extracted_text:
BUILDING

HRYHORIJ DYCZOK
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Table of Contents
Grammar
Point I — Parts of the sentence.                                                        1

Grammar Point 3 —
Using Modal Verbs to Make Requests                          8
Grammar Point 4 —
Introduction to Prepositions                                           14
Grammar Point 5 — Prepositions Of Place                                                            17
Grammar Point 6 — Prepositions of Time                                                             20
Grammar Point 7 —
Prepositions of Place & Movement                               26

Grammar Point 8 — Various Pairs

Grammar Point 9 —
Adjectives                                                                         37
Grammar Point 10 — Comparatives                                                                      38
Grammar Point I l —
Order Of Adjectives                                                       44
Grammar Point 12 — Participle Adjectives                                                           46

Grammar Point 14 — A diective Clauses                                                               54
Grammar Point 15 -
Adiective Clause Reductions                                          70
Grammar Point 1 6 —
Equativcs                                                                       76
Grammar Point 1 7 —
The Superlative                                                             81
Grammar Point 18 - Showing Causc and Effect with Adlectives                          85
InfinitiveR
Grammar Point 24 — More
Participles as Subjects and Objects                           122
Grammar Point 25 — Adjective plus Infinitives      124
Grammar Point 26 — Modal Auxiliary Verbs  127 Grammar Point 77 — Modals for
Advice          128
Grammar
Point 28 — Modals for Necessity                                                     132

Grammar Point 30 — Modal Review                                                                     135
Grammar Point 31 — Modals for Speculation                                                       138
Grammar Point 32 — Speculating about the Present                                             139
Grammar Point 33 —
Reported Speech                                                            143
Grammar Point 34 — Speculating about the Past                                                  152

Capy•riahtcr-i material

Grammar Pnillt 4? — Noun Clanwct                                                                      189
Grammar
Point 43 - Noun Clause Connector/subiects                                    185

Grammar Point 45 — Count/ Non-count
Review                                            195

Grammar
  Point 46 — l? eview Noun

Grammar Point 47 — Noun

ranneetnrq

197

Grammar
Point 50 — Introdllction tn Adverhs

Grammar
Point 51 — Adverbs and Link Verbs                                                     210
Grammar Point 52 — Negative and
"almost" negative adverbs at the beginning of a sentence 211
Grammar
Point 53 - Adverb Clauses                                                                      212
Grammar Point 54 Adverb Clauses of
Cause, Condition, and Contrast       216
Grammar
Point 55 — Adverb Clause Reductions                                                 218
Grammar Point 56 — Adverh Clauqe- Redltvtinns with "Because"
Grammar
Point 58 — Conjunctions                                                                  227
Grammar
Point 59 — Word Parts from Greek 233 Grammar Point 60 — Paired Conjunctions
235
Grammar Point 61 — Applied Conjunctions                                                          240
Capy•riahtcr-i material

Grammar Point 1 - Parts of the sentence
A sentence
Grammatically speaking, a sentence is a
group of words that has a subject and predicate. More importantly, however, a
sentence is an exprssion Of an idea. Sentences can be one word long or one
paragraph long — the only true common element is that the listener gets
information,
All sentences in English are constructed
the same way. The first tille about sentence structure is that the most
important thing must go at the beginning. There are many ways to slightly alter
the sentence structure in order to accomplish this, but in general, every
sentence is constructed in the formv
Subject - Verb - Object
The Subject
The subject is the person, place or thing that the sentence is about. It
is the most important thing in the sentence. A subject is usually a noun,
pronoun, or noun clause. The subject is usually followed by a verb.
There can be more than one subject in a sentence, but usually there is
one main subject
 Note: The subject is not always the "doer" of the actionw
Remember, in some situations the receiver or the action may be more important
The window was hpoken.
The egçkagg was delivered,
The
confewnce was
well-attended
In these cases, the end result is more  or you don't know who did the
action.

Pattern to 100k for:
There can be many nouns together. In this case, the
  LAST noun in the list is the subject — the other nouns are acting as
  adjectives and modifying that noun. This can be important, because the final
  noun can be plural and the therefore the verb must be plural also L
            e.g.       The stone udd was too
  high to see oven
The glue bottles were empty.

Pattern to look for:
There are
  some situations in which the subject is not the first thing in the main
  clause, but these arc rare — most of the time, the subject is at the
  beginning of the main clause:
In ore (h ree um bžel/os only
  does she play thepiano, she is also an accotuplished dancer, Rarely does snow
  in Toronto in May.
There are some extra books in the closetL

The Verb
The verb in the sentence describes the
subject or describes the action of the subject, The verb must "agree"
with the subject in number (if the subject is singular, the verb must be in the
singular form) and in person (I /you/he/she/it etc.)
There are many forms of verb structures
in English, and all verbs are classified as either Main or Auxiliary (helping).
When you are examining a sentence, it is important to understand that all parts
of the verb structure are part of the verb and they give important information
about the verb

Things to remember about subject-verb agreement:
The veib must always agree with the subject
  — regardless of how far away the subject is from the verb:
      e.g.                   at
  the end ofthe hail in the glases my son
                  The
  hooks at the bottom ofthe                 sale
If an "expression of
  quantity" (most/some/none/all + of the... ) is used as the subject the
  noun after the "the" is the subject, and the verb must agree with
  it:
e.g.
Most
  oftheeeQ2de gone.
If the paired conjunctions either..
  or .. orneither nor . introduce the subJect, the one closer to the verb
  affects the verb:
      e.g.     Either the students                      going
  to be there.
                         Either
  the teacher or                                               to be there
If
  the word "and" is part of the subject, the subject is always plural
  and must take a plural verb, even when both of the items in the subject are
  non-count v
        e.g.           The rice and the bread
The game and the celebration €£gfnished.
Howevert
  when the subject is one unit, even when there is an "and", it is
  considered singUlar:
      e.g.       The macaroni and cheese was good.
Co wheys and Indians was a populargame.
Words like
  someone, something, nothing, nobody, everything, everybody and expressions
  with each are always considered singular — however, if words like some are
  used as adjectives, then they don't affect the verb:
e.g.      Somebodyisarthedoorr     outside
a
  there is no subject—it is understood to
  be Thereforet the verb must always be in the second person singular form.

2

Sentence
  analysis shorthand
When
  you are analyzing a sentence, you need to be able to quickly recognize the
  main parts — subject, verb, preposition phrases, etc. Here is a useful
  "key" for analyzing sentences on paper:
underline the subject (and any adjective
  directly connected to the subject) once:

underline the verb
  (the entire verb structure, including any auxiliary verbs, and
  "not") twice:
e,g, The
  people in line outside.
put parentheses around any preposition
  phrase:
              e.g.
  Thepeople (at the corner) (ofthis street) are            a country) (in
  Europe).
put brackets around any adjective clause or
  phrase
e.g. The
  man {wearing glassesl is someone { whom I don 't know).
put square brackets around any noun clause or phrase
e.g. (What
  I want to know/ is (when you will arrive/
put angle
  brackets around any subordinate clause or phrase
               e.g. <lfyou don't tell me>, I           meet
  you on rime.

Exercise 1.1
Sentence analysis
In each sentence, underline the subject once and the verb
twice. Mark if the sentence is correct (C) or incorrect (I). Then, fix any
mistakes.
 I BOb is coming home.
 2, California is the most populous state in the U, S,
 3. Theoretical mathematics are difficult.
 4. I saw the sports news on TV last
night.
 5. Didhe callyet?
 6. There is people waiting for you outside.
3
 7, It is going to rain tomorrow.
 8. Frank and Yoko was studying for the test all night.
 9. The pencils you gave me is very nice.
 10. The book on the shelf at the top of the stairs are on sale.
 I I. My new computer looks nice, but
really it's nothing special.
 12. Yesterday I bought some new CDs.
 13. Before transistors, radios used to were
much bigger,

 There are, in the room upstairS many noises.
 16, There have been
fire all over upstate New York in the last few weeks,  17, He, in the past
four months, have taken 5 exams and written.
 18. The children in the backyard has not yet brushed their teeth today.
 19. There are many geography book on the
shelf at the top of the stairs.
 20. Stop saying that!
 21. In the box on the shelf at the top Of the statrs.
 22. The test have 200 questions.
 23. There have 3 children.
 24, There is, in the library, over 800
new books.
 25. In the family there are over 25
children.
 26. Sit down!
 27 r Under the lidv
28 Please hand me the papers.
 29. He turned on the computer and left.
 30. Some people like fishing, and some
don't.
Grammar
point 2 - "There is" vs. "To have"
These structures both show a relationship between the speaker
and others.

have" is used in the fóllowing
  situations:
to emphasise ownership or possession Of an Object.
I have dog
The dog has
  hig teeth
2. to talk about one
  specific thing, rather than an idea: have 2 children

Things to remember about "have"'
To make a question, use the auxiliary verb "do",
  in the appropriate form.
Do you have any brothers or sisters?
Do you have guy classes before 10?
Does he have a car?
Did she have a good time?
When answering with a reduced form,
  remember to use the auxlliary
"do", NOT "have"
Yes he did not Yes he had
No, fdon't not No, I havent
(If you answer with No, I haven't, you are making the present perfect
  tense rather than a simple tense)

Have IS also used with:  meals
e.g. in Tokyo and dinner in Cairo
                    I was
very busy this qtemoon so J        't have lunch
 time (for a specific purpose)
e.g. I have time to talk to you now.
When do you have tijne to meet?
'Y aches and pains e,g. I have a headache.
I have pain in my back.
5

"There is" is
  usually used
When the subject is invisible to the
  listener
e.g There is an extra set Ofcluhs in the trunk
There is a
  big black spider crawling up your back
2.      To
  talk about general thing
e.g. There lots ofchildrept in myfámily
There are many people i" the store
3.      When there is no obvious owner
e.g. There is lots ofwater in the canoe
There are
  many hybrid cars on the market these days
4.      To emphasize something to the
  listener
e.g There are three mistakes in this report
There is someone waitingfor you

Pattern to look for:
The real subject comes AFTER the verb, but the verb ''to
  eeg.     There gre
Thew no rice
Thew some

agree with it.

Keep In mind:
 The verb must agjee
with the stibjectï regardless of the tense, and/or the distance of the
subject from the verb,
e.g. There recently.
There in my opiniont no excuse for his actions.

Look at these further examples:
I have a family
T have 2 brothers
T have an apažtment
There are three boys in my family
There are three rooms There is a lot of space

Exercise 2.1
In the following sentences, underline the subject once and the verb
twice. Then, mark if the sentence uses the correct form: there is/are or have.
If you think it is correct, mark "NO Change - NC". If you think it should
be changed, mark "Change" - "C" and rewrite it'
I . There are three cats in my house,

_2.

There are five people in my
  family.

_3.

In my house there are 8 rooms,

4.

There is a nice view from my house.

5. The university has no Cheap apartments near it.

6. There is a big party next week at
the Student Centre,

7.
The university
bookstore has many books.

8.
There is much
memory in my computer.

9.
There is a camera
on my cell-phone.

10. There are many off-campus activities
throughout the year.

 I I . Toronto usually has nice weather
111 June.

 12. Canada has many mountains In the west.

 13r There is a lot of smog in many Canadian cities in summer.
Grammar point 3 - Using modal verbs to
make requests
When you make a request, it is important
to be polite — this will greatly increase the chance of the request being
fulfilled,
A very simple way of' making a request
more polite is simply to add the word "please" at the beginning or
end Of a sentence.
Another way is to use a modal auxiliary
verb (auxiliary means helping/ assisting). Modal auxiliaries add emotion to
speech - here, we will focus on making speech more polite.

Things to remember about modal auxiliary verbs:
Modal auxiliary verbs always go before the
  main verb
e.g. You could stop not You stop could
Modal auxiliary vet'bs never change form,
  regardless ofthe number or person of the subject
e.g. He may go not He mays go
Modal auxiliaries are always followed by the Simple Form of the Verb
  (S.F.V.)
e.g She can talk not
  She can talks

Exercise
3.1
In the
following sentences, underline the subject one time and the verb two times,
Then mark if the sentence is correct (C) or incorrect (I). Correct any
mistakes.

 Could        Stop shouting!
 He for you there.
3. She can go there if
she wants, 4, Will you please wait here?
5. WOuld you minds if I smoked?
6. Can he stand here?
7, Would mind you holding rny dog?
 He borrow can your book.

There are two common ways to make polite
requests — to ask permission (you do something), or ask a favor (somebody does
something)

When you ask
  permission, use;
May
Could + 1 +
Can

e.g. May 1001701'.' your book?
Could I useyour computer? Can see your notes?

When
you ask a favor, use:
Would
Could          + you          IS.F.V.I
Can

e.g. Wouldyou
lead me a hand?
Couldyou show me that paper? Can you wait right here?
Another way of making a very politc
rcqucst is with the structure: Do you mind/Would you mind?

When you ask
  permission with
"Do you
  mind", say:
Do you mind
Would you mind + ifl + [past forml

opened the window? you mind if/ sat down?

When
you request a favor with
"Do
you mind", say:
Do you mind
Would
you mind + [Present participle]

e.g. Wóuldyou           moving — I         see
Would you mind closing the door?

Things to
  keep in mind about these polite requests:
When you use "would you mind",
"yes" means "it's NOT
  OK, please DON'T" "no" means "no problem, go ahead"
           e.g.        Would you mind ifIsat down?
No go
  ahead, please sit down)
                        Would you         i/ÏI
  opened the window?
Yès
  (=please don 'r open it)
Would you mind waiting?
No I wait)
Would you mind repeating that?
                          Yes
  why              you listening thefirst time?)
Traditionally, when using
  the structure "Would you mind if I t ', the verb was in the
  past form. In modern conversational English, however, it is common to use the
  Simple Form Of the Verb (S.F. V.)
           e.g.        Would you mind ifIsa; down
  (traditionally correct)
                        Would
         mind           down
Would you mind illsmoked? (traditionally eon-ect)
Would you mind if/smoke? (modern conversational)

Exercise
3.2
Make the fOllowing sentence more polite by adding
modåls. Remember, there is always more than one correct way of saying the
same thing.
Pass me the salt.

2.      Talk
more quietly.

3.      I'm
going to sit down beside you, now.

Give me another coke,

5. Stop talking„

6

I'm going to use your phone.

7.

Explain this to me.

8,

Move.

I will use your book now,

10. You are
going to let me have the salt.

I I. You will stop smoking now.

12.   Speak up.

13.   Turn down your stereov

14 1 want you
to move your car.

15. I want you to repeat yourself.

16. I am going to use your computer.

17. Hurry up and get off the computer.

18. Lend
me $2.00 for the bus.

19. You will let me use your pen.

Telephone
conversations
Many people are afraid Of speaking on the
telephone in English — for many reasons. One thing that many people complain
about is the fact that you cannot see the person, and therefore cannot read the
body language, and the hints that these bring. Because you cannot see these
clues, it is very important to be very polite on the telephone — probably more
polite than in a regular conversation.
Exercise 3.3
Change these sentences into polite English using modals for
politeness.
+ Remember; there is always more than one correct way to say
the same thing.
1. wait.

2.

I want to talk to Tom.

3.

You will go see if Yoko is home

4.

You will take a message.

Say that sentence again,

6.

I will leave a message.

7.

You will speak louder.

8

Repeat your question

9,

Stafi speaking slowly now,

10. I will talk to Rich.

12
Making plans on the telephone.
One Of the most common functions Of a
telephone conversation is to arrange meeting times and places. Here are the
prepositions that you will need to make the plans
I. The following prepositions are used with time: time at for
example: at 3:30, at day/date= on fòr example.' On Monday, on the .?..Ý month =
in for example: In Febmory, December year in fòr example.' In 1996, In
2005
In Combinations day/month
"on" + on February day/month/year use 'ion '2003
day/month/year/timc use both "on" and "at" Februa0' 2003 at
10.'10
Ill. Parts of
the day (this always comes immediately after the time)
0:00 — 12:00 In the morning
12:00 -
6:00 In the afternoon
6:00 - 9:00 = In the evening
9:00 - 0:00 — - At night
            12:00pm         at
noon
            00:00 am       at
midnight
Exercise 3.4
Write complete sentences from these prompts Begin every
sentence with "Let's meet at... or "How about..
            10:15
am
            6:45
pm
            9:10
am
            7100
am
            3:20
pm
            4:50
pm
               I am
            5Ž10pm
               I I pm
            12:50
pm
            2:10
pm
Grammar Point 4 — Introduction to Prepositions
When we give information, it is important
to make sure every idea is clear, and everything in the sentence has a clear
function, For example, look at this sentence:
I live Toronto
The relationship between "I" and "live" is very clear
I is the subject, and "live" is the verb. However, the relationship
between "live" and "TOronto" is not clear. Do you live in
Toronto, near Toronto, North of Toronto, South of Toronto the list goes on. In
some casesj the noun immediately after the verb can be the direct object. To
prevent this confusion, prepositions are used to connect ideas.
Prepositions are "connecting"
words — as such, they must always connect two ideas. They connect the noun
immediately following them to another idea- The noun immediately following the
preposition is called the object of the preposition. A preposition and the
object of the preposition are together called a preposition phrase.
Here are the 30 most common prepositions:

as / at / against / around / among /
across / after / about by / between / before / behind / during for / from /
into / in / including like / of / on / off/ over to / towards / through / under
/ upon 1 with / without / within

The most
common preposition is "Of" — it is most frequently used to describe
what kind/type/brand you are saying:
e.g. Two cups (yrhat kind) of sugar
Three
kilograms (what kind) ofbeef
Both (what?) ofthe dogs are friendly

Every noun which isn't a part Of the
subject or Object must be attached to the main S, V-O , structure with a
preposition, If you are not sure about which preposition to use, use "or t
_

Things to
  keep in mind about prepositions;
Plœpositions must be followed by
  nouns, pronouns, gerunds or noun clauses:
Let's meet at ItOOpøt. (noun)
I will go with him. (ptonoun)
1 didn 't understand at what time he wants to meet. (noun
  clause)
Prepositions
  can have different meanings, depending on the situation, Remember to keep m
  mind the context/ situation:
I will meet
  at 5:00 (preposition oftitnc) will meet at the statión (ppeposition
  ofplace)
Preposition phrases can descT'ibe a noun or
  verb:
Let's meet at 4:30 (Here, the preposition
  phrase is describing when we will meet, therefore it is considered an adverb)
The store at
  the corner is the cheapest place to buy Cup Noodle in Ihis neighborhood. (In
  this case, "at the corner" is describing the store, and therefore
  it is considered an adjective).
Prepositions are connected to the noun that
  they follow. To separate this, put a comma:
I have
  lived in North America, in Eastern Europe, and in Asia.
Prepositions can have more than one object;
  but the objects must be joined with
"and" or "or":
I want to
  live in Buenos Aires and Oslo. She has  TD.
If you want to use a verb as the object of the
  preposition, the verb must be in the gerund (ring) form:
I am
  thinking about quitting smoking. They are talking about meeting.
To explain why you did
  something, it is possible to use a verb in the infinitive form, rather than a
  preposition. In this case, the verb is not in the gerund tòrm. In this
  sentence: She went to the store to buy candyt the first "to" introduces
  a preposition phrase — to the store, The second "to", however,
  introduces an infinitive explaininc the reason for the trip — to buy candy,
You can have many preposition phrases in a row. Each preposition phrase
  describes the thing immediately before it. If you want the preposition to
  describe something else, you need to put a comma in front Of it:
Let 's meet (on the corner) (ofJane and Bloor Sts).
Everybody cheered (á/ t/"' end) (Ófthe meeting).
             Hé checked under the bed, the
  desk, and in the closen                 no monsters.

Exercise 4.1
In the following excerpts from telephone messages, underline
the subject once, the verb twice, and put parentheses ( ) around any
preposition phrases that you find.

Can I meet you tomorrow (at 1:30)? Our original plan was
to meet at 3:30, but at that time I have to go to school and pick up my kids.
Ifwe can't change it to another time, could wc change it to another day? I'm
sorry for doing this to you at the last minute, but the person whom T asked to
pick up the kids cancelled on me at the last minute, so I have to go there
myself.

2.
Can I speak to Frank, please? No, I
don't want to speak to his secretary. I spoke to him yesterday, and I didn't
get any answer from Frank. I need to talk to him about the meeting with the
chairman next week - we need to change the time and place of the meeting from
tomorrow at ten in his office, to Wednesday at 10 in my office. If I can't talk
to him, he may be late, and will be angry at you,

3.
Hello,
my name is Tony and I'm calling ftom ABC Insurance. I'm just calling to remind
you about our sprmg special on home insurance. You can save up to 30% on home
insurance if you call before May 31 Until May 3P' our agents will be working
extended hours - from 7:30 in the morning to 830 in the evemng, in order to
meet all of your needs, and to have time to answer all Of your questions-
Please call us back, at your convenience. Thank you

4,
Hello, I'm calling from Dr. Kohut's
office. I'd just like to confirm your appointment for tomorrow at 1 100 in the
morning. If you are unable to cornet we would appreciate a call from you as
soon as possible. Otherwise, we will be waiting for yau tomorrow„ Thank you,
and have a great day.

Grammar Point 5 - Prepositions of Place
Prepositions can be used to connect any ideas , for
example they can also describe place. This is very useful when describing where
you want to meet.
Here are some common prepositions which are used to show
location:

Use           with

street (Roy Thompson Hall is on King
  Ste) corner, when the building is exactly on the corner
e.g The Strathc:ona             is the corner of
  York St and
Wellington St.

Use "at" with

corner, when the
  building IS very near the corner, but not exactly on the corner

e.g City Hall is at the corner ofYork
St. and Queen St, street number — when you are giving the exact address of a
house or apartment
e.g I live at 479 Jane street

Pattern
to look for:
"At" is a very general location — on or around, in
or around* If you are not sure, it is safer to use "at" rather than
"on".

Use
"across from" to describe two things on opposite sides of the street
e.g„ Union Station is acrossfrom the Royal York Hotel
Use   With directions — East/West/North/South
e.g Union Stotioa is south ofthe Royal Yórk Hotel
Exercise 5.1
Using this map and the prepositions above, give the locations
Of these buildings.

Answer the following questions using the preposition
provided.
e.g. Where is the Skydome/Rogers center? (beside)
The Dome is beside the CN Tower,

2.
Where is the Royal Alexandra (Alex) Theater? (on)

3.
Where is the
Eaton's Centre? (across from)

4.
Where is the
Hockey Hall of Fame? (south Of)

5.
Where is Union
Station? (on)

matúfia\
60 Where is
the Metro Toronto Convention Centre? (east ot)

7.
Where is Roy
Thompson Hall? (across from)

8.
Where is the St.
Lawrence Market? (on)

9, Where is
the Eaton's Centre? (on)

10. Where is
the Skydome /Rogers Centre? (on)

I I. Where is the Royal York Hotel? (across from)

TOEFL Tip:
In the reading section, it is very
  important to be able to draw inferences. This means that the information to
  answer the question will not be stated in the passage, and you will have to
  use the information provided to guess the correct answer.
In that type
  of question, prepositions can be a useful tool, because they show the
  connections between ideas.
For example, if the passage states that The river runs
  "from the South" i we can infer that it runs "to the
  North".
Here are 5 sentences, which
  are followed by 2 statements each. Choose which Of the two statements is
  true, based on the information provided by prepositions. Roy Thompson Hall is
  across from The Princess of Wales Theatre.
a)       The
  two buildings are Close to each other.
b)
  The two buildings were constructed at roughly the same time.
2 Union Station is east of the C.N. Tower.
a)       UmonStation is closcrto Lakc
  Ontario than the CN Tower.
b)      Union Station gets more morning
  sun.
3. Frank IS at his office.
a)
  He is using the
  internet.
b)       He
  may be at his desk,
4, Ottawa is between Montreal and Toronto
a)       Toronto is closer to Ottawa than
  Montreal isw
b)      Móntrealis closer to Ottawa
  than to Toronto,
5. The Royal Ontario Museum is at the corner of Avenue Rd. and Bloor
  St.
a)       The Royal Ontario Múseum has
  empty space in front of it.
b)      There are many streets near the
  Royal Ontario Museum.

Grammar Point 6 - Prepositions of Time
1.
During/for
"During"
shows that two events happened at the same time:
Ifell asleep during the movie
I was living in Son Francisco daring the
big earthquake.
"For" describes the length of time I sleptfor 2 hours
I haven't seen herfor 5 days.
Exercise 6.1
Choose the better ofthe two prepositions, "during" or 'for".
I I met hermy vacation.
2, They will be in a meetingtwo hours.
3, Please
stay herethe afternoon,
4.      She can wait herethe speech.
5.
I'm sorry that I
didn't answer your call, but you calleda very important meeting
2. By/until
This is a
very simple pair to understand: if there is a change in condition, use
e.g. The package is not here noww It will be here at 5:00pm, The
condition Will
Change — from not here to here. Therefore, use the
preposition "by": The package be here by 5:00.
e.g. am notfinished now. I will be finished at
lunch. The condition will change — from unfinished to finished. Therefore, use
the preposition "by". Twillfinish by lunch.
If the
condition/situation does not changed, use "until":
e.g. Tom l.vaítiižg now. Twill be waiting ar
5:00. There is no change in condition (wait-wait). TherefOret use the
preposition "until":
                  I             until
5900
e.g. Iwork here now. I will work here
durinu rhe summer There is no change (work-work). TherefOre, use the
preposition "until":
J avi// work here until the summer
Exercise 6.2
Choose the better of the two prepositions: "by" or '$until"
If the
package does not arrive6:00
pm, we will have to find another supplier.
2.      Please make sure that nobody leaves
the officethe afternoon.
3.      The
Offer must be handed intomorrow.
4.      He
must wait there6:00.
5, He must be ready to leavethe end of the break.
3.
Through/
throughout
Through — is a preposition of movement
Please go through tire office and down the hall.
It is more to pass throvgh customs
i/you cannot speak the language. Throughout — is a preposition of time — it
means all the time He is in and out throughout the day.
The airport is busy throughout the year — not only during the summer:
4.
Before/by
Before usually describes a preparation prior to another
event, and is more general
You should check departure time before leavingfor the airport,
You should always check the price before handing overyour credit card
                        You
must complete the introductory         before starting the intennediflte
course.
By usually describes an ending time
Please make sure rharyou arrive by 5:00
                        You
have            by this evening,
5.
When you
tålk about a holiday, you can say "'on" or "at".
"On" means "the specific day", while at" means the
general time e,g, On Christmas = on December 25 th
At
Christmas Late December, early January
Children can only open their presenfs on Chrisfmas morning.
(on the ) At Christmas, there is often snow. (the entire time around Christmas)
On New
Year's (Day) = January 1"
At New year's = December 26 th to early January
It is diJ/ìéult to wake up on New year's. (January TIJ
                        People
         pay pfdeots at New Years (around the tint€)
6.
At the beginning/
in the beginning; At the end/in the end
This is the
only case when "at" is more specific than "111"
Use "At the begtnmng/end" when you are
talking about a special event, for example a book, movie, relationship, etc.
This is followed by the preposition phrase "Of 't
I didn 't understand the story at the beginning ofthe hook,
hut Ifigured il out out halfway through.
Use "In the
beginning/end" when you are talking about generalities J didn't like hint
time I met hi'", in the good buddies.
7.
In time/On time
"In time" means "not late". There is an appointment,
or something is beginning, and you arrive before that time,
e.g. Theflight leaves at 7:30, $0 you
need to an•ive at 5:30 at least to be in time for customs.
Because ofwork, manyfathers cannot an•ive in timefor their
childrens' concerts at school,
"On time" means "at exactly
the arranged time". Therefore, if you have an appointment to meet somebody
at 7:45, you arrive at 7:45, not 7:44 or 7:46.
e.g. One ofthe rudest things
that you can do is to not arrive on timefor dinner. If is normal to arrive
latefora party, but notfor a dinner party
Exercise 6.3
Fill in the blank with the appropriate preposition.
1.the beginning of the movie, there is a spectacular sunrise,

2. The first
words of the Bible are: the beginning
Even though I checked the departure time
on-line, the plane did not leave
time.

4.      Because
of the tcrriblc I just barely arrived       time for the
start of the concert.
5.      Bob
always had a great excuse for not arriving time. Every time!
8.
Using
prepositions to put events in order. There are two common problems when
discussing time relationships — one problem deals with two events In the past,
and another problem deals with events in the future.
8.1 Events in
the past
When you
want to say "before now", you can use the word "ago".
e.g. He arrived two days before now = He arrived two days
ago.
She was ready two hours before now = She was ready two
hoars ago.
DO NOT SAY
"He arrived two days before
"She
was ready two hours before.
When you
want to use a different time, you can use the ptcposition "before"
e.g. I had called two times before yesterday.
They went there twice before last year,
Events in the future
When you are
describing events in the future, there is a similar ideav
To show that
something will happen "after now", use the preposition 'fin"
               e.g. Iwillfinishten
minutes             now I willfinish in ten minutes
I will meet you there halfan hour after now = I will meet
you there in halfan
willfinish after ten minutes DOES NOT MEAN I willfinish if' ten minutes
I arrived here three weeks ago, After three days, I had a
job. (= I arrived here 21 days ago. 18 days ago, I had a job)
I will wait for two hours„ After
that, I will go home in 121 minutes, I will leave),
Exercise 6.4 Fill in the blank with the appropriate word: ago, in, after,
or before. (note: you will only need one o/the blanks — the other one will
remain empty)
l . Please leave now, and I will meet you thereone hour

2.       He
doesn't feel well — he just arrived heretwo days

3.       I'm almost ready — I will be finished20 minutes
She went to
Korea last year; and it was very exciting because she had never been awaythat
5. I'm sorry you missed him; he called 2 minutes5:00
Exercise 6.5
In the following sentencesi choose the better Of the
prepositions.
Will you be there (by/ throughout) 5?
I'm not sure —because of the traffic after work, I'm not sure if I'll be able
to make it (at/on) time.
2. If you
want to reach the bank (by/until) 3:00, you have to leave (before/until) 2:30.
He is never (in/on)
time for anything. If you want him to arrive (at/in) 6100, you have to tell him
to arrive (at/ in) 5:30.
4, In order to finish university,
people must start studying (before/during) the summer (before/by) starting
school
All applications must be submitted on
or (before/during) May 14 th in order to be considered for the fall
semester.
6. (At/in) the beginning of chapter I
the book is pretty boring, but (by/until) the end of the second chapter, it
becomes really interesting-
Exercise 6.6
In the following paragraphs, choose the better of the two
prepositions.

