As far as I understand, among the constructions

  1. ( _て-form verb_ ),
  2. ( _て-form verb_ )いる,
  3. ( _finite verb_ )こと,
  4. ( _finite verb_ )の,
  5. ( _verb phrase_ )と,
  6. ( _finite verb_ )もの

the form (2) unambiguously functions as a finite verb (denotes [a progressive,
a perfective or an
intention](https://japanese.stackexchange.com/q/13809/5168), can accept
arguments like a normal verb), (3) and (4) unambiguously function as nouns
(verbal nouns with [subtly different
meanings](https://japanese.stackexchange.com/a/1396/5168), can accept
arguments as a normal verb).

My question is about the remaining ones: (1), (5), and (6). Basically, what
_are_ they, from a language-neutral perspective? From the outside, do they
look like adjectives (participle? although seemingly any finite Japanese verb
can qualify a noun as is), adverbs (transgressive), nouns (verbal noun),
special non-finite verb forms of some sort (if so, what do they express?). Or
should I just give up and say they only make sense as a part of set
constructions?

The て form (1) seems to accept arguments like a normal verb and participates
in a dizzying variety of constructions [～ても concessive, ～て下さる polite, ～ている
progressive, chaining as in VPてVPてVP( _finite_ ), ...]. In some of them it can
be replaced by a noun (concessive) or a noun with an を marker (polite), in
some it can’t (progressive), in some it’s so special I’ve half a mind to
mentally classify it as a different て altogether (chaining).

The と construction (5) I’ve seen used as a topic (～とは ...) or as a kind-of-
object but without the accusative marker を (～と言う, for example, both as an
action and qualifying something). It seems like the qualifying ～と言う (“so-
called” as in ～と言うもの) can also be formed from a noun or just about anything,
but I’m not sure about any other uses.

The もの construction (6) I’ve seen only as a topic (～ものは ...), sort of noun-
like, but not really, as it doesn’t seem to be possible to use it as a noun
anywhere else. The usage in ～と言うもの seems to suggest that it’s just a noun with
a passive meaning: “something that is called ...”, but that’s only how I
translate it for myself.

(As to mentioning the gerund in the title, seems like almost any one of these
forms is called a gerund in one place or another—possibly because the _-ing_
form in English can look as an adjective, an adverb or a noun from the
outside.)
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question
grammar syntax て-form nominalization parts-of-speech
The て form, the と and もの constructions: gerund, participle, transgressive, or verbal noun?