
    },
    {
        "text": "It's 10,000.",
        "start": 370.51,
        "duration": 0.82
    },
    {
        "text": "Why?",
        "start": 371.33,
        "duration": 0.5
    },
    {
        "text": "Well if we just think\nabout this numerically,",
        "start": 371.83,
        "duration": 2.04
    },
    {
        "text": "if I've got four decimal\ndigits, 0 through 9, well,",
        "start": 373.87,
        "duration": 3.24
    },
    {
        "text": "the smallest password I could come\nup with, so to speak, would be 0000.",
        "start": 377.11,
        "duration": 4.02
    },
    {
        "text": "And the largest password I could\ncome up with would be 99999.",
        "start": 381.13,
        "duration": 4.35
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, you might think OK, well,\nthat's, obviously 9,999 possibilities.",
        "start": 385.48,
        "duration": 4.32
    },
    {
        "text": "But not quite because if you include\n0000, that's the 10,000th possibility.",
        "start": 389.8,
        "duration": 5.97
    },
    {
        "text": "So indeed there's 10,000\npossible passwords",
        "start": 395.77,
        "duration": 3.69
    },
    {
        "text": "if we're using four digits specifically.",
        "start": 399.46,
        "duration": 2.98
    },
    {
        "text": "So how do we actually think\nabout that more generally,",
        "start": 402.44,
        "duration": 2.45
    },
    {
        "text": "especially so that we can now figure out\nthe math for larger passwords as well?",
        "start": 404.89,
        "duration": 4.36
    },
    {
        "text": "Well, if you've got 0 through\n9 as the first possible digit,",
        "start": 409.25,
        "duration": 3.26
    },
    {
        "text": "and 0 through 9 as the\nnext, and 0 through 9",
        "start": 412.51,
        "duration": 2.13
    },
    {
        "text": "is the third, and 0\nthrough 9 as the fourth,",
        "start": 414.64,
        "duration": 2.49
    },
    {
        "text": "you have 10 possibilities times 10\npossibilities times 10 times 10.",
        "start": 417.13,
        "duration": 3.833
    },
    {
        "text": "This, of course, if we do\nit out more mathematically",
        "start": 420.963,
        "duration": 2.167
    },
    {
        "text": "is 10 to the fourth power,\nthe exponent being 4.",
        "start": 423.13,
        "duration": 3.42
    },
    {
        "text": "And that, of course,\ngives us 10,000 as well.",
        "start": 426.55,
        "duration": 2.53
    },
    {
        "text": "So that might be the more\nmathematical way of approaching it,",
        "start": 429.08,
        "duration": 2.81
    },
    {
        "text": "versus just the more intuitive, that\n0000 can go all the way up to 9999.",
        "start": 431.89,
        "duration": 5.28
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, again, a question\nfor the group, how long",
        "start": 437.17,
        "duration": 2.79
    },
    {
        "text": "do you think it might take\nfor an adversary or a hacker",
        "start": 439.96,
        "duration": 4.17
    },
    {
        "text": "to get into my device, for\ninstance, my phone, if I do",
        "start": 444.13,
        "duration": 4.41
    },
    {
        "text": "have a four-digit password?",
        "start": 448.54,
        "duration": 3.06
    },
    {
        "text": "If I've got a four-digit password, this\nmeans there might have to try as many",
        "start": 451.6,
        "duration": 3.42
    },
    {
        "text": "as 10,000 possibilities because in the\neasiest case, sure, they get lucky,",
        "start": 455.02,
        "duration": 5.49
    },
    {
        "text": "and my password is\nstill the default 0000.",
        "start": 460.51,
        "duration": 2.73
    },
    {
        "text": "But in the worst case, I chose\n9999, and they don't get to that",
        "start": 463.24,
        "duration": 3.57
    },
    {
        "text": "until the very end of their attempts.",
        "start": 466.81,
        "duration": 1.74
    },
    {
        "text": "Or maybe I choose\nsomething there in between.",
        "start": 468.55,
        "duration": 2.22
    },
    {
        "text": "I'm seeing 10 seconds, less than a\nsecond, milliseconds, 10 seconds a day,",
        "start": 470.77,
        "duration": 3.99
    },
    {
        "text": "4 hours.",
        "start": 474.76,
        "duration": 1.02
    },
    {
        "text": "So the responses are all over the place.",
        "start": 475.78,
        "duration": 2.59
    },
    {
        "text": "So how can we go about actually\nmeasuring this or estimating this?",
        "start": 478.37,
        "duration": 3.72
    },
    {
        "text": "Well, let me propose this.",
        "start": 482.09,
        "duration": 1.13
    },
    {
        "text": "I'm going to go over\nto my computer here.",
        "start": 483.22,
        "duration": 1.708
    },
    {
        "text": "And even if you've never\nwritten any code before,",
        "start": 484.928,
        "duration": 2.942
    },
    {
        "text": "let's go ahead and write\nsome code together here.",
        "start": 487.87,
        "duration": 2.4
    },
    {
        "text": "I'm going to go ahead and open a\nprogram called VS Code, Visual Studio",
        "start": 490.27,
        "duration": 3.63
    },
    {
        "text": "Code, which is a free program\nthat we use in CS50 more generally",
        "start": 493.9,
        "duration": 3.57
    },
    {
        "text": "that allows me to write code\non my Mac or PC or really",
        "start": 497.47,
        "duration": 3.42
    },
    {
        "text": "any internet-based device.",
        "start": 500.89,
        "duration": 1.38
    },
    {
        "text": "And I can actually write code,\nand not only write it, but run it.",
        "start": 502.27,
        "duration": 3.22
    },
    {
        "text": "And I'm going to write code, in this\ncase, in a language called Python.",
        "start": 505.49,
        "duration": 2.99
    },
    {
        "text": "And this is just a\nvery popular language,",
        "start": 508.48,
        "duration": 1.83
    },
    {
        "text": "but I could use any of a dozen or\nmore different programming languages.",
        "start": 510.31,
        "duration": 4.02
    },
    {
        "text": "And the goal here is\nnot to learn Python--",
        "start": 514.33,
        "duration": 2.01
    },
    {
        "text": "for that, we have whole other classes--",
        "start": 516.34,
        "duration": 2.01
    },
    {
        "text": "but to just demonstrate what\nan adversary, what a hacker",
        "start": 518.35,
        "duration": 3.959
    },
    {
        "text": "need to do if they want to get into, for\ninstance, your iPhone or Android device",
        "start": 522.309,
        "duration": 4.411
    },
    {
        "text": "or anything that has just\na four-digit password.",
        "start": 526.72,
        "duration": 3.48
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, my presumption here\nfor demonstration sake",
        "start": 530.2,
        "duration": 2.4
    },
    {
        "text": "is that I'm going to go ahead\nand write code that just prints",
        "start": 532.6,
        "duration": 2.79
    },
    {
        "text": "all possible passwords on the screen.",
        "start": 535.39,
        "duration": 2.29
    },
    {
        "text": "But you could imagine if I had a USB\ncable or maybe a lightning cable,",
        "start": 537.68,
        "duration": 3.83
    },
    {
        "text": "I could connect this\nphone to this laptop,",
        "start": 541.51,
        "duration": 2.76
    },
    {
        "text": "especially if it's your phone\nthat I just swiped from a table,",
        "start": 544.27,
        "duration": 3.03
    },
    {
        "text": "could quickly plug it\ninto my computer here,",
        "start": 547.3,
        "duration": 1.95
    },
    {
        "text": "run the code that I'm about to\nwrite, and maybe automatically send",
        "start": 549.25,
        "duration": 3.54
    },
    {
        "text": "all 10,000 possibilities to\nyour device before you even",
        "start": 552.79,
        "duration": 3.72
    },
    {
        "text": "realize the phone is gone.",
        "start": 556.51,
        "duration": 1.5
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, here's how I'm going to do this.",
        "start": 558.01,
        "duration": 1.72
    },
    {
        "text": "I'm going to go ahead, and in\na text file called crack.py,",
        "start": 559.73,
        "duration": 3.35
    },
    {
        "text": "where crack is actually a term of art.",
        "start": 563.08,
        "duration": 1.78
    },
    {
        "text": "It just means to figure\nout what a password is,",
        "start": 564.86,
        "duration": 2.69
    },
    {
        "text": "to brute force your way in.",
        "start": 567.55,
        "duration": 1.53
    },
    {
        "text": "I'm going to go ahead and\nfrom a library called string.",
        "start": 569.08,
        "duration": 4.14
    },
    {
        "text": "I'm going to go ahead and import digits.",
        "start": 573.22,
        "duration": 2.52
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, this is a very easy\nway of just giving me",
        "start": 575.74,
        "duration": 3.0
    },
    {
        "text": "access to the numbers 0 through 9.",
        "start": 578.74,
        "duration": 1.62
    },
    {
        "text": "I could obviously type them\nall out on my keyboard.",
        "start": 580.36,
        "duration": 2.385
    },
    {
        "text": "This is a little faster\nbecause this gives me",
        "start": 582.745,
        "duration": 1.875
    },
    {
        "text": "like a list of the numbers I care about.",
        "start": 584.62,
        "duration": 1.908
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, there's a bunch of different\nways I can write this code.",
        "start": 586.528,
        "duration": 2.542
    },
    {
        "text": "But what I really want\nto do intuitively is",
        "start": 589.07,
        "duration": 2.09
    },
    {
        "text": "try all possible digits\nfor the first value,",
        "start": 591.16,
        "duration": 2.61
    },
    {
        "text": "try all possible digits for\nthe second, then for the third,",
        "start": 593.77,
        "duration": 3.21
    },
    {
        "text": "then for the fourth.",
        "start": 596.98,
        "duration": 1.05
    },
    {
        "text": "So one way of doing this\nmight be as follows.",
        "start": 598.03,
        "duration": 2.83
    },
    {
        "text": "I'm going to use a keyword in Python\ncalled for, which just means do",
        "start": 600.86,
        "duration": 3.14
    },
    {
        "text": "something for as long as I want you to.",
        "start": 604.0,
        "duration": 2.13
    },
    {
        "text": "And then I'm going to give\nmyself a variable, like in math,",
        "start": 606.13,
        "duration": 2.64
    },
    {
        "text": "just so I can use something\nto keep track of each number.",
        "start": 608.77,
        "duration": 2.82
    },
    {
        "text": "And I'm going to use a default\nvalue of i for integer.",
        "start": 611.59,
        "duration": 2.94
    },
    {
        "text": "And then I'm going to go ahead and\nsay that for each value i in those 10",
        "start": 614.53,
        "duration": 4.81
    },
    {
        "text": "digits, I want to go ahead\nand do the following.",
        "start": 619.34,
        "duration": 2.79
    },
    {
        "text": "Well, for each of those i\ndigits, for the first value,",
        "start": 622.13,
        "duration": 3.63
    },
    {
        "text": "I want to do for j in digits as well.",
        "start": 625.76,
        "duration": 2.86
    },
    {
        "text": "And then for each value\nfor my third placeholder,",
        "start": 628.62,
        "duration": 3.56
    },
    {
        "text": "I might do something\nlike for k in digits.",
        "start": 632.18,
        "duration": 3.27
    },
    {
        "text": "And then lastly, I might\ndo for l in digits.",
        "start": 635.45,
        "duration": 2.92
    },
    {
        "text": "So this is admittedly\nnot the best design.",
        "start": 638.37,
        "duration": 1.882
    },
    {
        "text": "And those of you who've\nprogrammed before",
        "start": 640.252,
        "duration": 1.708
    },
    {
        "text": "are probably cringing that I have this\nindentation, indentation, indentation.",
        "start": 641.96,
        "duration": 3.852
    },
    {
        "text": "But it's a simple way of demonstrating,\nespecially for those unfamiliar",
        "start": 645.812,
        "duration": 2.958
    },
    {
        "text": "with programming, how we can\ntry all possible first digits,",
        "start": 648.77,
        "duration": 2.91
    },
    {
        "text": "all possible second, all possible\nthird, all possible fourth.",
        "start": 651.68,
        "duration": 3.45
    },
    {
        "text": "And all I'm going to do, bury inside\nof this code now is print out the value",
        "start": 655.13,
        "duration": 4.26
    },
    {
        "text": "of i, j, k, and l so that iteratively,\nwe should see on the screen 0000",
        "start": 659.39,
        "duration": 7.5
    },
    {
        "text": "and then all the way up to 9999.",
        "start": 666.89,
        "duration": 2.67
    },
    {
        "text": "So if you assume that I've\nconnected my phone to this laptop,",
        "start": 669.56,
        "duration": 3.21
    },
    {
        "text": "ideally, then, we'll have an estimation\nof how long it might take until we",
        "start": 672.77,
        "duration": 4.39
    },
    {
        "text": "actually have cracked into the device.",
        "start": 677.16,
        "duration": 3.28
    },
    {
        "text": "So let's go ahead and do this.",
        "start": 680.44,
        "duration": 1.62
    },
    {
        "text": "I'm going to open up a separate\nwindow on my screen here called",
        "start": 682.06,
        "duration": 2.66
    },
    {
        "text": "a terminal window.",
        "start": 684.72,
        "duration": 1.24
    },
    {
        "text": "And I'm going to go ahead\nand run Python of crack.py.",
        "start": 685.96,
        "duration": 3.78
    },
    {
        "text": "So in just a moment\nwe're going to see is",
        "start": 689.74,
        "duration": 1.76
    },
    {
        "text": "it going to take a few minutes, a few\nmilliseconds, a day, four hours, or--",
        "start": 691.5,
        "duration": 4.77
    },
    {
        "text": "here we go.",
        "start": 696.27,
        "duration": 1.05
    },
    {
        "text": "1, 2, 3, go.",
        "start": 697.32,
        "duration": 5.01
    },
    {
        "text": "So those of you who estimated just\na few milliseconds were spot on.",
        "start": 702.33,
        "duration": 4.66
    },
    {
        "text": "So what's the takeaway here?",
        "start": 706.99,
        "duration": 1.2
    },
    {
        "text": "Well, apparently using\na four-digit password",
        "start": 708.19,
        "duration": 2.39
    },
    {
        "text": "is not very secure at all\nbecause look how quickly",
        "start": 710.58,
        "duration": 3.48
    },
    {
        "text": "I, the adversary, the hacker in the\nstory, was able to get into your phone.",
        "start": 714.06,
        "duration": 3.57
    },
    {
        "text": "And in fact, I could probably\nunplug it at that point",
        "start": 717.63,
        "duration": 1.71
    },
    {
        "text": "because I've gotten whatever\ndata I care about off your phone.",
        "start": 719.34,
        "duration": 2.583
    },
    {
        "text": "And you might not be none the wiser.",
        "start": 721.923,
        "duration": 2.107
    },
    {
        "text": "So how can we go about\nimproving upon this system?",
        "start": 724.03,
        "duration": 3.24
    },
    {
        "text": "Well, let me propose that instead\nof using a four-digit passcode,",
        "start": 727.27,
        "duration": 2.75
    },
    {
        "text": "let's use four letters instead.",
        "start": 730.02,
        "duration": 1.618
    },
    {
        "text": "And we'll use English because\nthat's what I speak well.",
        "start": 731.638,
        "duration": 2.292
    },
    {
        "text": "And in English, we have 26 letters\nof the alphabet, A through Z.",
        "start": 733.93,
        "duration": 3.68
    },
    {
        "text": "But you know what?",
        "start": 737.61,
        "duration": 0.78
    },
    {
        "text": "That might give us initially 26\npossibilities for the first position,",
        "start": 738.39,
        "duration": 4.71
    },
    {
        "text": "times 26, times 26, times 26\nfor the second through fourth.",
        "start": 743.1,
        "duration": 3.72
    },
    {
        "text": "But let me propose that we actually\nuse lowercase and uppercase letters.",
        "start": 746.82,
        "duration": 4.06
    },
    {
        "text": "So that gives me not 26, but 52\npossibilities for each location.",
        "start": 750.88,
        "duration": 4.8
    },
    {
        "text": "So if I do 52 possibilities,\nthat's 52 to the fourth power.",
        "start": 755.68,
        "duration": 4.82
    },
    {
        "text": "And does anyone want to estimate\nhow many possible passwords there",
        "start": 760.5,
        "duration": 3.48
    },
    {
        "text": "are if I'm using four English\nletters now, uppercase or lowercase?",
        "start": 763.98,
        "duration": 7.36
    },
    {
        "text": "I'm seeing 26 to the fourth power.",
        "start": 771.34,
        "duration": 2.45
    },
    {
        "text": "But that's not right if we're\nusing uppercase and lowercase.",
        "start": 773.79,
        "duration": 2.5
    },
    {
        "text": "It's indeed 52 to the fourth power.",
        "start": 776.29,
        "duration": 1.98
    },
    {
        "text": "And I'm seeing \"a lot.\"",
        "start": 778.27,
        "duration": 1.95
    },
    {
        "text": "But here we have estimates along the\nlines of indeed 7 million as well.",
        "start": 780.22,
        "duration": 5.23
    },
    {
        "text": "So with 7 million possibilities,\nyou might think, OK, surely,",
        "start": 785.45,
        "duration": 3.007
    },
    {
        "text": "that's going to be a lot better.",
        "start": 788.457,
        "duration": 1.333
    },
    {
        "text": "And it's going to take the adversary\na lot longer to hack into this phone.",
        "start": 789.79,
        "duration": 3.083
    },
    {
        "text": "But let's try that.",
        "start": 792.873,
        "duration": 0.847
    },
    {
        "text": "Let me go back to my\nterminal window here.",
        "start": 793.72,
        "duration": 2.44
    },
    {
        "text": "Let me reopen now my code file, and\nlet's go ahead and use not digits,",
        "start": 796.16,
        "duration": 4.22
    },
    {
        "text": "but let's go ahead\nand use ASCII letters.",
        "start": 800.38,
        "duration": 2.58
    },
    {
        "text": "For those unfamiliar, ASCII\nletters are simply the letters A",
        "start": 802.96,
        "duration": 4.41
    },
    {
        "text": "through Z in both\nuppercase and lowercase.",
        "start": 807.37,
        "duration": 3.43
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, here I have to go ahead and change\nthis from digits to ASCII letters,",
        "start": 810.8,
        "duration": 4.34
    },
    {
        "text": "from digits to ASCII letters,\nfrom digits to ASCII letters,",
        "start": 815.14,
        "duration": 5.19
    },
    {
        "text": "and lastly, from digits\nto ASCII letters.",
        "start": 820.33,
        "duration": 2.7
    },
    {
        "text": "Again, there's an easier way\nI could implement this code",
        "start": 823.03,
        "duration": 2.67
    },
    {
        "text": "to be more succinct\nand less duplicative,",
        "start": 825.7,
        "duration": 2.28
    },
    {
        "text": "but it involves some features that we'll\nintroduce in another class altogether.",
        "start": 827.98,
        "duration": 4.06
    },
    {
        "text": "But now I have all possible ASCII\nletters from my first placeholder",
        "start": 832.04,
        "duration": 4.14
    },
    {
        "text": "to the last.",
        "start": 836.18,
        "duration": 0.84
    },
    {
        "text": "Let's go ahead and open up\nthat same terminal window.",
        "start": 837.02,
        "duration": 2.49
    },
    {
        "text": "Let's run Python of crack.py.",
        "start": 839.51,
        "duration": 1.5
    },
    {
        "text": "And here now is the answer to how\nlong might it take an adversary",
        "start": 841.01,
        "duration": 3.54
    },
    {
        "text": "to get into your phone if you're using\nfour letters of the English alphabet",
        "start": 844.55,
        "duration": 4.5
    },
    {
        "text": "for your password instead.",
        "start": 849.05,
        "duration": 3.9
    },
    {
        "text": "So this time, I have enough time to walk\nall the way over to the screen here.",
        "start": 852.95,
        "duration": 3.61
    },
    {
        "text": "And you can see that we're going in\nalphabetical order, first lowercase,",
        "start": 856.56,
        "duration": 3.36
    },
    {
        "text": "now uppercase.",
        "start": 859.92,
        "duration": 0.65
    },
    {
        "text": "But in just a moment, we are done.",
        "start": 860.57,
        "duration": 2.34
    },
    {
        "text": "And we're down all the way to ZZZZ.",
        "start": 862.91,
        "duration": 2.67
    },
    {
        "text": "So that was a few seconds,\nwhich is indeed slower,",