1-
I know that this may be a surprise for you (at/in) the beginning of the course,
but (before/by) starting the course, I want everybody to write a quick
paragraph. I have taught this writing course (during/for) six years, and I have
noticed that people do better if they Start writing immediately. I will hand
out paper — please don't Start writing (by/until) everybody has paper.

2.
The pizza that you
ordered (at/on) 6:30prn has been made and it is on its way. It should arrive at
your hose (by/ until) 7:00. If it doesn't arrive at that timef please call us
and you will get a refund. (At/on) the New Year's holidays we are always busy,
and usually our "30 Minutes or Its Free" guarantee does not apply
(for/during) that time

3.
The movie Starts
well, but ends poorly. (At/in) the beginmng of the first scene, we see the
police chase a suspect (through/throughout) the streets Of Paris. This is
excltmg, but the scene continues (for/during) 25 minutes. They don't catch the
suspect (by/ until) his car runs out of gas. Unfortunately, (at/in) the end of
the movie we find out that they were chasing the wrong person all along.

4.
(Through/throughout)
the second half Of the 20th century there was an incredible amount
Of space exploration. Because of the competition between the USSR and the US,
very much money was spent on space, (before/by) going, however, both Sides
needed to ensure the safety of the people who went there. The astronauts and
cosmonauts had to endure traming (for/during) months, and even years
(before/by) the launch of the rockets,

5. (During/For) the last few years, many nations have
  introduced bans on the commercial catching of whales- Because of this, the
  numbers have returned to levels that existed (at/in) the beginning of the 20th
  century. However; (at/ in) the last few years, some fleets have begun
  whaling again, This has sparked fears that the magnificent humpback whale may
  disappear (by/until) the end of the 22!'" century, and many countries
  have stared enforcing bans again,

Grammar Point 7 — Prepositions of Place &
Movement
One Of the most common uses Of
prepositions is to describe the location Of an object, or to give directions.
These are both very simplet once the basics are understood.
I In vs. At
In general, in is more specific — at means in or
around. For example, "In school" means in the school building.
"At school" means in school, in the playground, on the jungle,gym, on
the track, etc.
"11' the OTìced' means inside the office. the
office" means in the Office + on the elevator + in the cafeteria + in the
smoking lounge, etc.
+ Remember: "Home" means house garage + front yard
+ back yard + garden.
Also, a
"home" can be a house, apartment, condominium, roonvrent, etce
"Home" is an idea, rather than a specific place Therefore, with home
you should always use "at"
2. On vs. In
(transpottation)
When you
describe public transportation, use the preposition " on"
e.g. On the subwey, the bus, on the plane, the an the boat.
When you describe private transportation, use "in"
            e.g.
In          in thejet, in the canoe, in the taxi, in the coach
There are three common exceptions:
With foot, motorcycle and bicycle use "oni'.
3. On vs. At
The relationship between On and At is
very similar to the relationship between In and At — At is more general, while
On is more specific.
Look at these examples:
"On the corner" means exactly where two streets
cross.
"At
the corner" means somewhere near or on the corner.
"On the beach" means really on the beach, near
the water.
"At r/ie beach" means on the beach or in the
store or in the car or in the water,

4. In, On,
and At— other uses:
Use "In" for Countries
Cities
Provinces/ States
Prison/Hospital
Use "On" for Streets, Avenue
In Canada, in Japan
In Toronto, in Seoul
In Ontario, in Missouri
OH Jane st., on Main st.

Rivers (means near) My house is on the Humber
River. the Beach
              Use
"At" for Street Number           Al 477 Jane St.
Exercise 7.1 Choose the best of the two prepositions In each
sentence.
I'm sorry, Halyna isn't here now, she's somewhere (at/in) her office.
2, I can't
find my Blackberry anywhere — I hope I didn't leave it (in/on) the subway.
3.
She just bought a
new cottage; it's quite amazing, and right (in/on) the beach.
4.
They live (at/ on) Jane Streett (at/ on) number 180.
We will be waiting for you somewhere
(at/on) the corner of Bloor and Yongew
5.
Near/nearby
Near is a preposition which
shows a position — close to something: They live near the school, so they don't
need car.
Nearby is an adjective or
adverb, not a preposition — it means near here: Is there a bank nearby?
DO NOT SAY
"neañyhere".
6.
In/ inside
In is used in a general sense - no specific space:
I live in Canada,
Inside is used in a very specific/closed space:
There are no mice inside thiS mom right now.
7.
Below'under
Below shows
that there is space between the objects:
The other office is on thefloor below ours.
The people who live below us are usually veO' quiet.
Under
shows that there is contact between the objects:
There is something under the book
He tried to hide something under the top sheet,
S. Here are two lists of prepositions which are often
confused.
The first is a list of preposition pairs prepositions of
place, and the corresponding prepositions of motion
Preposition of place; Preposition of motion; into out           out
of onto
e.g.       He is in class
(preposition ofplace)
She walked into the room, (preposition ofmoiion)
The tea is on the table. (preposi/ion ofplace)
Please pur the teo onto the table. (preposition ofmotion)
This is a list of prepositions which can be used both as
prepositions of place and prepositions Of motion:

behind

over

past

below

along

across

e.g.  Theparkiug
Ior is behind rite post office. (preposition cfplace)
The kids ran behind thefenc.e. (preposition ofmotton)
            Watk along
Yónge St. and you        come to the /áke (preposition
There ore trees along Bloor St. between Jane and Runnymede: (preposition
ofp!oce)
Giving directions
Giving directions in English is very Simple because
directions are Simply a combination of small sentences and easy ideas, not one
complex idea,
The most common
phrase used when you give directions is: "go" + preposition + object
GO down street,
past the bank' go Ic/i at the lights.
Another very common technique is to use the combination•
"you will see/you will come to„. go
              e.g.  You
will come to a park —go left.
You will come to a 'T" intersection —go right,
It is also common to let people know what kind of landmarks
they will pass on the way —just to make them feel more comfortable.
            e.g.       You
will pass the CN Tower on rhe right.
You will see a big glass building on the left — keep going.
The compass
directions North and South are usually said ' 'up" and "down"
e.g. GO up University Ave. GO down
Yonge St.

Things to remember about giving directions:
don't say
  •please", or "you". Simply "go south," "turn
  right," etc.
don't use the preposition "to" with: right    south
  left straight east back         west
don't forget articles:
when you say a
  specific thing, say "the" Turn right thefirst light.
when you are not talking about a familiar
  thing, say a
e.g You will see a school
  on the left don't use articles with names
GO north on kkæYonge St.

Exercise 7.2
Look at the following map. Give directions from various
locations to various locations. eg The Opera House — The Horizon
         Go south on Bay Street. You will pass
College Park on your left. It's on the left.

Give directions from — Air Canada Centre to St. Michael's
Hospital; Four Season's
Hotel to Eaton's Centre; The Courtyard Hotel to AGO;
Marriot Hotel to Roy Thompson Hall
Grammar Point 8 - Various Pairs
l . When you
are making a plan or preparation about a holiday, you can say "for"
or
            e.g.         We are going awayfor our
anniversary.
means that we are celebrating by taking a trip
Wé are going away at our anniversary means
we will leave that time
2.
Because & Because of
Because Of is a preposition — it is followed by a
noun/pronoun or noun clause I apn here because ofthe job offer,
Because is a conjunction — it
is followed by a subject and verb I came here because this is a good school.
3.
Between &
Among
Between indicates a choice of two things
The work is split between the two secætaries.
Among indicates a choice of more than two things
AllJive ofthem split the chores among Themselves.
4.
Despite & In spite of
Despite shows contrast, surpristng situation do not use with
"of"
In spite of shows contrast, surprising situation must be
fOlIowed by "of"
The key
point is "of': don't say "despite of'*
5, Instead Of
& Instead
These two prepositions have the same meaning, but
"instead" goes at the end of the sentencet while "instead of'
needs an object,
            e.g.
  He chose to go to Europe instead ofAsiafor his vacation.
HiSfuther wanted kim to be doctor instead ofá
designer.
                        She
       't       to go to Asia — she wonted go to Europe instead
Her mother didn want her to be a
dancer — she wanted her to be a lawyer instead.
6.
Because of &
From
Both of these prepositions describe a cause. If you want to
say that a thing caused the result, it is better to say "because of"
            e.g.        The
chair is wet because ofthe rain.
They are upset because ofthe news
If you want to show that an action caused the result, it is
better to say "from "

He is sickfrom working underground
7.
For & the
infinitive
When you want
to explain the Itason you did something, there are two common ways: first, you
can show a result, In this case, use the preposition "for".
                   I came herefor business
I came herefor a rest
second, you can use a verb in the infinitive form to show
what you will do.
            e.g.       I
came here to relax.
She went to get cigars.
Exercise 8.1
Choose the better of the two prepositions.
l . The
choice of company trip is (among/between) New York and Toronto.
2.
She went to the store (to buy/fOr buytng) stamps, but hasn't
returned.
3.
I don't want a
big cottage —just a nice quiet place (to relax/for relaxing)4. The dog is
panting heavily (because of/from) running so hard.
5. (Despite of/in spite of) the rain, the picnic was lots of
fun.
All three of the finalists can split the
prize (among/between) them.
7.      Excuse me, I need an outlet (for
plugging/to plug) in my laptop.
8.      His
back is sore (because of/from) the new exercise.
9.
They didn't apply to the university in this city — they applied
to the further one (instead/instead Of),
10, She will have to take two weeks off (because of/from)
that injury,
S.
Information
When you are describing an information source, you need to
use the appropriate preposition:
In

the news the newspaper

the
  Internet

the media

the radio

a magazine

a website

a report

the show

Exercise 8.2
Fill in the Appropriate prepositions.
1.
Did you hear
the news?
Hear it? I didn't hear about it. I read about itthe
newpapers. I also saw it TV last night. What do you think?
Well,           not
sure, I don't believe everything I readthe newspaper.
Sure, and I
don't believe everything that I readthe internet either„ But something this big — if it's
both    the 'net and    the papers, it must be at least panially true.
2.
I read
something interestingthe TV website yesterday,
Really, what?
well, I think you'll be reading about itthe newspapers
— especially _ the tabloid newspapers soon. Once a story like this is
the media, it will stay there for a long time.

8.3
Tn the following passage, put parentheses ( ) around any
preposition phrase, and fix any mistakes.

Line 1
Line 5
Line 10
Line 15
Line 20

The giving of gifts has become quite a problem for many
  people, especially men, over the last decade. It seems that now, throughout
  the entire year, there is always a reason for a sale.
Christmas,
  Easter, Thanksgivtng Day, Groundhog Day, Clean your Car Day — every day is
  another rcason for people to go to stores and spend. And the amount of money
  that is spent on advertising for these events is enough to amaze or shock
  anybody
During the 1960s and 1970s, there was a phrase to
  describe giftgiving: "It's the thought that counts". The feeling
  behind the gift was important to the receiver - more important than the
  amount of dollars spent on the gift.
Why the change in attitude? Are presents made by
  hand — meals cooked from scratch - not ofvalue anymore? Are they not as good
  as those bought in the store? Did the end of the 1970s and the beginning of
  the 1980s signal the end of creativity and originality?
When it comes to  it is more important to try than to do.
  In any country, the feelings behind the present are still the tñOSt
  important thing. The useftilness of gifts will never be as important as the
  reason for their being given. Nomatter how hard advertisers try to convince
  people that they need to spend a lot of money on presents, they will never
  really

succeed in
eliminating hand-made gifts.

TOEFL Tip:
When you are writing
on the iBT, time management is very Important. You only have 20 or 30 minutes
to write an essay. When you are writing, DO NOT WORRY ABOUT MISTAKES. Everybody
makes mistakes. However, you MUST budget AT LEAST 5 minutes at the end Of the
session for editing. If you do this, you will very likely catch all Of your
mistakes,
A very common mistake is omitting
prepositions. Remember to check that every noun which is not the subject, verb,
or object has to have a preposition.

.34
8.4
Complete the passage with an appropriate preposition. Use the
prepositions in the box on the left.

of in of
over with to with on out in in of in on on to from in
    on in in at

International
    Manners
One the most difficult things cultural
    studies is the questionmanners.
People all the
    world do the same things — they go work, play their kids, go vacations and
    hang their friends. However, different countries, people do the same things
    different ways,
Take the example       eating: Canada, having a meal           the
    subway           the way work or          a meeting is completely normal,           Japan,
    howevert eating           the street is considered rude.
The important question is not
    "Is it rude?", but rather "Is it the way it is done
    HERE?"
The impottant thing to keep  mind is to be respectful. If people
    see that you try but make mistakes, they will not get upset. However, if
    you always try to do things  the same way that you do home,
    be ready to not have any friends

8.5
Here is a series Of paragraphs which are very well written,
but do not have any prepositions. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate
preposition where necessary.
1.
According  a recent
survey, many  the people who live _ big cities are
actually healthier than  people who live  the suburbs. There are
many  reasons this. The first one is
that people who livecities usually walk more — the store,work,
and eventhe subway. Peoplewho live  the suburbs,
the other hand, walk less and tend  drive more places. Another reasonthe
differencehealth is that the food which is
available the city is usually more expensive than the food the suburbs,
so
people don't eat  much  it. People  the suburbs can go  huge "outlet malls",  which they can buy huge bags  potato chips, nachos and cookies
Becausethat, they always have a lotfoodthe house, so they eat more. Thirdly, becausethe lackpublic transitthe suburbs, people who live there
tenddrive more and walk less. They sitthe car all the time the average drive work is 65 minutes — and walk less.
This leads problems.
2.
The House
with Chimaeras, or Horodetsky House, is a major Art Nouveau building
 Kyiv, the capital  Ukraine. It was built  the
period          1901 and
1902  noted architect Vladislav
HorodetŠky, Who was known  the Gaudi
 Kyiv. The building derives its name  its
ornate decorations depicting various scenes  exotic animals and
huntlng scenes, because Horodetsky liked hunting. It is situated  NO. 10;
Bankova Street,  from the President Ukraine's
Office  the historic Pechersk neighborhood.  2005,
it has been used a presidential residence official
ceremonies.

Grammar Point 9 — Adjectives
Adjectives describe nouns — without them,
life would be very boring, However, nouns can have many qualities. There can be
many nouns in one sentence. To avoid confusion, specific rules have developed
about adjectives. The important ones are:

Points to
  remember:
Adjectives
  always stand before the noun that they describe. Red ball
Huge canyon
Adjectives go between the article and noun
  ie. articles are always the first adjective
A majestic tree
The crowded
  busy city
Adjectives are never plural, regardless of
  the number of the noun that they describe
The tall tree
The till!
  trees
This can be
  confusing when you are describing things which contain pieces: if an airplane
  has 250 seats, it is 250 seat (not seats) airplane
if a gifl has
  had 8 birthday parties, she is an eight year (1101 years) old girl.
To remember this, keep in
  mind the key idea — what you are talking about, 1-00k at this sentence: It is
  a 250 seat airplane. In that sentence, there is one key idea — the airplane.
  Thereforev use the singular form.
However, if you want to emphasize that the girl has lived for five
  years, say 'She is/ìve years old", that stresses the five
  individual years.

Grammar Point 10 - Comparatives
Often. you want to describe more than one thing, and show a
relationship between them. You can show how they compare to one another, by
using the comparative form of adjectives.
The comparative form Of adjectives is quite simple to mike.
It is determined by the number of syllables an adjective has.

1 Syllable

2 Syllables

3 or more s llables

ends in

doesn't end in

add "-er" to
  the base form

add "-er" to the base
  form

add "more" in front ofthe
  base form

add "more" in front of
  the base form

for exam le

for exam le

for exam le:

for exam le:

small + smaller

noisy noisier

crowded more crowded

expensive + more   ensive

new newer

dirty* dirtier

modern more modern

majestic • more ma estic

cheap* cheaper

smelly smellier

complex more com lex

impressive more      essive

close closer

busy + busier

useless + more useless

beautiful more beautiful

There are always exceptions. Here is a list of the most
common:
Better
Worse
More fun
Older (can he used for anything)
Elder (used tar brothers or sisters only)
Far             Farther
(used mostly for distance)
Further (means deeper - used for research, investigation)
38

Things to
  keep in mind when you are making comparison structures:
Make sure
  that you use "than" to introduce the second thing you are companng
e.g. correct—Mt. Rushmore is mona
  crowded than Mt. Washington. wrong — Mt. Rushmore is more crowded Mt.
  Washington
Make sure you compare things which are the same:
           e.g.       wrong The hotels near Mt.
  Rushmon:: are more expensive than Mt.
Washington correct - The hotels near
  Mt, Rushmore are more expensive than those nearMt. Washington
It is possible to use "less" with any adjective — one, two or
  three syllable. In many situations, however, it might make more sense to
  change the word: eg less warm cooler less small bigger jess expensive cheaper
  less noisy quieter less dangerous -gafèr

Exercise 10.1
Make sentences LISIng the prompts With comparative
forms Of adjectives, as in the example eg The Grand Canyon; far, Mt. Rushmore
The Grand Canyon isfanher than Mt. Rushmore
Mt, Rushmore, far, Mt, Washington

2. The Grand
Canyon, hot' Yellowstone National Park

3, The Grand
Canyon, hot, Mt, Washington

4, Package
tour to Mt, Rushmore, expensive, package tour to Mt, Washington

5. The Mississippi River, warm, Yellowstone National Park

6.

The Mississippi River,
  dirty, Yellowstone National Park

7.

Yellowstone National Park,
  crowded, Mt. Washington

8, Mt. Rushmor€% historic, Mt, Washington

I l. The
Grand Canyon, wide, Mississippi River

12. Mt. Rushmott% high, Mt. Washington

13.

Mt. Washington, high, tunnel trees in Yosemite

14.

The Grand Canyon, far, the
  Mississippi River

15.

Toronto, crowded, New York City.

16.

Thai curry, spicy, kirnchi

17,

Chocolate cake, healthy, chipsl

18,

English, difficult, Physics

19. Pit Bull, dangerous, cobra

Using the
prompts, make sentences about these tourist destinations, as in the example.
e.g. Mt.
Rushmore, close, Yellowstone, peaceful
Mount
Rushmore is closer than Yellowstone National Park, but Yellowstone is more
peacefil/.
The Mississippi River, peaceful, Mt
Rushmore, historic

2.

The Grand Canyont majestic,
  Mt. Washington, challenging

3,

Mt. Rushmore, historic, The Grand Canyon, old

The tunnel trees, impressive, Mt. Washington, close

5.

Grand Canyon tour,
  beautiful, Mississippi River Cruise, cheap

Mt. Rushmore, close, Yosemite National Park, quiet

7. The Tunnel
Trees, amazing, Mt. Rushmore, spectacular

Use your own adjectives to compare these two things — say one
good thing about each Cotton shirts, silk shirts.

2.

Big dogs, small dogs

3,

Sports cars minivans

4.

Eating in a restaurant, eating at home.

Big weddings, small
  weddings.

Hockey, soccer

Email, hand-written letters

Condominiums, houses

9.

Big cities, small towns

10. Modern
art, classical art

42
Read the passage. Circle any adjectives you find and fix
any errors.

Vacations
in the United States

Line I
Line 5
Line 10
Line 15
Line 20
Line 25

Every year, millions
  of Americans decide to spend theirs summer vacations "at home" and
  explore some of the majestic nature that their country has to offer. The
  variety of the geography of the United States impressive is.
The east coast impressive is because of mountains. The
  Appalachian
Trail, which extends from
  Alabama in the southern all the way to the Canadian Border in the north,
  never ceases to awe, Mount Washington, named after the first president, is
  the first mountain which had a road built all the way to the summit. Today,
  many visitors to this Vermont landmark purchase the famous This Car Climbed
  Mount Washington" bumper sticker.
A
  bit farther inland is the world-famous Mount Rushmore. Carved at the time of
  the Depression, this mountain features the faces of four US presidents,
  Washington, Jefferson, Lincoln and Roosevelt carved into it. It is probably
  the only reason to visit South Dakota.
A cruise down slows the Mississippi
  River has to be the ultimate in Amencana. Ever since it was immortalized by
  Mark Twain in "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" and "Tom
  Sawyer"l thousands have tried to re-construct their famouses journeys.
  Today, of course, it is much less dangerouser and usually ends with a stop in
  the famous New Orleans
"French Quarter'lv
The west features two amazings
  National Parks: Grand Canyon and Yosemite. Yosemite boasting the amazing
  "Tunnel Trees" — giant redwood trees which are large enough to
  drive through, Some of the trees are over 225 fèets high! The Grand
  Canyon was carved by the Colorado River and makes its way from the Rockies to
  the bay of Califórniar

It is very easy to the
entire US as one country and to forget just how much of a difference there
really is between Texas and New York, between Vermont and New México -
43

Grammar Point 1 1 Order of Adjectives
If you have many adjectives in one sentence, you must put them into the
correct order, or it will sound strange:
Opinion adjectives (nice, beautiful, good) go first
Fact adjectives (old, expensive, leather) go after that, in
the followtng order:
Size Age Color
Country of Origin Material
e.g. Big new
black Italian                                            leather sofa
It is rare to have many adjectives in one sentence,
describing one noun. An easy way to remember them is the saying:
"A little old lady had Canadian wool gloves"
The pairs "little-old" and
"Canadian-wool" must be together — theref01e, if you want to add a
color, it must go between these pairs.
Exercise
11.1
Each group of sentences is followed by a box fúll of
adjectives, Use at least two adjectives for each noun. You can use the same
adjectives more than once.
1.
The tunnel trees of Yosemite park are                               and
2.      Mount Washington is not only
3.      Many people don't know about the
Shenandoah River.
4.      The  Mount Rushmore was carved at the height of the Great
Depression. 5, The road to Mi. Washington is

amazing — big — cold — impressive

imposing — long

old — tall - warm

2.
Learning English is
2.      English
grammar is
3.      Living in Toronto is
4.      Camping m Canada
5.      In
general, I think English is

boring - difficult -easy —
exhilarating - fun - simple - useful - wonderful

3.

big - Canadian — heavy —imported —
light — noisy— quiet -small

4.
1.
I like music that is
2.
I like books that are
3.
I don't like
people that are
4.
I like T.V. shows
that are
5.
I like movies that are

boring
— exciting — funny - loud — peacetijl — mysterious — old — relaxtng

Grammar Point 12 Participle
Adjectives
It is sometimes important to describe a
noun in relation to other nouns in how it affects them or how they affect it.
In this situation, verbs can easily be changed to adjectives - they are called
participle adjectives.
The trick to understanding participle
adjectives is to remember what DOES the action, and what RECEIVES the action.
The DOER of the action is described by the present participle "-ing";
the RECEIVER of the action is described by the past participle
Look at these
examples:
"The star shines" — in this
case, the star is the DOER of the action. Therefore, if we want to use the verb
as an adjective, we would use the present participle: The shining star.
"The sun is setting" — in this
case, the sun is the DOER. Therefore, the present participle is used.
The setting sun
"The astronaut has repaired the
telescope" — The telescope is the RECEIVER Of the action, therefore if we
want to use the verb as an adjective, we need to use the past participle,
The repaired telescope.
Don't be confused by the passive voice:
"The star was destroyed by a
comet" - the star is the RECEIVER of the action even though it is the
subject of the sentence, and therefore the past participle is used:
The destroyed stan
Note: in this case, it would also be very logical to say the
destroying comet
"The nebula was photographed by the rocket"
becomes             Thephorogrgphednebula
The photographing rocket.

Things to
  remember about participle adjectives:
Participle adjectives are the same as regular adjectives —
  they must stand before the noun they describe and they must always be
  singular
e.g. The
  unexplored moons
NOT the
  moon
Past participle adjectives ( -ed endings) can only be made
  from transitive verbs (verbs that take direct objects — the difference
  between transitive and intransitive verbs will be discussed in detail in unit
  3
e.g. "discover" is a
  transitive verb — an astronaut discovered a planet discoveredplaner
"explode"
  is an intransitive verb — the Star is exploding + the exploded star is wrong
Do not include objects in participle
  adjectives, if the verb has an object.

The

           e.g.

do not say
  ' 'the approaching the planet" satellite
The boy
  is.s•tingrheapp/e; do not say "the eating the apple Y' boy
note: in these situations, you can change that into an adjective
  clause:
•the
  satellite that is approaching theplaner The boy who is eating the apple

Names af the planets
The English
names of the planets came from Latin and the Roman names. With the exception of
Sedna, all the planets are named after Roman gods. The names are:
Mercury —
Venus — Earth — Mars — Jupiter — Saturn - Uranus - Neptune — Pluto Sedna
Here is a silly rhyme, If you remember this sentence, you can
use the first letter of each word to remind you of the name of the planet,
Mån
Very Early Madc Jars Stand Up Néarly Perpendicular, Silly
Exercise 12.1
Change these sentences into phrases with participle
adjectives, as in the example. Describe the bold word.
e.g. The moon orbits the planet the orbiting moon
1. The meteor approaches the planet

2.

The sun is exploding

3.

The planets arc forming

4,

The Star shines brightly

5.

The moons rotate slowly

6,

The sun sets slowly.

7.

The rocket is returning.

The astronauts completed
  the mission

9.

The astronauts are returning

10. The
satellite circles the planet

I l. The
rocket booster is fálling off.

12. The ship recovered the capsule.

13. The astronaut photographed the
asteroidv

14. Scientists
collected the samples.

Exercise 12.2
In the following passage, choose the correct participle
adjective. Remember consider which noun the adjective describes, and then
consider if that noun is doing or receiving the action of the verb.

Line 1
Line 5
Line 10
Line 15
Line 20

Scientists
  studying (discovering/discovered) dinosaur skeletons could not come up with a
  suitable explanation for the sudden change in climate which caused their
  extinction. Astronomers, however, have proposed the
  (following/fòllowed) explanation: a meteor strike. The theory is quite
  logical, A meteor, approximately I km in diameter struck the earth and caused
  a massive dust cloud. The (rising/risen) dust then created a
  "blanket" in the atmosphere which prevented
  (approaching/approached) rays from the sun from heating the earth.
This "Dust Cloud" theory was not accepted by
  (reviewing/reviewed) scientists when it was first proposed. Many
  climatologists believed that some other, perhaps magnetic cause, triggered
  the sudden change. These scientists were usually supported by geologists.
However, newly-
  (discovering/discovered) geological evidence supports the Meteor Theory.
  Pictures from space of Hudson's Bay have revealed the possible location of a
  possible impact A crater appears near the south-eastern tip of the Bay; and a
  meteorite large enough to make such a crater would indeed be large enough to
  create a dust cloud capable of causing the (specúlating/speculated)
  Climate Change.
Because of this new view, many
  astronomets are working on new methods of preventing this from
  happening again. All

(approaching/approachcd)
meteors are labeled and monitored by special (monitoring/ monitored) stations.
Luckily, (observing/observed) astronomers predict that no
(approaching/approached) meteor or comet is going to pass near enough to us to
be of any worry.
$19
Grammar point 13 - Word
Parts
Most English vocabulary Cat least 50%)
comes from Latin. In order to be able to understand —and guess the meaning of —
very many words, it is worth learning and getting comfortable using these word
parts.
Basically, all word parts can be
classified into three groups: Prefixes, Roots and Suffixes. There are very many
prctixes, roots and suffixes, so we will only focus on the most common ones
here.
Common Prefixes
Prefixes stand at the beginning ofwords, They do not have to
be attached to latin words, and their meaning will not change.

Prefix

Meanin

Prefix

Meanin

Prefix

Mean •

aero-

h

er-

over

s ch-

mind

ante-

before

under

u ad-

four

anti-

ainst

in-

into

nin-

five

auto-

self

not

semi-

half

bene-

ood/well

inter-

between

sol-

alone

two

mal-

bad

sub-

under

with

meso-

middle

s

to ether

con -

to ether

mono-

one

tele-

afar

con-

against

mistakenl

tri-

three

out

nova-

new

trans-

throu h/ across

ui-

st-

after

not

extra-

from outside

before

Common Roots
These come from Latin. You arc probably tåmiliar with
many of them.

Root

Root

Mea

Root

Meanin

astro

ce

eo

earth

sect

cut

audio

hear

a h/ am

write

se u

follow

cede /cede

habit

live

watch

chronos

time

•ac/•ect

throw

stella

Star

mis/mit

send

build

cosmo

cred

believe

hon

sound

therm

heat

demo

eo le

hot

vac

dict

sa

ort

vert

duc/ duct

ull/lead

break

ven

come

fer

vis

see

fluct

scrib/scri

write

voc

Common Suffixes
Here we will
focus only on the suffixes which change the word parts — noun/adjective,
etc„.

Noun — thing

Noun —

Adjective

Verb

-ism

-ic

-ize

-tion

-ate

-ian

-al

-ant/ -ent

-en

-ance/-ence

-ist

-ful

-dom

-ive

-ia

-010

-ful

-ment

-ile

-ion

-less

-om

-ial

-ian

-able/ -ible

-OUS

Irregular singular/ plural forms
Many words in English, which have been directly translated
from Latin or Greeks have kept the native forms, and maintatn the
singular/plural forms. Here is a list of irregular structures:

Singular endin

Plural ending

Examples

-i (pronounced "eye")

cactus/ cactl; apparatus/apparati;
  nucleus (nuclei

-a (pronounced "ah')

stratum/strata; datum/data; bacterium/bacteria

-a

ounced 'u

a /al e; nebtila/nebulae•

-ex or—ix

-es (pronounced "eeze")

matrix/ matrices; index/indices; vortex/vortices

nounced '"ah

criterion/criteria• automaton/ automata

-i              nuanced 'ice"

libretto/libretti w virtuoso/
  virtuosi

* • this form is used only for words which are translated
from Italian
Exercise 13.1
Write the
meaning for these words
Interstellar

2.

Transcontinental

3.

Geocentric

4,

Binary (star system)

5.

Constellation

Cosmology

S.
Photosphere

9.
To Trisect

10. To Conduct

I I.
Prediction

12. To
cohabitate

13. Evocative

14. Immorphable

52
Exercise 13.2
Try to create words which
would describe these situations, as in the example. eg a train that goes
acpos:s o continent transcontinental train
1.
A person who studies astronomy
2.
Something from
outside the earth (ends in "estrial")

3.
Something which is sent across space
4.
Not believable (ends in —ible)
5.
(distance) between galaxies
6.
Carry through (long distance)
7.
TO pull together
8.
Carry through
(long distance) Il
9.
Cut into two
pieces
Under ground (ends in —ian)
11. Break
out (out break)
12. Send through a long distance
13. The
thing which is sent through a long distance
14. Something
that follows another thing together
Grammar Point 14 Adjective Clauses
In many situations, it is necessary to
describe something in great detail — and sometimes an entire sentence is
required to make sure that the item you are describing is very clear. In this
case, an entire sentence can be added to a main clause — because it is
describing a noun, it is called an Adjective Clause". (A clause is group
of words that has a subject and verb.)
There are many types Of adjective
clauses, and we will discuss each Of them in turn. The first few may appear
simple, but it will become very complex very quickly, so it is important to
review things which may already be familiar to you.
Look at this
situation:

That is a building. I like it.
The
  second sentence gives information about the building. The information is
  "I like the building". The pronoun "it" means "the
  building."
The entire second sentence gives
  information about the word "building. "
Therefore,
  the entire second sentence is an adjective for the word "building".
  However, it must be clearly attached to the first sentence.
Attaching a sentence to a noun is very simple — all
  you need is the appropriate connection. In this case, you are describing a
  noun-thing, and therefore your connection will be the word "which"
"Which"
  represents "it" — therefore "it" is not mentioned again.
  The new structure is very simple:
Thai is the building {which I like}.

The same can
be done to describe a person:

That is the
  man. I met him at a party yesterday.
Because you
  are describing a person, you cannot use the pronoun "which use the
  pronoun "whom"
     That is the man {whom met at a pavry yesteniay

you must

54
When you are
describing things and people you can use the pronoun "that":
That is
the house {that I want to buy}. That is the person {that I talked to}.

Things to remember about adjective clauses:
They always immediately fi)llow the noun
  that they are describing
e.g. The building {which is at the
  corner} is a historical monument not The building is a historical monument
  {which is at the corner}. not Which is at corner, the is a hist0/ica/
Adjective clauses can describe any noun in a sentence — the subject,
  object, complement, etc.
           e.g.       The temple was beautiful. I
  saw it in Tokyo.
The temple
  {which saw in Tokyo} was beautiful
                        I     show
  youpictures. I rook them in Morocco.
Twill show
  you thepicttares {that T took in Morocco},
Every
  adjective clause must follow the same pattern: connector + subject + verb
The most common connector is "that" — it can be used for both
  people and things:
           e.g.        That is the building {that
  Frank Lloyd Wright designed).
She is the woman {that
  Istudied with l. He is the man {that designed tire hotel}.
That is the hotel {that he designed}w
When a noun is followed by an adjective clause, it often
  needs the definite article.
           e.g.       She is a woman. f sold her the
  house.
She is the
  woman whom sold the house
Traditionally, in
  this type of adjective clause, the connector for people was "whom".
  However, in modern conversational English, this has been replaced by
  "who" or "that".
           e.g.        Thal is the man whom f           about.
  (traditional)
That is the man that spoke to. (inodern convenationai)

Pattern
to took for:
When you see noun + that, noun +
which, or noun +whornt it is a type I adjective clause.

Type
1 adjective clauses
When
describing things, use the connectors "which" or "that"v
Both are equally acceptable, but in everyday speech, "that" is more
common. When you are describing people, use the connector "whom" or
"that". In everyday speech, "that" is most common.
e.g. There is a building next to the school. I like the
building.
•Þ There is a building {which I likel next to
the school  There is a building Ohat I like: next to
the school,
e.g. The CN TOwer is a Toronto landmark. Everybody should
visit that landmark + The CN Tower is a TOronto landmark {whiCh everybody
should visit} + The CN Tower is a Toronto landmark {that everybody should
visit}.
Exercise 14.1
Combine these sentences into longer sentences. Use the second
sentence as an adjective clause.
That is the church. Roman builders built it.

2.

This is the Cathedral. 1 love it.

3.

Churches have big windows.
  German architects built those churches.

4.

Concrete is a strong material. Roman builders
  discoveted concrete.

Arches are pointed@ Gothic architects designed those
  arches

6,

The woman designed the Bell
  Centre, I introduced her to your

This is the building. Pablo
  Picasso designed it.

That is the museum. Andrew Lloyd Wright designed it.

That is rhe temple. The Athenians used it as a bank.

10. That is the dome. Michelangelo designed it.

Exercise 14.2
In the following passage, put brackets } around any adjective
clauses that you find.

Line I
Line 5
Line 10
Line 15
Line 20
Line 25

Architecture, in the
  modern sense of the word, started with the construction of ancient temples
  which were built by the ancient Egyptians, Although many buildings were built
  before that time, the records which people kept about them are very scarce
  and don't give us any specific information that wc can use to reconstruct
  those buildings e
After the Egyptians
  came the Greeks. The temples that the Greeks built are the oldest stylized
  buildings in Europe, They were built mostly as temples to the gods and
  goddesses that the Greeks worshiped, and also as homes for the well off
  citizens. The temples which the Greeks built have a very distinct style.
  Actually, most of the buildings from the time of the ancient Greeks can be
  classified into one of three "orders" according to the time that
  builders bullt it. The oldest order is Doric, followed by Ionic and then by
  Corinthian.
When the Roman Empire came to dominate Europe, the
  Romans were wise enough to learn everything that the Greeks had learned. The
  Romans also made their own contributions, most notably the curved arch. The
  secret to the arch was the "keystone" — a stone which masons cut
  Into a special shape, and which the builders placed at the top Of the arch.
  Without this stone, the entire arch would collapse.
When the Roman Empire fell, people wanted to try something
  new, and a new style of architecture developed — Gothic. This type grew in
  Northern Europe, among the Goths. The buildings that Goths built feature very
  large windows and pointed arches. These were two Innovations that Getman
  architects came up with to help make their buildings uniqye and beautiful,
  The cathedrals that the Goths built are some of the most visited

buildings in Europe, They are also the places that people are most likely
to photograph.
Type 2 Adjective Clauses
In some situations, the noun that you want to describe is the
subject in the adjective clause. In this case, the connector is also the
subject. Look at these examples:

The Gothic architecture style is my favorite. It originated
  in Germany.
The second sentence wilt
  be used as an adjective clause to describe gothic architecture. However, in
  the adjective clause, gothic architecture — it — is the subject. In this
  case, the subject becomes the connector:
The Gothic architecture
  style lwhich originated ia Germanyl is myfavorite (the connector
  "which" is also the subject)

Many people don't understand modernism. Modernism uses very much
concrete. Many people don understand modernism {which uses very much concrete}.
This can also be used to describe people:
Architects were In Greece. They started using marble
for buildings.  The architects {who started using
marble/or buildings; were in Greece. (the connector "who" is also the
subject)

Things to remember about type Il adjective clauses:
The vefb in the adjective
  Clause must agree with the noun it is describing evg. The buildings {that are
  over there} are new
(the adjective clause describes "buildings" so
  the verb must be plural)
The building {that is over here} is old.
(the adjective clause describes
  "building" so the verb must be singular)

Pattern to look fort
When
you see noun •+ which/that/who + vefb, it is a type 2 adjective clause

Exercise 14.3
Combine these simple sentences into more complex sentences.
Use the second sentence as an adjective clause.
There are buildings in Rome. They have
round windows.

2.

There are buildings in
  Germany. They have pointy spires.

3,

There are Old Roman
  buildings. 'They have very small wmdows.

4, There are many huge stained glass windows. They are
symbols of gothic architecture.

5. Buildings
have no arch. They are Older than Roman buildings.

It is easy to recognize Greek buildings by
their roof. The roof has no arch

7. Many churches are built in the shape of a cross. Those
churches are in Europe.

Many old windows are small. They are in Roman buildings.

9.
Many houses in
Toronto are narrow and have high ceilings, Those houses are in the Victorian
style.

10. There
are many buildings in Europe. Those buildings are Older than Canada.

I l, There
are many old churches in Europe, Those churches have subterranean passages,

Exercise
14.4
In the following passage, put brackets { } around any
adjective clauses you find.

Line I
Line 5
Line 10
Line 15
Line 20

The two most common
  architectural styles that are found in Europe are the Roman and the Gothic.
  One that is often overlooked is the Victorian style,
The Victorian style of architecture was very popular during
  the reign of Queen Victoria, who ruled for over 70 years. During her reign,
  England was the lead "superpower" of the world. The British were
  very fond of saying "the Sun never sets on the British Empire".
  Unfortunately, the architectural style which developed during this time was not
  very exciting.
The feature that
  is most often associated with Victorian architecture is the narrowness of the
  houses. They feel like people who are standing on a crowded train. The people
  who designed these buildings were probably feeling exactly like that.
However, the houses that were built at this time are
  also very tall. This may seem like a way that the designers can make up for
  the lack Of width, however the height only leads to staircases that never
  end. The view that you get from the top floor Of Victorian houses is quite
  nicei however the climb that you must endure to arrive there almost makes it
  not worth while.
The designers who worked during the Victorian era gave us
  one more very common feature: the row-house. This is commonly known as

"town-houses" in North America,
These row-houses that look like they are all jammed together allowed so many
millions to move to the big cities and allowed the industrial revolution which
changed the world to happen.
Type 3 Adjective Clauses
It is important to remember that adjective clauses give more information
about nouns, in relation to other nouns.
When the noun that you are describing is
the object of a preposition in the adjective clause, you should keep the same
relation in the new sentence.

That is the street. I live on that street,
"that street" is the object of the preposition
  "on".
Traditionally, the correct way to combine these
  sentences was
I. move the
  preposition to the beginning of the adjective clause and 2. use the
  appropriate connector— "which" for things or "whom" for
  people
That is the street {on which I live}.

This was because it is considered incorrect to end a sentence
With a preposition (because prepositions always need an object)
She is the
woman. Î told you about her.
+ She is the woman {about whom Itoldyou}.
He is the
man. I spoke to him
             He is the          Ito whom Ispoke}.
That is the building. I wrote a report about it.
 That is the building {about which I wrote a report}.
Today,
however, it is more common to leave the word order the same as it is in the
second sentence.
She is the
woman that f toldyou about.
He is the
man that Jspoke to,
That is the building that T wrote report about.

Pattern to look for:
When you see noun + preposition

which/that/whom, it is a
  type 3 adjective clause

Exercise 14.4
Combine these sentences into complex sentences. Use the
second sentence as an adjective clause. Write two forms for each sentence.
That is the city. Michelangelo was born in
it.

2,

This is a street.
  Måny famous churches are on it.

3.

That is a cathedral. There is a famous labyrinth in
  it.

Greece is a country. The Romans learned ftotn it.

5. Rome is a
country, The Goths learned from it,

Morocco is a country. The Romans imported marble from it.

Spain is a country. You can see many architectural styles in it.

62
8 That is the
book. I wrote my thesis about

9. That is the tree. Sparrows live in it.

10, He is the
man. The news is about him.

I L That is
the staircase. You must go up it,

12. She
is the director. You need to speak to her.

13. That is the car. He will tell you
about it.

14. That is the church. I got married in
it.

Type 4 Adjective Clauses
In some
situations, connectors can be used to add information to the adjective clause.

Look at this example;
The Middle Ages Here rhe time tat
  which Gothic architecture popular}, The connector is "at which",
  and it describes the time.
The structures "at/in/on/during
  + which" can be replaced by "when"
•Þ
  The Midd/é Ages were time {when Gothic was very popular).
e.ge 'The Renaissance is the time {at which Roman
  architecture became popular ogaiìð } ,
The Renaissance is the time {when Roman archúecture became popular
  again

Look at this example:
Rome is the city {in which the largest ceramic dome
  was built}.
In this adjective clause, the connector is "in
  which", and describes the place. The structures "in/at/on +
  which" can be replaced by "where" Rome is the city {where the
  largest ceramic dome was built}.
e.g.       Paris is the city tin which theJirst
  univenity was established in Europe}.
Paris is the place {where thefirst university was established in
  Europe).

Remember — "when" and
"where" represent preposition phrases, so they can never be the
subject of a sentence. The connectors "where" and "when"
must be followed by a subject.
            Saudi Arabia
is the country where is             is wrong
Kuala Lumpur is the city where is the tall tower. is wrong

Pattern
to look for
When you see noun + when; noun +
where, it is a type 4 adjective clause.

Exercise 14.6
Combine these sentences into complex sentences. Use the
second sentence as an adjective clause. Be sure to use the appropriate
connector.
Egypt is the country. All western
architecture started from that place.

2.

Greece is the country.
  Marble buildings first appe¿ued In that place.

3,

Greece is the country. Many
  ancient temples still stand in that country.

Seven
thousand years ago was a time. The Egyptians built their pyramids at that
5. The renaissance was a time. A Roman revival took place at
that time.

7. The
Victorian Era was a time. Many narrow buildings were built at that time.

Type 5 Adjective Clauses
In some situations, the noun that you
are describing is the owner of something, and this is the relationship that you
want to keep in the adjective clause, This adjective clause is a
"possessive"             clause.

Look at this example:
I know that man. That man's children play hockey.
In this situation, the noun that you will describe is
  "that man". In the adjective clause, the noun nthat
  man" is only a possessive adjective describing "children". You
  can make an adjective clause in this case also, using the connector
  whose".
I know that man {whose children play hockey}.

Note; The
connector "whose" is used for both people and things,
            e.g.       That
is the building- Its windows have gold.
 That is the building gwhosewindows
havegoldl.

Pattern to look for:
When you see the pattern noun +
whose, it is a type 5 adjective clause

Exercise 14.7
Combine these
sets of sentences — use the second sentence as an adjective clause. Roman buildings are older than Gothic
buildings. Roman arches are round.

2.      That is the man. His designs were
used in the C.N. Tower.

3.      That is the woman. Her house is the
biggest in the area.
That is the
office tower. Its penthouse is the highest in Toronto.

5.

That is the building. Its
  penthouse is the most expensive In Canada.

6,

That is the man, His designs won the contest,

7, That is
the woman, Her book is used as the textbook,

fib

Type 6 Adjective Clauses
All adjective clauses can be classified
as one of two types — those that give extra information, and those that give
key information.
Look at this sentence:
           Windows
{Ihar are round} are          style,
The adjective clause {that are round} is very important — if tells us
which windows. Not all windows are Roman style — which ones are Roman style?
Round windows. We need the adjective clause to tell us which windows arc Roman
style. This type of adjective clause is called "defining".
Look at this sentence:
Paris, {which has manyfantastic buildings}, is not as cold as Toronto.
The adjective clause {which has many
fantastic buildings} gives us information about Paris, however it does not tell
us which Paris. We know which Paris, because there is only one. If we remove
the adjective clause from the sentence, we will still know exactly which city
we are discussing. This type of adjective clause is called
"nondefining" and needs commas at the beginning and at the end.
The commas
around adjective clauses can play a key role in the meaning of the sentence.
Look at this example:
             The
buildings twhich         made of wood) burnt down.
This sentence means that some buildings were made of wood, and only some
buildings burned down. Which ones? The ones which were made of wood. This is a
defining adjective clause,
The buildings, {which were made o/uvoodt, 5umt
Because there are commas around the
adjective clause, we can assume that it is extra in formation. That means that
the adjective clause doesn't tell us which buildings. This means that all the
buildings were made of wood and all of the buildings burned down,

Things to
  remember about adjective clause punctuation:
ifthe adjective clause doesn't explain WHICH one, put commas ifyou are
  giving information about a proper noun (name), always use commas

Exercise 14.8
Read the following passage. Punctuate the adjective clauses
as necessary. Remember, if the adjective clause does not answer the question
"which one", you need commas.

Line I
Line 5
Line 10
Line 15
Line 20

St. Peter's Basilica
  which is in the Vatican is an incredible architectural masterpiece. Many
  Other buildings which are located in Rome can also be considercd
  breathtaking, but St. Peter's Basilica takes thc cake. Also, not many other
  buildings can boast design contributions by two of the most famous Italian
  artists in the history of Italian art — Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.
The Basilica is said to be built on the grave of
  Saint Peter who was the first Pope. The current Basilica was built on the spot
  of an older Basilica which was built by the Roman Emperor Constantine.
  Constantine who lived from 274 to 337 introduced Christiamty as the state
  religion of the Roman Empire.
The Basilica has one
  central hall which is called a nave which is divided into three parts to
  facilitate the movement of pilgrims who travel frorn all over the world to
  pray there. This nave which is 200 meters long can hold 401000 people.
The Basilica took over 120 years which is a very long time
  to build. The original architect only designed the layout which is in the
  form Of a cross. The dome which was designed by Michelangelo is the largest
  dome in the world. It is 120 metres high. The dome is one piece of ceramic
  which is held up by tour huge square pillars which are 20 metres high.

Exercise 14.9
Rewrite this passage, combining sentences into adjective clauses. Remember to
pay attention to prepositions. Remember — usually, there are many ways to
express the same ideay
The Cathedral at Chartres
The Roman Empire greatly influenced architecture. It
fell in the 4"' century. Power moved to France and Germany. Goths lived
there.
People consider themselves lucky. They live in the
small French town Of Chartres They built a shrine to honour the Virgin Mary,
She protects them.
The Cathedral
has 2 spires. The spires are of uneven heights. This is due to a fact.
The fact is that they were built at different timesv
The main entrance has 3 door; + There are arches above
the doors + The arches are pointed. Pointed arches are called "lancet
arches". They were in vented in Germany
The Cathedral has a
grandiose roof. The roof is very heavy. To hold the weight of the roof,
architects designed buttresses. They designed new walls. The walls were very
thin and had many windowss
In the nave of the
churCh there is a labyrinth, Labyrinths are common in Gothic churches. It is a
path. Pilgrims walk ålong this path before worship.
Above the door, there
are 1 3 pictures. These pictures depict Christ the King and 12 Apostles.
In the 1960s, structural
engineers conducted a series Of tests on the Cathedral. The tests checked the
stability of the design. According to the tests, the Cathedral should have
collapsed centuries ago — luckily for us, it didnit@ Maybe the
Virgin Mary IS protecting it'
69

Grammar Point 15 Adjective Clause Reductions
In many situations, when the sentence is
very simple, it is possible to remove some sections of adjective clauses — the
result is called an adjective phrase, or an adjective clause reduction.
As there are many types or adjective clauses, there are also
many types of reductions.
In general do not make a reduction if the
reduction will make the sentence difficult to understand
Type 1 Adjective
Clause Reductions
When the noun
that you are describing is NOT the subject of the adjective clause, you can
remove the connector "that" or "which" or "whom"
e DO NOT REMOVE other connectors, ie. where, whose, or when.
e.g. The herbs {that many people have
in their garden} can be used medicinally
 The herbs    people have in their
garden} can he used medicinally
Many people
don't know the herbs :that they cook with) started as medicines.
                         Many         don't
know the herbs {they cook witht started as
Galen is
the Greek scientist {whom many consider to be the father of medicine}.
Galen is the Greek scientist {many consider .to be thefàrher
ofmedicine:.
is the ciiy {where most medicinal
herbs are grown}. cannot be reduced
Theifr/irst whiter in Canada was the time {when Cartier            his
men alinost died} cannot be reduced

Pattern to look for:
If there is noun noun + verb verb,
that is an adjective clause, with the pronoun reduced.

Exercise 15.1
In the following sentences, cross out any unnecessary
adjective clause connectors.
l. She is very proud of the plants that she grew from seed.
2.      That is the store where he bought the
exotic cactus.
3.      People
that have small windows should not plant large plants.
4.      The
course that he is taking will prepare him for his own business.
5.      The medicine that they sell in the
store are all natural.
Exercise 15.2
In the following passage, cross out any unnecessary adjective
clause connectors.

Line I
Line 5
Line 10
Line 1 5
Line 20

In the summer Of 1995, a group Of Swiss skters came across
  a frozen body in the Italian Alps. The police that they called took the body
  to the nearest hospital for tests. The body that the climbers found was over
  5000 years old, but was very well preserved because of the cold.
The body was called "the Ice Man" by the
  scientists who studied it. His internal organs were just as well preserved as
  his exterior. The scientists who studied him also learned that the necklace
  that "Ice Man" had was actually a fungus/mushf00tm The researchers
  did not know, however, Why the "Ice Man" chose that particular
  foul-tasting mushroom to put on his necklace.
With time,
  the researchers found that "Ice Man" had an intestinal parasite
  which he knew about. The mushroom that the "Ice Man" was carrying
  on his neCklace had some anti-viral properties- it was medicine for the virus
  that "Ice Man" was suffering from,
"Ice Man" is the oldest documented case of herbal
  medicine,
Records
  that historians found in China are over 4500 years old. Comparable lists were
  found in Egypt, and India. There is considerable evidence that the Native
  Canadians who carne from Asia brought with them the herbal traditions that
  thc "doctors" in their home countries practiced.

Type 2 Adjective Clause Reductions
When the connector is also the subject of
the adjective clause, it is sometimes possible to create a more complex
reduction. There are two possible ways to make a reduction.
1

First, check to see if the verb in the adjective clause
  includes the auxiliary vett "to
If it does, remove the
  connector and the auxiliary verb.
e.g. The doctor is examining the
  patient lying the ta ble}. The doctor is examining the patient {lying on the
  table}.
The plant growing in the comer} con
  be usedfor medicine, The plant {growing in the corner} can be usedfor
  medicine.
This pattern can bc used if the adjective clause is in the
  passive voice, also. If it is, remember that there will be the auxiliary verb
  "to be*' + the past participle. This is reduced the same way:
e.g.      The
  medicine prescribed} can be purchased at the pharmacy downstai's.
The
  medicine {prescribed} cat/ be purchased at the phannacy downstaiws.
The
  textbook written in the  century} is still being used today.
                        The textbook {written in the
        century) is still being used today.

Pattern to look for:
If you see a noun followed by a participle, past or present,
that means it is an adjective clause reduction.

11

If the verb in the adjective clause
  doesn't contain the auxiliary verb "to be", it may still be
  possible to make a reduction. The point to consider is: will changing the
  tense of the verb into the present continuous change the meamng of the
  sentence?
If the change
  to the continuous will not change the meaning Of the sentence, you can make a
  reduction in the following way:
1.      Remove
  the subject
2.      Change
  the entire verb Structure into a gerund Look at this example:
Peep/e whoforget to eat breakfast are usually hungry Oefòre
  their lunch break.
If you change the verb "forget" to "forgetting", it
  will not really change the meaning of the sentence, because "I am
  forgetting" is an unusual form. Therefore, it is OK to change this
  adjective clause to:
Peoplefotgerting
  to eat breakfast are usually hungry before their lunch break
However, if changing the
  verb in the adjective clause into the continuous will change the meaning, you
  cannot make the reduction:
Look at this example:
The man who sits there every day is a doctor.
If you change the
  verb "sits" to 'lis sitting", the meaning of the adjective
  clause will change. Therefóre, it is not OK to Change this adjective
  clause to: The man sitting there every day is a doctor.
You can make this type of reduction
  with any "non-continuous verb". These are verbs such as forget,
  hate, and love which are usually not used with the continuous tenses.

Here is a
  list Of common "non-continuous" verbs:
be
  (not as an auxiliary verb); believe; belong; exist; forget; hate; have (not
  as an auxiliary verb); hear; know; like; dislike; look like; love; mean;
  mind; need; owe; own; prefer; realize; remember; see; seem; suppose; think
  (believe); understand; want.

73
Exercise
15.3
Practice reducing the following adjective clauses into
adjective phrases.
People who want to buy
herbal medicine have a much wider choice today than even 10 years ago.

2.

The human backbone is a highly complex and delicate structure which is
  made up 33 small bones called vertebrae.

3,

Brain
  tumors are a mass of cells - either abnormal or normal - that grow
  unnecessarily in the brain

4.

The cause of type I
  diabetes is unknown, although there is evidence that shows it mght be
  inherited.

of
Emphysema is caused by gradual damage
to the structure of the lungs, which makes it harder to exhale.
Which drug is prescribed will depend on
the individual patient, and their particular form of the disease which affects
them.

7.
St Louis encephalitis, which was named after the town where it
was first classified in 1933, is the most common viral encephalitis in the US,

8.
So far; avian influenza has mostly infected people Who have been
around infected birds and their waste.
Tourette's syndrome tics, which are classified into two
broad categories, can be verbal or physical.

10.In 2004, the number of cases Of mumps which were
recorded in England and Wales jumped dramatically.

11.Starting in 2005, companies that sell vitamins in Canada
will be regulated by the federal government.

12.Studies which were published in January of 2006
show that many cough medicines don't really work

13.The number of people who have been taking herbal
medicine has been increasing steadily for the last few years„

14.The farms Which grow herbs which will be used in
medicine can get a speciål tax break.

15.Companies that claim to sell 100% organic products
are not regulated at all

16.The owners of stores that carry herbal medicines
have often tried the products on themselves.

17.Private individuals who want to get more
information about herbal mcdicinc can find a lot of information on-line.

18.People who want to use herbs that they grew for
medicine should enquire with a licensed herbalist first.

75

Grammar Point 16 -
Equatives
In many situations, to explain about something completely
unfamiliar. it is useful to compare it to something that is familiar to the
listener. It is useful to choose one characteristic, and to use that feature to
compare two objects.
Look at this
example.
The whale shark is big. The Blue whale is the same size.
You can use size as the common characteristic between the
two. To show the relationship, you need two prepositions "as"
The structure is very simple first item + verb + as
+ characteristic 4 as + second item
Look at these examples:
              The shark is               as
dangerous as a pit bull
            Orcas              are        as
fast                  as Great White Sharks

Things to remember when making equatives:
You must
  always compare similar thing to each other Sharks are as dangerous as snakes
NOT:
Sharks are as dangerous
  as on a mountain noun preposition phrase
To swim is as fun as canoeing i"fìnifive          gerund
The verb must
  always agree With the subject — the first item you are comparing:

The

Oceažt

as saline as the Indian Ocean
Lobsters guugt as common as shrimp
 Traditionally if you are using
  pronouns, the second item (after the second "as") must be in the
  subject form, not Object form. In modern conversational English, however,
  both forms are acceptable
Sharks are not as smart as "e
  (traditionally correct)
Sharks are
  not as smart as him Onodera conveoarional English)
You can use the verb as the comparison between the two items- In this
  case, however, you also require an adverb:
IIé swims as quickly as f

Exercise 16.1
Write sentences combining these nouns using the "as —
as" structure, as in the example.
e.g.
Sharks — dangerous — cobras sharks are as dangerous as cobras
e.g. I swim fast — sharks +1 can't swim as fast as sharks
Part 1.
Whale Sharks — large - Orca whales

2.

A porpoise — intelligent —
  a bullmastiff

3b

The Atlantic Ocean — big — the Pacific Ocean

4.

Nothing — deep — Lake
  Baikal

Nothing — long — the Great
  Barrier Reef

6.

Nobody — strong — a
  crocodile

7. Lake Erie
— clean — Lake Ontario

9.
An eel — dangerous — a shark

10. Nothing — big — the Mediterranean sea

I I. An electric eel — long — a freshwater eel

12. A stingray — dangerous — the blue ring octopus

16.2
In this
exercise, make the same structure, but don't use the verb "to be' Pay
attention to the point of comparison between the two items.
e.g. Octopus, swim, shark An octopus cannot swim asfast
as a shark
1. A sperm whale, eat, a blue whale

2.

A dogbite, hurt, a jellyfish bite

3.

A seal, scream, a sea lion

4.

A sealt jump, a dolphin

5,

Nothing, eat, a killer whale

Nothing, swim, a great white shark

Part 11.
Rewrite these simple sentences which contain comparative
structures into sentences that have the "as — form (you will have to use
the negativeth Remember — analyze what two things you are comparing, and then
isolate the point of comparison.
e.g. The squid that has green flashing lights is smaller
than the giant squid.
The seateace compares the squid that has greenWashing lights
and thegiatgt squid, The poini ofcomparison is size — one is smaller fhan the
Other
             The
squid         has lights is      as big as              squid
Exercise 16.3
The shark with the big white dots is bigger than the Great White shark.

2.      The
sea snakes that live at the bottom are more poisonous than the Cobra-

3.      The sea snakes that live near the top
of the sea are less poisonous than the snakes that live near the bottom.
The porpoise that lives in captivity is mote intelligent
than the porpoise that lives in the wild*

5. The Orca whale that lives near British Columbia swims
faster than the Great White Shark that live in Australia.

6.