        "start": 865.58,
        "duration": 2.91
    },
    {
        "text": "but that really wasn't\nthat much effort at all.",
        "start": 868.49,
        "duration": 2.29
    },
    {
        "text": "So presumably, then, even\nfour letters of the alphabet",
        "start": 870.78,
        "duration": 2.81
    },
    {
        "text": "might not be enough to keep us secure.",
        "start": 873.59,
        "duration": 1.59
    },
    {
        "text": "So let me go ahead and do what\nwe all are told to do anyway,",
        "start": 875.18,
        "duration": 3.51
    },
    {
        "text": "which is to go into your phone\nor whatever device in question",
        "start": 878.69,
        "duration": 3.69
    },
    {
        "text": "and actually use four\ncharacters perhaps instead.",
        "start": 882.38,
        "duration": 3.01
    },
    {
        "text": "So not just letters, not just digits,\nbut let's toss in some punctuation",
        "start": 885.39,
        "duration": 3.62
    },
    {
        "text": "as well.",
        "start": 889.01,
        "duration": 0.85
    },
    {
        "text": "And in the world of punctuation,\nat least on a US English keyboard,",
        "start": 889.86,
        "duration": 3.05
    },
    {
        "text": "there's typically as many as 94\npossibilities for letters, numbers,",
        "start": 892.91,
        "duration": 5.41
    },
    {
        "text": "and punctuation because we\nhave 26 lowercase letters, 26",
        "start": 898.32,
        "duration": 4.43
    },
    {
        "text": "uppercase letters, 10\ndecimal digits, 0 through 9,",
        "start": 902.75,
        "duration": 3.63
    },
    {
        "text": "and another 32 punctuation symbols\nthat we can add into the mix as well.",
        "start": 906.38,
        "duration": 5.23
    },
    {
        "text": "So that gives me 94 possible\nkeys that I can hit here,",
        "start": 911.61,
        "duration": 3.59
    },
    {
        "text": "or 94 to the fourth power.",
        "start": 915.2,
        "duration": 2.1
    },
    {
        "text": "And does anyone want to\nestimate what this is?",
        "start": 917.3,
        "duration": 2.37
    },
    {
        "text": "We've gone from 10,000\nto 7 million to I'm",
        "start": 919.67,
        "duration": 3.87
    },
    {
        "text": "seeing it in the chat, roughly\n78 million possibilities, so",
        "start": 923.54,
        "duration": 3.72
    },
    {
        "text": "in some sense, 10 times more secure.",
        "start": 927.26,
        "duration": 2.56
    },
    {
        "text": "Let's go back to my terminal\nwindow, open up my code here,",
        "start": 929.82,
        "duration": 3.05
    },
    {
        "text": "and import not only ASCII letters, but\nalso the digits from before, and also,",
        "start": 932.87,
        "duration": 4.17
    },
    {
        "text": "this time, some punctuation as well.",
        "start": 937.04,
        "duration": 2.38
    },
    {
        "text": "Now let's go ahead and change\njust the ASCII letters alone",
        "start": 939.42,
        "duration": 2.45
    },
    {
        "text": "to ASCII letters plus those\ndigits plus that punctuation.",
        "start": 941.87,
        "duration": 3.54
    },
    {
        "text": "And just to save some time, I'm going\nto highlight and copy what I just typed,",
        "start": 945.41,
        "duration": 3.84
    },
    {
        "text": "and I'm going to change the second\nposition, the third position,",
        "start": 949.25,
        "duration": 3.21
    },
    {
        "text": "and the fourth position, as well, to use\nthat combination of 94 possibilities.",
        "start": 952.46,
        "duration": 4.86
    },
    {
        "text": "I'm going to open up my\nterminal window again.",
        "start": 957.32,
        "duration": 2.01
    },
    {
        "text": "I'm going to run Python of crack.py.",
        "start": 959.33,
        "duration": 1.95
    },
    {
        "text": "And this time, because we have\n10 times as many possibilities,",
        "start": 961.28,
        "duration": 2.85
    },
    {
        "text": "I kind of had 10 times the amount\nof time to walk over to the screen",
        "start": 964.13,
        "duration": 4.98
    },
    {
        "text": "because indeed we're still in\nthe lowercase Es, Fs, Gs, Hs.",
        "start": 969.11,
        "duration": 5.7
    },
    {
        "text": "And now it looks a bit like\na Hollywood movie maybe.",
        "start": 974.81,
        "duration": 2.218
    },
    {
        "text": "You can perhaps see, even though\nit's going across the screen fast,",
        "start": 977.028,
        "duration": 2.792
    },
    {
        "text": "that there's a lot of\ncryptic output here",
        "start": 979.82,
        "duration": 1.708
    },
    {
        "text": "because we're running through\nall of the letters, the digits,",
        "start": 981.528,
        "duration": 3.062
    },
    {
        "text": "and the punctuation.",
        "start": 984.59,
        "duration": 1.12
    },
    {
        "text": "So it looks a little fancy at that.",
        "start": 985.71,
        "duration": 2.06
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, you might recall,\ntoo, from Hollywood movies,",
        "start": 987.77,
        "duration": 2.34
    },
    {
        "text": "too, that they tend to be very dramatic.",
        "start": 990.11,
        "duration": 1.89
    },
    {
        "text": "And so instead of just doing this, which\nis iterating from left to right very",
        "start": 992.0,
        "duration": 4.29
    },
    {
        "text": "slowly, the movies and TV\nshows tend to very dramatically",
        "start": 996.29,
        "duration": 2.677
    },
    {
        "text": "get, like, the third character right,\nthen the first character right, then",
        "start": 998.967,
        "duration": 3.083
    },
    {
        "text": "the fourth character right.",
        "start": 1002.05,
        "duration": 0.75
    },
    {
        "text": "And then just in time, you\nget the second one as well.",
        "start": 1002.8,
        "duration": 2.25
    },
    {
        "text": "That's not really ho brute force works.",
        "start": 1005.05,
        "duration": 2.04
    },
    {
        "text": "You tend to do things methodically, not\njumping around from symbol to symbol.",
        "start": 1007.09,
        "duration": 4.48
    },
    {
        "text": "But this is clearly taking a long time.",
        "start": 1011.57,
        "duration": 1.71
    },
    {
        "text": "And I'm not even going to finish waiting\nfor this to go because we still have",
        "start": 1013.28,
        "duration": 3.47
    },
    {
        "text": "to get through all the punctuation.",
        "start": 1016.75,
        "duration": 1.57
    },
    {
        "text": "So this is to say, ultimately, that\n78 million possibilities is actually",
        "start": 1018.32,
        "duration": 4.43
    },
    {
        "text": "getting up there pretty fast.",
        "start": 1022.75,
        "duration": 1.89
    },
    {
        "text": "But honestly, if we come\nback in like a minute or so,",
        "start": 1024.64,
        "duration": 2.64
    },
    {
        "text": "I bet that will be finished nonetheless.",
        "start": 1027.28,
        "duration": 2.49
    },
    {
        "text": "And none of us hopefully has a\npassword that's only four characters",
        "start": 1029.77,
        "duration": 4.319
    },
    {
        "text": "nowadays, letters,\nnumbers, and punctuation.",
        "start": 1034.089,
        "duration": 3.301
    },
    {
        "text": "Odds are it's at least a\nconventional eight characters.",
        "start": 1037.39,
        "duration": 3.06
    },
    {
        "text": "And indeed most websites and apps\nrequire as much of you as well.",
        "start": 1040.45,
        "duration": 3.778
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, the math here is\npretty straightforward too.",
        "start": 1044.228,
        "duration": 2.042
    },
    {
        "text": "If you have 94 possibilities, but you\nhave eight characters in total now, now",
        "start": 1046.27,
        "duration": 5.73
    },
    {
        "text": "that's 94 to the eighth power.",
        "start": 1052.0,
        "duration": 2.46
    },
    {
        "text": "And does anyone want a\nballpark just how many",
        "start": 1054.46,
        "duration": 2.85
    },
    {
        "text": "passwords are possible if it's\nonly eight characters, which",
        "start": 1057.31,
        "duration": 3.66
    },
    {
        "text": "isn't even that long but you\nhave eight of them total?",
        "start": 1060.97,
        "duration": 5.22
    },
    {
        "text": "Too many, comes back one answer.",
        "start": 1066.19,
        "duration": 2.58
    },
    {
        "text": "Too much to count.",
        "start": 1068.77,
        "duration": 1.398
    },
    {
        "text": "I see that we've given up here.",
        "start": 1070.168,
        "duration": 1.292
    },
    {
        "text": "But, oh, I did see one in the chat.",
        "start": 1071.46,
        "duration": 1.52
    },
    {
        "text": "It's roughly this many\npossible passwords,",
        "start": 1072.98,
        "duration": 3.513
    },
    {
        "text": "which is actually a\nlittle hard to figure out.",
        "start": 1076.493,
        "duration": 1.917
    },
    {
        "text": "So this is, let's see, millions,\nbillions, trillions quadrillions.",
        "start": 1078.41,
        "duration": 5.22
    },
    {
        "text": "So this is 6 quadrillion possibilities.",
        "start": 1083.63,
        "duration": 2.89
    },
    {
        "text": "So now we're talking.",
        "start": 1086.52,
        "duration": 1.25
    },
    {
        "text": "Now the adversary is probably going\nto run out of time, run out of energy,",
        "start": 1087.77,
        "duration": 5.46
    },
    {
        "text": "run out of money, run\nout of lifetime if it's",
        "start": 1093.23,
        "duration": 2.73
    },
    {
        "text": "going to take this much\ntime to try to crack,",
        "start": 1095.96,
        "duration": 2.73
    },
    {
        "text": "so to speak, your particular password.",
        "start": 1098.69,
        "duration": 2.97
    },
    {
        "text": "And so here's one of our first\ntakeaways when it comes to cybersecurity",
        "start": 1101.66,
        "duration": 3.39
    },
    {
        "text": "and securing our accounts.",
        "start": 1105.05,
        "duration": 1.38
    },
    {
        "text": "It really is this game of\nrelativity and resources.",
        "start": 1106.43,
        "duration": 3.632
    },
    {
        "text": "What we're really doing here\nis not something fundamentally",
        "start": 1110.062,
        "duration": 2.458
    },
    {
        "text": "different by adding in digits\nand letters and punctuation.",
        "start": 1112.52,
        "duration": 5.46
    },
    {
        "text": "It sort of still the same formula,\nthe same approach to our passwords.",
        "start": 1117.98,
        "duration": 3.09
    },
    {
        "text": "But as we add complexity, and\nas we make it longer and longer,",
        "start": 1121.07,
        "duration": 3.75
    },
    {
        "text": "we're raising the bar to the adversary.",
        "start": 1124.82,
        "duration": 2.82
    },
    {
        "text": "Why?",
        "start": 1127.64,
        "duration": 0.75
    },
    {
        "text": "Well, so long as you and I don't do\nsomething dumb like still choose 0000",
        "start": 1128.39,
        "duration": 4.773
    },
    {
        "text": "0000 so long as we're choosing something\nthat's pretty random in that range of 6",
        "start": 1133.163,
        "duration": 6.027
    },
    {
        "text": "quadrillion possibilities, it's going\nto take the adversary way more time than",
        "start": 1139.19,
        "duration": 4.92
    },
    {
        "text": "it would otherwise to brute force\ntheir way into that password.",
        "start": 1144.11,
        "duration": 3.69
    },
    {
        "text": "And so by the time they\nfinally get into the account,",
        "start": 1147.8,
        "duration": 2.97
    },
    {
        "text": "you might have changed\nthe password already,",
        "start": 1150.77,
        "duration": 1.95
    },
    {
        "text": "you might not be using the account\nanymore, or you or the adversary",
        "start": 1152.72,
        "duration": 3.15
    },
    {
        "text": "might not even be on\nthis planet anymore.",
        "start": 1155.87,
        "duration": 2.82
    },
    {
        "text": "And that's indeed the goal.",
        "start": 1158.69,
        "duration": 1.29
    },
    {
        "text": "But there is a downside, of course.",
        "start": 1159.98,
        "duration": 2.14
    },
    {
        "text": "The longer your password gets,\nand the more complicated it gets,",
        "start": 1162.12,
        "duration": 3.9
    },
    {
        "text": "the more likely you and\nI are to not even be",
        "start": 1166.02,
        "duration": 2.87
    },
    {
        "text": "able to remember what that password is.",
        "start": 1168.89,
        "duration": 1.99
    },
    {
        "text": "And so here is that sort\nof balancing act, trying",
        "start": 1170.88,
        "duration": 2.78
    },
    {
        "text": "to figure out this balance between the\nusability of the account, just how user",
        "start": 1173.66,
        "duration": 3.87
    },
    {
        "text": "friendly it is to access, versus\nthe security of that account.",
        "start": 1177.53,
        "duration": 4.02
    },
    {
        "text": "And finding that inflection point\nis somewhat personal or somewhat",
        "start": 1181.55,
        "duration": 3.09
    },
    {
        "text": "corporate in policy, typically.",
        "start": 1184.64,
        "duration": 2.28
    },
    {
        "text": "Well, let me pause here and see\nif there are any questions now",
        "start": 1186.92,
        "duration": 3.87
    },
    {
        "text": "on securing our accounts\nvia passwords alone.",
        "start": 1190.79,
        "duration": 3.45
    },
    {
        "text": "AUDIENCE: I was wondering.",
        "start": 1194.24,
        "duration": 2.13
    },
    {
        "text": "A couple of years ago, there\nwere devices, USB devices,",
        "start": 1196.37,
        "duration": 3.24
    },
    {
        "text": "with fingerprint recognition.",
        "start": 1199.61,
        "duration": 2.58
    },
    {
        "text": "How come that's not\nmore frequently used?",
        "start": 1202.19,
        "duration": 3.48
    },
    {
        "text": "Or are they too expensive or--",
        "start": 1205.67,
        "duration": 1.863
    },
    {
        "text": "DAVID MALAN: A really\ngood question, and we'll",
        "start": 1207.533,
        "duration": 1.917
    },
    {
        "text": "come to this topic in a little\nbit on biometrics more generally.",
        "start": 1209.45,
        "duration": 3.42
    },
    {
        "text": "But your intuition is pretty much right.",
        "start": 1212.87,
        "duration": 1.68
    },
    {
        "text": "It's expensive to have another device.",
        "start": 1214.55,
        "duration": 1.957
    },
    {
        "text": "And most consumers are not\ngoing to bother wasting money",
        "start": 1216.507,
        "duration": 2.333
    },
    {
        "text": "on something just for them.",
        "start": 1218.84,
        "duration": 1.23
    },
    {
        "text": "Some companies might.",
        "start": 1220.07,
        "duration": 1.17
    },
    {
        "text": "But if they have a lot of employees,\nthat could get very costly.",
        "start": 1221.24,
        "duration": 2.7
    },
    {
        "text": "But you might be glad to know that\none of the topics we'll end on today",
        "start": 1223.94,
        "duration": 3.36
    },
    {
        "text": "is a new technology called\npasskeys that actually leverages",
        "start": 1227.3,
        "duration": 4.14
    },
    {
        "text": "a device you most likely already have,\na phone, that might use your fingerprint",
        "start": 1231.44,
        "duration": 4.65
    },
    {
        "text": "or might use your face or\nsome other form of biometrics.",
        "start": 1236.09,
        "duration": 2.91
    },
    {
        "text": "That's becoming more common\nnowadays, or soon will,",
        "start": 1239.0,
        "duration": 3.24
    },
    {
        "text": "even for your laptop and desktop which\nwill talk to that phone, in some form.",
        "start": 1242.24,
        "duration": 5.53
    },
    {
        "text": "How about one more question\nhere on securing accounts.",
        "start": 1247.77,
        "duration": 3.95
    },
    {
        "text": "AUDIENCE: My question is, why if\nfour-digits password is so unsafe,",
        "start": 1251.72,
        "duration": 7.41
    },
    {
        "text": "why is some program still using this\npassword not a website, like program?",
        "start": 1259.13,
        "duration": 5.747
    },
    {
        "text": "DAVID MALAN: Oh, really good question.",
        "start": 1264.877,
        "duration": 1.583
    },
    {
        "text": "Why are some programmers using this?",
        "start": 1266.46,
        "duration": 1.82
    },
    {
        "text": "So it's a trade off between\nusability and security.",
        "start": 1268.28,
        "duration": 3.24
    },
    {
        "text": "If you are the programmer\ndesigning the system,",
        "start": 1271.52,
        "duration": 2.49
    },
    {
        "text": "you presumably want users to\nuse the system and to come back",
        "start": 1274.01,
        "duration": 3.45
    },
    {
        "text": "and to keep using it.",
        "start": 1277.46,
        "duration": 1.24
    },
    {
        "text": "But if you make it too\nhard for them to access",
        "start": 1278.7,
        "duration": 2.87
    },
    {
        "text": "that account, if you increase\nthe probability that they're",
        "start": 1281.57,
        "duration": 2.67
    },
    {
        "text": "going to constantly forget their\npassword, lose their password,",
        "start": 1284.24,
        "duration": 2.91
    },
    {
        "text": "they might just stop using your system\nor your app or your website altogether.",
        "start": 1287.15,
        "duration": 4.33
    },
    {
        "text": "And so that's probably not a good thing.",
        "start": 1291.48,
        "duration": 2.37
    },
    {
        "text": "Other reasons might\ninclude just unawareness",
        "start": 1293.85,
        "duration": 2.36
    },
    {
        "text": "or not having taken a class on\ncybersecurity or not having really",
        "start": 1296.21,
        "duration": 4.86
    },
    {
        "text": "thought through the implications\nof having such short passcodes.",
        "start": 1301.07,
        "duration": 4.38
    },
    {
        "text": "So nowadays is industry's\nstarting to nudge us",
        "start": 1305.45,
        "duration": 2.837
    },
    {
        "text": "in better and better directions.",
        "start": 1308.287,
        "duration": 1.333
    },
    {
        "text": "But we'll see today and\nthe rest of this class",
        "start": 1309.62,
        "duration": 2.01
    },
    {
        "text": "that there are still going to be a lot\nof trade offs, again, between usability",
        "start": 1311.63,
        "duration": 4.02
    },
    {
        "text": "and security.",
        "start": 1315.65,
        "duration": 1.08
    },
    {
        "text": "So what can we do to defend ourselves\nagainst these brute force attacks?",
        "start": 1316.73,
        "duration": 3.33
    },
    {
        "text": "Well, at least here in the\nUS, there's an organization",
        "start": 1320.06,
        "duration": 2.25
    },
    {
        "text": "called the National Institute\nof Standards and Technology,",
        "start": 1322.31,
        "duration": 2.88
    },
    {
        "text": "Otherwise known as NIST, that\nactually issues recommendations",
        "start": 1325.19,
        "duration": 3.12
    },
    {
        "text": "for how we as consumers or\ncompanies or more generally,",
        "start": 1328.31,
        "duration": 3.06
    },
    {
        "text": "humans can go about securing\ntheir accounts more effectively.",
        "start": 1331.37,
        "duration": 3.15
    },
    {
        "text": "And we thought we'd share just\nsome of these recommendations",
        "start": 1334.52,
        "duration": 2.5
    },
    {
        "text": "so that it informs not only your own\nbehavior as an individual citizen",
        "start": 1337.02,
        "duration": 4.4
    },
    {
        "text": "or consumer, but perhaps if\nyou're in a place of business",
        "start": 1341.42,
        "duration": 2.97
    },
    {
        "text": "where you can influence\nyour own company's policies,",
        "start": 1344.39,
        "duration": 3.06
    },
    {
        "text": "here are generally what are\nconsidered best practices nowadays.",
        "start": 1347.45,
        "duration": 3.73
    },
    {
        "text": "So a quote from their\nrecommendations, \"memorized secrets",
        "start": 1351.18,
        "duration": 3.38
    },
    {
        "text": "shall be at least eight\ncharacters in length.\"",
        "start": 1354.56,
        "duration": 3.0
    },
    {
        "text": "So that at least corroborates\nthe quick math and the test",
        "start": 1357.56,
        "duration": 2.94
    },
    {
        "text": "that we ourselves just ran, that\nonly once we got up to, like,",
        "start": 1360.5,
        "duration": 2.76
    },
    {
        "text": "6 quadrillion possibilities\ndid it feel like it",
        "start": 1363.26,
        "duration": 2.64
    },
    {