Octopi are more flexible than dolphins

7-

Tarantulas are more dangerous than water spiders-

Electric eels are less dangerous than anacondas.

79
16.4
In the following passage, change the comparative forms to
equative forms.

Line 1
Line 5
Line 10
Line 15

In the
  oceans, there are more species Of animals than on land and in the air.
  However, the variety of plant and animal life in the oceans is the same as on
  land.
In general, warmer oceans have more varieties of fish than
  colder oceans. The fish that live in warmer oceans are more colourtill than
  the fish which live in the cold.
There is also a variation in size — fish that live in
  colder water tend to be bigger than fish that live in warmer water.
The vegetation is quite
  the opposite, however. The vegetation in the warmer water tends to grow much
  larger than the vegetation in the colder water Of the notth.
One thing
  that is more difficult to measure is the danger of the sea, Plants and
  animals that look safer may actually be more dangerous than animals that look
  safet For example, the  octopus of Australia looks much less dangerous than the
  giant octopus of Canada. However, the

Canadian animal is much less dangerous. On the other hand, the enormous
Blue whale looks more imposing than the apparently cute Orca whale. In reality
though, the Orca "killer" whale is the most dangerous predator in the
waters of the North.
80
Grammar Point 17 - The Superlative
When you want to describe the number one thing in the world, you need to
use the "superlative" form. This is made using the same formula as
the comparative form, but the endin are different.

I Syllable

2 Syllables

3 or more s llables

ends in

doesn't end in

add "the -est" to the
  base form

add
  "the -est" to the base form

add "the most" in front
  of the base form

add "the most" in front
  of the base form

for exam le

for exam le

for exam le:

for exam le:

small + the smallest

noisy + the noisiest

crowded the most crowded

expensive the most ex ensive

new the newest

dirty the dirtiest

modern the most modern

majestic the most ma•estic

cheap the
chea est

smelly the
smelliest

complex the most com lex

impressive the most im ressive

close + the closest

busy the busiest

beau tiful+ the most
  beautiful

Good + The
best
Bad        The
worst
 The most fun
Old     The Oldest(can be used for anything)
The Eldest (used for brothers or sisters only)
Far         The
Farthest (used mostly for distance)
The Furthest (means deeper - used for research,
investigatioti)

Write the
superlative forms for these noun/adjective pairs
        e.g. Krakatoa — high — mountain          Krakatoa is
the highest mountain
Pacific— big - ocean

2. Blue whale
— big - animal

3.

Giant squid — long —
  invertebrate

4.

Killer whale — fast — water animal

5,

Stout Infantfish — small —
  fish

Whale shark — big — fish

7.

Cyclothone — common — fish

8 Great white
shark — dangerous — fish

9, Great Barrier Reef — long — marine ecosystem

10. Baikal —
deep —lake

82
— Superlatives vs
Equatives
Practice re-writing these superlative forms as an equative
structure, using "nothing" as the first noun. Keep in mind that there
can be many verbs — not just "to be".
e.g. The Porsche is thefastest car Nothing is asfast as the Ponche.
1 The C.N.
Tower is the tallest building in the world

2.

Lake Bailkal is the deepest lake.

3.

Australia is the smallest
  continent.

4.

Durian is the smelliest fruit.

5,

The Anaconda is the longest snake,

6.

Victoria Falls is the
  highest waterfall.

7.

Niagara Falls is the most
  beautiful waterfall.

8

The hummingbird has the
  smallest eggs.

83
Change the adjectives in the following passage into the
superlative form.

Dangers
of the deep

Line I

Creatures of
  all shapes and sizes inhabit the oceans of the world. Although people catch
  many spectes, there are those which are best left alone.
(dangerous) creature in the water is

Line 5

the Great White Shark This is
  (large) of the shark family, and can grow
  to over 50 feet (16metres), (long) distance a Great White has ever traveled is more than
  20,000 km in 9 months. Luckily, Great Whites don't like cold, so there's no
  chance of seeing one in Lake Ontario.

Line 10

(Poisonous)fish
  is the stonefish. (large)
 stonefish
  discovered were 12 inches (30 centimetres). However, the dorsal spines of the
  stonefish can penetrate
(hard)  shoes. The second (poisonous) creature is
  actually a Stingray. This is the

Line 15

smaller cousin of the huge Manta Ray — the original
  "Sea Monsterï
We     cannot  forget  the       octopi  (poisonous)
   octopus is the
  (Australian) blue ring octopus. It has a neurorpoison Which is fatal within
  30 minutes.
Although jellyfish look imposing, there is
  only one which has ever

Line 20

proven regularly fatal — the Boxfish.

The     irony    is         obvious
:         some    of         (beautiful)  creatures in the world co-exist
with the
(dangerous)in the coral reefS.

Grammar
Point 18 - Showing Cause and
Effect with Adjectives
It is possible to show how one change affects another
situation. This is done with the following structures:
I         the + comparative *the +
noun, the + comparative + the + noun
e.g. The deeper the water, the
thinner thefish. The darker the water, the bigger the eyes.
This form can also be used with
2.            the
•e comparative [subject+verblt the + comparative [subject+verbl.
           e.g.       The
deeper yot' dive, the stronger thepressure is.
The smaller the shark is, the smaller the danger is.
The more I learn, the less near.
And this form can be used with adjective only:
e.g.                      The bigger, the better.
The cheaper, the happier. The more, rhe merrier.
Exercise 18.1
Complete these "the + comparative" pairs with
possible results. Remember, there is no one correct answer.
The more people use public transit such as busses and subways,

2. The more
people know about sharks,

3, The more
people study about the environment,
The more pressure people put on big corporations,

5. The more
people recycle,

85
18.2
Complete the
second part Of the "the + comparative" structure with your own
answer.

Line 1

There has been an alarming trend over the last few decades
  to ignore environmental side-effects, and the warnings of environmental
  scientists when it comes to the world's oceans. The more developed the world
  becomes,

Line 5

Although everyone knows pollution is bad, only Greenpeace
  seems to be actually doing anything about it. However, many people consider
  Greenpeace struply a group of crazy people. Because of their reputation, the
  more Greenpeace speaks,

Line 10
Line 15

The amount of garbage that is being dumped into the world's
  oceans is This is especially obvious in Australia's amazing Coral Reef.
  Because this is such a highly-evolved ecosystem, it shows the first negative
  side-effects of pollution. Even though it is very far removed from us in
  Canada, we must remember that the whole planet is connected, and the more
  damage we do in Australia,

Also, the more we help
Australia when they have a problem,

Grammar Point 19 Verb Tenses
There are 3 tenses in English — Simple,
Continuous and Perfect, and each one has a special meaning.
In generall the Slrpple tenses are used
to describe actions, the Contlnuous tenses are used to describe interrupted
actions, and the Perfect tenses are used to put events into order.
When talking about tenses, it is very
important to remember the time marker. There are many time markers — usually
preposition phrases.
Each tense can be used in each time — past, present and future. Each
tense has its own unique meaning, and each one needs to be considered in
relation to other tenses.

Before we examine the tenses, we need
to make one important distinction between two types of
All verbs in English can be classified
as either main ("lexical?) verbs, or helping ("auxiliary")
verbs. Auxiliary verbs are further sub-divided into either "tense"
auxiliary verbs: to be, to do, and to have; and "modal" auxiliary
verbs.

Describing Now
1. Present
Continuous (also called Progressive)
This tense is made with the auxiliary
verb "to be" and the present participle ('i ing" form), It is
used to describe actions which are happening The action is interrupted by this
sentence).

It can also be used to describe plans which absolutely cannot
be changed

 Remember: When you use the any continuous tense, the verb has 2 parts —
the auxiliary and the participle. If you omit cither one, the verb is
incomplete. is wrong
+ Remember: There are some verbs that are usually not used in
the continuous tenses.

2. Simple Present
This tense
is used to describe what usually happens or hobbies.
The
structure is very easy:
Subject + Simple Form of the Verb (S.F. V.)
7:00.
            Canadians        about history.
If there is no time marker, the present
simple is preferred to the present continuous.
3, Present Perfect
This tense is used to describe events that are finished, if
the time is not finished. The time marker is very important with this tense.
a vacation this year.
If the does
not contain a time marker, use the present perfect, not the Simple past,
Especially with questions of the form "have you — the time marker is
understood to mean "in your life" Have you been to Africa?
Have you touched a snake?
+ Remember:
When you use the any perfect tense, the verb has 2 parts — the auxiliary and
the participle. If you omit either one, the verb is incomplete.

Pattern to look for:
When you see the pattern Subject + (to
be) or (to have), cheek to make sure that there are no participles. "To
be" can be followed by the present or past participle, and "to
have" can be followed by the past participle. If there is a participlet it
is part of the verb.

Pattern to look for:
When you see the pattern S. + be"
or "to have") and then a comma, the word after the comma is NOT part
of the verb. It is most likely an adverb clause reduction.

Exercise 19.1
In the following sentences t underline the subject once and
the verb twice. Correct any mistakes you findv
Both the
Canadian and American government has made cfTOrts to assimilate native culture
into European society
2, There are
over 150 separate language in Canada and the United States,
3.
Many native tribes' oral traditions teach that their ancestors
have always been in the Americas,
4.
Most indigenous
people in the US refer to themselves as "American Indian " while most
indigenous people in Canada call themselves "First Nations. "
5.
According to the
census reports, there are about million Native Americans in the United States
and I million in Canada.
6.
There are many
more Indigenous people in Centrål and South America than there are in
Canada and the United States.
First Nations peoples across Canada
holds annual PouAVows where they display their rich cultural heritage and pride
in their history.
8 Scientist estimate that people have lived in North America
for at least 20,000 years,
Describing the past
1. Simple Past
When you are describing an action that happened at a specific time in the
past, use the Simple past tense. Remember, you need to include a time marker.
In 1876, C,operal Custer attacked the Sioux.
            Before
Europeans           to North America, there were horses living here.
2. Past Continuous
When you are describing an event that did not finish, or that was
interrupted, use the past continuous tense. The action that interrupts the past
continuous is in the simple past.
The past continuous tense uses the
auxiliary verb "to be" in the past form + present participle.
baskets when / came.

Points to
  remember about the past continuous tense
The interrupting action does not
  have to be in the same sentence, but it must be understood — it must be very
  obvious why the action in the past continuous was not finished.
            egr      Cartier met representatives
  orche Algonquin tribe when he arrived in
Canada, People were waiting/br him
  on the banks ofthe St. Lawrence River.
Many sentences can be used together in
  the past continuous to describe one big event,
e.g
  Champlain worried about surviveng hisfirst wmter in New Francz The weather
  was becoming very cold, his men were becomiug sick and theiÊ s«pplies
  were running out.

3, Past Perfect
The past perfect is used to describe an
action that happened in the past, before another action in the past. It is used
to put past events in orden
As with the past continuous, the two ideas do not have to be in the same
sentence, but it must be very clear from the context that there are two ideas,
and the one in the past perfect happened first.
e.g.       Ltst summer, I was on an a
      the ninth rime. I had flown to Europe, Africa, Australia, and California.
f was not inwressed when I met Brad Pitt     week. I had
met many movie stars before that.
The past perfect uses the auxiliary verb "to have" in the past
form + past participle
e.g.      When the Inuit anived in
North Antevica, theyfound people living there — people who had migrated
thousands ofyears earlier.
By the time rhe people returned, theJirc had consumed their entire
village.
            By the time
the            gave Camer the Arbonritae, many ofhis men had died
Exercise
19.2
In the following stories, fill in the blank with the
appropriate verb form

Where did the Native Americans come from?

Line I

Before the arrival of Europeans to
  "the new world", there (be) approximately 3 million
  inhabitants here. No written reports (exist)  about how they arrived, but most
  anthropologists now (believe)
  that they followed the

Line 5

animals.
Roughly 30 thousand years ago, during the last ice age, a
  '*bridge" (exist) between
  Alaska and Siberia. Migrating herds of mastodon and other large game (make) their way
  across this bridge in search of food- Asian hunters

Line 10

(follow)them to the "New
  Continent" „
Anthropologists
  speculate that upon at-rival here, the new immigrants did not stopl but
  rather (continue) their migration along the coast
  south. It is believed that most ofthose who came to North America actually
  (continue)  south

Line 15

through Mexico and into
  South America. All of the Americas are believed to have been inhabited 5000
  years ago.
Most Of these new arrivals (continue) migrant
  lifestyle, following the animals that they originally followed to their new
  home. Others, however, settled — especially in the fertile plains of

Line 20

Mexico,
  Canada and eventually Argentina.
This first "wave" of immigrants was followed by others.
  Although there is no proof, scientists (theorize) that the Inuit were actually the
  most recent group Of immigrants, arriving only approximately 2,500 years ago.
  Scientists now (believe)

Line 25

 that this group remained in the Arctic because other

territory was already inhabited.
Describing the future
1. Simple
Future
This is the easiest — and most common way — to describe events in the
future. There are two common structures:
1.
Subject + will+
S.F.V. Iheywillreturn.
She
2.
Subject "be going to" + S.F. V.
it.
Both forms are equally " strong" when describing
plans for the future.
Next week I wi// visit Montreal
Next week, I going to visit Montreal.
                Next
week,                            team
            Next
                            team is going to win.
However, when there is a situation that requires a reaction,
the structure ' 'will" is the only one used.
a)There's someonearthedoor. b)Ï71answerit
b) I'm going
to answer it is wrong
2. Future
continuous
This tense is used to express what Will be happening at an exact moment
in time in the future. This tense is used to describe one activity that will
happen at the same time as a second.
The
structure of this tense is:
subject "will be" + present participle
e.g. Atthat time, he yill-þŠAx;riying.
We dinner at 7:00} so please don't be
late.
Remember: Every person takes the same form
— will bey
3, Future Perfect
This tense is used to describe an action that will be finished
before a time in the future. The structure is:
subj. + "will have" + past participle.
 By the end oft/±e nexr month, we
havefìnished this textbook end of200ó, ETS have the
ißT.
*Remember:
Time markers are very important with this tense, as with every Other Perfect
tense,
Review of Tenses

Náme

Form

Use

Time Markers

Sim le Present

sub'ect + S.F.V.

habits traditions

usuall ev da

Present
Continuous

Subj. + "to be" + present
  participle

Action happening now, plan that cannot be cha ed

Now

Present Perfect

Subj. + "to have" + past
  artici le

Finished
  Action, unfinished time

for, since

Sim le Past

Sub + st form

Events in the st

Past Continuous

subj. + "to be
  (past)" + sent •ci le

Interrupted event in the past

while, durmgt when

Past Perfect

Subj. + "to have (past)"
  + ast artici le

Event before something in the past

before

Sim le Future

Sty. + "will" + S.F.V

Events in the future

Future
Continuous

Subj. + "will be" + sent

Events
  in the future that will he interrupted

when, while, during

Future Perfect

subj. +
  "will have" + past participle

Events that will happen before other
  future events

before, by

There is another set of tenses — the perfect continuous tense.
However, it is almost never used in teal conversation, because there is no real
difference between it and the perfect tense.
Exercise 19.3
— In the following Story, fill in the blanks with the appropriate verb

Line I

Many, many years ago when the world was new, there (be)  a beautiful
  river. Fish in great numbers (live) in this river, and its water was
  so pure and sweet that all the animals came there to drink.

Line 5

One day, a moose who
  (hear)  about this beautiful river from a
  muskrat (come) there to drink. Unfortunately, he
  was so big, and he (drink) much, that soon the water (begin)  to sink lower and lower. All the
  animals (be)  worried. The

Line 10

beavers (worry)  because their
  homes would be destroyed. The muskrats (be)  worried because they couldn't
  live without the river.
All the animals (try)  to
  think of a way to drive the moose from the river; but he (be)  so big

Line 15

that they
  were too afraid to try.
At last, thc fly (say)he
  would try to drive the moose away. All the animals (laugh)  How could a
  tiny fly frighten a giant moose?
The fly (say)  nothing, but that day, When the

Line 20

     moose (drink)                                                     he
  landed on his leg and (bite)

How the Fly
Saved the River (Ojibway — Great Lakes area)
The moose
(stamp)  his foot hard, but each time he
stamped, the ground sank and the water rushed in to fill it up. Then the fly
(jump)  about all over the moose, Line 25            biting
and biting until the moose was in a frenzy Moose (dash) madly about the banks of the river,
but he couldn't get rid ofthat pesky fly, At last the moose (flee) from the
river, and (not come)

Grammar Point 20 Regular Verbs and Link Verbs
All verbs in English can be categorized as either regular
(action) verbs or link verbs (also called linking verbs, or copulas).
Regular verbs describe an action by the subject.
e.g. The Apache the tomahawk in
battle Thi' Haida enormous Totem Poles. The Blackfoot in Teepees.
These vetbs say What the subject does*.
Link verbs give information
about the subject, and do not describe an action*. e•g. She is a teacher.
In this sentence, the verb "is" does not describe
an action from the subject to the object — it connects the word before it, she,
and the word after it, teacher. It creates a "link" between the
subject and complement.
            e.g.
       The Great Plains huge.
The Anasazi uuepeaceful.
The most
common linking verb is the verb "to be".
Verbs like
took, smell, feel, and taste can be used as both regular verbs and linking
verbs. This can cause confusion, and therefote the context Of the sentence
becomes very important,
                e.g.
in this case, the verb "looked" describes an
action by the bear. Here, it is used as a regular verb.
            e.g.     The
Mohawk hairstyle IQQ&ed scary.
in this case, the verb "looked" describes the
haircut - it does not tell you what the hair did. TherefOre, it is a link verb.
This difference is important, because regular vcq'bs arc
fOIlowed by adverbs. Link verbs are fOllowed by adjectives.
* Do not confuse regular/link verbs with
transitive/intransitive verbs. All link verbs are intransitive, but not all
intransitive verbs are link verbs

Here is a list of the most common link
verbs:
to appear (100k like/ seem); to feel;
to seem; to sound; to become; to 100k; to smell; to taste

Exercise 20.2
In the followtng story, choose the correct modifier -
adjective or adverb,

How Mosquitos Came To Be [Tlinget Tribe of The Pacific coastl

Line I
Line 5
Line 10
Line 15
Line 20
Line 25

Long time ago there was a giant who loved to eat humans. He was
  especially fond of human hearts. "Unless we can get rid of the
  giant," people said (fearful/fearfully), "none of us will be
  left," and they called a council to discuss ways and means.
One man said, "T think know
  how to kill the monster," and he went to the place where the giant had
  been seen (recent/recently) There he lay down (quick/quickly) and pretended
  to be dead,
Soon the giant came along Seeing
  the man lying there, he said (happy/happily): "These humans are making
  it easy for me. Now I don't even have to catch and kill them; they die right
  on my trail, probably from fear of me!"
The giant touched the body. 'Ah,
  good," he said, "this one is still (warm/warmly) and
  (fresh/freshly). What a tasty meal hell make.
The giant flung the man over his
  shoulder, and the man let his head hang down as if he were dead. Carrying the
  man home, the giant dropped him in the middle of the floor right near the
  fireplace. Then he saw that there was no firewood, and went to get some.
As soon as the monster had left,
  the man got up and grabbed the giant's huge Skinning knife. Just then the
  giant's son came in. He was still small as giants got and the man held the
  big knife to his throat. "Quick, tell me, where your father'S heart
  is!" The giant's son became (scarcd/scaredly). He said (quict/quietly):
  "My father's heart is in his left heel.'
Just
  then the giant's left foot appeared (sudden/suddenly) in the entrance, and
  the man (swift/swiftly) plunged the knife into the heel- The

monster
screamed (loud/loudly) and fell down dead,
Yet, the giant still spoke (angry/angrily). "Though I'm
deadl though you killed me, I'm going to keep on eating you and all the humans
in the world forever!"

Line 30
Line 35
Line 40

"That's what you think!"
  said the man. "I'm about to make sure that you never eat anyone
  again." He cut the giantis body (rapid/ rapidly) into pieces
  and burned each one in the fire, Then he took the ashes and threw them
  (forceful/forcefully) into the air for the winds to scatter, Instantly each
  of the particles turned into a mosquito, The cloud of ashes became a cloud of
  mosquitoes, and ftom their midst the man heard the giant's voice laughing,
  saying: "Yes, I'll eat you people (constant/constantly) until the end of
  time. "
As the
  monster spoke, the man felt a sting, and a mosquito started sucking his
  blood, and then many mosquitoes stung him (painful/painfully), and the man
  began (sudden/guddenly) to scratch himself.

99
Grammar Point 21     Verbals: Gerunds &
Infinitives
It is possible to use a verb as a subject or object. However,
it must be clear that the verb that you are using as the subject or verb is not
THE verb. For that, you must change the subject/object verb to the gerund form
or the infinitive form, The gerund and infinitive form are called a Verbal,
Paying
is not fun. Owning is fun.
I like
traveling.
They don't
enjoy canoeing.

Things to
  remember about verbals:
They must
  act like nouns -they stand either before or after the verb
They are verbs — therefore they are
  described by adverbs
Hunting silently is imporant
Rowing quickly is difficult
They are
  verbs — therefore they can take objects Building teepees was an important
  skill Chasing bison is a dangerous sport
They can be either the subject or the Object
Canoeing is fun
I like canoeing

When you use
a verbal as the subject Of a sentence, use the gerund. The infinitive is
grammatically conect, but it sounds unusuål.
The difficult point of vefbdls is to know which one to use as
the object. This is something you must learn — some verbs are followed by the
infinitive, some are followed by the gerund_ There is no pattern or logic — you
must simply learn which is which

Note.
When you see a phrase such as "playing
cards", it is impossible to tell just by looking at the phrase whether
"playing" is a verball with "cards 't as its object, or whether
"playing" is a participle adjective, describing "cards".
The only way to figure out the diflèrence is by looking at the context:
"Playing cards are cheap" — the subject is cards,
and the verb is "are".
"Playing cards is fun" - the subject is playing,
and the verb is "is"

Here is a list of verbs which are
followed by the infinitive:
agree; attempt; begin; continue;
decide; expect; fail; hesitate; hope; intend; learn; neglect; offer; plan;
prefer; pretend; promise; propose; refuse; remember; start; try; want.

Exercise 21.1
Complete the sentences using the verbs in the box.

to create to give up

to
  pay to sign to pay attention to put down to realize to reach to levy to
  collect

By the early 1770s, many people in
the US had refusedsome of the taxes that England
demanded.
2.
Very early in its existence, the Continental Congress began plans
an independent
nation.
3.      Even though it was a very unpopular
thing to do, the British government continued —new taxes on Its colonies in the
"New World".
4.
Immediately after the declaration of independence, England
attempted any rebe1110t1.

5.      The first thing that George
Washington startedwas weapons.
6 Originally, Thomas Jefferson hoped a peaeefiil resolution to the
U.S. political disagreements with England.
Even through the hardships at Valley
Forge, the troops with George Washington refused
England neglectedto the complaints Of the colonist
9. The British government fáiledthe importance of
the Boston Tea
party
England agreeda truce, and the US won its first
war,

Here
is a list of verbs which must be followed by the gerund:
admit;
appreciate; avoid; be fond of; can't help; consider, delay; deny; detest;
dislike; enjoy; finish; give up; keep; mind; miss; risk; quit; put off;
practice; postpone; recall; recommend; regret; tolerate; suggest; Stop.

• Remember: When a verb follows a preposition, including
phrasal a phrasal verb, it MUST be in the gerund form.
Exercise 21.2
Complete
these sentences using the verbs in the box.

paying taxes getting tortured fighting
or even marching getting destroyed             contacting       farming going
declaring independence attacking

I . The American
colonists detested  to
England without getting representation in government.
Paul Revere
risked  by the British
for giving notice of the
3.
There was no time
for the        Continental Army to practice well.
4.
At first, Washington avoided directly  the British army in open battle.
5.
At  valley  Forge, the
      entire  Continental   Army  risked
- only a mistake In communication
between British units saved them
6.
In hindsight, it is actually quite surprising that the Continental
Army did not quit after so many early defeats.
After the passage of "the
Intolerable Acts", the Continental Congress could not put offany more.
Benjamin Franklin suggested  Fiance and asking for help with the
war.
9 Many
"patriots" gave upto join the war,
10. After the defeat at Yorktown,
British Parliament couldnlt help a treaty with the Continental Congress.
Exercise
21.3
In the following exercise, choose the appropriate form Of the
verb — gerund or infinitive.
The Causes of the US Revolution
By the end of the 17b
century, cultural differences between England and its colonies in the
"New WOrld" had started (to  There were many
reasons for thisv the most obvious being physical separation. The type of
people who immigrate to a new land obviously enjoy (to do/doing) different
things than those people who prefer (to stay/staying) in one place, For the
most parts, these differences did not cause any major problems, likely because
England did not want to risk (to anger/angering) its colonists and sending them
to help the French, who also had colonies in North America.
Conditions changed abruptly in 1763. The Treaty of
Paris saw the end of French influence In North America, and England decided (to
tighten/tightening) its control. England's justification was that it needed
money to pay for the defense of the colonies. The British parliament passed a
series oflaws which intended (to introduce/introducing) the colonies to taxes.
In reality, England did not worry about any serious military threat — after
all, it had just defeated France.
In 17651 however, a law
called the "Stamp Act" was passed — this was the final straw. It must
be noted that US merchants did not necessarily mind (to pay/paying) taxes. They
really detested (to pay/paying) taxes without getting representation in
Parliamentv Many prominent US merchants, lawyers and newspaper publishers
started (to protcst/protesting) this law. In 1766 Britain decided (to
repeal/rcpealing) this law, but the damage was done. Relations between the two
continents began (to worsen/ worsening)t and they never really improved.
Grammar
Point 22 - Causative Verbs
There are some verbs that describe a different situation. These verbs
show that the subject caused the object to do something. They are called
"Causative" verbs.
There are two types of causative verbs in
English — those that are followed by the infinitive, and those that are
followed by the Simple Form of the Verb (SwF .V.)
These verbs are followed
by the infinitive These verbs are fOllowed by the S.F.V.

force

make

allow

let

get encourage convince

have

Notice that some of these verbs can be used as regular verbs,
and again the context of the sentence must be examined.
• Remember: Causative veibs are followed by the object, and
the object must do something.
e.g. The Stamp Actforced the
colonists ro payfor every governmenl stamp, The Continental Congress let George
Washington lead NIC army in his own
Exercise 22.1
In the
following sentences, underline the subject once, the verb twice and put
brackets around the Object. Then mark if the second verb is in the correct
form.
l , The
mistakes of the British generals allowed the Continental army win the war,
2. The strong speaking skills of George
Washington made men want to follow him, even through the hardships of Valley
Forge.
3, The Continental Congress got Jefferson to arrange a peace
with France
4.      "The
Intolerable Acts" made small groups of "patriots" gather and
form the Continental Congress.
5.      A
desire to be culturally different from England made Americans change the
spellings of many words.
6.      To this day, the reasons that made
Benedict Arnold defect are unknown.
7.      After
the British surrender Of 1871 , the US government allowed English merchants
stay in America.
Exercise
22.2
Writing biographies.
Below are paragraph biographies of people who were
important during the US war of independence. Re-write these paragraphs, using
the verbs given with each. There is no one correct way to re-write these
paragraphs.
L George Washington
George Washington was born in Virginia in 1742. His father
died when he was 9 years Old, and George had to move in with his Older brother.
He joined the army when he was in his early 20s, and quiCkIy rose to a high
position.
He joined the Continental Army in 1776 and was the first
leader. After one victory in Boston he made a very big mistake in New York
City. However, he made a decision to make a surprise attack at night across the
Delaware River and defeated a larger BritishGerman army. Washington's personal
charisma encouraged people to remain loyal to American Independence even
through a very difficult winter in Valley Forge.
Eventually, Washington accepted the surrender Of British
forces at Yorktown in 1781. He was elected the first president of the new
republic in 1789. He was re-elected in 1792.
Use these verbs: forced, decide, convince, continue.

Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson was born in Virginia in 1743. He was born
into a rich family, and was famous for his ability to write well.
Unfortunately, he was not a very could public speaker, and didn't like to do
it.
Jefferson was
one of the original members of the Continental Congress, and when the Congress
asked him to write the Declaration of Independence, he said yes.

Jefferson became leader of the
Republican Party. He was a strong supporter of the French Revolution. He became
US ambassador to France after Benjamin Franklin in 1785.
Jefferson became US president after John Adams in 1800. His
most famous act as president was the Louisiana Purchase from
France/Nápoleon in 1803.
Use these verbs: dislike, like, agree, plan

Benjamin Franklin
Benjamin Franklin was born in 1706, one of 12 children, Young
Ben became a printer's apprentice. His genius caused him to get bored, and
Franklin ran away to Philadelphia. Tn Philadelphia, Franklin started inventing
— he invented a new type of stove, bifocal glasses, swimming flippers and
conducted electrical experiments.

He went to England in 1757 as representative of the Pennsylvania State
Government. Franklin considered himself a British loyalist, but became
disillusioned with England after seeing the political corruption there. He
returned to America and was elected to the Continental Congress,
Franklin was one of the original signers of the Declaration
of Independence on July 4 th 1776. He used his
contacts to ensure French support for American Independence, and was appointed
first American Ambassador to France.
Use these verbs: expect, begin, plan

Paul Revere
Paul Revere was born in Massachusetts in 1734 (or 1735 - the
exact date is not known)
He was a
silversmith, and as such was very unhappy with the continuous taxation of
American industry by Britain. He was one of the new class of American craftsmen
who became known as "gentleman". He was an ardent patriot.

Paul Revere is most famous for one horse-ride he made in the middle of the
night between April 18 th and 19 th 1775, from Boston to
Lexington, to warn the US militia that British troops were marching against
them. Although it cannot be verified, the popular image is of Paul Revere
riding in the middle of the night shouting u The redcoats are coming!
The redcoats are coming!"
Paul Revere was a member of the "Minute men" — a
famous militia group in Boston that took part in the first battle the
Revolutionary War.
Use these verbs: dislike, enjoy, hope

Sam Adams
Sam Adams was born into a prosperous beer brewing family in
Boston. Unfortunately, he was not very good at business and quickly lost the
business. However, he was very popular and was helped by his neighbours and
friends. Like many businessmen, Adams was angry at British taxes.

Adams is most famous for organizing "The Boston Tea Party" of 1773.
To protest a new British tax on tea, Adams, with roughly 15 other patriots
dressed up as Mohawks. They boarded 3 British ships and dumped 9,000 pounds of
tea into Boston Harbour This is considered one of the key events leading up to
the revolution of 1776.
Adams was a member of the first Continental Congress in 1775v
He signed the declaration ofindependence on July 4th t 1776.
Use these verbs: dislike, hope, plan

Benedict Arnold
Benedict
Arnold was born in 1741 and at a young age he showed that he wanted to fight
for America. He ran away twice to fight in the Seven Years War. After that, he
studied to be a pharmacist, but always kept the patriotic cause close to his
heart.
When the Revolution broke out, he was a colonel and became a
distinguished war hero. He led an American attack on Quebec, and was wounded
twice. However, he was greatly angered by a decision of Congress to promote
others ahead of him.

He went to Philadelphia to recuperate from his injuries and got married. He
very quickly got into debt; and here decided to sell military information to
the British, On September  1 779, Arnold met with a British general
— the general was caught and Arnold changed sides.
Arnold
continued to fight on the side of the British as a brilliant commander until
the end of the war.
Use these verbs: wanted, started, disliked

Grammar Point 23 The Passive Voice
In some Situations, it is difficult to
make a sentencer because the subject is not clear. It is also possible that the
result of the sentence is more important than the subject. In these cases, it
is possible to change the structure of the sentence so that the receiver of the
action becomes the subject of the sentence.
Look at these examples:

Some people built Fort Sumter in the late 1700s,
The people who made it
  are not as important historically as the fact that it exists. Therefore the
  sentence would more commonly be written as
The receiver of the action is moved to the beginning of the
  sentence.
However, the verb must be changed to show that the
  subject did not do the action.
The verb is In the form:
TO be -V Past Participle
Fort Sumter was built in the late 1700s.

Somebody stole the painting from the
Louvre.
Nobody knows who did it — because of this, the action/result
is more important. Therefore, the passive structure is used:
The painting was stolen from the
Louvre.

Points to
  remember about the passive voice
Only
  "transitive" verbs can be made into the passive voice, Transitive
  verbs are those verbs that take direct objects. Verbs like "sleep"
  cannot be made into the passive voice.
e.g.                                                The
   by Confederate troops. by a war:
                       The war                                                /864.
  — is wrcwg
                        The
                                                 the Nórth- - is wrong
The main verb is always in the past participle form. The auxiliary verb
  "to be" must agree with the subject.

The
  auxiliary verb shows the tense of the action. The main verb is always in the
  past participle.
           e.g.

In situations where you know the
  doer of the action, you can add this to the sentence. The doer of the action
  is Introduced with the preposition "by". This is called the agent.
e.g.
  General Lee) in April of / 8ó5. (by o Confederate sympathizer).
All prepositions must remain connected to the same noun/verbs which they
  describe in the active voice.
In the sentence '{They elected o new leader ofthe south 'l the
  prepositionphrase (of the South) describes the leader Therefore, when you
  change the sentence to the passive voice,
' leader was elected", the
  preposition phrase must stay immediately after "leader" "A
  leader offhe south was elected".
Many verbs can be BOTH transitive and
  intransitive, depending on the context,
             Hé ended tope (van')         The tape ended
  (intrans.)
She hrgng theposteron the wail (trans.) The poster is hanging on the
  (intrans.) Here are some common verbs which can be both: grow, end, hang,
  break, move, run, hold, fly, turn.

Here is a list of tenses —
transcribed from the active to the passive.

You do it

It is done

You
  gredeiug it

+ It               done

You hitvedone it

+ It has-been
  done

You
You
You

Yota will do it

 If Willþe-done

You                                         If                being done
You Will                            it
If Wii/                beepž done
* Note — you can add by you to any of these sentences.
There are two parrs of verbs which are very confusing:
            Transitive                   Intransitive
lay- laid-laid   lie — lay- Iain raise•aised-raised       rise-
rose-risen
Exercise 23.1
Practice forming the passive voice by
Changing the following sentences from the active to the passtvc.
Some Confederate troops raised The Merrimac and covered it with iron.

Some politicians signed the secession
documents on December 20th , 1860.

3, Some
soldiers filed the             shots ofthe Civil War on April 12 th 1861.

4.      Some
soldiers fought the first battle on July 21 4 , 1861, near
Washington D.C.

5.      Some
politicians decided to move the capital of the Confederacy from Mobile, Alabama
to Richmond, Virginia.

6, On September17th 1862,
soldiers wounded or killed 11,657 Union troops and 11,729 Confederate troops.

7. In 1862, the Union
government passed a law that made all slaves of men who supported the
Confederacy free.

Between
July 1 st and                    soldiers fought the battle of
Gettysburg.

9.
In November of 1864, people re-elected President Lincoln.

10. On
April 9 th, 1865, generals surrendered the Conféderate army.

I I. People killed over 620,000 people dunng the US Civil
War.

Exercise 23.2
Choose which
Of the sentences should be changed into the passive. Remember — if the
"doer" of the action is key, use the active voice. If the result is
more importantl or the doer Of the action is unknown, use the passive voice.
General Thomas Jackson got the
nickname "stonewall" for his ability to repel attacks.

2,

At the beginning ofthe war,
  people volunteered on both sides in large numbers

3.

England was the Confederacy's largest international
  supporter.

Union
  ships blockaded the south in order to prevent trade between and Europe.

the Confederacy

5.

Many Confederate troops called themselves
  "Rebels" to between themselves and the soldiers of the U S.
  Revolution.

draw a
  relationship

6.

People called the Confederate flag the
  "Stars and Bars".

7.

People called the Union flag the "Stars and
  Stripes"

80 General Robert E. Lee signed the Confederate surrender on
April 9th, 1865.

9.
Jefferson Davis was the only president of the Confederacy.

10. President
Abraham Lincoln abolished slavery on January I q , 1863.

l l. Many people on both Sides Of the
Civil war did not support the "Emancipation Proclamation" which made
slavery illegal.

12. For the
most part, France did not interfere in the U.S. Civil War.

Exercise 23.3
Step I . Change the second sentence in each pair to the
passive voice. Step 2. Combine the two sentences into an adjective clause
combination
Step 3. Reduce the adjective clause
e.g. The Confederacy was not strong. people created it in 186/.
 The Confederacy was not economically strong It was created in /86/
2 The  which was created in 1861, was not economically strong.
3. The
Confederacy, created i'/ 1861, wos not economically strong
1, The first Confederate flag
was similar to the Uhion flag, People invented the Confederate nag in 1861. 1.
2.
3.
2. The CSVS. Virginia was the first
iron-clad battleship. People originally called it the USS Merrimac.

2.
3.
The Confederate capital was at Mobilet Alabama. People moved it later.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Fort Sumter is a historical site. The Confederates captured it m
1861.
1.
2.
3.
5.
Robert E. Lee was
the son of a Revolutionary war hero. People made him commander of Confederate
forces. 1.
2.
3.
6 Slavery was the most emotional issue ofthe Civil War.
People abolished it later.
1.
2.
3.
7, The Confederate units were better
prepared at the start of the war. People gave each one a doctor, 1.
2.
3.
The totem pole at the Royal Ontario
Museum is the largest in eastern Canada Somebody carved it in British
Columbia,
1.
2.
3.
The first modern computer was the size of a room Somebody built it in
1949.
1.
2.
3.

10. The C.N, Tower is the tallest building in the world.
People opened itin 1976.
1.
2.
3.
I l. The tenth planet in our solar
system is actually bigger than the ninth. Somebody called it "Sedna".
1.
2.
3.
12. Rosemary is often used to
add flavor to baked chickens People consider rosemary a healing herb.
1.
2.
3.
13. The Cadillac El Dorado had the biggest production
engine in the world. Nobody makes it anymore.
1.
2.
3.
14. The Angkor Wat is the largest Hindu
temple in the world. Somebody built it in the 12th century.
1.
2.
3.
Exercise
23.5
Tn the following passage, change verbs into the passive voice
where it makes sense.
The Causes of the US Civil War
To say that there were
Clear causes that led to the Civil War is misleading. The key reason for the
civil war was the cultural difTérencc between the Northerners and
Southerners. If you examine the immigration records to the US from England, a
clear trend develops: those immigrants Who classified themselves as
"industrialists" or "skilled labourers 't tended to go to the
north, while many Of the immigrants to the south listed "gentleman"
as their occupation. While it is possible, and even necessary, for these two
social groups to coexist in societYi when they stratify into two separate
areas, they will likely create 2 very different cultures.
Between 1790 and 1860t
these dlfferences had grown to the pomt where hatred between North and South
was rampant. There was sporadic fighting, but nothing really centralized nor
organized. There was hot debate in the US Congress, and they mainly disagreed on
three issues: TariffS, Sectionalism and Slavery.
Tariffs
Tariffs are taxes that governments levy on goods that
people import, Since the Northern states had a much stronger industry base than
did the South, the southern states had to import many more goods from abroad,
mostly England and France. The Southern states felt that a new Import Taxt
introduced in 1860, was aimed squarely at them in an attempt to strengthen the
North and weaken the South.
Sectionalism
As the northern states
became more populous, their relative power in Congress also increased. People
have fixed the number of senators at 2, but people determine the number Of
Representatives in the House by populationy Because Of this, the south felt
that they were losing power and influence, and the North would quiCkIy start to
make fundamental changes in the United States, An interesting addition is that
Abraham Lincoln, who was elected as president in 1860t was a Republican while
the South was mostly run by Democrats.
Slavery
The most emotional issue
of antebellum America was that of slavery. Many southern plantation owners
claimed that they needed slaves to work their fields, collecting cotton. The
making of cotton was the prime industry in the South, and the economy depended on
it while northerners tended to think that slavery was evil and should be
abolished.
In 1859 a radical
abolitionist named John Brown raided a government arsenal, hoping to steal
weopons for slaves, who would then start an armed uprismg agamst their owners.
This raid failed, and the government hung Brown for treason. This raid,
however, did push Americans to extremes — those who favored slavery and those
who opposed it.
Grammar Point 24 More Participles as
Subjects and Objects
Sometimes, verbs can be used as subjects and objects. When
they are the subject, you should always use the gerund form. When they are the
Object, you need to learn which verbal matches which verb, Some verbs, however,
can take both — infinitive and gerund, In some cases, the meaning does not
changev In some cases, the meaning does change,

With these
  verbs, the meaning doesn't change:
advise allow attempt
  begin continue dislike forbid like prefer start try
e.g. They dislike to work means the
  same as They dislike working
They began to  money the same as   They began making money

With these verbs, the meaning changes.

forget

regret

remember

stop

If you use the gerund, the action of the gerund happened first:
            e.g.        I
stopped eating chips I ate ch ips, then I stopped.
I stopped smoking Iwas smokingr then I stopped. I
regret saying that I said it, and now I regret it.
If you use the infinitive, the action Of the infinitive happened second.
            e.g.      I
remembered to lock the door + I remembered, and locked the door
An easy way to remember this: "To" begins with the
letter "T". "Then" also begins with the letter         _
I remembered to call my wife +1 remembered, then called my
wife.
I stopped to buy some coffee. I stopped, then bought some
coffee
This can be especially tricky with the veil)
"forget". Forget means "stop thinking about something".
Ifyou forget first, you can't do it.
"I forgot to lock the docW3 means first I
forgot, so I didn't lock it.
However,
ifyou forget second, then you can do itL
"I
forgot locking the door" means I did lock the door, then forgot about it.
122
Exercise 24.1
In the following sentences, use the four verbs: forget,
regret, remember, or stop" to paraphrase the meaning.
            e.g.         I
used to smoke I stopped smoking
I was driving, but then 1 bought
coffee I stopped to buy coffee, People used to drink alcohOI in the
US. , but after 1920 they didn't.

2.

The government made a law
  prohibiting alcohol, but felt bad about

After jazz became popular, people did not listen to
  "Big Band" music.

4.

Everybody was rich so nobody thought Of
  savings.

5.

Many survivors Of the
  Confederacy thought back about living before the Civil War.

6.

In the 1920Si people who didn't learn the
  "Charleston" felt bad.

Grammar Point 25 - Adjectives plus
Infinitives
The infinitive is often used to give more information about
an adjective. This is called an «adjective complement". Look at this
example:
I am ready to Stan learning
The Infinitive "to stmt" gives
more information about the adjective "ready". It
"completes" it.

Points to
  remember about adjectives and infinitives
They are most
  commonly used after the structure "subject + to be + adjective"
I am happy to see you
People were
  afraid to invest in the 1930s
They are Often used With the structure "it is + adjective +
  infinitive
                       e.g.
      It is imponant to practice a language
It is unusual to findpeople who don 't like chips

Here is a list Of adjectives that are commonly used With
  the infinitive:
afraid  eager    prepared easy  proud
  anxtous essential ready ashamed            fortunate astonished   shocked
  happy  sorry common hesitant content          honored stunned dangerous      important        surprised
  deligh ted       lucky   relieved determined   motivated reluctant difficult       necessary        usual
  disappointed   pleased            upset

124
Exercise 25.1
Fill in the blanks in the following
passage using one of the adjectives from the column on the right.

to lend, to borrow, to make

Throughout the 1920s, it was common for people  money and invest
it in the stock market. This was a time of economic prosperity, and it was easy
 money, Banks
were Willing money to
anybody.
This
all came to an end on October 24th , 1929. This was when everything
began to collapse

to buy, to
  see, to sell

The New York Stock Exchange for some reason became a
"buyer's market". This meant that people were very willing, not so willing. For some
reason, over the next few days everything collapsed. Everybody was surprised  just how quickly
everything could develop.

to do, to see, to find out

 panic ensued and everybody was
shocked what the results were. Over the weekend, everybody was anxtous what
would happen. Nobody was prepared  anything about it.

to appear, to act, to taket

Although it was obviously important  action, the government, especially
the Trade Commission was hesitant They did not wantanxious or cowardly.
Exercise 25.2
Paraphrase these sentences using the adjectives above
People did not want to
invest in the stock market in the 1 9.30s, because they were afraid.

2.

Many people couldn't save money because it
  was difficult.

3.

People did not act after the crash - nobody was ready,

4b

A Stock Market Crash
  cannot happen again because the government has taken careful steps.

5.

Many people did not ask
  for social assistance in the 1930s because they were ashamed.

6.

People took any job available — they were
  very eager.

7.

During the Great Depression, many people
  did not dance that was strange.

Grammar Point 26 Modal Auxiliaries
Verbs
To give
advice and sound polite, use a modal auxiliary verb. Many people think that
modals ate difficult to use, but really they are not. Modals add emotions to
sentences. The emotion depends on the situation, tone and vocabulary used.
The
modals in English are will, shall, can, would, could, should, might, may, and
ought to

Things to remember about Modals
The same word can have
  different meanings in different situations. The verb "must" , for
  example, can mean different things when you are speculating than when you are
  giving a command, e,g, All the people coming Ofthe movie are smiling It be a happy
  movie.
is the same as
You have a
  hig test tomorrow —you must stop watching videos and study.
Yoa 100k tired - I could help you is
  grot the same as
It's 11:30
  at night — who evnÏd be calling this time?
Módals
  never change form — regardless of the subject of the sentence e•g• can skate
  very quickly trot cans skate very quickly.
might want to see the game not She
  mights wont to see thegame.
Modals are always followed by the simple
  form of the verb,
e.g- will
  win the game tonight, grot My team will wins the game.
MOdaIs cannot
  be linked to Other modals. go not will must go
To make a
  negative modal, add the adverb "not" between the modal and the main
  verb
e.g IIé might not play tonight
  not not might play tonight

Grammar Point 27 Modals
for Advice
There are two
common ways to give advice us:ng modals. The two modals are "should"
and "would".

Should
    is used to describe things that are "correct" or
    "right".
For example:
If you find a
    wallet on the street, you should return it.
When you see an accident, you
    should call 9-1-1.
Should
    is usually not used with as the subject.

Would
    is used to describe what you really do in that situation.
FOr example:
If I tind money on the street, 1
    would put it in the bank.
To learn a
    language, I would watch TV in that language as much as possible
Would
    is usually used with as the subject.

In some situations, the end result is the same.
For example:
To learn to skate, you should buy skates and practice, To
  learn to skate, I would buy skates and practice.
TO practice talking, you
  should try joining a sports team.
To practice talking, I
  would try jotmng a sports team.

Exercise 27.1
Answer the following questions using
"Should" What is the best way to learn to skate?

2. What is the best way to practice typing?
What is the hest way to practice speaking?

4.      What
is the best way to Increase speaking speed?

5.      What is the best way to quit smoking?
6.      What is the best way to learn a
language?

Exercise 27.2
Difficult questions
In each of the following situations, there is a number of possible
reactions. Read each situation and determine what the correct action is — what
you "should" do. Then, imagine yourself in each of the situations and
determine what you really "would" do.

l. After a hockey game,
  you are pulling out of your parking space. There are no people in the garage,
  but there are many cars. Because you are tired, you accidentally slightly
  scratch the car beside yours.
What should
  you do?
What would you do?

2. You have an appointment with your boss in her office. You
  arrive at the appropriate time, but she is not there. By accident, you notice
  an open file on her desk and see that there are things that are untrue
  written about you.
What should
  you do?
What would you do?

3- On the subway , there is
  a large group Of drunken young people. They are making a lot Of noise and
  annoying everybody. As they are leavingï one accidentally drops a $50.00
  bill on the floor. They do not notice, and Start leaving the car.
What should
  you do?
What would you do?

4. you are waiting for the subway on the way to
  school, You must get on the next train, or you will be late for an exam.
  While you are standing theret a little old lady pushes in front of your What
  should you do?
What would you do?

Exercise 27.3 —
Building a hockey team
Here are reviews of the NHL hockey team
that are entering the playoffs. Imagine you are helping them, and are advising
the managers how they should improve. Choose 4 teams, and write a brief
paragraph describing how they can improve, what kind Of players they need, what
skills they need and what they don't.
Use phrases like
They should try to boost their offense/ defense/
goaltending . . .
They should try to get faster/tougher/more defensive
. . . They should try to focus more on . . .

New
  YOIfk Islanders: The Islanders are in the playoffs for the third straight
  year after a seven-year absence. They have lost In the first round in eaCh of
  the past two years and haven't won a playoff series since 1993. They won't
  this year either unless they solve the problem of goaltending. Their speed is
  OK, but they get pushed around a lot.

Calgary
  Flames: The Flames have clinched the playoffs for the first time since 1996.
  They have not won a playoff series since capturing the Stanley Cup in 1989.
  Calgary is one of the leaguers biggest surprises this season, but
  there are still some serious questions in net. Their defense doesnt t
  help much, either.

New
  Jersey Devils: The defending champions New Jersey has a lot Of playoff
  experience and Martin Brodeur, the leading goalie in wins and shutouts. They
  rely too much on defense, however, and really need to address the offensive
  side of the game. They only have one good hitter, and he's starting to get
  old.

Dallas
  Stars: Dallas enters the Stanley Cup Playoffs with a good mix of talent and
  experience. Marty Turco, one ofthc league's top goaltenderst is a major part
  of the Stars' success. HOwever, they need to improve their offensive speed if
  they want to advance far in the playoffs,

Vancouver
  Canucks: The Canucks struggled in their first seven games in March after
  All-Star fOrward Todd Bertuzzi got suspended, but managed a couple of good
  moves at the trade deadline, enough for their title. Their defense, however,
  is to slow and allows speedy teams to move through too quickly.

Colorado
  Avalanche: The Colorado Avalanche, one of the NHL's most successfi.Jl teams
  of last decade, enter the NHL PlayoffS 2004 without a division title for the
  first time in the 10 years. However, Colorado has several superstars in the
  team. As with Philadel hia their oal leaves a lot to be desired.

San
  Jose Sharks: The Sharks have great goaltenders , Evgem Nabokov and Vesa
  Toskala. Meanwhile, five Sharks forwards scored 20 or more goals during the
  regular season. However, their defense is not as strong as it needs to be to
  be a true champion.

Philadelphia
  Flyers: The Flyers won the Atlantic Division title for the third time in five
  seasonso Key injuries hurt them in the second half, hut Philadelphia also had
  five players with at least 20 goals. As with Colorado, goaltending seems to
  be their biggest worry,

Boston Bnrins: Boston won the N01theast Division for the
  second time in three seasons. The Bruins have not won a playoff series since
  1999, losing in the first round in each of the past two years after failing
  to quality for two seasons. They are very big and strong, but depend
  completely on their top line to get all the goals. They should try to spread
  the scoring more.

Tampa
  Bay Lightning: The Eastern Conference champion enters the playoffs with the
  league's leading scorer, Maran Stu Louis, who had 38 goals and 56 assists
  during the regular season. Tampa Bay won a playoff series for the first time
  in its history last year. They rely too much on their goaltender, and would
  benefit from a tougher defensive COIVS.

Detroit
  Red Wings: The Red Wings have the best record during the regular season and
  will hold the home-ice advantage throughout the postseason. The one thing
  that they lack is toughness. However, they have a good blend Of veterans and
  youngsters- Detroit has been in the playoffs 14 years in a row and has won
  three Stanley Cups Since 1997.

Glossary:
goalie — goaltenderï goalkeeper shutout - strong victory
for the goalie, the opposing team does not score a goal in the game leaves a
lot to be desired - is not very good. managed to — could do it, but it was very
difficult forwards — attackers, not defensemeny Teams usually have three
forwards on the ice at the same time defensemen — defenders, not attackers,
Teams usually have two defensemen on the ice at the same time
Grammar point 28 - Modals for
Necessity
When you want to tell somebody that there is no choice, you
can use the modal "must" or the modal-like verb "have to".
Both of these auxiliaries state that the person has no choice. Realistically,
there is no difference
With "have to" , the verb "have" is
changed to reflect the subject.
            e.g.        I
have topractice skating
He has to practice passing.
Remember that both of these verbs are fóllowed by the
S.F Uv.
I have to
go.
She has to
wait.
Exercise
28.1
Paraphrase
these sentences, using the modal "must" or the modal-like verb
"have to. "
e.g. To win the game, score more goals
than the other team
 You must score more goals than the other
team in order to win or  Ifyou want to win, you must scope more
goals than the other team. To get better, practice every day.

2. Teams that
play together know each other very well.

3,

To become a fast skater,
  practice every morning and every evening.

4.

Goalies practice stretching because they don't want
  to get hurt.

5.

Teams practice passing to
  get many goals.

6.

Nobody wants to be Injured,
  so be carefUl.

7.

Every team needs balance —
  offence and defense, to be a winner.

Every team needs to know
  about every other team, in order to beat them.

Ifyou don't want a penalty,
  avoid hitting goalies.

132
Grammar
Point 29 Prohibition vs.
Choice
If you
want to tell somebody what is wrong, use the form: Subject+ Must not + S.F. V.
e.g. When you cross the border, you must noi lie to
the C"Stoms officer, There is no choice. If you lie, and they catch you,
you will go to jail,
e.g. When the referee blows the whistle, you must
"0t continueplaying. Ifyou continue, you will get a penalty.
If
you want to tell somebody what is optional, use the form: Subj. + {don't) have
to + S.F. V.
e.g. You don't have to like hockey.
This is a free country — liking soccer, cricket, or
horse-racing is OK.
e.g. You don't have to wear a uniform ro esl school.
Ifyou wear
a uniform, it's OK, and if you don't it's OK — you choose.
Exercise 29.1
Write sentences
using the promptst and the appropriate verb— "must" , "must
not" or
"don't have to". Begin each sentence with
"I think ice hockey players Wear a helmet

2.      Hit with their elbow.

3.      Hit with their shoulders.

Play the entire gamer

5. Hold their sticks abovc their waist.

Wear protective equipment

Join a union

Exercise 29.2
In the
following passage, choose the appropriate form — either "must" 1
"must not" or "don't have to".
Keeping Hockey Safe
Hockey is a very
physical game. This makes it exciting and also makes it fun to watch and play.
However, because of the physicality, rules (must/must not/don't have to) be
strictly enforced. Players who break the rules are assessed a "minor"
or "major't penalty, depending of the severity of the act.
Penalties have evolved out of the need to
protect players. The driving factor behind all penalties is that players
(must/must not/don't have to) hurt other players. If an action could seriously
injure or even kill another player, it is illegal. For example, players
(must/must not/don't have to) lift their sticks above their shoulders during a
game, because their stick can hit and Injure other players. Players (must/ must
not/don't have to) hit others with their elbows, for this may kill someonev If,
on the other hand, the action is not really dangerous, it is not a penalty. For
example, if a player hits someone with their shoulder, it is not a penalty.
Penalties are also assessed if an action by a player gives her/his team
an unfair advantage. For example, a player (must/must not/doesn't have to) hold
onto another player if the second player will pass him/her. Also, a player
(must/must not/doesn't have to) use his/her stick to hook a player from behind
There is, however, some flexibility for
referees. If the puck enters the net after it bounces from a player's leg, the
referee decides if the player "kicked" it in or not. It is OK for the
puck to bounce off a player's leg, but the player (must/must not/doesn't have to)
kick it in. However, the referee decides if it was a kiCk or not' If it was a
kiék, the referee (mustVmust nat/doesn't have to) allow the goal.
Minor penalties are two minutes long. However, the
spirit of the penalty is to grve the wronged team an advantage. If the team on
the "power play" scores a goal, the penalty is finished and the
player (must/must not/doesn't have to) finish the two minutes.
A major penalty, however, is meant to punish a player
for doing something very bad. If a player has a major penalty, he/she
(must/must not/doesn't have to) sit fór five minutes - even ifthc other
team scores a goal.
134
Grammar Point 30 Modal
Review
When you want to show that people have no choice, you need to use the
modal "must" or the modal-like verb "have to"
Remember that these two verbs have the same meaning, but when you change
them into the negative, the meanings change completely, "Must not"
means it is illegal, don't do it. "Don't have to" means you can
choose - both yes and no are OK.

Things to remember about
  modal auxiliary verbs: They are not the main verbs — so they must not be the
  only verb in the sentence. They add emotion to the main verb e•g• T must
  tomorrow. is wrong.
They should later. is wrong
They never change form, regardless Of the
  subject
        e.g.
  He musts           here, is wro
She shoulds to' again. is wrong
They are always followed by the Simple Form
  of the verb (S.F.V.)
     e.g.        They
        going to school, is wrong
                 He        winning
  this evening is wrote

Exercise
30.1
In the
following sentences, underline the subject once and the verb twice. Then
correct any mistakes you find.
They Should try to study before they go to
a casino again.
2. People who
are learning poker shoúld watching poker shows on TN. to learn.
He has never lost a hand of blackjack in
his life.
After
watching a few videos, you shouldn't thinking that you know how to win poker.
5. Everybody should remember that gambling can be a very
serious problem,
6 People Who have difficulty stopping playing poker should
get help
Exercise
30.2 - Explaining Blackjack rules
Using the
modals "have to" "must" and "must not", complete
these "rules of Blackjack". (must/ must not/don't have to)
Blackjack is a very easy game to learn,
but very difficult to master. The goal of the game is to collect cards whose
value is closer to 21 than the values of the cards of the dealer- The only
trick is that you (must/ must not/don't have to) go over 21. If your cards
combine to a total over 21, you automatically lose. This is called "to
bust"
Cards arc all worth their "face value" — a 4, for example, is
worth 4 potnts. Kings, queens and Jacks (so-called face cards") are worth
10 points, and aces are worth 1 or 11 — you choose.
At the beginning of the game, every player is dealt 2 cards. This is
called your "hand". In Ontario, both cards (must/ must not/don't have
to) be face up at all times. You cannot hide them. If you want, you can get
more cards, but you (must/ must not/don't have to)To get new cards, you (must/
must not/don*t have to)say "hit me" to the dealer. That is the
signal. You can have as many cards as you want - until you want to Stop, Of you
bust. If you don't want any more cardst you (must/ must not/ don't have to) say
stay", and the dealer won't give you any more.
If you have a pair, you can "split". This means that you can
double your bet and play two "hands". Each hand is played separately
— you could win one, lose the other, for example. Splitting is your choice — if
you want to, fine — if you don't fine.
Another play is to "double down" — if you get a 9, 10 or Il
dealt to you in your opening hand, you can double your bet, but you will only
get one card. Again, you (must/ must not/don't have to)— it's your choice.
If your cards are the same point value as the cards of the dealer, you
lose and the dealer wins — this is called a "push".
All of the players play against the dealer. You (must/ must not/don't
have to) worry about any of the cards of the other players„
There are two rules that control the cards of the dealer — if the dealer
has 16 or less, he/she (must/ must not/ don't have to) hit — it is not a
Choice. If the dealer has 17 or more, s/he @ust/ must not/don't have to) stay —
again, it is not their choice.
If the dealer busts, all players automaticálly win. You win as
much as you bet. [f you get a natural blackjack, you win 150% of your bet.
Don't worry — you (must/ must not/dcn't have to) do any math. That's the
dealer's job.
Exercise
30.3
Here is a list Of probabilities — so-called ' 'odds" for
blackjack. Using the prompts provided, write sentences advising players on how
to play. Begin every sentence with "I would .
Important Odds (Probabilities) in Blackjack

Probability Odds Probability to
bust      to bust to win

Dealer's face card: 5 42%

1 in 2.38

up to 58%

Dealer's face card: 6 42%

1 in 2.38

up
  to 58%

Dealer's face card: 7 26%

I in 3.85

up to 74%

Dealer's face card: 10 23%

I in 4.35

up to 77%

Dealerls face
  card: A 17%

I in 5.88

up to 83%

e.g. The dealer has a 6, you have a 6 I would stay (because I think the
dealer will husf)
The dealer has a 7, you have a 10
2.      The dealer has a 6, you have a 5

3.      The dealer has a 10, you have 2 kings

4.      The dealer has a 4, you have 2 ss
5.      The dealer has an A, you have 10
6.      The dealer has 3 , you have 3
7.      The dealer has a 10t you have 10
8.      The dealer has a King, you have 11
9.      The dealer has a 3, you have an I I
The dealer has 5, you have a 4

Grammar Point 31 Modals
for Speculation
When you are in a situation, and you are not sure of the outcome, you can
use a modal to tell people that you are not exactly sure of the result.
If you are sure, simply say:
            My team will        or
            Your team         not
To tell
people that you are not sure, instead of saying "will" or
"won't", say.
            They             8
goals
They might get 9goaIs.