        "text": "was going to take a very long time to\nactually hack into someone's device.",
        "start": 1365.9,
        "duration": 5.59
    },
    {
        "text": "So consider that for your own\naccounts, even on your phones.",
        "start": 1371.49,
        "duration": 2.94
    },
    {
        "text": "You might have to go\nthrough a few menu options",
        "start": 1374.43,
        "duration": 2.19
    },
    {
        "text": "to upgrade from just four\ndigits to something more.",
        "start": 1376.62,
        "duration": 3.27
    },
    {
        "text": "But odds are you'll benefit from\nthis additional layer of security.",
        "start": 1379.89,
        "duration": 4.38
    },
    {
        "text": "This one's more of a\nmouthful but helpful",
        "start": 1384.27,
        "duration": 1.8
    },
    {
        "text": "as well, \"verifiers,\" so\nthe website or app that's",
        "start": 1386.07,
        "duration": 3.72
    },
    {
        "text": "verifying your input when you\nauthenticate with your username",
        "start": 1389.79,
        "duration": 2.88
    },
    {
        "text": "and password-- \"verifiers should permit\nsubscriber-chosen memorized secrets",
        "start": 1392.67,
        "duration": 4.77
    },
    {
        "text": "of at least 64 characters in length.",
        "start": 1397.44,
        "duration": 3.78
    },
    {
        "text": "All printing ASCII characters\nas well as the space characters",
        "start": 1401.22,
        "duration": 3.3
    },
    {
        "text": "should be acceptable\nin memorized secrets.",
        "start": 1404.52,
        "duration": 2.73
    },
    {
        "text": "Unicode characters should\nbe accepted as well.\"",
        "start": 1407.25,
        "duration": 2.86
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, if you're not\nyourself a computer person,",
        "start": 1410.11,
        "duration": 2.33
    },
    {
        "text": "there's a bit of jargon within this.",
        "start": 1412.44,
        "duration": 1.71
    },
    {
        "text": "But first of all, the takeaways are\nthat websites and applications should",
        "start": 1414.15,
        "duration": 4.2
    },
    {
        "text": "let you and me come\nup with passwords that",
        "start": 1418.35,
        "duration": 2.7
    },
    {
        "text": "are actually as long as 64 characters.",
        "start": 1421.05,
        "duration": 2.65
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, that's pretty long, but\nthat's exactly the point,",
        "start": 1423.7,
        "duration": 2.76
    },
    {
        "text": "particularly as it's\ngotten more difficult",
        "start": 1426.46,
        "duration": 2.12
    },
    {
        "text": "for you and I to remember\nall of our passwords,",
        "start": 1428.58,
        "duration": 2.83
    },
    {
        "text": "to come up with very complex passwords.",
        "start": 1431.41,
        "duration": 2.13
    },
    {
        "text": "The reality is you and I\nmight very well be better off,",
        "start": 1433.54,
        "duration": 3.78
    },
    {
        "text": "on the whole, by just choosing an\neasier-to-remember but much longer",
        "start": 1437.32,
        "duration": 5.52
    },
    {
        "text": "password, for instance, a sentence,\na quote, a phrase that you",
        "start": 1442.84,
        "duration": 4.08
    },
    {
        "text": "can more easily keep in your human\nmind but that doesn't necessarily",
        "start": 1446.92,
        "duration": 3.6
    },
    {
        "text": "have a crazy amount of\npunctuation or digits or letters,",
        "start": 1450.52,
        "duration": 3.75
    },
    {
        "text": "but at least is 64 characters in length.",
        "start": 1454.27,
        "duration": 3.22
    },
    {
        "text": "So even if an adversary\ntries a dictionary attack,",
        "start": 1457.49,
        "duration": 3.08
    },
    {
        "text": "trying all possible English\nwords or some other language,",
        "start": 1460.57,
        "duration": 2.71
    },
    {
        "text": "even if they try a brute force attack,\nit's going to take them way too long",
        "start": 1463.28,
        "duration": 4.01
    },
    {
        "text": "unless, of course, you do something\nfoolish like choose a 64-character",
        "start": 1467.29,
        "duration": 4.02
    },
    {
        "text": "passcode that's 000 or so forth.",
        "start": 1471.31,
        "duration": 3.97
    },
    {
        "text": "So you still want to be\noriginal within that space.",
        "start": 1475.28,
        "duration": 2.18
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, more technically, this\nrecommendation is referring to ASCII.",
        "start": 1477.46,
        "duration": 3.27
    },
    {
        "text": "ASCII generally refers to US English\nsymbols on a US English keyboard,",
        "start": 1480.73,
        "duration": 4.71
    },
    {
        "text": "as was the origin of this code system.",
        "start": 1485.44,
        "duration": 2.49
    },
    {
        "text": "So that includes A\nthrough Z, 0 through 9,",
        "start": 1487.93,
        "duration": 2.58
    },
    {
        "text": "and the punctuation\nI alluded to earlier.",
        "start": 1490.51,
        "duration": 2.19
    },
    {
        "text": "But websites and apps\nnowadays should also",
        "start": 1492.7,
        "duration": 2.31
    },
    {
        "text": "support Unicode, including things like\nemoji and other accented characters",
        "start": 1495.01,
        "duration": 5.25
    },
    {
        "text": "or symbols that you might have\nin languages beyond English.",
        "start": 1500.26,
        "duration": 3.54
    },
    {
        "text": "Unfortunately, this is not really\ncommon practice, I dare say.",
        "start": 1503.8,
        "duration": 3.69
    },
    {
        "text": "Just yesterday, I created an account\non a new website for the first time,",
        "start": 1507.49,
        "duration": 3.93
    },
    {
        "text": "and it made me jump through\nhoops, so to speak, figuring out",
        "start": 1511.42,
        "duration": 3.06
    },
    {
        "text": "the right number of uppercase letters,\nlowercase letters, punctuation,",
        "start": 1514.48,
        "duration": 3.63
    },
    {
        "text": "and even then it told me I can\nonly use certain punctuation.",
        "start": 1518.11,
        "duration": 3.46
    },
    {
        "text": "So I had to think about now\nwhich symbols I'm using.",
        "start": 1521.57,
        "duration": 2.48
    },
    {
        "text": "That is a lot of friction that\nis not good for usability.",
        "start": 1524.05,
        "duration": 3.338
    },
    {
        "text": "And it's of questionable value\nfor the security of the system",
        "start": 1527.388,
        "duration": 2.542
    },
    {
        "text": "if I can't even remember\nthe thing afterward.",
        "start": 1529.93,
        "duration": 2.25
    },
    {
        "text": "So keep this in mind, in general,\nthat your password should not only",
        "start": 1532.18,
        "duration": 3.75
    },
    {
        "text": "be eight characters,\nminimally, but most apps",
        "start": 1535.93,
        "duration": 3.27
    },
    {
        "text": "and websites you maybe\nyourself develop moving forward",
        "start": 1539.2,
        "duration": 3.06
    },
    {
        "text": "should allow much longer\npasswords as well.",
        "start": 1542.26,
        "duration": 2.74
    },
    {
        "text": "And you as the human\ncan use longer passwords",
        "start": 1545.0,
        "duration": 2.45
    },
    {
        "text": "if systems allow them as well.",
        "start": 1547.45,
        "duration": 1.93
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, here's another set of\nrecommendations from NIST.",
        "start": 1549.38,
        "duration": 2.84
    },
    {
        "text": "\"Verifiers--\" the website or\nthe apps that we're using--",
        "start": 1552.22,
        "duration": 3.27
    },
    {
        "text": "\"shall compare the\nprospective secrets--\"",
        "start": 1555.49,
        "duration": 2.31
    },
    {
        "text": "the passwords you're choosing--\n\"against a list that contains",
        "start": 1557.8,
        "duration": 2.94
    },
    {
        "text": "values known to be commonly\nused, expected, or compromised.\"",
        "start": 1560.74,
        "duration": 4.353
    },
    {
        "text": "So that is to say when\nyou type in a password,",
        "start": 1565.093,
        "duration": 1.917
    },
    {
        "text": "if it's already been a\ncommonly used password,",
        "start": 1567.01,
        "duration": 2.4
    },
    {
        "text": "if it's very easily guessable,\nthe website or app should probably",
        "start": 1569.41,
        "duration": 2.94
    },
    {
        "text": "say, uh, pick a better\npassword than that",
        "start": 1572.35,
        "duration": 2.61
    },
    {
        "text": "just to decrease the\nprobability that an adversary is",
        "start": 1574.96,
        "duration": 2.668
    },
    {
        "text": "going to get into that account.",
        "start": 1577.628,
        "duration": 1.292
    },
    {
        "text": "Specifically, NIST\nrecommends that \"passwords",
        "start": 1578.92,
        "duration": 2.73
    },
    {
        "text": "obtained from previous\nbreached corpuses--\"",
        "start": 1581.65,
        "duration": 2.67
    },
    {
        "text": "which is a fancy way of saying if some\nwebsite, some database has been hacked,",
        "start": 1584.32,
        "duration": 4.65
    },
    {
        "text": "and that database contains\nusernames and passwords,",
        "start": 1588.97,
        "duration": 3.09
    },
    {
        "text": "and those passwords\nhave now been uploaded",
        "start": 1592.06,
        "duration": 2.04
    },
    {
        "text": "to the internet for adversaries\nor anyone to download and browse,",
        "start": 1594.1,
        "duration": 4.68
    },
    {
        "text": "well, then you should not be allowed\nto pick a password from that list",
        "start": 1598.78,
        "duration": 3.21
    },
    {
        "text": "because it's essentially\nan alternative dictionary.",
        "start": 1601.99,
        "duration": 2.55
    },
    {
        "text": "It essentially is a list of passwords\nthat a smart adversary should just",
        "start": 1604.54,
        "duration": 4.2
    },
    {
        "text": "start with before they even bother\nresorting to brute force, which",
        "start": 1608.74,
        "duration": 3.69
    },
    {
        "text": "we've seen would take much more time.",
        "start": 1612.43,
        "duration": 2.01
    },
    {
        "text": "Two, dictionary words.",
        "start": 1614.44,
        "duration": 1.78
    },
    {
        "text": "So this we've already\nstipulated would be a good thing",
        "start": 1616.22,
        "duration": 2.29
    },
    {
        "text": "to avoid because there's just\nmuch too easy for an adversary",
        "start": 1618.51,
        "duration": 2.5
    },
    {
        "text": "to go through a big list of English\nwords or some other language",
        "start": 1621.01,
        "duration": 2.79
    },
    {
        "text": "and try those first.",
        "start": 1623.8,
        "duration": 1.29
    },
    {
        "text": "Three, repetitive or\nsequential characters, aaaaaa",
        "start": 1625.09,
        "duration": 5.34
    },
    {
        "text": "or a slightly more creatively\nbut not good enough, 1235abcd.",
        "start": 1630.43,
        "duration": 5.67
    },
    {
        "text": "I would also add 0000 and so\nforth into that category as well.",
        "start": 1636.1,
        "duration": 4.56
    },
    {
        "text": "It's just too easy for\nthe adversary to guess",
        "start": 1640.66,
        "duration": 3.06
    },
    {
        "text": "that maybe you're doing something\nrepetitive like that too.",
        "start": 1643.72,
        "duration": 3.06
    },
    {
        "text": "And then lastly, context-specific\nwords, such as the name of the service,",
        "start": 1646.78,
        "duration": 4.29
    },
    {
        "text": "the username, and derivatives thereof.",
        "start": 1651.07,
        "duration": 2.65
    },
    {
        "text": "This is to say, if you sign up for\na Gmail account for the first time,",
        "start": 1653.72,
        "duration": 3.62
    },
    {
        "text": "you should not be allowed by\nGoogle to choose a password",
        "start": 1657.34,
        "duration": 3.87
    },
    {
        "text": "like \"Gmail password,\" quote unquote.",
        "start": 1661.21,
        "duration": 2.58
    },
    {
        "text": "If you sign up for an\nAmazon account, you",
        "start": 1663.79,
        "duration": 1.86
    },
    {
        "text": "should not be allowed by\nAmazon to have your password be",
        "start": 1665.65,
        "duration": 2.7
    },
    {
        "text": "\"Amazon password\" or some such variant\nthereof because smart adversaries are",
        "start": 1668.35,
        "duration": 4.74
    },
    {
        "text": "going to try those same heuristics.",
        "start": 1673.09,
        "duration": 1.5
    },
    {
        "text": "And that's the catch too.",
        "start": 1674.59,
        "duration": 1.05
    },
    {
        "text": "If you can think of it, even if\nyou think you're being clever,",
        "start": 1675.64,
        "duration": 3.15
    },
    {
        "text": "odds are a just-as-clever adversary\ncan think of that heuristic as well",
        "start": 1678.79,
        "duration": 4.09
    },
    {
        "text": "and prioritize those tricks\nbefore they resort to brute force,",
        "start": 1682.88,
        "duration": 4.22
    },
    {
        "text": "like I did on my own laptop.",
        "start": 1687.1,
        "duration": 2.43
    },
    {
        "text": "A few other recommendations as well.",
        "start": 1689.53,
        "duration": 1.95
    },
    {
        "text": "\"Memorized secret verifiers\nshall not permit the subscriber",
        "start": 1691.48,
        "duration": 3.99
    },
    {
        "text": "to store a hint that is inaccessible\nto an unauthenticated claimant.",
        "start": 1695.47,
        "duration": 4.59
    },
    {
        "text": "Verifiers shall now prompt subscribers\nto use specific types of information,",
        "start": 1700.06,
        "duration": 3.82
    },
    {
        "text": "for instance, 'what was the name of\nyour first pet?' when choosing memorize",
        "start": 1703.88,
        "duration": 4.01
    },
    {
        "text": "secrets.\"",
        "start": 1707.89,
        "duration": 0.57
    },
    {
        "text": "So there are a lot of companies, a lot\nof websites, a lot of applications that",
        "start": 1708.46,
        "duration": 3.87
    },
    {
        "text": "violate this recommendation nowadays.",
        "start": 1712.33,
        "duration": 2.67
    },
    {
        "text": "And in fact, I bet you can\nthink of one or more accounts",
        "start": 1715.0,
        "duration": 2.37
    },
    {
        "text": "that you have where you've had\nto tell them, for instance, what",
        "start": 1717.37,
        "duration": 3.12
    },
    {
        "text": "was the name of your first pet\nor your first car or your mother",
        "start": 1720.49,
        "duration": 3.69
    },
    {
        "text": "or father's name or the like.",
        "start": 1724.18,
        "duration": 1.86
    },
    {
        "text": "That's not good to collect\neither, nor is a hint",
        "start": 1726.04,
        "duration": 3.49
    },
    {
        "text": "a good thing because\nfrankly, you and I are",
        "start": 1729.53,
        "duration": 2.55
    },
    {
        "text": "all too often in the habit of\nmaybe typing into that hint field,",
        "start": 1732.08,
        "duration": 4.23
    },
    {
        "text": "if it's available, a\nquestion that's meant to help",
        "start": 1736.31,
        "duration": 3.27
    },
    {
        "text": "you remember what your password was.",
        "start": 1739.58,
        "duration": 1.74
    },
    {
        "text": "But if your hint is something like, my\npassword is the name of my first pet,",
        "start": 1741.32,
        "duration": 4.53
    },
    {
        "text": "well, you're now just leaking\ninformation to the world.",
        "start": 1745.85,
        "duration": 3.09
    },
    {
        "text": "And anyone who can go online\nand figure out that information",
        "start": 1748.94,
        "duration": 3.12
    },
    {
        "text": "can now get into your account as well.",
        "start": 1752.06,
        "duration": 2.77
    },
    {
        "text": "And so that's really the\nthreat, in this case.",
        "start": 1754.83,
        "duration": 2.51
    },
    {
        "text": "If you start using personally\nidentifiable information",
        "start": 1757.34,
        "duration": 3.09
    },
    {
        "text": "in this age of social media and\nwebsites like LinkedIn and the like,",
        "start": 1760.43,
        "duration": 4.35
    },
    {
        "text": "there's just so much information out\nthere about us that can be discovered.",
        "start": 1764.78,
        "duration": 4.24
    },
    {
        "text": "You don't want to fill all of these\ndatabases, all of these systems",
        "start": 1769.02,
        "duration": 3.11
    },
    {
        "text": "with each of these tidbits about\nyou because a smart adversary",
        "start": 1772.13,
        "duration": 3.18
    },
    {
        "text": "with enough time and enough\nfocus on you can probably",
        "start": 1775.31,
        "duration": 3.27
    },
    {
        "text": "figure out all of those same values.",
        "start": 1778.58,
        "duration": 2.89
    },
    {
        "text": "So what more?",
        "start": 1781.47,
        "duration": 1.01
    },
    {
        "text": "\"Verifiers shall not\nrequire memorized secrets",
        "start": 1782.48,
        "duration": 3.36
    },
    {
        "text": "to be changed arbitrarily,\nfor instance, periodically.\"",
        "start": 1785.84,
        "duration": 3.12
    },
    {
        "text": "So this one, too, is something\nthat a lot of companies",
        "start": 1788.96,
        "duration": 2.34
    },
    {
        "text": "violate as a recommendation still.",
        "start": 1791.3,
        "duration": 2.4
    },
    {
        "text": "If you're in a corporate\nworkplace, in particular,",
        "start": 1793.7,
        "duration": 2.43
    },
    {
        "text": "and you're being required\nby the system administrators",
        "start": 1796.13,
        "duration": 2.91
    },
    {
        "text": "to change your password every\nmonth, maybe every three months,",
        "start": 1799.04,
        "duration": 3.7
    },
    {
        "text": "six months, every year perhaps, that's\nnot generally recommended anymore,",
        "start": 1802.74,
        "duration": 5.06
    },
    {
        "text": "even though not too long ago, it did\nfeel like, sound like a best practice.",
        "start": 1807.8,
        "duration": 5.44
    },
    {
        "text": "But why is this not recommended\nanymore, to have you forcibly",
        "start": 1813.24,
        "duration": 5.72
    },
    {
        "text": "change your password periodically,\nlike every few months?",
        "start": 1818.96,
        "duration": 4.71
    },
    {
        "text": "AUDIENCE: Because the password\nwill be easily forgotten",
        "start": 1823.67,
        "duration": 2.38
    },
    {
        "text": "and be more vulnerable\nto brute force attacks.",
        "start": 1826.05,
        "duration": 3.11
    },
    {
        "text": "DAVID MALAN: Why would\nit be more vulnerable?",
        "start": 1829.16,
        "duration": 2.19
    },
    {
        "text": "AUDIENCE: Because the hackers\ncan get access to all passwords",
        "start": 1831.35,
        "duration": 4.14
    },
    {
        "text": "and get hints about the new password.",
        "start": 1835.49,
        "duration": 2.063
    },
    {
        "text": "DAVID MALAN: OK.",
        "start": 1837.553,
        "duration": 0.667
    },
    {
        "text": "So yes, one danger of forcing you and\nme to change our password too frequently",
        "start": 1838.22,
        "duration": 4.47
    },
    {
        "text": "is that you and I do not tend\nto exert much effort when",
        "start": 1842.69,
        "duration": 2.88
    },
    {
        "text": "we're required to do so.",
        "start": 1845.57,
        "duration": 1.38
    },
    {
        "text": "For instance, if my password today\nis, for instance, password 1, well,",
        "start": 1846.95,
        "duration": 4.505
    },
    {
        "text": "you know what my password\nmight be in three months?",
        "start": 1851.455,
        "duration": 2.125
    },
    {
        "text": "Password 2 or in another\nthree months, password 3.",
        "start": 1853.58,
        "duration": 3.54
    },
    {
        "text": "You and I might exert the\nminimal amount of energy",
        "start": 1857.12,
        "duration": 2.34
    },
    {
        "text": "to change the password so that we\nmeet the company's requirements",
        "start": 1859.46,
        "duration": 2.79
    },
    {
        "text": "but so that it's not too hard\nfor you and me to remember",
        "start": 1862.25,
        "duration": 2.34
    },
    {
        "text": "what the new password is.",
        "start": 1864.59,
        "duration": 1.08
    },
    {
        "text": "And so indeed, if information\nabout my past passwords leaks out",
        "start": 1865.67,
        "duration": 3.84
    },
    {
        "text": "and some adversary sees,\noh, well, wait a minute,",
        "start": 1869.51,
        "duration": 2.16
    },
    {