Things to remember about speculating:
These modal auxiliary verbs must be
  followed by the S.F.V.
e.g. It might rain tomorro w
The dealer
  may give me an ace
"May"
  and 'Might" have the same meaning—both mean you are not sure of the
  outcome
             e.g. The next card might be (110            the
  some as
The next
  card may be a /0
    They
  are Often used in combination with "l would/wouldn't    because     may
e.g. r would
  stay, because rhe next        may he a face curd f would not split, because
  the dealer may bust
This talks about a result in the futurev The time is understood and does
  not require will/ won't/going to auxiliaries.
e.g. There
  haven't been manyface cards recently, so the nett card might be high.
"Could"
  is sometimes used to show less certainty than may or might. It shows very
  little confidence in the prediction, It is often used with , , , but I don't
  think so/ I don't thirik it Will"
              e.g The next card could be a two, but
  I           think it is.

Grammar Point 32 - Speculating about the Present
When you are talking about a situation happening now, you can use modals
to describe your speculation, The modals that are used for present speculation
are the same as those for speculation, but there are a few more, also:
In order from strongest: must may / might can could may /
might not couldn't can 't
This can become tricky, because you can
speculate about the future and the present at the same time in one sentence
without any time markers:
She must have
good cards, so I would not bet against her because you might lose.
This sentence
has three separate clauses:
The first
part of the sentence, "She must have good cards" ig speculating about
what she has now; the second paut of the sentence, "I would not bet
against her" is advice in the present; the third part of the sentence,
"you might lose" is speculating about the future; however, from the
context, the meaning of these modals becomes very clear.
Here are the basic rules of poker.

At the beginning ofthe game every player receives 5 cards.
  These cards are called the "hand" The player's hand is visible only
  to the player.
Players can change cards
  — the number of cards that they can change is established by the dealer.
  Every dcalcr can choosc how many cards to change, and how many times they can
  be changed. A standard set would be to change a maximum of three cards, once.
  That is called ' 'Draw poker" -
At the end ofthe round, every player who is still in the game
  "opens" or
"shows" his/her cards. The player who has the highest hand
  wins,

Here is a
list of poker hands, and their descriptions.
1, Royal Flush: This is the highest poker hand. It consists
Of ace, king, queen, jack, and ten, all the same suiU AS all suits are equal,
all royal flushes are equal.
2. Straight Flusly Five cards ofthe same suitin sequence -
such as
7. Between
two straight flushest the one containing the higher top card is higher. An ace
can be counted as low, so ¥5-Y4*3-¥2-YA is a straight flush, but its
top card is the five, not the ace, so it is the lowest type ofstraight flush.
The cards cannot "turn the
04-03-02.
•A-OK is not valid,
3, Four of a kind: Four cards ofthe same rank - such as four
queens, The fifth card can be anything. This combination is sometimes known as
"quads". Between two [Ours of a kind, the one with the higher set of
four cards is higher - so 3-3-3-3-A is beaten by 4-4-44-2.
4.
Full House: Th1S consists Of three cards of one rank and two
cards Of another rank for example three sevens and two tens. When comparing
full houses, the rank of the three cards determines which is higher. For
example 9-9-9-44 beats 8-8-8-A-A. If the threes of a kind were equal, the rank
of the pairs would decide.
5.
Flush: Five cards of the same suit. When compartng two flushes,
the highest card determines which is higher. If the highest cards are equal
then the second highest card is compared; if those are equal toot then the
third highest card, and so on. 6e Straight: Five cards of mixed suits in
sequence - for example
When comparing two sequences, the one with the higher ranking
top card is better. Ace can count high or low in a straight, but not both at
once.
7. Three of a
Kind v Three cards ofthe same rank plus two other cards. This
combination IS also known as Triplets or Trips. When comparing two threes of a
kind the hand in which the three equal cauds are Of hlgher rank is better.
S. Two Pairs:
A pair is two cards of equal rank. In a hand with two pairs, the two pairs are
of different ranks, and there is an Odd card to make the hand up to five cards.
When comparing hands with two pairs, the hand with the highest pair wins.
9. Pair: A
hand with two cards of equal rank and three other cards which do not match
these or each other. When comparing two such hands the hand with the higher
pair is better.

Exercise 32.1
This passage explains betting rules of poker. Simplify
these sentences, using modals where possible. You don't have to use only
speculation modals — you can use modals of necessity also.
At the beginning of the
game, the dealer is required to give everybody 5 cards Everybody has the choice
to look at their cards, and then think. Then the first person, the person to
the left of the dealer chooses — to bet or not. If that person has good cards,
they can bet. If they think their cards will win, they can bet a lot.
If they decide to bet, they arc required to tell
everybody how much they bet, and put that amount into the centre of the table.
It is not a choice, they are required to put that amount in. That area is
called the "pot".
The person to their left is required to decide. That person looks at
his/her cards, considers how much the original bet was, and then is required to
either I) drop out — this is called "fold"; 2) bet the same amount —
this is called "to see"; or 3) bet more - this is called
"raise",
This cycle continues until 1) everybody has
contributed the same amount to the "pot"; or 2) everybody has dropped
out.
A key rule Of betting in poker is that if nobody
matches your bet, you don't have to show your cards. That means that if you
don't have the best cards you can still win if everybody foldsv This is called
"bluffing", not lying, and is a very highly respected skill in poker.
Exercise 32.2
How to spot a liar
Here is a
list of "signals" that liars "give off" when they are
lying.
They avoid touching you.
They put something between you.
They will not
stand or sit straight.
They avoid saying details.
They try to
change the subject.
They often repeat any question that you ask them.
They don't
use contractions.
They look to their left, not their right.
Using these "gives", decide what kind of cards
these people have. If you are not sure, use a modal. Refer to the chart on page
140.
1.
She looks at
the 5 cards In her hand, puts the cards on the table, looks up, and smiles. She
says "what?' in a high tone. When it is her turn to change cards, she
takes one card, looks at it, and smiles. Then She puts her cards on the tablew
What does she have?
2.
He looks
at the 5 cards in his hand, takes a drink without looking up, and puts the
drink down. He takes three cards on the draw, puts the cards on the table, puts
his hands on the cards, and looks What does he have?
3,
She looks at
her cards very quickly, then shifts in her chair, She asks you how many cards
she can change. She asks if there are any wild cards, She looks at her cards
again, She Changes three cards, She looks at her cards for a long time. What
does she have?
4.
He
looks at his hand, around the table at the Other players, then at his cards
again, Hé doesn't stop locking at his cards, but he doesn't stop
scratching, either. He doesn't tåke any cards on the draw, What does he
have?
5.
She looks at her cards far a very
short time, and then puts them down. She asks what time it is, and looks very
serious. She doesn't take any cards on the draw. What does she have?
Grammar Point
33 Reported Speech
In some situations, because you do not want to take responsibility if
everything doesn't work out as planned, you can change the structure of a
sentence to let the listeners know that you are not stating your own opinion,
and repeating another person's idea. This is called "reported speech"
The main reason that you make this change is to protect your integrity.
Look at this example

You work with Bob. At 4:30pm, Bob tells you
  rhat he is leaving and going home.
He leaves. Ten
  minutes later, Bob's wife calls and asksfor Bob You tell Bob's wife that Boh
  is going home. However, Bob goes to a bar and arrives home 4 hours later.
  Bob's wife gets very angry at you, and thinks that you are a liar. She will
  never trust you again.
However, ifyou tell her: Bob said he was going home, Bob 's
  wife will be angry at Bob, not you. You are safe.

An easy way to accomplish this when you are writing is to put
quotation marks around the part that you are repeating. When you are speaking,
however, you cannot put quotation marks, and therefore must change the
structure of the sentence:
The
sentence must begin with the phrase "[subject] said
The information that you are repeating must also change — the main verb
moves "back" in time.
143

Here is a
  chart of the tense changes:
         Simple Present
  Simple Past                am hungry"           He said he was hungry
       Present Continuous Past              "I
  am going home"
                       Continuous                                   He
  said he was going home
         Present Perfect Past Perfect               "I
  have sent it" He said he had sent it
     Simple Past  Past Petfect             "I
  went out" •5 He said he had gone out
     Past Continuous + Past Perfect       "l
  was going out" He said he had been
                       Continuous                                                       going
  out
Past Perfect No change*                                                     had
  met him before"* He said he had met him before
       Simple Future Future with would                    will
  go" He said he would go
Future Continuous Future Continuous "I will be
  walking" He said he with would     would be walking
Future Perfect Future Perfect with "I will have
  finished" He said he would       would have finished

* Remember — there is no tense that describes an action
before the past perfect tensev
44

Things to
  remember about reported speech:
All the pronouns that are connected to the
  verb must change:
Frank: I will call you.
Frank said he wou/i/ cat/ me.
Felix: I have caned him twice. Felix
  said he had called yu twice
In a sentence that has an auxiliary verb,
  the main verb remains in the participle form:
Marta: I om waiting.
Marta said she was waiting.
Sue-Ellen: I have waited long enough.
Sue-Ellen
  said she had waited long enough,
When you report a sentence with modals, the
  verb does not change:
Mark: I would wait.
Mark said he wowld wait.
Frank: You should study
Frank said we should study more.
These verbs can also be used, in place of "said":
  admit   answer complain point out     deny promise argue protest remark
  observe reply
Ifyouare sure that the situation has
  not changed since the conversation, you don't need to change the tense Of the
  sentence, but you still need to change the pronouns:
Tom: I have three children. Tom said he has three children, Mažtha:
  I Tike spaghetli. Martha said she likes spaghetti.
Bill: I have never killed anybody. Bill said he has never killed
  anybody.

145

10. John — I was sleeping,

11. Katie-I
don't like cheese.

12, Jody— I can't ski well.

13. Paul -I will wait for four hours.

14. Terri — I am enjoying my vacation.

When you make a sentence in reported speech, you want to
emphasize that you received this information before now. Because of this, you
need to change the time markers in the sentence also.
Here is a list Of how time markers change when you change the
sentence into reported speech:

today that
  day tomorrow + the next day yesterday the day before
next week + the
  following week next month the following month next the fóltowing
in one hour + one hour later in two days + two days later

this morning
  that morning this afternoon that afternoon tonight that evening
last week + the previous week last year + the previous year
  last             the previous
ago *before two days ago two days befOre

e.g.                  Tom: / will
meer you tomorrow morning. Tom said he would meet me the next morning•
Suet / called you last night! Sue said she had
cajléd the previous night,
Exercise 33.3
Here is a description Of five people.
First, change
these sentences into reported speech structures
Second, arrange them at a table so that they will not fight,
and will have something to talk about at dinner
Mr.
Ponikarovsky hates dogs.

Mr. Belfour
hates cats.

Mr. Lindros likes music.

Mr. Domi has
a business in the U

Mr. Ponikarovsky loves the Maple Leafs.

Mr. Sundin
doesn't like singing.

Mr. Domi has
dogs.

Mr. Sundrn doesn't like hockey.

Mr. Lindros likes cats.

Mr. Belfour
owns a Karaoke company r

Use phrases [Ike:
X said 'i Y" , so I think
he should Sit next to O or X said O so I think he should sit far from Z
Arrange their seating
plan around an imaginary round table, Who will sit at each position?
1 49
Exercise 33.4
Choose two
people whom you would like to invite for dinner. On the internet, you have to
find three things that the person likes or dislikes.
Work with a partner. Organize seating arrangements around a
round table,
Use this
chart to help you

Person #1                                                      Pejson

Likes                                                             Likes

Dislikes                                                          Dislikes

151

Building
Grammar Skills
Grammar point 34 - Speculating about
the Past
When you need to give an opinion about things that happened
in the past, you can use modals to show uncertainty,
Use the same
modals that you use for speculating in the present, but you need to change the
tense. This is accomplished by adding the verb "have" directly after
the modalv The main verb is written in the past participle form.
The form is:

Subject + modal + have + past
participle

For example: Manypeople bought red umbrellas — they must have been sale
We must have taken a vvtong turn — I don recognize any oft/tese
buildings.
Exercise
34.1
Re-write these sentences, LISIng the appropriate modal in the
past form
For example, They look
tiled — rhink           they just exerctsed
They must have exercised,
I He looks sad
— I think he lost at pokers

2.

They look happy — I think that they just saw a great
  movie

3.

She looks happy — T think that she just won the
  lottery

4-

They look tired — J think that they were just
  playing footbath

5.

They look hungry — I think that they missed dinner.

They look angry — T think I said something wrong,

152
Building
Grammar Skills
Grammar Point
35 Conditionals
To explain why you want to do something, you can show the
positive result of a situation. To convince somebody to agree with you, show
them what good things can come from that. Tt is very easy to show this kind of
relationship — all you need is a sentence in two parts.
The first part is called the "condition" — this part shows what
you want to do. It begins with the word "if";
The second
patt is called the "result" — this part shows the outcome of the
action.
This structure is called a "Conditional" sentence.
There are three conditional types, but they alt show the relationship between
two sentences.
Conditional
I
This conditional shows a very strong relationship between the
two sentences. This is a very strong promise.
The structure
is very simple:
If + subj. + Islmplepresentl, subject + [futurel
e.g. Ifit rains, I will Stay home.
Ifwe go ta Hollywood, we will seefamous people.
This conditional does not show that you
believe these events will happen — this conditional shows that there is a very
strong connection between these sentences. If you say this, and the result does
not happen, you will look silly.
Look at this
example:
If/ am president, I 'evil/ not increase taxes,
Everybody who wants to become president says this. However,
many do not actually do this, and then during the following can;ypaignt they
try to discredit them by showmg video clips of that promise on T. Vv
153
60 Montreal —
Jazz festival

7.

Yellowknife — Northern
  lights

8.

Orlando — Mickey Mouse

9,

Arizona — Grand Canyon tour

10. Vancouver — whale watching

I I. Calgary — stampede

12. Halifax —
potatoes

Grammar Point 36 - Using
"Unless"
"Unless" makes a verb negative, and it is used to
save time in the "cause" part ofthe sentence. Tt means '"If not
Unless wego to Manhattan, we won 't see Central Park.
means
Ifwe don't go to Manhattan, we won't sce Central Park.
Unless is usually used to show an extreme situation, in which
somebody must make an important decision.
It would be unusual to use
unless in this situation: Cal/ me unless you like the ice cream.
Another use
of unless is to show somebody that there is only one possible option, and every
other option is no good.
Unless we finish this report soon, we will miss the game.
Unless they start scoring, they will surely lose.
Exercise 36.1
Using the
prompts and the first conditional and "unless" , make sentences, as
in the example.
e.g. Alaska — the highest mountain
in NonhÀmericu Unless we go loÅlaska, we won't be able to climb
the highest motilitain in Nonh America.
I. Niagara,
the falls

2.      Kingston,
the Thousand Islands

3.      Toronto, CNTower.

4.      North Dákota, Mt. Rushmore

YUkon, dog sledding.

6L Californiat movie stars

Exercise 36.2
Re-write this
passage, changing the verb into the conditional where it makes sense.
Remember,
there is usually more than one way to say the same thing
Planning a vacation is
always a very stressful event for families. Everybody wants to go to different
places and see and do different things. The bigger the family, the bigger the
problemv There are a few ways to help suwive this problem — there will probably
never be a way to avoid it.
First, and most important, it is to start planning
early. Leave it to the last minute, and everybody will panic, Leave it to the
last minute and nobody will get what they want from their time off. The earlier
you start the better.
The second most
important thing is to have a meeting, You will have a meeting, and then
everyone will feel important. Everybody in your family will speak, and this
will make them feel like they are helping the family. Regular family meetings
will help build family unity, also.
Third, making a list Of
evetything that you want to do will really help you get organized. Again,
keeping in mind what everybody wants will make the job go fasterv Using every
means at your disposal, find as much infOrmation about the things your farmly
wants as you can. You will have information, and you Will be able to make a
decision. Also, sometimes you don't agree with your family — information will
make it easy for you to explain why they are wrong.
Finally, it is important to keep in mind that you are
planning a vacation. This is supposed to be fun. Keep it in nund, and the
vacation will somehow corne together.
Making your promise less strict
The most important thing to remember
about the first conditional is that it is a very strong prom ise. In business,
a spoken promise can be considered a binding contract.
Therefore, you have to use it carefully.
It is possible to make a statement
which is like a conditional, but not as binding. That means that you strongly
believe the situation/reaction will take place, but you are not 1 sure.
To really
understand this, you must remember that there are two separate parts of a
conditional structure: the "cause" and the ' 'effect". You can
modify 1) the "cause" part ofthe structure, 2) the "result part
Of the Structure+ or 3) the entire structure.
I. Changing
the "Cause"
To modify the "Cause" part of the structure, use
"should" with the verb. This means that you think the event you are
describing will NOT happen.
This does not mean that the relationship between the cause and effect is
weaker; but simply that you think the event will not take place.
e.g. IfBob should call, please tell him I will be home at
6:00
(means please tell Bob I will be home soon, hut I think he won't call).
Exercise 36.3
Re-write
the followmg conditional sentences using "should" at the begmnmg. If we win the lottery, we will go on
vacation around the world.
If it snows in California, they will lose a lot of money
from vacationers.

3.
If it rains in
North Africa, we will have to change our itinerary.

4.
If the exchange rate is very bad, we will not go to the U -S.
Ifthe hotels arc all frill, we will have to stay in a tent.

6. If the campsites are all full, we will have to stay in the
car.

Pattern to 100k for:
Ifyou see "if + subject + should", it is the first
conditional, not advice

158
The verb "should" can be moved to the
beginning of the sentence: in that case, the word order must be inverted. Look
at this example: Ifshe should be late, please tell her to start
Shot'/d she be late, please tell her to start.
(Means please tell her to start, bat I 'Ion 't think she
will be lute)

Things to
  remember about inversions with "should"
Should does not act like a modal for
  advice, It is simply a signal word that you think the events are unlikely.
e.g. Should
  it snow in people will not be prepared Should I win the lottery, Iwill buy
  you a car.
If "should" appears in the main clause, it does act like a
  modal for advice-
e.g. Should it snow in August in Canada,
  you should ski.
Shouldyou win the lottery, you should buy me car
The main verbs must be in the S.F. V. because they follow a modal.
e.g. Should
  hegoesromorrow, Twill be surprised— is wrong.
Usually, the subordinate clause is the first clause in this sentence, as
  it gives key information. It is rare to see this structure where the main
  clause IS first.
e.g. Should please email the appropriate department
Please
  email the appropriate department should youforget your password. (rare)
This structure is rare
  in modern conversational English, hut it is comman in academic written
  English

Exercise
36.4
Re-write these sentences, using "Should" at the
beginning of the sentence.
If we win the lotteryv we will go on
vacation around the world.

Ifit snows in California,
  they will Iosc a lot of money from vacationers.

3.

If it rains in North Africa, we will have to change
  our itinerary.

4.

If the exchange rate is
  very bad, we will not go to the U S.

5b Ifthe hotels are all full, we will have to stay in a tent.

Exercise
36.5
University
survivál guide — advice.
Here are ten situations that students regularly encounter at university.
Change the prompts into conditional sentences that use "should" in
the condition. Use "should" in the result, to give advice.
Note: In the
condition, "should" is not acting like a modal (for advice), but in
the result, it is acting like a modal (for advice).
Lose your library card, call the library,

2.      Lose
your dorm room key, call the superintendent,

3.      Need
an extension on an essay, ask the professor.

Lose the course reading list, talk to the
professor.

5.

Lose your wallet, call the
  police.

6,

Get sicki send your
  professors emails.

7.

Miss a class, borrow notes from a friend.

8.

Need moneyi ask your
  counselor.

9,

Not understand a lesson,
  talk to the prof.

10. Not understand lectures, record them.

3. Changing
the entire structure
The third way
to modify the first conditional is to change the entire structure — put the
entire sentence into reported speech (remember — reported speech protects your
integrity):
            If
it rains             If it rained
I will get wet + I would get wet
Because of this change, the relationship AND the probability of this
happening are both greatly reduced. Because of this reduction, if the situation
doesn't come true, your Integrity will not be questioned.
Because or this flexibility, you can talk
about anything — any situation, real or imagined — and if the result does not
come true, nobody will care
This
structure is known as the Second Conditional.
The
structure of the second conditional is very simple:
If + subject + past, subject + "would" + present

Things to
  remember about the second conditional:
If you use the second conditional, "would"
  does not work as a modal (it does not give advice). It simply works as the
  past form of "will"
Ifyouuse the vefb "to be" m the "condition", you
  should use the form "were" for every subject. In modern
  conversational English, however, it is considered acceptable to conjugate the
  verb according to the subject.
e.g. IfI were you, I
  would Stay in Canada. (is considered traditionally correct) was you, I would
  stay in Canudu. (in common)
IfIvan were here, he would help use (is considered traditionally
  correct)
IfIvan was
  here, he would help Itsy (is common)
You can remove the conjunction
  "if" from the structure — however, you must Change the word order
  in the "cause" part to question word order:
e.g. If/ were you, I would go to Montreal.
Were I you,
  I wouldgo m Montreal
Ifshe were a tourist; she would
  have a camera. Were she o tourist, she would have a camera.
The second conditional
  doesn't really mean you think the action won't happen it is simply Reported
  Speech of the first conditional - a way to protect yourself.
e.g "'I
  seea cowboy, I will soy "hello "1 - this means that there is no
  doubt in your mind — you WILL do it
1/1 saw o cowboy, I would say
  '"hello" — this means that you may say "hello" or maybe
  "howdy"

Exercise
36.6
What do you think?

Write sentences about what you would do on your vacation, usmg these prompts,
as in the example.
e.g. Speak Zulu —111 could speak
Zulu, I would go on a Safari in Africa l , had $10,000.00 for a vacation

2.

had a private jet

3,

had a 6 month vacation

had a I year vacation

5.

had a helicopter

had a mobile home

7.

had a cruising motorcycle

8.

speak another language

TOEFL tip:
On
the iBT, you will be required to "infer" facts in the reading and
listening sections. Infer means to understand extra meaning, which is not
directly stated. You must listen to unspoken or unwritten information, such as
which modal is used, or which conditional is used,

Exercise
36.7
Keeping in mind what the conditionals mean, state what can be
inferred from these sentences.
If you are caught plagiarizing one more
time, you will be expelled.
a)      The student has been caught
plagiarizing many times.
b)     The
university has a very strict policy against plagiarism.
2, If T were you, I would focus my Study on the second
semesterv
a)      The
professor thinks the exam will be difficult.
b)      The
exam will not focus on the first semester.
3. Should you lose your parking permit,
you will have to buy a new one, with no discount.
a)      The
councilor suggests taking care of the parking permit,
b)      The
councilor does not imagine a problem in getting a refund for a lost permit.
 Were I to give you an extension, I would have to give all the other
students one,
a)      The
professor has a strict policy against giving extensions.
b)      Many
students have asked for extensions„
5. If you miss one of your lectures, you will be able to find
them on the internet, 24 hours after they were given.
a)      The
professor tries to help her students.
b)      The
profëssor is interested in computers.
6. Shoúld it rain, the fraternity barbeque will be
held in the fraternity house.
a)      The
fraternity really wants the barbeque to tåke place.
b)      The
barbeque has taken place regularly for many years.
Grammar Point 37 Conditional 3
In order to learn from past events, it is
important to be able to discuss them in such a way as to keep them
hypothetical. There is a conditional structure in English which allows you to
learn from the past, and use the past to teach. Look at this example:

There was an automobile
  accident yesterday in  Torontov The stoplights were broken and
  two cars crashed into each other- Many local residents had called the city
  government 10 dry to fix the lights. Luckily, everybody in both cars wearing
  a seatbelt, so nobody was seriously injuredv
Two things can be learnedfrom this:
Firsf.• The accident happened because Of the broken The city should hove
  fixed the lights„
Second: Everybody was OK because they were wearing seathe/tsv Seatbelts
  saved their lives.

TO use this
as an example for teaching/learningt you need to Show What was possible, if the
situation was different, In this case, the following conditional is used:
If + subject + pastperfect, subject + present perfect,
+ If the city had fixed the lights, the accident
would have been avoided. + If they had not been wearing seatbelts, they might
have been injutrd.
This structure is called the third conditional.

The
reason these particular tenses are used is quite simple;
The simple past cannot be usedt
because it is already being used for the second conditionål, therefore
another past tense must be used.
However,
because of the structurel the result must happen after the condition. The only
two tenses which describe actions in the past arc the present perfect and the
past perfect.
Therefore,
the condition must be in the past perfect, and the result in the present
perfect.

Things to
  remember about the third conditional:
The events in this
  conditional must be finished. This is the only conditional that describes
  events in the past.
The events in this conditional (both in
  the cause and the effect) must be untrue:
      T/they       'been on time, they          have
  seen the beginning.
       means
  realiiy, they were       on time,       they missed the
  beginni"g.
had known you were waiting; I would
  have called means Tn reality, I dido 'r know that you were waiting, and so f
  't can,
This conditional is used to
  speculate about the past. If the events in the past did take place, srmply
  state them.
Howevert to imagine
  different possible outcomes, you need to change the condition; because you
  change the condition, the result will also change Therefore, both the
  condition and result must be not true.
The condition can be at the beginning, orthe result can be
  at the beginning: seen     he said "hello.
He would
  have said "hello " ifhe had seen her.
       "they hod checked the website they           have
  seen that the hotel was bad.
They would
  have seen rhat the hotel was bad ifthey had checked the website
The word can be taken out
  Of the sentence, if you move "had" to the beginning Of the
  sentence, and put the rest Of the sentence into question word
Had I known you
  wantedjuicep would /mve saved you some, Had he askedJór help, I would
  have helped hint.

Exercise 37.1
Using the
following prompts, write sentences that use the third conditional, as in the
example.
e.g. I didn request an air-conditioned room, so they didn give me one.
+ [fT had
askedfor an air-conditioned room, they would have given me one.
l . I didn't check the price online, so I was surprised at
the bill.

2,

They didn Jt
  tell me checkout was at 9:00, so I was late.

3.

I didn't ask about the weather, so I didn't bring
  the correct clothes.

4.

I got shots before I went
  so I was not worried about getting sick.

5,

I did a lot of research about the
  local history, so I knew exactly where I wanted to go.

6.

I didn't ask anybody about the food, so 1 wasn't
  prepared for it.

I only took one suitcase, so it    easy for me to
  tmvely

8.

I lost my camera, so I had
  a bad time.

9.

I lost my bankcard, so I didn't buy you any
  presents.

10. I ran out of time, so I didn't go everywhere I warlted to
go.

Exercise 37.2
IWwrite these conditional sentences, removing the conjunction
"if". Be careful of the tenses of the verbs.
If you should lose your card, it is easy
to get a replacement.

2.

Ifthe library should be
  closed, you Will have to walt until tomorrow.

3.

If the professor were here,
  he would be able to explain this to me.

4,

If
  the computer had not automatically saved the changes, I would have lost my
  work.

5.

If I had missed that
  subway, I would have missed the exam.

6.

If you do not cite sources in your essay, you will get zero.

7.

If the professor doesn't return the essays next
  week, I will repott her to the dean.

8.

Ifl were the professorl I
  would give students more time on the exam.

Grammar Point 38 Introduction to Nouns
The whole world around us is made up of things. In
grammar, these things are called Nouns. Nouns are the key things in a sentence—
they are the things that do the action and they are the things that receive the
action-
Nouns can be
seven thtngs in a sentence
Subject (the most important thing in a sentence)
e.g. The Egyptians lived long ago.
The pyramids were built thousands ofyears ago.
2.      Object (receiver of the action)
e.g. The Egyptians Ote
pomegranate. Pharaohs built pyramids.
3.      Complement
(describes the subject, follows a link verb).
e.g. Osiris was King ofthe
Eanh. A tum was thefirstgod.
4.      Object
of a verbal (when a verb is the subject or object, that verbal can take an
object)
e.g. Embalmingfamous people was
practiced by the Egyptians. Egyptians enjoyed playing Hounds and Jackals.
5.      Object of a preposition (after a
preposition)
e.g. The Egyptian empire grew in the valley efthe Nile.
Mány mysterious artifacts have beenfound in the
Pyramids at Giza.
6.      Noun
modifier (a noun can be used to describe another noun, act like an adjective —
remember if you see a long group Of nouns, the last one is key)  Wòod'ors
werefound beside mummies.
Egyptian
nobles enjoyedplayivg agony boardgames,
7.      lildirect object (that gives more
information about the main action)
e.gv Osiris sent Horus letter (Osiris setif letter; not Horns)
The Egyptians built the Pharaohs pyramids. (The Egyptians built pyramids,
nor Pharaohs)
39
Classification 1 — Types of Nouns
Nouns have been divided into 4 categories:
Proper
Common
Abstract
Group
The most
common categories arc Proper and Common
l. Proper nouns
Proper nouns are Names. They describe
things that are unique and special. There is only one of them. Toronto, Frank,
and Egypt are examples of proper nouns,

Things to
  remember about proper nouns:
They are always capitalized. It is incorrect to say egypt,
  tony or king tut.
All adjective clauses
  that describe proper nouns are considered non-defining, and must therefore be
  between commas,
e.g. Nubians, the people who lived to
  the south ofEgypt, fried to invade Egypt many times.
Amenemopet, the
  hour-watcher priest, was in charge of making sure that temple rituals were
  perfimned on time.
They never take
  articles (a or the) e,g, Ancient Egyp isfascinating/or many people.
            not The Ancient
  Egvpf is   many people.

Exercise 39.1
In the following passage, fix any mistakes you may find about
proper nouns.
The
smells of ancient Egypt
egyptian cities, like all
cities even today, were smelly places. The smoke Of cooking fires, sometimes
stoked with dried animal dung, hung over the houses. Body odor, obnoxious to
many modern westerners, was a fact of life in the hot climate. These kinds ofbad
smells may have pained the ancient the egyptians less than they do us. Still,
they liked nice floweny and aromatic scents and became masters at productng
them.
The ingredients were
both homegrown and imported. The punti a region in the vicinity of the Horn of
the affica, was the source of aromatic woods, incense and myrrh. Myrrh is a
resin produced from shrubs native to southern the arabia and eastern the
africa. Attempts were made to grow frankincense trees, a Boswellia Sacra,
locally. They didn't seem to have been a great success. The frankincense itself
is a fragrant gum resin harvested from the tree.
2. Common
Nouns
Most nouns in
English are Common nouns — they describe peopler places and things. There are
no rules unique to common nouns.
3. Abstract Nouns
Abstract nouns describe ideas — things that you cannot really
see or touch.
e.g. love, hatrd, anger, communism, charity, fear
If an abstract noun is the subject of a sentence, it always
takes a smgutar verb.
d Group Nouns (also known as Collective nouns) These nouns name a group
of things.
e,g, police, The Máp/e Leafs, cyov„'d, ream
The tricky thing about group nouns is that they can be
considered both singular and pluralt depending on the context. If you are talking
about the group as a unit, the noun is considered singular, However, you are
talking about individual members Of the group, the noun can be used as a
singular noun.
e.g. ThepoliÈe is an important organization. (this emphasizes the
gnup)
Thepolice were wearip;g riotgear. (this enwlnsizes
individual police officers)
The committee has made decision. this eyuphtusizes the decision-makij;g
body)
                       The
committee have left their vacatións.         emphasizes each member)
i 72
40 Classification 2 Count and
Non-count nouns
All nouns in English are classified as either count or
non-count (some people call them countable/nonountable), This was probably
started as a way to make trading lists, and is therefore easily learned in that
way.

If you go shopping, and can draw one itemy that item is countable:
e.g. apple,
  orange, carrot; chair, tah/év bed; suin tic, shirt
However, if you draw a bottle, box,
  bag or any other type of container, that item is not countable:
e.g. sugar,
  salt, bread; beer, vodka, water
All abstract nouns are considered non-count
Names
  of categories are considered non-count, but the items in the categories are
  considered countable:
Money is non-count; Dollar, Yen, Peso, Pound and Franc are count
Furniture is non-count,' chair, bed, table, sofa, and desk are count
Food is non-count; apple, hamburger, steak; and salad are count

Sometimes nouns can be both count and non-count. Often, when
discussing the general ideat the noun is non-county When discussing a specific
example, or member Of a group, the noun becomes count.
Look at these examples:
Wine is not cheep, (the topic is ALL)
The wines in that store are good, (rhe topic is the wine
in that particular store)
Tea is healthy. (the genen:zl idea ofherbs in water)
Teas made with ginger are beneficiulfor the stomach. 6peciTc types Q/tea)
f like bread. (the idea ofhread)
That bakery has a variety ofbreads (many types ofbread)
When discussing non-count nouns, it is common to give a
counter so that the listener can imagine a quantity of the noun.
e.g. Two
bottles ofwine
Three louves ofbread
2 kilos ofsugor
173
When you
describe count nouns, use the adjective "many". When you describe
noncount nouns, use the adjective "much"
Non count
nouns are always considered singular. If a counter is used, the counter can be
pluralt but the noun remains smgular
When discussing both count and non-count nouns, the
description "some" is possible.
Remember to check that the verb
is in the correct form: There is some sugar (non-count)
There are some people (count)
Exercise
40.1
In the following sentences, choose the correct word: much or
many.
That store sellswines from both the
Niagara and the Napa valleys.
Verystudents live on campus for the first year.
We don't needapples, but we do needapple Cider.
She just moved in, so she doesn't havefurniture.
5. parents give their children toopaper at the start of university
Exercise
40.2
In the
following passage, add the correct form ofthe verb "to be". Pay
particular attention to count/non-count nouns.
Egyptiansvery secure in that the Nile valley always
yielded enough
crops to feed the country, even When famine
present in other nearby parts of the worldv The basic food and driñk  breads
and beer. The main crops they grew wheat and barely, 'Whiththe most
important crop in ancient Egypt. Wheat used to make many
types of bread, including pastries and cakes. Corns often stored in
communal granaries. Important field crops sesame, beans and chickpeas. Beer  made
from barely, and  the main drink for common people in every
day life. Since there no sugar, honey used as a sweetener by
the rich, while dates and fruit juices  used by the poor.
i 74
41
Articles
All singular countable nouns must have an
"article". Articles give information about nouns, and are therefore
considered adjectives. There are two articles in English. the definite article
and the indefinite article. The indefinite article is used when the noun that
it describes has not been mentioned before, or the listener doesn't know which
thing they are talking about.

General rules about articles
They always go before every other
  adjective:
e.g. The
  hand-woven linen cloth NOT Hand-woven the linen cloth The originalgods
  ofEgvpr NOT Original thegods ofEgvpr
They are not
  used with demonstrative adjectives: beliefNOT The that belief
                    J
          want these shoes NOT I don 't want these the shoes
They are not used with possessive
  adjectives
e.g They don't like rhe my book
The theirfood was not really good

The Indefinite Article
The
indefinite artidle is '"at' or "an", depending on the
word. If the word begins with a vowel sound other than "U", the
article "an" is used If the word hegtns with a consonant sound, or
the vowel sound the article "a" is used. There are two things to
remember about the indefinite artiéle.

Ifyou are
  not sure which article to usej use the indefinite article.
It is better to have too many articles than not enough articles.

The indefinite article is easy to understand if you think
that it means " one".
For example, I have optepuppy I have a puppy.
I wont one chair = I wont a chair.
When
you say "I want a chair," you don't mean any special /particular
chair, just a chair. When you say "I want a steak," you don't mean
any special/patticular steak — any steak is OK.
Because you
can't say "one" with non-count nouns, you can't use "a"
with non-count nouns,
Look at these examples:
A man came here yesterday.
I read an interesting book about Egypt.
The Definite Article
The Definite article is used when the listener knows exactly what item is
discussed. In a discussion, the second time that the same item is mentioned,
the article becomes the definite article.
A man came
here yesterday- I don't know what the man wanted.
I read an interesting book about Egypt.
The book described Egyptian food. The definite article is also used if the
sentence gives specific information about whiCh noun is being discussed.
The book {that I read yesterday} was boring
The radio
program {that I usually listen to} is finished tor the year.
The definite article can be used with non-count nouns.
I want the
money {that I deserve} r
The food {that ancient Egyptians ate} is similar to the {food
eaten in Egypt today}.
The definite article can be
used with plural nouns The people {over theret are waiting to come in. I
didn't like the {that they played}.

2.
Most scholars have concluded that, there
was no close personal tie between (the/a/an/-) individual Egyptian and
(the/a/an/-) gods, that (the/a/an/-) gods remained aloof, that their
relationship to humans was communicated by means of (the/a/an/-) king. There
was no established book or set Of teachings. Humans were guided essentially by
human wisdom and trusted in their belief in (the/a/an/-) goodness
of(the/a/an/-) gods and of their divine son, the king. An important concept in
Egyptian life was (the/a/an/-) idea of (the/a/an/-) justice. Although
(the/a/an/-) Egyptians were entirely subservient to (the/a/an/.) state,
(the/a/an/.) king had (the/a/an/.) duty of translating (the/a/an/-) will of
(the/a/an/-) gods. (the/a/an/-) universe had been created by bnnging
(the/a/an/-) order and (the/a/an/-) justice to replace (the/a/an/-) chaos, and
could only survive through (the/a/an/-) continuance of (the/a/an/Ð order
and (the/a/an/-) justice. (the/a/an/-) law of nature, of society, and of
(the/a/an,/-) gods was (the/a/an/-) organic whole, and it was (the/a/an/•) duty
of (the/a/an/-) king to administer that law. As Egypt flourished, so did
(the/a/an/-) cult of (the/a/anV-) pharaohs. 3.
(the/a/an/-)Egyptian
attitude to  is unique in that
(the/a/an/-) they view (the/a/an/-)deceased as beginning
(the/a/an/-)journey outward. In (the/a/an/-) their tombs, devoted to aid
(the/a/an/-)depatted on (the/a/an/-)his journey, we are able to reconstruct
aspects of (the/a/an/l) daily life and (ghe/a/an/)föod of Egypt.
(the/a/an/•) mummification preserved (the/a/an/-)deccascd, and as long as
(the/a/án/-) mummy existedt it was given its portion of (the/a/an/-)
furniture, statues, paintings and food for its 'eternal homey'
(the/a/an/r)pottery vessels were used for food offerings which were sealed into
(the/a/an/-) tombs, preserving (the/a/an/-) foods. (the/a/an/O tombs were
filled with (the/a/an/-) hieroglyphics and with (the/a/an/-) drawings that
often represent (the/a/an/-) agricultural practices, butchering methods, any
aspect of (the/a/an/-) daily life.
4.
Because (the/a/an/-) Egypt was very
dry, and relied mostly on (the/a/an/-) Nide River to water (the/a/an/-) crops,
(the/a/an/-) Egyptians could only grow certain kinds of (the/a/an/-) food.
Mainly they grew (the/a/an/-) wheat and (the/a/an/-) barley. (the/a/an/-)
Egyptians made (the/a/an/-) wheat into (the/a/an/-) bread and into soup and
(the/a/an/-) potTidge, and they ålso added (the/a/an/-) hops to make
(the/a/an/-) barley into (the/a/an/-) beer. In fact, some people think (the/a/an/•)
real reason that
(the/ a/ an/ -) Egyptians first began
growing (the/a/an/ grain          to make beer.
5.
(the/a/an/-) Book of (the/a/an/-)
Dead is (the/a/an/-) term used to describe (the/a/an/-) text used in
(the/a/an/-) funerals and placed in tombs. It is usually inscribed on
(the/a/an/•) papyrus and includes about (the/a/an/•) two hundred spells which
were thought to aid and protect (the/a/an/-) dead in (the/a/an/-) afterlife.
(the/a/an/-) individual Book of (the/a/an/-) Dead would contain (the/a/an/-)
selection of (the/a/an/-) these spells.
Grammar Point 42 Noun Clauses
Look at this sentence:
My problem is running
This sentence
can be confusing — the subject is "my problem", but what is the verb?
Is the verb "is"? Is the verb "is running"? To avoid this
confusion, you can use the entire idea as the complement. To use the idea
"I don't like running" as the complement, you must connect it to the
main clause. The most common connector is "that"
The new sentence is much more clear:
My problem is that I don 't like running.
"that I don't like running" acts like a noun-complement.
Because there is a subject and verb, it is a clause. This structure is known as
a noun clause. Noun clauses avoid confusion, and make meaning very clear.
Look at this example
When did the Greeksfirst build temples?
If you want
to attaCh this to the sentence "I don't know you must change the question
into a noun clause.
In a noun clause, the word order must be [Connector + subject
+ verb]
Therefore, the answer with a noun clause would be I
don 't know 'when the Greeks lint built temples}.
Where is the
library? J                 know /where the library isle
Because a noun Clause acts as a noun, it
can do anything that a noun can do — subject, object, complement, indirect
object, object of a preposition, or object of a verbal. A noun clausc should
not be used as a noun modificr•

Pattern to look for:
when you see the pattern
verb+question word; preposition +question word; verbal+question word; question
word + subject verb (at the beginning of a sentence), it is a noun clause

Things to remember
  about noun clauses: Words the following order:
e.g. When was thefirst Greek city
  built? — is a question When first Greek cil.v — is a Noun clause
Whew was
  the real city ofTroy? — is a question
                 Where
  the    fill' — is a Noun clause
Noun Clauses must
  have a "connector" — in many cases, the question word at the
  beginning of the question becomes the "connector". This
  "connector" acts as a signal to the listener that a noun clause is
  comingi and in many cases gives infórmation about the noun clause:
  evgv Who was the s/rongest Greek god? 1 to know fwho
If you want to change a yes/no
  question into a noun clause, use the connector "if':
evg. Did the Trojan war really happen?
I wan t to
  know [ifthe Trojan war real/y happened/
Did
  Achilles die at Troy?
                  I
            10 know [ifAchilles lied Troy/.
If there is no question,
  and you want to use a regular sentence as a noun clause, use the connector
e.g. Pythagoras developed many theories.
(That
  Pythagoras developed many theories/ is interesting.
Noun clauses can be the subject of a
  sentence, the object ofa sentence, the object of a preposition or the Object
  of a verbal:
[Whar is o mystery.
                      I
  want to know (where the           city
They ore talking abotit /whctt
                       Discussing
  (where                                 is always difficult.
Rememberta keep the tense in the
  noun clause the same as the tense in the question. This can be tricky when
  auxiliary verbs are used erg When did he tvme?
tvanr 10
  know .{vphept he came/.
How long didyou wait?
                          I want to know {how long       waited/.

Exercise
42.1
Change these questions into noun
clauses, as in the example. Begin every sentence with "I don't know"
or "l td like to know
e.g. Where was thefitst capitol ofGreece?
+1 don t know where rhe/hst capital ofGreece was.
l . Where was Alexander the Great from?

2,

Where was the first capital
  of Greece?

3,

Who was the biggest enemy
  Of Athens?

4,

Who was the patron saint of Athens?

5,

What is a Minotaur?

6.

What food was most common in Greece?

7.

Who was the strongest god
  in Greece?

8.

Who was the most famous
  Greek mathematician?

Grammar point
43 - Noun clause connector/subjects
In some        questions, the
question asks for the subject:
Who came last night?
Who is the subject — in that case, the question word becomes the subject
of the noun clause and the connector: I want to know last night/,
e.g. What made that noise?
I want to know what made that noise
Note — only
"who" and "what" can be the subject of the noun clause,
because only who and what can be pronouns. Only "who" and
"what" can be the subject in questions. If you are looking at a
question and are unsure how to make a noun clause because you cannot find the
subject, try answenng the question - it will help.
e.g. Who is that? — is the subject "'who" or
"that"
Answer the question — That is my professor. Therefore, the
subject is "that"
e.g. What
is rheproblem?— is the subject "what" or "the code?
Answer the question — The noise is the problem. Therefore,
the subject is "what".
Exercise
43.1
Practice changing these questions into noun clauses. Then,
use the noun clause as the corryplement- Begin each sentence with "What I
want to know is
l, Who was
Socrates' student?

2L Who discovered Saturn?

185
3.
What is older —
the Parthenon or the Acropolis?

4.
Who designed the Acropolis?

5, Who was AlexanderJs father?

6.

What killed Socrates?

7.

Who teaches biology 100?

What is the assignment for
  tomorrow?

9.

Who is your lab partner?

10. Who is
coming to the party tomorrow?

I What made
that noise?

90 Something
is important. What should do if I lose my library card?
1)
2)
10. They arc
curious about something. Will you come to the party tomorrow?
1)
2)
I I. Give the
professor something What did you write yesterday?
1)
2)
12. They are watching something. What did
the professor show in class?
1)
2)
13. They are listening to something. What
did the professor play in class?
1)
2)
14. They
are writing something. What did the professor assign?
1)
2)
15. Something
is important. What did the professor talk about yesterday in class?
l) 2)
16. Doing something is possible What
assignment do you want to do?
1)
2)
Building
Grammar Skills
Exercise 43.3
On the iBT, there will be
questions in the reading section which require you to find sentences which
paraphrase the meaning Of a highlighted section Of the passage. The most
important skill for answering this question is to be able to analyze the
passage. Practice analyzing these sentences, using the sentence analysis system
outlined on page 3. Be especially carefúl of noun clauses.
According to an old proverb, the most
important thing is not what you knowt it is Who you know.
2. What to study is as difficult a decision as who to marry.
3, What most people fail to understand is that in business,
what you say isn't always as important as how you say it.
4. When the
Inuit crossed the Bering Strait after the last ice age roughly 3000 years ago,
what they found was that most of the North American continent was already
inhabited
That most people do
not learn how to write nicely is not only sad, it is something that should
immediately be addressed by whoever has any power to do something
6.     Most people know that the freezing
point of water is 00 Celsius, but what most people don't know is
that (Y Fahrenheit was based on what the freezing temperature of saline
solution is.
7.
In many cases, what separates good teachers from great teachers
is that they know When to stop teaching.
8 After they arrive in a new country, what most people find
most intimidating is dealing with the government in that country,
9.
In preparing for
a test, you must know what to study; how much to study, and how to study it.
10. Upon
finishing the final year of university, students are faced with the choice
whether they should continue to study, or whether they should enter the
workforce.
1 89
Exercise
43.4
In the
following passage, put square brackets around all the noun clauses you find.
Greek Mythology
One of the most fascinating aspects of ancient Greek
culture is what gods they created. The pantheon was made up of gods that
represented one aspect of life. They were meant to explain what the ancients
saw around them, why it happened and, likely most importantly, what people
could do about it.
The gods lived atop
mount Olympus. It is ftom this mountain that the name of the modern sports
competition comes.
The most powerftll god
was called Zeus. He was the thunder god, and every god bowed before him, What
power other gods had came from him, Although he was the most powerful god, he
was what you might expect. Zeus would often come to earth and father children
with human women. This is how many heroes, including Herculest were
Zeus was married to
Hera, the strongest of the female gods. What made these two gods special was
that they had no specific function - every other god, however, did.
The most important Of the gods were: Apollo, who
controlled the sun; Poseidon, god Of the seat Nike, goddess of victory and
Hádest god Of death and the afterlife. These gods offer us a glimpse of
what was important to the ancient Greeksï what they were afraid Of, and
what their dreams were.
Although what was found of the ancient Greeks does not
match what was found of other ancient civilizations, what the religions teach
us can be very informative Building Grammar Skills
Grammar Point 44 Article Review
The articles in English add extra information about Nouns.

Review the rules of articles:
Indefinite Article — A/An
-  when
  you don't know which item you are talking about
                     e.g. Thew is a        at the
  door.
-  when you don't mean one specific
  thing, but mean any one in a group
e.g. He wants a puppy.
-  when you introduce something for
  the first time
e.g. They have a puppy.
Definite Article — The
-  when you have information about
  which particular item (most commonly an adjective clause/phrase or a key
  preposition phrase)
e.g. The movie {that they
  wasfunny. I really enjoyed rhe steak (from Kobe).
-  when you mean the closest item
e.g. Please
  rum on the light (in this
-  when there is only one of something
e.g. Would you like to go io ihe moon?
-  when you mean something that you
  have already mentioned
e.g. The song that wejust talked about came
  on the radio.
-  when you describe a geographical
  area eg. / would not want to Jive in the west
-  When you use the superlative form
e.g. This is the hest city in the world
-  when you talk about rivers,
  mountains, forests, and oceans
                     e.g.
  The St. Lawrence River, The          Forest
No Article
-  when you discuss non-count nouns
e.Æ. They don't have coffee
-  when
  you discuss abstract ideas
e.g. That country hus beautiful traditions
-  when you discuss meals — however,
  ifyou describe the meal, use an indefinite atticle
e.g. Mylávorire meal lunch Today,
  Ijust had a quick lunch.
-  when you describe
  transportation eg- He come by bike
-  when you talk about lakes
Lake Baikal

191
Exercise
44.1
Add the appropriate article where necessary.
He has loved dogs ever since he was a little boy, and now he wants         puppy.
2.
She is very excited because she has never seen   Pacific Ocean
before.
3.
I didn't have tltne to eatfull breakfast, so I
can't skiplunch.
4.
computer that they bought yesterday haslatest software
installed.
5.
my apartment hasgreat view ofLake Pontchartrain.
6.
capital city ofNew York State is not New
York City, it is Albany.
coffee is generally consideredstimulant.

There are some nouns which change meaning if you use them
  with an article, or without:
school;
  church; jail; university; hospital; court; college; bed; sea; prison
Ifyou don't use an article with these nouns, you use
  the nouns in the proper way.
e.g. rgo 10 school because I am a studem
Ifellfrom my bicycle, so I wenÎ to
  hospital
However, when you do not
  use these things for the proper way, use an article.
e.g. The voting station is in the schoo/ across the street
(you do not study at the school, you vote)
The roofers we'll to the chum/' tofix rhe roof]
(they will not pray, they will repair the
  building)

Exercise
44.2
Add an article where necessary.
If the pam doesn't Stop by tomorrow, you should go to _ hospital.
2. Bob's been atsea for five weeks — his mission will
finish soon.
They were very happy, because their
daughter was accepted touniversity, 4b Because he was seen
by many people committing the crime, he was sent tojail for 14 years.
5. His mother goes tojail to visit him
every week.
Building
Grammar Skills
Lightning
For as long as there have
been (the/a/an/-)people, (the/a/an/-) humanity has been fascinated and awed by
(the/a/an/-) natural spectacle which i$ (the/a/an/-) lightning. (the/a/an/-)
Religions have celebrated it, gods have controlled it, and scientists are
intrigued by it. Even today, with all of (the/a/an/-) technology created
throughout history at their disposal (the/a/an/•) climatologists arc still
baffled by some aspects of it.
Some things, however, we do know. Lightnmg is (the/a/ an/-)
purest form (the/a/an/-) electricity In nature. It is caused by (the/a/an/-)
jumping of (the /a/an/) electrons from (the/a/an/-) negatively charged thunder
cloud to (the/a/an/-) positively charged earth, and vice-versa. We know also
that lightning moves not only from (the/a/an/-) clouds to (the/a/an/-) earth,
but also from (the/a/an/.) earth to (the/a/an/-) clouds.
Although (the/a/an/.) lightning
carries thousands of volts of (the/a/an/-) electricity, most of (the/a/an/-)
energy is actually expended in (the/a/an/-) form Of (the/a/an/-) light and
(the/a/an/-) heat. Because (the/a/an/-) lightning moves so quickly and
dissipates so quickly, it is estimated that (the/a/an/-) amount of
(the/a/an/-) electricity in a lightning bolt would only be
enough to power (the/a/an/-) light bulb for (the/a/an/ò few weeks.
TO many people,
lightning appears to be (the/a/an/-) untapped source Of (the/a/an/-) free
electrical energy, However; even though (the/a/an/-) amounts of energy in
(the/a/an/-) bolts are incredible, (the/a/an/-) bolts themselves are so brief,
and most of(the/a/an/') power is spent on (the/a/an/-) light and (the/a/an/-)
heat, that (the/ a/ an/r) harnessing of (the/a/an/„) electricity lightning
produces is currently iropractical.
46 - Review Noun clauses
A noun clause is a group of words that acts as a noun.
They are very useful to give complex information, and express complex ideasv A
noun clause can do anything that a noun can do, but they are almost never used
as notrn modifiers.
Noun clauses
have a simple structure:
Connector + Subject + Verb Noun Clause subject:
Ulnutu-li.eul.u.udeazuund.l is interesting.
Noun Clause Object:

Noun Clause
as object of the preposition
The
lecture about (what
he did]
Remember — in some casesi the connector can be the
subject Of the noun clause:
             e.g.
I want to know              killed him].
/What is wrong/ is the question
Exercise 46.1
Change these
questions into sentences that begin: I don't know, or I want to know Remember that the word order must
change to [connector + Subject + verb]
1.
When did King
Arthur live?

2.
Where
did King Arthur live?

3.
Who was king
Arthur's best krnght?

4.
What was King
Arthur's wife's name?

5.
When
did King Arthur die?

6.
Who was Merlin?

Building
Grammar Skills
Grammar Point 47 - Noun Clause
Connectors
In many noun clauses, the connector gives infOrmation
to the listener. The most common noun clause connector is '"that" ,
It gives no infórmationy just introduces the noun clause.

When a question word is used as a connector, it has a
  special meaning. An easy way of remembering this is that the noun clause
  creates an adjective clause, in these forms:
what = the things that who =          the person that when — the time
  that why =          the reason that where = the place that how = the way that
e.g Please describe what you saw = Please describe
  the thing                   saw,
Tell me how can get there = Tell me the way that I can get there.

Exercise 47.1
Choose the
best connector for these noun clauses. In some cases, there can be more than
one correct answer.
1, "Excalibur" was made is a
question that is Still unanswered,
2.      The
question ishelped
Arthur become King.
3.      Arthur chose that
particular place to build a capital is a mystery.
4, Arthur chose his knights was very
unique at the time. 5, Many people are still looking forAtthur was buried, There are
many mysteries aboutArthur died.
Arthur got "Excalibur" is a
mystery.
Arthur knew where "Excalibur"
was is a mystery.
9made
"Excalibur" will never be known
10.Arthur
chose knights was very unique,
197
Exercise 47.2 Noun clause connectors
Change the following pairs of sentences into one sentence
which contains a noun clause. Pay particular attention to noun clause
connectors, as in the example:
e.g. I want to know something What time does the summer
vacation start? I want to know when the summer vacation starts.
I want to ask you something. What time
does the class start?

2.      Please
tell me something. What is the professor's email?

3.      Please tell me something. Who is the
teacher?

I want to know something. At what time should I hand in my essay?

5.

Please tell me something. At which place should I
  hand in my report?

6.

I would like to ask you
  something. For what reason are you late?

7.

Please tell me something.
  In which direction does this bus go?

8

I would like to know
  something. At what time is the professor's office hour?

9.

Please tell me something. What is the length of the
  Christmas break?

10. I want to know something. Tn what way should I stibmit my
final report?

Exercise 47.4
IWwrite the passage, adding noun clauses where possible. Remember, there
is often more than one correct way to say the same thing.
The
Sword in the Stone
There was once a young boy named Wert. There was something special about
the boy. That thing was his pure heart.
Wert was an apprentice to a knight in London. He had to work. He had to
clean the knight's armour every day. That made him unhappy. Wert never
complained, however, but happily carried on.
One dayt Wert met an unusual man named Merlyn. There was something
special about Merlyn. Wert could not understand that thing.
Merlyn was a powerful magictan. Everybody
knew this fact. Merlyn saw a special thing about Wert, and decided to teach
Wert some magic.
One spring Wert's master was very excited because Of
something. The thing that excited him was big: he had been invited to a joust
in London. The knight prepared his best sword and told Wert to clean his
armour,
On the day of the joust they went to London. The knight was very happy.
This was because there was a big prize to win. This was Wert's first trip to
London. That made him happy.
In the centre Of London there was a huge
t©Ck in which there was a sword. Nobody could pull the sword out. There was an
inscription in the stone. The stone read: 'Wáosopulleth out this sword
of this stone and awil is rightwtse king born ofËnglond ' Before every
joust all the knights tried to pull out the sword, but nobody could.
At the time of the joust everybody was excited.
There was excitement in the airw Suddenly, dunng practice, Wért's
knight's sword broke! That made them very nervous. There was no time The knight
sent Wett to find another sword, Wett ran to the stone in the centre of London
and took the sword outw He brought it to his knights and the knight won the
joust, The knight knew something, There was something special about the sword.
He asked Wert a question: where did he get the sword? Wert told him
The knight doubted Wert, They went to the stone together. Wert put the
sword back into the stone and pulled it out again. The knight tried to pull it
out, but couldn'tL That was a strange thing.
Wert had the purest heart in all ofEngland. He grew up to become King
Arthur, and the sword was called "Excalibur"
Grammar Point 48 Noun Clause
Reductions 1
In many situations, an entire noun clause
will make the sentence very long, and you want to remove some words. The rules
for making noun clause reductions are very similar to making type I adjective
clause reductions: If I) the connector is "that";
2)
the connector is
not the subject;
3)
the noun clause is not the subject of the sentence;
4)
the structure of the sentence is clear, then, Remove the
connectorv

Look at this example:
He said that he will be latee
In
  this sentence, the structure is very simple, and if we remove the connector,
  the sentence will not be difficult to understand. Therefore, we can remove
  the connector "that", to make the new sentence: He said he will be
  late.

However, in this sentence:
That Martin LfÆther was doing what he thought besi is
not being questioned cannot be reduced because the noun clause is the subject
Of the sentence Also, the sentence:
Although it has never happened before, we can safely assume because ofthe
weather tonight that he will be late, mostly due to circumstances beyond his
control should not be reduced, because the sentence is very long, and may
become confusing without the "signal" of the connector.
As with adjective clauses, there is no rule about removing
the connector. A general guideline is:
If it will make the sentence difficult to understand, do
not make the reduction.

TOEFL tip:
On the TOEFL, you will
be required to write two essays, While you are writing, do not make any
reductions, you should only make reductions later, in the proofreading part
ofthe writing section, In general, on the TOEFL, don't make reductions, as what
may seem easy and straightforward to you may be confúsing to somebody
else

202
Grammar Point 49 Noun Clause
Reductions 2
Noun Clauses are very useful because they allow you to
describe relationships between very complex ideas. In some situations, it is
possible to remove some words while keeping the same idea — just like adjective
clauses,

You should only make a noun clause reduction if the
  fOllowing criteria are met
1. The connector is a question word;
2, The subject in the noun clause is the same as the main
  subject in the sentence or there is orily one clear "doer" in the
  sentence;
3. The verb in the noun
  clause includes the modal "would", "should" or ' 'could.