        "text": "your password was\npassword 2 last month, I'm",
        "start": 1871.67,
        "duration": 2.52
    },
    {
        "text": "just going to guess heuristically\nthat this month it's password 3.",
        "start": 1874.19,
        "duration": 3.33
    },
    {
        "text": "We might indeed be leaking information.",
        "start": 1877.52,
        "duration": 2.16
    },
    {
        "text": "What's another reason\nthat you might not want",
        "start": 1879.68,
        "duration": 2.22
    },
    {
        "text": "to require humans to change\ntheir passwords arbitrarily",
        "start": 1881.9,
        "duration": 4.32
    },
    {
        "text": "on some schedule like this?",
        "start": 1886.22,
        "duration": 2.138
    },
    {
        "text": "AUDIENCE: We keep\nforgetting our passwords,",
        "start": 1888.358,
        "duration": 1.792
    },
    {
        "text": "too, if we change it too frequently.",
        "start": 1890.15,
        "duration": 2.8
    },
    {
        "text": "So that is not a good\npractice for a website.",
        "start": 1892.95,
        "duration": 2.03
    },
    {
        "text": "DAVID MALAN: Exactly.",
        "start": 1894.98,
        "duration": 0.875
    },
    {
        "text": "If you make me change my\npassword too frequently,",
        "start": 1895.855,
        "duration": 2.485
    },
    {
        "text": "honestly, I'm probably going to\nforget what my next password is",
        "start": 1898.34,
        "duration": 2.82
    },
    {
        "text": "because I'm going to get\nconfused with last month's",
        "start": 1901.16,
        "duration": 1.8
    },
    {
        "text": "or the previous months or the like.",
        "start": 1902.96,
        "duration": 1.458
    },
    {
        "text": "And so there's these sociological\neffects on us humans,",
        "start": 1904.418,
        "duration": 2.712
    },
    {
        "text": "just being human, not being very good at\nremembering not only the first password",
        "start": 1907.13,
        "duration": 4.17
    },
    {
        "text": "you made me choose that's very complex,\nbut the second and the third as well.",
        "start": 1911.3,
        "duration": 3.76
    },
    {
        "text": "And so generally, you should not come\nup with such a scheme anymore because",
        "start": 1915.06,
        "duration": 3.23
    },
    {
        "text": "of these adverse side effects.",
        "start": 1918.29,
        "duration": 1.56
    },
    {
        "text": "And how about one more\nrecommendation here?",
        "start": 1919.85,
        "duration": 2.22
    },
    {
        "text": "\"Verifiers shall implement\na rate-limiting mechanism",
        "start": 1922.07,
        "duration": 3.6
    },
    {
        "text": "that effectively limits the number of\nfailed authentication attempts that can",
        "start": 1925.67,
        "duration": 3.81
    },
    {
        "text": "be made on the subscriber's account.\"",
        "start": 1929.48,
        "duration": 2.25
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, what do we mean by this?",
        "start": 1931.73,
        "duration": 1.432
    },
    {
        "text": "Well, odds are this is\nsomething you yourselves",
        "start": 1933.162,
        "duration": 1.958
    },
    {
        "text": "might have experienced if, for\ninstance, you forgot your password",
        "start": 1935.12,
        "duration": 3.66
    },
    {
        "text": "or you kept typing it slightly wrong.",
        "start": 1938.78,
        "duration": 1.77
    },
    {
        "text": "Maybe your phone screen\nwas wet so it wasn't",
        "start": 1940.55,
        "duration": 2.01
    },
    {
        "text": "registering your fingertips properly.",
        "start": 1942.56,
        "duration": 2.1
    },
    {
        "text": "It turns out you can lock\nyourself out of your own phone.",
        "start": 1944.66,
        "duration": 2.76
    },
    {
        "text": "And you might have, in fact, seen\nsomething like this on iPhone.",
        "start": 1947.42,
        "duration": 2.85
    },
    {
        "text": "Android has a similar\nscreen, if, for instance, you",
        "start": 1950.27,
        "duration": 2.64
    },
    {
        "text": "type in the wrong passcode\n10 times in a row.",
        "start": 1952.91,
        "duration": 3.51
    },
    {
        "text": "The presumption, by Apple and Google\nand others, is that if after 10 times",
        "start": 1956.42,
        "duration": 5.28
    },
    {
        "text": "you still haven't inputted\nyour password correctly,",
        "start": 1961.7,
        "duration": 2.64
    },
    {
        "text": "it's probably a higher probability\nthat you are not David,",
        "start": 1964.34,
        "duration": 4.02
    },
    {
        "text": "that you are not you, but rather it's\nsomeone else who has taken your phone,",
        "start": 1968.36,
        "duration": 3.95
    },
    {
        "text": "stolen your phone, and\nis trying to get into it.",
        "start": 1972.31,
        "duration": 2.79
    },
    {
        "text": "Now that's not always the case.",
        "start": 1975.1,
        "duration": 1.93
    },
    {
        "text": "You can imagine situations where\nyou just were being absent minded.",
        "start": 1977.03,
        "duration": 3.08
    },
    {
        "text": "You were half asleep.",
        "start": 1980.11,
        "duration": 1.14
    },
    {
        "text": "Maybe you weren't really focusing\non it, and you locked yourself out.",
        "start": 1981.25,
        "duration": 3.43
    },
    {
        "text": "And so there, too is, again, a trade\noff between usability and security.",
        "start": 1984.68,
        "duration": 4.22
    },
    {
        "text": "But the higher probability\nevent after 10 wrong attempts",
        "start": 1988.9,
        "duration": 3.39
    },
    {
        "text": "probably tends to be that it's an\nadversary trying to get in and not you.",
        "start": 1992.29,
        "duration": 3.72
    },
    {
        "text": "But what's the point of this?",
        "start": 1996.01,
        "duration": 1.95
    },
    {
        "text": "Beyond annoying the adversary\nand maybe more significantly,",
        "start": 1997.96,
        "duration": 3.69
    },
    {
        "text": "really annoying you when it happens by\naccident, what this effectively does",
        "start": 2001.65,
        "duration": 4.32
    },
    {
        "text": "is it slows the adversary down.",
        "start": 2005.97,
        "duration": 2.32
    },
    {
        "text": "In other words, it increases the\ncost of this attack to the adversary.",
        "start": 2008.29,
        "duration": 3.77
    },
    {
        "text": "Why?",
        "start": 2012.06,
        "duration": 0.54
    },
    {
        "text": "Well, we saw a moment ago\nthat a smart adversary",
        "start": 2012.6,
        "duration": 2.88
    },
    {
        "text": "who knows a little bit of Python\ncode and steals your phone",
        "start": 2015.48,
        "duration": 2.76
    },
    {
        "text": "can try 10,000 possible passwords\nin just less than a second.",
        "start": 2018.24,
        "duration": 5.02
    },
    {
        "text": "However, if you now slow them\ndown by having this feature",
        "start": 2023.26,
        "duration": 3.14
    },
    {
        "text": "on your iPhone or Android device\nthat pumps the brakes, so to speak,",
        "start": 2026.4,
        "duration": 4.42
    },
    {
        "text": "that lets the adversary try\nno more than 10 at a time,",
        "start": 2030.82,
        "duration": 3.87
    },
    {
        "text": "that's significantly slows them down.",
        "start": 2034.69,
        "duration": 2.7
    },
    {
        "text": "Now they might have to spend at least\n10 seconds, 20 seconds, an hour, a day,",
        "start": 2037.39,
        "duration": 4.95
    },
    {
        "text": "or longer, especially since\nwhat Android and iPhone also",
        "start": 2042.34,
        "duration": 3.75
    },
    {
        "text": "do is they tend to\nincrease this time limit.",
        "start": 2046.09,
        "duration": 3.03
    },
    {
        "text": "The first time you\nmess up, it's 1 minute.",
        "start": 2049.12,
        "duration": 1.89
    },
    {
        "text": "If you mess up another 10 times,\nit's now 2 minutes, maybe 5 minutes,",
        "start": 2051.01,
        "duration": 4.229
    },
    {
        "text": "maybe 10 minutes.",
        "start": 2055.239,
        "duration": 1.021
    },
    {
        "text": "Maybe the phone even deletes\nitself, wipes itself,",
        "start": 2056.26,
        "duration": 3.33
    },
    {
        "text": "if that, too, is a feature that\nyou or your company has enabled.",
        "start": 2059.59,
        "duration": 3.27
    },
    {
        "text": "So again, the right way to think about\nthis, beyond the usability trade off,",
        "start": 2062.86,
        "duration": 3.99
    },
    {
        "text": "is that we're just trying to\nraise the bar to the adversary.",
        "start": 2066.85,
        "duration": 2.76
    },
    {
        "text": "We're trying to make it\nmore expensive, more costly,",
        "start": 2069.61,
        "duration": 2.609
    },
    {
        "text": "maybe more risky to the\nadversary by slowing them down.",
        "start": 2072.219,
        "duration": 3.571
    },
    {
        "text": "And by more risky I mean if\nthis is like a Hollywood moment,",
        "start": 2075.79,
        "duration": 2.73
    },
    {
        "text": "and someone's just stolen the phone\nfrom your table at Starbucks or a coffee",
        "start": 2078.52,
        "duration": 3.627
    },
    {
        "text": "shop, they've plugged\nit into their laptop--",
        "start": 2082.147,
        "duration": 1.833
    },
    {
        "text": "they're trying desperately to crack into\nit before you come back to the table--",
        "start": 2083.98,
        "duration": 3.929
    },
    {
        "text": "well, by slowing them down,\nit's going to significantly",
        "start": 2087.909,
        "duration": 2.73
    },
    {
        "text": "increase the risk, too, that\nthey are the act while doing it.",
        "start": 2090.639,
        "duration": 4.321
    },
    {
        "text": "And hopefully, too,\nthe goal is to just get",
        "start": 2094.96,
        "duration": 2.46
    },
    {
        "text": "them to lose interest in your phone,\nlose interest in your account,",
        "start": 2097.42,
        "duration": 3.18
    },
    {
        "text": "and have them move on to ideally no\none else's, but at least, barring that,",
        "start": 2100.6,
        "duration": 3.84
    },
    {
        "text": "someone else's instead of yours.",
        "start": 2104.44,
        "duration": 3.24
    },
    {
        "text": "So what are other defenses against\nthese kinds of brute force attacks,",
        "start": 2107.68,
        "duration": 5.43
    },
    {
        "text": "or even these dictionary attacks?",
        "start": 2113.11,
        "duration": 1.74
    },
    {
        "text": "Well, this is a system that you and I\nare increasingly being able to turn on,",
        "start": 2114.85,
        "duration": 5.64
    },
    {
        "text": "but also increasingly are\nbeing required to turn on",
        "start": 2120.49,
        "duration": 2.55
    },
    {
        "text": "as well, which is, in general, probably\na good thing, 2-Factor Authentication,",
        "start": 2123.04,
        "duration": 4.71
    },
    {
        "text": "or 2FA more generally known\nas multifactor authentication,",
        "start": 2127.75,
        "duration": 4.35
    },
    {
        "text": "is a technology whereby in addition\nto having one factor that you use",
        "start": 2132.1,
        "duration": 4.77
    },
    {
        "text": "to log in, like your\npassword, as is tradition,",
        "start": 2136.87,
        "duration": 2.73
    },
    {
        "text": "you also have a second\nor maybe more factors",
        "start": 2139.6,
        "duration": 3.06
    },
    {
        "text": "that you additionally have\nto use in order to log in.",
        "start": 2142.66,
        "duration": 3.06
    },
    {
        "text": "But these factors don't just generally\nmean one password, two passwords,",
        "start": 2145.72,
        "duration": 3.78
    },
    {
        "text": "three passwords, or the like.",
        "start": 2149.5,
        "duration": 1.29
    },
    {
        "text": "They're fundamentally\ndifferent types of factors.",
        "start": 2150.79,
        "duration": 2.88
    },
    {
        "text": "And in general, they're broken\ndown into these three categories.",
        "start": 2153.67,
        "duration": 3.1
    },
    {
        "text": "One is a knowledge category.",
        "start": 2156.77,
        "duration": 2.39
    },
    {
        "text": "A knowledge factor is just\nsomething like your password",
        "start": 2159.16,
        "duration": 3.48
    },
    {
        "text": "that ideally you keep\nsecret, no one else knows,",
        "start": 2162.64,
        "duration": 2.65
    },
    {
        "text": "and that's why it enables\nyou to authenticate yourself,",
        "start": 2165.29,
        "duration": 2.81
    },
    {
        "text": "prove that you because you and only\nyou, hopefully, have that knowledge.",
        "start": 2168.1,
        "duration": 4.68
    },
    {
        "text": "But a second type of factor\nwould be a possession factor,",
        "start": 2172.78,
        "duration": 3.24
    },
    {
        "text": "something that you physically have.",
        "start": 2176.02,
        "duration": 1.71
    },
    {
        "text": "So you might be in the habit\nat work of carrying around",
        "start": 2177.73,
        "duration": 2.55
    },
    {
        "text": "one of those little key fobs that\nhas a little code on it that changes.",
        "start": 2180.28,
        "duration": 3.342
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, those things can be expensive.",
        "start": 2183.622,
        "duration": 1.458
    },
    {
        "text": "So increasingly the world is just using\nour own phones, your own Android phone,",
        "start": 2185.08,
        "duration": 4.09
    },
    {
        "text": "your own iPhone, that maybe\nhas SMS support on it,",
        "start": 2189.17,
        "duration": 3.65
    },
    {
        "text": "text messaging, or maybe\na specific app that",
        "start": 2192.82,
        "duration": 2.64
    },
    {
        "text": "displays a short code that you type in.",
        "start": 2195.46,
        "duration": 2.88
    },
    {
        "text": "The presumption is if that you challenge\nthe user not only for a knowledge",
        "start": 2198.34,
        "duration": 4.62
    },
    {
        "text": "factor, like their password, but\na second factor, like something",
        "start": 2202.96,
        "duration": 3.75
    },
    {
        "text": "they possess, you significantly decrease\nthe probability that an adversary is",
        "start": 2206.71,
        "duration": 4.98
    },
    {
        "text": "going to be able to\nget into that account.",
        "start": 2211.69,
        "duration": 1.8
    },
    {
        "text": "Because whereas anyone on the\ninternet, millions of people",
        "start": 2213.49,
        "duration": 3.72
    },
    {
        "text": "can be a threat to you by just\nfiguring out or finding your password,",
        "start": 2217.21,
        "duration": 4.47
    },
    {
        "text": "a possession factor\nreally narrows the scope",
        "start": 2221.68,
        "duration": 2.49
    },
    {
        "text": "of the threat to only the other\ncustomers in Starbucks or the coffee",
        "start": 2224.17,
        "duration": 3.66
    },
    {
        "text": "shop, only the other\npeople physically near you",
        "start": 2227.83,
        "duration": 2.85
    },
    {
        "text": "because they would have to physically\nobtain that second possession factor.",
        "start": 2230.68,
        "duration": 3.66
    },
    {
        "text": "And then a third type\nof factor nowadays might",
        "start": 2234.34,
        "duration": 2.31
    },
    {
        "text": "be an inherence, something\nthat is unique to you",
        "start": 2236.65,
        "duration": 3.6
    },
    {
        "text": "specifically, more generally\ndescribed as biometrics.",
        "start": 2240.25,
        "duration": 2.97
    },
    {
        "text": "So maybe it's your fingerprints.",
        "start": 2243.22,
        "duration": 1.59
    },
    {
        "text": "Maybe it is your face nowadays.",
        "start": 2244.81,
        "duration": 1.83
    },
    {
        "text": "Something that's inherent\nto you can be a third factor",
        "start": 2246.64,
        "duration": 3.24
    },
    {
        "text": "nowadays because the presumption is\nthat only you, ideally, in the world",
        "start": 2249.88,
        "duration": 4.29
    },
    {
        "text": "have exactly that factor as well.",
        "start": 2254.17,
        "duration": 2.282
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, this is a little\ndifferent from what",
        "start": 2256.452,
        "duration": 1.708
    },
    {
        "text": "some companies, some websites, some apps\ndescribe as two-step authentication,",
        "start": 2258.16,
        "duration": 4.68
    },
    {
        "text": "where two steps might actually\njust be two passwords of some sort.",
        "start": 2262.84,
        "duration": 4.09
    },
    {
        "text": "But two factor more technically\nrefers to two or more",
        "start": 2266.93,
        "duration": 4.17
    },
    {
        "text": "of these types of fundamentally\ndifferent factors, that",
        "start": 2271.1,
        "duration": 4.32
    },
    {
        "text": "being the most common in our case here.",
        "start": 2275.42,
        "duration": 2.74
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, when it comes to those\npossession factors, those key fobs",
        "start": 2278.16,
        "duration": 3.14
    },
    {
        "text": "or the apps or the\ncodes that you receive,",
        "start": 2281.3,
        "duration": 1.89
    },
    {
        "text": "specifically what you're\nreceiving in those models",
        "start": 2283.19,
        "duration": 2.1
    },
    {
        "text": "is generally known as a\nOne-Time Password, or OTP.",
        "start": 2285.29,
        "duration": 3.99
    },
    {
        "text": "The idea being that\nthis is not a password",
        "start": 2289.28,
        "duration": 2.4
    },
    {
        "text": "that you know and keep remembering\nand keep using again and again.",
        "start": 2291.68,
        "duration": 3.61
    },
    {
        "text": "It's literally one time\nbecause it's texted to you,",
        "start": 2295.29,
        "duration": 2.87
    },
    {
        "text": "or it's sent via an app\nvia push notification,",
        "start": 2298.16,
        "duration": 2.79
    },
    {
        "text": "or it's actually sent to something on\nyour keychain, like this here key fob,",
        "start": 2300.95,
        "duration": 5.64
    },
    {
        "text": "for instance.",
        "start": 2306.59,
        "duration": 0.66
    },
    {
        "text": "Nowadays, your company can buy these.",
        "start": 2307.25,
        "duration": 1.81
    },
    {
        "text": "And what happens is on the screen\nhere, this one-time password",
        "start": 2309.06,
        "duration": 3.74
    },
    {
        "text": "constantly changes every few seconds.",
        "start": 2312.8,
        "duration": 2.46
    },
    {
        "text": "And it's synchronized\nsomehow with a server",
        "start": 2315.26,
        "duration": 2.07
    },
    {
        "text": "so that the presumption is if I\nam carrying around this device,",
        "start": 2317.33,
        "duration": 3.15
    },
    {
        "text": "and I type in when prompted,\nthis particular code,",
        "start": 2320.48,
        "duration": 3.7
    },
    {
        "text": "and that code matches the synchronized\ncode that's on the server,",
        "start": 2324.18,
        "duration": 3.29
    },
    {
        "text": "I should be allowed into the\naccount because the presumption is",
        "start": 2327.47,
        "duration": 2.71
    },
    {
        "text": "that it's indeed David carrying\nthis around and not necessarily",
        "start": 2330.18,
        "duration": 3.09
    },
    {
        "text": "some adversary.",
        "start": 2333.27,
        "duration": 0.84
    },
    {
        "text": "It might also be possible to plug it\nin as via USB or some other technology,",
        "start": 2334.11,
        "duration": 4.32
    },
    {
        "text": "thereby removing the\nhuman from the formula",
        "start": 2338.43,
        "duration": 2.65
    },
    {
        "text": "so that the device itself\ncan just authenticate using",
        "start": 2341.08,
        "duration": 2.48
    },
    {
        "text": "special software on the system instead.",
        "start": 2343.56,
        "duration": 2.67
    },
    {
        "text": "Nowadays, though, you can\ndownload special apps,",
        "start": 2346.23,
        "duration": 2.652
    },
    {
        "text": "whether it's one from Google\nor other companies, that",
        "start": 2348.882,
        "duration": 2.208
    },
    {
        "text": "allow you to manage, all in one\nplace, all of these one-time passwords",
        "start": 2351.09,
        "duration": 4.23
    },
    {
        "text": "that you might automatically\nsee updating on the screen.",
        "start": 2355.32,
        "duration": 2.76
    },
    {
        "text": "And you can type any or all of\nthem in when you're actually",
        "start": 2358.08,
        "duration": 2.67
    },
    {
        "text": "prompted by a website or app.",
        "start": 2360.75,
        "duration": 2.43
    },
    {
        "text": "But even in this space of one-time\npasswords and possession factors,",
        "start": 2363.18,
        "duration": 5.61
    },
    {
        "text": "it's worth keeping in mind\nthat some of these technologies",
        "start": 2368.79,
        "duration": 2.85
    },
    {
        "text": "are more secure than others.",
        "start": 2371.64,
        "duration": 2.08
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, it's very common\nfor websites or apps",
        "start": 2373.72,
        "duration": 2.0
    },
    {
        "text": "nowadays to want to send you one of\nthese one-time passwords via text",
        "start": 2375.72,
        "duration": 3.63
    },
    {
        "text": "message, for instance.",
        "start": 2379.35,
        "duration": 1.32
    },
    {
        "text": "And you receive it via SMS.",
        "start": 2380.67,
        "duration": 1.8
    },
    {
        "text": "And then you can type in that\nsix-digit code, as is often the case.",
        "start": 2382.47,
        "duration": 4.02
    },
    {
        "text": "More secure, though, would be\nsomething like an actual app",
        "start": 2386.49,
        "duration": 3.81
    },
    {
        "text": "that you install from the\nApp Store or the Google Play",
        "start": 2390.3,
        "duration": 2.31
    },
    {
        "text": "store that actually talks\ndirectly to some server",
        "start": 2392.61,
        "duration": 2.94
    },
    {
        "text": "and does not just go over\nthe cellular phone network.",
        "start": 2395.55,
        "duration": 3.15
    },
    {
        "text": "Why is that?",
        "start": 2398.7,
        "duration": 0.88
    },
    {
        "text": "Well, as you might know,\nin your phone is typically",
        "start": 2399.58,
        "duration": 3.29
    },
    {
        "text": "a SIM card, either a physical\ncard, a little chip, or nowadays",
        "start": 2402.87,
        "duration": 3.627
    },
    {
        "text": "it might actually be built\ninto the phone as well.",
        "start": 2406.497,
        "duration": 2.083
    },
    {
        "text": "But that SIM card has\na unique identifier.",
        "start": 2408.58,
        "duration": 2.61
    },
    {
        "text": "And when you sign up for phone\nservice, typically, with a company,",
        "start": 2411.19,
        "duration": 3.05
    },
    {
        "text": "they need to know what the unique\nidentifier is of your SIM card,",
        "start": 2414.24,
        "duration": 4.14
    },
    {
        "text": "be it something physical or something\nwired, hardwired into your device.",
        "start": 2418.38,
        "duration": 3.82
    },
    {
        "text": "Why?",
        "start": 2422.2,
        "duration": 0.5
    },
    {
        "text": "Because that's how they associate your\nphone number with that specific device.",
        "start": 2422.7,
        "duration": 3.9
    },
    {
        "text": "The catch is that it's all too possible,\nand in some cases, all too easy,",
        "start": 2426.6,
        "duration": 5.4
    },
    {
        "text": "to trick, even the phone companies, into\nswapping your SIM not necessarily doing",
        "start": 2432.0,
        "duration": 4.95
    },
    {
        "text": "it physically per se, but\nconvincing the mobile phone",
        "start": 2436.95,
        "duration": 2.97
    },
    {
        "text": "carriers to update\ntheir system to say, oh,",
        "start": 2439.92,
        "duration": 3.06
    },
    {
        "text": "David now has this SIM card\nand not that original one.",
        "start": 2442.98,
        "duration": 4.05
    },
    {
        "text": "That is to say, if I'm\nan adversary and I just",
        "start": 2447.03,
        "duration": 2.07
    },
    {
        "text": "have any old phone\nwith any old SIM card,",
        "start": 2449.1,
        "duration": 2.04
    },
    {
        "text": "and I figure out what the unique\nID is, and maybe I call up",
        "start": 2451.14,
        "duration": 3.03
    },
    {
        "text": "David's mobile phone provider,\nand I somehow convince them",
        "start": 2454.17,
        "duration": 4.35
    },
    {
        "text": "that I am David by tricking them into\nbelieving it's me, as by telling them",
        "start": 2458.52,
        "duration": 6.27
    },
    {
        "text": "all of that personal\ninformation about myself,",
        "start": 2464.79,
        "duration": 2.17
    },
    {
        "text": "I might be able to convince\nthem to swap my SIM card,",
        "start": 2466.96,
        "duration": 3.68
    },
    {
        "text": "the adversary's, with\nwhat is already on file.",
        "start": 2470.64,
        "duration": 3.03
    },
    {
        "text": "The implication of that is that when\nDavid subsequently gets text messages,",
        "start": 2473.67,
        "duration": 5.01
    },
    {
        "text": "they don't actually go\nto me, the real David.",
        "start": 2478.68,
        "duration": 2.55
    },
    {
        "text": "They go to the adversary's phone as well\nbecause they're tied to that SIM card.",
        "start": 2481.23,
        "duration": 5.08
    },
    {
        "text": "So in general nowadays,\nif you have a choice,",
        "start": 2486.31,
        "duration": 2.63
    },
    {
        "text": "using some website or app to\nuse SMS or text-based messaging",
        "start": 2488.94,
        "duration": 4.98
    },
    {
        "text": "versus a native application\nthat you install",
        "start": 2493.92,
        "duration": 3.24
    },
    {
        "text": "onto your phone or other\ndevice, you should generally",
        "start": 2497.16,
        "duration": 3.24
    },
    {
        "text": "prefer the latter, some\nfirst-class piece of software",
        "start": 2500.4,
        "duration": 3.36
    },
    {
        "text": "that actually uses push\nnotifications or your data plan",
        "start": 2503.76,
        "duration": 2.67
    },
    {
        "text": "and does not rely on SMS text messaging\nbecause of this potential threat.",
        "start": 2506.43,
        "duration": 5.83
    },
    {
        "text": "So what are still other threats\nwhen it comes to these systems?",
        "start": 2512.26,
        "duration": 5.16
    },
    {
        "text": "Well, it turns out that it's\nvery possible, unfortunately,",
        "start": 2517.42,
        "duration": 3.68
    },
    {
        "text": "for adversaries to somehow get\nsoftware, malicious software,",
        "start": 2521.1,
        "duration": 3.69
    },
    {
        "text": "otherwise known as malware,\nonto your Mac, onto your PC,",
        "start": 2524.79,
        "duration": 3.15
    },
    {
        "text": "perhaps even onto your phone .",
        "start": 2527.94,
        "duration": 1.83
    },
    {
        "text": "This might be because you\ninstalled a piece of software",
        "start": 2529.77,
        "duration": 2.4
    },
    {
        "text": "that you shouldn't have trusted.",
        "start": 2532.17,
        "duration": 1.47
    },
    {
        "text": "This might be because\nyour phone or your device",
        "start": 2533.64,
        "duration": 2.31
    },
    {
        "text": "is infected with something\nlike a virus or a worm.",
        "start": 2535.95,
        "duration": 2.58
    },
    {
        "text": "But in general, you might\nbe vulnerable to malware,",
        "start": 2538.53,
        "duration": 3.33
    },
    {
        "text": "including software that\nlogs all of your keystrokes.",
        "start": 2541.86,
        "duration": 3.33
    },
    {
        "text": "Key logging refers to exactly\nthat, some piece of software",
        "start": 2545.19,
        "duration": 3.24
    },
    {
        "text": "that most likely maliciously is\nliterally recording everything you type",
        "start": 2548.43,
        "duration": 4.32
    },
    {
        "text": "or everything you tap into that device.",
        "start": 2552.75,
        "duration": 2.34
    },
    {
        "text": "And what is this software\ndo with those keystrokes?",
        "start": 2555.09,
        "duration": 2.31
    },
    {
        "text": "Very often it will upload them.",
        "start": 2557.4,
        "duration": 1.71
    },
    {
        "text": "If there's an internet\nconnection, maybe to a server",
        "start": 2559.11,
        "duration": 2.37
    },
    {
        "text": "that the adversary controls.",
        "start": 2561.48,
        "duration": 1.65
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, what's the implication\nof this key logging threat?",
        "start": 2563.13,
        "duration": 2.88
    },
    {
        "text": "Well, if you're typing in your\nusername, that's not such a big",
        "start": 2566.01,
        "duration": 3.212
    },
    {
        "text": "because those are generally public.",
        "start": 2569.222,
        "duration": 1.458
    },
    {
        "text": "But if you're typing in\nyour password, and that's",
        "start": 2570.68,
        "duration": 2.33
    },
    {
        "text": "being automatically uploaded\nto the adversary's server,",
        "start": 2573.01,
        "duration": 2.46
    },
    {
        "text": "now they know your\nusername and your password.",
        "start": 2575.47,
        "duration": 2.28
    },
    {
        "text": "Worse, if the adversary\nalso sees you typing",
        "start": 2577.75,
        "duration": 3.18
    },
    {
        "text": "in that six-digit code,\nyour one-time password",
        "start": 2580.93,
        "duration": 3.51
    },
    {
        "text": "that you might have received even\nfrom your phone or some other device,",
        "start": 2584.44,
        "duration": 3.03
    },
    {
        "text": "if they are fast enough and\nsmart enough and figure out",
        "start": 2587.47,
        "duration": 3.57
    },
    {
        "text": "how to log what you're typing, send it\nto the server, perhaps even before you",
        "start": 2591.04,
        "duration": 4.68
    },
    {
        "text": "yourself hit Enter, maybe they\ncan use not only your username",
        "start": 2595.72,
        "duration": 4.08
    },
    {
        "text": "and your password, but\neven that one-time password",
        "start": 2599.8,
        "duration": 3.36
    },
    {
        "text": "by pretending to be on their own\nphone or their own laptop or desktop,",
        "start": 2603.16,
        "duration": 5.01
    },
    {
        "text": "typing in or more\nrealistically, automatically",
        "start": 2608.17,
        "duration": 3.18
    },
    {
        "text": "through software typing\nin those same values",
        "start": 2611.35,
        "duration": 2.82
    },
    {
        "text": "and accessing your account even before\nyou had a chance to do so as well.",
        "start": 2614.17,
        "duration": 5.59
    },
    {
        "text": "Now what are the defenses\nagainst that particular threat?",
        "start": 2619.76,
        "duration": 2.93
    },
    {
        "text": "Really just to be generally paranoid\nabout what computers you yourself use.",
        "start": 2622.69,
        "duration": 4.71
    },
    {
        "text": "For instance, nowadays\nI will rarely, if ever,",
        "start": 2627.4,
        "duration": 3.13
    },
    {
        "text": "actually use an internet cafe's\ncomputer or even a lab computer",
        "start": 2630.53,
        "duration": 4.95
    },
    {
        "text": "here on Harvard's campus, or\nfrankly, even a friend's computer",
        "start": 2635.48,
        "duration": 3.3
    },
    {
        "text": "because I don't know just how safe they\nare when it comes to best practices",
        "start": 2638.78,
        "duration": 4.32
    },
    {
        "text": "using their device on the internet.",
        "start": 2643.1,
        "duration": 2.05
    },
    {
        "text": "I will in general only\nlog into websites and apps",
        "start": 2645.15,
        "duration": 3.11
    },
    {
        "text": "on my own personal devices, which\nisn't to say that I, too, am perfect,",
        "start": 2648.26,
        "duration": 4.11
    },
    {
        "text": "but rather at least I'm\nreducing the probability",
        "start": 2652.37,
        "duration": 3.15
    },
    {
        "text": "that I lose control over my data by\nusing some other device that I myself",
        "start": 2655.52,
        "duration": 4.77
    },
    {
        "text": "don't oversee by that\nperson, that owner,",
        "start": 2660.29,
        "duration": 3.72
    },
    {
        "text": "not themselves adhering\nto best practices.",
        "start": 2664.01,
        "duration": 2.91
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, even then, I will\nadmit, that using key logging",
        "start": 2666.92,
        "duration": 3.78
    },
    {
        "text": "and getting it up to\nan adversary's server",
        "start": 2670.7,
        "duration": 2.31
    },
    {
        "text": "and inputting it faster than you might\nis a pretty sophisticated and difficult",
        "start": 2673.01,
        "duration": 5.31
    },
    {
        "text": "threat.",
        "start": 2678.32,
        "duration": 0.54
    },
    {
        "text": "But it's worth keeping in mind and\nrealizing that these are certainly",
        "start": 2678.86,
        "duration": 5.04
    },
    {
        "text": "theoretical attacks.",
        "start": 2683.9,
        "duration": 2.1
    },
    {
        "text": "And if you yourself are\ntargeted for some reason,",
        "start": 2686.0,
        "duration": 2.79
    },
    {
        "text": "these are absolutely things\nyou should be mindful of.",
        "start": 2688.79,
        "duration": 2.89
    },
    {
        "text": "So in general, if you have the\nluxury of only using your own device",
        "start": 2691.68,
        "duration": 3.77
    },
    {
        "text": "and not some shared device that, too,\ntends to be best practice, I would say.",
        "start": 2695.45,
        "duration": 6.27
    },
    {
        "text": "Any questions on these here attacks?",
        "start": 2701.72,
        "duration": 4.14
    },
    {
        "text": "AUDIENCE: Regarding\nusing long passwords,",
        "start": 2705.86,
        "duration": 2.25
    },
    {
        "text": "do you recommend using Google passwords\nor Apple passwords for the system",
        "start": 2708.11,
        "duration": 5.49
    },
    {
        "text": "to remember the passwords for us?",
        "start": 2713.6,
        "duration": 1.8
    },
    {
        "text": "DAVID MALAN: A really good question.",
        "start": 2715.4,
        "duration": 1.5
    },
    {
        "text": "Short answer, yes,\nbut we'll come to that",
        "start": 2716.9,
        "duration": 1.708
    },
    {
        "text": "in more detail in just a few minutes.",
        "start": 2718.608,
        "duration": 1.782
    },
    {
        "text": "So what are other attacks\nthat we should be mindful of?",
        "start": 2720.39,
        "duration": 3.208
    },
    {
        "text": "So this one has kind of a funny\nname, but there's this attack",
        "start": 2723.598,
        "duration": 2.542
    },
    {
        "text": "known as credential stuffing.",
        "start": 2726.14,
        "duration": 1.83
    },
    {
        "text": "And we've come across reference to this\nalready in this discussion thus far.",
        "start": 2727.97,
        "duration": 4.86
    },
    {
        "text": "Credential stuffing-- a credential\nis something like a username",
        "start": 2732.83,
        "duration": 2.88
    },
    {
        "text": "and password-- refers to\nthe process of an adversary",
        "start": 2735.71,
        "duration": 3.78
    },
    {
        "text": "having found a whole bunch of\nusernames and passwords, maybe online,",
        "start": 2739.49,
        "duration": 3.72
    },
    {
        "text": "maybe in some database\nthat they or someone else",
        "start": 2743.21,
        "duration": 2.37
    },
    {
        "text": "attacked and posted for the\nwhole world to download.",
        "start": 2745.58,
        "duration": 2.94
    },
    {
        "text": "Credential stuffing means not using\ndictionaries, not using brute force,",
        "start": 2748.52,
        "duration": 4.86
    },
    {
        "text": "but just literally using a list of\nalready known usernames and passwords,",
        "start": 2753.38,
        "duration": 4.57
    },
    {
        "text": "maybe from some other\napplication or website,",
        "start": 2757.95,
        "duration": 2.48
    },
    {
        "text": "to try to stuff them\ninto a different website",
        "start": 2760.43,
        "duration": 3.06
    },
    {
        "text": "to see if, well, maybe if David's using\nthis username and password over here,",
        "start": 2763.49,
        "duration": 3.93
    },
    {
        "text": "with high probability, he's\nprobably using the same username",
        "start": 2767.42,
        "duration": 3.0
    },
    {
        "text": "and password over here.",
        "start": 2770.42,
        "duration": 1.33
    },
    {
        "text": "So credential stuffing is the\nthreat that, I daresay, many of you",
        "start": 2771.75,
        "duration": 3.65
    },
    {
        "text": "are vulnerable to.",
        "start": 2775.4,
        "duration": 1.2
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, you don't need to raise your\nhands and admit to this right now.",
        "start": 2776.6,
        "duration": 3.07
    },
    {
        "text": "But if you are using the same\nusername and the same password",
        "start": 2779.67,
        "duration": 4.07
    },
    {
        "text": "on 2 websites, 3\nwebsites, 30 websites, all",
        "start": 2783.74,
        "duration": 4.65
    },
    {
        "text": "websites you are today\nvulnerable to this attack.",
        "start": 2788.39,
        "duration": 3.24
    },
    {
        "text": "To be clear, if any one\nof those websites or apps",
        "start": 2791.63,
        "duration": 3.27
    },
    {
        "text": "is compromised by some adversary and\nthey figure out all of the usernames",
        "start": 2794.9,
        "duration": 4.32
    },
    {
        "text": "and passwords on that system, what\na smart adversary is going to do now",
        "start": 2799.22,
        "duration": 3.3
    },
    {
        "text": "is to try that same\nusername and password,",
        "start": 2802.52,
        "duration": 2.32
    },
    {
        "text": "they found for you on Amazon, on\nGmail, on any other website or app",
        "start": 2804.84,
        "duration": 5.06
    },
    {
        "text": "that you with high probability might be\nusing just because those services are",
        "start": 2809.9,
        "duration": 3.63
    },
    {
        "text": "popular.",
        "start": 2813.53,
        "duration": 0.69
    },
    {
        "text": "So what's the takeaway?",
        "start": 2814.22,
        "duration": 1.56
    },
    {
        "text": "Ideally, if you want to be immune\nto this kind of credential stuffing",
        "start": 2815.78,
        "duration": 4.323
    },
    {
        "text": "attack, where someone takes your\ncredentials over here and tries",
        "start": 2820.103,
        "duration": 2.667
    },
    {
        "text": "to stuff them into these\nother services over here,",
        "start": 2822.77,
        "duration": 2.61
    },
    {
        "text": "you have to use different credentials\non each and every website,",
        "start": 2825.38,
        "duration": 4.38
    },
    {
        "text": "on each and every app.",
        "start": 2829.76,
        "duration": 1.14
    },
    {
        "text": "You cannot, should not be reusing the\nsame password on multiple websites",
        "start": 2830.9,
        "duration": 5.82
    },
    {
        "text": "or apps.",
        "start": 2836.72,
        "duration": 0.6
    },
    {
        "text": "Username?",
        "start": 2837.32,
        "duration": 0.72
    },
    {
        "text": "Yes, especially if it's\nyour email address.",
        "start": 2838.04,
        "duration": 2.26
    },
    {
        "text": "But passwords, no.",
        "start": 2840.3,
        "duration": 1.34
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, this is admittedly\neasier said than done.",
        "start": 2841.64,
        "duration": 1.99
    },
    {
        "text": "So we'll see soon how we can try to\nachieve this, avoiding credential",
        "start": 2843.63,
        "duration": 4.16
    },
    {
        "text": "stuffing by having unique passwords,\nby at least having some help",
        "start": 2847.79,
        "duration": 3.03
    },
    {
        "text": "when it comes to managing the same.",
        "start": 2850.82,
        "duration": 1.92
    },
    {
        "text": "But there's another attack too\nthat's come up indirectly here",
        "start": 2852.74,
        "duration": 2.88
    },
    {
        "text": "already known as social engineering.",
        "start": 2855.62,
        "duration": 2.8
    },
    {
        "text": "Social engineering isn't a\ntechnical attack per se, but rather",
        "start": 2858.42,
        "duration": 4.46
    },
    {
        "text": "a social one, an attack among humans.",
        "start": 2862.88,
        "duration": 2.7
    },
    {
        "text": "For instance, let me go ahead\nand suggest the following.",
        "start": 2865.58,
        "duration": 2.35
    },
    {
        "text": "If you have a piece of paper\nnear you and a pen or pencil,",
        "start": 2867.93,
        "duration": 3.89
    },
    {
        "text": "go ahead and write down,\nif you could, on that piece",
        "start": 2871.82,
        "duration": 2.82
    },
    {
        "text": "of paper one of your passwords.",
        "start": 2874.64,
        "duration": 2.52
    },
    {
        "text": "Any of them is fine.",
        "start": 2877.16,
        "duration": 2.05
    },
    {
        "text": "Just go ahead on this piece\nof paper in front of you",