TO make a noun clause reduction, first, remove the subject of
the noun clause; second, change the entire verb structure to the infinitive.

Look at these examples:
I (ion 'r know [what I should dol.
firstï remove the subject "I" second,
replace "Should do" with "to do"
            The
noun clause becomes •Y the noun phrase: r don't know          to do}
He asked the receptionist he should cell to catch the becomes +He asked the receptionist
[when to call catch the president}.

Pattern to look for:
When you see a question word fallowed
by the infinitive, it is a noun clause reduction

Exercise 49.1
In the following sentences, make noun clause reductions where
it is possible, and where it will not confuse the meaning of the sentence.
I want to know when I should come to the party.

2.

He asked when the semester begms.

3,

When you are invited to a dinner
  party, it is Important to ask what you should bring.

4,

Most graduation ceremonies have
  instructions about what you should wear,

5.

What Martin Luther wanted was to
  explain what people should do to go to heaven.

When Martin Luther made his proposal, the pope told him that he should
  stop.

7.

The Pope told Martin Luther to stop, or he would be excommunicated.

What Martin
  Luther did was to open a schism in the Catholic Church, which was something
  that he didn't want to do,

9,

Many Germanic kings did not think that the Roman pope could tell them
  what they should do in their own kingdoms.

10. What many people objected to was that the Catholic Church
told them that they should not read the Bible by themselves L

205
Exercise 49.2
Read this
passage and put square brackets around the noun clauses, Fix any mistakes,
The Begmnmg of the
Reformation
At the end of the 15 th century, there was
only one Christian church in Western Europe — the Roman Catholic Church. There
was one leader of the Catholic Church — the Pope in Rome. Because of this, the
pope could do whatever he wanted.
Unfortunately, with
time, the papacy became corrupt and what the Pope did made some people angry.
What made many local priests angriest was the sale Of "Indulgences".
Indulgences were "ticketsi' — how to pay for making a mistake.
If people did something bad, they could pay money to the Pope, and paying would
"erase'i or "forgive" what they did. That rich people
could go to heaven simply because they had money didn't seem fair to many
priests.
One priesti named Martin Luther, thought that
something had to be done about this corruption, He felt that he should do
something, before the church lost many faithful.
On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther nailed 95 "theses" to the
door of the Wittenberg Cathedral. In these theses, Luther outlined for the
leaders of the church What they should do to return to the pure Catholic Church
that Martin Luther felt that it should bet
The leaders of the Catholic Church, however, did not
want to change. They felt that a small priest in a small town in a small
country was not somebody to tell the Pope what the Pope should do. The Catholic
Church demanded that Luther recant — take back his words — but that was
something that Luther would not do,
Very quickly; the Catholic Church split into two parts
— those who supported Luther, and those who supported Rome. Those who supported
Luther became known as the Reformers, and eventually "Lutherans".
Later, others hlso decided that they wanted to split from the Catholic Church.
Everybody who split became known as "Protestants". The entire
protestant movement started because of what Martin Luther did on October
3P, 1517.
Grammar Point 50 Introduction to Adverbs
Adverbs give very much information — they
can describe Verbs, Adjectives and other Adverbs.
eg They quickly. (quickly
describes "run" — a verb) He scudies daily. (daily describes
"'studies" — a verb)
c/ slightly l/åmøged car. (slightly describes
"damaged" — an adjective) light-blue sweater, (light describes
"blue" — an adjective)
an extremely-well written letter. (extremely desclibes well — adverb)
Theirsüé a very long-lived monarchy (very describes
"long-lived" — an adverb)
*Remember — anything that gives information about a verb or
adjective or adverb is considered an adverb. It can be a word, phrase or clause
— often preposition phrases are considered adverbs because they give
information about verbs.
Exercise 50.1
Tn the following sentences, underline the subject once and
the verb twice. Then put angle brackets < > around any adverb or adverb
structure,
Little is known about his early years, but
Genghis Khan was born sometime around 1162 in HentlY, Mongolia. 2. The last
imperial monarCh in Europe was the King-Emperor George VI, who ruled as Emperor
of India.
Most medieval historians would argue
that the existence of France did not really begin until the advent of the
Capetian Dynasty in 987.
4. Coats Of arms
have their origins in the designs used by medieval knights to make their armor
and shield stand out in battle or tournaments.
The water-meadow at Runnymede is the
most likely location at which, in 1215, King JOhn sealed the Magna Cartat and
the charter itself indicates Runnymede by name.
Because they are much more powerful than
adjectives, the rules concerning adverbs are stricter -

Things to remember about adverbs:
Most adverbs can go
  anywhere in the sentence without changing the meantng. The only place that an
  adverb cannot go is between the verb and the object.
e.g. Regularly; I walk my dog.
I regularly walk my dog,
my dàg is wroøg
Most advetbs or manner end in
  "-Iy", but there are some adjectives which end in ' '-lyt ',
  also, The most common Of these are, costly, early, friendly, likely, lonely,
  sickly, kindly
Some adjectives and adverbs have the same
  form:
hard     little     right deep       high     long Short
  direct     ill         low early         just      much straight enough           kindly  well
  (not sick) far       late left      likely
Some of these adverbs can be used with the 1 ' *1',"'
  ending, but the meaning

Adverbs have been classified according to
  their function. There are
Manner,
  Place, Time, Frequency, Sentence, Degree, Interrogative and Relative adverbs.
  The most common ones are manner and frequency.
Adverbs
  of frequency (never, usually, rarely, often, sometimes, etc.) have a
  particular location the sentence, depending on the verb
Ifthe verb is "to be" , the adverb will always go after the
  vctb:
            e.g.   The king
  bf-always > present at the open mg efpar!iament
                       Hein gž:g                 slight/y
  obnoxious peep!e
However,
  if the verb is NOT "to be 'i , the adverb of frequency will go before
  the verb:
                e.g. People don < usually>               the
  king or queen.

Exercise
50.2
In the following sentences, underline the subject once and
the verb twice. Put angle brackets around any adverbs, and then circle the word
that the adverb describes.
The Queen of England does not control
England absolutely.
2.      Today,
few monarChs have completely power
3.      In a monarchy, power goes from parent
to child.
4, The word "monarchy" is derived directly from the
Greek words "mono" and "archein", meaning "one"
and "rule" respectively.
5.
The theory of absolute monarchy developed from feudalism in the
late Middle Ages during which monarchs were still very much first among equals
among the nobility.
6.
"Divine Right", or power granted by God, is the phrase
that was original cited by monarchs to justify their rule
7.
Today, there are only three remaining truly absolute monarchies
in the modern world: Saudi Arabia, Brunei, and Swaziland.
8.
Today, constitutional monarchies are mostly representative
democracies, but this has not always historically been the case L
9.
Some
constitutional monarchies are hereditary; others, such as the one in Malaysia
are elective monarchies.
10. The Governor General represents the
Crown in Canada and therefore plays an important role in the parliamentary
process.
209

Grammar point 52 - Negative and "Almost
Negative" adverbs at the beginning of a sentence
In some situations, you can put an adverb of frequency
at the beginning of a sentence, When this adverb is negative (such as never) or
almost negative (rarely), the sentence must be in question word order
e.g.       f have never
seen such system ofgovernment
Never have I seen such a system
ofgovernment„ It rarely snows in Toronto in January.
*Rarely does it rain in Toronto January.
The most common "negative " and ' 'almost
negative" adverbs are: seldom, scarcely, hardly, not until, never,
nowhere, barely,
This is not common in modern conversational English, but it
occurs regularly in academic written English,
Exercise 52.1
Paraphrase these sentences, and move the negative/ almost
negative adverb to the beginning of the sentence,
I have never been so scared.

2.

They hardly finished eating When it started to rain.

3,

She never arrives on time.

4,

We will seldom meet after
  this course finishes.

He barely had time to
  finish his work yesterday.

I rarely go to the gym
  during the week.

7,

You have never handed your
  work 111 on time,

8.

She seldom dnnks alcohol.

9.

He almost never worries
  about his health.

10, I have
seen this nowhere

211
These
subordinators show time:

Conjunction

Meaning

Examples

Usual Tenses

one
  event finishesj then another begins — this emphasizes the second event

After it stops raining,
  I will go to the park

Simple past and Simple
  present are most common

as*

two actions happening at once; this
  conjunction is very similar to "while"

As I was walki'tg home, I remembered to buy bread

Subordinate clause is usually in
  the past continuous, main clause is usuall in the sim le

as soon as

one action immediately fóllows
  another; the stress is on immediacy

As soon as
  it is done. call
As soon as it was over, I left

Subordinate
  clause is usually in the simple past or present, main clause is in sim le t
  or resent

before*

one
  event finishes and then another begins — this em hasizes the first event

I
  will order pizza before the game begins

The subordinate clause is in a tense before
  the main clause.

by the ttme

one
  action finishes and then another one begins; this is similar to
  "before"

By the timepeople B, C
  vote, people in eastern
Cánada have finished

Subordinate
  clause is In either past perfect, past continuous or sim le

now that

one event finishes and another can
  start em hasizes nowv

Now that the voting is closed, scrutineers can count the ballots

Subordinate clause is in the simple past or
  present ct

once

one event cannot start until
  another is finished

Once you finish the project' we can home.

Both clauses usually use the sim le  t.

until*

one action cannot start during another action

I will not leave until you cull.

The
  subordinate clause is in a tense before the main clause.

since*

started in the past and continues now

I have known you since you come to Canada.

Subordinate clause is usually in the simple past, the main clause is
  usually in the  nt rfect.

when

shows
  the relation between two sentences — the meaning must be found from the
  context

When you turn 18, you can vote
What you have voted, put the ballot in
  the box.

Almost any tense can be used in both
  subordinate clause and main clause

whenever

every time that this happens

Whenever 'here is
  nonconfidence in the government, there must be an election

Subordinate
  clause is usually in the simple present or past

while

two actions happen at the same
  time; this conjunction is very similar to "as"

While you live in another you can still vote for Canadian elections

Subordinate clause is in thc past continuous or
  simple pasty the main clause is in the          le            st

'k these subordinate conjunctions can be prepositions also
+ Remember
by; during, at and on all show time relationshipst but they are prepositions.
213
Exercise 54.1
In the
following passage, underline the main subject of each sentence once, and the
verb twice. Put andle brackets around any adverb clause,
The United States
government is an intentionally large and inefficient body. When the founding
fathers of the US established the government, they had not only the models of
the ancient Greeks, but also the parliamentary models developed in England and
its colonies.
The system that US
developed is not a pure democracy even though many modern Americans claim so,
The system that they developed is a Republic, The founders avoided the
"pure" democratic system, in which everything is directly chosen by
the people, for two distinct reasons. First, they wanted to avoid the
"Tyranny of the Majority" in which a majority can commit terrible
crimes against a minority simply because the majority voted itself into power.
Second, a majority can vote to give itself tax breaks even though the
government is in need of money
One of the most important
— if not the most important — concepts in American government is the idea of
separation of power. This was made precisely to avoid a tyranny of the
majority. Power is divided into three separate "branches" of
government  legislative, where laws are made,
executive, which carries out the laws, and judicial, where laws are judged.
The legislative branch,
or "Congress", is further divided into two parts. Because people need
direct contact with their representative, members of the House of
Representatives are elected for two year terms. This is made so that they will
be in constant contact with their constituents, and will always know exactly
what the people of the country are thinking. Senators in America, on the other
hand, are elected for six year terms, and are meant to bc the thinking part of
the legislature. Because Representatives can be easily swayed by popular
optrnon, Senators were made to act as a "brake" on such populist politics.
Even though the founding
fáthers most likely wanted the power to be spread out evenly throughout
the three branches, the executive branchi which is the branch of the president,
has been steadily increasing in power r
217

60 Lenin
seized power in 1921. One year latert he created a secret police.

7.

Stalin joined the communist
  patty. He immediately took charge of admissions

8

Lenin died in 1923. Then
  Stalin took control of the communist party.

Stalin took
  control of the communist party. Hé killed many political opponents
  then.

Grammar point 56 - Adverb clause
reductions with "Because"
In some situations, a reduction can be made with the conjunction
"because" This can only be done when the adverb clause describes a situation - it
cannot be made When the adverb clause describes an action.
When making the reduction, remove the conjunction and subject and always
change the verb into the gerund When thc verb is negative, begin with
"not" and then the gerund.
Look at these examples.
Because he wanted expand his personal power, Leninjoined the
communist party.
 Wanting to expand hispersono/ power,
LeninJoined the communist party
Because he didn't want to give
up power, Stolin hod many people killed + Not wanting to give up power, Stalin
had many people killed.
In these
sentences a reduction is impossible, because the subordinate clause introduces
an action, not a situation;
Because Lenin traveled in Germany, he spoke German.
Because
Stalin controlled the membership, he only allowedpeople who thought like

Pattern to look for:
When a sentence begins with a gerund, look for a comma and
then determine what the main stibject is,

Exercise 56.1
In the following sentences, write
adverb clause reductions where possible. Because many people
did not support the tsar, they joined the communists.

2, Because they hated the tsar, many people joined Lenin,

3. Because they did not expect a serious threatl the Imperial
army wasn't ready

4.

Because he didn't end the war, Kerensky lost a lot
  of support among the population

5,

Because he had experience,
  Stalin was a good thief.

6,

Because he wanted complete
  control, Stalin killed many communist party members.

7.

Because he was afraid of
  him, Stalin had 'Trotsky killed,

8,

Because hc knew what revolutionaries can do, Lenin
  immediately established a secret police to stop any more revolutions

9.

Because they didn't like
  communism, no western country supported Lenin.

10. Because the
opposition was not centralized, it could not withstand the Bolsheviks for long.

I Because Stalin
controlled who could join the communist patty, he made sure that only people
who supported him entered.

Grammar point 57 - Adverb Clause
Reductions with "After"
Another way to make a reduction is with the subordinate
conjunction "after":

l.
Remove the subordinate conjunction
2.
Add the gerund
"having"
3.      Change the main verb into the past
participle fOrrn

Keep in mind that the subject in the Adverb clause and the
subject in the main clause MUST be the same.

Look at these examples:
After Lenin took power, he established a
  secretpolice
+ Having
  taken power, Lenin established a secretpolice
get me letter, please can me.
+
  Havinggotten the letter, please call me.
"fteryou/ìnishparr l, you can go on to part 2.
Havingfinished pan I, you can go on to part 2
HOwever, these clauses cannot be reduced:
After the
  Bolshevik revolution in the Russian empire, many western countries uwre
  nervous.
After the testfinished, fie went
  hotne because the subjects Of the two clauses are different.

Pattern to 100k for:
When a sentence begins with
"having" + past participle, it is an adverb clause reduction which
means "aftert

Exercise
57.1
Re-write these sentences, making where possible.
l . After he
attended a meeting of the communist party, Lenin decided to take control.

2,

After he established
  control, Stalin started executing people who disagreed

3.

After the civil war
  finished, many people did not believe the communists.

4.

After Lenin died, Stalin took control of the
  communist party.

5.

After they won the civil
  war, the communists changed their philosophy.

6.

After the civil war
  finished, there was a lot of work to do.

7.

After Lenin took control,
  he established a secret police.

8.

After Lenin died, there was
  a struggle for powerl

9.

After Stalin took power, he
  made many political changes.

10. After
Stalin took power, he executed Leon Trotsky.

224
Exercise 57.2
In the following paragraphs, change the adverb clauses to
phrases, where it is possible and where it makes sense.
After he was caught reading Marxist
literature, Josef Stalin was kicked out of a semrnary and joined the communist
party. After he attended a meeting in which Lenin's group was strongest, Stalin
decided to join it. Although he was not one of the decisive players in the
Bolshevik seizure of power in 1917, he soon rose through the ranks of the
party. In 1922, he was made general secretary of the Communist Party, and
although this post not considered particularly significant at the time, it gave
him control over appointments and thus allowed him to build up a base of
support. After Lenin died in 1924, Stalin promoted himself as his political
heir and gradually outmaneuvered his rivalsw By the tate 1920s, Stalin was
effectively the dictator of the Soviet Union.
2,
Tn 1897, Leon
Trotsky became involved in orgamzing the underground South Russian
Workers' Union. After he was arrested for revolutionary ideas,
Trotsky was sent to
Siberia, After four years in captivity, he
escaped and eventually made his way to London. While he was in London, Trotsky
joined the Sociål Democratic Party and met and worked with a group of
Marxists which included Vladimir Lenin and Jtilius Martov. At the Second
Congress of the Social Democratic Party in 1903, Lenin argued for a small party
Of professional revolutionaries with a large fringe Of non-party sympathizers.
Martov disagreed because he believing it was
better to have a large party Of activists. Even though Martov won the vote
28-23, Lenin was unwilling to accept the result and formed a faction known as
the Bolsheviks. Those who remained loyal to Martov became known as Mensheviks.
Exercise 57.3
In the following passage, the sentence structure and grammar
are very simple. Edit this essay to improve the grammar, paying particular
attention to adverb clauses and adverb clause reductions.
The October Revolution, 1917
The October Revolution,
also known as the Bolshevik Revolution, was the second phase of the Russian
Revolution, On October 25, 1917, Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin led his
leftist revolutionaries in an uprising in Petrograd against the ineffective
Kerensky Provisional Government.
First, Alexander Kerensky
deposed the tsar. Then, Alexander Kerensky became leader of the provisional
government. However, he decided that he could not end the war. Many people were
happy after the removal of the royal family. However, they qutckly lost faith
in the new leader. The reason was that he did not deliver any Of the promises
of the revolution.
There were many
"fringe" political parties in Russia at that time. World War I was
happening at that time. The political parties realized what was happening. Many
of them started planning their own revolutions. The only party that managed to
get organized quickly enought howevert was one communist splinter group that
called itself "Bolsheviks". This revolution was organized by Vladimir
Lenin, Then, he quickly moved his co-conspirators to Petrograd. Petrograd was
the capital of the Russian Empire at that time,
First, the Bolsheviks
researched the area. Then, they decided to target the Winter Palace. The
Provisional Government was headquartered there. October 25th, 1917
(hy the Julian calendar), the first communist revolution of the century took
place.
The attack was, in reality, uneventfûl. There were two
battalions guarding the
Palace: a women's battalion, and a cadet
corps. However, it was not difficult for the Bolsheviks to take over the
Palace. The Bolsheviks were basically able ta march in and take over the
building unopposed. The attack began at 9:45pm. Before that, the cruiser
"Aurora" fired a blank shot. Thc shot was a signal for thc attack to
begin.
226
Grammar Point 58 - Conjunctions
It is possible to connect many ideas into long groups in order to expltss
relationships between them.
However, only things that have the exact same structure can be connected.
This is called 4¶'araIIeIism". Words that connect are called
"conjunctions". There are four conjunctions that connect equal ideas:
and, but, so.
And — shows an equål link where two ideas agree,
I likepizza and okonotniyaki
It is raining and evayhody is running.
But — shows two ideas that
offer different opinions is taught at school but not understood
well in many places, ,
They lost but everybody was happy,
Or - has three uses — first, it shows choice
Wouldyou like coffee or tea?
you /ive in Bangkok or
Phuket? second, it shows condition
Stop smoking, or you willget sick
You have to pay the bill on time, or
you willgetfined, third, it is used for two negative ideas that are similar
Homer didn 'r write any biographies or love stories I don 't like honor or
mmance movies.
So shows
result of an action.
I won the lottery, so J will quit working ft is raining, so
we can 'tgo to the park

These "coordinate" conjunctions can connect
  various types of structures, but they can only connect things that are the
  same.
Look at this example:
           T
  like swimming       skating.
In this sentence, the
  conjunction "and" joins "swimming" (gerund) and  skating
  (gerund). This is called parallel structure,
Look at this example:
He likes pizza and beer.
In this sentence, the conjunction "and"
  joins "pizza" (noun) and "beer" Oun). This is also
  parallel structure
Look at this example:
Plants can grow beside a window or on a
  parch.
this sentence, the conjunction
  '*or" joins "beside a window" (preposition phrase) and
  "on a porch" (preposition phrase). This is also parallel structure

Exercise 58.1
Combine these
ideas with the appropriate conjunction — and — or — but — so, as in the example.
Remove any unnecessary repetition. There is often more than one correct answer.
e.g. Homer wrote the Illiad Homer
wrote the Odyssey. Homer wmte the Illiad and the Odyssey.
Historians know that
Homer lived in Greece. Historians know that Homer lived in the 7 th century
B.C.

2.

Homer may have lived in the 6th century B.C.
  Homer may have lived in the century B.C.

Homer may have been from Athens. Horner may have
  been from Sparta.

4.

There are
  no written records about Homer's life. Historians cannot be sure about his
  history.

Homer wrote the first book
  in Europe. Homer is considered the father of European literature,

We know where HOmer lived. We don't know when Homer
  lived.

7.

The
  books could have been written by one man. They could have been written by
  many people.

229
Exercise 58.3
The followang
paragraphs are not very clear, and there is too much repetition. Rewrite parts
Of the paragraphs using coordinate conjunctions.
The Mystery
of "Homer"
Although he is considered the father Of western literature,
Homer is a remarkably badly-known individual. In fact, there is no consensus on
whether such a person actually existed.
There are two common theories about Homer. One theory says that he was a
real person. The other theory is that he was not real.
The first theory claims that Homer lived In ancient Greece,
probåbly in Athens.
He took part in the attack on Troy. Therefore, he could
record everything that took place. This theory requires that the Trojan war
really took place. However, the heroes don't have to be real.
The second theory claims two things:
first, Homer was a real person, Second, the story was actually passed down
orally from generation to generation.
Most likely, we will never know for sure.
Archaeologists might make some discoveries in the future, however, which will
explain the history of Homer once and for all.

231
Building
Grammar Skills
The Trojan Horse
One Of the most famous tricks in history is the trick Of the Trojan
Horse. The Trojan horse is also one of the most famous tricks in the history of
the military
The story of the Trojan horse is set in the Trojan War. It is also set in
the city of Troy, This situation was described by the Greek poet Homer in his
poem The I/liod,
The Illiad tells of the Trojan War. The Trojan prince Paris kidnapped the
wife of the Greek king Agamemnon, Helen. Then Paris took Helen to Troy.
Agamemnon called his friends. They went to Troy to recapture Hélen.
The goddess Athena was protecting the
walls of Troy, and even though Agamemnon had the strongest warrior in Greek
history — Achilles — his army could not win. Eventually; they built a huge
wooden horse. A group of soldiers went inside this horse. Then, the Greek army
pushed this horse to the gates ofthe city. Then, they left.
The Tmjans didli't expect any ptoblems. They took the horse inside the
walls of the city. That nighti the Greek soldiers opened the horse and
attacked. They attacked from inside the walls. Therefore, Athena could not harm
them. They opened the gatesv The Greek army returned. The Greek army destroyed
Troy.

232

Building
Grammar Skills
Exercise
59.1
Write the meanings of the following words anthropologist
2.      symphonic
3.      philosophy
4.      hyperenergetic
5,
synchronize
6, subdermic anthropology
8. philosophy  sympathetic
10.
hypothermia

Grammar Point 60 Paired Conjunctions
The coordinate conjunctions (and, or, but, so) show
the relationships between ideas — in some cases, however, you want to show the
relationship between more ideas. In those situations, use a different set of
words — they are called the ' 'co-relative" conjunctions. Think of the
co-relative conjunctions as sets of connectors. These sets must always be used
together.
There are tour such sets in English:

not only either neither both .

but also or nor and

Note:
One of the most common mistakes in English, even for native
  speákers, is to not use parallelism with the paired conjunction not
  only , , but also, For example, many people would say:
Leonardo da
  Vinci not only studied in Rome, but also in Florence. 1 not only like
  Frenc/!food, but also Thaifood.
Both ofthese sentences are wrong, The correct way to write
  is:
Leonardó
  dà Vinci studied not only in Rome but also in Florence like not only
  Frenc/ifood also Thaifood

235
Building
Grammar Skills
Exercise 60.1
Combine these sentences using co-relative conjunctions, and
remove any repetition. Use two structures where possible, ea. Leonardo da Vinci
studied design. Hé also studied architecture + Leonardo Ila Vinci
studied both design and architecture.
Leonardo da Vinci sttddied not only
design but also architecture
l. Leonardo
da Vinci was the first to paint sfumato. He was also the first to paint
texture.

2. Leonardo
painted churches. He also painted private homes.

Leonardo
taught himself anatomy. He taught himself painting.

Some
people think of Leonardo as an engineer. Some people think of Leonardo as a
painter.

5. People from Vinci say that Leonardo was born there People
from Anchiano say Leonardo was born there

Leonardo was not                He
was not Lutheran,

Leonardo enjoyed painting people. He enjoyed painting
still-life.

237
4.
Leonardo completed two paintings in 14781
both The Madonna and Child (and/but also) a picture of a little boy eating
sherbert. In 1480-81, he created a small Annunciation painting which is now in
the Louvre. In 1481, da Vinci painted an unfinished work of either St. Jerome
(and/or) St. John, Between 1481 and 1482, he started a painting called either
"The Adoration Of the Kings" (also/or) The Adoration Of the Magi, He
made both extensive (and/or) ambitious plans and many drawtngs for the painting,
but it was not finished, as Leonardo's services had been accepted by the Duke
of Milan, to which he traveled
5.
Leonardo spent 17 years in Milan
under the services of Duke Ludovico, During this time, he did not only
paintings, (and/ but) also sculptures and drawings. In Milan, he designed not
only court festivals, (and/but) also many of his sketches related to engineering.
He was given basically a free reign to work on any project he chose, though he
left many projects unfinished, completing only about six paintings during this
time. These included both The Last Supper in 1498 (also/and) Virgin of the
Rocks. He worked on many of his notebooks between 1490 and 1495,
239
Building
Grammar Skills
Grammar Point 61 Applied Conjunctions
Conjunctions are used to join any two (or more) ideas.
'They are very useful, and play very important roles in reading and
understanding written English Remember:
 Convunctions can only join things that
are the same patt of speech
+ Conjunctions can join any part of the
sentence: subject, verb, object, complement etc.
Exercise 61.1
In the
following paragraphs, all of the sentences have been btoken down into simple
clauses. Organize these paragraphs and arrange the sentences in order of most
important to least important.
First,
write an appropriate topic sentence for the paragraph. Remember — a good topic
sentence has a topic and controlling idea, which is your opinion about the
topic. Also, a good topic sentence includes all main ideas of the paragraph, so
it is very general, Second, combine the phrases which can be connected using
the appropriate conjunction.
William
Shakespeare
William Shakespeare was born in England
William Shakespeare was born in a small Village called Avon.
William Shakespeare was born in 1564.
William Shakespeare's father died when he was very little.
William Shakespeare's father was a soldier.
William Shakespeare's mother was rich.
William Shakespeare's mother owned a lot of land.
William Shakespeare went to boarding school.
William Shakespeare's boarding school was very famous.
William Shakespeare did not like his boarding sChoOl Topic Sentence:

Michelangelo
Buonarotti
Michelangelo was an Italian sculptor.
Michelangelo was an Italian architect.
Michelangelo was an Italian painter.
Michelangelo
was an Italian poet.
Michelangelo was an Italian in the period known as the High
Renaissance.
His great works were almost entirely in the service Of the
Catholic Church.
Michelangelo's works include a huge statue of the Biblical
hero David in Florence.
David was sculpted between 1501 and 1504,
Michelangelo also painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel
in Rome between 1508 and 1512.
After 1519 Michelangelo was Increasingly active in
architecture.
Michelangelo designed the dome St. Peter's Basilica.
The dome Of
St. Peter's Basilica was completed after his death.
Topic Sentence:

Building
Grammar Skills
Oscar Wilde
Oscar
Wilde was born in Ireland. Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin.
Oscar
Wilde was born in 1854. Oscar Wilde was a playwright.
Oscar Wilde was a novelist.
Oscar Wilde
wrote in many newspapers.
Oscar Wilde was charged with homosexuality.
Oscar Wilde had a very fårnous trial
Oscar Wilde was sent to prison for a very long time.
Topic Sentencet

242
Bram Stoker
Bram Stoker was born in Dublin.
Bram Stoker was born in 1847.
Bram Stoker
couldn 't walk when he was young.
Bram Stoker learned to walk when he was 7 years old,
Bram Stoker's mother was a feminist leader.
Bram Stoker had 6 brothers and sisters.
Bram Stoker was married in 18780
Bram Stoker moved to London in 1878.
Bram Stoker became manager of a theatre in 1878.
Bram Stoker
wrote Dracula.
Bram StOker did a tot of research before publiShing
Dracula, Bram StOker publiShed Dracula in 1897.
Topic Sentence:

243

intro:
ПОСОБИЕ РАССКАЖЕТ О ФОРМАТЕ, ПРЕДЛОЖИТ ЛАЙФХАКИ, РАСКРОЕТ СЕКРЕТЫ
TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language) — самый популярный на сегодняшний день стандартизированный экзамен, выявляющий знание английского языка как иностранного. Сдача этого экзамена обязательна для неанглоязычных иностранцев, желающих поступить в ВУЗы не только США и Канады, но Европы и Азии. Аббревиатура TOEFL правильно произносится как «тофл». Впервые экзамен TOEFL был проведен в 1964 году, став с тех пор стал одним из основных международных языковых экзаменов. Проводится тестирование компанией Educational Testing Service, крупнейшей частной компанией, занимающейся языковым тестированием.

title: подготовка TOEFL IELTS