        "start": 2879.21,
        "duration": 3.44
    },
    {
        "text": "and write down one of\nyour passwords, including",
        "start": 2882.65,
        "duration": 3.84
    },
    {
        "text": "any letters or digits or punctuation.",
        "start": 2886.49,
        "duration": 5.32
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, I'm seeing in the\nchat some resistance.",
        "start": 2891.81,
        "duration": 3.06
    },
    {
        "text": "I'm seeing some heads down\nthough and some scribbling,",
        "start": 2894.87,
        "duration": 2.55
    },
    {
        "text": "which is exactly the point.",
        "start": 2897.42,
        "duration": 1.47
    },
    {
        "text": "Why would you take my suggestion\nand write down your password",
        "start": 2898.89,
        "duration": 3.69
    },
    {
        "text": "on a piece of paper, even\nthough I'm presumably",
        "start": 2902.58,
        "duration": 3.0
    },
    {
        "text": "someone you should trust\nin a cybersecurity class?",
        "start": 2905.58,
        "duration": 2.79
    },
    {
        "text": "Those of you who reached\nfor a pen or pencil, just",
        "start": 2908.37,
        "duration": 2.64
    },
    {
        "text": "wrote down one of your\npasswords on a sheet",
        "start": 2911.01,
        "duration": 2.19
    },
    {
        "text": "of paper were just socially engineered\nbecause a circumstance was created",
        "start": 2913.2,
        "duration": 4.65
    },
    {
        "text": "where you believed or trusted the\nperson that was asking or telling",
        "start": 2917.85,
        "duration": 3.69
    },
    {
        "text": "you to do something, and\nyou took at face value",
        "start": 2921.54,
        "duration": 2.37
    },
    {
        "text": "that you should do that thing.",
        "start": 2923.91,
        "duration": 1.74
    },
    {
        "text": "Moving forward, if any teacher\never asks you to write down",
        "start": 2925.65,
        "duration": 3.87
    },
    {
        "text": "a password on a piece of paper, one\ntakeaway for today is just don't do it.",
        "start": 2929.52,
        "duration": 5.01
    },
    {
        "text": "That would be social engineering.",
        "start": 2934.53,
        "duration": 1.77
    },
    {
        "text": "And in general, if someone calls\nyou on the phone, sends you an email",
        "start": 2936.3,
        "duration": 4.05
    },
    {
        "text": "and tries to get information from you,\neven if it seems and sounds legitimate,",
        "start": 2940.35,
        "duration": 5.25
    },
    {
        "text": "moving forward after today,\nespecially, should always",
        "start": 2945.6,
        "duration": 2.76
    },
    {
        "text": "have a healthy skepticism,\nif not just enough paranoia",
        "start": 2948.36,
        "duration": 4.15
    },
    {
        "text": "to be healthy in the interests\nof protecting your account.",
        "start": 2952.51,
        "duration": 3.24
    },
    {
        "text": "Moving forward, if you\nhad someone ask you",
        "start": 2955.75,
        "duration": 2.22
    },
    {
        "text": "something like that or even\na little more nefarious,",
        "start": 2957.97,
        "duration": 2.19
    },
    {
        "text": "trying to figure out\nwhat your first pet was",
        "start": 2960.16,
        "duration": 3.09
    },
    {
        "text": "or something should kind\nof perk your ears up.",
        "start": 2963.25,
        "duration": 3.63
    },
    {
        "text": "Your Spidey senses should go up, so to\nspeak, in the context of Spider-Man.",
        "start": 2966.88,
        "duration": 3.42
    },
    {
        "text": "And you should wonder, wait a minute,\nwhy do they need that information?",
        "start": 2970.3,
        "duration": 4.17
    },
    {
        "text": "Let me see how this plays out before\nI share anything about myself.",
        "start": 2974.47,
        "duration": 4.26
    },
    {
        "text": "And indeed, if you\nwere, bless your hearts.",
        "start": 2978.73,
        "duration": 2.65
    },
    {
        "text": "But if you did jot down your\npassword with a pen or pencil,",
        "start": 2981.38,
        "duration": 3.42
    },
    {
        "text": "remember that feeling of\nbeing duped because you do not",
        "start": 2984.8,
        "duration": 3.05
    },
    {
        "text": "want that to happen when\nit actually matters.",
        "start": 2987.85,
        "duration": 2.25
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, after this, now, I know\nyou'll believe nothing I say.",
        "start": 2990.1,
        "duration": 2.79
    },
    {
        "text": "But go shred or tear up or\nflush whatever piece of paper",
        "start": 2992.89,
        "duration": 3.6
    },
    {
        "text": "has that password on it.",
        "start": 2996.49,
        "duration": 1.24
    },
    {
        "text": "The point is not to\nshare it with anyone,",
        "start": 2997.73,
        "duration": 1.73
    },
    {
        "text": "just to prove that particular point.",
        "start": 2999.46,
        "duration": 2.41
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, beyond social engineering,\nthere's another threat",
        "start": 3001.87,
        "duration": 3.65
    },
    {
        "text": "that's a variant of that, but\nis more technical in nature.",
        "start": 3005.52,
        "duration": 2.905
    },
    {
        "text": "And that is phishing.",
        "start": 3008.425,
        "duration": 0.875
    },
    {
        "text": "And most of you probably have heard\nabout phishing in this context.",
        "start": 3009.3,
        "duration": 3.6
    },
    {
        "text": "And you can think about it sort\nof physically like going fishing,",
        "start": 3012.9,
        "duration": 3.0
    },
    {
        "text": "but trying to hook a sucker,\nsomeone like me or you who is duped",
        "start": 3015.9,
        "duration": 3.93
    },
    {
        "text": "into providing information\nthat they shouldn't.",
        "start": 3019.83,
        "duration": 2.64
    },
    {
        "text": "And this very often happens via emails.",
        "start": 3022.47,
        "duration": 2.13
    },
    {
        "text": "Odds are, if you go through\nyour spam folder sometime,",
        "start": 3024.6,
        "duration": 2.37
    },
    {
        "text": "you will see emails that seem\nto be coming from paypal.com",
        "start": 3026.97,
        "duration": 4.29
    },
    {
        "text": "or seem to be coming from Google\nor maybe a politician or the like.",
        "start": 3031.26,
        "duration": 4.35
    },
    {
        "text": "And very often those emails are\nencouraging you to click a link",
        "start": 3035.61,
        "duration": 4.47
    },
    {
        "text": "and maybe make a donation, click a\nlink, maybe change your password,",
        "start": 3040.08,
        "duration": 4.71
    },
    {
        "text": "click a link, and\nverify your information.",
        "start": 3044.79,
        "duration": 3.48
    },
    {
        "text": "Phishing is all about trying\nto use social engineering,",
        "start": 3048.27,
        "duration": 3.39
    },
    {
        "text": "in this case in a technical\nway, to try to convince you",
        "start": 3051.66,
        "duration": 3.15
    },
    {
        "text": "through very convincing looking\nemails and even websites that it",
        "start": 3054.81,
        "duration": 3.51
    },
    {
        "text": "is a legitimate email\nfrom paypal.com or it",
        "start": 3058.32,
        "duration": 3.12
    },
    {
        "text": "is a legitimate email from a\npolitician or it is a legitimate email",
        "start": 3061.44,
        "duration": 3.69
    },
    {
        "text": "or request from a\nteacher here at Harvard.",
        "start": 3065.13,
        "duration": 2.28
    },
    {
        "text": "But it's not.",
        "start": 3067.41,
        "duration": 1.02
    },
    {
        "text": "What they're trying to do,\nthe adversaries in this case,",
        "start": 3068.43,
        "duration": 2.49
    },
    {
        "text": "are prey on your trust for those\ncertain companies or persons.",
        "start": 3070.92,
        "duration": 4.77
    },
    {
        "text": "They're trying to prey on your comfort\nwith familiar user interfaces, things",
        "start": 3075.69,
        "duration": 5.4
    },
    {
        "text": "that you've seen before.",
        "start": 3081.09,
        "duration": 1.32
    },
    {
        "text": "But unfortunately, it's all\ntoo easy for an adversary",
        "start": 3082.41,
        "duration": 3.63
    },
    {
        "text": "to make a very official-looking email,\nto make a very legitimate-looking",
        "start": 3086.04,
        "duration": 3.9
    },
    {
        "text": "website, even one that looks\nidentical to paypal.com,",
        "start": 3089.94,
        "duration": 3.63
    },
    {
        "text": "identical to Gmail or other services.",
        "start": 3093.57,
        "duration": 2.64
    },
    {
        "text": "And frankly, if you take\nsome of CS50's other courses,",
        "start": 3096.21,
        "duration": 2.325
    },
    {
        "text": "it kind of boils down to copy and\npaste in the simplest of scenarios,",
        "start": 3098.535,
        "duration": 4.725
    },
    {
        "text": "just copying and pasting\nsome legitimate website",
        "start": 3103.26,
        "duration": 2.25
    },
    {
        "text": "and pretending that you own it too.",
        "start": 3105.51,
        "duration": 2.04
    },
    {
        "text": "So how might phishing manifest\nitself in the real world?",
        "start": 3107.55,
        "duration": 2.71
    },
    {
        "text": "Well, consider one of\nthose social media posts",
        "start": 3110.26,
        "duration": 2.28
    },
    {
        "text": "online that tend to invite you to\ncomment with your favorite song",
        "start": 3112.54,
        "duration": 3.77
    },
    {
        "text": "from childhood.",
        "start": 3116.31,
        "duration": 1.02
    },
    {
        "text": "Sometimes those posts\nhave a million responses",
        "start": 3117.33,
        "duration": 2.4
    },
    {
        "text": "from people you know\nand don't even know.",
        "start": 3119.73,
        "duration": 2.01
    },
    {
        "text": "But more than being interested in\nwhat your childhood favorite song was,",
        "start": 3121.74,
        "duration": 3.6
    },
    {
        "text": "those posts are very often\nphishing for personal information",
        "start": 3125.34,
        "duration": 3.9
    },
    {
        "text": "because suppose that you, or at\nleast someone among those comments",
        "start": 3129.24,
        "duration": 3.3
    },
    {
        "text": "is actually using their favorite\nchildhood song as their answer",
        "start": 3132.54,
        "duration": 3.81
    },
    {
        "text": "to some website or app secret question.",
        "start": 3136.35,
        "duration": 2.19
    },
    {
        "text": "Now the author of that post,\nnot to mention everyone else,",
        "start": 3138.54,
        "duration": 3.03
    },
    {
        "text": "knows the answer to the same.",
        "start": 3141.57,
        "duration": 2.71
    },
    {
        "text": "So how else might phishing\nmanifest itself in the real world?",
        "start": 3144.28,
        "duration": 3.17
    },
    {
        "text": "If you were to visit a\nscreen later today that",
        "start": 3147.45,
        "duration": 2.34
    },
    {
        "text": "looks a little something\nlike this, well, this",
        "start": 3149.79,
        "duration": 2.58
    },
    {
        "text": "looks like Gmail's login page, at least\nhere in the US when using English.",
        "start": 3152.37,
        "duration": 4.41
    },
    {
        "text": "And frankly, I've seen\nthis so many times",
        "start": 3156.78,
        "duration": 2.16
    },
    {
        "text": "that I might be inclined to\njust blindly type into the form",
        "start": 3158.94,
        "duration": 3.3
    },
    {
        "text": "my email address and then after\nthat probably my password.",
        "start": 3162.24,
        "duration": 3.99
    },
    {
        "text": "But it's important to begin to\ndevelop an intuition or a suspicion",
        "start": 3166.23,
        "duration": 4.14
    },
    {
        "text": "for when and when these sites\nmight not be legitimate.",
        "start": 3170.37,
        "duration": 4.32
    },
    {
        "text": "How might you do that?",
        "start": 3174.69,
        "duration": 1.15
    },
    {
        "text": "Well, you should minimally\nbe looking at the URL bar",
        "start": 3175.84,
        "duration": 2.57
    },
    {
        "text": "and making sure that it is\ngmail.com or probably google.com",
        "start": 3178.41,
        "duration": 5.19
    },
    {
        "text": "or whatever google dot\ncountry code, depending",
        "start": 3183.6,
        "duration": 2.61
    },
    {
        "text": "on where you live in the world,\nmaking sure that it looks legitimate",
        "start": 3186.21,
        "duration": 3.42
    },
    {
        "text": "and that you've actually\nbeen there before for.",
        "start": 3189.63,
        "duration": 2.16
    },
    {
        "text": "When you hover over links, you\ncan very commonly in your browser",
        "start": 3191.79,
        "duration": 3.21
    },
    {
        "text": "look at the bottom, left-hand corner\nor some corner of your screen.",
        "start": 3195.0,
        "duration": 3.46
    },
    {
        "text": "And you can see what URL a\nlink will actually take you to.",
        "start": 3198.46,
        "duration": 4.37
    },
    {
        "text": "Even though the words on the\nscreen might say something,",
        "start": 3202.83,
        "duration": 2.88
    },
    {
        "text": "the actual link might\ntake you somewhere else.",
        "start": 3205.71,
        "duration": 2.67
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, even then, it's hard sometimes\nto discern these kinds of things.",
        "start": 3208.38,
        "duration": 3.64
    },
    {
        "text": "But these are just best practices.",
        "start": 3212.02,
        "duration": 3.2
    },
    {
        "text": "You don't need to be so worried that\nyou don't go anywhere on the internet.",
        "start": 3215.22,
        "duration": 3.3
    },
    {
        "text": "But you should learn to keep an\neye out for these kinds of things.",
        "start": 3218.52,
        "duration": 2.89
    },
    {
        "text": "And in general, with phishing, rather\nthan trust any link in an email",
        "start": 3221.41,
        "duration": 3.87
    },
    {
        "text": "that you receive, especially\nwhen it's something",
        "start": 3225.28,
        "duration": 2.0
    },
    {
        "text": "private like a bank account,\nsomething medical, something personal,",
        "start": 3227.28,
        "duration": 3.66
    },
    {
        "text": "well, that's fine.",
        "start": 3230.94,
        "duration": 0.87
    },
    {
        "text": "Open a new tab and\nmanually go to paypal.com,",
        "start": 3231.81,
        "duration": 3.81
    },
    {
        "text": "Enter, or manually go\nto gmail.com, Enter.",
        "start": 3235.62,
        "duration": 3.21
    },
    {
        "text": "Don't just blindly trust these links.",
        "start": 3238.83,
        "duration": 2.01
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, here again, we see a trade\noff between usability and security.",
        "start": 3240.84,
        "duration": 3.73
    },
    {
        "text": "It's a little annoying if I\ncan't just click on a link",
        "start": 3244.57,
        "duration": 2.72
    },
    {
        "text": "and go to the place I want to go.",
        "start": 3247.29,
        "duration": 1.74
    },
    {
        "text": "You have to manually open the page,\ntype it in manually, and so forth.",
        "start": 3249.03,
        "duration": 3.86
    },
    {
        "text": "But again, it depends on what's\nnow more important to you,",
        "start": 3252.89,
        "duration": 2.57
    },
    {
        "text": "the usability of that service or the\nsecurity of your account therein.",
        "start": 3255.46,
        "duration": 6.45
    },
    {
        "text": "This is even more worrisome when\nit comes to two-step verification.",
        "start": 3261.91,
        "duration": 3.51
    },
    {
        "text": "And Google takes some liberties\nwith the wording here.",
        "start": 3265.42,
        "duration": 2.25
    },
    {
        "text": "This is usually best described\nas two-factor authentication.",
        "start": 3267.67,
        "duration": 3.45
    },
    {
        "text": "But again, the most\nsophisticated of adversaries,",
        "start": 3271.12,
        "duration": 2.67
    },
    {
        "text": "theoretically, if they\nsent you a phishing email,",
        "start": 3273.79,
        "duration": 3.48
    },
    {
        "text": "tricked you into a visiting a website\nthat looks like Gmail but is not Gmail.",
        "start": 3277.27,
        "duration": 4.29
    },
    {
        "text": "They could theoretically even prompt\nyou for a two-factor code like this.",
        "start": 3281.56,
        "duration": 4.98
    },
    {
        "text": "And then if they're smart\nand savvy enough with code,",
        "start": 3286.54,
        "duration": 2.4
    },
    {
        "text": "they could automatically now send\nyour username, your password,",
        "start": 3288.94,
        "duration": 3.3
    },
    {
        "text": "and a two-factor code maybe to the\nreal gmail.com, log into your account,",
        "start": 3292.24,
        "duration": 5.46
    },
    {
        "text": "change your password before you\neven get up and running therein.",
        "start": 3297.7,
        "duration": 4.087
    },
    {
        "text": "It's a more sophisticated\nthreat, and it's not something",
        "start": 3301.787,
        "duration": 2.333
    },
    {
        "text": "you need to worry about as much.",
        "start": 3304.12,
        "duration": 1.41
    },
    {
        "text": "But it's this principle of not just\ntrusting screens and requests that",
        "start": 3305.53,
        "duration": 5.07
    },
    {
        "text": "are presented in front of you.",
        "start": 3310.6,
        "duration": 1.41
    },
    {
        "text": "You should have this healthy skepticism\nand at least some technical savvy",
        "start": 3312.01,
        "duration": 3.36
    },
    {
        "text": "to know how you can decide\nfor yourself, yes, I",
        "start": 3315.37,
        "duration": 2.82
    },
    {
        "text": "am comfortable with\nproceeding with this step.",
        "start": 3318.19,
        "duration": 3.34
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, there's another type of attack,\ntoo, that's more sophisticated",
        "start": 3321.53,
        "duration": 3.41
    },
    {
        "text": "and not one you need to worry about as\nfrequently as some of the earlier ones.",
        "start": 3324.94,
        "duration": 4.0
    },
    {
        "text": "But they're generally known as\na machine-in-the-middle attack.",
        "start": 3328.94,
        "duration": 3.35
    },
    {
        "text": "Whereby, if you're on the internet,\nthere are, suffice it to say,",
        "start": 3332.29,
        "duration": 3.3
    },
    {
        "text": "many other machines on the internet,\nvery often, between you and whatever",
        "start": 3335.59,
        "duration": 4.5
    },
    {
        "text": "website or app you're visiting.",
        "start": 3340.09,
        "duration": 2.22
    },
    {
        "text": "Often those machines might\nbe things like routers,",
        "start": 3342.31,
        "duration": 2.88
    },
    {
        "text": "servers that internet service\nproviders companies, universities,",
        "start": 3345.19,
        "duration": 3.72
    },
    {
        "text": "maybe even your own\nhome owns and controls.",
        "start": 3348.91,
        "duration": 2.55
    },
    {
        "text": "But all of your data is\npassing through those machines",
        "start": 3351.46,
        "duration": 3.0
    },
    {
        "text": "in the middle, so to speak.",
        "start": 3354.46,
        "duration": 1.47
    },
    {
        "text": "If any of them are malicious\nand are maybe storing your data,",
        "start": 3355.93,
        "duration": 3.99
    },
    {
        "text": "looking at your data, it's\npossible that you might not",
        "start": 3359.92,
        "duration": 3.24
    },
    {
        "text": "be having secure communications\nwith the other end",
        "start": 3363.16,
        "duration": 2.88
    },
    {
        "text": "unless you are using certain defenses.",
        "start": 3366.04,
        "duration": 2.37
    },
    {
        "text": "And in our focus in this\nclass on data, we'll",
        "start": 3368.41,
        "duration": 2.4
    },
    {
        "text": "talk about cryptography and\nencryption and building blocks",
        "start": 3370.81,
        "duration": 3.65
    },
    {
        "text": "via which we can mitigate\nattacks like these.",
        "start": 3374.46,
        "duration": 2.22
    },
    {
        "text": "But it's worth knowing\nabout this general idea",
        "start": 3376.68,
        "duration": 2.13
    },
    {
        "text": "that even though it feels like\nit's only you and amazon.com,",
        "start": 3378.81,
        "duration": 3.96
    },
    {
        "text": "it's only you and paypal.com,\nit's only you and WhatsApp,",
        "start": 3382.77,
        "duration": 3.72
    },
    {
        "text": "there are many other\nmachines in the middle.",
        "start": 3386.49,
        "duration": 3.19
    },
    {
        "text": "And if you're not using\nthe best practices,",
        "start": 3389.68,
        "duration": 2.6
    },
    {
        "text": "and if you're not keeping an eye\nout for those things, suspicious",
        "start": 3392.28,
        "duration": 3.03
    },
    {
        "text": "those machines in the middle might\nactually be there to attack you,",
        "start": 3395.31,
        "duration": 3.81
    },
    {
        "text": "to take your data, to access your\naccounts or something more as well.",
        "start": 3399.12,
        "duration": 6.79
    },
    {
        "text": "So there's a lot of attacks out there.",
        "start": 3405.91,
        "duration": 2.288
    },
    {
        "text": "And at this point, you might\nbe feeling a bit defeated.",
        "start": 3408.198,
        "duration": 2.292
    },
    {
        "text": "But hopefully, we've presented at\nleast enough defenses thus far,",
        "start": 3410.49,
        "duration": 3.39
    },
    {
        "text": "and there are still a few more to come.",
        "start": 3413.88,
        "duration": 1.8
    },
    {
        "text": "But let's consider now kind of the\nsource of a lot of these problems.",
        "start": 3415.68,
        "duration": 3.75
    },
    {
        "text": "Unfortunately, it's you, and it's me.",
        "start": 3419.43,
        "duration": 2.85
    },
    {
        "text": "Like, the whole story here\ntoday started with you",
        "start": 3422.28,
        "duration": 2.76
    },
    {
        "text": "and I are not very good\nat choosing passwords.",
        "start": 3425.04,
        "duration": 2.1
    },
    {
        "text": "And we generally meet the minimal\nrequirements, not necessarily",
        "start": 3427.14,
        "duration": 3.72
    },
    {
        "text": "the best practices.",
        "start": 3430.86,
        "duration": 1.42
    },
    {
        "text": "But again, there's these\nsociological side effects",
        "start": 3432.28,
        "duration": 2.66
    },
    {
        "text": "of certain corporate policies\nor technical policies",
        "start": 3434.94,
        "duration": 3.51
    },
    {
        "text": "that do induce this trade off\nbetween security and usability.",
        "start": 3438.45,
        "duration": 3.69
    },
    {
        "text": "And it's one thing for me\nto preach here, so to speak,",
        "start": 3442.14,
        "duration": 3.28
    },
    {
        "text": "and say, yes, you should use long,\ncomplicated passwords that are really",
        "start": 3445.42,
        "duration": 3.8
    },
    {
        "text": "hard to guess with letters and digits\nand punctuation still, maybe even 64",
        "start": 3449.22,
        "duration": 5.97
    },
    {
        "text": "characters if you want to be really\nsecure, even if it's a longer phrase.",
        "start": 3455.19,
        "duration": 4.26
    },
    {
        "text": "But honestly, there are also these\npressures on me not doing that.",
        "start": 3459.45,
        "duration": 3.93
    },
    {
        "text": "It's annoying to type in 64 characters.",
        "start": 3463.38,
        "duration": 2.82
    },
    {
        "text": "It's annoying to type in eight\ncharacters if a lot of them",
        "start": 3466.2,
        "duration": 2.58
    },
    {
        "text": "require uppercase, lowercase,\npunctuation, and the like.",
        "start": 3468.78,
        "duration": 2.94
    },
    {
        "text": "And honestly, I have dozens, I have\nhundreds, maybe thousands of accounts",
        "start": 3471.72,
        "duration": 4.86
    },
    {
        "text": "nowadays on the internet that\nhave accumulated over time.",
        "start": 3476.58,
        "duration": 2.97
    },
    {
        "text": "What am I going to do if it just gets\ndifficult to remember these things?",
        "start": 3479.55,
        "duration": 3.33
    },
    {
        "text": "Well, like you yourself might in your\ncompany, you might walk by their desk",
        "start": 3482.88,
        "duration": 4.86
    },
    {
        "text": "and see on their monitor, the familiar\nyellow post-it note with one or more",
        "start": 3487.74,
        "duration": 4.1
    },
    {
        "text": "of their passwords actually on it.",
        "start": 3491.84,
        "duration": 1.44
    },
    {
        "text": "Maybe worse, you open their desk\ndrawer, and there's a whole printout",
        "start": 3493.28,
        "duration": 3.6
    },
    {
        "text": "of all of their username and passwords.",
        "start": 3496.88,
        "duration": 1.71
    },
    {
        "text": "Or even beyond that, maybe they actually\nhave a text file or an Excel file,",
        "start": 3498.59,
        "duration": 4.96
    },
    {
        "text": "a CSV file on their computer thinking,\nwell, at least it's all digital.",
        "start": 3503.55,
        "duration": 2.96
    },
    {
        "text": "But it's just sitting\nthere on their desktop.",
        "start": 3506.51,
        "duration": 2.43
    },
    {
        "text": "And worse maybe it's called\npasswords.txt or the like.",
        "start": 3508.94,
        "duration": 3.99
    },
    {
        "text": "But that's a very real\nside effect of having",
        "start": 3512.93,
        "duration": 2.4
    },
    {
        "text": "policies and technical constraints\nthat make it harder to use systems.",
        "start": 3515.33,
        "duration": 3.94
    },
    {
        "text": "So what are some other defenses\nthat either you can use",
        "start": 3519.27,
        "duration": 3.08
    },
    {
        "text": "or maybe companies can use or\noffer to make things better?",
        "start": 3522.35,
        "duration": 3.31
    },
    {
        "text": "Well, a solution to\nsome of these problems",
        "start": 3525.66,
        "duration": 2.33
    },
    {
        "text": "might be this, Single Sign On, or SSO.",
        "start": 3527.99,
        "duration": 3.0
    },
    {
        "text": "So single sign on refers to\nan ability to sign up for,",
        "start": 3530.99,
        "duration": 4.08
    },
    {
        "text": "to log in to one's website using\nan account that you already",
        "start": 3535.07,
        "duration": 4.23
    },
    {
        "text": "have on another website.",
        "start": 3539.3,
        "duration": 1.59
    },
    {
        "text": "And very often the account that\nyou use is one of the big ones,",
        "start": 3540.89,
        "duration": 3.13
    },
    {
        "text": "one of the popular websites\nor applications out there.",
        "start": 3544.02,
        "duration": 2.61
    },
    {
        "text": "So for instance, if you log in\nto this representative website",
        "start": 3546.63,
        "duration": 3.23
    },
    {
        "text": "here, what you might see\nis, yes, a form field",
        "start": 3549.86,
        "duration": 3.07
    },
    {
        "text": "via which you can type in your own email\naddress and your password to log in.",
        "start": 3552.93,
        "duration": 3.93
    },
    {
        "text": "Or if you prefer, you can\njust log in with Google,",
        "start": 3556.86,
        "duration": 3.21
    },
    {
        "text": "or you can just log in with\nFacebook, or you can just",
        "start": 3560.07,
        "duration": 2.28
    },
    {
        "text": "log in with any number of other services\nif this website or application supports",
        "start": 3562.35,
        "duration": 4.33
    },
    {
        "text": "it.",
        "start": 3566.68,
        "duration": 0.5
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, what's the motivation here?",
        "start": 3567.18,
        "duration": 1.54
    },
    {
        "text": "Well, one, it's still\nbackwards compatible,",
        "start": 3568.72,
        "duration": 2.7
    },
    {
        "text": "so to speak, with the very\nfamiliar approach of just let",
        "start": 3571.42,
        "duration": 2.9
    },
    {
        "text": "me register with my own email address.",
        "start": 3574.32,
        "duration": 1.92
    },
    {
        "text": "Let me come up with\nmy own password and be",
        "start": 3576.24,
        "duration": 1.95
    },
    {
        "text": "done with it, especially if I don't\nuse Google or Facebook as a customer.",
        "start": 3578.19,
        "duration": 4.29
    },
    {
        "text": "But the upside of offering\nthese solutions, especially",
        "start": 3582.48,
        "duration": 2.88
    },
    {
        "text": "for popular websites like\nGoogle and Facebook and others,",
        "start": 3585.36,
        "duration": 3.63
    },
    {
        "text": "is that if I already have an\naccount with Google or Facebook,",
        "start": 3588.99,
        "duration": 4.05
    },
    {
        "text": "and hopefully I already have\na good password for both",
        "start": 3593.04,
        "duration": 3.098
    },
    {
        "text": "of those because those\nare important to me,",
        "start": 3596.138,
        "duration": 1.792
    },
    {
        "text": "and better yet, I ideally have\ntwo-factor authentication enabled",
        "start": 3597.93,
        "duration": 3.78
    },
    {
        "text": "on one or both of those, because again\nthey're important accounts to me,",
        "start": 3601.71,
        "duration": 3.75
    },
    {
        "text": "wouldn't it be nice for this\nnew website to let me, one,",
        "start": 3605.46,
        "duration": 3.63
    },
    {
        "text": "just log in with my\nexisting account so that I",
        "start": 3609.09,
        "duration": 2.76
    },
    {
        "text": "don't have to waste time signing up\nfor yet another internet account?",
        "start": 3611.85,
        "duration": 3.45
    },
    {
        "text": "Two, I don't have to remember\na new password that's",
        "start": 3615.3,
        "duration": 3.36
    },
    {
        "text": "going to be difficult to\nremember and so forth.",
        "start": 3618.66,
        "duration": 2.08
    },
    {
        "text": "And so it decreases friction.",
        "start": 3620.74,
        "duration": 2.09
    },
    {
        "text": "It increases usability of the system.",
        "start": 3622.83,
        "duration": 2.52
    },
    {
        "text": "And ideally, it increases the security\nof the system in this case as well.",
        "start": 3625.35,
        "duration": 4.33
    },
    {
        "text": "Why?",
        "start": 3629.68,
        "duration": 0.5
    },
    {
        "text": "Because if you're doing a good\njob protecting at least these most",
        "start": 3630.18,
        "duration": 3.24
    },
    {
        "text": "important personal\naccounts, then this website",
        "start": 3633.42,
        "duration": 2.73
    },
    {
        "text": "stands to benefit from those\nsame best practices on your part.",
        "start": 3636.15,
        "duration": 3.75
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, what is actually happening here?",
        "start": 3639.9,
        "duration": 1.8
    },
    {
        "text": "When you click Log in with\nGoogle, Log in with Facebook,",
        "start": 3641.7,
        "duration": 2.67
    },
    {
        "text": "you should see the Google login\nscreen or the Facebook login screen",
        "start": 3644.37,
        "duration": 4.29
    },
    {
        "text": "respectively.",
        "start": 3648.66,
        "duration": 0.72
    },
    {
        "text": "You should literally be redirected\nin your browser to google.com",
        "start": 3649.38,
        "duration": 3.99
    },
    {
        "text": "or facebook.com or one of their\ninternational domain names instead.",
        "start": 3653.37,
        "duration": 4.77
    },
    {
        "text": "There, you'll type in your\nsame username and password",
        "start": 3658.14,
        "duration": 3.09
    },
    {
        "text": "as usual for Google or Facebook.",
        "start": 3661.23,
        "duration": 1.74
    },
    {
        "text": "But that password is not given to this\nnew website or this third-party website",
        "start": 3662.97,
        "duration": 6.06
    },
    {
        "text": "you're visiting, rather\nusing a technique",
        "start": 3669.03,
        "duration": 2.25
    },
    {
        "text": "known as cryptography and encryption\nand some fancy math, essentially.",
        "start": 3671.28,
        "duration": 4.05
    },
    {
        "text": "The username with which\nyou log in is sent back",
        "start": 3675.33,
        "duration": 4.35
    },
    {
        "text": "to this third-party website,\nbut not your password, just",
        "start": 3679.68,
        "duration": 3.36
    },
    {
        "text": "a confirmation that yes, David's\nsuccessfully logged into Google,",
        "start": 3683.04,
        "duration": 3.69
    },
    {
        "text": "or David successfully\nlogged into Facebook.",
        "start": 3686.73,
        "duration": 2.1
    },
    {
        "text": "Therefore you can trust that his\nusername is malan@harvard.edu,",
        "start": 3688.83,
        "duration": 5.1
    },
    {
        "text": "or whatever it is I typed\nin, to log in there.",
        "start": 3693.93,
        "duration": 3.55
    },
    {
        "text": "So using single sign on\nbenefits not only you",
        "start": 3697.48,
        "duration": 3.44
    },
    {
        "text": "potentially but also the\nwebsite or application",
        "start": 3700.92,
        "duration": 2.7
    },
    {
        "text": "by making it easier for you to register\nand/or log in subsequently as well.",
        "start": 3703.62,
        "duration": 6.07
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, where does this\nleave us ultimately?",
        "start": 3709.69,
        "duration": 2.81
    },
    {
        "text": "Some of you might already\nbe thinking, well,",
        "start": 3712.5,
        "duration": 1.93
    },
    {
        "text": "what about using a password manager?",
        "start": 3714.43,
        "duration": 1.76
    },
    {
        "text": "And some of you might be thinking,\nwhat is a password manager?",
        "start": 3716.19,
        "duration": 2.67
    },
    {
        "text": "So let's emphasize this\none perhaps the most.",
        "start": 3718.86,
        "duration": 2.73
    },
    {
        "text": "Increasingly, best practice\nis to use a piece of software",
        "start": 3721.59,
        "duration": 5.01
    },
    {
        "text": "that manages your passwords for you.",
        "start": 3726.6,
        "duration": 2.332
    },
    {
        "text": "Thankfully, there's going to be\nan even better solution than this",
        "start": 3728.932,
        "duration": 2.708
    },
    {
        "text": "on the horizon.",
        "start": 3731.64,
        "duration": 1.03
    },
    {
        "text": "But for now, minimally, if you're\nnot using a password manager,",
        "start": 3732.67,
        "duration": 3.72
    },
    {
        "text": "you probably should be.",
        "start": 3736.39,
        "duration": 1.46
    },
    {
        "text": "If you're using the same password\non multiple sites or applications,",
        "start": 3737.85,
        "duration": 3.57
    },
    {
        "text": "and thus you're vulnerable\nto credential stuffing,",
        "start": 3741.42,
        "duration": 2.49
    },
    {
        "text": "you should probably be\nusing a password manager",
        "start": 3743.91,
        "duration": 2.22
    },
    {
        "text": "instead so that you can\nchange all of those accounts",
        "start": 3746.13,
        "duration": 2.46
    },
    {
        "text": "to have unique passwords.",
        "start": 3748.59,
        "duration": 1.59
    },
    {
        "text": "But this piece of software\nknown as a password manager",
        "start": 3750.18,
        "duration": 2.67
    },
    {
        "text": "can remember those passwords for you.",
        "start": 3752.85,
        "duration": 2.79
    },
    {
        "text": "If you are in the habit of choosing\nvery easy passwords because it's",
        "start": 3755.64,
        "duration": 3.6
    },
    {
        "text": "just better for you to\nremember, you should probably",
        "start": 3759.24,
        "duration": 2.31
    },
    {
        "text": "start using a password manager because\nbeyond remembering your passwords,",
        "start": 3761.55,
        "duration": 3.66
    },
    {
        "text": "these password managers also make\nit easy to generate new passwords.",
        "start": 3765.21,
        "duration": 4.05
    },
    {
        "text": "You click a button,\nand essentially it will",
        "start": 3769.26,
        "duration": 1.98
    },
    {
        "text": "generate a password that's\nhowever short or long that you",
        "start": 3771.24,
        "duration": 2.79
    },
    {
        "text": "want with some uppercase,\nlowercase, symbols, numbers,",
        "start": 3774.03,
        "duration": 3.27
    },
    {
        "text": "whatever it is a website requires.",
        "start": 3777.3,
        "duration": 1.98
    },
    {
        "text": "It will just generate it for you.",
        "start": 3779.28,
        "duration": 1.95
    },
    {
        "text": "And better yet, it will then save\nthat generated password for you.",
        "start": 3781.23,
        "duration": 3.85
    },
    {
        "text": "So you the human do not\nneed to memorize it,",
        "start": 3785.08,
        "duration": 1.867
    },
    {
        "text": "and you the human certainly\ndon't need to write it",
        "start": 3786.947,
        "duration": 2.083
    },
    {
        "text": "down on a post-it note or any\nthe other file somewhere else.",
        "start": 3789.03,
        "duration": 3.66
    },
    {
        "text": "So password managers\nliterally do just that.",
        "start": 3792.69,
        "duration": 2.54
    },
    {
        "text": "And they have even more\nfeatures than that.",
        "start": 3795.23,
        "duration": 2.25
    },
    {
        "text": "Generally, if you're\nusing a password manager",
        "start": 3797.48,
        "duration": 2.4
    },
    {
        "text": "and you go visit a website for\nthe second time or the third time,",
        "start": 3799.88,
        "duration": 3.84
    },
    {
        "text": "you can typically hit an\nautomatic keystroke that",
        "start": 3803.72,
        "duration": 3.39
    },
    {
        "text": "will just automatically log you in.",
        "start": 3807.11,
        "duration": 1.6
    },
    {
        "text": "It will fill in your\nusername and your password.",
        "start": 3808.71,
        "duration": 2.0
    },
    {
        "text": "But better yet, it will\nonly do so if you're",
        "start": 3810.71,
        "duration": 3.75
    },
    {
        "text": "on the real gmail.com or the real\nfacebook.com or the real paypal.com.",
        "start": 3814.46,
        "duration": 6.12
    },
    {
        "text": "These password managers also remember\nthe URL at which you created or last",
        "start": 3820.58,
        "duration": 5.46
    },
    {
        "text": "used that username and password\nso that if you are somehow subject",
        "start": 3826.04,
        "duration": 3.96
    },
    {
        "text": "to a phishing attack-- you've been\ntricked into clicking a link and going",
        "start": 3830.0,
        "duration": 3.725
    },
    {
        "text": "to a website that looks like\nGoogle looks, like Facebook,",
        "start": 3833.725,
        "duration": 2.375
    },
    {
        "text": "but actually isn't-- the password\nmanager will ignore your keystrokes",
        "start": 3836.1,
        "duration": 4.43
    },
    {
        "text": "and not actually log you in, pasting\ninto that form your actual username",
        "start": 3840.53,
        "duration": 4.92
    },
    {
        "text": "and password because it doesn't\nrecognize that same URL.",
        "start": 3845.45,
        "duration": 3.36
    },
    {
        "text": "So there are a lot of upsides\nof these password managers.",
        "start": 3848.81,
        "duration": 3.54
    },
    {
        "text": "The one catch is that the onus is on you\nto remember one primary password that",
        "start": 3852.35,
        "duration": 8.01
    },
    {
        "text": "protects your password manager itself.",
        "start": 3860.36,
        "duration": 2.97
    },
    {
        "text": "That is to say, if this is\na piece of software that",
        "start": 3863.33,
        "duration": 2.28
    },
    {
        "text": "stores all of the dozens, hundreds,\nthousands of usernames and passwords",
        "start": 3865.61,
        "duration": 4.74
    },
    {
        "text": "that you have, you are putting\nproverbially all of your eggs",
        "start": 3870.35,
        "duration": 3.66
    },
    {
        "text": "in one basket, so to speak.",
        "start": 3874.01,
        "duration": 2.04
    },
    {
        "text": "That is you want to protect this\npassword manager with probably the best",
        "start": 3876.05,
        "duration": 4.98
    },
    {
        "text": "password you've ever come up with.",
        "start": 3881.03,
        "duration": 2.28
    },
    {
        "text": "This should probably be long.",
        "start": 3883.31,
        "duration": 1.77
    },
    {
        "text": "It should have some complexity.",
        "start": 3885.08,
        "duration": 2.04
    },
    {
        "text": "It should be a little\nannoying perhaps to type",
        "start": 3887.12,
        "duration": 2.28
    },
    {
        "text": "in because you don't want an\nadversary to get in and get access",
        "start": 3889.4,
        "duration": 3.69
    },
    {
        "text": "to everything else.",
        "start": 3893.09,
        "duration": 1.17
    },
    {
        "text": "But it's just one\npassword that we're really",
        "start": 3894.26,
        "duration": 2.55
    },
    {
        "text": "asking you to pick really\nwell and reasonably long",
        "start": 3896.81,
        "duration": 3.72
    },
    {
        "text": "so that you're protecting\neverything else.",
        "start": 3900.53,
        "duration": 3.18
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, these password managers\nare a little different",
        "start": 3903.71,
        "duration": 3.24
    },
    {
        "text": "than what you're probably\nfamiliar with in your own browser.",
        "start": 3906.95,
        "duration": 2.73
    },
    {
        "text": "It's been common for years for browsers\nto remember your username and password",
        "start": 3909.68,
        "duration": 4.2
    },
    {
        "text": "by just showing you, like, bullets\nlike, dot, dot, dot, in the form field.",
        "start": 3913.88,
        "duration": 3.22
    },
    {
        "text": "So you can just hit Enter.",
        "start": 3917.1,
        "duration": 1.13
    },
    {
        "text": "That's fine.",
        "start": 3918.23,
        "duration": 0.96
    },
    {
        "text": "But that information is often\nassociated only with that one browser.",
        "start": 3919.19,
        "duration": 4.17
    },
    {
        "text": "It doesn't propagate to your phone or\nanother device that you're logged into.",
        "start": 3923.36,
        "duration": 4.26
    },
    {
        "text": "It's not easy to share\nit with someone else",
        "start": 3927.62,
        "duration": 1.828
    },
    {
        "text": "if you have a family account, for\ninstance, or something like that.",
        "start": 3929.448,
        "duration": 2.792
    },
    {
        "text": "So password managers often offer\nadditional features beyond that",
        "start": 3932.24,
        "duration": 4.62
    },
    {
        "text": "and really protect all of\nthe things that you're using,",
        "start": 3936.86,
        "duration": 2.94
    },
    {
        "text": "and also help you generate\nthose same passwords.",
        "start": 3939.8,
        "duration": 2.46
    },
    {
        "text": "Fortunately, thankfully nowadays,\nthese are increasingly standard.",
        "start": 3942.26,
        "duration": 4.38
    },
    {
        "text": "There are third-party options that\nyou can find online or even purchase.",
        "start": 3946.64,
        "duration": 4.75
    },
    {
        "text": "But they're increasingly built into\nour own operating systems, which",
        "start": 3951.39,
        "duration": 3.38
    },
    {
        "text": "if I had to choose, especially\nfor a less-technical audience,",
        "start": 3954.77,
        "duration": 2.76
    },
    {
        "text": "using what comes with your computer\nfrom the major manufacturers",
        "start": 3957.53,
        "duration": 3.51
    },
    {
        "text": "is probably a good thing\nas opposed to going",
        "start": 3961.04,
        "duration": 3.21
    },
    {
        "text": "third party unless third parties\noffer you additional features",
        "start": 3964.25,
        "duration": 3.12
    },
    {
        "text": "that might be especially beneficial\nin companies and families or the like.",
        "start": 3967.37,
        "duration": 3.67
    },
    {
        "text": "So Apple has what they call their iCloud\nKeychain via which you can not only",
        "start": 3971.04,
        "duration": 4.25
    },
    {
        "text": "save passwords on one device,\nthey can propagate securely",
        "start": 3975.29,
        "duration": 4.02
    },
    {
        "text": "to your other device, like your phone.",
        "start": 3979.31,
        "duration": 2.13
    },
    {
        "text": "Google has its password manager.",
        "start": 3981.44,
        "duration": 1.83
    },
    {
        "text": "Microsoft has its credential manager.",
        "start": 3983.27,
        "duration": 2.01
    },
    {
        "text": "And there's certainly\nother options as well.",
        "start": 3985.28,
        "duration": 2.26
    },
    {
        "text": "The takeaway for today,\nthough, should be",
        "start": 3987.54,
        "duration": 2.0
    },
    {
        "text": "that if you're not using\na password manager,",
        "start": 3989.54,
        "duration": 2.76
    },
    {
        "text": "it's probably time to start doing so, at\nleast for your most important accounts,",
        "start": 3992.3,
        "duration": 4.8
    },
    {
        "text": "maybe things that are particularly\npersonal, medical, financial, anything",
        "start": 3997.1,
        "duration": 4.44
    },
    {
        "text": "where you or your family would really\nbe upset if that account were somehow",
        "start": 4001.54,
        "duration": 3.84
    },
    {
        "text": "compromised.",
        "start": 4005.38,
        "duration": 0.78
    },
    {
        "text": "At least figure out how to start\nmigrating those kinds of accounts",
        "start": 4006.16,
        "duration": 3.51
    },
    {
        "text": "to a password manager and also enable\nsome of our other best practices,",
        "start": 4009.67,
        "duration": 4.08
    },
    {
        "text": "like two-factor authentication.",
        "start": 4013.75,
        "duration": 1.68
    },
    {
        "text": "Better yet, don't just enable\ntwo-factor authentication.",
        "start": 4015.43,
        "duration": 2.46
    },
    {
        "text": "Don't use SMS if you can.",
        "start": 4017.89,
        "duration": 1.98
    },
    {
        "text": "Instead use like a native application\non your phone or even a physical key fob",
        "start": 4019.87,
        "duration": 4.71
    },
    {
        "text": "just to decrease the\nprobability of those threats.",
        "start": 4024.58,
        "duration": 2.367
    },
    {
        "text": "And I would encourage\nyou, too, because it's",
        "start": 4026.947,
        "duration": 1.833
    },
    {
        "text": "one thing to sit in on a class\nlike this and be like, oh, yeah,",
        "start": 4028.78,
        "duration": 2.625
    },
    {
        "text": "I should do that.",
        "start": 4031.405,
        "duration": 0.735
    },
    {
        "text": "But then it just feels like so much\nwork to go and change all hundreds",
        "start": 4032.14,
        "duration": 4.2
    },
    {
        "text": "or thousands of my accounts.",
        "start": 4036.34,
        "duration": 1.59
    },
    {
        "text": "Again, take baby steps.",
        "start": 4037.93,
        "duration": 1.38
    },
    {
        "text": "Bite off the easiest, most\nimportant accounts first.",
        "start": 4039.31,
        "duration": 3.27
    },
    {
        "text": "And over time, the next time you\nlog in to that other website,",
        "start": 4042.58,
        "duration": 4.08
    },
    {
        "text": "OK, go ahead and change the\npassword to something better,",
        "start": 4046.66,
        "duration": 2.46
    },
    {
        "text": "put it in the password\nmanager, and be done with it.",
        "start": 4049.12,
        "duration": 2.28
    },
    {
        "text": "The next time you go to another\nwebsite, do it that one.",
        "start": 4051.4,
        "duration": 2.52
    },
    {
        "text": "You can do these things incrementally\nbecause, again, with this advice,",
        "start": 4053.92,
        "duration": 3.45
    },
    {
        "text": "I'm just trying to help you personally\nstrike this balance between usability",
        "start": 4057.37,
        "duration": 4.02
    },
    {
        "text": "and security because\nif your takeaway is I",
        "start": 4061.39,
        "duration": 2.34
    },
    {
        "text": "have to go change 1,000\npasswords tonight,",
        "start": 4063.73,
        "duration": 2.34
    },
    {
        "text": "you might not realistically do it.",
        "start": 4066.07,
        "duration": 1.98
    },
    {
        "text": "So better would be to change\na few of them and chip",
        "start": 4068.05,
        "duration": 2.64
    },
    {
        "text": "away at this problem over time.",
        "start": 4070.69,
        "duration": 2.86
    },
    {
        "text": "Let me pause here and see\nif there are any questions.",
        "start": 4073.55,
        "duration": 3.56
    },
    {
        "text": "AUDIENCE: If a password\nmanager tool is so helpful, so",
        "start": 4077.11,
        "duration": 3.3
    },
    {
        "text": "why we are using antivirus for websites?",
        "start": 4080.41,
        "duration": 3.69
    },
    {
        "text": "DAVID MALAN: Oh, so you should certainly\nbe using antivirus for other reasons",
        "start": 4084.1,
        "duration": 3.565
    },
    {
        "text": "that we'll talk about in another class.",
        "start": 4087.665,
        "duration": 1.625
    },
    {
        "text": "Viruses, worms, and malware can\ndo any number of bad things,",
        "start": 4089.29,
        "duration": 3.94
    },
    {
        "text": "including encrypting your\ndata, deleting your data,",
        "start": 4093.23,
        "duration": 2.81
    },
    {
        "text": "sending spam from your computer.",
        "start": 4096.04,
        "duration": 1.47
    },
    {
        "text": "There's many reasons you\nwant to run it instead.",
        "start": 4097.51,
        "duration": 2.25
    },
    {
        "text": "However, if you have malware,\nlike a virus on your computer,",
        "start": 4099.76,
        "duration": 3.51
    },
    {
        "text": "and it's logging all of your\nkeystrokes, theoretically you",
        "start": 4103.27,
        "duration": 3.57
    },
    {
        "text": "could still be vulnerable\nto attack if they are also",
        "start": 4106.84,
        "duration": 4.26
    },
    {
        "text": "logging your two-factor\ncode maybe because you",
        "start": 4111.1,
        "duration": 3.27
    },
    {
        "text": "get distracted you don't hit Enter\nfast enough, and they can use that too.",
        "start": 4114.37,
        "duration": 3.239
    },
    {
        "text": "It's a lower probability threat.",
        "start": 4117.609,
        "duration": 2.79
    },
    {
        "text": "It's a theoretical one.",
        "start": 4120.399,
        "duration": 1.531
    },
    {
        "text": "But also in the interest\nof best practices,",
        "start": 4121.93,
        "duration": 1.797
    },
    {
        "text": "you don't want any\nsoftware on your computer",
        "start": 4123.727,
        "duration": 1.833
    },
    {
        "text": "that could be doing bad things anyway.",
        "start": 4125.56,
        "duration": 1.65
    },
    {
        "text": "You just want to raise the bar as\nmuch as you can to these adversaries",
        "start": 4127.21,
        "duration": 3.18
    },
    {
        "text": "without making your\nown accounts unusable.",
        "start": 4130.39,
        "duration": 3.66
    },
    {
        "text": "Another question.",
        "start": 4134.05,
        "duration": 0.887
    },
    {
        "text": "AUDIENCE: Oh, yeah.",
        "start": 4134.937,
        "duration": 0.792
    },
    {
        "text": "I had a question about social\nengineering, if that's fine.",
        "start": 4135.729,
        "duration": 2.46
    },
    {
        "text": "And we know that the rise\nof the AI technology, now AI",
        "start": 4138.189,
        "duration": 4.771
    },
    {
        "text": "can record your voice and sample it.",
        "start": 4142.96,
        "duration": 2.319
    },
    {
        "text": "And that could be a real\nthreat in social engineering",
        "start": 4145.279,
        "duration": 3.171
    },
    {
        "text": "because now someone can\nmimic your boss and call you",
        "start": 4148.45,
        "duration": 2.86
    },
    {
        "text": "or someone can mimic your\nvoice and call your bank.",
        "start": 4151.31,
        "duration": 2.46
    },
    {
        "text": "So is there a way to combat this?",
        "start": 4153.77,
        "duration": 1.68
    },
    {
        "text": "Or is there any technology to\nprevent this from happening?",
        "start": 4155.45,
        "duration": 3.079
    },
    {
        "text": "DAVID MALAN: That's a really\ngood question and another piece",
        "start": 4158.529,
        "duration": 2.5
    },
    {
        "text": "of advice I should reflect back.",
        "start": 4161.029,
        "duration": 1.531
    },
    {
        "text": "If on any of your accounts,\nparticularly bank accounts,",
        "start": 4162.56,
        "duration": 2.85
    },
    {
        "text": "you are using voice\nrecognition technology, whereby",
        "start": 4165.41,
        "duration": 3.36
    },
    {
        "text": "when you set up the\naccount, you were prompted",
        "start": 4168.77,
        "duration": 2.04
    },
    {
        "text": "to say a phrase into the phone,\nfor instance, to evoke an old movie",
        "start": 4170.81,
        "duration": 3.839
    },
    {
        "text": "called Sneakers-- my voice\nis my password-- you should",
        "start": 4174.649,
        "duration": 3.391
    },
    {
        "text": "disable those features\nand stop using them,",
        "start": 4178.04,
        "duration": 2.67
    },
    {
        "text": "assuming there's an alternative, like\ntwo-factor authentication, whereby",
        "start": 4180.71,
        "duration": 4.649
    },
    {
        "text": "they send you a push notification\nto an app or the like.",
        "start": 4185.359,
        "duration": 3.151
    },
    {
        "text": "Reason being, exactly that, is you've\nprobably seen in this age of AI,",
        "start": 4188.51,
        "duration": 4.019
    },
    {
        "text": "there are technologies called deepfakes\nwhereby you can generate video,",
        "start": 4192.529,
        "duration": 4.151
    },
    {
        "text": "but also audio of people.",
        "start": 4196.68,
        "duration": 1.7
    },
    {
        "text": "This is very commonly done for\ncelebrities, for politicians,",
        "start": 4198.38,
        "duration": 3.18
    },
    {
        "text": "and voices that you see\na lot on the internet.",
        "start": 4201.56,
        "duration": 2.16
    },
    {
        "text": "But it would not be that hard if someone\nhas access to voice recordings of you",
        "start": 4203.72,
        "duration": 4.62
    },
    {
        "text": "to use some software\nor some app to generate",
        "start": 4208.34,
        "duration": 3.57
    },
    {
        "text": "saying, my voice is my password,\neven though you might not",
        "start": 4211.91,
        "duration": 4.35
    },
    {
        "text": "have said that since the\ntime you set up the account.",
        "start": 4216.26,
        "duration": 3.25
    },
    {
        "text": "And so your accounts,\ntoo, might be compromised.",
        "start": 4219.51,
        "duration": 2.07
    },
    {
        "text": "So my own advice there would be don't\nuse voice-based recognition anymore,",
        "start": 4221.58,
        "duration": 5.51
    },
    {
        "text": "if there's a better\nalternative available.",
        "start": 4227.09,
        "duration": 4.14
    },
    {
        "text": "Other questions?",
        "start": 4231.23,
        "duration": 1.62
    },
    {
        "text": "AUDIENCE: Doesn't having\none password manager,",
        "start": 4232.85,
        "duration": 2.91
    },
    {
        "text": "so figuratively keeping\nall your keys in one safe,",
        "start": 4235.76,
        "duration": 4.56
    },
    {
        "text": "defeat the purpose of\nhaving different passwords?",
        "start": 4240.32,
        "duration": 2.94
    },
    {
        "text": "Because if you lose that one key\nto your key safe, all is gone.",
        "start": 4243.26,
        "duration": 6.38
    },
    {
        "text": "DAVID MALAN: It's a\nreally good intuition,",
        "start": 4249.64,
        "duration": 1.75
    },
    {
        "text": "and that's exactly the\ntrade off to think about.",
        "start": 4251.39,
        "duration": 2.46
    },
    {
        "text": "I would consider in\ndeciding for yourself,",
        "start": 4253.85,
        "duration": 2.22
    },
    {
        "text": "if you want to take that\nadvice, what the alternative is.",
        "start": 4256.07,
        "duration": 3.0
    },
    {
        "text": "Because if you're using pretty\neasy-to-guess passwords everywhere,",
        "start": 4259.07,
        "duration": 4.02
    },
    {
        "text": "this is probably a net positive to\nmove to a password manager instead.",
        "start": 4263.09,
        "duration": 3.6
    },
    {
        "text": "If you're reusing the same password\non a lot of websites and apps,",
        "start": 4266.69,
        "duration": 3.36
    },
    {
        "text": "this is probably a net positive to\nswitch to a password manager instead.",
        "start": 4270.05,
        "duration": 5.1
    },
    {
        "text": "If, however, though, you've actually\nbeen a very good internet citizen,",
        "start": 4275.15,
        "duration": 3.9
    },
    {
        "text": "and you've been choosing\nhard-to-guess, unique passwords",
        "start": 4279.05,
        "duration": 3.135
    },
    {
        "text": "for all different sites-- they're\nnot written down on a post-it",
        "start": 4282.185,
        "duration": 2.625
    },
    {
        "text": "or easily accessible-- then\nthis might be a net negative",
        "start": 4284.81,
        "duration": 2.85
    },
    {
        "text": "for you to put all of those\neggs, so to speak, in one basket,",
        "start": 4287.66,
        "duration": 2.7
    },
    {
        "text": "thereby making them more vulnerable.",
        "start": 4290.36,
        "duration": 3.12
    },
    {
        "text": "From experience and from\nthe head nods and admissions",
        "start": 4293.48,
        "duration": 3.06
    },
    {
        "text": "that we get from\nstudents over the years,",
        "start": 4296.54,
        "duration": 1.78
    },
    {
        "text": "I guess that most of\nus in this room would",
        "start": 4298.32,
        "duration": 2.81
    },
    {
        "text": "benefit as a net positive\nfrom a password manager.",
        "start": 4301.13,
        "duration": 2.85
    },
    {
        "text": "But there, too, you should\ndecide for yourself.",
        "start": 4303.98,
        "duration": 2.322
    },
    {
        "text": "And again, one of our lessons\nfor today is don't just",
        "start": 4306.302,
        "duration": 2.208
    },
    {
        "text": "believe something some guy\non the internet told you.",
        "start": 4308.51,
        "duration": 2.64
    },
    {
        "text": "Decide for yourself based on these trade\noffs, these upsides and. downsides.",
        "start": 4311.15,
        "duration": 4.74
    },
    {
        "text": "Now, password managers\nare not all upside.",
        "start": 4315.89,
        "duration": 2.94
    },
    {
        "text": "Indeed, if you lose or\nforget that primary password,",
        "start": 4318.83,
        "duration": 3.9
    },
    {
        "text": "you might lose access to\nall of your other accounts.",
        "start": 4322.73,
        "duration": 3.15
    },
    {
        "text": "Fortunately, there is\nan alternative that's",
        "start": 4325.88,
        "duration": 2.13
    },
    {
        "text": "increasingly available on websites\nand apps known as passkeys.",
        "start": 4328.01,
        "duration": 3.63
    },
    {
        "text": "And what's nice about passkeys\nis that moving forward,",
        "start": 4331.64,
        "duration": 2.87
    },
    {
        "text": "it will be your Mac,\nyour PC, or your phone",
        "start": 4334.51,
        "duration": 2.45
    },
    {
        "text": "that generates a passkey\nfor a new website",
        "start": 4336.96,
        "duration": 2.79
    },
    {
        "text": "or app for which you're registering.",
        "start": 4339.75,
        "duration": 1.62
    },
    {
        "text": "You yourself don't have to\nremember what that passkey is,",
        "start": 4341.37,
        "duration": 2.91
    },
    {
        "text": "and indeed it isn't even just one value.",
        "start": 4344.28,
        "duration": 2.01
    },
    {
        "text": "Rather it's a pair of values, a\nprivate value and a public value,",
        "start": 4346.29,
        "duration": 3.93
    },
    {
        "text": "that have a mathematical\nrelationship between the two.",
        "start": 4350.22,
        "duration": 3.0
    },
    {
        "text": "And those two values are used.",
        "start": 4353.22,
        "duration": 2.2
    },
    {
        "text": "The next time you try to access that\nwebsite or application, your Mac,",
        "start": 4355.42,
        "duration": 3.75
    },
    {
        "text": "your PC, or your phone will use those\nvalues to automatically authenticate",
        "start": 4359.17,
        "duration": 3.89
    },
    {
        "text": "you thereafter.",
        "start": 4363.06,
        "duration": 0.81
    },
    {
        "text": "And better yet those\nvalues are synchronized",
        "start": 4363.87,
        "duration": 2.07
    },
    {
        "text": "as needed across your devices so\nthat you can use your Mac and your PC",
        "start": 4365.94,
        "duration": 3.96
    },
    {
        "text": "and your phone or any other\nsuch devices to authenticate.",
        "start": 4369.9,
        "duration": 3.06
    },
    {
        "text": "But to better understand\nthese passkeys, we'll",
        "start": 4372.96,
        "duration": 2.22
    },
    {
        "text": "need to know a little something\nabout the world of cryptography.",
        "start": 4375.18,
        "duration": 3.52
    },
    {
        "text": "And so for that, we'll wait for our\ndiscussion of securing your data.",
        "start": 4378.7,
        "duration": 3.72
    },
    {
        "text": "So more on that next time.",
        "start": 4382.42,
        "duration": 3.19
    }
]